THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

FIRST

SECOND

THIRD

FOURTH

FIFTH

SIXTH

SEVENTH

EIGHTH

NINTH

TENTH

ELEVENTH

edition, published in three

volumes, 1768 — 1771.

ten „ 1777— 1784.

eighteen „ 1788 — 1797.

twenty „ 1801 — 1810.

twenty „ 1815 — 1817.

twenty „ 1823 — 1824.

twenty-one „ 1830 — 1842.

twenty-two „ 1853 — 1860,

twenty-five ,, 1875 — 1889.

ninth edition and eleven

supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903.

published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911.

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in all countries subscribing to the

Bern Convention

by

THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS

of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

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THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL

INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XXI

PAYN to POLKA

New York

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

342 Maaison Avenue

Copyright, in the United States of America, ign,

by

The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company,

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL

CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE

ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.

A. B. R.
A. F. P.

A. G.
A. G. T.
A.H.*

A.

H.

C.

A.

H.

H

A.

H.

-S.

A.

H.

S.

A.

J.

G.

A. J. H.

A. J. L.
A. Ma.

A.N.

Plants : Classification.

Perne, Andrew.

Police.

Formerly Assistant Professor 1 Plants: Anatomy,

Alfred Earton Rendle, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S.

Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of Text Book on Classi-
fication of Flowering Plants ; &c.

Albert Frederick Pollard, M.A., F.R.Hist.S.

Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls'
College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-
1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of
England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII. ; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c.

Major Arthur George Frederick Griffiths (d. 1908).

H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgale;
Secrets of the Prison House ; &c.

Arthur George Tansley, M.A., F.L.S.

Lecturer in Botany in the University of Cambridge,
of Botany, University College, London.

Albert Hauck, D.Th., D.Ph.

Professor of Church History in the University of Leipzig, and Director of the Museum

of Ecclesiastical Archaeology. Geheimer Kirchenrat of the Kingdom of Saxony. , .

Member of the Royal Saxon Academy ot Sciences and Corresponding Member of ] Pilgrimage.

the Academies of Berlin and Munich. Author of Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands;

&c. Editor of the new edition of Herzog's Realencyklopadie fur protestantische

Theologie und Kirche.

Sir Arthur Herbert Church, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.S.A. J

Professor of Chemistry, Royal Academy of Arts, London. Author of Chemistry "j Pigments.
of Paints and Painting ; English Earthenware ; English Porcelain ; &c. I

Arthur Horsley Hinton (1863-1908). f

Editor of The Amateur Photographer, 1897-1908, and the Photographic Trades 1 PnotOgraphy: Fictonal.
Gazette, 1904-1908. Author of Practical Pictorial Photography; &c. I

Persia: Geography and

Sir A. Houtum-Schindler, C.I.E.

General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak.

Rev. Archibald Henry Sayce, D.D., LL.D., Litt.D.
See the biographical article: Sayce, A. H.

Rev. Alexander James Grieve, M.A., B.D.

Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent
College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of
Mysore Educational Service.

Alfred J. Hipkins, F.S.A. (1826-1903)*.

Formerly Member of Council and Hon. Curator of the Royal College of Music,
London. Member of Committee of the Inventions and Music Exhibition, 1885;
of the Vienna Exhibition, 1892; and of the Paris Exhibition, 1900. Author of
Musical Instruments ; &c.

Statistics.

-j Persepolis (in part).

Plymouth Brethren (in part).

Pianoforte (in part);
Pitch, Musical.

Andrew Jackson Lamoureux.

Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University.
(Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901.

Alexander Macalister, M.A., LL.D., M.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.

Professor of Anatomy in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of St John's "
College. Author of Text Book of Human Anatomy; &c.

Editor of the Rio News < Peru: Geography and Statistics.

Phrenology;
Physiognomy.

Alfred Newton, F.R.S.

See the biographical article : Newton, Alfred

f Peacock; Pelican;

Penguin; Petrel;
j Pheasant; Pigeon;

Pipit; Pitta;
1 Plover; Pochard,

1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.

v

VI
A. Se.*

A. SI.

A. S. P.-P.

A. S. Wo.
A. T. I.
B.R.

C.Bi.

C. E.*

C. E. A.

C. E. M.

C.6.K.

C. L. K.

CM.

C. PL

C. P. J.

C. R. M.
C. S. P.

C.T.*

C. W. R.

D. G. H.

Secretary of-! PlesiosaurUS.

Pilate, Pontius.

Petroleum.

Philo (in part).

Phosphates,

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Adam Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S.

Professor of Zoology at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London.
Fellow, and formerly Tutor, of Trinity College, Cambridge. Professor of Zoology
in the University of Cambridge, 1907-1909.

Arthur Shadwell, M.A., M.D., LL.D.

Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of The London Water-
Supply; Industrial Efficiency; Drink, Temperance and Legislation.

Andrew Seth Pringle-Pattison, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.

Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford
Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 191 1. Fellow of the British Academy.
Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos; The Philosophical Radicals; &c.

Arthur Smith Woodward, LL.D., F.R.S.

Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington,
the Geological Society of London.

Alexander Taylor Innes, M.A., LL.D.

Scotch Advocate. Author of John Knox ; Law of Creeds in Scotland ; Studies in ■
Scottish History ; &c.

Sir Boverton Redwood, D.Sc, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.I.C., Assoc.Inst.C.E.,
M.Inst.M.E,
Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, Home Office, India Office, Corporation of
London, and Port of London Authority. President of the Society of Chemical
Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Member of Council of
Institute of Chemistry. Author of "Cantor" Lectures on Petroleum; Petroleum
and its Products; Chemical Technology; &c.

Rev. Charles Bigg, M.A., D.D. (1840-1908).

Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History in the University of Oxford, and Canon
of Christ Church, 1901-1908. Formerly Senior Student and Tutor of Christ Church.
Headmaster of Brighton College. Author ot The Christian Platonists of Alexandria;
&c.

Charles Everitt, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. ;
Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford.

Charles Edward Akers.

Formerly Times Correspondent in Buenos Aires.
America, 1854-1904.

Charles Edward Moss, D.Sc.
Emmanuel College, Cambridge.

Cargill Gilston Knott, D.Sc.

Lecturer on Applied Mathematics, Edinburgh University. Professor of Physics,
Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo, 1883-1891. Author of Electricity and'
Magnetism; Physics; &c.

Charles Lethbridge Kingsford, M.A., F.R.Hist.S., F.S.A.

Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor -
of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London.

Carl Thecdor Mirbt, D.Th.

Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik -
im Zeitalter Gregor VII. ; Quellen zur Ceschichte des Papstthums ; &c.

Christian Pfister, D. es. L. r

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of J Pippin I.-III.
Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux. I

Charles Pierpoint Johnson (1 791-1880).

Lecturer on Botanv, Guy's Hospital, London, 1830-1873. Editor of J. A. Sowerby's
English Botany ; &c. Author of Ferns of Great Britain ; &c.

Sir Clements Robert Markham, K.C.B., F.R.S.

See the biographical article: Markham, Sir Clements Robert.

The Rt. Hon. Charles Stuart Parker, LL.D., D.C.L. (1829-1910).

M.P. for Perthshire, 1868-1874; M.P. for Perth City, 1878-1892. Honorary Fellow,
formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Author of Life of Sir Robert Peel ;
&c.

Rev. Charles Taylor, M.A., D.D., LL.D. (1840-1908).

Master of St John's College, Cambridge, 1881-1908. Vice-Chanceilor, 1887-18
Author of Geometrical Conies ; &c.

Author of A History of South J p eru: History {in part).

Curator of the University Herbarium.

Plants: Ecology.

Photometry.

Payne, Peter.

Pius IX.;

Poissy, Colloquy of.

■; Pine.
J Peru:

History (in part).

Peel, Sir Robert.

J Pirke Aboth.

t- r

Lieut.- j p en i nsu i ar War .

Major-General Charles Walker Robinson, C.B., D.C.L.

Assistant Military Secretary, Headquarters of the Army, 1890-185

Governor and Secretary, Royal Military Hospital, Chelsea, 1895-1898. Author of

Strategy of the Peninsular War ; &c. I

David George Hogarth, M.A. r

Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Perga;
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 -J Pergamum*
and 1903; Ephesus, 1 904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at ' '

Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.

Phoeaea.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Vll

D.H.

E. A. J.

E. A. So.

E.Br.

E. G.
E. Gr.
E. J. D.

Ed.M.

E. M. H.
E. 0.*

E. O'N.
E. Pr.

E. R. B.

E.

S.*

E.

Tn.

F.

A. P.

F.

G. P.

F.

J. G.

F.

LI. G

F.N.
F. W. Ga.

David Hannay.

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona.
Navy ; Life of Emilio Castelar ; &c.

Author of Short History of the Royal •

E. Alfred Jones.

Author of Old English Gold Plate; Old Church Plate of the Isle of Man; Old Silver
Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England ; Illustrated Cata- ■<
logue of Leopold de Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate; A Private Catalogue of the
Royal Plate at Windsor Castle ; &c.

Edward Adolf Sonnenschein, M.A., Litt.D.

Professor of Greek and Latin in the University of Birmingham. Hon. Secretary .
of the Classical Association. Professor of Greek and Latin in Mason College,
Birmingham, 1883-1900. Editor of several of the plays of Plautus.

Ernest Barker, M.A.

Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly "
Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1895.

Penn, Admiral; Pepys;
Pescara, Marquis of;
Peter I.-IV. of Aragon;
Peter of Castile;
Pirate and Piracy: History;
Poe, Edgar Allan;
Poland: History (in pari).

Plate {in part).

Plautus.

Peter the Hermit.

Edmund Gosse, LL.D., D.C.L.

See the biographical article: Gosse, Edmund.

Ernest Arthur Gardner, M.A.

See the biographical article : Gardner, Percy.

Edward Joseph Dent, M.A., Mus.Bac.

Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge.

Eduard Meyer, Ph.D., D.Litt., LL.D.

Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin.

des Alterthums ; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens ; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme,

i Pindarics.
-I Phigalia.

\ Pergolesi.

r Peroz;

. it _ , „ »• 7J Persia: Ancient History;
Author of Geschichte < - - — - "

Persis; Pharnabazus;
Phraates; Phraortes.

f Pharmacopoeia;
1 Pharmacy.

Edward Morell Holmes.

Curator of the Museum of the Pharmaceutical Society, London.

Edmund Owen, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.

Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital,
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Examiner "
in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of A
Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.

Elizabeth O'Neill, M.A. (Mrs H. 0. O'Neill).

Formerly University Fellow and Jones Fellow of Manchester University.

Edgar Prestace.

Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Ex-
aminer in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com-
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon "
Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society; &c. Editor of Letters
of a Portuguese Nun; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea; &c.

Edwyn Robert Bevan, M.A. f "'.""TV .. 1, . »

New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus; Jerusalem under the] Fftlll P l > ll " aM V> 0l fflaca "
High Priests. I donia.

Emil Schurer, D.Ph. (1844-1910). r

Formerly Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the Universities of Giessen, J philo (in dart)

Eicl ;lnd Gottingen. Ant-ti/-ir r»f C^psrhirhtp dps iiifH crhfn Tfnlhpc -,**w 7p*inliov Tpc*< i \ Jr ''

Christi ; &c.

Peritonitis;

Pharyngitis;

Phlebitis.

Peckham, John.

Pina, Ruy de;

Pinto, FernSo Mendes.

Perdiccas;

Author of Geschichte des judischen Volhes im Zeitalter Jesu '

Rev. Ethelred Luke Taunton (d. 1907).

Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict; History of the Jesuits in England. '

Pole, Cardinal.

J Plutarch (in part).

Frederick Apthorp Paley, LL.D.

See the biographical article, Paley, F. A.

Frederick Gymer Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Anthrop.Inst.

Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on j Pharynx;
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, "j Placenta.
London. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. I

Major-General Sir Frederic John Goldsmid.
See the biographical article : Goldsmid (family).

Francis Llewellyn Griffith, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A.

P.eader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey
and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial
German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Assistant Professor of Egyptology "
in University College, London. Author of Stories of the High Priests of Memphis
&c.

Fridtjof Nansen.

See the biographical article: Nansen, Fridtjof.

Frederick William Gamble, D.Sc, M.Sc, F.R.S. r_ .

Professor of Zoology, Birmingham University. Formerly Assistant Director of the J "lananans;
Zoological Laboratories, and Lecturer in Zoology, University of Manchester. 1 Platyelmia.
Author of Animal Life. Editor of Marshall and Hurst's Practical Zoology; &c. L

j Persia: History, 1405-1884 (in
\ part).

Pelusium;
Pharaoh;
Philae;
Pithom.

1 Polar Regions (in pari).

Vlll

F. W. R.*

G. A. C*
G. A. Gr.

G. Ch.
G. C. W.

G. E.

G. E.*

G. E. C.
G. G. P.*
G. H. Bo.

G. H. Fo.

G. W. R.
H. Bi.

H. CI.

H. De.
H.E,

H. F. G.

H. G. de W.
H. H. T.

H. L. H.
H. M. W.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

Frederick William Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S.

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London,
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.

J Peridot; Phosphates:
1879-1902. -j Mineral Phosphates (in part).

-I

Rev. George Albert Cooke, D.D.

Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture, Oxford, and Fellow of
Oriel College. Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's Cathedral,
Edinburgh. Author of Text Book of North Semitic Inscriptions ; &c.

George Abraham Grierson, C.I.E., Ph.D., D.Litt.

Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of India, 1
1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of the Royal
Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of The Languages
of India ; &c. L

George Chrystal, M.A., LL.D.

Professor of Mathematics and Dean of the Faculty of Arts, Edinburgh University.
Hon. Fellow and formerly Fellow and Lecturer, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.

George Charles Williamson, Litt.D.

Chevalier of the -Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures ; Life of Richard
Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of New Edition
of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers.

Petra;
Phoenicia.

Pisaea Languages.

Ford's Lecturer, 1909.
Member, Netherlands

Perpetual Motion.

Petitot, Jean; Petitot, J. Louis*
Pinwell, George John;
Plimer, Andrew;
Plimer, Nathaniel;
Plumbago Drawings.

Pensionary;

Peru: History (in part).

Joint-editor of English \ Peerage.

J Plata, Rio de la.
-i Pilot (in part).

Phylactery (in part).

Rev. George Edmundson, M.A., F.R.Hist.S.

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford.
Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society; and Foreign
Association of Literature.

Robert Geoffrey Ellis.

Peterhouse, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.
Reports. Author of Peerage Law and History.

George Earl Church.

See the biographical article: Church, G. E.

George Grenville Phillimore, M.A., B.CL.

Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple.

Rev. George Herbert Box, M.A.

Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Hebrew Master, Merchant Taylors'
School, London. Lecturer in Faculty of Theology, University of Oxford, 1908-
1909. Author of Translation of Book of Isaiah; &c. L

George Herbert Fowler, F.Z.S., F.L.S., Ph.D. r

Formerly Berkeley Research Fellow, Owens College, Manchester, and Assistant J Plankton.
Professor of Zoology at University College, London. [

George William Redway. J Petersburg Campaign:

Author of The War of Secession, 1861-1862; Fredericksburg: a Study in War. 1 (1864-1863).

Hiram Bingham, A.M., Ph.D. C

Assistant Professor of La tin- American History, Yale University. Albert Shaw \ d,,,-]!-,.,.--.,. i r i„ n ,io. -u;«i~.*.
Lecturer on Diplomatic History, Johns Hopkins University. Author of Journals ™llippine islands. History.

of an Expedition across Venezuela and Colombia ; &c. [

Sir Hugh Charles Clifford, K.C.M.G. /

Colonial Secretary, Ceylon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Formerly
Resident, Pahang. Colonial Secretary, Trinidad and Tobago, 1903-1907. Author < Penang.
of Studies in Brown Humanity; Further India; &c. Joint-author of A Dictionary
of the Malay Language. I

HlPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. f

Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: Analecta Bollandiana < Pelagia, St.

and Acta Sanctorum. I

Karl Hermann Ethe, M.A., Ph.D. ^ [

Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Aberystwyth (Univers-ity of J p e jgj a ; Literature
Wales). Author of Catalogue cf Persian Manuscripts in the India Office Library, 1
London (Clarendon Press) ; &c. I

Hans Friedrich Gadow, F.R.S., Ph.D. r

Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. J PhororhaCOS.
Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History. [

/Plymouth (England).

Hermann G. de Watteville.

Instructor, Staff College, Camberley, Surrey.

Herbert Hall Turner, M.A., D.Sc, D.C.L., F.R.S. r

Savilian Professor of Astronomy in the University of Oxford and Fellow of New J Photography, Celestial;
College. President of the Royal Astronomical Society, 1903-1904. Author of 1 Photometry, Celestial.
Modern Astronomy; &c. (_

Harriet L. Hennessy, M.D. (Brux.), L.R.C.P.I., L.R.C.S.I.

J Pharmacology: Terminology;
\ Plague (in part).

Harry Marshall Ward, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. (d. 1903). |"

Formerly Professor of Botany, University of Cambridge, and Fellow of Sidney

Sussex College. President of the British Mycological Society. Author of Timber \ Plants: Pathology,
and Some of its Diseases; The Oak; Sack's Lectures on the Physiology of Plants;
Diseases in Plants; &c.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

IX

H. R. H.
H. R. K.
fl. R. M.

H. R. T.

H. Sc.

H. Sw.

H. S.-K.
H. S. J.

H.W.*

H. W. C. D.
LA.

I. 0.

J. A.H.

J. A. S.
J. Bt.

J. D. B.

J. E. S.*
3. F.-K.

J. F. P.

J. Ga.
J. G. C. A.

Harry Reginald Holland Hall, M.A. f

Assistant in the Department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities, British Museum. "1 Plate (in part).
Author of The Oldest Civilization of Greece; &c. I

Harry Robert Kempe, M.Inst. C.E.

Electrician to the General Post Office, London.
Book ; &c.

Author of The Engineer's Yeari Pneumatic Despatch.

Hugh Robert Mill, D.Sc, LL.D.

Director of British Rainfall Organization. Editor of British Rainfall. President
of the Royal Meteorological Society, 1907-1908. Hon. Member of Vienna Geo-
graphical Society. Hon. Corresponding Member of Geographical Societies of Paris,
Berlin, Budapest, St Petersburg, Amsterdam, &c. Author of The Realm of Nature;
The International Geography ; &c.

Henry Richard Tedder, F.S.A. J

Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London.

Henry Scherren, F.Z.S.

Assistant Natural History Editor of The Field. Author of Popular History of <
Animals for Young People; Pond and Rock Pools; &c.

Henry Sweet, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D.

University Reader in Phonetics, Oxford. Corresponding Member of the Academies <
of Munich, Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsingfors. Author of A History of English
Sounds since the Earliest Period ; A Primer of Phonetics ; &c.

Sir Henry Seton-Karr, C.M.G., M.A.

M.P. for St Helen's, 1885-1906. Author of My Sporting Holidays; &c.

Henry Stuart Jones, M.A.

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British .
School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. "
Author of The Roman Empire ; &c. L

Harold W. T. Wager, F.R.S. f

H.M. Inspector of Secondary Schools, Board of Education, London. President, J Plants: Cytology.
Botanical Section, British Association, 1905. Author of Memoirs on the Structure I
of the Fungi ; &c. I

Henry William Carless Davis, M.A.

Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford,
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne.

Israel Abrahams, M.A. [

Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J PerleS JOSeph.
Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short |
History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. L

Israel Gollancz, M.A., Litt.D. f

Professor of English Language and Literature, King's College, London, and Dean J p„__i rm,.,
of the Faculty of Arts, University of London. Fellow and Secretary of the British 1 rear, » ln8.
Academy. Editor of The Pearl; The " Temple " Shakespeare; &c. I

John Allan Howe, B.Sc. f Permian;

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of \ Pleistocene;
The Geology of Building Stones. ' Pliocene.

Polar Regions.

Periodicals.

Platypus (in part).

Phonetics.

Pistol.

Plate (in part).

Peter des Roches.

John Addington Symonds, LL.D., D.C.L."
See the biographical article: Symonds, J. A.

James Bartlett.

Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c, at King's
College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior "
Engineers. Author of Quantities. |_

James David Bourchier, M.A., F.R.G.S. r

King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. J Philjnni
Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of 1
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. [

[Petrarch; Poggio;
1 Politian.

Plaster-work.

John Edwin Sandys, M.A., Litt.D., LL.D.

Public Orator in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of St John's College.
Fellow of the British Academy. Author of History of Classical Scholarship ; &c.

James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, Litt.D., F.R.Hist.S.

Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University.
Norman McCoIl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. ■
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of
Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature ; &c.

Joseph Frank Payne, M.D., F.R.C.P. (1840-1910).

Formerly Harveian Librarian, Royal College of Physicians. Hon. Fellow of.
Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of University of London. Author of Lectures'
on A nglo-Saxon Medicine ; &c.

James Gairdner, C.B., LL.D.

See the biographical article: Gairdner, James.

John George Clark Anderson, M.A. f p. gsi - nng

Student, Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln -I resslnu5.
College. Craven Fellow (Oxford), 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893. [

Pliny the Elder;
Pliny the Younger.

Pereda, Jos6 Maria de;
Perez Galdos, Benito;
Picaresque Novel, The.

Plague (in part).

Percy: family (in part).

X

J. G. Ft.

J. H. A. H.
J. H. M.

J. H. R.
J. H. V. C.

J. L. M.

J. L. W.

J. Mt.

J. M. M.
3. P. P.

J. R. C.
J. R. Gr.

J. S. P.

J. T. Be.
J. T. C.

J.W.
J. Wa.

J. Wal.*
J. W. D.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

James George Feazer, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D.

Professor ot Social Anthropology, Liverpool University, and Fellow of Trinity -
College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Golden
Bough; &c.

John Henry Arthur Hart, M.A.

Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge.

John Henry Middleton, M.A., Litt.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1806).

Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1 886-1 895. Director
of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South "1 p - t ■ h -
Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical ' rintuncemo.
Times ; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times.

Penates (in part).

Pharisees.

Phigalia (in part);

John Horace Round, M.A., LL.D.

Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England ; Studies in Peerage and Family •
History; Peerage and Pedigree.

Percy: family (in part);
Plantagenet.

John Henry Verrinder Crowe. f

Lieut. -Colonel, Royal Artillery. Commandant of the Royal Military College of
Canada. Formerly Chief Instructor in Military Topography and Military History^ Plevna,
and Tactics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Author of Epitome of the
Russo-Turkish War, 1877-1878; &c. L

John Linton Myres, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S.

Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford, and Fellow
of Magdalen College. Formerly Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in
Ancient Geography, University of Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology
in University of Oxford, and Student and Tutor of Christ Church. Author of
A History of Rome ; &c. t

Jessie Laidlay Weston.

Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory.

{

Pelasgians.

Perceval.

James Moffatt, M.A., D.D.

Minister of the United Free Church of Scotland.
tnent ; &c.

Author of Historical New Testa-

John Malcolm Mitchell.

Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece.

J Philemon;

[ Philippians, Epistle to the.

Peisistratus;

Peloponnesian War;

Persia: History (Transition

Period) ;
Plutarch (in part).

John Percival Postgate, M.A., Litt.D. r

Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College, ) p . ,
Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor of the Classical Quarterly. ~| "naeflrus.
Editor-in-chief of the Corpus Poetarum Latinorum ; &c. [_

Joseph Rogerson Cotter, M.A. r

Assistant to the Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy, Trinity College, 4 Phosphorescence.
Dublin. Editor of 2nd edition of Preston's Theory of Heat. \_

Joseph Reynolds Green, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., F.R.S.

Fellow, Lecturer and Librarian of Downing College, Cambridge

Lecturer on Plant Physiology, University of Liverpool. Author of History

Botany ; &c.

, F „? r T%.«^"7, "»»<»: ri,„M, g y:

n

John Smith Flett, D.Sc, F.G.S.

f Pegmatite; Peridotite;
Perlite; Petrology; Phonolite;

Petrographer to the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Formerly Lecturer J Phosphates: Mineral Phos-

on Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society of London.

phates (in part); Pbyllite;
Picrite; Pitchstone;
Pneumatolysis.

John Thomas Bealby. r Perm (in part);

Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical i Podolla (in pari) ;
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c [ Poland Russian (in part).

Joseph Thomas Cunningham, M.A. , F.Z.S. r

Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow J P ear 'j
of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the 1 Pilchard.
University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. I

James Williams, M.A., D.C.L. , LL.D.

All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln
College. Barrister of Lincoln's Inn. Author of Wills and Succession ; &c.

James Waterhouse.

Major-General, Indian Army (retired). Assistant Surveyor-General of India in
charge of Photographic and Lithographic Branch, Calcutta, 1866-1897. President
of the Royal Photographic Society, 1905-1906. Author of The Preparation of
Drawings for Photographic Purposes ; &c. L

James Walker, M.A. [

Christ Church, Oxford. Demonstrator in the Clarendon Laboratory. Formerly J Polarization of Light.
Vice-President of the Physical Society. Author of The Analytical Theory of Light; )
&c. I

Personal Property.

Photography: Apparatus.

Whitly Dixon.
Captain, R.N, Nautical Assessor to the Court of Appeal.

J Pilot (in part).

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

XI

K.G.
K.L.

K.S.

Karl Friedrich Geldner, Ph.D.

Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology in the University of Marburg.
Author of Vedische Studien ; &c.

Persia: Language.

L.C.

L. F. V.-H.

L. J. S.

M.

M.

Be

M.

D.

M.

N.

T.

H.

0.

B.

C

M.

V.

N.

D.

M.

N.

M.

N. V.

H. W. T.

0. A.

0. Ba.
0. C. W.
0. H.

P. A. K.

Rev. Kirsopp Lake, M.A. F

Lincoln College, Oxford. Professor of Early Christian Literature and New Testa- J Peter, Saint;
ment Exegesis in the University of Leiden. Author of The Text of the New Testa- Peter, Epistles of,
ment; The Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus Christ; &c. *-

Pedal Clarinet;

Kathleen Schlesinger.

Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the -
Orchestra.

Philomel; Physharmonica;
Pianoforte {in part);
Piccolo; Pipe and Tabor;
Platerspiel.

Count Lutzow, Litt.D., Ph.D., F.R.G.S.

Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia. Hon. Member
of the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian Academy, &c. Author "j
of Bohemia, a Historical Sketch; The Historians of Bohemia (Ilchester Lecture, '
Oxford, 1904) ; The Life and Times of John Hus; &c.

Rev. Lewis Campbell, D.C.L., LL.D.

See the biographical article: Campbell, Lewis.

Leveson Francis Vernon-Harcourt, M.A., M.Inst. CE. (1839-1907).

Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London, 1882-1905. Author J pj er

of Rivers and Canals ; Harbours and Docks : Civil Engineering as applied in Con- |
struction; &c. I

Podebrad, George of.

J Plato.

Leonard James Spencer, M.A.

Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum.
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar.
alogical Magazine.

Formerly Scholar of
Editor of the Miner-

Lord Macaulay.

See the biographical article: Macaulay, Thomas Babington Macaulay, Baron.

Malcolm Bell.

Author of Pewter Plate ; &c.

C Perovskite; Petalite;

Pharmacosiderite ;
\ Phenacite; Phillipsite;
! Phlogopite; Phosgenite;
I Fitchblende; Plagioclase.

Pitt.

Rev. Marcus Dods, D.D.

See the biographical article: Dods, Marcus.

Marcus Niebuhr Tod, M.A.

Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy.
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.

I Pewter.
-j Pelagius.

P.H.„,

Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, M.A.

Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham
University, 1905-1908.

Max Verworn, D.Sc, M.D., Ph.D. r

Professor of Physiology and Director of the Physiological Institute in the University -j Physiology,
of Bonn. Author of Allgemeine Physiologic, &c. t

Pelopidas; Periander;
Pericles; Phocion;
Phocis; Plataea.

Newton Dennison Mereness, A.M., Ph.D.
Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province.

Norman McLean, M.A.

Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's <
College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger Cambridge Septuagint.

Joseph Marie Noel Valois.

Member of Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, Paris. Honorary Archivist
at the Archives Nationales. , Formerly President of the Societe de l'Histoire de .
France and the Societe de l'Ecole des Chartes. Author of La France et le grand
schisme d' Occident; &c.

Northcote Whitridge Thomas, M.A.

Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the
Societe d'Anthropologie of Paris. Author of Thought Transference ; Kinship and -
Carriage in A uslralia ; &c.

Osmund Airy, M.A., LL.D.

H.M. Inspector of Schools and Inspector of Training Colleges, Board of
Education, London. Author of Louis XIV. and the English Restoration; Charles'
II. ; &c. Editor of the Lauderdale Papers ; &c.

Oswald Barron, F.S.A.

Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the -
Honourable Society of the Baronetage.

Rev. Owen Charles Whitehouse, M.A., D.D.

Senior Theological Tutor and Lecturer in Hebrew, Cheshunt College, Cambridge. -
Principal of the Countess of Huntingdon's College, Cheshunt, 1895-1905.

Olaus Magnus Friedrich Henrici, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.

Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Central Technical College of the
City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of Vectors and Rotors; Congruent
Figures ; &c.

Prince Peter Alexeivitch Kropotkin.

See the biographical article: Kropotkin, Prince P. A.

( Philippine Islands:

\ Geography and Statistics

\ Philoxenus.

Pisa, Council of.

Physical Phenomena.

Penn, William.
Pole {family).
Pentecost.

Perm {in part);
Podolia {in part);
.Poland, Russian (in part).

xn

P. A. T.
P. C. M.

P. G.
P. GL

P. La.

P. Sm.
P.V.
R. C. J.
R. G.
R. I. P.
R. K. D.

R.L.*

R. N. B.

R. Po.
R. e. S.

R.S.*
R. S. C.

R.W.

S.A.C.

S.P.H.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

A. TlELE. f

Formerly Librarian, Utrecht University. Author of Biographical and Historical H Plantin.
Memoir on the Voyages of the Dutch Navigators ; &c. L

Phosphorescence: in Zoology.

Pheidias.

Peter Chalmers Mitchell, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D.

Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in .
Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891.
Author of Outlines of Biology; &c.

Percy Gardner, LL.D., F.S.A., D.Litt.

See the biographical article : Gardner, Percy. I

Peter Giles, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D. f

Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J Philology (in part).
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philological 1
Society. I

Philip Lake, M.A., F.G.S. f

Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J p ers j a: Geoloey.

of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian | '

Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Keyser's Comparative Geology. I

Preserved Smith, Ph.D.

Rufus B. Kellogg University Fellow, Amherst College, U.S.A.

Pasqtjale Villari.

See the biographical article: Villari, Pasquale.

Sir Richard Claverhodse Jebb, LL.D., D.C.L.

See the biographical article: Jebb, Sir Richard ClaverhousE.

Richard Garnett, LL.D.

See the biographical article: Garnett, Richard.

Reginald Innes Pocock, F.Z.S.

Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London.

J Pius

1. and II.

J Pisa.

■I Pindar {in part).

{

Peacock, Thomas Love.

J Pedipalpi; Pentastomida.

Sir Robert Kennaway Douglas. <-

Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of Oriental Printed .

Books and MSS. at British Museum, 1892-1907. Member of the Chinese Consular -i Peking.
Service, 1 858-1 865. Author of The Language and Literature of China; China;
Europe and the Far East; &c. I

Peccary; Pecora;

Richard Lydekker, F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.G.S.

Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum ; The
Deer of all Lands ; &c.

Robert Nisbet Bain (d. 1900).

Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia; the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 15 13-1900; The First Romanovs,
1613-1725 ; Slavonic Europe : The Political History of Poland and Russia from
1460 to 1706 ; &c.

Rene Poupardin, D. is L.

Secretary of the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris. Author of Le Royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens; Recueil
des chartes de Saint-Germain; &c.

R. Phene Spiers, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.

Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College,
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.

Ralph Stockman, M.D., F.R.S.(Edin.), F.R.C.P.(Edin.).

Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics in the University of Glasgow.

Robert Seymour Conway, M.A., D.Litt.

Pere David's Deer;
Perissodactyla;
Phalanger; Phenacodus;
Pica; Polecat.
Pazmany; Pechlin;
Peter I. and III. of Russia;
Petofi, Alexander; Philaret;
Piper, Carl;
L Poland: History {in pari).

Philip the Bold;
Philip the Good.

Pier {in architecture).

Pharmacology.

Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology injihe University of Manchester. J pjcenum (in Part).
~ - - - - - ■■ "iff, and Fellow of Gonville")

Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff,

and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. (_

Robert Wallace, F.R.S.(Edin.), F.L.S.

Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at Edinburgh University, and Garton
Lecturer on Colonial and Indian Agriculture. Professor of Agriculture, R.A.C.,
Cirencester, 1882-1885. Author of Farm Live Stock of Great Britain; The Agri-
culture and Rural Economy of Australia and New Zealand; Farming Industries of
Cape Colony; &c.

Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A.

Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and
Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic In-'
scriptions; The Law of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old
Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.

Sidney Frederic Harmer, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.Z.S.

Keeper of Zoology, Natural History Department, British Museum. Fellow,
formerly Tutor and Lecturer, King's College, Cambridge. Joint-editor of The
Cambridge Natural History.

Pig (in partV

Philistines.

Phoronidea.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

XUi

S. H. V.*

S.N.
T. As.

T. Ba.

T. F. C.
T. G. Br.

T. M. L.

It

.N.

T.

S.*

T.W.

•D.

T.

w.

H.

T.

w.

R.

D

W. C. Su.

W. D. C.

W. D. W.
W. de W. A.

W. E. G. F.
W. Ft.

W. F. C.

W. Ga.

W. HI.
W. H.F.

Sydney Howard Vines, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.

Sherardian Professor of Botany, University of Oxford and Fellow of Magdalen
College. Fellow of the University of London. President of the Linnean Society,
1900-1904. Formerly Reader in Botany in the University of Cambridge and
Fellow and Lecturer of Christ's College. Author of A Student's Textbook of Botany;
&c.

Simon Newcomb, D.Sc-, LL.D.

See the biographical article : Newcomb, Simon.

Thomas Ashby, M.A., D.Litt.

Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of
the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topo-
graphy of the Roman Campagna.

Plants: Morphology.

Sir Thomas Barclay.

Member of the Institute of International Law.
Author of Problems of International Practice
Blackburn, 1910.

Theodore Freylinghuysen Collier, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass

Officer of the Legion of Honour. .
and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for

U.S.A.

f Planet;

I Planets, Minor.

Perugia;

Picenum (in part);

Piperno.

Peace;

Peace Conferences;

Pirate and Piracy: Law.

Pius III., IV. and V.

Phagocytosis.

4 Persepolis (in part).

Lecturer on Chemistry -{ PoiSOu.

Thomas Gregor Brodie, M.D., F.R.S.

Professor Superintendent, Brown Animal Sanatory Institution, University of
London. Professor of Physiology, Royal Veterinary College, London. Lecturer
on Physiology, London School of Medicine for Women. Fellow of King's College,
London. Author of Essentials of Experimental Physiology.

Rev. Thomas Martin Lindsay, LL.D., D.D. f

Principal of the United Free Church College, Glasgow. Formerly Assistant to the J Plymouth Brethren (in part)
rrotessor 01 Logic and Metaphysics in the University 01 Edinburgh. Author oi r

History of the Reformation; Life of Luther; &c. I

Theodor Noldeke, Ph.D.

See the biographical article: Noldeke, Theodor.

Sir Thomas Stevenson, M.D., F.R.C.P. (1838-1908).
Formerly Senior Scientific Analyst to the Home Office,
and Forensic Medicine at Guy's Hospital, London.

Walter Theodore Watts-Dunton.

See the biographical article: Watts-Dunton, Walter Theodore.

Thomas Wentworth Higginson, A.M., LL.D.

Author of Atlantic Essays; Cheerful Yesterdays; History of the United States; &c.

Thomas William Rhys Davids, LL.D., Ph.D.

Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the
Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of
Royal Asiatic Society, 1 885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the
Buddhists ; Early Buddhism ; Buddhist India ; Dialogues of the Buddha ; &c.

. Walter Coventry Summers, M.A.

Professor of Latin in the University of Sheffield. Formerly Fellow of St John's ,

College, Cambridge. Craven Scholar, 1890. Chancellor's Medallist, 1892. Author] Petronius (in part).

of A Study of Valerius Flaccus ; &c. [

William Douglas Caroe, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.

Trinity College, Cambridge. Architect to the Ecclesiastical Commission and the -
Charity Commission, London

-j Poetry.

{ Phillips, Wendell.

Piprawa.

Persius;

Pearson, John Loughborough

Philology (in part).

William Dwight Whitney.

See the biographical article: Whitney, William Dwight.

Sir William de Wiveleslie Abney, K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc, F.R.S. r

Adviser in Science to the Board of Education for England. Member of the
Advisory Council for Education to the War Office. Formerly President of Royal -j Photography.
Astronomical Society, Physical Society and Royal Photographic Society. Author
of Instruction in Photography; Colour Vision; &c. I

William Edward Garrett Fisher, M.A. J

Author of The Transvaal and the Boers. 1 Pnylloxera.

University of Edinburgh, and A Pig (in pari),

William Fream, LL.D. (d. 1906).

Formerly Lecturer on Agricultural Entomology, , ■ „ .

Agricultural Correspondent of The Times. [

William Feilden Craies, M.A. f

Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple and Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, -j Pleading.
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). I

Walter Garstang, M.A., D.Sc.

Professor of Zoology in the University of Leeds. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln

College, Oxford. Scientific Adviser to H.M. Delegates on the International Council -j Pisciculture.

for the Exploration of the Sea, 1901-1907. Author of The Impoverishment of the

Sea; &c.

Wheelton Hind, M.D., F.R.C.S., F.G.S.

Surgeon, North Staffs Infirmary. Lyell Medallist, Geological Society, 1902.
of British Carboniferous Lambellibranchiata ; &c.

Author i Pendleside Series.

Sir William Henry Flower, F.R.S.

See the biographical article: Flower, Sir W. H.

Platypus (in part).

XIV

w.

M.

R.

w.

M.

Ra.

w.

P.

C.

w.

R.

M.

w.

R.

S.

w.

R.

S.*

w.

S.

R.

w

T.

T.-D

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES

W. W. R.*
W. Y. S.

William Michael Rossetti.

See the biographical article : Rossetti, Dante G.

Sir William Mitchell Ramsay, LL.D., D.C.L., D.Litt.
See the biographical article : Ramsay, Sir W. M.

William Prideaux Courtney.

See the article: Courtney, Baron.

William Richard Morfill, M.A. (d. ioio). f

Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Slavonic Languages in the University J Poland*
of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution, Oxford. Author of Russia; 1
Slavonic Literature ; &c. I

f Perino del Vaga;
I Perugino, Pietro.

-j Phrygia; Pisidia.

/Peterborough and Monmouth,
I Earl of.

Literature.

-j Phylactery {in part).

William Robertson Smith, LL.D.

See the biographical article: Smith, William Robertson.

William Roy Smith, M.A., Ph.D.

Associate Professor of History, Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania. Author of -\ Polk, James Knox.

Sectionalism in Pennsylvania during the Revolution ; &c.

William Smyth Rockstro. [

Author of A Great History of Music from the Infancy of the Greek Drama to the \ Plain Song.
Present Period ; and other works on the history of music. I

Sir William Turner Thiselton-Dyer, F.R.S., K.C.M.G., CLE., D.Sc, LL.D.,
Ph.D., F.L.S.
Hon. Student of Christ Church, Oxford. Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, -
1885-1905. Botanical Adviser to Secretary of State for Colonies, 1902-1906.
Joint-author of Flora of Middlesex.

William Walker Rockwell, Lic.Theol.

Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.

William Young Sellar, LL.D. f p e tronius {in part).

See the biographical article: Sellar, W. Y. L

Plants: Distribution.

Pius VI., VII., and VIII.

PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES,

Pea.

Peach.

Pear.

Peat.

Peeblesshire.

Pembroke, Earls of.

Pembroke.

Pembrokeshire.

Pen.

Pencil.

Penitential.

Pennine Chain.

Pennsylvania.

Pennsylvania, University of.

Pensacola.

Pension.

Penzance.

Peoria.

Pepper.

Peppermint.

Perfumery.

Perier.

Perigueux.

Peripatetics.

Perjury.

Pernambuco.

Perrault.

Perrot.

Personality.

Perth (N.B.).

Perthshire.

Pessimism.

Peterborough.

Petition.

Philadelphia.

Philately.

Philostratus.

Phonograph.

Phormium.

Phosphorus.

Photius.

Photochemistry.

Physiocratic School.

Physiologus.

Piacenza.

Picardy.

Piccolomini.

Pichegru.

Pietism.

Pigeon-flying.

Pilgrim.

Pin.

Pink.

Pipe.

I Piquet
Pistoia.

Pitcher Plants.
Pittsburg.
Plantation.
Platinum.
Pleurisy.

Pleuro-Pneumonia.
Plock.

Plough and Ploughing.
Plum.

Plymouth (U.S.A.).
Pneumatic Gun.
Pneumonia.
Pnom-Penh.
Poitiers.
Poker.
Pola.

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XXI

PAYN, JAMES (1830-1898), English novelist, was born at
Cheltenham, on the 28th of February 1830, his father being
clerk to the Thames Commissioners and treasurer to the county
of Berkshire. He was educated at Eton, and afterwards
entered the Military Academy at Woolwich; but his health was
not equal to the demands of a military career, and he proceeded
in 1847 to Trinity College, Cambridge. He was among the
most popular men of his time, and served as president of the
Union. Before going to Cambridge he had published some
verses in Leigh Hunt's Journal, and while still an undergraduate
put forth a volume of Stories from Boccaccio in 1852, and in
1853 a volume of Poems. In the same year he left Cambridge,
and shortly afterwards married Miss Louisa Adelaide Edlin,
sister of Sir Peter Edlin. He then settled down in the Lake
district to a literary career and contributed regularly to Household
Words and Chambers's Journal. In 1858 he removed to Edin-
burgh to act as joint-editor of the latter periodical. He became
sole editor in 1850, and conducted the magazine with much
success for fifteen years. He removed to London in 1861. In
the pages of the Journal he published in 1864 his most popular
story, Lost Sir Massingberd. From this time he was always
engaged in novel-writing, among the most popular of his
productions being Married Beneath Him (1865), Carlyon's Year
(1868), By Proxy (1878), and The Talk of the Town (1885). In
1883 he succeeded Leslie Stephen as editor of the Cornhill
Magazine and continued in the post until the breakdown of his
health in 1896. He was also literary adviser to Messrs Smith,
Elder & Company. His publications included a Handbook
to the English Lakes (1859), and various volumes of occasional
essays, Maxims by a Man of the World (1869), Some Private
Views (1881), Some Literary Recollections (1884). A posthumous
work, The Backwater of Life (1899), revealed much of his own
personality in a mood of kindly, sensible reflection upon familiar
topics. He died in London, on the 25th of March 1898.

A biographical introduction to The Backwater of Life was furnished
by Sir Leslie Stephen.

PAYNE, PETER (c. 1380-1455), English Lollard and Taborite,
the son of a Frenchman by an English wife, was born at Hough-
on the-Hill near Grantham, about 1380. He was educated at
Oxford, where he adopted Lollard opinions, and had graduated
as a master of arts before the 6th of October 1406, when he was
concerned in the irregular proceedings through which a letter
declaring the sympathy of the university was addressed to the
Bohemian reformers. From 1410 to 1414 Payne was principal
of St Edmund Hall, and during these years was engaged in
controversy with Thomas Netter of Walden, the Carmelite
defender of Catholic doctrine. In 1414 he was compelled to
leave Oxford and taught for a time in London. Ultimately

he had to flee from England, and took refuge in Bohemia, where
he was received by the university of Prague on the 13th of
February 141 7, and soon became a leader of the reformers.
He joined the sect of the " Orphans," and had a prominent part
in the discussions and conferences of the ten years from 1420
to 1430. When the Bohemians agreed to send representatives
to the Council of Basel, Payne was naturally chosen to be one
of their delegates. He arrived at Basel, on the 4th of January
1433, and his unyielding temper and bitter words probably
did much to prevent a settlement. The Bohemians left Basel
in April. The party of the nobles, who had been ready to make
terms, were attacked in the Diet at Prague, by the Orphans
and Taborites. Next year the dispute led to open war. The
nobles were victorious at Lipau on the 29th of May 1434, and
it was reported in England that Payne was killed. When soon
afterwards the majority of the Orphans joined the moderate
party, Payne allied himself with the more extreme Taborites.
Nevertheless his reputation was so great that he was accepted
as an arbitrator in doctrinal disputes amongst the reformers.
In February 1437 the pope desired the emperor Sigismund
to send Payne to be tried for heresy at Basel. Payne had to
leave his pastorate at Saas, and took refuge with Peter Chelcicky,
the Bohemian author. Two years later he was captured and
imprisoned at Gutenstein, but was ransomed by his Taborite
friends. Payne took part in the conferences of the Bohemian
parties in 1443-1444, and again in 1452. He died at Prague in
1455. He was a learned and eloquent controversialist, and a
faithful adherent to Wycliffe's doctrine. Payne was also known
as Clerk at Oxford, as Peter English in Bohemia, and as Freyng,
after his French father, and Hough from his birth place.

Bibliography. — The chief facts of Payne's English career are
given in the Loci e libro veritatum of T. Gascoigne (ed. Thorold
Rogers, Oxford, 1881). For his later life the principal sources are
contained in the Monumenta conciliorum generalium saeculi v.,
Saeculi xv., or saeculi quinlodecimi, vols, i.-iii. (Vienna, 1857-1894).
For modern authorities consult Palacky, Ceschichte von Bohtnen,
vii.-ix., and Creighton's History of the Papacy. The biography
by James Baker, A Forgotten Great Englishman (London, 1894)
is too partial. (C. L. K.)

PAYNTER (or Painter), WILLIAM (c. 1 540-1 594), English
author, was a native of Kent. He matriculated at St John's
College, Cambridge, in 1554. In 1561 he became clerk of the
ordnance in the Tower of London, a position in which he
appears to have amassed a fortune out of the public funds. In
1586 he confessed that he owed the government a thousand
pounds, and in the next year further charges of peculation were
brought against him. In 1591 his son Anthony owned that
he and his father had abused their trust, but Paynter retained
his office until his death. This event probably followed

PAYSANDU— PEA

immediately upon his will, which was nuncupative and was
dated the 14th of February 1594. The first volume of his Palace
of Pleasure appeared in 1566, and was dedicated to the earl of
Warwick. It included sixty tales, and was followed in the next
year by a second volume containing thirty-four new ones. A
second improved edition in 1575 contained seven new stories.
Paynter borrows from Herodotus, Plutarch, Aulus Gellius,
Aelian, Livy, Tacitus, Quintus Curtius; from Giraldi Cinthio,
Matteo Bandello, Ser Giovanni Fiorentino, Straparola, Queen
Margaret of Navarre and others. To the vogue of this and
similar collections we owe the Italian setting of so large a pro-
portion of the Elizabethan drama. The early tragedies of
Appius and Virginia, and Tancred and Gismund were taken
from The Palace of Pleasure; and among better-known plays
derived from the book are the Shakespearian Titnon of Athens,
All's Well that Ends Well (from Giletta of Narbonne), Beaumont
and Fletcher's Triumph of Death and Shirley's Love's Cruelty.

The Palace of Pleasure was edited by Joseph Haslewood in 1813.
This edition was collated (1890) with the British Museum copy of
'575 by Mr Joseph Jacobs, who added further prefatory matter,
including an introduction dealing with the importance of Italian
novelle in Elizabethan drama.

PAYSANDtJ, or Paisandu, a town and river port of Uruguay
and capital of a department of the same name, on the left bank
of the Uruguay River about 214 m. N.W. of Montevideo, with
which it is connected by rail. Pop. (1908 estimate), 15,000. It
has railway connexion with Rio Negro and Montevideo to the
south-east, and with Salto and Santa Rosa, on the Brazilian
frontier, on the north; it is at the head of low water navigation
on the Uruguay River, and is in regular steamer communication
with Montevideo and Buenos Aires.

There are some good public buildings, including two churches,
a hospital, a theatre and the government offices. Paysandu
exports cattle and sheep and salted meats, hides, ox
tongues, wool and other animal products. There is a meat-
curing establishment (saladero) at Guaviyu, in the vicinity.
The town was named in honour of Pay, or Pai (Father) Sandu,
a priest who settled there in 1772. It has suffered severely
from revolutionary outbreaks, was bombarded by Rivera
in 1846, and was partly destroyed in 1865 by a Brazilian
bombardment, after which its gallant defenders, Leandro
Gomez and his companions, were butchered in cold blood.

The department of Paysandu — area 5117 sq. m.; pop. (1907,
estimate), 34,097 — is one of the richest stock-raising regions
of the republic.

PAYSON, EDWARD (1 783-1827), American Congregational
preacher, was born on the 25th of July 1783 at Rindge, New
Hampshire, where his father, Seth Payson (1758-1820), was
pastor of the Congregational Church. His uncle, Phillips Payson
(1736-1801), pastor of a church in Chelsea, Massachusetts,
was a physicist and astronomer. Edward Payson graduated
at Harvard in 1803, was then principal of a school at Portland,
Maine, and in 1807 became junior pastor of the Congregational
Church at Portland, where he remained, after 181 1, as senior
pastor, until his death on the 22nd of October 1827.

The most complete collection of his sermons, with a memoir by
Asa Cummings originally published in 1828, is the Memoir, Select
Thoughts and Sermons of the late Rev. Edward Payson (3 vols., Port-
land, 1846; Philadelphia, 1859). Based on this is the volume,
Mementos of Edward Payson (New York, 1873), by the Rev. E. L.
Janes of the Methodist Episcopal Church.

PAZMANY, PfiTER (1570-1637), Hungarian cardinal and
statesman, was born at Nagyvarad on the 4th of October 1570,
and educated at Nagyvarad and Kolozsvar, at which latter
place he quitted the Calvinist confession for the Roman com-
munion (1583). In 1587 he entered the Jesuit order. Pazmany
went through his probation at Cracow, took his degree at
Vienna, and studied theology at Rome, and finally completed his
academic course at the Jesuit college at Graz. In 1601 he was
sent to the order's establishment at Sellye, where his eloquence
and dialectic won back hundreds to Rome, including many
of the noblest families. Prince Nicholas Esterhazy and Paul
Rakoczy were among his converts. In 1607 he was attached

to the archbishop of Esztergom, and in the following year
attracted attention by his denunciation, in the Diet, of the 8th
point of the peace of Vienna, which prohibited the Jesuits from
acquiring landed property in Hungary. At about the same
time the pope, on the petition of the emperor Matthias II.,
released Pazmany from his monkish vows. On the 25th of
April 1616 he was made dean of Turocz, and on the 28th of
September became primate of Hungary. He received the red
hat from Urban VIII. in 1629. Pazmany was the soul of the
Roman Catholic reaction in Hungary. Particularly remarkable
is his Igazsdgra vezeto Kalauz {Guide to Truth), which appeared
in 1613. This manual united all the advantages of scientific
depth, methodical arrangement and popular style. As the chief
pastor of the Hungarian church Pazmany used every means
in his power, short of absolute contravention of the laws, to
obstruct and weaken Protestantism, which had risen during
the 16th century. In 1619 he founded a seminary for theological
candidates at Nagyszombat, and in 1623 laid the foundations
of a similar institution at Vienna, the still famous Pazmanaeum,
at a cost of 200,000 florins. In 1635 he contributed 100,000
florins towards the foundation of a Hungarian university.
He also built Jesuit colleges and schools at Pressturg, and
Franciscan monasteries at Ersekujvar and Kormoczbanya.
In politics he played a considerable part. It was chiefly due
to him that the diet of 161 8 elected the archduke Ferdinand
to succeed the childless Matthias II. He also repeatedly
thwarted the martial ambitions of Gabriel Bethlen, and prevented
George Rakoczy I., over whom he had a great influence, from
combining with the Turks and the Protestants. But Pazmany's
most unforgetable service to his country was his creation of the
Hungarian literary language. As an orator he well deserved
the epithet of " the Hungarian purple Cicero." Of his numerous
works the chief are: The Four Books of Thomas d Kempis
on the imitation of Christ (Hung., 1603), of which there are
many editions; Diatribe theologica de visibili Chrisli in terris
ecclesia (Graz, 1615); Vindiciae ecclesiasticae (Vienna, 1620);
Sermons for every Sunday in the Year (Hung., Pressburg, 1636);
The Triumph of Truth (Hung., Pressburg, 1614).

See Vi'.mos Fraknoi, Peter Pazmany and his Times (Hung. Pest,
1 868-1 872) ; Correspondence of Pazmany (Hung, and Latin), published
by the Hungarian Academy (Pest, 1873). (R. N. B.)

PAZ SOLDAN, MARIANO FELIPE (1821-1886), Peruvian
historian and geographer, was born at Arequipa, on the 22nd
of August 1821. He studied law, and after holding some minor
judicial offices, was minister to New Granada in 1853.- After his
return he occupied himself with plans for the establishment
of a model penitentiary at Lima, which he was enabled to
accomplish through the support of General Castilla. In i860
Castilla made him director of public works, in which capacity
he superintended the erection of the Lima statue of Bolivar.
He was also concerned in the reform of the currency by the
withdrawal of the debased Bolivian coins. In 1861 he published
his great atlas of the republic of Peru, and in 1868 the first
volume of his history of Peru after the acquisition of her inde-
pendence. A second volume followed, and a third, bringing
the history down to 1839, was published after his death by his
son. In 1870 he was minister of justice and worship under
President Balta, but shortly afterwards retired from public
life to devote himself to his great geographical dictionary of
Peru, which was published in 1877. During the disastrous
war with Chile he sought refuge at Buenos Aires, where he was
made professor in the National College, and where he wrote
and published a history of the war (1884). He died on the
31st of December 1886.

PEA (Pisum), a genus of the order Leguminosae, consisting
of herbs with compound pinnate leaves ending in tendrils, by
means of which the weak stems are enabled to support themselves,
and with large leafy stipules at the base. The flowers (fig. 1)
are typically " papilionaceous," with a " standard " or large
petal above, two side petals or wings, and two front petals
below forming the keel. The stamens are ten — nine united,
the tenth usually free or only slightly joined to the others.

PEABODY, A. P.

Fig. i. — Flower of Pea.
c, Calyx.
st, Standard.
a, Alae, or wings.
car, Carina, or Keel.

This separation allows approach to the honey which is secreted
at the base of the staminal tube. The ovary is prolonged
into a long, thick, bent style, com-
pressed from side to side at the tip
and fringed with hairs. The fruit is
a characteristic " legume " or pod
(fig. 2), bursting when ripe into halves,
which bear the large globular seeds
(peas) on their edges. These seeds
are on short stalks, the upper ex-
tremity of which is dilated into a
shallow cup {aril) ; the two seed-leaves
{cotyledons) are thick and fleshy, with
a radicle bent along their edges on
one side. The genus is exceedingly close to Lathyrus, being
only distinguished technically by the style, which in the latter
genus is compressed from above downwards and not thick.
It is not surprising, therefore, that under
the general name " pea " species both of
Pisum and of Lathyrus are included. The
common field pea with tan-coloured or
compressed mottled seeds and two to four
leaflets is Pisum arvense, which is culti-
vated in all temperate parts of the globe,
but which, according to the Italian
botanists, is truly a native of central and
southern Italy: it has purple flowers.
The garden pea, P. sativum, which has
white flowers, is more tender than the
preceding, and its origin is not known.
It has not been found in a wild state
anywhere, and it is considered that it
may be a form of P. arvense, having,
however, from four to six leaflets to
each leaf and globular seeds of uniform

Text-book of Botany, by colour.

permission of Swan, Son-

nenschein & Co. P. sativum was known to Theophrastus;

Pig_ 2. The Pod an d De Candolle {Origin of Cultivated Plants,

(legume) of the Pea. P- 3.29) points out that the word "pison"

From Vine's Students'

r, The dorsal suture.

b, The ventral.

c, Calyx.
s, Seeds.

or its equivalent occurs in the Albanian
tongue as well as in Latin, whence he con-
cludes that the pea was known to the Aryans,
and was perhaps brought by them into
Greece and Italy. Peas have been found
in the Swiss lake-dwellings of the bronze period. The garden
peas differ considerably in size, shape of pod, degree of productive-
ness, form and colour of seed, &c. The sugar peas are those in which
the inner lining of the pod is very thin instead of being somewhat
horny, so that the whole pod can be eaten. Unlike most papilion-
aceous plants, peaflowers are perfectly fertile without the aid of
insects, and thus do not intercross so freely as most similar plants do.
On the other hand, a case is known wherein the pollen from a purple-
podded pea applied to the stigma of one of the green-podded sugar
peas produced a purple pod, showing that not only the ovule but even
the ovary was affected by the cross. The numerous varieties of
peas in cultivation have been obtained by cross-fertilization, but
chiefly by selection. Peas constitute a highly nutritious article of
diet from the large quantity of nitrogenous materials they contain
in addition to starchy and saccharine matters.

The sweet pea, cultivated for the beauty and fragrance of its
flowers, is a species of the allied genus Lathyrus {L. odoratus), a
native of southern Europe. The chick pea {q.v.) {Cicer arieti-
num), not cultivated in England, is still farther removed from
the true peas. The everlasting pea of gardens is a species of
Lathyrus {L. latifolius) with very deep fleshy roots, bold foliage,
and beautiful but scentless flowers; the field pea (Pisum arvense)
is better adapted than the bean to light soils, and is best culti-
vated in rows of such a width as to admit of horse-hoeing.
The early stage at which the plants fall over, and forbid further
culture, renders it even more needful than in the case of beans
to sow them only on land already clean. If annual weeds can
be kept in check until the peas once get a close cover, they then
occupy the ground so completely that nothing else can live
under them; and the ground, after their removal, is found in
the choicest condition. A thin crop of peas should never be
allowed to stand, as the land is sure to get perfectly wild. The

difficulty of getting this crop well harvested renders it peculiarly
advisable to sow only the early varieties.

The pea prefers a friable calcareous loam, deeply worked, and well
enriched with good hotbed or farm-yard manure. The early crops
require a warm sheltered_ situation, but the later are better grown
6 or 8 ft. apart, or more, in the open quarters, dwarf crops being in-
troduced between the rows. The dwarf or early sorts may be sown
3 or 4 ft. apart. The deep working of the soil is of importance,
lest the plants should suffer in hot dry weather from mildew or
arrest of growth. The first sowing may be made about the beginning
or middle of November, in front of a south wall, the plants being
defended by spruce fir branches or other spray throughout the winter.
In February sowings are sometimes made in private gardens, in flower-
pots or boxes, and the young plants afterwards planted out. The
main crop should be sown towards the end of February, and moder-
ate sowings should be made twice a month afterwards, up to the
beginning of July for the north, and about the third week in July
for warmer districts. During dry hot weather late peas derive
great benefit from mulching and watering. The latest sowings,
at the middle or end of August, should consist of the best early sorts,
as they are not so long in producing pods as the larger and finer
sorts, and by this means the supply may be prolonged till October
or November. As they grow the earth is drawn up to the stems,
which are also supported by stakes, a practice which in a well-kept
garden is always advisable, although it is said that the early varieties
arrive sooner at maturity when recumbent.

Peas grown late in autumn are subject to mildew, to obviate
which it has been proposed to dig over the ground in the usual way,
and to soak the spaces to be occupied by the rows of peas thoroughly
with water — the earth on each side to be then collected so as to
form ridges 7 or 8 in. high, these ridges being well watered, and the
seed sown on them in single rows. If dry weather at any time set
in, water should be supplied profusely once a week.

To produce very early crops the French market-gardeners used to
sow early in November, in frames, on a border having a good aspect,
the seeds being covered very slightly. The young plants are trans-
planted into other frames in December, the ground inside being
dug out so as to be 18 or 20 in. below the sashes, and the earth thus
removed placed against the outside of the frames. The young
plants, when 3 or 4 in. high, are planted in patches of three or
four, 8 in. asunder, in four longitudinal rows. The sashes are covered
at night with straw mats, and opened whenever the weather is
sufficiently mild. When 8 or 10 in. high the stems are inclined
towards the back of the frame, a little earth being drawn to their
base, and when the plants come into blossom the tops are pinched out
above the third or fourth flower to force them into bearing. As
soon as they begin to pod, the soil may have a gentle watering,
whenever sufficiently warmed by the sun, but a too vigorous growth
at an earlier period would be detrimental. Thus treated the plants
bear pods fit for gathering in the first fortnight in April.

A very convenient means of obtaining an early crop is to sow in
5-in. pots, a few seeds in each, the plants to be ultimately planted
out on a warm border. Peas may also be obtained early if gently
forced in frames, in the same way as kidney beans, the dwarfest
varieties being preferable.

For the very early peas the rows should range east and west,
but for the main crops north and south. The average depth of the
drills should be about 2 in. for small sorts, and a trifle more for
the larger kinds. The drills should be made wide and flat at bottom
so that the seeds may be better separated in sowing. The large
sorts are the better for being sown 3 in. apart, Chopped furze
may be advantageously scattered in the drill before covering in,
to check the depredations of mice, and before levelling the surface
the soil should be gently trodden down over the seeds."

A good selection of sorts may be made from the following: —

Early. — William Hurst; Chelsea Gem; Sutton's Bountiful and
Excelsior; Gradus.

Second Early. — Stratagem; Telephone; Telegraph; Carter's Daisy;
Duke of York; Veitch's Autocrat.

Late.— Veitch's Perfection; Ne Plus Ultra, the finest of all late
peas, but a little delicate in cold wet soils and seasons ; British Queen ;
Champion of England ; Duke of Albany.

PEABODY, ANDREW PRESTON (1811-1893), American
clergyman and author, was born in Beverly, Massachusetts,
on the 19th of March 181 1, and was descended from Lieut.
Francis Peabody of St Albans, who emigrated to Massachusetts
in 1635. He learned to read before he was three years old,
entered Harvard College at the age of twelve, and graduated
in 1826, with the single exception of Paul Dudley (class of 1690)
the youngest graduate of Harvard. In 1833 he became assistant
pastor of the South Parish (Unitarian) of Portsmouth, New
Hampshire; the senior pastor died before Peabody had been
preaching a month, and he succeeded to the charge of the church,
which he held until i860. In 1852-1860 he was proprietor and
editor of the North American Review. He was preacher to

PEABODY, E. P.— PEACE

Harvard University and Plummer professor of Christian morals
from i860 to 1 88 1, and was professor emeritus from 1881 until
his death in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 10th of March 1893.
On the walls of Appleton Chapel, Cambridge, U.S.A., is a bronze
tablet to his memory.

Besides many brief memoirs and articles, he wrote: Christianity
the Religion of Nature (2 id ed., 1864), Lowell Institute Lectures;
Reminiscences of European Travel (1868); A Manual of Moral
Philosophy (1873); Christian Belief and Life (1875), and Harvard
Reminiscences (1888). See the Memoir (Cambridge, 1896) by
Edward J. Young.

PEABODY, ELIZABETH PALMEB (1804-1894), American
educationist, was born at Billerica, Massachusetts, on the 16th
of May 1804. Early in life she was assistant in A. Bronson
Alcott's school in Boston, Mass., the best account of which is
probably her Record of Mr Alcott's School (1835). She had been
instructed in Greek by Emerson at Concord when she was
eighteen years old. She became interested in the educational
methods of Froebel, and in i860 opened in Boston a small school
resembling a kindergarten. In 1867 she visited Germany for
the purpose of studying Froebel's methods. It was largely
through her efforts that the first public kindergarten in the
United States was established in Boston in 1870. She died at
Jamaica Plain, Boston, on the 3rd of January 1894. She was
the sister-in-law of Nathaniel Hawthorne and of Horace Mann.

Among her publications are: Kindergarten in Italy (1872);
Reminiscences of William Ellery Channing (1880); Lectures in the
Training Schools for Kinder gartners (1888); and Last Evening with
Allston, and other Papers (1886).

PEABODY, GEORGE (1 795-1869), American philanthropist,
was descended from an old yeoman family of Hertfordshire,
England, named Pabody or Pebody. He was born in the part
of Danvers which is now Peabody, Mass., on the 18th of February
1795. When eleven years old he became apprentice at a
grocery store. At the end of four years he became assistant to
his brother, and a year afterwards to his uncle, who had a
business in Georgetown, District of Columbia. After serving as a
volunteer at Fort Warburton, Maryland, in the War of 181 2, he
became partner with Elisha Riggs in a dry goods store at George-
town, Riggs furnishing the capital, while Peabody was manager.
Through his energy and skill the business increased with astound-
ing rapidity, and on the retirement of Riggs about 1830 Peabody
found himself at the head of one of the largest mercantile con-
cerns in the world. About 1837 he established himself in London
as merchant and money-broker at Wanford Court, in the city,
and in 1843 he withdrew from the American business. The
number of his benefactions to public objects was very large.
He gave £50,000 for educational purposes at Danvers; £200,000
to found and endow a scientific Institute in Baltimore; various
sums to Harvard University; £700,000 to the trustees of the
Peabody Educational Fund to promote education in the
southern states; and £500,000 for the erection of dwelling-houses
for the working-classes in London. He received from Queen
Victoria the offer of a baronetcy, but declined it. In 1867 the
United States Congress awarded him a special vote of thanks.
He died in London on the 4th of November 1869; his body
was carried to America in a British warship, and was buried
in his native town.

See the Life (Boston, 1870) by Phebe A. Hanaford.
PEABODY, a township of Essex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., in the eastern part of the state, 2 m. N.W. of Salem.
Pop. (1905) 13,098; (1910) 15,721. It is served by the Boston &
Maine railroad. The township covers an area of 17 sq. m. Its
principal village is also known as Peabody. It contains the
Peabody institute (1852), a gift of George Peabody ; in 1909 the
institute had a library of 43,200 vols., and in connexion with it is
the Eb'en Dale Sutton reference library, containing 4100 vols,
in 1909. In the institute is the portrait of Queen Victoria given
by her to Mr Peabody. Among the places of interest in the
township are the birthplace of George Peabody, the home of
Rufus Choate (who lived here from 1823 to 1828), and the old
burying-ground, where many soldiers of the War of Indepen-
dence are buried; and the town has a Lexington monument,

dedicated in 1835, and a soldiers' monument, dedicated in 1881.
Manufacturing is the principal industry, and leather is the
principal product; among other manufactures are shoes, gloves,
glue and carriages. The value of the factory products in
1905 was $10,236,669, an increase of 47-4% over that for 1900,
and of the total the leather product represented 77-3%.

Peabody was originally a part of the township of Salem. In
1752 the district of Danvers was created, and in 1757 this district
was made a separate township. In 1855 the township was divided
into Danvers and South Danvers, and in 1868 the name of South
Danvers was changed to Peabody, in honour of George Peabody.

See Old Naumkeag (Salem, 1877), by C. H. Webber and W. H.
Nevins.

PEACE, a river of western Canada. It rises in the Rocky
Mountains near 55 N., and breaking through the mountains,
flows N.E. into Slave River, near lake Athabasca. The district
between 56° 40' and 6o° N., and between 112° W. and the Rocky
Mountains is usually known as the Peace River district.

PEACE (Lat. pax; Fr. paix; Ger. Friede), the contrary of
war, conflict or turmoil, and the condition which follows their
cessation. Its sense in international law is the condition of
not being at war. The word is also used as an abridgment for
a treaty of peace, in such cases as the Peace of Utrecht (17 13)
and the Peace of Amiens (1802).

Introduction. — Peace until quite recently was merely the
political condition which prevailed in the intervals between
wars. It was a purely negative condition. Even Grotius, who
reduced the tendencies existing in his time to a sort of orderly
expression, addressed himself to the law of war as the positive
part of international jurisprudence and dealt only with peace
as its negative alternative. The very name of his historic
treatise, De jure belli ac pacts (1625), shows the subordination
of peace to the main subject of war. In our own time peace has
attained a higher status. It is now customary among writers
on international law to give peace at any rate a volume to itself.
Peace in fact has become a separate branch of the subject. The
rise of arbitration as a method of settling international difficulties
has carried it a step further, and now the Hague Peace Con-
ventions have given pacific methods a standing apart from war,
and the preservation of peace has become an object of direct
political effort. The methods for ensuring such preservation
are now almost as precise as the methods of war. However
reluctant some states may be to bind themselves to any rules
excluding recourse to brute force when diplomatic negotiations
have failed, they have nevertheless unanimously at the Hague
Conference of 1907 declared their " firm determination to co-
operate in the maintenance of general peace " (la ferme volonli
de concourir au mainlien de la paix generate) 1 , and their resolution
" to favour with all their efforts the amicable settlement of
international conflicts " (preamble to Peace Convention). The
offer of mediation by independent powers is provided for (Peace
Convention: art. 3), and it is specifically agreed that in matters
of a " legal character " such as " questions of interpretation and
application " of international conventions, arbitration is the
" most efficacious and at the same time most equitable method "
of settling differences which have not been solved by diplomacy
(Peace Convention: art. 38). In the final act, the conference
went farther in agreeing to the " principle of compulsory arbi-
tration," declaring that " certain disputes, in particular those
relating to the interpretation and application of the provisions
of international agreements, are suitable (susceptible) to be
submitted to compulsory arbitration without any restriction."
These declarations were obviously a concession to the wide-
spread feeling, among civilized nations, that peace is an object
in itself, an international political condition requiring its code of
methods and laws just as much as the domestic political conditions
of nations require their codes of methods and laws. In other
words peace among nations has now become, or is fast becoming,
a positive subject of international regulation, while war is

1 This has been incorrectly rendered in the English official trans-
lation as " the sincere desire to work for the maintenance of general
peace."

PEACE

coming, among progressive peoples, to be regarded merely as an
accidental disturbance of that harmony . and concord among
mankind which nations require for the fostering of their
domestic welfare.

Though the idea of preserving peace by general international
regulation has had several exponents in the course of ages, no
deliberate plan has ever yet been carried into effect. Indirectly,
however, there have been 'many agencies which have operated
towards this end. The earliest, known to history, is the Amphi-
ctyonic Council (q.v.) which grew out of the common worship
of the Hellenes. It was not so much a political as a religious
body. " If it had any claim," says Freeman, 1 " to the title of a
general council of Greece, it was wholly in the sense in which we
speak of general councils in modern Europe. The Amphictyonic
Council represented Greece as an ecclesiastical synod repre-
sented western Christendom. Its primary business was to
regulate the concerns of the temple of Apollo at Delphi. The
Amphictyonic Council which met at Delphi was only the most
famous of several bodies of the same kind." " It is easy,
however," adds Freeman, " to understand how the religious
functions of such a body might assume a political character.
Thus the old Amphictyonic oath forbade certain extreme
measures of hostility against any city sharing in the common
Amphictyonic worship, and it was forbidden to raze any Amphi-
ctyonic city or to cut off its water. As the only deliberative
body in which most Greek communities were represented, its
decisions were those of the bulk of the Hellenic people. It sank
eventually into a mere political tool in the hands first of Thebes,
and then under Philip of Macedonia."

The so-called pax romana was merely peace within an
empire governed from a central authority, the constituent
parts of which were held together by a network of centralized
authority.

The feudal system again was a system of offence and defence,
and its object was efficiency for war, not the organized regulation
of peace. Yet-it had elements of federation within the bonds of
its hierarchy.

The spiritual influence of the Church again was exerted to
preserve relative peace among feudal princes. The " Truce of
God " was established by the clergy (originally in Guyenne in
1031) to take advantage of holy days and festivals for the purpose
of restricting the time available for bloodshed.

The " grand design " of Henry IV. (France), which some
historians regard merely as the fantastic idea of a visionary, was
probably a scheme of his great minister Sully to avert by a
federation the conflict which he probably foresaw would break
out sooner or later between Catholic and Protestant Europe,
and which, in fact, broke out some fifteen years later in the
Thirty Years' War.

The Holy Roman Empire itself was in some respects an agent
for the preservation of peace among its constituent states. In
the same way the federation of Swiss cantons, of the states of the
North American Union and of the present German Empire have
served as means of reducing the number of possible parties to war,
and consequently that of its possible occasions.

Not only the number of possible war-making states but also
the territorial area over which war can be made has been
reduced in recent times by the creation of neutralized states such
as Switzerland, Belgium, Luxemburg and Norway, and areas
such as the Congo basin, the American lakes and the Suez Canal.
The " balance of power," which has played in the history of
modern Europe such an important part, is inherent in the
notion of the independence and stability of states. Just as in
Italy the common weal of the different republics which were
crowded within the limited area of the peninsula required that
no one of them should become so powerful as to threaten the
independence of the others, so western Europe had a similar
danger to counteract. France, Spain and the Empire were
competing with each other in power to the detriment of smaller
states. Great Britain and the Netherlands, Prussia and Russia,

1 History of Federal Government in Greece and Italy (2nd ed.,
London, 1893), p. 97.

had interests in the preservation of the status quo, and wars were
waged and treaties concluded to adjust the strength of states in
the common interest of preventing any one of them from obtain-
ing undue predominance. Then came the break up of what
remained of feudal Europe and a readjustment under Napoleon,
which left the western world with five fairly balanced homo-
geneous nations. These now took the place of the old hetero-
geneous areas, governed by their respective sovereigns without
reference to any idea of nationality or of national representation.
The leading nations assumed the hegemony of the west, and in
more recent times this combination has become known as the
" concert of Europe." This concert of the great powers, as
its name implies, in contradistinction to the " balance of
power," was essentially a factor for the preservation of peace.
For a century back it has played the part of an upper council in
the management of Europe. In all matters affecting the Near
East, it considers itself supreme. In matters of general interest
it has frequently called conferences to which the minor states
have been invited, such as the West African Conference in Berlin
in 1885, and the Anti-Slavery Conference at Brussels in 1889-
1890, and the Conference of Algeciras in 1906. Meanwhile the
concert has admitted among its members first in 1856 Turkey,
later in 1878 at the Congress of Berlin the United States, and
now undoubtedly Japan will expect to be included as a great
power in this controlling body. The essential feature of the
concert has been recognition of the advantage to all the great
powers of common action in reference to territorial changes in
the Near East, of meeting together as a council, in preference
to unconcerted negotiation by the powers acting severally.

A departure of more recent origin has been the calling together
of the smaller powers for the settlement of matters of general
administrative interest, conferences such as those which led to
the conclusion of the conventions creating the Postal Union,
the Copyright and Industrial Property Unions, &c.

These conferences of all the powers serve in practice as a sort
of common council in the community of states, just as the
concert of the great powers acts as a kind of senate. We have
thus the nucleus of that international parliament which idealist
peacemakers have dreamt of since the time of Henry IV.'s
" grand design."

This brings us down to the greatest deliberate effort ever made
to secure the peace of the world by a- general convention. It
was due to the initiative of the young tsar Nicolas II., who,
in his famous rescript of the 24th of August 1898, stated that
he thought that the then moment was " very favourable for
seeking, by means of international discussion, the most effectual
means of assuring to all peoples the benefits of a real and durable
peace." " In the course of the last twenty years," added the
rescript, " the preservation of peace had become an object of
international policy." Economic crises, due in great part to the
existing system of excessive armaments, were transforming
armed peace into a crushing burden, which peoples had more and
more difficulty in bearing. He therefore proposed that there
should be an international conference for the purpose of focusing
the efforts of all states which were " sincerely seeking to make
the great idea of universal peace triumph over the elements
of trouble and discord." The first conference was held in 1899,
and another followed it in 1907: at the earlier one twenty-six
powers were represented; at that of 1907 there were forty-four,
this time practically the whole world. The conventions drawn
up at the second conference were a deliberate codification of
many branches of international law. By them a written law
has been substituted for that unwritten law which nations had
been wont to construe with a latitude more or less corre-
sponding to their power. At the conference of 1899, moreover,
a court of arbitration was instituted for the purpose of dealing
judicially with such matters in dispute as the powers agreed to
submit to it.

In the interval between the two Hague Conferences, Great
Britain and France concluded the first treaty applicable to
future difficulties, as distinguished from the treaties which had
preceded it, treaties which related in all cases to difficulties already

PEACE

existing and confined to them. This treaty made arbitration
applicable to all matters not affecting " national honour or vital
interests." Since then a network of similar treaties, adopted
by different nations with each other and based on the Anglo-
French model, has made reference to the Hague Court of Arbitra-
tion practically compulsory for all matters which can be settled by
an award of damages or do not affect any vital national interest.
The third Hague Conference is timed to be held in 191 7.
Meanwhile a conference of the maritime powers was held in
London in 1908-1909 for the elaboration of a code of international
maritime law in time of war, to be applied in the international
Court of Prize, which had been proposed in a convention signed
ad referendum at the Hague Conference of 1907.

A further development in the common efforts which have
been made by different powers to assure the reign of justice
and judicial methods among the states of the world was the pro-
posal of Secretary Knox of the United States to insert in the
instrument of ratification of the International Prize Court
Convention (adopted at the Hague in 1897) a clause stating
that the International Prize Court shall be invested with the
duties and functions of a court of arbitral justice, such as
recommended by the first Voeu of the Final Act of the con-
ference. The object of this proposal was to give effect to the
idea that the existing " permanent " court lacked the essential
characteristics of national courts of justice in not being ready
at all times to hear cases, and in needing to be specially con-
stituted for every case submitted to it. The new court would
be permanently in session at the Hague, the full panel of
judges to assemble in ordinary or extraordinary session once
a year.

Thus, while armaments are increasing, and wars are being
fought out in the press and in public discussion, the great
powers are steadily working out a system of written law and
establishing a judiciary to adjust their differences in accordance
with it. 1

The Current Grouping of Mankind and Nation-making. —
In the consolidation of peace one of the most important
factors is unquestionably the grouping of mankind in accordance
with the final territorial and racial limitations of their apparent
destiny. Language has played a vital part in the formation
of Germany and Italy. The language question still disturbs
the tranquillity of. the Near East. The Hungarian government
is regarded by the Slav, Ruman and German inhabitants
of the monarchy as an oppressor for endeavouring to force every-
body within the realm to learn the Magyar language. The
" Young Turkish " government has problems to face which will
be equally difficult, if it insists on endeavouring to institute
centralized government in Turkey on the French model.

Whereas during the 19th century states were being cut out
to suit the existing distribution of language, in the 20th the
tendency seems to be to avoid further rearrangement of boun-
daries, and to complete the homogeneity, thus far attained, by
the artificial method of forcing reluctant populations to adopt
the language of the predominant or governing race. In the
United States this artificial method has become a necessity, to
prevent the upgrowth of alien communities, which might at some
later date cause domestic trouble of a perilous character. For
example, when a community of French Canadians, discontented
with British rule, many years ago migrated and settled in
Massachusetts, they found none of the tolerance they had
been enjoying in Canada for their French schools and the
French language they wished to preserve. In Alsace-Lorraine
German-speaking immigrants are gradually displacing, under

1 Schemes of thinkers, like William Penn's European Parliament
(1693); the Abbe St Pierre's elaboration (c. 1700) of Henry IV.'s
" grand design " (see supra) ; Jeremy Bentham's International
Tribunal (1 786-1 789); Kant's Permanent Congress of Nations and
Perpetual Peace (1796); John Stuart Mill's Federal Supreme Court;
Seetey's, Bluntschli's, David Dudley Field's, Professor Leone Levi's,
Sir Edmund Hornby's co-operative schemes for promoting law and
order among nations, have all contributed to popularizing in
different countries the idea of a federation of mankind for the
preservation of peace.

government encouragement, the French-speaking population.
Poland is another case of the difficulty of managing a population
which speaks a language not that of the governing majority, and
Russia, in trying to solve one problem by absorbing Finland
into the national system, is burdening herself with another
which may work out in centuries of unrest, if not in domestic
violence. Not very long ago Pan-Germans were paying much
attention to the German settlers in 'the Brazilian province of
Rio Grande do Sul, where large villages spoke nothing but German,
and German, as the only language known on the spot, had become
the tongue in which municipal business was transacted. The
Brazilian government, in view of the danger to which such a
state of things might give rise, followed the example of the
United States in dealing with the language question.

Thus while in the one case homogeneity of language within
state boundaries seems to be one of the conditions making for
peace, the avoidance of interference with a well-marked homo-
geneous area like Finland would seem to contribute equally to
the same end.

Meanwhile the difficulties in the way of contemporary nation-
making are fostered by many extraneous influences, as well as
by dogged resistance of the races in question. Not the least
important of these influences is the sentimental sympathy felt
for those who are supposed to be deprived of the use of their
mother-tongue, and who are subjected to the hardship of learning
an alien one. The hardship inflicted on those who have to
learn a second language is very easily exaggerated, though it
is to be regretted that in the case of Hungary the second language
is not one more useful for international purposes.

Contemporary Statecraft.— Nation-making has hitherto been
more or less unconscious — the outcome of necessity, a natural
growth due to the play of circumstance and events. But in
our own age conscious statecraft is also at work, as in Canada,
where the genius of statesmen is gradually endowing that
dominion with all the attributes of independence and power.
Australia has not learnt the lesson of Canada in vain. Whatever
value may attach to the consolidation of the' British Empire
itself as a factor in spreading the peace which reigns within it,
it is also a great contribution to the peace of the world that the
British race should have founded practically independent states
like the Dominion of Canada, the Commonwealth of Australia,
the South African Union and the Dominion of New Zealand.
These self-governing colonies with their spheres of influence,
with vast areas still unpeopled, have a future before them
which is dissociated from the methods of an over-peopled
Europe, and among them the preservation of peace is
the direct object and condition of their progressive develop-
ment. Like the United States, they have or will have their
Monroe doctrine. Colonized by the steady industrial peoples
of northern Europe, there is no danger of the turbulence
of the industrially indolent but more passionate peoples of
Central and South America. As in Europe, these northern
peoples will hold the power which intelligent democracies are
consciously absorbing, and the British faculty for statecraft is
gradually welding new nations on the British model, without the
obsolete traditions and without that human sediment which too
frequently chokes the currents of national vitality in the older
communities of Europe.

Militarism. — It is often stated, as if it were incontrovertible,
that conscription and large standing armies are a menace to
peace, and yet, although throughout the civilized world, except
in the British Empire and the United States, conscription is
the system employed for the recruiting of the national forces
of both defence and offence, few of these countries show any
particular disposition to make war. The exceptional position
of the United States, with a population about equal to that of
the rest of the American continent, and of Great Britain, an
island state but little exposed to military invasion, places both
beyond absolute need of large standing armies, and renders an
enlisting system feasible which would be quite inadequate for
the recruitment of armies on the French or German scale. Demo-
cratic progress on the Continent has, however, absorbed

PEACE

conscription as a feature in the equalization of the citizen's rights
and liabilities. Just as in Anglo-Saxon lands a national ideal
is gradually materializing in the principle of the equalization of
chances for all citizens,- so in continental Europe, along with
this equalization of chances, has still more rapidly developed
the ideal of an equalization of obligations, which in turn leads to
the claim for an enlargement of political rights co-extensive
with the obligations. Thus universal conscription and universal
suffrage tend to become in continental political development
complementary conditions of the citizen's political being. In
Germany, moreover, the military service is designed not only to
make the recruit a good soldier, but also to give him a healthy
physical, moral and mental training. German statesmen, under
the powerful stimulus of the emperor William II., have, in the
eyes of some critics, carried this secondary object of conscript
training to such excess as to be detrimental to military efficiency.
To put it shortly, the Germans have taught their soldiers to
think, and not merely to obey. The French, who naturally
looked to German methods for inspiration, have come to apply
them more particularly in the development of their cavalry and
artillery, especially in that of the former, which has taken in the
French army an ever higher place as its observing and thinking
organ.

Militarism on the Continent has thus become allied with the
very factors which made for the reign of reason. No agitation
for the development of national defences, no beating of drums
to awaken the military spirit, no anti-foreign clamour or
invasion panic, no parading of uniforms and futile clash of
arms, are necessary to entice the groundling and the bumpkin
into the service. In Germany patriotic waving of the flag, as a
political method, is directed more especially to the strengthen-
ing of imperial, as distinguished from local, patriotism. Where
conscription has existed for any appreciable time it has sunk
into the national economy, and men do their military service
with as little concern as if it were a civil apprenticeship.

As implied above, military training under conscription does
not by any means necessarily tend to the promotion of the
military spirit. In France, so far from taking this direction,
it has resulted, under democratic government and universal
suffrage, in a widespread abhorrence of war, and, in fact, has
converted the French people from being the most militant
into being the most pacific nation in Europe. The fact that
every family throughout the land is a contributory to the
military forces of the country has made peace a family, and
hence a national, ideal. Paradoxical as it may seem, it is the
logical conclusion of such comparisons that militarism only
exists in countries where there are no citizen armies, and that,
where there are citizen armies, they are one of the elements
which make for permanent peace.

Normal Nature of Peace. — America has been the pioneer of
the view that peace is the normal condition of mankind, and
that, when the causes of war arc eliminated, war ceases to have
a raison d'etre. The objects and causes of war are of many kinds.
War for fighting's sake, although in the popular mind there may
be, during most wars, only the excitement and the emotion of
a great gamble, has no conscious place among the motives of
those who determine the destinies of peoples. Apart, however,
from self-defence, the main causes of war are four: (i) The
desire for territorial expansion, due to the overgrowth of
population, and insufficiency of the available food-supply; if
the necessary territory cannot be obtained by negotiation,
conquest becomes the only alternative to emigration to foreign
lands. (2) The prompting of national ambition or a desire to
wipe out the record of a humiliating defeat. (3) Ambitious
potentates again may seek to deflect popular tendencies into
channels more satisfactory for their dynasty. (4) Nations, on
the other hand, may grow jealous of each other's commercial
success or material power. In many cases the apparent cause
may be of a nobler character, but historians have seldom been
content to accept the allegations of those who have claimed to
carry on war from disinterested motives.

On the American continent South and Central American

states have had many wars, and the disastrous effects of them
not only in retarding their own development, but in impair-
ing their national credit, have led to earnest endeavours on
the part of their leading statesmen to arrive at such an under-
standing as will banish from their international polity all
excuses for resorting to armed conflicts. In 1881 Mr Blaine,
then U.S. secretary of state, addressed an instruction to the
ministers of the United States of America accredited to
the various Central and South American nations, directing
them to invite the governments of these countries to par-
ticipate in a congress, to be held at Washington in 1882,
" for the purpose of considering and discussing the methods
of preventing war between the nations of America." Owing
to different circumstances the conference was delayed till the
autumn of 1889. At this conference a plan of arbitration
was drawn up, under which arbitration was made obligatory
in all controversies whatever their origin, with the single
exception that it should not apply where, in the judgment of
any one of the nations involved in the controversy, its national
independence was imperilled, and even in this case arbitration,
though optional for the nation so judging, was to be obligatory
for the adversary power. At the second International Confer-
ence of American States, which sat in the city of Mexico from
the 22nd of October 1901 to the 31st of January 1902, the same
subject was again discussed, and a scheme was finally adopted as
a compromise which conferred authority on the government of
Mexico to ascertain the views of the different governments
represented in the conference, regarding the most advanced
form in which a general arbitration convention could be drawn
up that would meet with the approval and secure ratification
by all the countries represented, and afterwards to prepare a
plan for such a general treaty. The third Pan-American
Conference was held in the months of July and August 1906,
and was attended by the United States, Argentina, Bolivia,
Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, the Dominican
Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua,
Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Salvador and Uruguay. Only
Haiti and Venezuela were absent. The conference, being held
only a year before the time fixed for the second Hague Conference,
applied itself mainly to the question of the extent to which
force might be used for the collection of pecuniary claims against
defaulting governments, and the forwarding of the principle
of arbitration under the Hague Conventions. The possible
causes of war on the American continent had meanwhile been
considerably reduced. Different states had adjusted their
frontiers, Great Britain in British Guiana had settled an out-
standing question with Venezuela, France in French Guiana
another with Brazil, Great Britain in Newfoundland had re-
moved time-honoured grievances with France, Great Britain in
Canada others with the United States of America, and now the
most difficult kind of international questions which can arise,
so far as the American continent is concerned, have been removed
from among existing dangers to peace. Among the Southern
Republics Argentina and Chile concluded in 1902 a treaty of
arbitration, for the settlement of all difficulties without dis-
tinction, combined with a disarmament agreement of the
same date, to which more ample reference will be made
hereafter. Thus in America progress is being rapidly made
towards the realization of the idea that war can be super-
annuated by elimination of its causes and the development of
positive methods for the preservation of peace (see Pan-
American Conferences).

With the American precedent to inspire him, the emperor
Nicolas II. of Russia in 1898 issued his invitation to the powers
to hold a similar conference of European states, with a more or
less similar object. In 1899 twenty-six states met at the Hague
and began the work, which was continued at the second con-
ference in 1907, and furthered by the Maritime Conference
of London of 1908-1909. The creation of the Hague Court and
of a code of law to be applied by it have further eliminated
causes of difference.

These efforts in the two hemispheres are based on the idea

8

PEACE

that international differences can be adjusted without war,
where the parties are honestly aggrieved. With this adjust-
ment of existing cases the number of possible pretexts for the
employment of force is being rapidly diminished.

Peace Procedure under the Hague Conventions. — The Hague
Peace Convention of 1907, which re-enacts the essential parts of
the earlier one of 1899, sets out five ways of adjusting inter-
national conflicts without recourse to war. Firstly, the signatory
powers have undertaken to use their best efforts to ensure the
pacific settlement of international difficulties. This is a general
declaration of intention to lend themselves to the peaceable
adjustment of difficulties and employ their diplomacy to this
end. Secondly, in case of serious disagreement, diplomacy
having failed, they agree to have recourse, as far as circumstances
allow, to the good offices or mediation of one or more friendly
powers. Thirdly, the signatory powers agree that it shall not
be regarded as an unfriendly act if one or more powers, strangers
to the dispute, on their own initiative offer their good offices or
mediation to the states in disagreement, or even during hostili-
ties, if war has already broken out. Fourthly, the convention
recommends that in disputes of an international nature, involving
neither national honour nor vital interests, and arising from a
difference of opinion on points of fact, the parties who have not
been able to come to an agreement by means of diplomacy
should institute an international commission of inquiry to
facilitate a solution of these disputes by an investigation of the
facts. Lastly, the high contracting parties have agreed that
in questions of a legal nature, and especially in interpretation
or application of international conventions, arbitration is recog-
nized as the most effective, and at the same time the most
equitable, means of settling disputes which diplomacy has failed
to adjust. *

Down to 1910 no suggestion of mediation had actually been
carried out, but a number of cases of arbitration had been tried
by the Hague Court, created by the Hague Peace Convention
(see Arbitration, International), and one case, viz. that of the
Dogger Bank incident, was submitted to a commission of inquiry,
which sat in January 190s. 1

If Secretary Knox's proposal (see supra) to convert the
International Prize Court into a permanently sitting court of
arbitration is adopted, a detailed procedure and jurisprudence
will no doubt grow out of a continuity which is lacking in the
present system, under which the court is recruited from a large
panel for each special case. Secretary Knox's idea, as expressed
in the identical circular note addressed by him on the 18th of
October 1909 to the powers, was to invest the International Prize
Court, proposed to be established by the convention of the 18th
of October 1907, with the functions of a " court of arbitral
justice." The court contemplated by the convention was a
court of appeal for reviewing prize decisions of national courts
both as to facts and as to the law applied, and, in the exercise
of its judicial discretion, not only to confirm in whole or in part the
national decision or the contrary, but also to certify its judgment
to the national court for enforcement thereof. The adoption of
this jurisdiction would have involved a revision of the judicial
systems of probably every country accepting it. The United
States government therefore proposed that the signatories should
insert in the act of ratification a reservation to the effect that
resort to the International Prize Court, in respect of decisions of
their national tribunals, should take the form of a direct claim
for compensation. This in any case would remove the United
States' constitutional objection to the establishment of the
proposed court. In connexion with this enabling clause Mr

1 The procedure adopted by the commission was afterwards
incorporated in the convention of 1907. Under the rules adopted,
the examination of witnesses is conducted by the president in
accordance with the system prevailing in most continental countries;
members of the commission may only put questions to witnesses for
the eliciting of further information; and they may not interrupt
the witness when he is in course of making his statement, but they
may ask the president to put any additional questions. This
seems likely to become the procedure also in cases before the Hague
Court, where witnesses are examined.

Secretary Knox also proposed that a further enabling clause be
inserted providing that the International Court of Prize be
competent to accept jurisdiction in all matters, arising between
signatories, submitted to it, the Court to sit at fixed periods
every year and to be composed according to the panel which
was drawn up at the Hague. This court, which the American
government proposed to call a " Court of Arbitral Justice,"
would take the place of that which it was proposed to institute
under Vceu No. 1 of the Final Act of the conference of 1907.
The intention of the Hague draft annexed to the Vceu was to
create a permanent court as distinguished from that established
in 1899, which, though called permanent, was not so, having to
be put together ad hoc as the occasion arose. The new court, if
adopted, would hold regular and continuous sessions, consist of
the same judges, and pay due heed to the precedents created by
its prior decisions. The two courts would have separate spheres
of activity, and litigants would practically have the option of
submitting their differences to a judicial court which would regard
itself as being bound by the letter of the law and by judicial
methods or to a special court created ad hoc with a purely
arbitrative character.

The Place of Diplomacy. — The utility of the diplomatic service
has been considerably diminished through the increasing
efficiency of the public press as a medium of information. It is
not too much to say that at the present day an experienced
journalist, in a place like Vienna or Berlin, can give more
information to an ambassador than the ambassador can give to
him. It is even true to say that an ambassador is practically
debarred from coming into actual touch with currents of public
feeling and the passing influences which, in this age of democracy,
determine the course of events in the political life of peoples.
The diplomatist has therefore lost one of his chief functions as
an informant of the accrediting government. The other chief
function of diplomacy is to be the courteous medium of conveying
messages from one government to another. Even this function
is losing its significance. The ciphered telegram leaves little
discretion to the envoy, and written notes are exchanged which
are practically a mere transcription of the deciphered telegram
or draft prepared at the instructing foreign office. Neverthe-
less, the personality of an ambassador can play a great part, if he
possesses charm, breadth of understanding and interest in the
social, intellectual and industrial life of the country to which he
is accredited. There are several instances of such men in Europe
and America, but they are so rare that some reformers consider
them as hardly justifying the large expenditure necessary to
maintain the existing system. On the other hand, the utility
of the consular service has concurrently increased. Adminis-
trative indifference to the eminently useful officials forming the
service has led, in many cases, to diminishing instead of increas-
ing their number and their salaries, but it is obvious that the
extension of their duties and a corresponding raising of their
status would be much more in accordance with the national
interest. The French, with that practical sense which distin-
guishes so much of their recent administrative work, have
connected the two services. A consul-general can be promoted
to a diplomatic post, and take with him to his higher office the
practical experience a consul gains of the material interests of
the country to which he belongs.

There is thus still good work for diplomacy to do, and if, in the
selection of diplomatic representatives, states followed on the
one hand the above-mentioned French example, and on the
other hand the American example of selecting for the heads of
diplomatic missions men who are not necessarily de la carriere,
diplomacy might obtain a new lease of activity, and become once
more an extremely useful part of the administrative machinery
by which states maintain good business relations as well as
friendly political intercourse with one another.

International Regulation by Treaty. — It seems a truism to say
that among the agencies which most effectively tend to the
preservation of peace are treaties which regulate the relations
of states in their intercourse with other states. Such treaties,
however, are of quite recent origin. The first of a comprehensive

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character was the general act adopted at the South African
Conference at Berlin in 1885, which laid down the principle,
which has since become of still wider application, that " any
Power which henceforth takes possession of a tract of land on
the coast of the African continent outside of its present pos-
sessions or which, being hitherto without such possessions, shall
acquire them . . . shall accompany the act relating to it with a
notification thereof, addressed to the other Signatory Powers
of the present act, in order to enable them, if need be, to make
good any claims of their own," and, furthermore, that " the
Signatory Powers of the present act recognize the obligation
to ensure the establishment of authority in the regions occupied
by them on the coasts of the African continent sufficient to
protect existing rights, and, as the case may be, freedom of trade
and transit under the conditions agreed upon." Under these
articles occupation of unoccupied territory to be legal had to be
effective. This led to the creation and determination of spheres
of influence. By fixing the areas of these spheres of influence
rival states in western and central Africa avoided conflicts and
preserved their rights until they were able to take a more
effective part in their development. The idea of " spheres of
influence " has in turn been applied even to more settled and
civilized countries, such as China and Persia.

Other cases of regulation by treaty are certain contractual
engagements which have been entered into by states for the
preservation of the status quo of other states and territories.

The Anglo- Japanese Treaty of the 12th of August 1905 sets
oat its objects as follows: —

a. " The consolidation and maintenance of the general peace
in the regions of Eastern Asia and India;

b. " The preservation of the common interests of the Powers in
China, of insuring the independence and the integrity of the Chinese
empire, and the principle of equal opportunities for the commerce
and industry of all nations in China ;

c. " The maintenance of the territorial rights of the high con-
tracting parties in the regions of Eastern Asia and of India, and
the defence of their special interests in such regions."

It is a treaty for the maintenance of the status quo in certain
parts of Asia in which the parties to it have dominant interests.
The same principle underlies different other self-denying arrange-
ments and declarations made by the powers with reference to
Chinese integrity.

The Treaty of Algeciras is essentially a generalization of the
Franco-German agreement of the 28th of September 1905. By it
all the powers represented agree to respect the territorial integrity
of Morocco, subject to a possible intervention limited to the
purpose of preserving order within it.

Differing from these general acts in not being contractual is
the Monroe doctrine, which is a policy of ensuring the mainte-
nance of the territorial status quo as regards non-American
powers throughout the American continent. If necessary, the
leading republics of South and Central America would no doubt,
however, further ensure respect for it by treaty.

With these precedents and current instances of tendency to
place the territorial relations of the powers on a permanent
footing of respect for the existing status quo, it seems possible
to go beyond the mere enunciation of principles, and to take
a step towards their practical realization, by agreeing to respect
the territorial status quo throughout still larger tracts of the world,
neutralize them, and thus place them outside the area of possible
wars.

A third contractual method of avoiding conflicts of interest
has been the signing of agreements for the maintenance of the
" open-door." The discussion on the question of the " open-
door " in connexion with the Morocco difficulty was useful
in calling general public attention once more to the undesir-
ability of allowing any single power to exclude other nations
from trading on territory over which it may be called to exercise
a protectorate, especially if equality of treatment of foreign
trade had been practised by the authority ruling over the
territory in question before its practical annexation under the
name of protectorate. The habitable parts of the world are a
limited area, exclusion from any of which is a diminution of

the available markets of the nations excluded. Every power,
is, therefore, rightfully interested in the prevention of such
exclusion.

The United States government in 1899 called attention to
the subject as regards China, without, however, going into any
question of principle. It thought that danger of international
irritation might be removed by each power making a declaration
respecting the " sphere of interest " in China to which it laid
claim. Lord Salisbury informed Mr Choate that H.M. govern-
ment were prepared to make a declaration in the sense desired.
All the powers concerned eventually subscribed to the declara-
tion proposed by the United States government.

The principle of the " open-door " in fact has already been
consistently applied in connexion with certain non-European
areas. As these areas are practically the only areas which of
late years have come within the scope of European regulation,
the time seems to be approaching when the principle may be
declared to be of general application. From the point of view
of diminishing the possible causes of conflict among nations,
the adoption of this principle as one of international contractual
obligation would be of great utility. While putting an end
to the injustice of exclusion, it would obviously reduce the danger
of nations seeking colonial aggrandizement with a view to im-
posing exclusion, and thus one of the chief temptations to
colonial adventure would be eliminated.

In the fourth place, there is the self-denying ordinance against
employment of arms for-the enforcement of contractual obliga-
tions adopted at the Hague Conference of 1907. Under it the
high contracting powers have agreed not to have recourse to
armed force for the recovery of contractual debts claimed from
the government of one country by the government of another
country as due to its subjects. The only qualification admitted
under the new convention is that it shall not apply when the
debtor-state refuses or leaves unanswered an offer of arbitration,
or in case of acceptance renders the settlement of the terms of
arbitration impossible, or, after arbitration, fails to comply with
the award. The theory on which this convention is based is'
known as the Drago theory, having taken a practical form during
the administration of Dr L. M. Drago, when he filled the post
of Argentine minister of foreign affairs. The doctrine, however,
is not new, having already been enunciated a century before
by Alexander Hamilton and reiterated since then by several
American statesmen, such as Albert Gallatin, William L. Marcy
and F. T. Frelinghuysen, as the view prevailing at Washington
during their respective periods of office.

Limitations of Disarmament. — Disarmament, or to speak
more correctly, the contractual limitation of armaments, has
become, of late years, as much an economic as a humanitarian
peace-securing object.

" The maintenance of universal peace and a possible reduction
of the excessive armaments which weigh upon all nations,
represent, in the present condition of affairs all over the world,
the ideal towards which the efforts of all governments should
be directed," were the opening words of the Note which the
Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Count Mouraviev, handed
to the diplomatic representatives of the different powers
suggesting the first Hague Conference.

" The ever-increasing financial burdens," the Note went on,
" strike at the root of public prosperity. The physical and
intellectual forces of the people, labour and capital, are diverted
for the greater part from their natural application and wasted
unproductively. Hundreds of millions are spent in acquiring
terrible engines of destruction, which are regarded to-day as
the latest inventions of science, but are destined to-morrow to
be rendered obsolete by some new discovery. National culture,
economic progress and the production of wealth are either
paralysed or developed in a wrong direction. Therefore the
more the armaments of each power increase the less they answer
to the objects aimed at by the governments. Economic dis-
turbances are caused in great measure by this system of excessive
armaments; and the constant danger involved in this accumula-
tion of war material renders the armed peace of to-day a crushing

IO

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burden more and more difficult for nations to bear. It conse-
quently seems evident that if this situation be prolonged it will
inevitably result in the very disaster it is sought to avoid, and
the thought of the horrors of which makes every humane mind
shudder. It is the supreme duty, therefore, of all states to place
some limit on these increasing armaments, and find some means
of averting the calamities which threaten the whole world."

A further Note submitting the programme proposed gave
more precision to this item, which thereupon took the following
form: " An understanding not to increase for a fixed period
the present effectives of the armed military and naval forces,
and at the same time not to increase the budgets pertaining
thereto; and a preliminary examination of the means by which
even a reduction might be effected in future in the forces and
budgets above mentioned."

When the subject came on for discussion at the conference
the German military delegate stated his view that the question
of effectives could not be discussed by itself, as there were many
others to which it was in some measure subordinated, such,
for instance, as the length of service, the number of cadres
whether existing in peace or made ready for war, the amount
of training received by reserves, the situation of the country
itself, its railway system, and the number and position of its
fortresses. In a modern army all these questions went together,
and national defence included them all. In Germany, moreover,
the military system " did not provide for fixed numbers annually,
but increased the numbers each year."

After many expressions of regret at finding no method of
giving effect to the proposal, the commission confined itself to
recording its opinion that " a further examination of the question
by the Powers would prove a great benefit to humanity."

The Conference, however, were unanimous in the adoption
of the following resolution: —

" The Conference is of opinion that the restriction of military
budgets, which are at present a heavy burden on the world, is
extremely desirable for the increase of the material and moral
welfare of mankind;"

and it passed also the following vosu : —

" That governments, taking into account the proposals made at
the Conference, should examine the possibility of an understanding
concerning the limitation of military and naval armaments, and
of war budgets."

The general public, more particularly in Great Britain and
France, shows an ever-increasing distrust of the rapid growth
of armaments as a possible cause of grave economic troubles.
A high state of military preparedness of any one state obliges
all the others to endeavour to be prepared on the same level.
This process of emulation, very appropriately called by the late
Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman " a policy of huge armaments,"
unfortunately is a policy from which it is impossible for any
country to extricate itself without the co-operation, direct or
indirect, of other nations.

The, subject was brought forward in view of the second Hague
Conference in both the French and Italian parliaments.

The declaration of the French government stated that: —

" France hoped that other nations would grow, as she had done,
more and more attached to solutions of international difficulties
based upon the respect of justice, and she trusted that the progress
of universal opinion in this direction would enable nations to
regard the lessening of the present military budgets, declared by
the states represented at the Hague to be greatly desirable for the
benefit of the material and moral state of humanity, as a practical
possibility." (Chamber of Deputies, June 12, 1906.)

In the Italian Chamber of Deputies, an interpellation was
addressed to the minister of foreign affairs about the same time
asking " whether the Government had knowledge of the motion
approved by the British House of Commons, and of the under-
taking of the British government that, in the programme of the
coming Hague Conference, the question of the reduction of
armaments should be inserted, and in what spirit the Italian
government had taken or proposed to take the propositions of
the British government, and what instructions it would give to
the Italian representatives at the conference."

The minister of foreign affairs, M Tittoni, in reply expressed
the adhesion of the Italian government to the humanitarian
ideas which had met with such enthusiasm in the historic
House of Parliament at Westminster. " I have always believed,"
he said, " that, as far as we are concerned, it would be a national
crime to weaken our own armaments while we are surrounded
by strongly armed European nations who look upon the improve-
ment of armaments as a guarantee of peace. Nevertheless, I
should consider it a crime against humanity not to sincerely
co-operate in an initiative having for object a simultaneous
reduction of armaments of the great powers. Italian practice
has always aimed at the maintenance of peace; therefore, I am
happy to be able to ' say that our delegates at the coming
Hague Conference will be instructed to further the English
initiative."

The only existing case of contractual reduction of armaments
is that of the Disarmament Agreement of the 28th of May 1902
between the Chilian and Argentine republics, adopted " owing
to the initiative and good offices of His Britannic Majesty,"
which is as follows: —

Art. I. — In order to remove all cause of fear and distrust between
the two countries, the governments of Chile and of the Argentine
Republic agree not to take possession of the warships which they
are having built, or for the present to make any other acquisitions.
The two governments furthermore agree to reduce their respective
fleets, according to an arrangement establishing a reasonable
proportion between the two fleets. This reduction to be made
within one year from the date at which the present agreement shall
be ratified.

Art. II. — The two governments respectively promise not to
increase their maritime armaments during five years, unless the
one who shall wish to increase them shall give the other eighteen
months' notice in advance. This agreement does not include any
armaments for the purpose of protecting the shore and ports, and
each party will be at liberty to acquire any vessels (maquina flotante)
intended for the protection thereof, such as submarines, &c.

Art. III. — The reductions (i.e. ships disposed of) resulting from
this agreement will not be parted with to countries having any
dispute with either of the two contracting parties.

Art. IV. — In order to facilitate the transfer of the pending orders
the two governments agree to increase by two months the time
stipulated for the beginning of the construction of the respective
ships. They will give instructions accordingly.

An agreement of this kind is obviously more feasible as among
states whose navies are small and of comparatively recent
origin than among states whose navies are composed of vessels
of many and widely different ages. It may be difficult to agree in
the latter case on a principle for assessment of the proportionate
fighting value of the respective fleets. The break-up or
sale of obsolete warships is a diminution of the paper effective
of a navy, and their purchase by another state a paper increase
of theirs. Even comparatively slight differences in the ages of
ships may make great differences in their fighting value. It
would be a hard, though probably not insurmountable, task to
establish " a reasonable proportion," such as provided for in
Art. II. of the Chile-Argentina Agreement, as between large
and old-standing navies like those of Europe.

On the other hand, as regards military power, it seems some-
times forgotten in the discussion of the question of armaments,
that the conditions of the present age differ entirely from those of
the time of the Napoleonic wars. With conscription a national
army corresponds more or less numerically to the proportion of
males in the national population. Great Britain, without con-
scription, has no means of raising troops in any such proportion.
Thus, so long as she refrains from adopting conscription, she
can only carry on defensive warfare. The object of her navy is
therefore necessarily defensive, unless it act in co-operation
with a foreign conscript army. As there are practically only
three great armies available for the purpose of a war of aggression,
the negotiation of contingent arrangements does not seem too
remote for achievement by skilful and really well-meaning
negotiation. The Hague Conference of 1907, owing to difficulties
which occurred in the course of the preliminary negotiations
for the conference, did not deal with the subject.

Principle and Capabilities of Neutralization. — Among the
different methods which have grown up practically in our own

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1 1

time for the exclusion of war is neutralization. We have been
dealing hitherto with the elimination of the causes of war;
neutralization is a curtailment of the areas of war and of the
factors in warfare, of territory on the one hand and states on the
other. The neutralization of territory belonging to states
which are not otherwise neutralized includes the neutralization
of waterways such as the Suez and Panama canals.

Under the General Act of Berlin of the 26th of February 1885,
" in case a power exercising rights of sovereignty or protec-
torate " in any of the regions forming the basin of the Congo
and its affluents, including Lake Tanganyika, and extending away
to the Indian Ocean, should be involved in a war, the parties
to the General Act bound themselves to lend their good offices
in order that the territories belonging to this power be placed
during the war " under the rule of neutrality and considered
as belonging to a neutral state, the belligerents thenceforth
abstaining from extending hostilities to the territories thus
neutralized, and from using them as a basis for warlike
operations " (art. 2).

Neutralization is not necessarily of general application.
Thus two states can agree to neutralize specific territory as
between them. For example between Costa Rica and Nicaragua
by a treaty of the 15th of April 1858 the parties agreed that " on
no account whatever, not even in case of war," should " any
act of hostility be allowed between them in the port of San
Juan del Norte nor on the river of that name nor on Lake
Nicaragua" (art. 2). 1

Again, the Straits of Magellan are neutralized as between
Argentina and Chile under a treaty of the 23rd of July 1881.
Article 5 provides that they are " neutralized for ever and their
free navigation is guaranteed to the flags of all nations. To
ensure this neutrality and freedom it is agreed that no fortifica-
tions or military defences which might interfere therewith shall
be erected."

Luxemburg was declared by the Treaty of London of the nth
of May 1867 (art. 1) to be a perpetually neutral state under the
guarantee of Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia. Swit-
zerland, by a declaration confirmed by the Treaty of Vienna, of
1 81 5 (art. 84), likewise enjoys perpetual neutrality. And now
Norway has placed herself under a neutral regime of a similar
character.

A neutralized state does not mean a state which is forbidden
to have fortifications or an army; in this it differs from neu-
tralized territory of a state not otherwise neutralized. Thus
Belgium, which is a neutralized state, not only has an army but
has fortifications, although by the treaties of 1831 and 1839
she was recognized as a " perpetually neutral state, bound to
observe the same neutrality with reference to other states."

Of waterways, international rivers have been the chief subject
of neutralization. It has long been an established principle
in the intercourse of nations, that where the navigable parts of
a river pass through different countries their navigation is free
to all. The rivers Scheldt and Meuse were opened up in this
way to riparian states by a decree of the French Convention of
the 1 6th of November 1792. By the treaty of Vienna of the 9th of
June 1815, the powers whose territories were separated or traversed
by the same navigable river, undertook to regulate by common
consent all that regarded its navigation, and for this purpose to
name commissioners who should adopt as the bases of their
proceedings the principle that the navigation of such rivers
along their whole course " from the point where each of them
becomes navigable to its mouth, shall be entirely free, and shall
not in respect of commerce be prohibited to anyone." The only
case in Europe in which this internationalization of rivers has
been maintained is that of the Danube. On the other hand
neutralization has made progress in respect of waterways,

1 Under the treaty of the 29th of March 1864, the courts of
Great Britain, France and Russia in their character of guaranteeing
powers of Greece declared with the assent of the courts of Austria
and Prussia that the islands of Corfu and Paxo as well as their
dependencies should, after their union to the Hellenic kingdom, enjoy
the advantages of perpetual neutrality, and the king of the Hellenes
undertook on his part to maintain such neutrality. (Art. 2).

natural as well as artificial. Thus the Bosporus and Dardanelles
under the Treaty of Paris of 1856 and by the Treaty of London
1871 were and remain closed to the passage of foreign armed
vessels in time of war, though the Porte may permit their passage
in time of peace in certain cases. The Suez and the Panama
canals have been permanently neutralized, the former by a
convention among the great powers, and the latter by a treaty
between Great Britain and the United States.

Alongside this neutralization has grown up a collateral
institution, the purpose of which is in some respects similar.
We refer to "buffer" zones. "Buffer" zones are of quite
recent origin as a political creation, 2 i.e. where their object is
to establish upon the territory of two contiguous states a strip
or zone on either side of the frontier which the respective states
agree to regard as neutral, on which the parties undertake to
erect no fortifications, and maintain no armed forces but those
necessary to enforce the ordinary respect of government. The
word " neutral " does not correctly describe the character of the
zone. It is. not neutral in the sense of being recognized as such
by any third state, and it necessarily ceases to be neutral in
case of war between the states concerned. The word " buffer "
comes nearest to the object, but even this term implies more than
is meant. Between Spain and Morocco a treaty of the 5th of March
1894 established between the Camp of Melilla and Moroccan
territory a zone within which no new roads were to be made,
no herds to be allowed to graze, no land to be cultivated, no
troops of either party, or even private persons carrying arms,
to set foot, no inhabitants to dwell, and all habitations to be
razed. The zone between Burma and Siam, established by an
agreement between Great Britain and France dated the 15th of
January 1896, declared " the portion of Siam which is comprised
within the drainage basin of the Menam, and of the coast streams
of a corresponding longitude," neutral as between them. Within
this area the two powers undertook not to " operate by their
military or naval forces, except in so far as they might do so in
concert for any purpose requisite for maintaining the indepen-
dence of Siam." They also undertook not to acquire within
that area any privileges or commercial facilities not extended
to both of them.

" Buffer " zones might fulfil a useful purpose even in Europe.
They would obviously react against the feeling known as
" esprit de frontiere," and diminish the danger of incidents
arising out of this feeling, and might attenuate the rivalry of
neighbouring counter-armaments.

These considerations no doubt led the Swedish and Norwegian
governments, in their settlement of September 1905, to establish
a " buffer " zone of 15 kilometres on either side of the frontier
between the two states in question. Within these 30 kilometres
all existing fortresses are dismantled, 3 no new ones are to be
erected, and no armed troops to be maintained; any question
between the two states relative to the provisions respecting
the " buffer " zone to be decided by arbitration.

A rather special case of neutralization of a territorial area

' The institution of " buffer " zones in a more strictly correct
sense of the term is of very ancient origin. One is mentioned in the
annals of China two centuries before our era, between the terri-
tories of the Huns in the west and those of the Tunguses in the
east — a vast area of some 300 to 400 m. p on the opposite margin
of which the two peoples kept watch. In Europe, bands of territory
from time to time have been made desert to better establish sepa-
ration. The Romans and Germans protected themselves in this
way. In the middle ages the Teutonic Order established a frontier
belt on the side of Lithuania. Later, Austria dealt in the same
way in her policy in regard to Turkey in the organization of a
" military frontier." See Nys, Droit International (Brussels, 1904),
i. 418.

3 It was stipulated that the dismantling should be controlled
by a technical commission of three officers of foreign nationality,
to be chosen, one by each of the contracting powers and the third
by the two officers thus appointed, or, in default of an agreement
on their part, by the president of the Swiss Confederation. The
dismantling of the forts in question has now been carried out. The
Commission was composed on the part of Sweden of an engineer
on the staff of the Austrian army, and on the part of Norway of
a colonel in the German army, and, by agreement of these, of a
colonel in the Dutch army.

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is that of the practical neutralization of the Great Lakes in
America. In 1817, at the instance of John Quincy Adams, the
United States and Great Britain entered into a compact whereby
the Great Lakes, and the waterways from them to the ocean by
the St Lawrence river, which divide the United States from the
Dominion of Canada, were practically excluded from any
possible hostilities. Through a simple agreement, " conditions
which make for peace and prosperity, and the absence of those
which so often lead to disastrous war, have for nearly a century
reigned over these great inland waters, whose commerce, con-
ducted for the benefit of the states and nations of Europe and
America, rivals that which passes through the Suez Canal or
over the Mediterranean Sea, and with a result foreshadowed
in these words of President Monroe in his communication to the
Senate commending the proposed agreement : ' In order to
avoid collision and save expense.' Forts which had been erected
at salient points on either side of the lakes and rivers dividing
the United States from Canada, which but for this agreement
would, in the natural course of events, have been enlarged,
increasingly garrisoned, and provided with modern implements
of destruction, at large expense, have remained substantially
as when the agreement was made, or now constitute but inter-
esting or picturesque ruins; and the great cost of constructing
and maintaining, through a long series of years, naval armaments
of ever-increasing power has been avoided." 1

As we have already said, the Monroe doctrine is a means of
excluding European warfare from the American continent and
therefore is in the nature of a form of neutralization. A sort of
Monroe doctrine is growing into popular favour also throughout
the Australian Commonwealth, where it is felt that a continent
so far removed from European rivalries ought not to be exposed
to complications on account of them.

From time to time questions of adding to existing neutralized
areas are raised. When it was announced in 1905 that a British
fleet was about to manoeuvre in the Baltic Sea, several German
newspapers suggested that Germany should combine with other
Baltic powers to assure its neutralization. 2 No official observa-
tion on the subject, however, was made on the part of any
Baltic power. The Baltic is still an open sea for the whole
world, without restriction of any kind; and even hostilities
between any two non-Baltic powers could be carried on in the
Baltic, as elsewhere on the high sea, under the existing practice.

When the Dogger Bank incident occurred, the possibility
of operations of war being carried on within a few miles of
British home ports, and amid the busy traffic of the North Sea,
was brought vividly home to British minds.

A movement set on foot at the instance of Edward Atkinson,
the well-known Boston economist, and warmly supported by
the Massachusetts State Board of Trade, seeks to establish by
treaty neutral zones from the ports of North America to the
ports of Great Britain and Ireland and the continent of Europe,
within which zones steamship and sailing vessels in the conduct
of lawful commerce should be free to pass without seizure or
interruption in time of war. There is however no precedent of
neutralization of any such area of the high sea, and international
rivers, ocean canals and neutralized states are obviously no
criterion in discussing a proposal to neutralize a strip of the
ocean, which may be denned accurately enough on the map
and which skilful navigators could approximately determine,
but which might be violated without any practical means of
detection by a belligerent commander whenever he misread,
or it suited him to misread, his bearings.

Connected with the principle of neutralization is that of
guaranteeing the integrity of states. Several such guarantees
have been given in quite recent times. In November 1907 a
treaty was concluded between France, Germany, Great Britain
and Russia on the one part and Norway on the other, for the
maintenance of the integrity of Norway. This treaty differed

1 Memoir of Massachusetts State Board of Trade (Feb. 13, 1905).

2 This was merely reviving an idea which had come and gone
many times before. See Barclay, Problems of International Practice
and Diplomacy (1907).

from the older one of 1855 in which France and Great Britain
guaranteed the integrity of Norway and Sweden, in the fact that
whereas the older treaty was for the protection of these two
states against Russia, the new treaty is intended, if it is to serve
at all as a protection against invasion, to protect Norway against
Sweden.

Another such guarantee of a vaguer character is that which
the North Sea powers recently entered into for the maintenance
of the status quo of their respective North Sea territories; and
the similar one entered into by the Mediterranean powers for
the same objects in the Mediterranean. Lastly in the same
order of ideas Austria-Hungary and Russia are said to have
concluded an arrangement between them for the maintenance
of the status quo in the Balkans.

The future has no doubt still other extensions of the principle
of neutralization in store for us. Not the least interesting of
existing possibilities is the limitation of the area of visit and search
in time of war itself, as a restriction of belligerent right. It seems
contrary to common sense that neutral ships should be exposed
to being detained, taken out of their course, and overhauled
on mere suspicion of carrying contraband, when they are so far
from the seat of war that there can be no presumption as to their
destination. Neutrals have a right to carry on their ordinary
business unmolested in so far as they do nothing to assist either
belligerent. When they are beyond a certain distance from the
seat of war it seems reasonable that the presumption that they
are merely carrying on their legitimate business should be
considered absolute. Such a limitation of the area of hostilities
is not only feasible, but it was actually put in practice by the
British government during the Boer War. 3

In the course of the Russo-Japanese War the question came
up again, being raised this time by Great Britain. Lord Lans-
downe called the attention of the Russian foreign office to the
extreme inconvenience to neutral commerce of the Russian
search for contraband not only in the proximity of the scene of war,
but over all the world, and especially at places at which neutral .
commerce could be most effectually intercepted. H.M. Govern-
ment had become aware that a large addition was likely to be
made to the number of Russian cruisers employed in this manner,
and they had, therefore, to contemplate the possibility that
such vessels would shortly be found patrolling the narrow seas
which lie on the route from Great Britain to Japan in such a
manner as to render it virtually impossible for any neutral
vessel to escape their attention. The effect of such interference
with neutral trade, he said, would be disastrous to legitimate
commerce passing from a British port in the United Kingdom
to a British port in the Far East. The British government
had no desire to place obstacles in the way of a belligerent
desiring to take reasonable precautions in order to prevent the
enemy from receiving supplies, but they insisted that the right
of taking such precautions did not imply a " consequential right
to intercept at any distance from the scene of operations and
without proof that the supplies in question were really destined
for use of the enemy's forces, any articles which that belligerent
might determine to regard as contraband of war."

3 In January 1900 it was reported that the British government
had issued instructions to British naval commanders not to stop
or search German merchant vessels at any places not in the vicinity
of the seat of war. There is no proper statement of the British
position on this subject, the only official information having been
given by the German chancellor in a speech to the Reichstag.
According to this information, the area was ultimately limited as
north of Aden, and afterwards it was agreed that the immunity
from search should be extended to all places beyond a distance
from the seat of war equal to the distance from it of Aden. This
was substantially correct, though the telegrams sent by the Admiralty
can hardly be said to have fixed any precise area. As a fact, the
commanders-in-chief on the East Indies and Cape of Good Hope
stations were instructed that in consequence of the great practical
difficulty of proving — at ports so remote from the scene of war
operations as Aden and Perim — the real destination of contraband
of war carried by vessels visiting those parts, directions were to be
given to the officers concerned to cease to search such vessels, and
to merely report to the commander-in-chief at the Cape the names
of ships suspected of carrying contraband, and the date of clearance.

PEACE

13

The position thus assumed is not clear. On the one hand
the British claim did not, it is seen, go the length of the
restriction Great Britain consented to place on her own
right of search during the Boer War, seeming to apply only
to the case of ships carrying conditional contraband. On the
other, the complaint is based on the " interference " with
neutral trade, which means the stoppage and search of vessels
to ascertain whether they have contraband of any kind on
board or not.

It must not be forgotten in this connexion that restriction
of the rights of the belligerent necessarily entails extension of
the duties of the neutral. The belligerent has an unquestioned
right to " interfere " with all neutral vessels navigating in
the direction of the seat of war, for the purpose of ascertaining
whether they are carrying any kind of contraband or not.
Under the Declaration of London of the 26th of February 1909
it is provided under arts. 32 and 35 that a ship's papers are
conclusive proof as to the voyage on which she is engaged
unless she is clearly out of the course indicated by her papers
and is unable to give adequate reasons to justify her deviation.
Thus the interference, if the declaration is ratified, will be
confined to an examination of the ship's papers where the ship
is not bound for a belligerent port (cf. art. 30 of the same
convention).

Standing Peace Agreements. — Foremost among standing peace
agreements are, of course, the International Hague Conventions
relating directly to peace, agreements which have not only created
a special peace jurisdiction for the settlement of international
difficulties by judicial methods but also a written law to apply
within the scope of this jurisdiction.

Alongside the Hague Peace Conventions and more or less
connected with them are standing treaties of arbitration which
have been entered into by different nations for terms of years
separately. The first of what may be called a new series was
that between Great Britain and France. It has now been followed
by over a hundred others forming a network of international
relationships which shows that, at any rate, the wish for peace
is universal among mankind. 1

1 The following list of standing arbitration treaties concluded
after the signing of the Anglo-French treaty of October 14th 1903
is as complete as possible down to June 1910: —

Argentina-Brazil, September 7, 1905.

,, Portugal, August 27, 1909.
Austria-Hungary-Switzerland, December 3, 1904.
Belgium-Denmark, April 26, 1905.

,, Greece, May 2, 1905.

,, Norway and Sweden, November 30, 1904.

,, Rumania, May 27, 1905.
Russia, October 30, 1904.

,, Spain, January 23, 1905.

,, Switzerland, November 15, 1904.
Brazil-Portugal, March 25, 1909.

,, Spain, April 8, 1909.

,, Mexico, April 11, 1909.

,, Honduras, April 26, 1909.

,, Venezuela, April 30, 1909.

„ Panama, May I, 1909.

,, Ecuador, May 13, 1909.

,, Costa Rica, May 18, 1909.

,, Cuba, June 19, 1909.

,, Bolivia, June 25, 1909.

„ Nicaragua, June 28, 1909.

„ Norway, July 13, 1909.

,, China, August 3, 1909.

,, Salvador, September 3, 1909.

,, Peru, December 7, 1909.

,, Sweden, December 14, 1909.
Colombia- Peru, September 12, 1905.

,, France, December 16, 1908.

Denmark-France, September 15, 1905.

„ Italy, December 16, 1905.

„ Netherlands, February 12, 1904.

„ Russia, March 1, 1905.

,, Spain, December 1, 1905.

,, Norway, October 8, 1908.

France-Italy, December 26, 1903.

,, Netherlands, April 6, 1904.

,, Norway and Sweden, July 9, 1 904.

,, Spain, February 26, 1904.

There are, however, a large number of conventions which,
although not concluded with the direct object of assuring peace
where difficulties have arisen, tend in a very practical manner
to contract the area of possible difficulties. These are conventions
for the regulation of intercourse between the subjects and citizens
of different states. Such conventions obviously remove occasions
for friction and are therefore among the most effective agencies
contributing to the preservation of peace among civilized
peoples. In most cases such conventions have created inter-
national unions of states for all matters which lend themselves
to international co-operation. The first in order of date was
the postal union. The system it inaugurated has now extended
its scope to telegraphs, copyright, industrial property, railway
traffic, the publication of customs tariffs, metric measures,
monetary systems and agriculture. Berne, being the capital
of the most central of the neutral European states, is the adminis-
trative centre of most of these unions. Customs tariffs and
the monetary unions, however, are centralized at Brussels,

France—Sweden and Norway, July 9, 1904.
,, Switzerland, December 14, 1904.
,, Brazil, April 7, 1909.
Great Britain-France, October 14, 1903.
Germany, July 12, 1904.
Italy, February 1, 1907.
Austria-Hungary, January II, 1905.
Netherlands, February 15, 1905.
Colombia, December 30, 1908.
Sweden and Norway, August 11, 1904.
Denmark, October 25, 1904.
Portugal, November 16, 1904.
Spain, February 27, 1904.
Switzerland, November 16, 1904.
United States, April 4, 1908.
Brazil, June 18, 1909.
Honduras-Spain, May 13, 1905.
Italy-Argentine, September 18, 1907.
,, Mexico, October 1, 1907.
„ Peru, April 18, 1907.
,, Portugal, May 11, 1905.
„ Switzerland, November 23, 1904.
„ Netherlands, November 21, 1909.
Netherlands-Portugal, October 26, 1905.
Norway-Sweden, October 26, 1905.
Norway and Sweden-Russia, December 9, 1904.
,, ,, Spain, January 23, 1905.

,, ,, Switzerland, December 17, 1904.

PortugaU-Spain, May 31, 1904.

,, Austria-Hungary, February 13, 1906.

Denmark, March 20, 1907.
,, France, June 29, 1906.

Italy, May 11, 1905.
,, Netherlands, October I, 1904.

,, Norway and Sweden, May 6, 1905. (Suspended for

,, Norway by a new one dated December 8, 1908.)

,, Spain, May 31, 1904.

,, Switzerland, August 18, 1905.

,, Nicaragua, July 17, 1909.

Russia-Norway and Sweden, November 26, 1904.
Spain-Greece, December 3-16, 1909.

Switzerland, May 14, 1907.
United States-Spain, April 20, 1908.

Denmark, May 18, 1908.
Italy, March 28, 1908.
Japan, May 5, 1908.
Netherlands, May 2, 1908.
Portugal, April 6, 1908.
Sweden, May 2, 1908.
Switzerland, February 29, 1908.
Argentina, December 23, 1908.
Peru, December 3, 1908.
Salvador, December 21, 190?
Norway, April 4, 1908.
Mexico, March 24, 1908.
France, February 2, 1908.
Ecuador, January 7, 1909.
Bolivia, January 7, 1909.
Haiti, January 7, 1909.
Uruguay, January 9, 1909.
Chile, January 13, 1909.
Costa Rica, January 13, 1909.
Austria-Hungary, January 15, 1309
Brazil, January 23, 1909.
Paraguay, March 13, 1909.
China, October 8, 1908.

H

PEACE

the weights and measures union in Paris and the agricultural
institute at Rome.

The general postal union was treated by a convention signed
at Berne in 1874. A convention for a similar union for telegraphs
was signed in Paris in 1875 (revised at St Petersburg and replaced
by another the same year). Both unions issue monthly bulletins
and other publications giving useful information about these
two services. 1

The international bureau of weights and measures at Paris
was created by a convention signed there in 1875, for the purpose
of comparing and verifying weights and measures on the metric
system, and preserving their identity for the contracting states.
The double-standard Latin union monetary system was
founded by a convention of 1865, between Belgium, France,
Italy and Switzerland. In 1868 it was joined by Greece. A
single standard union exists between Sweden, Norway and
Denmark under a convention of 1873.

The copyright union was created by an international con-
vention signed in 1874. The official bureau of the union is
at Berne. It issues a periodical publication called Le Droit
d'auteur giving information respecting the laws of different
states relating to published matter of all kinds.

The term " industrial property " covers patents, trade marks,
merchandise marks, trade names, designs and models. The
convention dealing with them signed in 1883 created a union
with its central office at Berne. It, too, issues a bulletin and
other publications which help to prevent misunderstandings.

The railway traffic union was formed by a convention of
1890. The central bureau at Berne issues a monthly bulletin.
A subsequent convention was signed at Berne in 1886 relating
to matters of technical unification.

1 A subsidiary convention not quite falling within the scope of
the above convention is the submarine telegraphs convention,
which was signed in 1884. It applies outside territorial waters
to all legally established submarine cables landed on the territories,
colonies or possessions of one or more of the high contracting
parties. Under its provisions it is a punishable offence " to break
or injure a submarine cable wilfully or by culpable negligence in
such manner as might interrupt or obstruct telegraphic communi-
cation either wholly or partially, such punishment being without
prejudice to any civil action for damages. It also provides that: —
" Vessels engaged in laying or repairing submarine cables shall
conform to the regulations as to signals which have been, or may
be, adopted by mutual agreement among the high contracting
parties with the view of preventing collisions at sea. When a
ship engaged in repairing a cable exhibits the said signals, other
vessels which see them or are able to see them shall withdraw to
or keep beyond a distance of one nautical mile at least from the
ship in question so as not to interfere with her operations " (art. 5).
" Owners of ships or vessels who can prove that they have sacrificed
an anchor, a net or other fishing-gear in order to avoid injuring a
submarine cable shall receive compensation from the owner of the
cable," and "in order to establish a claim to such compensation
a statement supported by the evidence of the crew should whenever
possible be drawn up immediately after the occurrence and the
master must within twenty-four hours after his return to or next
putting into port make a declaration to the proper authorities "
(art. 7). " The tribunals competent to take cognizance of infractions
of the present convention are those of the country to which the
vessel on board of which the offence was committed belongs "
(art. 8). By art. 15 it is provided that the stipulations of the con-
vention do not in any way restrict the action of belligerents. It
may be remarked that the British representative at the time of
signing the convention declared that his government understood
that in the time of war a belligerent would be free to act in regard
to submarine cables as though the convention did not exist. The
act to carry into effect the above convention is the Submarine
Telegraph Act 1885 (48 & 49 Vict. c. 49) which was slightly
modified by 50 Vict. c. 3. Section 3 of the earlier act provides that
a person who injures the cable either wilfully or by culpable negli-
gence is " guilty of a misdemeanour and on conviction: (a) if he
acted wilfully, shall be liable to penal servitude for a term not
exceeding five years, or to imprisonment with or without hard
labour for a term not exceeding two years, and to a fine either in
lieu of or in addition to such penal servitude or imprisonment;
and (b) if he acted by culpable negligence shall be liable to im-
prisonment for a term not exceeding three months without hard
labour, and to a fine not exceeding £100 either in lieu of or in addition
to such imprisonment."

See Board of Trade Correspondence on Protection of Submarine
Cables, printed on the 24th of July 1 882; and Parliamentary Paper
C. 5910: 1890.

Under the convention creating the customs tariffs union,
signed in 1890, thirty states, including Great Britain and
most British colonies, are associated for the purpose of prompt
publication of custom tariffs and their modifications.

The agricultural institute, created by a convention of 1905
with its seat at Rome, as the latest in date is perhaps the most
interesting of the series. It shows how deep and widespread
the sense of the utility of international state co-operation has
become. The convention sets out the scope and objects of the
institute, which a recent British official publication states has
been joined by 38 states, including Great Britain and all other
great powers, as follows :-

Whilst limiting its action to international questions, it shall be
the duty of the institute: (a) To collect, elaborate and publish,
with as little delay as possible, statistical, technical, or economic
information regarding the cultivation of the soil, its productions,
whether animal or vegetable, the trade in agricu'tural products,
and the prices obtained on the various markets, (b) To communi-
cate to interested parties, also without delay, full information of
the nature above mentioned, (c) To indicate the wages of rural
labour, (d) To notify all new diseases of plants which may appear
in any part of the world, indicating the districts affected, the spread
of the disease, and, if possible, the efficacious means of resistance.
(e) To consider questions relating to agricultural co-operation,
insurance and credit, in all their forms, collecting and publishing
information which may be useful in the various countries for the
organization of undertakings relating to agricultural co-operation,
insurance and credit. (/) To present, if expedient, to the govern-
ments, for their approval, measures for the protection of the common
interests of agriculturists and for the improvement of their con-
dition, after having previously taken every means of obtaining
the necessary information, e.g. resolutions passed by international
congresses or other congresses relating to agriculture or to sciences
applied to agriculture, agricultural societies, academies, learned
societies, &c.

All questions relating to the economic interests, the legislation
and administration of any particular state, must be excluded from
the sphere of the institute. (Art. 9).

Lastly, there is a class of difficulties which might arise from
preferential treatment of trade from different countries. To
obviate them statesmen have been led to adopt the principle
of the " most -favoured-nation-clause " — that is to say, a clause
providing that if any reductions of tariff or other advantages are
granted by either contracting state to any third state, the others
shall have the benefit of it. In Europe this clause has been
uniformly treated as applying to all reductions of tariff without
distinction. The United States interpretation, on the other
hand, distinguishes between reductions of a general character
and reductions made specifically in return for reductions by
some other state. The latter do not come within the operation
of the clause, and a co-contracting state is only entitled to
obtain extension of them to itself on granting similar concessions.
In other words, concessions to any co-contracting state are
only allowed gratuitously to a third co-contracting state when
nothing has been given for them, the clause not covering advan-
tages granted in return for advantages. It is to be hoped that
this special view of the meaning of the clause will be met in the
future, as in some recent treaties, by specifically dealing with the
exceptions. 2

The Utility of Popular Effort. — Until quite recently it had been
a distinctive mark of practical wisdom to treat private efforts for
the improvement of international relations for the preservation
of peace, with the patronizing tolerance courteous people of the
world extend to half-crazy idealists. Since the opening of the
century, an immense change has taken place in the attitude of
the leaders of popular opinion towards the advocacy of peace.
This new attitude has been contemporary with the greater
interest displayed by the mercantile classes of England and the
United States in the improvement of their political relations with
their neighbours. It may be said to have begun with the visit
of the Association of British Chambers of Commerce to Paris
in 1900, at a time when France was still smarting from the
humiliation of the Fashoda affair, and the Boer War was exciting
hostile demonstrations against Great Britain throughout the conti-
nent of Europe. That some four hundred British manufacturers

2 See Barclay, Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy
(1907), p. 137 seq.

PEACE

15

and merchants, representing about eighty chambers of commerce
of the United Kingdom, should have swept aside all political
objections and have boldly trusted to the efficacy of friendly
advances as between man and man, appealed to the French
people. It seems to have been the first great popular effort
ever made deliberately by a representative body of the middle
class of a nation for the promotion of international friendship
without the aid of diplomacy and without official assistance or
even countenance of any kind.

Otherwise, private agencies of a standing character which
contribute towards the promotion of peace may be divided into
four classes, viz. (1) those which, without having peace for their
direct object, promote friendship among men of different races
and nationalities; (2) those which directly address themselves
to the promoting of friendship and goodwill among peoples;
(3) those which regarding peace as the immediate object of their
efforts, endeavour to educate democracy in this sense; (4) those
which endeavour to remove the causes of international friction
by the codification of international law and the promotion of the
international regulation of common interests. Lastly, there are
two agencies which cannot be classed among the foregoing;
one is the International Parliamentary Union and the other the
Nobel Prize Committee.

1. Agencies which are indirectly making for peace are of
many kinds. Science and medicine now bring men of all nations
together in periodical congresses. Technology, electricity,
mining, railways, navigation and many other subjects are now
dealt with in international congresses. International exhibitions
are always used as an occasion for holding many such meetings.

2. One of the most notable efforts directed to the deliberate
cementing of friendship has been the interchange of official
visits by municipal bodies. In the course of the Anglo-French
agitation which culminated in March 1903 with the visit of King
Edward to Paris, the French municipal councils passed many
resolutions in favour of the entente. After the conclusion of the
Anglo-French standing treaty of arbitration (Oct. 14, 1903)
and the arrangements for the general settlement of outstanding
difficulties with France (April 8, 1904), the municipal bodies in
France were prepared to go a step farther, and in 1906 the Muni-
cipal Council of Paris was invited by the London County Council
to pay an official visit to England. This visit was followed by
a return visit to Paris and a similar exchange of visits between
the London City Corporation and the Paris Municipal Council,
exchange visits of the city corporations of Manchester, Glasgow
and Edinbuigh and Lyons, and a visit of the Manchester Corpora-
tion to Dusseldorf, Barmen and Cologne. A society, numbering
many thousands of working men among its members, which has
set itself the more special task of promoting the interchange of
visits between working men of different nations, is called the
" International Brotherhood Alliance," or, after the initials of its
motto, Fraternitas inter gentcs, the F.I.G. Another agency,
called the " American Association for International Concili-
ation," seeks by the publication of essays on the different aspects
of international friendship to promote the same cause.

3. The " peace societies," which are scattered over the whole
world, number several hundreds. 1 Their first International
Congress was held in London at the suggestion of Joseph Sturge
in 1843. In 1848 a second congress was held at Brussels. The
third in 1849 took place in Paris, and was presided over by Victor
Hugo. Other congresses were held at Frankfurt, again in London,
and in 1853 at Manchester, where Richard Cobden and John
Bright took part in the discussions. Then followed an interval
of wars during which the- Pacifists were unable to raise their
voices. At length in 1878 a congress was held at the Paris
International Exhibition of that year, but it was not till the next
Paris International Exhibition of 1889 that these international
peace congresses became periodical. Since then numerous con-
gresses have been held, the seventeenth having sat in London
in 1908, and the eighteenth at Stockholm in igio. These
congresses have been supplemented by national congresses in

1 See Annuaire du mouvement pacifiste pour I'annee iqio, published
by the Bureau International de la Paix, at Bern.

both Great Britain and France. Such congresses are doing
admirable work in the popularizing of thought upon the
numerous questions which are discussed at the meetings,
such as compulsory arbitration, the restriction of armaments,
private property at sea in time of war, the position of subject
races, airships in war, &c. 2

4. First among the bodies which try to remove the causes
of international friction is the Institute of International Law.
This is a body of international lawyers, consisting of sixty mem-
bers and sixty associates recruited by election — the members from
those who " have rendered services to international law in the
domain of theory or practice," and associates from those " whose
knowledge may be useful to the Institute." It was formed
in 1873, chiefly through the efforts of M. Rolin-Jaequemyns.
The official language of the Institute is French, and its annual
meetings are held wherever the members at the previous meeting
decide to assemble. Its mode of operation is to work out tht
matters it deals with during the intervals between the sessions,
in permanent commissions, among which the whole domain of
international law is divided up. The commissions, under the
direction of their rapporteurs or conveners, prepare reports
and proposals, which are printed and distributed among the
members some time before the plenary sittings at which they
are to be discussed. If the members are not agreed, the subject
is adjourned to another session, and still another, until they do
agree. Thus the resolutions of the Institute have the authority
attaching to a mature expression of the views of the leading
international jurists of Europe. Another body having a more or
less similar purpose is the International Law Association, which
was founded in 1873 as the " Association for the Reform and
Codification of the Law of Nations," with practically the same
objects as those which led to the constitution of the Institute
of International Law. It also meets in different countries, but
it differs from the Institute in the number of its members being
unlimited and in all respectable persons being eligible for mem*
berchip. A report is published after each meeting. There are now
numerous volumes of such reports, many of them containing most
valuable materials for international jurists. In 1895 the name
was changed to International Law Association.

A new society was recently (1906) formed in America called the
American Society of International Law, " to foster the study of
international law and piomote the establishment of international
relations on the basis of law and justice." " Membership in the
society is not restricted to lawyers, and any man of good moral
character interested in the objects of the society may be admitted
to membership." The publications of this society have already
taken an important place among the literature of international
law.

Still more recently yet another society came into being in
Switzerland with objects which seem to be similar to those of the
Institute of International Law.

The Incer-Parliamentary Union, which dates back to 1887,
owes its origin to the initiative of the late Sir W. R. Cremer.
It is composed of groups of the different parliaments of the
world, who meet periodically to " bring about the acceptance
in their respective countries, by votes in parliament and by means
of arbitration treaties, of the principle that differences between
nations should be submitted to arbitration and to consider
other questions of international importance." 3 The sixteenth
conference was held at Brussels in August-September, 1910.

2 At the third congress of the new series, held at Rome in 1891,
was created the Bureau International de la Paix. This most useful
institution, which has its office at Bern, serves as a means of bringing
and keeping together all the known peace societies. Its Corre-
spondance bimensuelle and Annuaire du mouvement pacifiste are well
known, and its obliging hon. secretary, Dr A. Gobat, is always ready
to sunply information from the now considerable archives of the
Bureau. In this connexion we may mention that the secretary
of the London Peace Society, Dr Evans Darby, has edited an
exhaustive collection of materials called International Tribunals.
His statements every two years on the progress of arbitration at
the International Law Association meetings also form an excellent
source of materials for reference.

3 Art. 1 of Statutes revised Sept. 1908.

1 6 PEACE, BREACH OF THE— PEACE CONFERENCES

The Nobel Committee owes its existence to the will of the
late Alfred B. Nobel (1833-1896), the inventor of dynamite, who
left a considerable fortune for the encouragement of men who
work for the benefit of humanity. The interest of this money
was to be divided into five equal parts, to be distributed every
year as rewards to the persons who had deserved best of mankind
in five departments of human activity. The clauses of the will
governing the distribution of these prizes are as follows: —

" The entire sum shall be divided into five equal parts, one to
go to the man who shall have made the most important discovery
or invention in the domain of physical science ; another to the man
who shall have made the most important discovery or introduced
the greatest improvement in chemistry; the third to the author
of the most important discovery in the domain of physiology or
medicine; the fourth to the man who shall have produced the
most remarkable work of an idealistic nature; and, finally, the
fifth to the man who shall have done the most or best work for the
fraternity of nations, the suppression or reduction of standing
armies, and the formation and propagation of peace congresses.
The prizes shall be awarded as follows: For physical science and
chemistry, by the Swedish Academy of Sciences; for physiological
or medical work, by the Caroline Institution at Stockholm ; for litera-
ture, by the Stockholm Academy, and for peace work, by a com-
mittee of five members elected by the Norwegian Storthing. It
is my express desire that, in awarding the prizes, no account shall
be taken of nationality, in order that the prize may fall to the lot
of the most deserving, whether he be Scandinavian or not."

Peace v. War. — Peace is the ultimate object of all statecraft
— peace in the development of the domestic activities of the
nation administered, and peace in the relations of states with
one another. For the purpose of ensuring peace an expensive
diplomacy is maintained by all states, and to perpetuate it
treaties are entered into by states with one another. Even war
has no other avowed purpose than that of placing specific
international relations on a definite footing. Ultimate peace
is uniformly proclaimed by every dictator at home, by every
conqueror abroad, as the goal to which he is directing his efforts.
And yet dissentient voices are sometimes heard defending war
as if it were an end in itself. Without going back to the well-
known reply of Count Moltke to Professor Bluntschli respecting
the Manual of the Laws of War drawn up by the Institute of
International Law in 1880, 1 we need only quote that highly
up-to-date philosopher, Nietzsche: " It is mere illusion and pretty
sentiment," he observes, " to expect much (even anything at
all) from mankind if it forgets how to make war. As yet no
means are known which call so much into action as a great war,
that rough energy born of the camp, that deep impersonality
born of hatred, that conscience born of murder and cold-blooded-
ness, that fervour born of effort in the annihilation of the enemy,
that proud indifference to loss, to one's own existence, to that
of one's fellows, to that earthquake-like soul-shaking which a
people needs when it is losing its vitality." s

It is pleasant to contrast this neurotic joy of one onlooker
with the matter-of-fact reflexions of another, the late W. E. H.
Lecky. " War " he says " is not, and never can be a mere
passionless discharge of a painful duty. It is in its essence,
and it is a main condition of its success, to kindle into fierce
exercise among great masses of men the destructive and com-
bative passions — passions as fierce and as malevolent as that
with which the hound hunts the fox to its death or the tiger
springs upon its prey. Destruction is one of its chief ends.
Deception is one of its chief means, and one of the great arts
of skilful generalship is to deceive in order to destroy. Whatever
other elements may mingle with and dignify war, this at least
is never absent; and however reluctantly men may enter into
war, however conscientiously they may endeavour to avoid it,
they must know that when the scene of carnage has once opened,
these things must be not only accepted and condoned, but
stimulated, encouraged and applauded. It would be difficult
to conceive a disposition more remote from the morals of
ordinary life, not to speak of Christian ideals, than that with

1 " Perpetual peace," he said, " is a dream, and it is not even
A beautiful dream. War is an element in the order of the world
ordained by God . . . Without war the world would stagnate
and lose itself in materialism."

2 Menschliches, Allzumenschliches, No. 477.

which the soldiers most animated with the fire and passion that
lead to victory rush forward to bayonet the foe. ... It is allow-
able to deceive an enemy by fabricated despatches purporting
to come from his own side; by tampering with telegraph mes-
sages; by spreading false intelligence in newspapers; by sending
pretended spies and deserters to give him untrue reports of the
numbers or movements of the troops; by employing false signals
to lure him into an ambuscade. On the use of the flag and
uniform of an enemy for purposes of deception there has been
some controversy, but it is supported by high military authority.
. . . Hardly any one will be so confident of the virtue of his
rulers as to believe that every war which his country wages in
every part of its dominions with uncivilized as well as civilized
populations, is just and necessary, and it is certainly prima
facie not in accordance with an ideal morality that men should
bind themselves absolutely for life or for a term of years to kill
without question, at the command of their superiors, those who
have personally done them no wrong." 3

Surely with all the existing activity in the removal of causes
of war, in the reduction to precise expression of the rules of law
governing the relations of states with one another, in the creation
of international judicatures for the application of these rules, in
the concluding of treaties specifically framed to facilitate the
pacific settlement of difficulties diplomacy may have failed to
adjust, in the promotion of democratic civilian armies with
everything to lose by war, and all the other agencies which have
been described above, the hope seems warranted that, in
no distant future, life among nations will become still more
closely assimilated to life among citizens of the same nation,
with legislation, administration, reform all tending to the one
great object of law, order and peace among men. (T. Ba.)

PEACE, BREACH OF THE. Theoretically all criminal offences
cognizable by English law involve a breach of the king's peace,
and all indictments whether for offences against the common
law or by statute conclude " against the peace of our lord the
king, his crown and dignity." Historically this phrase, now
legally superfluous, represents the last trace of the process by
which the royal courts assume jurisdiction over all offences, and
gradually extruded the jurisdiction of the sheriff and of lords
of manors and franchises, making crime a matter of national
concern as distinguished from civil wrongs or infractions of the
rights of local magnates, or of the rights of the tribal chiefs of
the Teutonic conquerors of Britain. The peace of the king was
sworn on his accession or full recognition, and the jurisdiction of
his courts to punish all violations of that peace was gradually
asserted. The completion of this process is marked by the
institution of the office of justice of the peace.

In modern times the expression " breach of the peace " is usually
limited to offences involving actual tumult, disturbances or dis-
order. As regards such offences, although they do not fall into
the class of grave crimes described as felonies, officers of police
and even private persons have larger powers and duties, as to
immediate arrest without waiting for judicial warrant, than they
possess as to other minor offences (see Arrest). Justices of the
peace have under early statutes and the commission of the
peace power to take sureties of the peace from persons who are
threatening to commit a breach of the peace, and it is within
the power of any court on conviction of any misdemeanour
and of many felonies to require the offender to enter into a
recognizance (q.v.) to keep the peace.

PEACE CONFERENCES, the official title of the two inter-
national conferences held at the Hague in 1899 and 1907. Both
were organized at the instance of the emperor Nicholas II. of
Russia. The chief object of the first conference, as set out in the
note of Count Mouraviev, the Russian minister of foreign affairs
(Jan. 11, 1899), was to arrive at an "understanding not
to increase for a fixed period the present effectives of the
armed military and naval forces, and at the same time not to
increase the budgets pertaining thereto; and a preliminary
examination of the means by which even a reduction
might be effected in future in the forces and budgets above
8 The Map of Life, 1902, pp. 92-97.

PEACH, C. W.

mentioned." 1 The conference, which was attended by repre-
sentatives of 26 states, sat from the 18th of May to the 29th
of July 1899.

When the subject of excessive armaments came up for dis-
cussion, the objections of the German military delegate led to
its abandonment. Other very important matters, however, were
dealt with, and three momentous conventions were adopted, viz. —

I. A convention for the pacific settlement of international
disputes.

II. A convention relating to the laws and customs of war by land.

III. A convention for the adaptation to maritime warfare of the
principles of the Geneva Convention of the 22nd of August 1864.

Three declarations on the following matters were also adopted : —

a. Prohibition of the launching of projectiles and explosives from

balloons or by other similar new methods. 2

b. Prohibition of the use of projectiles the only object of which

is the diffusion of asphyxiating or deleterious gases.

c. Prohibition of the use of bullets which expand or flatten easily

in the human body, such as bullets with a hard envelope, of
which the envelope does not entirely cover the core, or is
pierced with incisions.

The conference furthermore passed the following resolutions:—

" The Conference is of opinion that the restriction of military
budgets, which are at present a heavy burden on the world, is
extremely desirable for the increase of the material and moral welfare
of mankind."

" The Conference, taking into consideration the preliminary
steps taken by the Swiss Federal Government for the revision of
the Geneva Convention, expresses the wish that steps may be shortly
taken for the assembling of a special Conference, having for its
object the revision of that Convention."

The following vceux were adopted, but not unanimously: —

" I. The Conference expresses the wish that the question of the
rights and duties of neutrals may be inserted in the programme of a
conference in the near future.

" 2. The Conference expresses the wish that the questions with
regard to rifles and naval guns, as considered by it, may be studied
by the Governments with the object of coming to an agreement
respecting the employment of new types and calibres.

" 3- The Conference expresses the wish that the Governments,
taking into consideration the proposals made at the Conference,
may examine the possibility of an agreement as to the limitation of
armed forces by land and sea, and of war budgets.

" 4. The Conference expresses the wish that the proposals which
contemplate the declaration of the inviolability of private property
in naval warfare may be referred to a subsequent conference for
consideration.

" 5. The Conference expresses the wish that the proposal to settle
the question of the bombardment of ports, towns and villages by
naval forces may be referred to a subsequent conference for
consideration."

Great Britain signed and became a party to the three
Conventions, but not to all the declarations, &c.

The Conference of 1907, which was attended by representatives
of forty-four states, sat from the 15th of June to the 18th of
October. Again, in spite of the resolution and vceu on arma-
ments handed down from the Conference of 1899 this subject
was waived, but still more important conventions than in 1899
were adopted on other matters. These were as follows: —

I. Convention for the pacific settlement of international
disputes. 3

II. Convention respecting the limitation of the employment of
Sorce for the recovery of contract debts.

III. Convention relative to the commencement of hostilities.

IV. Conventions concerning the laws and customs of war on
land. 3

V. Convention respecting the rights and duties of neutral powers
and persons in war on land.

VI. Convention relative to the status of enemy merchant-ships
at the outbreak of hostilities.

1 At the Conference the Russian government, further developing
the proposal, submitted the following details: —

I. Establishment of an international understanding for a term
of five years, stipulating non-increase of the present figures of the
peace effective of the troops kept up for home use. *

"2. Fixation, in case of this understanding being arrived at,
and, if possible, of the figures of the peace effective of all the powers
excepting colonial troops.

" 3. Maintenance for a like term of five years of the amount of
the military budgets at present in force."

2 This Conference was held at Geneva in June-July 1906. The
revised Convention, composed of 33 articles, is dated July 6, 1906.

' This is an amended edition of that of 1899.

l 7

VII. Convention relative to the conversion of merchant-ships
into war-ships.

VIII. Convention relative to the laying of automatic submarine
contact mines.

IX. Convention respecting bombardment by naval forces in
time of war.

X. Conventions for the adaptation of the principles of the Geneva
Convention to maritime war. 4

XI. Convention relative to certain restrictions on the exercise
of the right of capture in maritime war. 4

XII. Convention relative to the establishment of an international
prize court.

XIII. Convention respecting the rights and duties of neutral
powers in maritime war.

XIV. Declaration prohibiting discharge of projectiles, &c, from
balloons. 6

A draft Convention relative to the creation of a judicial
arbitration court was also drawn up in connexion with the first
of the four following vceux: —

1. The Conference calls the attention of the signatory powers
to the advisability of adopting the annexed draft convention for
the creation of a judicial arbitration court, and of bringing it into
force as soon as an agreement has been reached respecting the selec-
tion of the judges and the constitution of the court.

2. The Conference expresses the opinion that, in case of war, the
responsible authorities, civil as well as military, should make it
their special duty to ensure and safeguard the maintenance of pacific
relations, more especially of the commercial and industrial relations
between the inhabitants of the belligerent states and neutral
countries.

3. The Conference expresses the opinion that the powers should
regulate, by special treaties, the position, as regards military charges,
of foreigners residing within their territories.

4. The Conference expresses the opinion that the preparation
of regulations relative to the laws and customs of naval war should
figure in the programme of the next conference, 6 and that in any
case the powers may apply, as far as possible, to war by sea the
principles of the Convention relative to the laws and customs of
war on land.

Finally, the Conference recommended to the powers the
assembly of a Third Peace Conference, and it called their atten-
tion to the necessity of preparing the programme of this Third
Conference a sufficient time in advance to ensure its deliberations
being conducted with the necessary authority and expedition.

In order to attain this object the Conference considered that it
" would be very desirable that, some two years before the probable
date of the meeting, a preparatory committee should be charged
by the governments with the task of collecting the various
proposals to be submitted to the Conference, of ascertaining what
subjects are ripe for embodiment in an international regulation,
and of preparing a programme which the governments should
decide upon in sufficient time to enable it to be carefully examined
by the countries interested," and that this committee should
further be entrusted with the task of proposing a system of
organization and procedure for the Conference itself. (T. Ba.)

PEACH, CHARLES WILLIAM (1800-1886), British naturalist
and geologist, was born on the 30th of September 1800 at Wans-
ford in Northamptonshire; his father at the time was a saddler
and harness-maker, and afterwards became an innkeeper
farming about 80 acres of land. He received an elementary
education at Wansford and at Folkingham in Lincolnshire; and
assisted for several years in the inn and farm. In 1824 he was
appointed riding officer in the Revenue Coast-guard at Weybourn
in Norfolk. Sea-weeds and other marine organisms now
attracted his attention, and these he zealously collected. His
duties during the next few years led him to remove successively
to Sheringham, Hasboro (Happisburgh), Cromer and Cley, all in
Norfolk. In the course of his rambles he met the Rev. James
Layton, curate at Catfield, who lent him books and assisted in
laying the foundations of accurate knowledge About the year
1830 he was transferred to Charmouth in Dorset, thence to Beer,
and Paignton in Devon, and to Gorran Haven near Mevagissey
in Cornwall. Here he continued to pursue his zoological studies

4 This is an amended edition of that of 1899.

5 This was practically a re-enactment of that of 1899.

6 This has since been done to a large extent by the Conference of
London (1908-1909). See Blockade, Contraband, International
Law Peace.

i8

PEACH

and supplied many specimens to G. Johnston, who was then
preparing his History of the British Zoophytes (1838). It was
here too that he first found fossils in some of the older rocks
previously regarded as unfossiliferous — the discovery of which
proved the presence of Bala Beds (Ordovician or Lower Silurian)
in the neighbourhood of Gorran Haven. In 1841 he read a paper
before the British Association at Plymouth " On the Fossil
Organic Remains found on the south-east coast of Cornwall,"
and in 1843 he brought before the Royal Geological Society of
Cornwall an account of his discovery of fish remains in the Devo-
nian slates near Polperro. Peach was transferred for a time
to Fowey; and in 1840 to Scotland, first to Peterhead and then to
Wick (1853), where he made acquaintance with Robert Dick of
Thurso. He collected the old red Sandstone fishes; and during
a sojourn at Durness he first found fossils in the Cambrian
limestone (1854). Peach retired from the government service in
1 86 1, and died at Edinburgh on the 28th of February 1886.

Biographical notice, with portrait, in S. Smiles's Robert Dick,
Baker, of Thurso, Geologist and Botanist (1878).

PEACH, the name of a fruit tree which is included by Bentham
and Hooker (Genera plantarum, i. 610) under the genus Prunus
(Prunus persica); its resemblance to the plum is indeed obvious.
Others have classed it with the almond as a distinct genus,
Amygdaius; while others again have considered it sufficiently
distinct to constitute a separate genus, Persica.

In general terms the peach may be said to be a medium-sized
tree, with lanceolate, stipulate leaves, borne on long, slender,
relatively unbranched shoots, and with
the flowers arranged singly, or in groups
of two or more, at intervals along the
shoots of the previous year's growth.
The flowers have a hollow tube at the
base bearing at its free edge five sepals,
an equal number of petals, usually con-
cave or spoon-shaped, pink or white,
and a great number of stamens. The
pistil consists of a single carpel with its
ovary, style, stigma and solitary ovule
or twin ovules. The fruit is a drupe
(fig. 1) having a thin outer skin (epi-
carp) enclosing the flesh of the peach
(mesocarp), the inner layers of the carpel
becoming woody to form the stone,
while the ovule ripens into the kernel
or seed. This is exactly the structure of
the plum or apricot, and differs from that of the almond, which is
identical in the first instance, only in the circumstance that the
fleshy part of the latter eventually becomes dry and leathery and
cracks open along a line called the suture.

The nectarine is a variation from the peach, mainly charac-
terized by the circumstance that, while the skin of the ripe
fruit is downy in the peach, it is shining and destitute of hairs in
the nectarine. That there is no essential difference between the
two is, however, shown by the facts that the seeds of the peach
will produce nectarines, and vice versa, and that it is not very
uncommon, though still exceptional, to see peaches and
nectarines on the same branch, and fruits which combine in them-
selves the characteristics of both nectarines and peaches. The
blossoms of the peach are formed the autumn previous to their
expansion, and this fact, together with the peculiarities of their
form and position, requires to be borne in mind by the gardener
in his pruning and training operations. The only point of practical
interest requiring mention here is the very singular fact attested
by all peach-growers, that, while certain peaches are liable to the
attacks of mildew, others are not. In the case of the peach this
peculiarity is in some way connected with the presence of small
glandular outgrowths on the stalk, or at the base of the leaf.
Some peaches have globular, others reniform glands, others none
at all, and these latter trees are much more subject to mildew
than are those provided with glands.

The history of the peach, almond and nectarine is interesting
and important as regards the question of the origin of species and

Fig. 1. — Fruit (drupe)
of Peach cut lengthwise.
e, Skin or epicarp.
m, Flesh or mesocarp.
s, Stone or endocarp,

within which is the

seed or kernel.

the production and perpetuation of varieties. As to the origin of
the peach two views are held, that of Alphonse de Candolle, who
attributes all cultivated varieties to a distinct species, probably of
Chinese origin, and that adopted by many naturalists, but more
especially by Darwin, who looks upon the peach as a modification
of the almond.

In the first place, the peach as we now know it has been nowhere
recognized in the wild state. In the few instances where it is said
to have been found wild the probabilities are that the tree was an
escape from cultivation. Aitchison, however, gathered in the
Hazardarakht ravine in Afghanistan a form with different-shaped
fruit from that of the almond, being larger and flatter. " The
surface of the fruit," he observes, " resembles that of the peach in
texture and colour; and the nut is quite distinct from that of the
wild almond. The whole shrub resembles more what one might
consider a wild form of the peach than that of the almond." It is
admitted, however, by all competent botanists that the almond
is wild in the hotter and drier parts of the Mediterranean and Levan-
tine regions. Aitchison also mentions the almond as wild in some
parts of Afghanistan, where it is known to the natives as " bedam,"
the same word that they apply to the cultivated almond. The
branches of the tree are carried by the priests in religious ceremonies.
It is not known as a wild plant in China or Japan. As to the necta-
rine, of its origin as a variation from the peach there is abundant
evidence, as has already been mentioned ; it is only requisite to add
the very important fact that the seeds of the nectarine, even when
that nectarine has been produced by bud-variation from a peach,
will generally produce nectarines, or, as gardeners say, " come
true." Darwin brings together the records of several cases, not only
of gradations between peaches and nectarines, but also of inter-
mediate forms between the peach and the almond. So far as we
know, however, no case has yet been recorded of a peach or a necta-
rine producing an almond, or vice versa, although if all have had a
common origin such an event might be expected. Thus the botanical
evidence seems to indicate that the wild almond is the source of
cultivated almonds, peaches and nectarines, and consequently that
the peach was introduced from Asia Minor or Persia, whence the
name Persica given to the peach; and Aitchison's discovery in
Afghanistan of a form which reminded him of a wild peach lends
additional force to this view.

On the other hand, Alphonse de Candolle, from philological and
other considerations, considers the peach to be of Chinese origin.
The peach has not, it is true, been found wild in China, but it has
been cultivated there from time immemorial ; it has entered into
the literature and folk-lore of the people; and it is designated by
a distinct name, " to " or " tao," a word found in the writings of
Confucius five centuries before Christ, and even in other writings
dating from the 10th century before the Christian era. Though now
cultivated in India, and almost wild in some parts of the north-
west, and, as we have seen, probably also in Afghanistan, it has no
Sanskrit name; it is not mentioned in the Hebrew text of the
Scriptures, nor in the earliest Greek times. Xenophon makes no
mention of the peach, though the Ten Thousand must have traversed
the country where, according to some, the peach is native; but
Theophrastus, a hundred years later, does speak of it as a Persian
fruit, and De Candolle suggests that it might have been introduced
into Greece by Alexander. According to his view, the seeds of the
peach, cultivated for ages in China, might have been carried by the
Chinese into Kashmir, Bokhara, and Persia between the period of
the Sanskrit emigration and the Graeco-Persian period. Once
established, its cultivation would readily extend westward, or, on
the other hand, by Cabul to north-western India, where its cultiva-
tion is not ancient. While the peach has been cultivated in China
for thousands of years, the almond does not grow wild in that country
and its introduction is supposed not to go back farther than the
Christian era.

On the whole, greater weight is due to the evidence from botanical
sources than to that derived from philology, particularly since the
discovery both of the wild almond and of a form like a wild peach
in Afghanistan. It may, however, well be that both peach and
almond are derived from some pre-existing and now extinct form
whose descendants have spread over the whole geographic area
mentioned ; but this is a mere speculation, though indirect evidence
in its support might be obtained from the nectarine, of which no
mention is made in ancient literature, and which, as we have
seen, originates from the peach and reproduces itself by seed, thus
offering the characteristics of a species in the act of developing
itself.

The treatment in horticulture of the peach and nectarine is the
same in every respect. To perpetuate and multiply the choicer
varieties, peaches and nectarines are budded upon plum or
almond stocks. For dry situations almond stocks are preferable,
but they are not long-lived, while for damp or clayey loams it is
better to use certain kinds of plums. Double-working is some-
times beneficial ; thus an almond budded on a plum stock may be
rebudded with a tender peach, greatly to the advantage of the
latter. The peach border should be composed of turfy mellow

PEACH

J 9

loam, such as is suitable for the vine and the fig; this should be
used in as rough a state as possible, or not broken small and fine.
The bottom should slope towards the outer edge, where a drain
should be cut, with an outlet, and on this sloping bottom should
be laid a thickness of from g in. to 12 in. of rough materials,
such as broken bricks or mortar rubbish, over which should be
placed a layer of rough turf with the grassy side downwards, and
then the good loamy soil to form the border, which should have a
depth of about 2 ft. 6 in. The peach-tree is most productive
when the roots a^e kept near the surface, and the borders, which
should be from 8 ft. to 1 2 ft. wide, should not be cropped heavily
with culinary vegetables, as deep trenching is very injurious.
Sickly and unfruitful trees may often be revived by bringing up
their roots within 5 or 6 in. of the surface. It is questionable
whether it is not better, in cold soils and bleak situations, to
abandon outdoor peach culture, and to cover the walls with a
casing of glass, so that the trees may be under shelter during the
uncongenial spring weather.

The fruit of the peach is produced on the ripened shoots of the

Jjreceding year. If these be too luxuriant, they yield nothing but
eaves; and if too weak, they are incapable of developing flower
buds. To furnish young shoots in sufficient abundance, and of
requisite strength, is the great object of peach training and pruning.
Trees of slender-growing, twiggy habit naturally fall most readily
into the fan form of training, and accordingly this has generally been

adopted in the culture of
peaches and nectarines (fig.
2). The young tree is, in
many cases, procured when
it has been trained for
two or three years in the
nursery ; but it is gener-
ally better to begin with a
maiden plant — that is, a
plant of the first year after
it has been budded. It is

Fig. 2.-Montreuil Fan Training. ^ CI \ » n ° rdinar y practice

° headed down to five or
six buds, and in the following summer from two to four shoots,
according to the vigour of the plant, are trained in, the laterals
from which, if any, are thinned out and nailed to the wall. If there
are four branches, the two central ones are shortened back at the
subsequent winter pruning so as to produce others, the two lower
ones being laid in nearly at full length. In the following season
additional shoots are sent forth; and the process is repeated till
eight or ten principal limbs or mother branches are obtained, forming,
as it were, the frame-work of the future tree. The branches may be
depressed or elevated, so as to check or encourage them, as occasion
may arise; and it is highly advantageous to keep them thin, without
their becoming in any part deficient of young shoots. Sometimes
a more rapid mode of formation is now adopted, the main shoots
being from the first laid in nearly at full length, instead of being
shortened. The pruning for fruit consists in shortening back the
laterals which had been nailed in at the disbudding, or summer
pruning, their length depending on their individual vigour and the
luxuriance of the tree. In well-developed shoots the buds are
generally double, or rather triple, a wood bud growing between two
fruit buds; the shoot must be cut back to one of these, or else
to a wood bud alone, so that a young shoot may be produced to
draw up the sap beyond the fruit, this being generally desirable
to secure its proper swelling. The point of this leading shoot
is subsequently pinched off, that it may not draw away too
much of the sap. If the fruit sets too abundantly, it must be
thinned, first when as large as peas, reducing the clusters, and then
when as large as nuts to distribute the crop equally; the ex-
tent of the thinning must depend on the vigour of the tree,
but one or two fruits ultimately left to each square foot of wall
is a full average crop. The final thinning should take place after
stoning.

The best-placed healthy young shoot produced from the wood
buds at the base of the bearing branch is to be carefully preserved and
in due time nailed to the wall. In the following winter this will
take the place of the branch which has just borne, and which is to
be cut out. If there be no young shoot below, and the bearing
branch is short, the shoot at the point of the latter may sometimes
be preserved as a fruit bearer, though if the bearing branch be long
it is better to cut it back for young wood. It is the neglect of this
which constitutes the principal fault in carrying out the English
fan system, as it is usually practised. Several times during summer
the trees ought to be regularly examined, and the young shoots
respectively topped or thinned out; those that remain are to be
nailed to the wall, or braced in with pieces of slender twigs, and the
trees ought occasionally to be washed with the garden engine or
thoroughly syringed, especially during very hot summers. After
gathering the fruit all the wood not needed for extending the tree

or for fruit bearing next season should be cut out so as to give the
shoots left full exposure to air and light.

The Montreuil form of training is represented by fig. 2. The
principal feature is the suppression of the direct channel of the sap,
and the substitution of four, or more commonly two, mother branches,
so laid to the wall thac the central angle contains about 90 . The
other branches are all treated as subordinate members. This form
is open to the objection that, if the under branch should die, the
upper one cannot be brought down into its place.

The form a la Dumoutier (fig. 3), so called from its inventor, is
merely a refinement on the Montreuil method. The formation

b

Fig. 3. — Dumoutier's Fan Training.

of the tree begins with the inferior limbs and proceeds towards
the centre, the branches being lowered from time to time as the
tree acquires strength. What is most worthy of notice in this
method is the management of the
subordinates in the pruning for
fruit. When a shoot promises
blossom, it is generally at some
distance from the point of insertion
into the old wood, and the inter-
mediate space is covered with wood
buds. All the latter, therefore,
which are between the old wood a
and the blossoms c in fig. 4, except
the lowest b, are carefully removed
by rubbing them off with the
finger. This never fails to produce
a shoot d, the growth of which is
favoured by destroying the useless spray e above the blossoms, and
pinching off the points of those which are necessary to perfect the
fruit. A replacing shoot is thus obtained, to which the whole is
invariably shortened at the end of the year.

Seymour's form (fig. 5) approaches more nearly to the French
method than any other practised in England ; but the direct channel

Fig. 4. — Pruning a la
Dumoutier.

Fig. 5. — Seymour's Fan Training.

of the sap is not suppressed, and this results in the production of
branches of unequal vigour, which is very undesirable.

For cold and late situations, Thomas Andrew Knight recommended
the encouragement of spurs on the young wood, as such spurs, when
close to the wall, generate the best organized and most vigorous
blossoms, and generally ensure a crop of fruit. They may be pro-
duced, by taking care, during the summer pruning or disbudding,
to preserve a number of the little shoots emitted by the yearly
wood, only pinching off the minute succulent points. On the spurs
thus formed blossom buds will be developed early in the following
season. This practice is well adapted to cold situations. Peach-
trees require protection, especially at the period of blossoming;,
particularly in the north of England and in Scotland. Canvas or
bunting screens are most effectual. By applying these early in the
season, great benefit may be derived from retarding the blossom
till the frosty nights of spring have passed. Wooden and glass
copings are also very useful in warding off frosts. Care must be
taken that the roots always have a sufficient supply of moisture
and that the soil is moist wherever the roots run.

Forcing. — The pruning and training of the trees in the peach
house do not differ materially from the methods practised out of
doors. It may also be stated here that when occasion arises peach-
trees well furnished with buds may be transplanted and forced
immediately without risking the crop of fruit, a matter of some
importance when, as sometimes happens, a tree may accidentally
fail. In the forcing of peaches fire heat is commonly applied about
December or January ; but it may, where there is a demand, begin
a month sooner. The trees must be got to start growth very

20

PEACHAM— PEACOCK, G.

r,

gradually, and at first the house should be merely kept closed at a
temperature of about 45 , but the heat should gradually increase to
jo' at night by the time the trees are in flower, and to 60° when the
ruit is set, after which the house should be kept moist by sprinkling
the walls and paths, or by placing water troughs on the return pipes,
and the temperature should range from 65 ° by day to 70° or more
with sun heat. After the fruit has set, the foliage should be refreshed
and cleansed by the daily use of the syringe or garden engine.
When the fruit has stoned — that is, as soon as the kernels have been
formed — the temperature should be raised to about 65° as a minimum,
and to 70 , with 75° by sun heat, as a maximum. Water must now
be copiously supplied to the border, and air admitted in abundance,
but cold draughts which favour the attack of mildew must be
avoided. After the end of April little fire heat is required. When
the fruit begins to ripen, syringing must be discontinued till the
crop is gathered, after which the syringe must be again occasionally
used. If the leaves should happen to shade the fruit, not only
during the ripening process but at any time after the stoning
period, they should be gently turned aside, for, in order that the
fruit may acquire good colour and flavour, it should be freely
exposed to light and air when ripening ; it will bear the direct rays
of the sun, even if they should rise to 100°, but nectarines are much
more liable to damage than peaches. The trees often suffer from
mildew, which is best prevented by keeping the borders of the
peach house clear and sufficiently moist and the house well ventilated,
and if it should appear the trees should be sprayed with 1 oz. potas-
sium sulphide dissolved in 3 gallons of water. Care must be taken in
using this fungicide not to wet the painted wood, as it is sure to
become discoloured.

Peaches and nectarines are frequently cultivated in well-drained
pots, and are then usually trained as pyramids, and in some cases
as half-standards. The potting must be done very firmly, using
turfy loam with which a little mortar rubble has been mixed.
The trees are to be top-dressed from time to time with well-decayed
manure and turfy loam, and considerable space must be left in the
pots for this and the watering.

The following are some of the best peaches and nectarines,
arranged in the order of the times of their ripening : —

Early Beatrice .
Early Louise
Hales's Early
Rivers's Early York
A'bec ....
Crimson Galande .

Crawford's Early . j
Grosse Mignonne
Noblesse

m.

e.

b.

b.m

m.

e.

e.

b.

e.

b.

e.

b.

Peaches.
July

July

Aug.

Aug.

Aug.

Aug.

Aug.

Sept.

Aug.

Sept.

Aug.

Sept.

Nectarines.

Royal George . j

Bellegarde
Belle Bauce
Dymond.
Late Admirable
Sea Eagie

WalburtonAdmirable j

Salwey ....
Princess of Wales

Cardinal (under glass) e. July

Lord Napier
Darwin
Early Rivers

Balgowan
Elruge

b. Aug.

m. Aug.

m. Aug.

1 e. Aug.

J b. Sept.

1 e. Aug.

I b. Sept.

Pitmaston Orange . j

Violette Hative . . \

Victoria (under glass)
Pineapple
Stanwick Elruge
Humbolt

e.

Aug.

b.

Sept.

b.n

l.Sept.

m.

Sept.

m.

Sept.

m.e

. Sept.

e.

Sept.

e.

Sept.

b.

Oct.

e.

Oct.

b.

Nov.

e.

Oct.

e.

Aug.

b.

Sept.

e.

Aug.

b.

Sept

Sept

b.

Sept

b.

Sept

m.

Sept

Stanwick (under glass) m.e. Sept.

PEACHAM, HENRY (c. 1576-c. 1643), English writer, was
the son of Henry Peacham, curate of North Mimms, Hertford-
shire, and author of a book on rhetoric called the Garden of
Rhetoric (1577). The elder Peacham became in 1597 rector of
Leverton, Lincolnshire. The son was educated at Trinity
College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1594-1595 and
M. A. in 1 598. He was for some time a schoolmaster at Wymond-
ham, Norfolk, but settled in London in 161 2, earning his living
as tutor to young men preparing for the universities. His first
book was Graphice (1606), a treatise on pen and water-colour
drawing, which, as The Gentleman's Exercise, passed through
three editions. The years 1613-1614 he spent abroad, part of
the time as tutor to the three young sons of Thomas Howard
(1585-1646), earl of Arundel, and partly on his own account. He
travelled in Italy, France, Westphalia and the Netherlands.
The table of Sir John Ogle, English governor of Utrecht, was, he
says, a " little academy," where he met soldiers and scholars of all
nationalities. When he returned to London he was accused of
libel on the king. Incriminating papers had been discovered in
the house of Edmond Peacham, rector of Hinton Saint George,
who, on being charged with an attack on the king denied the

authorship, stating that they were written by a namesake, " a
divine, a scholar and a traveller." The change was, however,
easily rebutted. Peacham had many friends in London, among
them Thomas Dowland the musician, Inigo Jones, and Edward
Wright the mathematician. In 1622 appeared Peacham's
magnum opus, the Compleat Gentleman. Enlarged editions
appeared in 1626 and 1627. The 1627 edition was reprinted in
1634, and a third, with additional notes on blazonry by Thomas
Blount (1617-1679), appeared in 1661. The book is a text-book
of manners and polite learning; it includes chapters on cosmo-
graphy, geometry, poetry, music, antiquities, painting, the lives
of the painters, the " art of limming " (Peacham himself was a
proficient engraver), and the military art, including the order of
" a maine battaile or pitched field in eight several! wayes."
The book differs from the Courtier of Castiglione, which had been
the guide of an earlier generation. Peacham was a Cavalier,
even an ardent polemist in the royal cause, but the central point
of his book is a more or less Puritan sentiment of duty. In his
later years Peacham was reduced to extreme poverty, and is said
to have written children's books at a penny each. His last book
was published in 1642, and it may be concluded that he died soon
afterwards.

His other works include: Minerva Britanna (1612), dedicated to
Henry, prince of Wales; The Period of Mourning (1613), in honour
of the same prince; Thalia's Banquet (1620), a book of epigrams;
The Art of Living in London (1642), and The Worth of a Peny
(1641), &c. There is a nearly complete collection of Peacham's
works in the Bodleian, Oxford. Harleian MS. 6855 contains a
translation by Peacham of James I.'s Basilicon doron into Latin
verse, written in his own hand and ornamented with pen and ink
drawings. His Compleat Gentleman was edited by G. S. Gordon
in 1906 for the Clarendon Press; the Art of Living is reprinted
in the Harleian Misc. ix. ; The Worth of a Peny in E. Arber's English
Garner (vol. vi. 1883).

PEACOCK, SIR BARNES (1810-1890), English judge, was born
in 1810, the son of Lewis Peacock, a solicitor. After practising
as a special pleader, he was called to the bar in 1836, and in
1844 obtained great reputation by pointing out the flaw which
invalidated the conviction of Daniel O'Connell and his fellow
defendants. In 1852 he went to India as legal member of the
governor-general's council. He here displayed great activity as a
law reformer, but sometimes manifested too little consideration
for native susceptibilities. The legislative council was established
soon after his arrival, and although no orator, he was so frequent
a speaker that legislation enjoining councillors to deliver their
speeches sitting was said to have been devised with the sole
object of restraining him. As a member of Lord Dalhousie's
council he supported the annexation of Oudh, and he stood by
Lord Canning all through the Mutiny. In 1859 he became chief
justice of the Supreme Court. He returned to England in 1870,
and in 1872 was placed upon the judicial committee of the privy
council, where his Indian experience rendered him invaluable.
He died on the 3rd of December 1890.

PEACOCK, GEORGE (1791-1858), English mathematician,
was born at Thornton Hall, Denton, near Darlington, on the
9th of April 1 791. He was educated at Richmond, Yorkshire,
and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1809. He was second
wrangler in 181 2 (Sir J. F. W. Herschel being senior), was elected
fellow of his college in 1814, became assistant tutor in 1815 and
full tutor in 1823. While still an undergraduate he formed a
league with John Herschel and Charles Babbage, to conduct the
famous struggle of " d-ism versus dot-age," which ended in the
introduction into Cambridge of the continental notation in the
infinitesimal calculus to the exclusion of the fluxional notation
of Sir Isaac Newton. This was an important reform, not so
much on account of the mere change of notation (for mathe-
maticians follow J. L. Lagrange in using both these notations),
but because it signified the opening to the mathematicians of
Cambridge of the vast storehouse of continental discoveries.
The analytical society thus formed in 1813 published various
memoirs, and translated S. F. Lacroix's Differential Calculus in
1816. Peacock powerfully aided the movement by publishing in
1820 A Collection of Examples of the Application of the Differential
and Integral Calculus. In 1841 he published a pamphlet on the

PEACOCK, T. L.

21

university statutes, in which he indicated the necessity for
reform; and in i8soahd 1855 he was a member of the commission
of inquiry relative to the university of Cambridge. In 1837 he
was appointed Lowndean professor of astronomy. In 1839 he
took the degree of D.D., and the same year was appointed by
Lord Melbourne to the deanery of Ely. Peacock threw himself
with characteristic ardour into the duties of this new position.
He improved the sanitation of Ely, published in 1840 Observations
on Plans for Cathedral Reform, and carried out extensive works
of restoration in his own cathedral. He was twice prolocutor of
the lower house of convocation for the province of Canterbury.
He was also a prime mover in the establishment of the Cambridge
Astronomical Observatory, and in the founding of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society. He was a fellow of the Royal, Royal
Astronomical, Geological and other scientific societies. In 1838,
and again in 1843, he was one of the commissioners for standards
of weights and measures; and he also furnished valuable infor-
mation to the commissioners on decimal coinage. He died on
the 8th of November 1858.

Peacock's original contributions to mathematical science were
concerned chiefly with the philosophy of its first principles. He
did good service in systematizing the operational laws of
algebra, and in throwing light upon the nature and use of
imaginaries. He published, first in 1830, and then in an enlarged
form in 1842, a Treatise on Algebra, in which he applied his
philosophical ideas concerning algebraical analysis to the eluci-
dation of its elements. A second great service was the publica-
tion in the British Association Reports for 1833 of his " Report
on the Recent Progress and Present State of certain branches of
Analysis." Modern mathematicians may find on reading this
brilliant summary a good many dicta which they will call in
question, but, whatever its defects may be, Peacock's report
remains a work of permanent value. In 1855 he published a
memoir of Thomas Young, and about the same time there
appeared Young's collected works in three volumes, for the first
two of which Peacock was responsible.

PEACOCK, THOMAS LOVE (1785-1866), English novelist and
poet, was born at Weymouth on the 18th of October 1785. He
was the only son of a London glass merchant, who died soon after
the child's birth. Young Peacock was educated at a private
school at Englefield Green, and after a brief experience of business
determined to devote himself to literature, while living with his
mother (daughter of Thomas Love, a naval man) on their private
means. His first books were poetical, The Monks of Si Mark
(1804), Palmyra (1806), The Genius of the Thames (1810), The
Philosophy of Melancholy (1812) — works of no great merit. He
also made several dramatic attempts, which were never acted.
He served for a short time as secretary to Sir Home Popham at
Flushing, and paid several visits to Wales. In 181 2 he became
acquainted with Shelley. In 181 5 he evinced his peculiar power
by writing his novel Headlong Hall. It was published in 1816,
and Melincourt followed in the ensuing year. During 1817 he
lived at Great Marlow, enjoying the almost daily society of
Shelley, and writing Nightmare Abbey and Rhododaphne, by far
the best of his long poems. In 1819 he was appointed assistant
examiner at the India House. Peacock's nomination appears to
have been due to the influence of his old schoolfellow Peter
Auber, secretary to the East India Company, and the papers he
prepared as tests of his ability were returned with the comment,
" Nothing superfluous and nothing wanting." This was char-
acteristic of the whole of his intellectual work; and equally
characteristic of the man was his marriage about this time to
Jane Griffith, to whom he proposed by letter, not having seen
her for eight years. They had four children, only one of whom,
a son, survived his father; one daughter was the first wife of
George Meredith. His novel Maid Marian appeared in 1822,
The Misfortunes of Elphin in 1829, and Crotchet Castle in 1831;
and he would probably have written more but for the death in
1833 of his mother. He also contributed to the Westminster
Review and the Examiner. His services to the East India Com-
pany, outside the usual official routine, were considerable. He
defended it successfully against the attacks of James Silk

Buckingham and the Liverpool salt interest, and made the subject
of steam navigation to India peculiarly his own. He represented
the company before the various parliamentary committees on
this question; and in 1839 and 1840 superintended the con-
struction of iron steamers, which not only made the voyage round
the Cape successfully, but proved very useful in the Chinese War.
He also drew up the instructions for the Euphrates expedition
of 1835, subsequently pronounced by its commander, General
F. R. Chesney, to be models of sagacity. In 1836 he succeeded
James Mill as chief examiner, and in 1856 he retired upon a
pension. During his later years he contributed several papers to
Fraser's Magazine, including reminiscences of Shelley, whose
executor he was. He also wrote in the same magazine his last
novel, Gryll Grange (i860), inferior to his earlier writings in
humour and vigour, but still a surprising effort for a man of his
age. He died on the 23rd of January 1866 at Lower Halliford,
near Chertsey, where, so far as his London occupations would
allow him, he had resided for more than forty years.

Peacock's position in English literature is unique. There was
nothing like hJs type of novel before his time; though there
might have been if it had occurred to Swift to invent a story as a
vehicle for the dialogue of his Polite Conversation. Peacock speaks
as well in his own person as through his puppets; and his pithy
wit and sense, combined with remarkable grace and accuracy
of natural description, atone for the primitive simplicity of plot
and character. Of his seven fictions, Nightmare Abbey and
Crotchet Castle are perhaps on the whole the best, the former
displaying the most vis comica of situation, the latter the fullest
maturity of intellectual power and the most skilful grouping of
the motley crowd of " perfectibilians, deteriorationists, statu-
quo-ites, phrenologists, transcendentalists, political economists,
theorists in all sciences, projectors in all arts, morbid visionaries,
romantic enthusiasts, lovers of music, lovers of the picturesque
and lovers of good dinners," who constitute the dramatis personae
of the Peacockian novel. Maid Marian and The Misfortunes of
Elphin are hardly less entertaining. Both contain descriptive
passages of extraordinary beauty. Melincourt is a comparative
failure, the excellent idea of an orang-outang mimicking humanity
being insufficient as the sole groundwork of a novel. Headlong
Hall, though more than foreshadowing the author's subsequent
excellence, is marred by a certain bookish awkwardness char-
acteristic of the recluse student, which reappears in Gryll Grange
as the pedantry of an old-fashioned scholar, whose likes and
dislikes have become inveterate and whose sceptical liberalism,
always rather inspired by hatred of cant than enthusiasm for
progress, has petrified into only toe earnest conservatism. The
book's quaint resolute paganism, however, is very refreshing in
an age eaten up with introspection; it is the kindliest of Peacock's
writings, and contains the most beautiful of his poems, " Years
Ago," the reminiscence of an early attachment. In general the
ballads and songs interspersed through his tales are models of
exact and melodious diction, and instinct with true feeling. His
more ambitious poems are worth little, except Rhododaphne,
attractive as a story and perfect as a composition, but destitute
of genuine poetical inspiration. His critical and miscellaneous
writings are always interesting, especially the restorations of
lost classical plays in the Horae dramaticae, but the only one of
great mark is the witty and crushing exposure in the Westminster
Review of Thomas Moore's ignorance of the manners and belief
he has ventured to portray in his Epicurean. Peacock resented
the misrepresentation of his favourite sect, the good and ill of
whose tenets were fairly represented in his own person. Some-
what sluggish and self-indulgent, incapable of enthusiasm or self-
sacrifice, he yet possessed a deep undemonstrative kindliness of
nature; he could not bear to see anyone near him unhappy
or uncomfortable; and his sympathy, no less than his genial
humour, gained him the attachment of children, dependants,
and friends. In official life he was upright and conscientious; his
judgment was shrewd and robust. What Shelley justly termed
" the lightness, strength and chastity " of his diction secures him
an honourable rank among those English writers whose claims to
remembrance depend not only upon matter but upon style.

22

PEACOCK— PEALE, C. W.

Peacock's works were collected, though not completely, and pub-
lished in three volumes in 1875, at the expense of his friend and
former prctegd, Sir Henry Cole, with an excellent memoir by his
granddaughter Mrs Clarke, and a critical essay by Lord Houghton.
His prose works were collected by Richard Garnett in ten volumes
(1891). Separate novels are included in " Macmillan's Illustrated
Standard Novels," with introductions by Mr Saintsbury. For an
interesting personal notice, see A Poet's Sketch Book, by R. W.
Buchanan (1884). (R. G.)

PEACOCK (Lat. Pavo, 0. Eng. Pawe, Du. pauuw, Ger. Pfau,
Fr. Paon), the bird so well known from the splendid plumage of
the male, and as the proverbial personification of pride. It is a
native of the Indian peninsula and Ceylon, in some parts of which
it is very abundant. Setting aside its importation to Palestine
by Solomon (1 Kings x. 22; 2 Chron. ix. 21), its assignment in
classical mythology as the favourite bird of Hera testifies to the
early acquaintance the Greeks must have had with it; but,
though it is mentioned by Aristophanes and other older writers,
their knowledge of it was probably very slight until after the
conquests of Alexander. Throughout all succeeding time,
however, it has never very freely rendered itself tp domestication,
and, though in earlier days highly esteemed for the table, 1 it is no
longer considered the delicacy it was once thought; the young of
the wild birds are, however, still esteemed in the East.

Japan or " black-shouldered " Peafowls.

As in most cases of domestic animals, pied or white varieties
of the ordinary peacock, Pavo crislalus, are not infrequently to
be seen, and they are valued as curiosities. Greater interest,
however, attends what is known as the Japanese or Japan
peacock, a form which has received the name of P. nigripennis,
as though it were a distinct species. In this form the cock,
besides other less conspicuous differences, has all the upper
wing-coverts of a deep lustrous blue instead of being mottled
with brown and white, while the hen is of a more or less grizzled-
white. It " breeds true "; but occasionally a presumably pure
stock of birds of the usual coloration throws out one or more
having the Japan plumage. It is to be observed that the male
has in the coloration of the parts mentioned no little resemblance
to that of the second indubitably good species, the P. muticus
(or P. spicifer of some writers) of Burma and Java, though the
character of the latter's crest — the feathers of which are barbed
along their whole length instead of at the tip only — and its

1 Classical authors contain many allusions to its high appreciation
at the most sumptuous banquets; and medieval bills of fare on state
occasions nearly always include it. In the days of chivalry one of
the most solemn oaths was taken "on the peacock," which seems to
have been served up garnished with ks gaudy plumage.

golden-green neck and breast furnish a ready means of distinction.
Sir R. Heron was confident that the. Japan breed had arisen in
England within his memory, 2 and C. Darwin (Animals and
Plants under Domestication, i. 290-292) was inclined to believe it
only a variety; but its abrupt appearance, which rests on indis-
putable evidence, is most suggestive in the light that it may one
day throw on the question of evolution as exhibited in the origin
of " species." It should be stated that the Japan bird is not
known to exist anywhere as a wild race, though apparently kept
in Japan. The accompanying illustration is copied from a plate
drawn by J. Wolf, given in D. G. Elliot's Monograph of the
Phasianidae.

The peafowls belong to the group Gallinae, from the normal mem-
bers of which they do not materially differ in structure; and, though
by some systematists they are raised to the rank of a family,
Pavonidae, most are content to regard them as a sub-family of
Phasianidae (Pheasant, q.v.). Akin to the genus Pavo is Poly-
plectrum, of which the males are armed with two or more spurs on
each leg, and near them is generally placed the genus Argusianus,
containing the argus-pheasants, remarkable for their wonderfully
ocellated plumage, and the extraordinary length of the secondary
quills of their wings, as well as of the tail-feathers. It must always
be remembered that the so-called " tail " of the peacock is formed
not by the rectrices or true tail-feathers, but by the singular develop-
ment of the tail-coverts. (A. N.)

'PEAK, THE, a high table-land in the north of Derbyshire,
England, included in the Pennine range of hills. The name,
however, is extended, without definite limits, to cover the whole
of the hilly district north of Buxton. The table-land reaches an
elevation of 2088 ft. in Kinder Scout. The geological formation
is millstone-grit, and the underlying beds are not domed, but
cup-shaped, dipping inward from the flanks of the mass. The
summit is a peaty moorland, through which masses of rock
project at intervals. The name of this high plateau has from the
17th century been identified with " peak," the pointed or conical
top of a mountain, but the very early references to the district
and certain places in it show clearly, as the New English
Dictionary points out, that this connexion is unwarranted. The
name appears in the Old English Chronicle (924) as Peaclond, of
the district governed from the castle of Peveril of the Peak (see
Derbyshire), and also in the name of the cavern under the hill
at Castleton, Peac's Arse. Peac, it has been suggested, is the
name of a local deity or demon, and possibly may be indentified
with Puck. For the etymology of " peak," point, &c, and its
variants or related words, " pick " and " pike," see Pike.

PEALE, CHARLES WILLSON (1741-1826), American portrait
painter, celebrated especially for his portraits of Washington,
was born in Queen Anne county, Maryland, on the 16th of April
1 74 1. During his infancy the family removed to Chestertown,
Kent county, Maryland, and after the death of his father
(a country schoolmaster) in 1750 they removed to Annapolis.
Here, at the age of 13, he was apprenticed to a saddler. About
1764 he began seriously to study art. He got some assistance
from Gustavus Hesselius, a Swedish portrait painter then living
near Annapolis, and from John Singleton Copley in Boston;
and in 1 767-1 770 he studied under Benjamin West in London.
In 1770 he opened a studio in Philadelphia, and met with
immediate success. In 1772, at Mount Vernon, Peale painted
a three-quarters-length study of Washington (the earliest known
portrait of him), in the uniform of a colonel of Virginia militia.
This canvas is now in the Lee Memorial Chapel of Washington
and Lee University. He painted various other portraits of
Washington; probably the best known in a full-length, which
was made in 1778, and of which Peale made many copies. This
portrait had been ordered by the Continental Congress, which,
however, made no appropriation for it, and eventually it was
bought for a private collection in Philadelphia. Peale painted
two miniatures of Mrs Washington (1772 and 1777), and portraits
of many of the famous men of the time, a number of which
are in Independence Hall, Philadelphia. His portraits of
Washington do not appeal so strongly to Americans as do those
of Gilbert Stuart, but his admitted skill as a draughtsman gives to
all of his work considerable historical value. Peale removed to
5 A. Newton himself regarded this as probably incorrect.

PEALE, R.— PEAR

23

Philadelphia in 1777, and served as a member of the committee
of public safety; he aided in raising a militia company, became a
lieutenant and afterwards a captain, and took part in the battles
of Trenton, Princeton and Germantown. In i77Q-i78ohe was
a member of the Pennsylvania assembly, where he voted for
the abolition of slavery — he freed his own slaves whom he had
brought from Maryland. In 1801 he undertook, largely at his
own expense, the excavation of the skeletons of two mastodons
in Ulster and Orange counties, New York, and in 1802 he estab-
lished at Philadelphia Peale's Museum. He was one of the
founders, in 1805, of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts
at Philadelphia. At the age of eighty-one Peale painted a large
canvas, " Christ Healing the Sick at Bethesda," and at eighty-
three a full-length portrait of himself, now in the Academy of the
Fine Arts. He died at his country home, near Germantown,
Pennsylvania, on the 22nd of February 1826.

His brother, James Peale (1749-1831), also an artist, painted
two portraits of Washington (one now the property of the New
York Historical Society, and the other in Independence Hall,
Philadelphia), besides landscapes and historical compositions.

PEALE, REMBRANDT (1778-1860), American artist, was born
in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, on the 22nd of February 1778,
the son of Charles Willson Peale (q.v.). He studied under his
father, under Benjamin West in London (1802-1803), and in
Paris in 1807 and 1809. As early as 1795 he had begun from life
a portrait of Washington. Of this he made many replicas, the
latest in 1823, purchased by the United States government
in 1832, and now in the Capitol of Washington. Peale was one
of the first of American lithographers. He was an excellent
draughtsman, but in colour his work cannot rank with his father's.
In 1843 he devised for the Philadelphia public schools a system
of teaching drawing and penmanship. His portraits include
those of President Jefferson, Mrs Madison, Commodores Perry,
Decatur, and Bainbridge, Houdon, the sculptor, General Arm-
strong, and an equestrian portrait of General Washington, now
in Independence Hall, Philadelphia. His " Court of Death "
(1820) is in the Detroit Art Gallery. In 1825 Peale succeeded
John Trumbull as president of the American Academy of Fine
Arts (founded in 1802 as the New York Academy of Fine Arts),
and he was one of the original members of the National
Academy of Design. He wrote several books, among them
Notes on Italy (1831), Reminiscences of Art and Artists (1845).
He died in Philadelphia on the 3rd of October i860.

A brother, Raphaelle Peale (1774-1825), was one of the
earliest of American still-life painters; and another brother,
Titian Ramsey Peale (1800-1885), made numerous drawings,
some of them in water-colour, in illustration of animal life.

See " Rembrandt Peale," partly autobiographical, in C. E. Lester's
The Artists of America (New York, 1846).

PEAR (Pyrus communis), a member of the natural order
Rosaceae, belonging to the same genus as the apple (P.malus),
which it resembles in floral structure. In both cases the so-
called fruit is composed of the receptacle or upper end of the
flower-stalk (the so-called calyx tube) greatly dilated, and en-
closing within its cellular flesh the five cartilaginous carpels which
constitute the " core " and are really the true fruit. From the
upper rim of the receptacle are given off the five sepals, the five
petals, and the very numerous stamens. The form of the pear
and of the apple respectively, although usually characteristic
enough, is not by itself sufficient to distinguish them, for there
are pears which cannot by form alone be distinguished from
apples, and apples which cannot by superficial appearance be
recognized from pears. The main distinction is the occurrence
in the tissue of the fruit, or beneath the rind, of clusters of cells
filled with hard woody deposit in the case of the pear, constituting
the " grit," while in the apple no such formation of woody cells
takes place. The appearance of the tree — the bark, the foliage,
the flowers — is, however, usually quite characteristic in the
two species. Cultivated pears, whose number is enormous, are
without doubt derived from one or two wild species widely
distributed throughout Europe and western Asia, and sometimes
forming part of the natural vegetation of the forests. In England,

where the pear is sometimes considered wild, there is always
the doubt that it may not really be so, but the produce of some
seed of a cultivated tree deposited by birds or otherwise, which
has degenerated into the wild spine-bearing tree known as
Pyrus communis.

The cultivation of the pear extends to the remotest antiquity.
Traces of it have been found in the Swiss lake-dwellings; it is
mentioned in the oldest Greek writings, and was cultivated by
the Romans. The word " pear " or its equivalent occurs in all
the Celtic languages, while in Slavonic and other dialects different
appellations, but still referring to the same thing, are found — a
diversity and multiplicity of nomenclature which led Alphonse
de Candolle to infer a very ancient cultivation of the tree from
the shores of the Caspian to those of the Atlantic. A certain
race of pears, with white down on the under surface of their
leaves, is supposed to have originated from P. nivalis, and their
fruit is chiefly used in France in the manufacture of Perry (see
Cider). Other small-fruited pears, distinguished by their
precocity and apple-like fruit, may be referred to P. cordata, a
species found wild in western France, and in Devonshire and
Cornwall.

Karl Koch considered that cultivated pears were the descendants
of three species — P. persica (from which the bergamots have
descended), P. elaeagrifolia and P. sinensis. J. Decaisne, who made
the subject one of critical study for a number of years, and not only
investigated the wild forms, but carefully studied the peculiarities
of the numerous varieties cultivated in the Jardin des Plantes at
Paris, refers all cultivated pears to one species, the individuals of
which have in course of time diverged in various directions, so as
to form now six races: (1) the Celtic, including P. cordata; (2) the
Germanic, including P. communis, P. achras, and P. piraster; (3)
the Hellenic, including P. parviflora, P. sinaica and others; (4)
the Pontic, including P. elaeagrifolia; (5) the Indian, comprising
P. Paschae; and (6) the Mongolic, represented by P. sinensis. With
reference to the Celtic race, P. cordata, it is interesting to note its
connexion with Arthurian legend and the Isle of Avalon or Isle of
Apples. An island in Loch Awe has a Celtic legend containing the
principal features of Arthurian story; but in this case the word is
" berries " instead of " apples." Dr Phene visited Armorica
(Brittany) with a view of investigating these matters, and brought
thence fruits of a small berry-like pear, which were identified
with the Pyrus cordata of western France.

Cultivation. — The pear may be readily raised by sowing the
pips of ordinary cultivated or of wilding kinds, these forming
what are known as free or pear stocks, on which the choicer
varieties are grafted for increase. For new varieties the flowers
should be fertilized with a view to combine, in the seedlings
which result from the union, the desirable qualities of the parents.
The dwarf and pyramid trees, more usually planted in gardens,
are obtained by grafting on the quince stock, the Portugal quince
being the best; but this stock, from its surface-rooting habit,
is most suitable for soils of a cold damp nature. The pear-stock,
having an inclination to send its roots down deeper intc the soil,
is the best for light dry soils, as the plants are not then so likely
to suffer in dry seasons. Some of the finer pears do not unite
readily with the quince, and in this case double working is
resorted to; that is to say, a vigorous-growing pear is first
grafted on the quince, and then the choicer pear is grafted on
the pear introduced as its foster parent.

In selecting young pear trees for walls or espaliers, some
persons prefer plants one year old from the graft, but trees two
or three years trained are equally good. The trees should be
planted immediately before or after the fall of the leaf. The wall
trees require to be planted from 25 to 30 ft. apart when on free
stocks, and from 15 to 20 ft. when dwarfed. Where the trees
are trained as pyramids or columns they may stand 8 or 10 ft.
apart, but standards in orchards should be allowed at least 30 ft.,
and dwarf bush trees half that distance.

In the formation of the trees the same plan may be adopted as
in the case of the apple. For the pear orchard a warm situation
is very desirable, with a soil deep, substantial, and thoroughly
drained. Any good free loam is suitable, but a calcareous loam
is the best. Pear trees worked on the quince should have the
stock covered up to its junction with the graft. This is effected
by raising up a small mound of rich compost around it, a contriv-
ance which induces the graft to emit roots into the surface soil.

24

PEARCE— PEARL

and also keeps the stock from becoming hard or bark-bound.
The fruit of the pear is produced on spurs, which appear on shoots
more than one year old. The mode most commonly adopted
of training wall pear-trees is the horizontal. For the slender
twiggy sorts the fan form is to be preferred, while for strong
growers the half-fan or the horizontal is more suitable. In the
latter form old trees, the summer pruning of which has been
neglected, are apt to acquire an undue projection from the wall
and become scraggy, to avoid which a portion of the old spurs
should be cut out annually.

The summer pruning of established wall or espalier-rail trees
consists chiefly in the timely displacing, shortening back, or
rubbing off of the superfluous shoots, so that the winter pruning,
in horizontal training, is little more than adjusting the leading
shoots and thinning out the spurs, which should be kept close to
the wall and allowed to retain but two or at most three buds.
In fan-training the subordinate branches must be regulated, the
spurs thinned out, and the young laterals finally established in
their places. When horizontal trees have fallen into disorder, the
branches may be cut back to within o in. of the vertical stem
and branch, and trained in afresh, or they may be grafted with
other sorts, if a variety of kinds is wanted.

Summer and autumn pears should be gathered before they are
fully ripe, otherwise they will not in general keep more than a
few days. The Jargonelle should be allowed to remain on the
tree and be pulled daily as wanted, the fruit from standard trees
thus succeeding the produce of the wall trees. In the case of
the Crassane the crop should be gathered at three different
times, the first a fortnight or more before it is ripe, the second
a week or ten days after that, and the third when fully ripe.
The first gathering will come into eating latest, and thus the
season of the fruit may be considerably prolonged. It is
evident that the same method may be followed with other
sorts which continue only a short time in a mature state.

Diseases. — The pear is subject to several diseases caused by fungi.
Gymnosporangium sabinae, one of the rusts (Uredineae) passes one
stage of its life-history on living pear leaves, forming large raised
spots or patches which are at first yellow but soon become red and
are visible on both faces; on the lower face of each patch is a group
of cluster-cups or aecidia containing spores which escape when ripe.
This stage in the life-history was formerly regarded as a distinct
fungus with the name Roeslelia cancellata ; it is now known, however,
that the spores germinate on young juniper leaves, in which they give
rise to this other stage in the plant's history known as Gymnospor-
angium. The gelatinous, generally reddish-brown masses of spores—
the teleutospores — formed on the juniper in the spring germinate
and form minute spores — sporidia — which give rise to the aecidium
stage on the pear. Diseased pear leaves should be picked off and
destroyed before the spores are scattered and the various species of
juniper on which the alternate stage is developed should not be
allowed near the pear trees.

Pear scab is caused by a parasitic fungus, Fusicladium pyrinum,
very closely allied and perhaps merely a form of the apple scab

fungus, F. dendriticum. As in
e the case of the apple disease it
forms large irregular blackish
blotches on the fruit and
leaves, the injury being often
very severe especially in a cool,
damp season. The fungus
mycelium grows between the
cuticle and the epidermis,
the former being ultimately
ruptured by numerous short
branches bearing spores (con-
idia) by means of which the
disease is spread. As a pre-
ventive repeated spraying
with dilute Bordeaux mixture
is recommended, during the
flowering season and early
development of the fruit.
Similar spraying is recom-
(Fiom a specimen in the British Museum.) mended for pear-leaf blister
Pear Scab (Fusicladium pyrinum). c^. 5 ^ by Taphrina bullata,
, t , . j- . which forms swollen areas on

1, Leaf showing diseased areas. the leaves. Pear trees may

2. Section of leaf surface showing the algo be attacked by a gre / t
spores or comdta, c, borne on long vaf ; et o{ insec( . ' ts Thug
stalks (conidiophores). the younger branches are often

injured by the pearl oyster scale (Aspidiotus ostreaeformis), which

may be removed by washing in winter with soft soap and hot
water. A number of larvae of Lepidoptera feed on the leaves — ■
the remedy is to capture the mature insects when possible. The
winter moth (Cheimatobia brumata) must be kept in check by putting
greasy bands round the trunks from October till December or
January, to catch the wingless females that crawl up and deposit
their eggs in the cracks and crevices in the bark. The caterpillars
of the leopard moth (Zeuzera pyrina) and of the goat moth (Cossus
ligniperda) sometimes bore their way into the trunks and destroy
the sap channels. If badly bored, the trees are useless; but in

Pear-leaf Cluster-cups (Gymnosporangium sabinae).
I. Leaf showing groups of cups or aecidia. 2, Early stage of
disease. 3, Cups,
the early stages if the entrance of the caterpillars has been detected,
a wire should be pushed into the hole. One of the worst pests
of pear trees is the pear midge, known as Diplosis pyrivora or
Cecidomyia nigra, the females of which lay their eggs in the flower-
buds before they open. The yellow maggots devour the seeds and
thus ruin the crop. When deformed fruits are noticed they should
be picked off and burned immediately. Species of aphides may be
removed by tobacco infusion, soapsuds or other solutions. A gall
mite (Phytoplus pyri) sometimes severely injures the leaves, on
which it forms blisters — the best remedy is to cut off and burn
the diseased leaves.

The Alligator or Avocado Pear is Persea gratissima, a member
of the natural order Lauraceae, and a native of the West Indies
and other parts of tropical America. It is a tree of 25 to 30 ft.
high and bears large pear-shaped fruits, green or deep purple in
colour, with a firm yellowish-green marrow-like pulp surrounding
a large seed. The pulp is much esteemed in the West Indies and
is eaten as a salad, usually with the addition of pepper, salt and
vinegar. The pulp contains much oil, which is used for lighting
and soap-making, and the seeds yield a deep indelible black
stain which is used for marking linen.

Prickly pear is the popular name for species of Opuntia (see
Cactus).

The name wooden pear is applied to the fruits of Xylomelum
(nat. ord. Proteaceae), an Australian genus of trees with very
thick, woody, inversely pear-shaped fruits which split into two
parts when ripe.

PEARCE, CHARLES SPRAGUE (1851- ), American artist,
was born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the 13th of October 1851.
In 1873 he became a pupil of Leon Bonnat in Paris, and after
1885 he lived in Paris and at Auvers-sur-Oise. He painted
Egyptian and Algerian scenes, French peasants, and portraits,
and also decorative work, notably for the Congressional Library
at Washington. He received medals at the Paris Salon and
elsewhere, and was decorated with the Legion of Honour, the
order of Leopold, Belgium, the order of the Red Eagle, Prussia,
and the order of Dannebrog, Denmark. Among his best known
paintings are " The Decapitation of St John the Baptist "
(i88i),in the Art Institute of Chicago; " Prayer " (1884), owned
by the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association; " The
Return of the Flock," in the Bohemian Club, San Francisco;
and " Meditation," in the New York Metropolitan Museum.

PEARL. Pearls are calcareous concretions of peculiar lustre,
produced by certain molluscs, and valued as objects of personal
ornament. The experience of pearl-fishers shows that those
shells which are irregular in shape and stunted in growth, or

PEARL

25

which bear excrescences, or are honeycombed by boring parasites,
are those most likely to yield pearls.

The substance of a pearl is essentially the same as that which
lines the interior of many shells and is known as " mother-of-
pearl." Sir D. Brewster first showed that the iridescence of this
substance was an optical phenomenon due to the interference of
rays- of light reflected from microscopic corrugations of the surface
— an effect which may be imitated by artificial striations on a suit-
able medium. When the inner laminated portion of a nacreous
shell is digested in acid the calcareous layers are dissolved away,
leaving a very delicate membranous pellicle, which, as shown
by Dr Carpenter, may retain the iridescence as long as it is
undisturbed, but which loses it when pressed or stretched.

It is obvious that if a pearl presents a perfectly spherical form
it must have remained loose in the substance of the muscles or
other soft tissues of the mollusc. Frequently, however, the pearl
becomes cemented to the interior of the shell, the point of attach-
ment thus interfering with its symmetry. In this position it may
receive successive nacreous deposits, which ultimately form a
pearl of hemispherical shape, so that when cut from the shell it
may be flat on one side and convex on the other, forming what
jewelers know as a " perle bouton." In the course of growth
the pearl may become involved in the general deposit of mother-
of-pearl, and be ultimately buried in the substance of the shell.
It has thus happened that fine pearls have occasionally been
unexpectedly brought to light in cutting up mother-of-pearl in
the workshop.

When a pearl oyster is attacked by a boring parasite the
mollusc protects itself by depositing nacreous matter at the point
of invasion, thus forming a hollow body of irregular shape known
as a " blister pearl." Hollow warty pearl is sometimes termed
in trade " coq de perle." Solid pearls of irregular form are often
produced by deposition on rough objects, such as small fragments
of wood, and these, and in fact all irregular-shaped pearls, are
termed " perles baroques," or " barrok pearls." It appears that
the Romans in the period of the Decline restricted the name unio
to the globular pearl, and termed the baroque margaritum. It
was fashionable in the 16th and 17th centuries to mount curiously
shaped baroques in gold and enamel so as to form ornamental
objects of grotesque character. A valuable collection of such
mounted pearls by Dinglinger is preserved in the Green vaults at
Dresden.

A pearl of the first water should possess, in jewelers' language,
a perfect " skin " and a fine " orient "; that is to say, it must be
of delicate texture, free from speck or flaw, and of clear almost
translucent white colour, with a subdued iridescent sheen. It
should also be perfectly spherical, or, if not, of a symmetrical
pear-shape. On removing the outer layer of a pearl the sub-
jacent surface is generally dull, like a dead fish-eye, but it
occasionally happens that a poorpearl encloses a "lively kernel,"
and may therefore be improved by careful peeling. The most
perfect pearl in existence is said to be one, known as " La Pelle-
grina," in the museum of Zosima in Moscow; it is a perfectly
globular Indian pearl of singular beauty, weighing 28 carats.
The largest known pearl is one of irregular shape in the Beresford
Hope collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum. This
magnificent pearl weighs 3 oz., has a circumference of 4^ in., and
is surmounted by an enamelled and jewelled gold crown, forming
a pendant of great value.

Pearl Fisheries. — The ancients obtained their pearls chiefly
from India and the Persian Gulf, but at the present time they are
also procured from the Sulu seas, the coast of Australia, the shores
of Central America and some of the South Pacific Islands. The
ancient fisheries of Ceylon (Taprobane) are situated in the Gulf
of Manaar, the fishing-banks lying from 6 to 8 m. off the western
shore, a little to the south of the isle of Manaar. The Tinnevelly
fishery is on the Madras side of the strait, near Tuticorin. These
Indian fishing-grounds are under the control of government
inspectors, who regulate the fisheries. The oysters yield the
best pearls at about four years of age. Fishing generally com-
mences in the second week in March, and lasts for from four to six
weeks, according to the season. The boats are grouped in fleets

of from sixty to seventy, and start usually at midnight so as to
reach the oyster-banks at sunrise. Each boat generally carries
ten divers. On reaching the bank a signal-gun is fired, and diving
commences. A stone weighing about 40 lb is attached to
the cord by which the diver is let down. The divers work in
pairs, one man diving while the other watches the signal-cord,
drawing up the sink-stone first, then hauling up the baskets of
oysters, and finally raising the diver himself. On an average the
divers remain under water from fifty to eighty seconds, though
exceptional instances are cited of men remaining below for as
long as six minutes. After resting for a minute or two at the
surface, the diver descends again; and so on, until exhausted,
when he comes on board and watches the rope, while his comrade
relieves him as diver. The native descends naked, carrying only
a girdle for the support of the basket in which he places the pearl
oysters. In his submarine work the diver makes skilful use of his
toes. To arm himself against the attacks of the sharks and other
fishes which infest the Indian waters he carries spikes of iron-
wood; and the genuine Indian diver never descends without the
incantations of shark-charmers, one of whom accompanies the
boat while others remain on shore. As a rule the diver is a short-
lived man.

The diving continues from sunrise to about noon, when a gun
is fired. On the arrival of the fleet at shore the divers carry their
oysters to a shed, where they are made up into four heaps, one
of which is taken by the diver. The oysters are then sold by
auction in lots of 1000 each. The pearls, after removal from the
dead oysters, are " classed " by passing through a number of
small brass colanders, known as " baskets," the holes in the
successive vessels being smaller and smaller. Having been sized
in this way, they are sorted as to colour, weighed and valued.

Since the days of the Macedonians pearl-fishing has been
carried on in the Persian Gulf. It is said that the oyster-beds
extend along the entire Arabian coast of the gulf, but the most
important are on sandbanks off the islands of Bahrein. The chief
centre of the trade is the port of Lingah. Most of the products
of this fishery are known as " Bombay pearls," from the fact that
many of the best are sold there. The shells usually present a
dark colour about the edges, like that of " smoked pearl." The
yellow-tinted pearls are sent chiefly to Bombay, while the whitest
go to Bagdad. Very small pearls, much below a pea in size,
are generally known as " seed-pearls," and these are valued in
India and China as constituents of certain electuaries, while
occasionally they are calcined for chunam, or lime, used with betel
as a masticatory. There is a small pearl-fishery near Karachi
on the coast of Bombay.

From the time of the Ptolemies pearl-fishing has been
prosecuted along the coast of the Red Sea, especially in the
neighbourhood of Jiddah and Koseir. This fishery is now
insignificant, but the Arabs still obtain from this district a
quantity of mother-of-pearl shells, which are shipped from
Alexandria, and come into the market as " Egyptians."

Very fine pearls are obtained from the Sulu Archipelago, on
the north-east of Borneo. The mother-of-pearl shells from the
Sulu seas are characterized by a yellow colour on the border and
back, which unfits them for many ornamental purposes. Pearl
oysters are also abundant in the seas around the Aru Islands to
the south-west of New Guinea. From Labuan a good many
pearl-shells are occasionally sent to Singapore. They are also
obtained from the neighbourhood of Timor, and from New
Caledonia. The pearl oyster occurs throughout the Pacific,
mostly in the clear water of the lagoons within the atolls, though
fine shells are also found in deep water outside the coral reefs.
The Polynesian divers do not employ sink-stones, and the women
are said to be more skilful than the men. They anoint their
bodies with oil before diving. Fine pearl-shells are obtained
from Navigators' Islands, the Society Islands, the Low Archi-
pelago or Paumota Isles and the Gambier Islands. Many of
the Gambier pearls present a bronzy tint.

Pearl-fishing is actively prosecuted along the western coast of
Central America, especially in the Gulf of California, and to a less
extent around the Pearl Islands in the Bay of Panama. The

26

PEARL

fishing-grounds are in water about 40 ft. deep, and the season
lasts for four months. An ordinary fishing-party expects to
obtain about three tons of shells per day, and it is estimated that
one shell in a thousand contains a pearl. The pearls are shipped
in barrels from San Francisco and Panama. Some pearls of rare
beauty have been obtained from the Bay of Mulege, near Los
Coyetes, in the gulf of California; and in 1882 a pearl of 75 carats,
the largest on record from this district, was found near La Paz
in California. The coast of Guayaquil also yields pearls.
Columbus found that pearl-fishing was carried on in his time in
the Gulf of Mexico, and pearls are still obtained from the Carib-
bean Sea. In the West Indies the best pearls are obtained from
St Thomas and from the island of Margarita, off the coast of
Venezuela. From Margarita Philip II. of Spain is said to have
obtained in 1579 a famous pearl of 250 carats.

Of late years good pearls have been found in Shark's Bay, on
the coast of West Australia, especially in an inlet termed Useless
Harbour. Mother-of-pearl shells are also fished at many other
points along the western coast, between the 15th and 25th
parallels of south latitude. An important pearl-fishery is also
established in Torres Strait and on the coast of Queensland.
The shells occur in water from four to six fathoms deep, and the
divers are generally Malays and Papuans, though sometimes
native Australians. On the western coast of Australia the
pearl-shells are obtained by dredging rather than by diving.
Pearl-shells have also been found at Port Darwin and in
Oakley Creek, New Zealand.

River pearls are produced by the species of Unio and Anoionta,
especially by Unio margariliferus. These species belong to the family
Unionidae, order Eulamellebranchia. They inhabit the mountain-
streams of temperate climates in the northern hemisphere —
especially in Scotland, Wales, Ireland, Saxony, Bohemia, Bavaria,
Lapland and Canada. The pearls of Britain are mentioned by
Tacitus and by Pliny ; and a breastplate studded with British pearls
was dedicated by Julius Caesar to Venus Genetrix. As early as
1355 Scotch pearls are referred to in a statute of the goldsmiths of
Paris; and in the reign of Charles II. the Scotch pearl trade was
sufficiently important to attract the attention of parliament. The
Scotch pearl-fishery, after having declined for years, was revived
in i860 by a German named Moritz Unger, who visited Scotland
and bought up all the pearls he could find in the hands of the peasan-
try, thus leading to an eager search for more pearls the following
season. It is estimated that in 1865 the produce of the season's
fishing in the Scotch rivers was worth at least £12,000. This
yield, however, was not maintained, and at the present time only
a few pearls are obtained at irregular intervals by an occasional
fisherman.

The principal rivers in Scotland which have yielded pearls are
the Spey, the Tay and the South Esk; and to a less extent the Doon,
the Dee, the Don, the Ythan, the Teith, the Forth and many other
streams. In North Wales the Conway was at one time celebrated
for its pearls; and it is related that Sir Richard Wynn, chamberlain
to the queen of Charles II., presented her with a Conway pearl
which is believed to occupy a place in the British crown. In Ireland
the rivers of Donegal, Tyrone and Wexford have yielded pearls.
It is said that Sir John Hawkins the circumnavigator had a patent
for pearl-fishing in the Irt in Cumberland. Although the pearl-
fisheries of Britain are now neglected, it is otherwise with those of
Germany. The most important of these arc in the forest-streams of
Bavaria, between Ratisbon and Passau. The Saxon fisheries are
chiefly confined to the basin of the White Elster, and those of
Bohemia to the Horazdiowitz district of Wotawa. For more than
two centuries the Saxon fisheries have been carefully regulated
by inspectors, who examine the streams every spring, and determine
where fishing is to be permitted. After a tract has been fished over,
it is left to rest for ten or fifteen years. The fisher-folk open the
valves of the mussels with an iron instrument, and if they find no
pearl restore the mussel to the water.

River pearls are found in many parts of the United States, and
have been systematically worked in the Little Miami river, Warren
county, Ohio, and also on the Mississippi, especially about Musca-
tine, Iowa. The season extends from June to October. Japan
produces fresh-water pearls, found especially in the Anoionta
japonica. But it is in China that the culture of the pearl-mussel
is carried to the greatest perfection. The Chinese also obtain marine
pearls, and use a large quantity of mother-of-pearl for decorative
purposes. More than twenty-two centuries before our era pearls
are enumerated as a tribute or tax in China; and they are mentioned
as products of the western part of the empire in the Rh'ya, a
dictionary compiled earlier than 1000 B.C. A process for promoting
the artificial formation of pearls in the Chinese river-mussels was
discovered by Ye-jin-yang, a native of Hoochow, in the 13th
century ; and this process is still extensively carried on near the city

of Teh-tsing, where it forms the staple industry of several villages,
and is said to give employment to about 5000 people. Large num-
bers of the mussels are collected in May and June, and the valves
of each are gently opened with a spatula to allow of the introduction
of various foreign bodies, which are inserted by means of a forked
bamboo stick. These " matrices " are generally pellets of prepared
mud, but may be small bosses of bone, brass or wood. After a num-
ber of these objects have been placed in convenient positions on one
valve, the unfortunate mollusc is turned over and the operation is
repeated on the other valve. The mussels are then placed in shallow
ponds connected with the canals, and are nourished by tubs of night-
soil being thrown in from time to time. After several months, in
some cases two or three years, the mussels are removed, and the
pearls which have formed over the matrices are cut from the shells,
while the molluscs themselves serve as food. The matrix is generally
extracted from the pearl and the cavity filled with white wax, the
aperture being neatly sealed up so as to render the appearance of the
pearl as perfect as possible. Millions of such pearls are annually
sold at Soo-chow. The most curious of these Chinese pearls are those
which present the form of small seated images of Buddha. The
figures are cast in very thin lead, or stamped in tin, and are inserted
as previously described. Specimens of these Buddha pearls in the
British Museum are referred to the species Dipsas plicata. It
should be mentioned that Linnaeus, probably ignorant of what
had long been practised in China, demonstrated the possibility of
producing artificial pearls in the fresh-water mussels of Sweden.

Pink pearls are occasionally found in the great conch or fountain
shell of the West Indies, Strombus gigas, L. ; but these, though much
prized, are not nacreous, and their tint is apt to fade. They are also
produced by the chank shell, Turbinella scolymns, L. 1 Yellowish-
brown pearls, of little or no value, are yielded by the Pinna squamosa,
and bad-coloured concretions are formed by the Placuna placenta. 11
Black pearls, which are very highly valued, are obtained chiefly
from the pearl oyster of the Gulf of Mexico. The common marine
mussel Mytilus edulis also produces pearls, which are, however, of
little value.

According to the latest researches the cause of pearl-formation
is in most cases, perhaps in all, the dead body of a minute parasite
within the tissues of a mollusc, around which nacreous deposit is
secreted. The parasite is a stage in the life history of a Trema-
tode in some cases, in others of a Cestode; that is to say of a form
resembling the common liver-fluke of the sheep, or of a tape-
worm. As long ago as 1852 Filippi of Turin showed that the
species of Trematode Distomum duplicatum was the cause of a
pearl formation in the fresh-water mussel Anodonta. Kuchen-
meister subsequently investigated the question at Elster in
Saxony and came to a different conclusion, namely that the
central body of the pearl was a small specimen of a species of
water mite which is a very common parasite of A nodonta. Filippi
however states that the mite is only rarely found within a
pearl, the Trematode occurring in the great majority of cases.
R. Dubois and Dr H. Lyster Jameson have made special investi-
gations of the process in the common mussel Mytilus edulis.
The latter states that the pearl is produced in a sac which is
situated beneath the epidermis of the mantle and is lined by an
epithelium. This epithelium is not derived from the cells of the
epidermis but from the internal connective-tissue cells. This
statement, if correct, is contrary to what would be expected, for
calcareous matter is usually secreted by the external epidermis
only. The sac or cyst is formed by the larva of a species of
Trematode belonging to the genus Leucithodendrium, a species
closely resembling and probably identical with L. somateriae,
which lives in the adult state in the eider duck. At Billiers,
Morbihan, in France, the host of the adult Trematode is another
species of duck, namely the common Scoter, Oedemia nigra, which
is notorious in the locality for its avidity for mussels. Trema-
todes of the family Distomidae, to which the parasite under
consideration belongs, usually have three hosts in each of which
they pass different stages of the life history. In this case the first
host at Billiers is a species of bivalve called Tapes decussatus, but
at Piel in Lancashire there are no Tapes and the first stages of the
parasite are found in the common cockle. The Trematode
enters the first host as a minute newly hatched embryo and

1 Strombus gigas, L., is a Gastropod belonging to the family
Strombidae, of the order Pectinibranchia. Turbinella scolymus,
Lam., is a Gastropod of the same order.

2 Placuna placenta, L., belongs to the family Anomiidae; it is
found on the shores of North Australia. Pinna squamosa, Gmelin,
belongs to the Ostreacea; it occurs in the Mediterranean. Both
are Lamellibranchs.

PEARL, THE

leaves it in the form called Cercaria, which is- really an immature
condition of the adult. The Cercaria makes its way into the
tissues of a mussel and there becomes enclosed in the cyst
previously described. If the mussel is then swallowed by the
duck the Cercariae develop into adult Trematodes or flukes in the
liver or intestines of the bird. In the mussels which escape being
devoured the parasites cannot develop further, and they die and
become embedded in the nacreous deposit which forms a pearl.
Dr Jameson points out that, as in other cases, pearls in Mytilus
are common in certain special localities and rare elsewhere, and
that the said localities are those where the parasite and its hosts
are plentiful.

The first suggestion that the most valuable pearls obtained
from pearl oysters in tropical oceans might be due to parasites
was made by Kelaart in reports to the government of Ceylon in
1857-1859. Recently a special investigation of the Ceylon pearl
fishery has been organized by Professor Herdman. Herdman and
Hornell find that in the pearl oyster of Ceylon Margaritifera
vulgaris, Schum, the nucleus of the pearl is, in all specimens
examined, the larva of a Cestode or tapeworm. This larva is of
globular form and is of the type known as a cysticercus. As in
the case of the mussel the larva dies in its cyst and its remains are
enshrined in nacreous deposit, so that, as a French writer has
said, the ornament associated in all ages with beauty and riches
is nothing but the brilliant sarcophagus of a worm.

The cysticercus described by Herdman and Hornell has on the
surface a muscular zone within which is a depression containing
a papilla which can be protruded. It was at first identified as
the larva of a tapeworm called Tetrarhynchus, and Professor
Herdman concluded that the life-history of the pearl parasite
consisted of four stages, the first being exhibited by free larvae
which were taken at the surface of the sea, the second that in the
pearl oyster, the third a form found in the bodies of file-fishes
which feed on the oysters, and the fourth or adult stage living in
some species of large ray. It has not however been proved that
the pearl parasite is a Tetrarhynchus, nor that it is connected
with the free larva or the form found in the file-fish, Balistes; nor
has the adult form been identified. All that is certain is that
the pearls are due to the presence of a parasite which is the larva
of a Cestode; all the rest is probability or possibility. A French
naturalist, M. Seurat, studying the pearl oyster of the Gambier
Archipelago in the Pacific, found that pearl formation was due
to a parasite quite similar to that described by Herdman and
Hornell. This parasite was described by Professor Giard as
characterized by a rostrum arm'ed with a single terminal sucker
and he did not identify it with Tetrarhynchus.

Genuine precious pearls and the most valuable mother-of-pearl
are produced by various species and varieties of the genus Meleagrina
of Lamarck, for which Dr Jameson in his recent revision of the species
prefers the name Margaritifera. The genus is represented in tropical
regions in all parts of the world. It belongs to the family Aviculidae,
which is allied to the Pectens or scallop shells. In this family the
hinge border is straight and prolonged into two auriculae; the foot
has a very stout byssus. Meleagrina is distinguished by the small
size or complete absence of the posterior auricula. The species are
as follows. The type species is Meleagrina margaritifera, which has
no teeth on the hinge. Geographical races are distinguished by
different names in the trade. Specimens from the Malay Archipelago
have a dark band along the margin of the nacre and are known as
black-edged Banda shell; those from Australia and New Guinea
and the neighbouring islands of the western Pacific are called
Australian and New Guinea black-lip. Another variety occurs in
Tahiti, Gambier Islands and Eastern Polynesia generally, yielding
both pearls and shell. It occurs also in China, Ceylon, the Andaman
Islands and the Maldives. Another form is taken at Zanzibar, Mada-
gascar, and the neighbouring islands, and is called Zanzibar and
Madagascar shell. Bombay shell is another local form fished in
the Persian Gulf and shipped via Bombay. The Red Sea variety
is known as Egyptian shell. Another variety occurs along the west
coast of America and from Panama to Vancouver, and supplies
Panama shell and some pearls. A larger form, attaining a foot in
diameter and a weight of 10 lb per pair of shells, is considered as a
distinct species by Dr Jameson and named Margaritifera maxima.
It is found along the north coast of Australia and New Guinea and
the Malay Archipelago. The nacreous surface of this shell is white,
without the black or dark margin of the common species; it is
known in the trade as the silver-lip, gold-lip and by other names.
It is the most valuable species of mother-of-pearl oyster.

27

Dr Jameson distinguishes in addition to the above thirty-two
species of Margaritifera or Meleagrina; all these have rudimentary
teeth on the hinge. The most important species is Meleagrina
vulgaris, to which belong the pearl oyster of Ceylon and southern
India, the lingah shell of the Persian Gulf and the pearl oyster of
the Red Sea. Since the opening of the Suez Canal the latter form
has invaded the Mediterranean, specimens having been taken at
Alexandria and at Malta, and attempts have been made to cultivate
it on the French coast. The species occurs also on the coasts of the
Malay Peninsula, Australia and New Guinea, where it is fished both
for its shells (Australian lingah) and for pearls. Two species occur
on the coasts of South Africa but have no market value. Melea-
grina carchariarum is the Shark's Bay shell of the London market.
It is_ taken in large quantities at Shark's Bay, Western Australia,
and is of rather small value; it also yields pearls of inferior quality.
The pearl oyster of Japan, known as Japan lingah, is probably a
variety of Meleagrina vulgaris. Meleagrina radiata is the West
Indian pearl oyster.

The largest and steadiest consumption of mother-of-pearl is in
the button trade, and much is also consumed by cutlers for handles
of fruit and dessert knives and forks, pocket-knives, &c. It is also
used in the inlaying of Japanese and Chinese lacquers, European
lacquered papier-mache work, trays, &c, and as an ornamental
inlay generally. The carving of pilgrim shells and the elaboration of
crucifixes and ornamental work in mother-of-pearl is a distinctive
industry of the monks and other inhabitants of Bethlehem. Among
the South Sea Islands the shell is largely fashioned into fishing-hooks.
Among shells other than those of Meleagrina margaritifera used as
mother-of-pearl may be mentioned the Green Ear or Ormer shell
(Haliotis tuberculata) and several other species of Haliotis, besides
various species of Turbo.

Artificial pearls were first made in western Europe in 1680 by
Jacquin, a rosary-maker in Paris, and the trade is now largely carried
on in France, Germany and Italy. Spheres of thin glass are filled
with a preparation known as " essence d'orient," made from the
silvery scales of the bleak or " ablette," which is caused to adhere
to the inner wall of the globe, and the cavity is then filled with
white wax. Many imitation pearls are now formed of an opaline
glass of nacreous lustre, and the soft appearance of the pearl obtained
by the judicious use of hydrofluoric acid. An excellent substitute
for black pearl is found in the so-called " ironstone jewelry," and
consists of close-grained haematite, not roo highly polished ; but the
great density of the haematite immediately destroys the illusion.
Pink pearls are imitated by turning small spheres out of the rosy
part of the conch shell, or even out of pink coral.

See Clements R. Markham, " The Tinnevelly Pearl Fishery,"
in Journ. Soc. Arts (1867), xv., 256; D. T. Macgowan, " Pearls and
Pearl-making in China," ibid. (1854), ii. 72; F. Hague, "On the
Natural and Artificial Production of Pearls in China," in Journ. Roy.
Asiatic Soc. (1856), vol. xvi. ; H. J. Le Beck, " Pearl Fishery in the
Gulf of Manar," in Asiatic Researches (1798), v. 393; K. Mobius,
Die echten Perlen (Hamburg, 1857) ; H. Lyster Jameson, " Formation
of Pearls," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1902), pi. 1 ; idem, " On the Identity and
Distribution of Mother-of-Pearl Oysters," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1901),
pi. I, pp. 372-394; Herdman and Hornell, Rep-Ceylon Pearl Fisheries
(London, Royal Soc, 1903) ; and Kunz and Stevenson, Book of the
Pearl (New York, 1908), with bibliography. (J. T. C.)

PEARL, THE. The Middle-English poem known as Pearl, or
The Pearl, is preserved in the unique manuscript Cotton Nero
Ax at the British Museum; in this volume are contained also the
poems Cleanness, Patience, and Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight.
All the pieces are in the same handwriting, and from internal
evidences of dialect, style and parallel references, it is now
generally accepted that the poems are all by the same author.
The MS., which is quaintly illustrated, belongs to the end of
the 14th or the beginning of the 15th century, and appears to
be but little later than the date of composition; no line of Pearl
or of the other poems is elsewhere to be found.

Pearl is a poet's lament for the loss of a girl-child, " who
lived not upon earth two years " — the poet is evidently the
child's father. In grief he visits the little grave, and there in
a vision beholds his Pearl, now transfigured as a queen of
heaven — he sees her beneath " a crystal rock," beyond a stream;
the dreamer would fain cross over, but cannot. From the
opposite bank Pearl, grown in wisdom as in stature, instructs
him in lessons of faith and resignation, expounds to him the
mystery of her transfiguration, and leads him to a glimpse of the
New Jerusalem. Suddenly the city is filled with glorious
maidens, who in long procession glide towards the throne, all
of them clad in white, pearl-bedecked robes as Pearl herself.
And there he sees, too, "his little queen." A great love-
longing possesses him to be by her. He must needs plunge

28

PEARSALL— PEARSON, C. H.

into the stream that keeps him from her. In the very effort
the dreamer awakes, to find himself resting upon the little
mound where his Pearl had " strayed below ": —

" I roused me, and fell in great dismay,
And, sighing, to myself I said :

Now all be to that Prince's pleasure."

The poem consists of one hundred and one stanzas, each of
twelve lines, with four accents, rhymed ab, ab, ab, ab, be, be;
the versification combines rhyme with alliteration; trisyllabic
effects add to the easy movement and lyrical charm of the lines.
Five stanzas (in one case six), with the same refrain, constitute
a section, of which accordingly there are twenty in all, the whole
sequence being linked together by the device of making the
first line of each stanza catch up the refrain of the previous
verse, the last line of the poem re-echoing the first line. The
author was not the creator of this form, nor was he the last to
use it. The extant pieces in the metre are short religious poems,
some of the later (e.g. God's Complaint, falsely attributed to
Scottish authorship) revealing the influence of Pearl.

The dialect is West Midland, or rather North- West Midland,
and the vocabulary is remarkable for the blending of native
speech with Scandinavian and Romance elements, the latter
partly Anglo-French, and partly learned French, due to the
author's knowledge of French literature.

" While the main part of the poem," according to Gollancz,
" is a paraphrase of the closing chapters of the Apocalypse and
the parable of the Vineyard, the poet's debt to the Romaunt of
the Rose is noteworthy, more particularly in the description of
the wonderful land through which the dreamer wanders; and it
can be traced throughout the poem, in the personification of
Pearl as Reason, in the form of the colloquy, in the details of
dress and ornament, in many a characteristic word, phrase and
reference. ' The river from the throne,' in the Apocalypse,
here meets ' the waters of the wells ' devised by Sir Mirth for
the Garden of the Rose. From these two sources, the Book of
Revelation, with its almost Celtic glamour, and The Romaunt of
the Rose, with its almost Oriental allegory, are derived much of
the wealth and brilliancy of the poem. The poet's fancy revels
in the richness of the heavenly and the earthly paradise, but
his fancy is subordinated to his earnestness and intensity."

The leading motifs of Pearl are to be found in the Gospel —
in the allegory of the merchant who sold his all to purchase one
pearl of great price, and in the words, so fraught with solace for
the child-bereft; " for of such is the Kingdom of Heaven."
Naturally arising from the theme, and from these motifs, some
theological problems of the time are touched upon, or treated
somewhat too elaborately perhaps, and an attempt has been made
to demonstrate that Pearl is merely allegorical and theological,
and not really a lament. Those who hold this view surely ignore
or fail to recognize the subtle personal touches whereby the
poem transcends all its theological interests, and makes its
simple and direct appeal to the human heart. Herein, too, lies
its abiding charm, over and above the poetical talent, the love
of nature, colour and the picturesque, the technical skill, and
the descriptive power, which in a high degree belonged to the
unknown poet.

Various theories have been advanced as to the authorship of
Pearl and the other poems in the manuscript. The claims of
Huchown " of the Awle Ryale " have been vigorously (but
unsuccessfully) advocated; the case in favour of Ralph Strode
(Chaucer's " philosophical Strode ") — the most attractive of all
the theories — is still, unfortunately, " not proven." By piecing
together the personal indications to be found in the poems
an imaginary biography of the poet may be constructed. It
may safely be inferred that he was born about 1330, somewhere
in Lancashire, or a little to the north; that he delighted in open-
air life, in woodcraft and sport; that his early life was passed
amid the gay scenes that brightened existence in medieval hall
and bower; that he availed himself of opportunities of study,
theology and romance alike claiming him; that he wedded, and
had a child named Margery or Marguerite — the Daisy, or the

Pearl — at whose death his happiness drooped and life's joy
ended.

The four poems are closely linked and belong to one period
of the poet's career. In Gawayne, probably the first of the four,
the poet is still the minstrel rejoicing in the glamour of the
Arthurian tale, but using it, in almost Spenserian spirit, to point
a moral. In Pearl the minstrel has become the elegiac poet,
harmonizing the old Teutonic form with the newer Romance
rhyme. In Cleanness he has discarded all attractions of form,
and writes, in direct alliterative metre, a stern homily on chastity.
In Patience — a homiletic paraphrase of Jonah — he appears to
be autobiographical, reminding himself, while teaching others,
that " Poverty and Patience are needs playfellows." He had
evidently fallen on evil days.

It is noteworthy that soon after 1358 Boccaccio wrote his
Latin eclogue Olympia in memory of his young daughter
Violante. A comparative study of the two poems is full of
interest; the direct influence of the Latin on the English poem
is not so clear as has been maintained. Pearl cannot be placed
earlier than 1360; it is most probably later than Olympia.

Bibliography. — Texts and Translations: Early Alliterative
Poems in the West Midland Dialect of the Fourteenth Century (edited
by Richard Morris, Early English Text Society I. 1864; revised,
1869, 1885, 1896, 1901); Pearl, an English Poem of the Fourteenth
Century, edited, with a Modern Rendering, by Israel Gollancz (with
frontispiece by Holman Hunt, and prefatory lines, sent to the
editor by Tennyson) ; revised edition of the text, privately printed,
1897; new edition of text and translation, " King's Classics," 1910-
1911; Facsimile of MS. Cotton Nero Ax, 1910-1911; The Pearl,
(edited by C. G. Osgood; Boston, 1906). Translations by Gollancz
(as above) ; G. G. Coulton (1906) ; Osgood (1907) ; Miss Mead (1908) ;
Miss Jewett (1908) ; part of the poem, by S. Weir Mitchell (1906).

Literary History: Tenbrink, History of English Literature (trans-
lated by H. M. Kennedy, 1889, i. 336-351); G. Nelson, Huchown
of the Awle Ryale (Glasgow, 1902) ; Carleton Brown, The Author
of the Pearl, considered in the Light of his Theological Opinions
(publications of the Modern Languages Association of America,
xix. 1 15-153; 1904); W. G. Schofield, The Nature and Fabric of the
Pearl (ibid. pp. 154-215; 1904); also Symbolism, Allegory and
Autobiography (ibid. xxiv. 585-675; 1909); I. Gollancz, Cambridge
History of English Literature, vol. i. ch. xv.

Works connected with Pearl: Sir Gawayne, a Collection of Ancient
Romance Poems (edited by Sir F. Madden; London, 1839); Sir
Gawayne (re-edited by Richard Morris, E.E.T.S., 1864, 1869; text
revised by I. Gollancz, 1893); The Parlement of the Thre Ages, and
Wynnere and Wastoure (edited by I. Gollancz: London, 1897);
Hymns to the Virgin and Christ (edited by F. J. Furnivall, E.E.T.S.,
1867) ; Political, Religious and Love Poems (edited by F. J. Furnivall,
E.E.T.S., 1866, 1903).

Metre. — Clark S. Northup, Study of the Metrical Structure of the
Pearl (publications of the Modern Languages Association, xii.
326-340).

Phonology. — W. Fick, Zum mittelenglischen Gedicht von der Perle
(Kiel, 1885). ■ (I. G.)

PEARSALL, ROBERT LUCAS DE (1795-1856), English
composer, was born on the 14th of March 1795, at Clifton.
Educated for the bar, he practised till 1825, when he left England
for Germany and studied composition under Panny of Mainz;
with the exception of three comparatively short visits to
England, during one of which he made the acquaintance of
the English school of madrigals, he lived abroad, selling his
family property of Willsbridge and settling in the castle of
Wartensee, 011 the lake of Constance. He produced many works
of lasting beauty, nearly all of them for voices- in combination :
from his part songs, such as " Oh, who will o'er the downs ? " to
his elaborate and scholarly madrigals, such as the admirable
eight-part compositions, " Great God of Love " and " Lay a
Garland," or the beautiful " Light of my Soul." His reception
into the Roman Church in his later years may have suggested
the composition of some beautiful sacred music, among other
things a fine " Salve Regina." He wrote many valuable
treatises on music, and edited a Roman Catholic hymn-book.
He died on the 5th of August 1856.

PEARSON, CHARLES HENRY (1830-1894), British historian
and colonial statesman, was born in London on the 7th of
September 1830. After receiving his early education at Rugby
and King's College, London, he went up to Oxford, where he

PEARSON, J.— PEARSON, J. L.

29

was generally regarded as the most brilliant of an exceptionally
able set, and in 1854 obtained a fellowship at Oriel College.
His constitutional weakness and bad eyesight forced him to
abandon medicine, which he had adopted as a career, and in
1855 he returned to King's College as lecturer in English language
and literature, a post which he almost immediately quitted
for the professorship of modern history. He made numerous
journeys abroad, the most important being his visit to Russia
in 1858, his account of which was published anonymously in
1859 under the title of Russia, by a Recent Traveller; an adven-
turous journey through Poland during the insurrection of 1863,
of which he gave a sympathetic and much praised account in
die Spectator; and a visit to the United States in 1868, where
he gathered materials for his subsequent discussion of the negro
problem in his National Life and Character. In the meantime,
besides contributing regularly, first to the Saturday Review and
then to the Spectator, and editing the National Review, he wrote
the first volume of The Early and Middle Ages of England (1861).
The work was bitterly attacked by Freeman, whose " extrava-
gant Saxonism " Pearson had been unable to adopt. It appeared
in 1868 in a revised form with the title of History of England
during the Early and Middle Ages, accompanied by a second
volume which met with general recognition. Still better was
the reception of his admirable Maps of England in the First
Thirteen Centuries (1870). But as the result of these labours he
was threatened with total blindness; and, disappointed of
receiving a professorship at Oxford, in 187 1 he emigrated to
Australia. Here he married and settled down to the life of a
sheep-farmer; but finding his health and eyesight greatly
improved, he came to Melbourne as lecturer on history at the
university. Soon afterwards he became head master of the
Presbyterian Ladies' College, and in this position practically
organized the whole system of higher education for women in
Victoria. On his election in 1878 to the Legislative Assembly
he definitely adopted politics as his career. His views on the
land question and secular education aroused the bitter hostility
of the rich squatters and the clergy; but his singular nobility
of character, no less than his powers of mind, made him one
of the most influential men in the Assembly. He was minister
without portfolio in the Berry cabinet (1880-1881), and as
minister of education in the coalition government of 1886 to 1890
he was able to pass into law many of the recommendations of
his report. His reforms entirely remodelled state education in
Victoria. In 1892 a fresh attack of illness decided him to return
to England. Here he published in 1893 the best known of his
works, National Life and Character. It is an attempt to show
that the white man can flourish only in the temperate zones,
that the yellow and black races must increase out of all propor-
tion to the white, and must in time crush out his civilization.
He died in London on the 29th of May 1894.

A volume of his Reviews and Critical Essays was published in
1896, and was followed in 1900 by his autobiography, a work of
great interest.

PEARSON, JOHN (161 2-1 686), English divine and scholar,
was born at Great Snoring, Norfolk, on the 28th of February
161 2. From Eton he passed to Queen's College, Cambridge, and
was elected a scholar of King's in April 1632, and a fellow in
1634. On taking orders in 1639 he was collated to the Salisbury
prebend of Nether-Avon. In 1640 he was appointed chaplain to
the lord-keeper Finch, by whom he was presented to the living
of Thorington in Suffolk. In the Civil War he acted as chaplain
to George Goring's forces in the west. In 1654 he was made
weekly preacher at St Clement's, Eastcheap, in London. With
Peter Gunning he disputed against two Roman Catholics on the
subject of schism, a one-sided account of which was printed in
Paris by one of the Roman Catholic disputants, under the title
Scisme Unmask't C1658). Pearson also argued against the
Puritan party, and was much interested in Brian Walton's
polyglot Bible. In 1659 he published in London his celebrated
Exposition of the Creed, dedicated to his parishioners of St
Clement's, Eastcheap, to whom the substance of the work had
been preached several years before. In the same year he

published the Golden Remains of the ever-memorable Mr John
Hales of Eton, with an interesting memoir. Soon after the
Restoration he was presented by Juxon, bishop of London, to
the rectory of St Christopher-le-Stocks; and in 1660 he was
created doctor of divinity at Cambridge, appointed a royal
chaplain, prebendary of Ely, archdeacon of Surrey, and master
of Jesus College, Cambridge. In 1661 he was appointed Lady
Margaret professor of divinity; and on the first day of the
ensuing year he was nominated one of the commissioners for
the review of the liturgy in the conference held at the Savoy.
There he won the esteem of his opponents and high praise from
Richard Baxter. On the 14th of April 1662 he was made master
of Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1667 he was admitted a
fellow of the Royal Society. In 1672 he published at Cambridge
Vindiciae epistolarum S. Ignatii, in 4to, in answer to Jean
Daille. His defence of the authenticity of the letters of Ignatius
has been confirmed by J. B. Lightfoot and other recent scholars.
Upon the death of John Wilkins in 1672, Pearson was appointed
to the bishopric of Chester. In 1682 his Annates cyprianici were
published at Oxford, with John Fell's edition of that father's
works. He died at Chester on the 16th of July 1686. His last
work, the Two Dissertations on the Succession and Times of the
First Bishops of Rome, formed with the Annates Paulini the
principal part of his Opera posthuma, edited by Henry Dodwell
in 1688.

See the memoir in Biographia Britannica, and another by Edward
Churton, prefixed to the edition of Pearson's Minor Theological
Works (2 vols., Oxford, 1844). Churton also edited almost the
whole of the theological writings.

PEARSON, JOHN LOUGHBOROUGH (1817-1897), English
architect, son of William Pearson, etcher, of Durham, was born
in Brussels on the 5th of July 1817. He was articled at the age
of fourteen to Ignatius Bonomi, architect, of Durham, but soon
removed to London, and worked under the elder Hardwicke.
He revived and practised largely the art of vaulting, and acquired
in it a proficiency unrivalled in his generation. He was, however,
by no means a Gothic purist, and was also fond of Renaissance
and thoroughly grounded in classical architecture. From the
erection of his first church of Ellerker, in Yorkshire, in 1843,
to that of St Peter's, Vauxhall, in 1864, his buildings are
Geometrical in manner and exhibit a close adherence to pre-
cedent, but elegance of proportion and refinement of detail lift
them out of the commonplace of mere imitation. Holy Trinity,
Westminster (1848), and St Mary's, Dalton Holme (1858), are
notable examples of this phase. St Peter's, Vauxhall (1864),
his first groined church, was also the first of a series of buildings
which brought Pearson to the forefront among his contempor-
aries. In these he applied the Early English style to modern
needs and modern economy with unrivalled success. St Augus-
tine's, Kilburn (1871), St John's, Red Lion Square, London
(1874), St Alban's, Birmingham (1880), St Michael's, Croydon
(1880), St John's, Norwood (1881), St Stephen's, Bournemouth
(1889), and All Saints', Hove (1889), are characteristic examples
of his matured work. He is best known by Truro Cathedral
(1880), which has a special interest in its apt incorporation
of the south aisle of the ancient church. Pearson's conservative
spirit fitted him for the reparation of ancient edifices, and among
cathedrals and other historical buildings placed under his
care were Lincoln, Chichester, Peterborough, Bristol and
Exeter Cathedrals, St George's Chapel, Windsor, Westminster
Hall and Westminster Abbey, in the surveyorship of which
last he succeeded Sir G. G. Scott. Except as to the porches,
the work of Scott, he re-faced the north transept of Westminster
Abbey, and also designed the vigorous organ cases. In his hand-
ling of ancient buildings he was repeatedly opposed by the ultra
anti-restorers (as in the case of the west front of Peterborough
Cathedral in 1896), but he, generally proved the soundness
of his judgment by his executed work. Pearson's practice was
not confined to church building. Treberfydd House (1850),
Quar Wood (1858), Lechlade Manor, an Elizabethan house
(1873), Westwood House, Sydenham, in the French Renaissance
style (1880), the Astor estate offices (1892) upon the Victoria

3°

PEARY

Embankment, London, the remodelling of the interiors of
Clieveden House (1893) and No. 18 Carlton House Terrace (1894),
with many parsonages, show his aptitude for domestic architec-
ture. In general design he first aimed at form, embracing both
proportion and contour; and his work may be recognized by
accurate scholarship coupled with harmonious detail. Its key-
notes are cautiousness and refinement rather than boldness.
He died on the nth of December 1897, and was buried in the
nave of Westminster Abbey, where his grave is marked by the
appropriate motto Sustinuit et abstinuit. He was elected A.R.A.
in 1874, R.A. in 1880, was a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries,
and a fellow and member of the Council of the Royal Institute
of British Architects.

The following are some of Pearson's more important works,
not already named: Ferriby church (1846); Stow, Lincolnshire
(restoration, 1850) ; Weybridge, St James's (1853) ; Freeland church,
parsonage and schools (1866); Kilburn, St Peter's Home (1868);
Wentworth church (1872); Horsforth church (1874); Cullercoats,
St George's (1882) ; Chiswick, St Michael's (restoration, 1882) ; Great
Yarmouth church (restoration, 1883); Liverpool, St Agnes' (1883);
Woking Convalescent Home (1884); Headingley church (1884);
Torquay, All Saints (1884); Maidstone, All Saints (restoration,
1885); Shrewsbury Abbey (1886); Ayr, Holy Trinity (1886); Hythe
church (restoration, 1887); Oxford, New College, reredos (com-
pletion, 1889); Cambridge University Library (additions, 1889);
Friern Barnet, St John's (1890); Cambridge, Sidney Sussex College
(additions, 1890); Middlesex Hospital chapel (1890); Bishopsgate,
St Helen's (restoration, 1891) ; Maida Hill (Irvingite) church (1891) ;
Barking, AH Hallows (restoration, 1893); Cambridge, Emmanuel
College (additions, 1893); Ledbury, St Michael's (restoration,
1894); Malta, Memorial church (1894); Port Talbot church (1895).

(W. D. C.)

PEARY, ROBERT EDWIN (1856- ), American Arctic
explorer, was born at Cresson, Pennsylvania, on the 6th of May
1856. He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1877, and in 1881
became a civil engineer in the U.S. navy with the rank of lieuten-
ant. In 1884 he was appointed assistant-engineer in connexion
with the surveys for the Nicaragua Ship Canal, and in 1887-1888
he was in charge of these surveys. In 1886 he obtained leave of
absence for a summer excursion to Disco Bay on the west coast
of Greenland. From this point he made a journey of nearly a
hundred miles into the interior, and the experience impressed
him with the practicability of using this so-called inland ice-cap
as a highway for exploration. In 1891 he organized an expedi-
tion under the auspices of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia. The party of seven included Lieut. Peary's
wife, the first white woman to accompany an Arctic ex-
pedition. After wintering in Inglefield Gulf on the north-
west coast of Greenland, in the following spring Lieut. Peary,
with a young Norwegian, Eivind Astrup, crossed the inland
ice-cap along its northern limit to the north-east of Greenland
and back. The practical geographical result of this journey
was to establish the insularity of Greenland. Valuable
work was also performed by the expedition in the close
study which was made of the isolated tribe of the Cape
York or Smith Sound Eskimos, the most northerly people in
the world. 1 Lieut. Peary was able to fit out another Arctic
expedition in 1893, and was again accompanied by Mrs Peary,
who gave birth to a daughter at the winter quarters in Inglefield
Gulf. The expedition returned in the season of 1894, leaving
Peary with his coloured servant Henson and Mr Hugh G. Lee
to renew the attempt to cross the inland ice in the next year.
This they succeeded in doing, but without being able to carry
the work of exploration any farther on the opposite side of
Greenland. During a summer excursion to MeJville Bay in
1894, Peary discovered three large meteorites, which supplied
the Eskimos with the material for their iron implements, as
reported by Sir John Ross in 18 18, and on his return in 1895
he brought the two smaller ones with him. The remaining
meteorite was brought to New York in 1897. In 1898 Lieut.
Peary published Northward over the Great Ice, a record of all his
expeditions up to that time, and in the same year he started

1 A narrative of the expedition written by Mrs Peary, and con-
taining an account of the " Great White Journey across Greenland,"
by her husband, was published under the title of My Arctic Journal.

on another expedition to the Arctic regions. In this and sub-
sequent expeditions he received financial aid from Mr Morris
Jesup and the Peary Arctic Club. The greatest forethought
was bestowed upon the organization of the expedition, a four-
years' programme being laid down at the outset and a system
of relief expeditions provided for. A distinctive feature was
the utilization of a company of Eskimos. Although unsuccessful
as regards the North Pole, the expedition achieved the accurate
survey (1900) of the northern limit of the Greenland continent
and the demonstration that beyond it lay a Polar ocean.
In 1902 Peary with Henson and an Eskimo advanced as
far north as lat. 84° 17' 27", the highest point then reached
in the western hemisphere. Lieut. Peary had now been
promoted to the rank of Commander, and on his return he
was elected president of the American Geographical Society.
In November 1903 he went to England on a naval commission
to inquire into the system of naval barracks in Great
Britain, and was presented with the Livingstone Gold Medal
of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society. Commander Peary
then began preparations for another expedition by the con-
struction of a special ship, named the " Roosevelt," the first
ever built in the United States for the purpose of Arctic
exploration. He sailed from New York on the 16th of July
1905, having two years' supplies on board. The " Roosevelt "
wintered on the north coast of Grant Land, and on the 21st of
February a start was made with sledges. The party experienced
serious delay owing to open water between 84 and 85°, and
farther north the ice was opened up during a six days' gale,
which cut off communications and destroyed the dep6ts which
had been established. A steady easterly drift was experienced.
But on the 21st of April, 1906, 87°6' was reached — the"farthest
north " attained by man — by which time Peary and his com-
panions were suffering severe privations, and had to make the
return journey in the face of great difficulties. They reached
the north coast of Greenland and subsequently rejoined the ship,
from which, after a week's rest, Peary made a sledge journey
along the north coast of Grant Land. Returning home, the
expedition reached Hebron, Labrador, on the 13th of October,
the " Roosevelt " having been nearly wrecked en route. In 1907
the narrative of this journey, Nearest the Pole, was published.
In 1908 Peary started in the " Roosevelt " on the journey
which was to bring him his final success. He left Etah on the
1 8th of August, wintered in Grant Land, and set forward over the
ice from Cape Columbia on the 1st of March 1909. A party of
six started with him, and moved in sections, one in front of
another. They were gradually sent back as supplies diminished.
At the end of the month Captain Bartlett was the only white
man left with Peary, and he turned back in 87° 48' N., the highest
latitude then ever reached. Peary, with his negro servant and
four Eskimos, pushed on, and on the 6th of April 1909 reached
the North Pole. They remained some thirty hours, took obser-
vations, and on sounding, a few miles from the pole, found no
bottom at 1500 fathoms. The party, with the exception of one
drowned, returned safely to the '' Roosevelt," which left her
winter quarters on the 18th of July and reached Indian Harbour
on the 5th of September. Peary's The North Pole: Its Discovery
in igog was published in 19 10.

Just before the news came of Peary's success another
American explorer, Dr F. A. Cook (b. 1865), returning from
Greenland to Europe on a Danish ship, claimed that he
had reached the North Pole on the 21st of April 1908. He had
accompanied an expedition northward in 1907, prepared to
attempt to reach the Pole if opportunity offered, and according
to his own story had done so, leaving his party and taking only
some Eskimos, early in 1908. Nothing had been heard of him
since March of that year, and it was supposed that he had
perished. Cook's claim to have forestalled Peary was at first
credited in various circles, and he was given a rapturous
reception at Copenhagen; but scientific opinion in England and
America was more reserved, and eventually, after a prolonged
dispute, a special committee of the university of Copenhagen,
to whom his documents were submitted, declared that they

PEASANT— PECAUT

3 1

contained no proof that he had reached the Pole. By that time
most other people had come to an adverse conclusion and the
sensation was over.

PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis,
belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan "), a countryman
or rustic, either working for others, or, more specifically, owning
or renting and working by his own labour a small plot of ground.
Though a word of not very strict application, it is now frequently
used of the rural population of such countries as France, where
the land is chiefly held by small holders, " peasant proprietors."
(See Allotments and Metayage).

PEASE, EDWARD (1767-1858), the founder of a famous
industrial Quaker family in the north of England, was born at
Darlington on the 31st of May 1767, his father, Joseph Pease
(1737-1808), being a woollen manufacturer in that town. Having
retired from this business Edward Pease made the acquaintance
of George Stephenson, and with him took a prominent part in
constructing the railway between Stockton and Darlington.
He died at Darlington on the 31st of July 1858. His second
son, Joseph Pease (1799-1872), who assisted his father in his
railway enterprises, was M.P. for South Durham from 1832 to
1841, being the first Quaker to sit in parliament. He was
interested in collieries, quarries and ironstone mines in Durham
and North Yorkshire, as well as in cotton and woollen manu-
factures; and he was active in educational and philanthropic
work. Another son, Henry Pease (1807-1881), was M.P. for
South Durham from 1857 to 1865. Like all the members of
his family he was a supporter of the Peace Society, and in its
interests he visited the emperor Nicholas of Russia just before
the outbreak of the Crimean War, and later the emperor of the
French, Napoleon III.

Joseph Pease's eldest son, Sir Joseph Whitwell Pease (1828-
1903), was made a baronet in 1882. He was M.P. for South
Durham from 1865 to 1885 and for the Barnard Castle division
of Durham from 1885 to 1903. His elder son, Sir Alfred Edward
Pease (b. 1857), who succeeded to the baronetcy, became famous
as a hunter of big game, and was M.P. for York from 1885 to
1892 and for the Cleveland division of Yorkshire from 1897 to
1902. A younger son, Joseph Albert Pease (b. i860), entered
parliament in 1892, and in 1908 became chief Liberal whip,
being advanced to the cabinet as chancellor of the duchy of
Lancaster in 1910.

Another son of Joseph Pease was Arthur Pease (1837-1898),
member of parliament from 1880 to 1885 and again from 1895
to 1898. His son, Herbert Pike Pease (b. 1867), M.P. for
Darlington 1898-1910, was one of the Unionist Whips.

The Diaries of Edward Pease were edited by Sir Alfred Pease in
1907.

PEAT (possibly connected with Med. Lat. petia, pecia, piece,
ultimately of Celtic origin; cf. O. Celt, pet, O. Ir. pit, Welsh pelh,
portion), a product of decayed vegetation found in the form of
bogs in many parts of the world. The continent of Europe is
estimated to contain 212,700 sq. m. of bog; Ireland has 2,858,150
acres, Canada 30,000,000 acres, and the United States 20,000,000
acres. The plants which give origin to these deposits are mainly
aquatic, including reeds, rushes, sedges and mosses. Sphagnum
is present in most peats, but in Irish peat Thacomitrum lanugino-
sum predominates. It seems that the disintegration of the
vegetable tissues is effected partly by moist atmospheric oxida-
tion and partly by anaerobic bacteria, yeasts, moulds and fungi,
in depressions containing fairly still but not stagnant water,
which is retained by an impervious bed or underlying strata.
As decomposition proceeds the products become waterlogged
and sink to the bottom of the pool; in the course of time the
deposits attain a considerable thickness, and the lower layers,
under the superincumbent pressure of the water and later
deposits, are gradually compressed and carbonized. The most
favourable conditions appear to be a moist atmosphere, and a
mean annual temperature of about 45° F.; no bogs are found
between latitudes 45 N. and 45 S.

Peat varies from a pale yellow or brown fibrous substance,
resembling turf or compressed hay, containing conspicuous plant

remains, to a compact dark brown material, resembling black
clay when wet, and some varieties of lignite when dry. Two
typical forms may be noticed: " Hill peat " (the mountain or
brown bogs of Ireland), found in mountainous districts, and
consisting mainly of Sphagnum and Andromeda; and " Bottom
peat " (the lowland or red bogs of Ireland), found in lakes,
rivers, and brooks, and containing Hypnum. It always contains
much water, up to 90%, which it is necessary to remove before
the product can be efficiently employed as a fuel, and for most
other purposes. A specimen dried at ioo° C. had the composi-
tion: carbon = 60-48%, hydrogen = 6- 10%, oxygen = 32-55%,
nitrogen = o-88%, ash = 3 -30%; the ash is very variable — from
1 to 65% — and consists principally of clay and sand, with lesser
amounts of ferric oxide, lime, magnesia, &c. The specific gravity
has been variously given, owing to the variable water content
and air spaces; when dried and compressed, however, it is denser
than water.

Peat-winning presents certain special features. The general
practice is to cut a trench about a foot deep with a peculiarly
shaped spade, termed in Ireland a " slane," and remove sods
from 3 to 4 ft. long. When one layer has been removed, the
next is attacked, and so on. If the deposit be more solid step-
working may be adopted, and should water be reached recourse
may be had to long-handled slanes. The sods are allowed to
drain, and then stacked for drying in the air, being occasionally
turned so as to dry equally; this process may require about six
weeks. The dried sods are known as " dug peat." Excavators
and dredges are now extehsively used, and the drying is effected
in heated chambers, both fixed and revolving.

The low value of ordinary dug peat as a fuel has led to processes
for obtaining a more useful product. In M. Ekenberg's process
the wet peat is pulped and milled so as to make it of uniform
composition, and the pulp passed into an oven maintained at
i8o°-20o° F., where it is carbonized by superheated water. The
pressed product, which resembles lignite, still contains 8 to 14% of
water; this is driven off by heat, and the residue briquetted. The
final product is nearly equal to coal in calorific value, and has the
additional advantage of a lower sulphur content — 0-2 to 0-4 %
against about 2 % in ordinary coal. M. Zeigler's method leads to
the production of a useful coke. Both these processes permit the
recovery of valuable by-products, especially ammonium sulphate.
Experiments for obtaining a gas suitable for consumption in gas-
engines have been followed by commercial processes devised by the
Mond Gas Corporation, London, and Crossley Bros, of Manchester,
and by Caro and Frank in Germany. The processes essentially
consist in destructively distilling peat in special retorts and under
specified conditions, and, in addition to the gas, there is recovered
a useful coke and also the nitrogen as ammonium sulphate.

The conversion of the nitrogen into ammonia has been the subject
of much work, and is commercially pursued at a works at Carn-
lough, Co. Antrim, under patents held by H. C. Woltereck. The
peat is treated with a mixture of air and water vapour in special
furnaces, and the gaseous products, including paraffin tar, acetic
acid and ammonia, are led through a special scrubber to remove
the tar, then through a tower containing milk of lime to absorb
the acid (the calcium acetate formed being employed for the manu-
facture of acetone, &c), and finally through a sulphuric acid tower,
where the ammonia is converted into ammonium sulphate which
is recovered by crystallization.

Peat has also been exploited as a source of commercial alcohol,
to be employed in motors. In the process founded on the experi-
ments of R. W. Wallace and Sir W. Ramsay, which gives 25 to 26
gallons of spirit from a ton of peat, the peat is boiled with water
containing a little sulphuric acid, the product neutralized with
lime and then distilled; the ammonia is also recovered. In another
process a yield of 40 gallons of spirit and 66 lb of ammonium
sulphate per ton of peat is claimed.

Of other applications we may notice C. E. Nelson's process for
making a paper, said to be better than ordinary wrapping; the first
factory to exploit this idea was opened at Capac, Michigan, in 1906.
Peat has been employed as a manure for many years, and recently
attempts have been made to convert artificially its nitrogen into
assimilable nitrates; such a process was patented by A. Muntz
and A. G. Girard of Paris, in 1907.

See P. R. Bjorling and F. T. Gissing, Peat and its Manufacture
(1907) ; F. T. Gissing, Commercial Peat (1909) ; E. Nystrom, Peat
and Lignite (1908), published by Department of Mines of Canada.

PfiCAUT, FELIX (1828-1898), French educationalist, a
member of an old Huguenot family, was born at Salies de Beam,
in 1828. He was for some months evangelical pastor at Salies,
but he had no pretence of sympathy with ecclesiastical authority

32

PECCARY— PECK

He was consequently compelled to resign his pastorate, and for
some years occupied himself by urging the claims of a liberal
Christianity. In 1879 he conducted a general inspection of
primary education for the French government, and several
similar missions followed. His fame chiefly rests in his successful
organization of the training school for women teachers at
Fontenoy-aux-Roses, to which he devoted fifteen years of
ceaseless toil. He died on the 31st of July 1898.

A summary of his educational views is given in his Public Educa-
tion and National Life (1897).

PECCARY, the name of the New World representatives of
the swine (Suidae) of the E. hemisphere, of which they constitute
the sub-family Dicotylinae (or Tagassuinae). (See Artiodactyla
and Swine.)

The teeth of the peccaries differ from those of the typical Old
World pigs (Sus) , numerically, in wanting the upper outer incisor
and the anterior premolar on each side of each jaw, the dental
formula being: i. f , c. \, p. f , m. f , total 38. From those of all
Old World swine or Suinae, the upper canines, or tusks, differ
in having their points directed downwards, not outwards or

The Collared Peccary (Dicotyles tajacu).

upwards; these being very sharp, with cutting hinder edges,
and completely covered with enamel until worn. The lower
canines are large and directed upwards and outwards, and
slightly curved backwards. The cheek-teeth form a continuous
series, gradually increasing in size from the first to the last : the
molars having square four-cusped crowns. The stomach is
much more complex than in the true pigs, almost approaching
that of a ruminant. In the feet the two middle (third and
fourth) metacarpal and metatarsal bones, which are completely
separate in the pigs, are united at their upper ends. On the
fore-foot the two (second and fifth) outer toes are equally
developed as in pigs, but on the hind-foot, although the inner
(or second) is present, the outer or fifth toe is entirely wanting.
As in all Suidae the snout is truncated, and the nostrils are
situated in its flat, expanded, disk-like termination. The ears
are rather small, ovate and erect; and there is no external
appearance of a tail.

Peccaries, which range f romNewMexico andTexas to Patagonia,
are represented by two main types, of which the first is the
collared peccary, Dicotyles (or Tagassu) tajacu, which has an
extensive range in South America. Generally it is found singly
or in pairs, or at most in small herds of from eight to ten, and is
not inclined to attack other animals or human beings. Its
colour is dark grey, with a white or whitish band passing across
the chest from shoulder to shoulder. The length of the head
and body is about 36 in. The second form is typified by the
white-lipped peccary or warri, D. (or T.) labiatus, or pecari,
representing the sub-genus Olidosus. Typically it is rather
larger than the collared species, being about 40 in. in length,
of a blackish colour, with the lips and lower jaw white. It is

not found farther north than Guatemala, or south of Paraguay.
Generally met with in large droves of from fifty to a hundred, it
is of a more pugnacious disposition than the former species,
and a hunter who encounters a herd in a forest has often to climb
a tree as his only chance of safety. Peccaries are omnivorous,
living on roots, fallen fruits, worms and carrion, and often inflict
great devastation upon crops. Both types are so nearly allied
that they will breed together freely in captivity. Unlike pigs,
they never appear to produce more than two young ones at a
birth.

Remains of extinct peccaries referable to the modern genus
occur in the caverns and superficial deposits of South America,
but not in the earlier formations. This, coupled with the
occurrence of earlier types in North America, indicates that the
group is a northern one. Of the extinct North American
peccaries, the typical Dicotyles occur in the Pliocene while the
Miocene Bothriolabis, which has tusks of the peccary type,
approximates in the structure of its cheek-teeth to the European
Miocene genus among the Suinae. From this it may be inferred
that the ancestral peccaries entered America in the Upper
Oligoeene. Platygonus is an aberrant type which died out in
the Pleistocene. (R. L .*.)

PECHLIN, KARL FREDRIK (1720-1796), Swedish politician
and demagogue, son of the Holstein minister at Stockholm, was
educated in Sweden, and entered the Swedish army. He rose
to the rank of major-general, but became famous by being the
type par excellence of the corrupt and egoistic Swedish parlia-
mentarian of the final period of the Frihetstiden (see Sweden.
History); he received for many years the sobriquet of " General
of the Riksdag." Pechlin first appears prominently in Swedish
politics in 1760, when by suddenly changing sides he contrived
to save the " Hats " from impeachment. Enraged at being
thus excluded from power by their former friend, the " Caps "
procured Pechlin's expulsion from the two following Riksdags.
In 1769 Pechlin sold the " Hats " as he had formerly sold the
" Caps, " and was largely instrumental in preventing the pro-
jected indispensable reform of the Swedish constitution. During
the revolution of 1772 he escaped from Stockholm and kept
quietly in the background. In 1786, when the opposition
against Gustavus III. was gathering strength, Pechlin reappeared
in the Riksdag as one of the leaders of the malcontents, and is
said to have been at the same time in the pay of the Russian
court. In 1789 he was one of the deputies whom Gustavus III.
kept under lock and key till he had changed the government
into a semi-absolute monarchy. It is fairly certain that Pechlin
was at the bottom of the plot for murdering Gustavus in 1792.
On the eve of the assassination (March 16) the principal
conspirators met at his house to make their final preparations
and discuss the form of government which should be adopted
after the king's death. Pechlin undertook to crowd the fatal
masquerade with accomplices, but took care not to be there
personally. He was arrested on the 17th of March, but nothing
definite could ever be proved against him. Nevertheless he
was condemned to imprisonment in the fortress of Varberg,
where he died four years later.

See R. N. Bain, Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries (London,
1905). (R. N. B.)

PECHORA, a river of N. Russia, rising in the Urals, almost
on 62 N., in the government of Perm. It flows W. for a short
distance, then turns N. and maintains that, direction up to
about 66° 20' N. It then describes a double loop, to N. and
to S., and after that resumes its N. course, finally emptying
into the Gulf of Pechora, situated between the White Sea and
the Kara Sea. Its total length is 970 m. At its mouth it forms
an elongated delta. Although frozen in its upper reaches for
190 days in the year and for 138 days in its lower reaches, it
is navigable throughout the greater part of its course. Its
drainage basin covers an area of 127,200 sq. m. The principal
tributaries are, on the right, the Ilych and the Usa, and on the
left the Izhma, the Tsylma and the Sula.

PECK, a dry measure of capacity, especially used for grain.
It contains 8 quarts or 2 gallons, and is J of a bushel. The

PECKHAM— PECORA

33

imperial peck contains 554-348 cub. in., in the United States
of America 537-6 cub. in. The word is in M.E. pek, and
is found latinized as peccum or pekka. In Med. Lat. are found
picotinus, " mensura frumentaria," and picotus, " mensura
liquidorum " (Du Cange, Gloss, s.vv.) These words seem to be
connected with the Fr. picotcr, to peck, of a bird, and this would
identify the word with " peck," a variant of " pick," a tap or
stroke of the beak, especially used of the action of a bird in
picking up grain or other food. The sense-development in this
case is very obscure, and the name of the measure is found much
earlier than " peck " as a variant form of " pick."

PECKHAM, JOHN (d. 1292), archbishop of Canterbury, was
probably a native of Sussex, and received his early education
from the Cluniac monks of Lewes. About 1250 he joined the
Franciscan order and studied in their Oxford convent. Shortly
afterwards he proceeded to the university of Paris, where he
took his degree under St Bonaventure and became regent in
theology. For many years Peckham taught at Paris, coming
into contact with the greatest scholars of the day, among others
St Thomas Aquinas. About 1270 he returned to Oxford and
taught there, being elected in 1275 provincial minister of the
Franciscans in England, but he was soon afterwards called
to Rome as lector sacri palatii, or theological lecturer in the
schools of the papal palace. In 1279 he returned to England as
archbishop of Canterbury, being appointed by the pope on the
rejection of Robert Burnell, Edward I.'s candidate. Peckham
was always a strenuous advocate of the papal power, especially
as shown in the council of Lyons in 1274. His enthronement
in October 1279 marks the beginning of an important epoch
in the history of the English primacy. Its characteristic note
was an insistence on discipline which offended contemporaries.
Peckham's zeal was not tempered by discernment, and he
had little gift of sympathy or imagination. His first act on
arrival in England was to call a council at Reading, which met in
July 1 279. Its main object was ecclesiastical reform, but the pro-
vision that a copy of Magna Carta should be hung in all cathedral
and collegiate churches seemed to the king a political action,
and parliament declared void any action of this council
touching on the royal power. Nevertheless Peckham's relations
with the king were often cordial, and Edward called on him for
help in bringing order into conquered Wales. The chief note
of his activity was, however, certainly ecclesiastical. The
crime of " plurality," the holding by one cleric of two or more
benefices, was especially attacked, as also clerical absenteeism
and ignorance, and laxity in the monastic life. Peckham's
main instrument was a minute system of " visitation," which he
used with a frequency hitherto unknown. Disputes resulted,
and on some points Peckham gave way, but his powers as papal
legate complicated matters, and he did much to strengthen
the court of Canterbury at the expense of the lower courts.
The famous quarrel with St Thomas of Cantilupe, bishop of
Hereford, arose out of similar causes. A more attractive side
of Peckham's career is his activity as a writer. The numerous
manuscripts of his works to be found in the libraries of Italy,
England and France, testify to his industry as a philosopher
and commentator. In philosophy he represents the Franciscan
school which attacked the teaching. of St Thomas Aquinas
on the " Unity of Form." He wrote in a quaint and elaborate
style on scientific, scriptural and moral subjects and engaged
in much controversy in defence of the Franciscan rule and
practice. He was " an excellent maker of songs," and his
hymns are characterized by a lyrical tenderness which seems
typically Franciscan. Printed examples of his work as com-
mentator and hymn writer respectively may be found in the
Fir amentum trium ordinum (Paris, 151 2), and his office for
Trinity Sunday in the " unreformed " breviary.

The chief authority on Peckham as archbishop of Canterbury,
is the Registrum fratris Johannis Peckham, edited by C. Trice
Martin for the Rolls Series (London, 1882-1885). A sympathetic
account of his life as a Franciscan is to be found in L. Wadding,
Annates minorum (Lyons, 1625, 1654). See also the article by
C. L. Kingsford in Diet. Nat. Biog., and Wilkin's Concilia magnae
Britanniae (London, 1737). (E. O'N.)

XXI. 2

PECOCK (or Peacock), REGINALD (c. 1395-c. 1460), English
prelate and writer, was probably born in Wales, and was edu-
cated at Oriel College, Oxford. Having been ordained priest
in 142 1, he secured a mastership in London in 143 1, and soon
became prominent by his attacks upon the religious position
of the Lollards. In 1444 he became bishop of St Asaph, and
six years later bishop of Chichester. He was an adherent of
the house of Lancaster and in 1454 became a member of the privy
council. In attacking the Lollards Pecock put forward religious
views far in advance of his age. He asserted that the Scriptures
were not the only standard of right and wrong; he questioned
some of the articles of the creed and the infallibility of the
Church; he wished " bi cleer witte drawe men into consente of
trewe feith otherwise than bi fire and swerd or hangement " and
in general he exalted the authority of reason. Owing to these
views the archbishop of Canterbury,Thomas Bourchier, ordered
his writings to be examined. This was done and he was found
guilty of heresy. He was removed from the privy council and
he only saved himself from a painful death by privately,
and then publicly (at St Paul's Cross, Dec. 4, 1457), renounc-
ing his opinions. Pecock, who has been called " the only
great English theologian of the 15th century," was then
forced to resign his bishopric, and was removed to Thorney
Abbey in Cambridgeshire, where he doubtless remained until his
death. The bishop's chief work is the famous Repressor of
over-much weeting [blaming] of the Clergie, which was issued
about 1455. I Q addition to its great importance in the history
of the Lollard movement the Repressor has an exceptional
interest as a model of the English of the time, Pecock being
one of the first writers to use the vernacular. In thought and
style alike it is the work of a man of learning and ability.

A biography of the author is added to the edition of the Repressor
published by C. Babington for the Rolls Series in i860. Pecock's
other writings include the Book or Rule of Christian Religion; the
Donet, " an introduction to the chief truths of the Christian faith
in the form of a dialogue between father and son " ; and the Folewer
to the Donet. The two last works are extant in manuscript. His
Book of Faith has been edited from the manuscript in the library
of Trinity College, Cambridge, by J. L. Morison (Glasgow, 1909).
See also John Lewis, Life of Pecock (1744; new ed., 1820).

PECORA (plural of Lat. pecus, cattle), a term employed — in a
more restricted sense — in place of the older title Ruminantia,
to designate the group of ruminating artiodactyle ungulates
represented by oxen, sheep, goats, antelopes, deer, giraffes, &c.

The leading characteristics of the Pecora are given in some
detail in the article Artiodactyla (q.v.) ; but it is necessary to
allude to a few of these here. Pecora, or true ruminants as
they may be conveniently called, have complex stomachs and
chew the cud; they have no upper incisor teeth; and the lower
canines are approximated to the outer incisors in such a manner
that the three incisors and the one canine of the two sides
collectively form a continuous semicircle of four pairs of nearly
similar teeth. In the cheek-teeth the component columns are
crescent-shaped, constituting the selenodont type. In the fore-
limbs the bones corresponding to the third and fourth metacar-
pals of the pig's foot are fused into a cannon-bone; and a similai
condition obtains in the case of the corresponding metatarsals
in the hind-limbs. There is generally no sagittal crest to the
skull; and the condyle of the lower jaw is transversely elongated.
Another general, although not universal, characteristic of the
Pecora is the presence of simple or complex appendages on the
forehead commonly known as horns. In a few existing species,
such as the musk-deer and the water-deer, these appendages
are absent, and they are likewise lacking in a large number
of extinct members of the group, in fact in all the earlier ones.
They are, therefore, a specialized feature, which has only recently
attained its full development.

These horns present several distinct structural types, which may
be classified as follows : — -

I. The simplest type is that of the giraffe, in which three bony
prominences — a single one in front and a pair behind — quite
separate from the underlying bones and covered during life with
skin, occupy the front surface of the skull. The summits of the
hind pair are surmounted by bristly hairs. In the extinct

u

34

PECORA

Sivatherium there are two pairs of such appendages, of which the
hinder are large and were probably covered during life either with
skin or thin horn. In the giraffes the separation of the horns from
the skull may be a degenerate character.

II. In the Asiatic muntjac deer we find a pair of skin-covered
horns, or " pedicles, ' corresponding to the paired horns of the
giraffe, although welded to the skull. From the summits of these

Fig. i. — Head of Siamese Deer {Cervus schomburgkii), showing
antlers.

pedicles arise secondary outgrowths, at first covered with skin,
which (owing to the growth of a ring of bone at the base arresting
the flow of blood) eventually dries up and leaves bare bone incapable
of further growth. In the muntjac the bare bony part, or " antler,"
is small in proportion to the skin-covered pedicle, and simple in
structure; but in the majority of deer the antler increases in size
at the expense of the pedicle — which dwindles — and in some species,
like the Siamese deer (fig. i), the sambar and the red deer, becomes
very large and more or less branched. Owing to liability to necrosis,
the permanent retention of such a mass of dead bone would be
dangerous; and the antlers are consequently shed annually (or
every few years), to be renewed the following year, when, till the
animal becomes past its prime, they are larger than their predeces-
sors. The periodical shedding is also necessary in order to allow of
this increase in size. With the exception of the reindeer, antlers
are confined to the males.

III. The third type of horn is presented by the American
prongbuck, or pronghorn, in which bony processes, or " cores," corre-
sponding to the horns of the giraffe, have acquired a horny sheath,
in place of skin ; the sheath being in this instance forked, and annually
shed and renewed, although the core is simple. The sheaths are
akin to hair in structure, thus suggesting affinity with the hairs
surmounting the giraffe's horns. Female prongbuck may or may
not have horns.

IV. In the great majority of " Hollow-horned Ruminants,"
such as oxen, sheep, goats and antelopes (fig. 2), the horny sheath
(or true " horn ") forms a simple unbranched cone, which may be
compressed, spirally twisted, or curved in one or more directions,
but is permanently retained and continues to grow throughout
life from the base, while it becomes worn away at the tip. Rarely,
as in the four-horned antelope, there are two pairs of horns. In
many cases these horns are present in both sexes.

Dr H. Gadow is of opinion that the antlers of the deer, the horn-
like protuberances on the skull of the giraffe, and the true horns
of the prongbuck and other hollow-horned ruminants (Bovidae)
are all different stages of evolution from a single common type:
the antlers of the deer being the most primitive, and the horns of
the Bovidae the most specialized. From the fact that the bony
horn-core of the hollow-horned ruminants first develops as a separate
ossification, as do the horns of the giraffe, while the pedicle of the
antlers of the deer grow direct from the frontal bone, it has been
proposed to place the hollow-horned ruminants (inclusive of the
prongbuck) and the giraffes in one group and the deer in another.
This arrangement has the disadvantage of separating the deer from

the giraffes, to which they are evidently nearly related; but Dr
Gadow's work brings them more into line. Whether he is right
in regarding the hollow- horned ruminants as derived from the
primitive deer may, however, be a matter of opinion. One very
important fact recorded by Dr Gadow is that calves and lamb's
shed their horns at an early age. The Bovidae are thus brought
into nearer relationship with the American prongbuck (the only
living ruminant which sheds its horn-cover in the adult condition)
than has generally been supposed.

The above-mentioned four types of skull appendages are gener-
ally regarded as severally characteristic of as many family groups,
namely the Giraffidae, Cervidae, Antilocapridae and Bovidae. The
two last are, however, much more closely connected than are either
of the others, and should perhaps be united.

Giraffidae. — In the Giraffidae, which include not only giraffes
(Giraffa) but also the okapi (Ocapia) and a number of extinct
species from the Lower Pliocene Tertiary deposits of southern
Europe, Asia and North Africa, the appendages on the skull are of
type No. I., and may well be designated " antler-horns." Another
important feature is that the lower canine has a cleft or two-lobed
crown, so that it is unlike the incisors to which it is approximated.
There are no upper canines; and the cheek-teeth are short -crowned
(brachyodont) with a peculiar grained enamel, resembling the
skin of a slug in character. The feet have only two hoofs, all traces
of the small lateral pair found in many other ruminants having
disappeared.

The giraffes (Giraffa) are now an exclusively African genus, and
have long legs and neck, and three horns — a single one in front
and a pair behind — supplemented in some instances with a rudi-
mentary pair on the occiput.

The okapi (Ocapia), which is also African but restricted to the
tropical forest-region, in place of being an inhabitant of more or
less open country, represents a second genus, characterized by the
shorter neck and Hmbs, the totally different type of colouring, and
the restriction of the horns to the male sex, in which they form
a pair on the forehead; these horns being more compressed than

Fig. 2. — Head of Grant's Gazelle (Gazella granti), showing horns.

the paired horns of the giraffe, and penetrating the skin at theit
summits (see Giraffe and Okapi). Remains of extinct speciei
of giraffe occur in the Lower Pliocene formations of Greece, Hungary,
Persia, Northern India and China. From deposits of the same
age in Greece, Samos and elsewhere have been obtained skulls
and other remains of Palaeotragus or Samoiherium, a ruminant
closely allied to Ocapia, the males of which were armed with a very
similar pair of dagger -shaped horns. Helladotherium was a much
larger animal, known by a single hornless skull from the Pliocene
of Greece, which may be that of a female. In the equally large

PECORA

35

Bramaiherium and Hydaspitherium of India the horns of the males
were complex, those of the former including an occipital pair,
while those of the latter arise from a common base. In both
genera, as in the okapi, there is a vacuity in front of the orbit.
Largest of all is Sivatherium, typically from the Lower Pliocene of
Northern India, but also recorded from Adrianople, in which the
skull of the male is short and wide, with a pair of simple conical
horns above the eye, and a huge branching pair at the vertex.
Libytherium is an allied form from North Africa. Whether the
Giraffidae were originally an African or a Euro-Asiatic group there
is not yet sufficient evidence to decide. The family is unrepre-
sented in the western hemisphere.

Cervidae. — In the deer-tribe, or Cervidae, the lower canine, as in
the two following families, is simple and similar to the incisors.
The frontal appendages, when present, are confined (except in the
case of the reindeer) to the males, and take the form of antlers, that
is to say of type No. II. in the foregoing description. As a general
rule, the molars, and more especially the first, are partially brachy-
odont (short-crowned) ; although they are taller in the chital (Cervus
axis). In the skull there are two orifices to the lachrymal duct,
situated on or inside the rim of the orbit. A preorbital vacuity of
such dimensions as to exclude the lachrymal bone from articulation
with the nasal. Upper canines usually present in both sexes, and
sometimes attaining a very great size in the male (see fig. 3).

Fig. 3. — Skull of Chinese Water-Deer, Hydrelaphus inermis (adult
male), a Deer without Antlers, but with largely developed upper
canine teeth.

Lateral digits of both fore and hind feet almost always present,
and frequently the lower ends of the metacarpals and the meta-
tarsals as well. Placenta with few cotyledons. Gall-bladder
absent (except in the musk-deer, Moschus). This family contains
numerous species, having a wide geographical distribution, ranging
in the New World from the Arctic circle as far south as Patagonia,
and in the Old World throughout the whole of Europe and Asia,
but absent in Africa south of the Sahara, and, of course, Australasia.
Evidently the family originated in the northern continent of the
Old World, from which an entrance was effected by way of Bering
Strait into America. Some of the more northern American deer,
such as the %vapiti, reindeer and elk (moose), are closely allied to
Old World species; but there is also a group of exclusively American
deer (Mazama) — the only one found in Central and South America
— the members of which are unlike any living Old World deer;
and these must be regarded as having reached the western hemi-
sphere at an earlier date than the wapiti, reindeer and elk (see
Deer, Elk, Fallow-Deer, Muntjac, Musk-Deer, Pere David's
Deer, Reindeer, Roebuck, Water-Deer, &c).

Remains of deer more or less nearly allied to species inhabiting
the same districts are found over the greater part of the present
habitat of the family. It is noteworthy, however, that certain
Pliocene European deer (Anoglochis) appear to be closely allied to
the modern American deer (Mazama). As we descend in the geo-
logical series the deer have simpler antlers, as in the European
Miocene Dkrocerus ; while in the Oligocene Amphitragulus , Dremo-
therium and Palaeomeryx, constituting the family Palaeomerycidae,
antlers were absent, and the crowns of the molars so low that the
whole depth of the hollows between the crescentic columns is com-
pletely visible. Most of these animals were of small size, and many
had long upper canines, like those of the existing Hydrelaphus;
while in all there was no depression for a gland in front of the eye.

From North America have been obtained remains of certain
ruminants which seem in some degree intermediate between deer
and the prongbuck. Of one of these a complete skeleton was
obtained in 1901 from the Middle Miocene deposits of north-eastern
Colorado, and as mounted stands 19 in. in height at the withers.
With the exception that the right antler is malformed and partially
aborted, and that the bones of the lateral toes have been lost,
the skeleton is practically complete. The one complete antler has
a well-marked burr and a long undivided beam, which eventually
forks. After this there is a bifurcation of the hinder branch, thus
producing three tines. From the presence of these well-marked
antlers the skeleton would at first sight be set down as that of a
small and primitive deer, conforming in regard to the structure of
these appendages to the American type of the group. Mr W. D.

Matthew shows, however, that the skeleton of Merycodus, as the
extinct ruminant is called, differs markedly from that of all deer.
The most noteworthy point of distinction is in the skull, in which
the facial portion is sharply bent down on the posterior basal axis
in the fashion characteristic of the hollow-horned ruminants (oxen,
antelopes, &c), and the American prongbuck, instead of running
more or less nearly parallel to the same, as in deer. Again, the
cheek-teeth have the tall crowns characteristic of a large number
of representatives of the first group and of the prongbuck, thereby
showing that Merycodus can scarcely be regarded as a primitive
type. As regards the general structure of the rest of the skeleton,
it must suffice to say that this agrees closely with that of the ante-
lopes and the prongbuck, and differs markedly from the cervine
type. In the absence of any trace of the lower extremities of the
metacarpal and metatarsal bones of the lateral toes the skeleton
differs from the American deer, and resembles those hollow-horned
ruminants in which these toes persist.

As a whole Merycodus presents a curious mixture of cervine
and antilopine character. To explain these, two alternatives are
offered by the describer. Either we must regard Merycodus as
a deer which parallels the antelopes and the prongbuck in every
detail of skeletal structure, or else, like the prongbuck, an antelope
separated from the main stock at a date sufficiently early to have
permitted the development of a distinct type of cranial appendages,
namely, antlers in place of true horns. The former alternative,
it is urged, involves a parallelism too close and too uniform between
unrelated types to have been probable. On the latter view Mery-
codus, the prongbuck (Antilocapra) and the antelopes must be
regarded as representing three branches from an original common
stock, divergent as regards the structure of their cranial appendages,
but parallel in other respects. If, therefore, Antilocapra deserves
to be separated as a family from the Bovidae, the same can scarcely
be refused for Merycodus. But American extinct types appear to
indicate signs of intimate relationship between antelopes, prong-
buck and deer, and it may be necessary eventually to amend the
current classification. As a temporary measure it seems prefer-
able to regard Merycodus either as representing a distinct sub-
family of Antilocapridae or a family by itself, the latter course
being adopted by Mr Matthew.

Whatever be the ultimate verdict, the association of antlers —
and these, be it noticed, conforming almost exactly with the forked
type characteristic of American deer — with an antilopine type of
skull, skeleton and teeth in Merycodus is a most interesting and
unexpected feature. Merycodus was named many years ago by
Professor J. Leidy on the evidence of imperfect materials, and other
remains now known to belong to the same type were subsequently
described as Cosoryx, to which Blastomeryx seems to be allied.
Not till the discovery of the skeleton of the species described by
Mr Matthew was it possible to arrive at an adequate conception of
the affinities of this remarkable ruminant.

Antilocapridae. — By many modern writers the American prong-
buck, pronghorn or " antelope," alone forming the genus Antilo-
capra, is regarded as representing merely a sub-family of the Bovidae,
to which latter group the animal is structurally akin. In view of
what has been stated in the preceding paragraph with regard to
the extinct American genus Merycodus, it seems, however, at least
provisionally advisable to allow the prongbuck to remain as the
type of a family — Antilocapridae. The characteristic of this family
— as represented by the prongbuck— is that the sheath of the horns
is forked, and shed annually, or every few years. The cheek-
teeth are tall-crowned (hypsodont), and lateral hoofs are wanting
(see Prongbuck).

Bovidae. — Lastly, we have the great family of hollow-horned
ruminants or Bovidae, in which the horns (present in the males at
least of all the existing species) take the form of simple non-deciduous
hollow sheaths growing upon bony cores. As a rule the molars
are tall-crowned (hypsodont). Usually only one orifice to the
lachrymal canal, situated inside the rim of the orbit. Lachrymal
bone almost always articulating with the nasal. Canines absent
in both sexes. The lateral toes may be completely absent, but
more often are represented by the hoofs alone, supported sometiires
by a very rudimentary skeleton, consisting of mere irregular nodules
of bone. Lower ends of the lateral metacarpals and metatarsals
never present. Gall-bladder almost always present. Placenta
with many cotyledons.

The Bovidae form a most extensive family, with members widely
distributed throughout the Old World, with the exception of the
Australian region; but in America they are less numerous, and
confined to the Arctic and northern temperate regions, no species
being indigenous either to South or Central America. The home
of the family was evidently the Old World, whence a small number
of forms made their way into North America by way of what is
now Bering Strait. It has already been pointed out that the
Cervidae originated in the northern continent of the Old World;
and it has been suggested that the Bovidae were developed in
Africa. Unfortunately, we know at present practically nothing
as to the past history of the group, all the fossil species at present
discovered approximating more or less closely to existing types.
While admitting, therefore, that there are several facts in favour
of the theory of an African origin of the Bovidae, final judgment

3&

PECS— PEDANT

must for the present be suspended. For the various generic
types see Bovidae, and the special articles referred to under that
heading. (R. L.*)

PECS (Ger. Funjkirchen) , a town of Hungary, capital of
the country of Baranya, 160 m. S.S.W. of Budapest by rail.
Pop. (1900), 42, 252. It lies on the outskirts of the Mecsek Hills,
and is composed of the inner old town, which is laid out in an
almost regular square, and four suburbs. Pecs is the see of a
Roman Catholic bishop, and its cathedral, reputed one of the
oldest churches in Hungary, is also one of the finest medieval
buildings in the country. It was built in the nth century in
the Romanesque style with four towers, and completely restored
in 1881-1891. In the Cathedral Square is situated the Sacellum,
a subterranean brick structure, probably a burial-chapel, dating
from the end of the 4th or the beginning of the 5th century.
Other noteworthy buildings are the parish church, formerly a
mosque of the Turkish period; the hospital church, also a former
mosque, with a minaret 88 ft. high, and another mosque, the
bishop's palace, and the town and county hall. Pecs has
manufactories of woollens, porcelain, leather and paper, and
carries on a considerable trade in tobacco, gall-nuts and wine.
The hills around the town are covered with vineyards, which
produce one of the best wines in Hungary. In the vicinity are
valuable coal-mines, which since 1858 are worked by the Danube
Steamship Company.

According to tradition Pecs existed in the time of the Romans
under the name of Sompiana, and several remains of the Roman
and early Christian period have been found here. In the
Frankish-German period it was known under the name of
Quinque ecclesiae; its bishopric was founded in 1009. King
Ludwig I. founded here in 1367 a university, which existed
until the battle of Mohacs. In 1 543 it was taken by the Turks,
who retained possession of it till 1686.

PECTORAL, a word applied to various objects worn on the
breast (Lat. pectus); thus it is the name of the ornamental plate
of metal or embroidery formerly worn by bishops of the Roman
Church during the celebration of mass, the breastplate of the
Jewish high priest, and the metal plate placed on the breast of
the embalmed dead in Egyptian tombs. The " pectoral cross,"
a small cross of precious metal, is worn by bishops and abbots
of the Roman, and by bishops of the Anglican, communion.
The term has also been used for the more general " poitrel " or
" peitrel " (the French and Norman French forms respectively),
the piece of armour which protected the breast of the war-horse
of the middle ages.

PECULIAR, a word now generally used in the sense of that
which solely or exclusively belongs to,or is particularly character-
istic of, an individual; hence strange, odd, queer. The Lat.
peculiaris meant primarily " belonging to private property,"
and is formed from peculium, private property, particularly
the property given by a paterfamilias to his children, or by a
master to his slave, to enjoy as their own. As a term of ecclesias-
tical law " peculiar " is applied to those ecclesiastical districts,
parishes, chapels or churches, once numerous in England, which
were outside the jurisdiction of the bishop of the diocese in
which they were situated, and were subject to a jurisdiction
" peculiar " to themselves. They were introduced originally,
in many cases by papal authority, in order to limit the powers
of the bishop in his diocese. There were royal peculiars, eg.
the Chapel Royal St James's, or St George's Windsor, peculiars
of the archbishop, over certain of which the Court of Peculiars
exercised jurisdiction (see Arches, Court of), and peculiars
of bishops and deans (see Dean). The jurisdiction and privi-
leges of the " peculiars " were abolished by statutory powers
given to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, by the Ecclesiastical
Commissioners Acts 1836 and 1850, by the Pluralities Act 1838,
the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Act 1847, and other statutes.

PECULIAR PEOPLE, a small sect of Christian faith-healers
founded in London in 1838 by John Banyard. They consider
themselves bound by the literal interpretation of James v. 14,
and in cases of sickness seek no medical aid but rely on oil,
prayer and nursing. The community is in the main composed

of simple working people, who, apart from their peculiarity,
have a good reputation; but their avoidance of professional
medical attendance has led to severe criticism at inquests on
children who have died for want of it.

PEDAGOGUE, a teacher or schoolmaster, a term usually now
applied with a certain amount of contempt, implying pedantry,
dogmatism or narrow-mindedness. The Gr. Trcudayioyos (irats,
boy, d7«7os, leader, ayeiv, to lead), from which the English
word is derived, was not strictly an instructor. He was a
slave in an Athenian household who looked after the personal
safety of the sons of the master of the house, kept them from
bad company, and took them to and from school and the
gymnasium. He probably sat with his charges in school. The
boys were put in his charge at the age of six. The ircudaycxyyos,
being a slave, was necessarily a foreigner, usually a Thracian or
Asiatic. The Romans adopted the paedagogus or pedagogus
towards the end of the republic. He probably took some part
in the instruction of the boys (see Schools) . Under the empire,
the pedagogus was specifically the instructor of the boy slaves,
who were being trained and educated in the household of the
emperor and of the rich nobles and other persons; these boys
lived together in a paedagogium, and were known as pueri
paedagogiani, a name which has possibly developed into
" page " (q.v.).

PEDAL CLARINET, a contrabass instrument invented in
1891 by M. F. Besson to complete the quartet of clarinets, as
the contrafagotto or double bassoon completes that of the
oboe family ; it is constructed on practically the same principles
as the clarinet, and consists of a tube 10 ft. long, in which cylin-
drical and conical bores are so ingeniously combined that the
acoustic principles remain unchanged. The tube is doubled up
twice upon itself; at the upper end the beak mouthpiece stands
out like the head of a viper, while at the lower a metal tube, in the
shape of a U with a wide gloxinea-shaped bell, is joined to the
wooden tube. The beak mouthpiece is exactly like that of the
other clarinets but of larger size, and it is furnished with a single
or beating reed. There are 13 keys and 2 rings on the tube, and
the fingering is the same as for the B flat clarinet except for the
eight highest semitones. The compass of the pedal clarinet is
as follows: —

Notation

Real Sounds —

from

from

8va bassa

The instrument is in B flat two octaves below the B flat
clarinet, and, like it, it is a transposing instrument, the music
being written in a key a tone higher than that of the
composition, and in order to avoid ledger lines a whole octave
higher besides. The tone is rich and full except for the lowest
notes, which are unavoidably a little rough in quality, but much
more sonorous than the corresponding notes on the double
bassoon. The upper register resembles the chalumeau register
of the B flat clarinet, being reedy and sweet. The instrument
is used as a fundamental bass for the wood wind at Kneller
Hall, and it has also been used at Covent Garden to accompany
the music of Fafner and Hunding in the Nibelungen Ring.

Many attempts have been made since the beginning of the
19th century to construct contra clarinets, but all possessed inherent
faults and have been discarded (see Batyphone). A contrabass
clarinet in F, an octave below the basset horn, constructed by
Albert of Brussels in 1890, was, we believe, considered successful,
but it differed in design from the pedal clarinet. (K. S.)

PEDANT, one who exaggerates the value of detailed erudition
for its own sake; also a person who delights in a display of the
exact niceties of learning, in an excessive obedience to theory
without regard to practical uses. The word came into English
in the latter part of the 16th century in the sense of schoolmaster,
the original meaning of Ital. pedante, from which it is derived.
The word is usually taken to be an adaptation of Gr. iraiSebew,

PEDEN— PEDIPALPI

37

to teach. Others connect with an 0. Ital. pedare, to tramp about
(Lat. pes, foot), of an usher tramping about with his pupils.

PEDEN, ALEXANDER (c. 1626-1686), Scottish divine, one of
the leading forces in the Covenant movement, was born at
Auchincloich, Ayrshire, about 1626, and was educated at
Glasgow University. He was ordained minister of New Luce
in Galloway in 1660, but had to leave his parish under Middleton's
Ejectment Act in 1663. For 23 years he wandered far and wide,
bringing comfort and succour to his co-religionists, and often
very narrowly escaping capture. He was indeed taken in June
1673 while holding a conventicle at Knockdow, and condemned
by the privy council to 4 years and 3 months' imprisonment on
the Bass Rock and a further 15 months in the Tolbooth at
Edinburgh. In December 1678 he was, with sixty others,
sentenced to banishment to the American plantations, but the
party was liberated in London, and Peden made his way north
again to divide the remaining years of his life between his own
country and the north of Ireland. His last days were spent in
a cave in the parish of Sorn, near his birthplace, and there he
died in 1686, worn out by hardship and privation.

See A. Smelhe, Men of the Covenant, ch. xxxiv.

PEDERSEN, CHRISTIERN (c. 1480-1554), Danish writer,
known as the " father of Danish literature, " was a canon of the
cathedral of Lund, and in 1510 went to Paris, where he took his
master's degree in 1 515. In Paris he edited the proverbs of Peder
Laale and (15 14) the Historia danica of Saxo Grammaticus.
He showed signs of the spirit of reform, asserting that the
gospels should be translated into the vernacular so that the
common people might understand. He worked at a continuation
of the history of Saxo Grammaticus, and became secretary to
Christian II., whom he followed into exile in 1525. In Holland
he translated the New Testament (1529) and the Psalms (1531)
from the Vulgate, and, becoming a convert to the reformed
opinion, he issued several Lutheran tracts. After his return to
Denmark in 1532 he set up a printing press at Malmo. He
published a Danish version (Kronike om Holger Danske) of
the French romance of Ogier the Dane, and another of the
Charlemagne legends, which is probably derived immediately
from the Norwegian Karlamagnus saga. His greatest work, the
Danish version of the Holy Scriptures, which is known generally
as " Christian III.'s Bible, " is an important landmark in
Danish literature. It was founded on Luther's version, and
was edited by Peder Palladius, bishop of Zealand, and others.

See C. Petersen's Danske Skrifter, edited by C. J. Brandt and
B. T. Fenger (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1850-1856).

PEDESTAL (Fr. piedeslal, Ital. piedestallo, foot of a stall), a
term generally applied to a support, square, octagonal or
circular on plan, provided to carry a statue or a vase. Although
in Syria, Asia Minor and Tunisia the Romans occasionally
raised the columns of their temples or propylaea on square
pedestals, in Rome itself they were employed only to give
greater importance to isolated columns, such as those of Trajan
and Antoninus, or as a podium to the columns employed decor-
atively in the Roman triumphal arches. The architects of the
Italian revival, however, conceived the idea that no order was
complete without a pedestal, and as the orders were by them
employed to divide up and decorate a building in several storeys,
the cornice of the pedestal was carried through and formed the
sills of their windows, or, in open arcades, round a court, the
balustrade of the arcade. They also would seem to have
considered that the height of the pedestal should correspond in
its proportion with that of the column of pilaster it supported;
thus in the church of St John Lateran, where the applied order
is of considerable dimensions, the pedestal is 13 ft. high instead
of the ordinary height of 3 to 5 ft.

PEDICULOSIS, or Phthiriasis, the medical term for the
pathological symptoms in man due to the presence of lice
(pcdiculi), either on the head {pediculus capitis), body (pediculus
corporis, or vestimentorum) , or pubes {pediculus pubis).

PEDIGREE, a genealogical tree, a tabular statement of descent
(see Genealogy). The word first appears at the beginning of
the 15th century and takes an extraordinary variety of forms,

e.g. pedicree, pe de gre, petiegrew, petygru, &c. It is generally
accepted that these point to a corruption of Fr. pied de grue, foot
of a crane, and that the probable reference is to the marks
resembling the claw of a bird found in old genealogies showing
the lines of descent. Such etymologies as Minshea's par degrts,
by degrees, or pere degres, descent by the father, are mere
guesses.

PEDIMENT (equivalents, Gr. aeros, Lat. fastigium, Fr.
ponton), in classic architecture the triangular-shaped portion of
the wali above the cornice which formed the termination of the
roof behind it. The projecting mouldings of the cornice which
surround it enclose the tympanum, which is sometimes decorated
with sculpture. The pediment in classic architecture corre-
sponds to the gable in Gothic architecture, where the roof is of
loftier pitch. It was employed by the Greeks only as the front
of the roof which covered the main building; the Romans, how-
ever, adopted it as a decorative termination to a doorway, niche
or window, and occasionally, in a row of windows or niches,
alternated the triangular with a segmental pediment. It was
reserved for the Italian architects of the decadence to break the
pediment in the centre, thus destroying its original purpose.
The earliest English form of the word is periment or peremint,
probably a workman's corruption of " pyramid. "

PEDIPALPI, Arachnida (q.v) related to the spiders, and
serving in a measure to bridge over the structural interval
between the latter and the scorpions. The appendages of the
second pair are large and prehensile, as in scorpions, but are
armed with spines, to impale and hold prey. The appendages of
the third pair, representing the first pair'of walking legs in spiders
and scorpions, are, on the contrary, long, attenuated and many-
jointed at the end. Like the antennae of insects, they act as
feelers. It is from this structural feature that the term " pedi-
palpi " has been derived. In the tailless division of the Pedipalpi,

JXmHb

Mexican tailed Pedipalp (Mastigoproetus giganteus).

namely the Amblypygi of which Phrynus is a commonly cited
type, these tactile appendages are exceedingly long and lash-
like, whereas in the tailed division, the Uropygi, of which Thely-
phonus is best known, the limb is much shorter andless modified.
Thelyphonus and its allies, however, have a long tactile caudal
flagellum, the homologue of the scorpion's sting; but its exact
use is unknown. A third division, the Tartarides, a subordinate
group of the Uropygi, contains minute Arachnida differing
principally from the typical Uropygi in having the caudal process
unjoiated and short. Apart from the Tartarides, the Pedipalpi

3»

PEDOMETER— PEEBLESSHIRE

are large or medium-sized Arachnida, nocturnal in habits and
spending the day under stones, logs of wood or loosened bark.
Some species of the Uropygi (Thelyphonidae) dig burrows; and
in the east there is a family of Amblypygi, the Charontidae, of
which many of the species live in the recesses of deep caves.
Specimens of another species have been found under stones
between tide marks in the Andaman Islands. The Pedipalpi
feed upon insects, and like spiders, are oviparous. The eggs
after being laid are carried about by the mother, adhering in a
glutinous mass to the underside of the abdomen.

Pedipalpi date back to the Carboniferous Period, occurring in
deposits of that age both in Europe and North America. More-
over, the two main divisions of the order, which were as sharply
differentiated then as they are now, have existed practically
unchanged from that remote epoch.

In spite of the untold ages they have been in existence, the
Pedipalpi are more restricted in range than the scorpions. The
Uropygi are found only in Central and South America and in
south and eastern Asia, from India and south China to the Solo-
mon Islands. The absence of the entire order from Africa is an
interesting fact. The distribution of the Amblypygi practically
covers that of the Uropygi, but in addition they extend from India
through Arabia into tropical and southein Africa. Both groups
are unknown in Madagascar, in Australia, with the exception
possibly of the extreme north, and in New Zealand. Very little
can be said with certainty about the distribution of the Tartar-
ides. They have been recorded from the Indian Region, West
Africa and sub-tropical America. (R. I. P.)

PEDOMETER (Lat. pes, foot, and Gr. fikrpov, measure), an
apparatus in the form of a watch, which, carried on the person
of a walker, counts the number of paces he makes, and thus
indicates approximately the distance travelled. The ordinary
form has a dial-plate marked for yards and miles. The regis-
tration is effected by the fall of a heavy pendulum, caused by the
percussion of each step. The pendulum is forced back to a
horizontal position by a delicate spring, and with each stroke a
fine-toothed ratchet-wheel connected with it is moved round a
certain length. The ratchet communicates with a train of wheels
which work the dial-hands. In using the apparatus a measured
mile or other known distance is walked and the indication
thereby made on the dial-plate observed. According as it is too
great or too small, the stroke of the pendulum is shortened or
lengthened by a screw. Obviously the pedometer is little better
than an ingenious toy, depending even for rough measurements
on the uniformity of pace maintained throughout the journey
measured.

PEDRO II. (1825-1891), emperor of Brazil, came to the throne
in childhood, having been born on the 2nd of December 1825,
and proclaimed emperor in April 1831, upon the abdication of
his father. He was declared of full age in 1840. For a long
period few thrones appeared more secure, and his prosperous
and beneficent rule might have endured throughout his life
but for his want of energy and inattention tc the signs of the
times. The rising generation had become honeycombed with
republicanism, the prospects of the imperial succession were
justly regarded as unsatisfactory, the higher classes had been
estranged by the emancipation of the slaves, and all these causes
of discontent found expression in a military revolt, which in
November 1889 overthrew the seemingly solid edifice of the
Brazilian Empire in a few hours. Dom Pedro retired to Europe,
and died in Paris on the 5th of December 1891. The chief
events of his reign had been the emancipation of the slaves,
and the war with Paraguay in 1864-70. Dom Pedro was a
model constitutional sovereign, and a munificent patron of
science and letters. He travelled in the United States (1876),
and thrice visited Europe (1871-1872, 1876-1877, 1886-1889).

PEEBLES, a royal and police burgh and county town of
Peeblesshire, Scotland, situated at the junction of Eddleston
Water with the Tweed. Pop. (1901), 5266. It is 27 m. south of
Edinburgh by the North British Railway (22 m. by road), and
is also the terminus of a branch line of the Caledonian system
from Carstairs in Lanarkshire. The burgh consists of the new

town, the principal quarter, on the south of the Eddleston, and
the old on the north; the Tweed is crossed by a handsome five-
arched bridge. Peebles is a noted haunt of anglers, and the
Royal Company of Archers shoot here periodically for the silver
arrow given by the burgh. The chief public buildings are the
town and county halls, the corn exchange, the hospital and
Chambers Institution. The last was once the town house of the
earls of March, but was presented to Peebles by William Chambers,
the publisher, in 1859. The site of the castle, which stood till
the beginning of the 18th century, is now occupied by the parish
church, built in 1887. Of St Andrew's Church, founded in 1195,
nothing remains but the tower, restored by William Chambers,
who was buried beside it in 1883. The church of the Holy
Rood was erected by Alexander III. in 1261, to contain a
supposed remnant of the true cross discovered here. The
building remained till 1784, when it was nearly demolished to
provide stones for a new parish church. Portions of the town
walls still exist, and there are also vaulted cellars constructed
in the 16th and 17th centuries as hiding-places against Border
freebooters. The old cross, which had stood for several years in
the quadrangle of Chambers Institution, was restored and
erected in High Street in 1895. The industries consist of the
manufactures of woollens and tweeds, and of meal and flour
mills. The town is also an important agricultural centre.

The name of Peebles is said to be derived from the pebylls, or
tents, which the Gadeni pitched here in the days of the Romans.
The place was early a favourite residence of the Scots kings when
they came to hunt in Ettrick forest. It probably received its
charter from Alexander III., was created a royal burgh in 1367
and was the scene of the poem of Peblis to the Play, ascribed to
James I. In 1544 the town sustained heavy damage in the
expedition led by the 1st earl of Hertford, afterwards the
protector Somerset, and in 1604 a large portion of it was
destroyed by fire. Though James VI. extended its charter,
Peebles lost its importance after the union of the Crowns.

On the north bank of the Tweed, one mile west of Peebles, stands
Neidpath Castle. The ancient peel tower dates probably from the
13th century. Its first owners were Tweeddale Frasers or Frisels,
from whom it passed, by marriage, to the Hays of Yester in Had-
dingtonshire, earls of Tweeddale. It was besieged and taken by
Cromwell in 1650. The third earl of Tweeddale (1645-1713) sold
it to the duke of Queensberry in 1686. The earl of Wemvss suc-
ceeded to the Neidpath property in 1810.

PEEBLESSHIRE, or Tweeddale, a southern inland county of
Scotland, bounded N. and N.E. by Edinburghshire, E. and S.E.
by Selkirkshire, S. by Dumfriesshire, and W. by Lanarkshire.
Its area is 222,599 acres or 547-8 sq. m. The surface consists
of a succession of hills, which are highest in the south, broken
by the vale of the Tweed and the glens formed by its numerous
tributaries. South of the Tweed the highest points are Broad
Law and Cramalt Craig on the confines of Selkirkshire (each
2723 ft.), while north of the river are, in the west centre, Brough-
ton Heights (1872), Trahenna Hill (1792), Penvalla (1764) and
Ladyurd Hill (1724), and in the north-west the Pentland emin-
ences of Mount Maw (1753), Byrehope Mount (1752) and King
Seat (1521). The lowest point above sea-level is on the banks of
the Tweed, where it passes into Selkirkshire (about 450 ft.).
The principal river is the Tweed, and from the fact that for the
first 36 m. of its course of 97 m. it flows through the south of
the shire, the county derives its alternative name of Tweeddale.
Its affluents on the right are the Stanhope, Drummelzier, Manor
and Quair; on the left, the Biggar,Lyne, Eddlestone and Leithen.
The North Esk, rising in Cairnmuir, forms the boundary line
between Midlothian and Peeblesshire for about four miles,
during which it presents some very charming pictures, especially
at Habbie's Howe, where Allan Ramsay laid the scene of the
Gentle Shepherd. For 4 m. of its course the South Medwin
divides the south-western part of the parish of Linton from
Lanarkshire. Portmore Loch, a small sheet of water 2 m. north-
east of Eddlestone church, lies at a height of rooo ft. above the
sea, and is the only lake in the county. The shire is in favour with
anglers, its streams being well stocked and unpolluted, and few
restrictions being placed on the fishing.

PEEKSKILL— PEEL, VISCOUNT

39

Geology. — The southern elevated portion of the county is occupied
by Silurian rocks, mainly by shales and grits or greywackes of
Llandovery age. Owing to the repeated folding and crumpling of
the rocks in this region there are numerous elliptical exposures
of Ordovician strata within the Silurian tract; but the principal
area of Ordovician rocks lies north of a line running south-west
from the Moorfoot Hills through Lyne and Stobo. Here these
rocks form a belt some four to five miles in breadth; they are com-
posed of radiolarian cherts and mudstones with associated con-
temporaneous volcanic rocks of Arenig age, and of shales, grits
and limestones of Llandeilo and Caradoc age. The general direction
of strike of all these formations is south-west-north-east, but the
dips are sometimes misleading through occasional inversion of the
strata. Patches of higher Silurian, with Wenlock and Ludlow
fossils, are found in the north of the country in the Pentland Hills,
and resting conformably upon the Silurian in the same district is
the Lower Old Red Sandstone. The Old Red Sandstone here
consists of a lower division, red and chocolate marls and sandstones ;
a middle division, volcanic rocks, porphyrites, tuffs, &c, which are
unconformable on the lower marls in this area; and an upper
division, sandstones and conglomerates. The south-west extremity
of the Edinburgh coalfield just enters this county over the north-
west border where a slice of Carboniferous strata is found let down
between Silurian and Old Red rocks by two important faults.
Both Calciferous sandstone and Carboniferous limestone occur,
with useful beds of coal, limestone, ironstone, fireclay and alum
shale. An outlier of Carboniferous limestone, surrounded by
Lower Old Red Sandstone, lies south of Linton. Much glacial
boulder clay with gravel and sand rests upon the higher ground,
while morainic deposits are found in the valleys.

Climate and Industries. — The annual rainfall averages from
33 to 41 in.; the mean temperature for the year is 47-5° F.,
for January 38° F., and for July 59° F. The character of the
soil varies considerably, peat, gravel and clay being all repre-
sented. The low-lying lands consist generally of rich loam,
composed of sand and clay. The farming is pastoral rather than
arable. The average holding is about 200 acres of arable land,
with pasturage for from 600 to 800 sheep. Roughly speaking,
one-fifth of the total area is under cultivation. Oats are the
chief grain and turnips the chief root crop. The hill pastures are
better suited to sheep than to cattle, but both flocks and herds are
comparatively large. Cheviots and half-breds are preferred for
the grass lands, the heathery ranges being stocked with black-
faced sheep. Crosses of Cheviots, black-faced and half-bred
ewes with Leicestershire rams are common. The favourite
breed of cattle is a cross between Ayrshires and shorthorns, the
cows being Ayrshire. Many of the horses are Clydesdales bred
in the county. Pig-keeping is on the decline. A few acres have
been laid down as nurseries and market gardens, and about
10,000 acres are under wood, especially at Dalwick, where larch
and horse-chestnut were first grown in Scotland. Apart from
agriculture, the only industries are the woollen factories and flour
mills at Peebles and Innerleithen.

The North British railway crosses the county in the north from
Leadburn to Dolphinton, and runs down the Eddlestone valley
from Leadburn to Peebles and Thornielee, while in the south the
Caledonian railway connects the county town with Biggar in
Lanarkshire.

Population and Administration. — In 1901 the population
numbered 1 5,066 or 43 persons to the sq. m. In 1901 one person
spoke Gaelic only, 72 Gaelic and English. The chief towns are
Peebles (pop. 5266) and Innerleithen (2181). West Linton, on
Lyne Water, is a holiday resort. The shire combines with
Selkirkshire to return one member to parliament, the electors
of Peebles town voting with the county. Peeblesshire forms a
sheriffdom with the Lothians and a sheriff-substitute sits in
the county town. There is a high school in Peebles, and one
or more schools in the county usually earn grants for secondary
education.

History. — The country was originally occupied by the Gadeni,
a British tribe, of whom there are many remains in the shape of
camps and sepulchral mounds (in which stone coffins, axes and
hammers have been found), while several place-names (such as
Peebles, Dalwick and Stobo) also attest their presence. The
standing stones near the confluence of the Lyne and Tweed are
supposed to commemorate a Cymric chief. The natives were
reduced by the Romans, who have left traces of their military
rule in the fine camp at Lyne, locally known as Randal's Walls.

The hill-side terraces at Romanno are conjectured, somewhat
fancifully, to be remains of a Roman method of cultivation . On
the retreat of the Romans the Gadeni came into their own again,
and although they are said to have been defeated by King Arthur
at Cademuir in 530, they held the district until the consolidation
of the kingdom after Malcolm II. 's victory at Carham in 1018,
before which the land, constantly harried by Danes, was nomi-
nally included in the territory of Northumbria. This tract of
Scotland is closely associated with the legend of Merlin. David I.
made the district a deanery in the archdeaconry of Peebles,
and it afterwards formed part of the diocese of Glasgow.
Towards the middle of the 12 th century it was placed under
the jurisdiction of two sheriffs, one of whom was settled at
Traquair and the other at Peebles. At Happrew, in the valley
of the Lyne, the English defeated Wallace in 1304. The Scottish
sovereigns had a lodge at Polmood, and often hunted in the
uplands and the adjoining forests. English armies occasionally
invaded the county, but more frequently the people were harried
by Border raiders. Many castles and peels were erected in the
valley of the Tweed from the Bield to Berwick. Several were •
renowned in their day, among them Oliver Castle (built by Sir
Oliver Fraser in the reign of David I.), Drumelzier, Tinnis or
Thane's Castle, and Neidpath. Three miles south of Romanno
stand the ruins of Drochil Castle, designed for the Regent
Morton, who was beheaded at Edinburgh in 1581, and the
building was never completed. Memories of the Covenanters
cluster around Tweedhopefoot, Tweedshaws, Corehead, Tweeds-
muir, Talla Linns and other spots. In the churchyard of
Tweedsmuir is the tombstone of John Hunter, the martyr,
which was relettered by " Old Mortality." The " men of the
moss hags " did little fighting in Peeblesshire, but Montrose first
drew rein at Traquair House after he was defeated at Philip-
haugh on the Yarrow in 1645. The plain of Sheriffmuir near
Lyne is the place where the Tweeddale wapinschaws used to be
held in the 17th century. The Jacobite risings left the county
untouched, and since the beginning of the 19th century the shire
has been more conspicuous in literature than in politics.

Bibliography. — Pennecuick, Description of Tweeddale (1715);
William Chambers, History of Peeblesshire (Edinburgh, 1864);
Dr C. B. Gunn, Innerleithen and Traquair (Innerleithen, 1867);
Sir George Reid, The River Tweed from its Source to the Sea (Text
by Professor Veitch) (Edinburgh, 1884); Professor Veitch, History
and Poetry of the Scottish Border (Edinburgh, 1893) ; Border Essays
(Edinburgh, 1896); Rev. W. S. Crockett, The Scott Country (Edin-
burgh, 1902).

PEEKSKILL, a village of Westchester county, New York,
U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Hudson river, about 41 m. N.
of New York City. Pop. (1910, census), 15,245. It is served
by the New York Central & Hudson River railway, and by
passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Hudson river.
The village is the home of many New York business men.
At Peekskill are the Peekskill military academy (1833, non-
sectarian); St Mary's school, Mount St Gabriel (Protestant
Episcopal), a school for girls established by the sisterhood of
St Mary; the Field memorial library; St Joseph's home (Roman
Catholic) ; the Peekskill hospital, and several sanatoria.
Near the village is the state military camp, where the national
guard of the state meets in annual encampment. Peekskill has
many manufactures, and the factory products were valued in
1905 at $7,251,897, an increase of 306-7% since 1900. The site
was settled early in the 18th century, but the village itself dates
from about 1760, when it took its present name from the adjacent
creek or " kill," on which a Dutch trader, Jans Peek, of New
York City, had established a trading post. During the latter
part of the War of Independence Peekskill was an important
outpost of the Continental Army, and in the neighbourhood
several small engagements were fought between American and
British scouting parties. The village was incorporated in 1816.
Peekskill was the country home of Henry Ward Beecher.

PEEL, ARTHUR WELLESLEY PEEL, ist Viscount
(1829- ), English statesman, youngest son of the great
Sir Robert Peel, was born on the 3rd of August 1829, and was
educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford. He unsuccessfully

4Q

PEEL, SIR ROBERT

contested Coventry in 1863; in 1865 he was elected in the
liberal interest for Warwick, for which he sat until his elevation
to the peerage. In December 1868 he was appointed parliamentary-
secretary to the poor law board. This office he filled until 187 1,
when he became secretary to the board of trade, an appointment
which he held for two years. In 1873-1874 he was patronage
secretary to the treasury, and in 1880 he became under-
secretary for the home department. On the retirement of Mr
Brand (afterwards Viscount Hampden) in 1884, Peel was elected
Speaker. He was thrice re-elected to the post, twice in 1886, and
again in 1892. Throughout his career as Speaker he exhibited
conspicuous impartiality, combined with a perfect knowledge of
the traditions, usages and forms of the house, soundness of judg-
ment, and readiness of decision upon all occasions; and he will
always rank as one of the greatest holders of this important
office. On the 8th of April 1895 he announced that for reasons
of health he was compelled to retire. The farewell ceremony
was of a most impressive character, and warm tributes were paid
from all parts of the house. He was created a viscount and
granted a pension of £4000 for life. He was presented with the
freedom of the City of London in July 1895. The public
interest in the ex-Speaker's later life centred entirely in his some-
what controversial connexion with the drink traffic. A royal
commission was appointed in April 1896 to inquire into the
operation and administration of the licensing laws, and Viscount
Peel was appointed chairman. In July 1898 Lord Peel drew up
a draft report for discussion, in five parts. Some differences of
opinion arose in connexion with the report, and at a meeting of
the commissioners on the 12th of April 1899, when part 5 of the
draft report was to be considered, a proposal was made to
substitute an alternative draft for Lord Peel's, and also a series
of alternative drafts for the four sections already discussed.
Lord Peel declined to put these proposals, and left the room.
Sir Algernon West was elected to the chair, and ultimately two
main reports were presented, one section agreeing with Lord
Peel, and the other — including the majority of the commis-
sioners — presenting a report which differed from his in several
important respects. The Peel report recommended that a
large reduction in the number of licensed houses should be
immediately effected, and that no compensation should be paid
from the public rates or taxes, the money for this purpose
being raised by an annual licence-rental levied on the rateable
value of the licensed premises; it at once became a valuable
weapon in the hands of advanced reformers.

Lord Peel married in 1862, and had four sons and two daughters
(married to Mr J. Rochfort Maguire and to Mr C. S. Goldman).
His eldest son, William Robert Wellesley Peel (b. 1866), married
the daughter of Lord Ashton; he was Unionist M.P. for South
Manchester from 1900 to 1905, and later for Taunton, and also
acted as Municipal Reform leader on the London County
Council.

PEEL, SIR ROBERT, Bart. (1788-1850), English statesman,
was born on the 5th of February 1788 at Chamber Hall, in the
neighbourhood of Bury, Lancashire, or, less probably, at a
cottage near the Hall. He was a scion of that new aristocracy
of wealth which sprang from the rapid progress of mechanical
discovery and manufactures in the latter part of the 18th
century. His ancestors were Yorkshire yeomen in the district
of Craven, whence they migrated to Blackburn in Lancashire.
His grandfather, Robert Peel, first of Peeltcld, and afterwards of
Brookside, near Blackburn, was a calico-printer, who, appre-
ciating the discovery of his townsman Hargreaves, took to
cotton-spinning with the spinning- jenny and grew a wealthy man.
His father, Robert Peel (1750-1830), third son of the last-named,
carried on the same business at Bury with still greater success,
in partnership with his uncle, Mr Haworth, and Mr Yates, whose
daughter, Ellen, he married. He made a princely fortune,
became the owner of Drayton Manor and member of parlia-
ment for the neighbouring borough of Tamworth, was a trusted
and honoured, as well as ardent, supporter of Pitt, contributed
munificently towards the support of that leader's war policy,
and was rewarded with a baronetcy ( 1 800) .

At Harrow, according to the accounts of his contemporaries,
Peel was a steady industrious boy, the best scholar in the school,
fonder of country walks with a friend than of school games,
but reputed one of the best football players. At Christ Church,
where he entered as a gentleman commoner, he was the first who,
under the new examination statutes, took a first class both in
classics and in mathematics. His examination for his B.A. degree
in 1808 was an academical ovation in presence of a numerous
audience, who came to hear the first man of the day. From
his classical studies Robert Peel derived not only the classical,
though somewhat pompous, character of his speeches and the
Latin quotations with which they were often happily interspersed
but something of his lofty ideal of political ambition. To his
mathematical training, which was then not common among
public men, he no doubt owed in part his method, his clearness,
his great power of grasping steadily and working out difficult
and complicated questions. His speeches show that, in addition
to his academical knowledge, he was well versed in English
literature, in history, and in the principles of law, in order to study
which he entered at Lincoln's Inn. But while reading hard he
did not neglect to develop his tall and vigorous frame, and, though
he lost his life partly through his bad riding, he was always a
good shot and an untiring walker after game. His Oxford
education confirmed his atachment to the Church of England.
His practical mind remained satisfied with the doctrines of his
youth, and he never showed that he had studied the great
religious controversies of his day.

In 1809, being then in his twenty-second year, he was brought
into parliament for the close borough of Cashel, which he after-
wards exchanged for Chippenham, and commenced his parlia-
mentary career under the eye of his father, then member for
Tamworth, who fondly saw in him the future leader of the Tory
party. In that House of Commons sat Wilberforce, Windham,
Tierney, Grattan, Perceval, Castlereagh, Plunkett, Romilly,
Mackintosh, Burdett, Whitbread, Horner, Brougham, Parnell,
Huskisson, and, above all, George Canning. Lord Palmerston
entered the house two years earlier, and Lord John Russell
three years later. Among these men young Peel had to rise.
And he rose, not by splendid eloquence, by profound political
philosophy or by great originality of thought, but by the closest
attention to all his parliamentary duties, by a study of all the
business of parliament, and by a style of speaking which owed
its force not to high flights of oratory, but to knowledge of the
subject in hand, clearness of exposition, close reasoning, and tact
in dealing with a parliamentary audience. With the close of
the struggle against revolutionary France, political progress in
England was soon to resume the march which that struggle had
arrested. Young Peel's lot, however, was cast, through his
father, with the Tory party. In his maiden speech in 18 10,
seconding the address, he defended the Walcheren expedition,
which he again vindicated soon afterwards against the report of
Lord Porchester's committee. It is said that even then his father
had discerned in him a tendency to think for himself, and told
Lord Liverpool that to make sure of his support it would be well
to place him early in harness. At all events he began official
life in 1810 as Lord Liverpool's under-secretary for war and the
colonies under the administration of Perceval. In 181 2 he was
transferred by Lord Liverpool to the more important but
unhappy post of secretary for Ireland. There he was engaged
till 18 18 in maintaining English ascendancy over a country
heaving with discontent, teeming with conspiracy, and ever ready
to burst into rebellion. A middle course between Irish parties
was impossible, and Peel plied the established engines of coercion
and patronage with a vigorous hand. At the same time, it was
his frequent duty to combat Grattan, Plunkett, Canning and
the other movers and advocates of Roman Catholic emancipation
in the House of Commons. He, however, always spoke on this
question with a command of temper wonderful in hot youth,
with the utmost courtesy towards his opponents, and with warm
expressions of sympathy and even of admiration for the Irish
people. He also, thus early, did his best to advocate and
promote joint education in Ireland as a means of reconciling

PEEL, SIR ROBERT

41

sects and raising the character of the people. But his greatest
service to Ireland as secretary was the institution of the regular
Irish constabulary, nicknamed after him " Peelers," for the
protection of life and property in a country where both were
insecure. His moderation of tone did not save him from the
violent abuse of O'Conneli, whom he was ill advised enough to
challenge — an affair which covered them both with ridicule.
In 181 7 he obtained the highest parliamentary distinction of the
Tory party by being elected member for the university of Oxford
— an honour for which he was chosen in preference to Canning on
account of his hostility to Roman Catholic emancipation,
Lord Eldon lending him his best support. In the following
year he resigned the Irish secretaryship, of which he had long
been very weary, and remained out of office till 1821. But he
still supported the ministers, though in the affair of Queen
Caroline he stood aloof, disapproving some steps taken by
the government, and sensitive to popular opinion; and
when Canning retired on account of this affair Peel declined
Lord Liverpool's invitation to take the vacant place in the
cabinet. During this break in his tenure of office he had some
time for reflection, which there was enough in the aspect of the
political world to move. But early office had done its work.
It had given him excellent habits of business, great knowledge
and a high position; but it had left him somewhat stiff and
punctilious, too cold and reserved and over anxious for formal
justifications when he might well have left his conduct to the
judgment of men of honour and the heart of the people. At the
same time he was no pedant in business; in corresponding on
political subjects he loved to throw off official forms and com-
municate his views with the freedom of private correspondence;
and where his confidence was given, it was given without
reserve.

At this period he was made chairman of the bullion committee
on the death of Horner. He was chosen for this important
office by Huskisson, Ricardo and their fellow-economists, who
saw in him a mind open to conviction, though he owed hereditary
allegiance to Pitt's financial policy, and had actually voted with
his Pittite father for a resolution of Lord Liverpool's government
asserting that Bank of England notes were equivalent to legal
coin. The choice proved judicious. Peel was converted to the
currency doctrines of the economists, and proclaimed his con-
version in a great speech on the 24th of May 1819, in which he
moved and carried four resolutions embodying the recommen-
dations of the bullion committee in favour of a return to cash
payments. This laid the foundation of his financial reputation,
and his co-operation with the economists tended to give a liberal
turn to his commercial principles. In the course he took he
somewhat diverged from his party, and particularly from his
father, who remained faithful to Pitt's depreciated paper, and
between whom and his schismatic son a solemn and touching
passage occurred in the debate. The author of the Cash Pay-
ments Act had often to defend his policy, and he did so with
vigour. The act is sometimes said to have been hard on debtors,
including the nation as debtor, because it required debts to be
paid in cash which had been contracted in depreciated paper;
and Peel, as heir to a great fundholder, was even charged with
being biased by his personal interests. But it is answered that
the Bank Restriction Acts, under which the depreciated paper
had circulated, themselves contained a provision for a return to
cash payments six months after peace.

In 1820 Peel married Julia, daughter of General Sir John
Floyd, who bore him five sons and two daughters. The writers
who have most severely censured Sir Robert Peel as a public
man have dwelt on the virtues and happiness of his private
and domestic life. He was not only a most loving husband and
father but a true and warm-hearted friend. In Whitehall
Gardens or at Drayton Manor he gathered some of the most
distinguished intellects of the day. He indulged in free and
cheerful talk, and sought the conversation of men of science; he
took delight in art, and was a great collector of pictures; he was
fond of farming and agricultural improvements; he actively
promoted useful works and the advancement of knowledge; he

loved making his friends, dependants, tenants and neighbours
happy. And, cold as he was in public, few men could be more
bright and genial in private than Sir Robert Peel.

In 1 82 1 Peel consented to strengthen the enfeebled ministry
of Lord Liverpool by becoming home secretary; and in that
capacity he had again to undertake the office of coercing the
growing discontent in Ireland, of which he remained the real
administrator, and had again to lead in the House of Commons
the opposition to the rising cause of Roman Catholic emancipa-
tion. In 1825, being defeated on the Roman Catholic question
in the House of Commons, he wished to resign office, but Lord
Liverpool pleaded that his resignation would break up the
government. He found a congenial task in reforming and
humanizing the criminal law, especially those parts of it which
related to offences against property and offences punishable by
death. The five acts in which Peel accomplished this great
work, as well as the great speech of the 9th of March 1826, in
which he opened the subject to the house, will form one of the
most solid and enduring monuments of his fame. Criminal law
reform was the reform of Romilly and Mackintosh, from the
hands of the latter of whom Peel received it. But the masterly
bills in which it was embodied were the bills of Peel — not himself
a creative genius, but, like the founder of his house, a profound
appreciator of other men's creations, and unrivalled in the power
of giving them practical and complete effect.

In 1827 the Liverpool ministry was broken up by the fatal
illness of its chief, and under the new premier, George Canning,
Peel, like the duke of Wellington and other high Tory members
of Lord Liverpool's cabinet, refused to serve. Canning and Peel
were rivals; but we need not interpret as mere personal rivalry
that which was certainly, in part at least, a real difference of
connexion and opinion. Canning took a Liberal line, and was
supported by many of the Whigs; the seceders were Tories, and
it is difficult to see how their position in Canning's cabinet could
have been otherwise than a false one. Separation led to public
coolness and occasional approaches to bitterness on both sides in
debate. But there seems no ground for exaggerated complaints
against Peel's conduct. Canning himself said to a friend that
" Peel was the only man who had behaved decently towards
him." Their private intercourse remained uninterrupted to
the end; and Canning's son afterwards entered public life under
the auspices of Peel. The charge of having urged Roman
Catholic emancipation on Lord Liverpool in 1825, and opposed
Canning for being a friend to it in 1827, made against Sir Robert
Peel in the fierce corn-law debates of 1846, has been withdrawn
by those who made it.

In January 1828, after Canning's death, the duke of Welling-
ton formed a Tory government, in which Peel was home secretary
and leader of the House of Commons. This cabinet, Tory as it
was, did not include the impracticable Lord Eldon, and did
include Huskisson and three more friends of Canning. Its
policy was to endeavour to stave off the growing demand for
organic change by administrative reform, and by lightening
the burdens of the people. The civil list was retrenched with an
unsparing hand, the public expenditure was reduced lower than
it had been since the Revolutionary war, and the import of corn
was permitted under a sliding scale of duties. Peel also intro-
duced into London the improved system of police which he had
previously established with so much success in Ireland. But
the tide ran too strong to be thus headed. First the government
were compelled, after a defeat in the House of Commons, to
acquiesce in the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, Peel
bringing over their High Church supporters, as far as he could.
Immediately afterwards the question of Roman Catholic emanci-
pation was brought to a crisis by the election of O'Conneli for
the county of Clare. In August Peel expressed to the duke of
Wellington his conviction that the question must be settled.
He wrote that out of office he would co-operate in the settlement
but in his judgment it should be committed to other hands than
his. To this the duke assented, but in January 1829, owing to
the declared opinions of the king, of the House of Lords, and of
the Church against a change of policy, Wellington came to the

42

PEEL, SIR ROBERT

conclusion that without Peel's aid in office there was no prospect
of success. Under that pressure Peel consented to remain, and
all the cabinet approved. The consent of the king, which could
scarcely have been obtained except by the duke and Peel, was
extorted, withdrawn (the ministers being out for a few hours),
and again extorted; and on the 5th of March 1829 Peel proposed
Roman Catholic emancipation in a speech of more than four
hours. The apostate was overwhelmed with obloquy. Having
been elected for the university of Oxford as a leading opponent
of the Roman Catholics, he had thought it right to resign his
seat on being converted to emancipation. His friends put him
again in nomination, but he was defeated by Sir R. H. Inglis.
He took refuge in the close borough of Westbury, whence he
afterwards removed to Tamworth, for which he sat till his death.
Catholic emancipation was forced on Peel by circumstances;
but it was mainly owing to him that the measure was complete,
and based upon equality of civil rights. This great concession,
however, did not save the Tory government. The French
Revolution of July 1830 gave fresh strength to the movement
against them, though, schooled by the past, they promptly
recognized King Louis Philippe. The parliamentary reform
movement was joined by some of their offended Protestant
supporters. The duke of Wellington committed them fatally
against all reform, and the elections went against them on the
demise of the Crown; they were beaten on Sir H. ParnelFs
motion for a committee on the civil list, and Wellington took the
opportunity to resign rather than deal with reform.

While in office, Peel succeeded to the baronetcy, Drayton
Manor and a great estate by the death of his father (May 3,
1830). The old man had lived to see his fondest hopes fulfilled in
the greatness of his son; but he had also lived to see that a father
must not expect to fix his son's opinions — above all, the opinions
of such a son as Sir Robert Peel, and in such an age as that which
followed the French Revolution.

Sir Robert Peel's resistance to the Reform Bill won back for
him the allegiance of his party. His opposition was resolute but
it was temperate, and once only he betrayed the suppressed fire
of his temper, in the historical debate of the 22nd of April 1831,
when his speech was broken off by the arrival of the king to
dissolve the parliament which had thrown out reform. He refused
to join the duke of Wellington in the desperate enterprise of
forming a Tory government at the height of the storm, when the
Grey ministry had gone out on the refusal of the king to promise
them an unlimited creation of peers. By this conduct he secured
for his party the full benefit of the reaction which he no doubt
knew was sure to ensue. The general election of 1832, after the
passing of the Reform Bill, left him with barely 150 followers in
the House of Commons; but this handful rapidly swelled under
his management into the great Conservative party. He frankly
accepted the Reform Act as irrevocable, taught his party to
register instead of despairing, appealed to the intelligence of the
middle classes, whose new-born power he appreciated, steadily
supported the Whig ministers against the Radicals and O'Connell,
and gained every moral advantage which the most dignified
and constitutional tactics could afford. To this policy, and to the
great parliamentary powers of its author, it was mainly due that,
in the course of a few years, the Conservatives were as strong in
the reformed parliament as the Tories had been in the unre-
formed. It is vain to deny the praise of genius to such a leader,
though the skill of a pilot who steered for many years over such
waters may sometimes have resembled craft. But the duke of
Wellington's emphatic eulogy on him was, " Of all the men I
ever knew, he had the greatest regard for truth." The duke
might have added that his own question, "How is the king's
government to be carried on in a reformed parliament?" was
mainly solved by the temperate and constitutional policy of Sir
Robert Peel, and by his personal influence on the debates and
proceedings of the House of Commons during the years which
followed the Reform Act.

In 1834, on the dismissal of the Melbourne ministry, power
came to Sir Robert Peel before he expected or desired it. He
hurried from Rome at the call of the duke of Wellington, whose

sagacious modesty yielded him the first place, and became prime
minister, holding the two offices of first lord of the treasury and
chancellor of the exchequer. He vainly sought to include in his
cabinet two recent seceders from the Whigs, Lord Stanley and
Sir James Graham. A dissolution gave him a great increase of
strength in the house, but not enough. He was outvoted on
the election of the speaker at the opening of the session of 1835,
and, after struggling on for six weeks longer, resigned on the
question of appropriating part of the revenues of the Church in
Ireland to national education. His time had not yet come; but
the capacity, energy and resource he displayed in this short
tenure of office raised him immensely in the estimation of the
house, his party and the country. Of the great budget of
practical reforms which he brought forward, the plan for the
commutation of tithes, the ecclesiastical commission, and the
plan for settling the question of dissenters' marriages bore fruit.

From 1835' to 1840 he pursued the same course of patient and
far-sighted opposition. In 1837 the Conservative members of
the House of Commons gave their leader a grand banquet at
Merchant Taylors' Hall, where he proclaimed in a great speech
the creed and objects of his party. In 1839, the Whigs having
resigned on the Jamaica Bill, he was called on to form a govern-
ment, and submitted names for a cabinet, but resigned the
commission owing to the young queen's persistent refusal to part
with any Whig ladies of her bedchamber (see Victoria, Queen).
In 1840 he was hurried into a premature motion of want of con-
fidence. But in the following year a similar motion was carried
by a majority of one, and the Whigs ventured to appeal to the
country. The result was a majority of ninety-one against them
on a motion of want of confidence in the autumn of 1841, upon
which they resigned, and Sir Robert Peel became first lord of
the treasury, with a commanding majority in both Houses
of Parliament.

The crisis called for a master-hand. The finances were in
disorder. For some years there had been a growing deficit,
estimated for 1842 at more than two millions, and attempts to
supply this by additions to assessed taxes and customs duties
had failed. The great financier took till the spring of 1842 to
mature his plans. He then boldly supplied the deficit by im-
posing an income-tax on all incomes above £150 a year. He
accompanied this tax with a reform of the tariff, by which pro-
hibitory duties were removed and other duties abated on a vast
number of articles of import, especially the raw materials of manu-
factures and prime articles of food. The increased consumption,
as the reformer expected, countervailed the reduction of duty.
The income-tax was renewed and the reform of the tariff carried
still farther on the same principle in 1845. The result was, in
place of a deficit of upwards of two millions, a surplus of five
millions in C845, an d the removal of seven millions and a half of
taxes up to 1847, not only without loss, but with gain to the
ordinary revenue of the country. The prosperous state of the
finances and of public affairs also permitted a reduction of the
interest on a portion of the national debt, giving a yearly saving
at once of £625,000, and ultimately of a million and a quarter to
the public. In 1844 another great financial measure, the Bank
Charter Act, was passed and, though severely controverted and
thrice suspended at a desperate crisis, has ever since regulated
the currency of the country. In Ireland O'ConnelPs agitation
for the repeal of the Union had now assumed threatening pro-
portions, and verged upon rebellion. The great agitator was
prosecuted, with his chief adherents, for conspiracy and sedition;
and, though the conviction was quashed for informality, repeal
was quelled in its chief. At the same time a healing hand was
extended to Ireland. The Charitable Bequests Act gave Roman
Catholics a share in the administration of charities and legal
power to endow their own religion. The allowance to Maynooth
was largely increased, notwithstanding violent Protestant
opposition. Three queen's colleges, for the higher education of
all the youth of Ireland, without distinction of religion, were
founded, notwithstanding violent opposition, both Protestant and
Roman Catholic. The principle of toleration once accepted, was
thoroughly carried out. The last remnants of the penal laws

PEEL, SIR ROBERT

43

were swept from the statute-book, and justice was extended to
the Roman Catholic Church in Canada and Malta. In the same
spirit acts were passed for clearing from doubt Irish Presbyterian
marriages, for settling the titles of a large number of dissenters'
chapels in England, and removing the municipal disabilities of
the Jews. The grant for national education was trebled, and
an attempt was made, though in vain, to introduce effective
education clauses into the factory bills. To the, alienation of any
part of the revenues of the Established Church Sir Robert Peel
never would consent; but he had issued the ecclesiastical com-
mission, and he now made better provision for a number of
populous parishes by a redistribution of part of the revenues of
the Church. The weakest part of the conduct of this great
government, perhaps, was its failure to control the railway
mania by promptly laying down the lines on a government plan.
It passed an act in 1844 which gave the government a right of
purchase, and it had prepared a palliative measure in 1846, but
was compelled to sacrifice this, like all other secondary measures,
to the repeal of the corn laws. It failed also, though not without
an effort, to avert the great schism in the Church of Scotland.
Abroad it was as prosperous as at home. It had found disaster
and disgrace in Afghanistan. It speedily ended the war there,
and in India the invading Sikhs were destroyed upon the Sutlej.
The sore and dangerous questions with France, touching the
right of search, the war in Morocco, and the Tahiti affair, and
with the United States touching the Maine boundary and the
Oregon territory, were settled by negotiation.

Yet there were malcontents in Sir Robert Peel's party. The
Young Englanders disliked him because he had hoisted the flag
of Conservatism instead of Toryism on the morrow of the Reform
Bill. The strong philanthropists and Tory Chartists disliked
him because he was a strict economist and an upholder of the
new poor law. But the fatal question was protection. That
question was being fast brought to a crisis by public opinion and
the Anti-Corn-Law League. Sir Robert Peel had been recognized
in 1841 by Cobden as a Free Trader, and after experience in
office he had become in principle more and more so. Since his
accession to power he had lowered the duties of the sliding scale,
and thereby caused the secession from the cabinet of the duke of
Buckingham. He had alarmed the farmers by admitting foreign
cattle and meat under his new tariff, and by admitting Canadian
corn. He had done his best in his speeches to put the mainte-
nance of the corn laws on low ground, and to wean the landed
interest from their reliance on protection. The approach of
the Irish famine in 1845 turned decisively the wavering balance.
When at first Sir Robert proposed to his cabinet the revision of
the corn laws, Lord Stanley and the duke of Buccleuch dis-
sented, and Sir Robert resigned. But Lord John Russell failed
to form a new government. Sir Robert again came into office;
and now, with the consent of all the cabinet but Lord Stanley,
who retired, he, in a great speech on the 27th of January 1846,
brought the repeal of the corn laws before the House of Commons.
In the long and fierce debate that ensued he was assailed, both
by political and personal enemies, with the most virulent
invective, which he bore with his wonted calmness, and to which
he made no retorts. His measure was carried; but immediately
afterwards the offended protectionists, led by Lord George
Bentinck and Benjamin Disraeli, coalesced with the Whigs,
and threw him out on the Irish Coercion Bill. He went home
from his defeat, escorted by a great crowd, who uncovered as
he passed, and he immediately resigned. So fell a Conservative
government which would otherwise have probably ended only
with the life of its chief.

Though out of office he was not out of power. He had " lost
a party, but won a nation." The Whig ministry which succeeded
him leant much on his support, with which he never taxed them.
He joined them in carrying forward free-trade principles by the
repeal of the navigation laws. He helped them to promote the
principle of religious liberty by the bill for the emancipation of
the Jews. One important measure was his own. While in
office he had probed, by the Devon commission of inquiry, the
sores of Ireland connected with the ownership and occupation of

land. In 1849, in a speech on the Irish Poor Laws, he first
suggested, and in the next year he aided in establishing, a com-
mission to facilitate the sale of estates in a hopeless state of
encumbrance. The Encumbered Estates Act made no attempt,
like later legislation, to secure by law the uncertain customary
rights of Irish tenants, but it transferred the land from ruined
landlords to solvent owners capable of performing the duties of
property towards the people. On the 28th of June 1850 Sir
Robert Peel made a great speech on the Greek question against
Lord Palmerston's foreign policy of interference. This speech
was thought to show that if necessary he would return to office.
It was his last. On the following day he was thrown from his
horse on Constitution Hill, and mortally injured by the fall.
Three days he lingered and on the fourth (July 2, 1850) he
died. All the tributes which respect and gratitude could pay
were paid to him by the sovereign, by parliament, by public men
of all parties, by the country, by the press, and, above all, by
the great towns and the masses of the people to whom he had
given " bread unleavened with injustice." He would have been
buried among the great men of England in Westminster Abbey,
but his will desired that he might be laid in Drayton church. It
also renounced a peerage for his family, as he had before declined
the garter for himself when it was offered him by the queen
through Lord Aberdeen.

Those who judge Sir Robert Peel will remember that he was
bred a Tory in days when party was a religion; that he entered
parliament a youth, was in office at twenty-four and secretary
for Ireland at twenty-five; that his public life extended over a
long period rife with change; and that his own changes were all
forward and with the advancing intellect of the time. They will
enumerate the great practical improvements and the great acts
of legislative justice of those days, and note how large a share
Sir Robert Peel had, if not in originating, in giving thorough
practical effect to all. They will reflect that as a parliamentary
statesman he could not govern without a party, and that it is
difficult to govern at once for a party and for the whole people.
They will think of his ardent love of his country, of his abstinence
from intrigue, violence and faction, of his boundless labour
through a long life devoted to the public service. Whether he
was a model of statesmanship may be doubted. Models of
statesmanship are rare, if by a model of statesmanship is meant
a great administrator and party leader, a great political philo-
sopher and a great independent orator, all in one. But if the
question is whether he was a ruler loved and trusted by the
English people there is no arguing against the tears of a nation.

Those who wish to know more of him will consult his own post-
humous Memoirs (1856), edited by his literary executors Earl
Stanhope and Viscount Cardwell; his private correspondence,
edited by C. S. Parker (1 891-1899) ; the four volumes of his speeches;
a sketch of his life and character by Sir Lawrence Peel (i860); an
historical sketch by Lord Dalling (1874); Guizot's Sir Robert Peel
(1857) ; Kiinzel's Leben und Reden Sir Robert Peel's (1851) ; Disraeli's
Life of Lord George Bentinck (1858); Morley's Life of Cobden; mono-
graphs by F. C. Montague (1888), J. R. Thursfeld (1891), and the
earl of Rosebery (1899); Peel and O'Connell, by Lord Eversley;
the Life of Sir J. Graham (1907), by C. S. Parker; Lord Stanmore's
Life of Lord Aberdeen (1893); and the general histories of the
time. (C. S. P.)

Four of Sir Robert's five sons attained distinction. The
eldest, Sir Robert Peel (1822-1895), who became the 3rd
baronet on his father's death, was educated at Harrow and at
Christ Church, Oxford. He was in the diplomatic service from
1844 to 1850, when he succeeded his father as member of parlia-
ment for Tamworth, and he was chief secretary to the lord-
lieutenant of Ireland from 1861 to 1865. He represented Tam-
worth until the general election of 1880; in 1884 he became
member for Huntingdon and in 1885 for Blackburn, but after
1886 he ceased to sit in the House of Commons. Sir Robert
described himself as a Liberal-Conservative, but in his later years
he opposed the policy of Gladstone, although after 1886 he
championed the cause of home rule for Ireland. In 1871 he sold
his father's collection of pictures to the National Gallery for
£75,000, and in his later life he was troubled by financial difficul-
ties. Sir Robert was interested in racing, and was known on the

44

PEEL— PEELE

turf as Mr F. Robinson. He died in London on the 9th of May
1895, and was succeeded as 4th baronet by his son, Sir Robert
Peel (b. 1867).

Sir Frederick Peel (1823-1906), the prime minister's second
son, was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge,
becoming a barrister in 1849. He ^ntered parliament in that
year, and with the exception of the period between 1857 and 1859
he remained in the House of Commons until 1865. In 1851-1852
and again in 1853-1855 he was under-secretary for the colonies;
from 1855 to 1857 he was under-secretary for war; and from
1859 to 1865 he was secretary to the treasury. He became
a privy councillor in 1857 and was knighted in 1869. Sir
Frederick Peel's chief service to the state was in connexion with
the railway and canal commission. He was appoirted a com-
missioner on the inception of this body in 1873, and was its
president until its reconstruction in 1888, remaining a member
of the commission until his death on the 6th of June 1906.

The third son was Sir William Peel (1824-1858), and the
youngest Viscount Peel (q.v.). Sir William was a sailor, who
distinguished himself in the Crimea, where he gained the Victoria
Cross, and also during the Indian Mutiny, being wounded at the
relief of Lucknow. He died on the 27th of April 1858. Sir
William wrote A Ride through the Nubian Desert (1852), giving
an account of his travels in 185 1.

Two of Sir Robert Peel's brothers were also politicians of
note. William Yates Peel (1789-1858), educated at Harrow and
at St John's College, Cambridge, was a member of parliament
ftom 1817 to 1837, and again from 1847 to 1852; he was under-
secretary for home affairs in 1828, and was a lord of the treasury
in 1830 and again in 1834-1835. Jonathan Peel (1799-1879) was
first a soldier and then a member of parliament during the long
period between 1826 and 1868, first representing Norwich and then
Huntingdon. From 1 841 to 1846 he was surveyor-general of the
ordnance, and in 1858-1859 and again in 1866-1867 he was a very
competent and successful secretary of state for war. General
Peel was also an owner of racehorses, and in 1844 his horse Orlando
won the Derby, after another horse, Running Rein, had been
disqualified.

For the history of the Peel family see Jane Haworth, A Memoir
of the Family of Peel from the year 1600 (1836).

PEEL, a seaport and watering-place of the Isle of Man, on
the W. coast, 11^ m. W.N.W. of Douglas by the Isle of Man
railway. Pop. (1901), 3304. It lies on Peel Bay, at the mouth
of the small river Neb, which forms the harbour. The old
town consists of narrow streets and lanes, but a modern resi-
dential quarter has grown up to the east. On the west side of the
river-mouth St Patrick's Isle is connected with the mainland
by a causeway. It is occupied almost wholly by the ruins of
Peel castle. St Patrick is said to have founded here the first
church in Man, and a small chapel, dedicated to him, appears
to date from the 8th or 10th century. There is a round tower,
also of very early date, resembling in certain particulars the
round towers of Ireland. The ruined cathedral of St German
has a transitional Norman choir, with a very early crypt beneath,
a nave with an early English triplet at the west end, transepts,
and a low and massive central tower still standing. There
are remains of the bishops' palace, of the so-called Fenella's
tower, famous through Scott's Peveril of the Peak, of the palace
of the Lords of Man, of the keep and guardroom above the
entrance to the castle, and of the Moare or great tower, while
the whole is surrounded by battlements. There are also a large
artificial mound supposed to be a defensive earthwork of higher
antiquity than the castle, and another mound known as the
Giant's Grave. The guardroom is associated with the ghostly
apparition of the Moddey Dhoo (black dog), to which reference
is made in Peveril of the Peak. In 1397 Richard II. condemned
the earl of Warwick to imprisonment in Peel Castle for con-
spiracy, and in 1444 Eleanor, duchess of Gloucester, received
a like sentence on the ground of having compassed the death
of Henry VI. by magic. Peel has a long-established fishing
industry, which, however, has declined in modern times. In
the town the most notable building is the church of St German,
with a fine tower and spire. Peel was called by the Northmen
Holen (island, i.e. St Patrick's Isle) ; the existing name is Celtic,

meaning " fort " (cf. the peel towers of the borderland of England
and Scotland).

PEEL. (1) The skin or rind of a fruit; thus " to peel " ia
to remove the outer covering of anything. The etymology
of the word is closely connected with that of " pill," to plunder,
surviving in "pillage." Both words are to be referred to
French and thence to Latin. In French peler and piller, though
now distinguished in meaning (the first used of stripping bark
or rind,^ the second meaning to rob), were somewhat confused
in application, and a similar confusion occurs in English till
comparatively late. The Latin words from which they are
derived are pellis, skin, and pilar e, to strip of hair (pilus).
(2) The name of a class of small fortified dwelling-houses built
during the 16th century on the borders between Scotland and
England. They are also known as " bastel-houses," i.e.
"bastille-houses," and consist ?i a square massive tower with
high pitched roof, the lower part being vaulted, the upper
part containing a few living rooms. The entrance is on the
upper floor, access being gained by a movable ladder. The
vaulted ground-floor chamber served for the cattle when there
was danger of attack. The word appears in various forms,
e.g. pele, peil, and Latinized as pelum, &c; " pile " is also found
used synonymously, but the New English Dictionary (s.v. pile)
considers the two words distinct. It seems more probable
that the word is to be identified with " pale," a stake (Lat.
palus). The earlier meaning of " peel " is a palisaded enclosure
used as an additional defence for a fortified post or as an
independent stronghold.

PEELE, GEORGE (1558-c. 1598), English dramatist, was
born in London in 1558. His father, who appears to have
belonged to a Devonshire family, was clerk of Christ's Hospital,
and wrote two treatises on book-keeping. George Peele was
educated at Christ's Hospital, and entered Broadgates Hall
(Pembroke College), Oxford, in 1571. In 1574 he removed
to Christ Church, taking his B.A. degree in 1577, and
proceeding M.A. in 1579. In 1579 the governors of Christ's
Hospital requested their clerk to " discharge his house of his
son, George Peele." It is not necessary to read into this
anything more than that the governors insisted on his beginning
to earn a livelihood. He went up to London about 1580, but
in 1583 when Albertus Alasco (Albert Laski), a Polish nobleman,
was entertained at Christ Church, Oxford, Peele was entrusted
with the arrangement of two Latin plays by William Gager
(fl. 1580-1619) presented on the occasion. He was also compli-
mented by Dr Gager for an English verse translation of one
of the Iphigenias of Euripides. In 1585 he was employed
to write the Device of the Pageant borne before Woolston Dixie,
and in 1591 he devised the pageant in honour of another lord
mayor, Sir William Webbe. This was the Descensus Astraeae
(printed in the Harleian Miscellany, 1808), in which Queen
Elizabeth is honoured as Astraea. Peele had married as early
as 1583 a lady who brought him some property, which he
speedily dissipated. Robert Greene, at the end of his Groats-
worth of Wit, exhorts Peele to repentance, saying that he has,
like himself, " been driven to extreme shifts for a living." The
sorry traditions of his reckless life were emphasized by the use
of his name in connexion with the apocryphal Merrie conceited
Jests of George Peele (printed in 1607). Many of the stories
had done service before, but there are personal touches that
may be biographical. He died before 1598, for Francis Meres,
writing in that year, speaks of his death in his Palladis Tamia.

His pastoral, comedy of The Araygnement of Paris, presented
by the Children of the Chapel Royal before Queen Elizabeth
perhaps as early as 1581, was printed anonymously in 1584.
Charles Lamb, sending to Vincent Novello a song from this
piece of Peele's, said that if it had been less uneven in execution
Fletcher's Faithful Shepherdess " had been but a second name
in this sort of writing." Peele shows considerable art in his
flattery. Paris is arraigned before Jupiter for having assigned
the apple to Venus. Diana, with whom the final decision
rests, gives the apple to none of the competitors but to a
nymph called Eliza, whose identity is confirmed by the further

PEEP-OF-DAY BOYS— PEERAGE

45

explanation, " whom some Zabeta call." The Famous Chronicle
of King Edward the first, sirnamed Edward Longshankes, with his
relume from the holy land. Also the life of Lleuellen, rebell
in Wales. Lastly, the sinking of Queen Elinor, who suncke
at Charingcrosse, and rose again at Potlers-hith, now named
Queenehith (printed 1593). This " chronicle history," formless
enough, as the rambling title shows, is nevertheless an advance
on the old chronicle plays, and marks a step towards the Shake-
spearian historical drama. The Battell of Alcazar — with the death
of Captaine Slukeley (acted 1588-1589, printed 1594), published
anonymously, is attributed with much probability to Peele.
The Old Wives Tale, registered in Stationers' Hall, perhaps
more correctly, as " The Owlde wifes tale " (printed 159s).
was followed by The Love of King David and fair Bethsabe
(written c. 1588, printed 1599), which is notable as an example
of Elizabethan drama drawn entirely from scriptural sources.
Mr Fleay sees in it a political satire, and identifies Elizabeth
and Leicester as David and Bathsheba, Mary Queen of Scots
as Absalom. Sir Clyomon and Sir Clamydes (printed 1599)
has been attributed to Peele, but on insufficient grounds.
Among his occasional poems are " The Honour of the Garter,"
which has a prologue containing Peek's judgments on his
contemporaries, and " Polyhymnia " (1590), a blank-verse
description of the ceremonies attending the retirement of the
queen's champion, Sir Henry Lee. This is concluded by the
" Sonnet," " His golden locks time hath to silver turn'd,"
quoted by Thackeray in the 76th chapter of The Newcomes.
To the Phoenix Nest in 1593 he contributed "The Praise of
Chastity." Mr F. G. Fleay (Biog. Chron. of the Drama) credits
Peele with The Wisdom of Doctor Doddipoll (printed 1600),
Wily Beguiled (printed 1606), The Life and Death of Jack
Straw, a notable rebel (1587?), a share in the First and Second
Parts of Henry VI., and on the authority of Wood and
Winstanley, Alphonsus, Emperor of Germany.

Peele belonged to the group of university scholars who, in
Greene's phrase, " spent their wits in making playes." Greene
went on to say that he was " in some things rarer, in nothing
inferior," to Marlowe. Nashe in his preface to Greene's Mena-
phon called him " the chief supporter of pleasance now living,
the Atlas of Poetrie and primus verborum artifex, whose first
encrease, the Arraignement of Paris, might plead to your
opinions his pregnant dexteritie of wit and manifold varietie
of invention, wherein (me judice) hee goeth a step beyond all
that write." This praise was not unfounded. The credit
given to Greene and Marlowe for the increased dignity of
English dramatic diction, and for the new smoothness infused
into blank verse, must certainly be shared by Peele. Professor
F. B. Gummere, in a critical essay prefixed to his edition of The
Old Wives Tale, puts in another claim for Peele. In the contrast
between the romantic story and the realistic dialogue he sees
the first instance of humour quite foreign to the comic " business "
of earlier comedy. The Old Wives Tale is a play within a play,
slight enough to be perhaps better described as an interlude.
Its background of rustic folk-lore gives it additional interest,
and there is much fun poked at Gabriel Harvey and Stanyhurst.
Perhaps Huanebango, 1 who parodies Harvey's hexameters,
and actually quotes him on one occasion, may be regarded as
representing that arch-enemy of Greene and his friends.

Peele's Works were edited by Alexander Dyce (1828, 1829-1839
and 1861); by A. H. Bullen (2 vols., 1888). An examination of
the metrical peculiarities of his work is to be found in F. A. R.
Lammerhirt's Georg Peele, Untersuchungen iiber sein Leben und
seine Werke (Rostock, 1882). See also Professor F. B. Gummere, in
Representative English Comedies (1903) ; and an edition of The
Battell of Alcazar, printed for the Malone Society in 1907.

PEEP-OF-DAY BOYS, an Irish Protestant secret society,
formed about 1785. Its object was to protect the Protestant
peasantry, and avenge their wrongs on the Roman Catholics.
The " Boys " gained their name from the hour of dawn which

1 Mr Fleay goes so far as to see in the preposterous names of
Huanebango's kith and kin puns on Harvey's father's trade.
" Polymacnaeroplacidus " he interprets as " Polly-make-a-rope-
lass "

they chose for their raids on the Roman Catholic villages.
The Roman Catholics in return formed the society of " The
Defenders."

PEEPUL, or Piptjl (Ficus religiosa), the " sacred fig " tree
of India, also called the Bo tree. It is not unlike the banyan,
and is venerated both by the Buddhists of Ceylon and the
Vaishnavite Hindus, who say that Vishnu was born beneath its
shade. It is planted near temples and houses; its sap abounds
in caoutchouc, and a good deal of lac is obtained from insects
who feed upon the branches. The fruit is about the size of a
walnut and is not much eaten.

PEERAGE (Fr. pairage, med. Lat. paragium; M.E. pere,
O. Fr. per, peer, later pair; Lat. paris, " equal "). Although
in England the terms " peerage," " nobility," " House of Lords "
are in common parlance frequently regarded as synonymous,
in reality each expresses a different meaning. A man may be
a peer and yet not a member of the House of Lords, a member
of the House of Lords and yet not strictly a peer; though all
peers (as the term is now understood) are members of the
House of Lords either in esse or in posse. In the United
Kingdom the rights, duties and privileges of peerage are
centred in an individual; to the monarchial nations of the
Continent nobility conveys the idea of family, as opposed to
personal, privilege.

Etymologically " peers " are " equals " (pares), and in Anglo-
Norman days the word was invariably so understood. The
feudal tenants-in-chief of the Crown were all the
peers of each other, whether lords of one manor or peerage
of a hundred; so too a bishop had his ecclesiastical
peer in a brother bishop, and the tenants of a manor their
peers in their fellow-tenants. That even so late as the
reign of John the word was still used in this general sense is
clear from Magna Carta, for the term " judicium parium "
therein must be understood to mean that every man had a right
to be tried by his equals. This very right was asserted by the
barons as a body in 1233 on behalf of Richard, earl marshal,
who had been declared a traitor by the king's command, and
whose lands were forfeited without proper trial. In 1233 the
French bishop Peter des Roches, Henry III.'s minister, denied
the barons' right to the claim set up on the ground that the
king might judge all his subjects alike, there being, he said, no
peers in England (Math. Paris. 389). The English barons
undoubtedly were using the word in the sense it held in Magna
Carta, while the bishop probably had in his mind the French peers
(pairs de France), a small and select body of feudatories possessed
of exceptional privileges. In England the term was general,
in France technical. The change in England was gradual,
and probably gathered force as the gulf between the greater
barons and the lesser widened, until in course of time, for judicial
purposes, there came to be only two classes, the greater barons
and the rest of the people. The barons remained triable by
their own order (i.e. by their peers), whilst the rest of the people
rapidly became subject to the general practice and procedure
of the king's justices. The first use of the word " peers " as
denoting those members of the baronage who were accustomed
to receive regularly a writ of summons to parliament is found
in the record of the proceedings against the Despensers in 13 21
(Stubbs, Const. Hist. ii. 347), and from that time this restricted
use of the word has remained its ordinary sense.

Properly to understand the growth and constitution of the
peerage it is necessary to trace the changes which occurred in
the position of the Anglo-Norman baronage, first Anglo-
through the gradual strengthening of royal supre- Norman
macy with the consequent decay of baronial power Baronage.
locally, and subsequently by the consolidation of parliamentary
institutions during the reigns of the first three Edwards.

Before the conquest the national assembly of England (see
Parliament) was the Witan, a gathering of notables owing
their presence only to personal influence and standing. The Saxon
The imposition of a modified feudal system resulted Witena-
in a radical alteration. Membership of the Great * em0
Councils of the Norman kings was primarily an incident of

+ 6

PEERAGE

tenure, one of the obligations the tenants-in-chief were bound I consequently throughout the early years of William's reign
to perform, although this membership gradually became restricted | some of the English bishops and abbots attended his courts

by the operation of the Royal prerogative to a small section
of the Baronial class and eventually hereditary by custom. The
Norman Councils may have arisen from the ashes of a Saxon
Witenagemot, but there is little evidence of any historical
continuity between the two. The Church in England, as
in Christendom generally, occupied a position of paramount
importance and far-reaching influence; its leaders, not alone
from their special sanctity as ecclesiastics, but as practically
the only educated men of the period, of necessity were among
the chief advisers of every ruler in Western Europe. In
England churchmen formed a large proportion of the Witan,
the more influential of the great landowners making up the
rest of its membership.

In place of the scattered individual and absolute ownership
of Saxon days the Conqueror became practically the sole
Norman owner of the soil. The change, though not imme-
Feudal diately complete, followed rapidly as the country
Tenure. se ttled down and the power of the Crown extended
to its outlying frontiers. As Saxon land gradually passed
into Norman hands the new owners became direct tenants
of the king. Provided their loyal and military obligations
were duly performed they had fixity of tenure for themselves
and their heirs. In addition fixed money payments were exacted
on the succession of the heir, when the king's eldest son was
knighted, his eldest daughter married, or his person ransomed
from captivity. In like manner and under similar conditions
the king's tenants, or as they were termed tenants-in-chief,
sub-granted the greater portion of their holdings to their own
immediate followers. Under Norman methods the manor was
the unit of local government and jurisdiction, and when
land was given away by the king the gift invariably took the
form of a grant of one or more manors.

When he brought England into subjection the Conqueror's
main idea was to exalt the central power of the Crown at the
expense of its feudatories, and the first two centuries following
the conquest tell one long tale of Opposition by the great tenants-
in-chief to a steadily growing and unifying royal pressure. With
this idea of royal supremacy firmly fixed in his mind, William's
grants, excepting outlying territory such as the marches of
Wales or the debateable ground of the Scottish border, which
needed special consideration, were seldom in bulk, but took the
form of manors scattered over many counties. Under such
conditions it was practically impossible for a great tenant to
set up a powerful imperium in imperio (such as the fiefs of
Normandy, Brittany and Burgundy), as his forces were dis-
tributed over the country, and could be reached by the long
arm of royal power, acting through the sheriff of every county,
long before they could effectively come together for fighting
purposes. The tenants-in-chief were termed generally barons
(see Baron) and may be regarded historically as the parents
of the peers of later days. The pages of Domesday (1086),
the early Norman fiscal record of England, show how unevenly
the land was distributed; of the fifteen hundred odd tenants
mentioned the majority held but two or three manors, while
a favoured few possessed more than a hundred each. Land
was then the only source of wealth, and the number of a
baron's manors might well be regarded as a correct index of his
importance.

The king's tenants owed yet another duty, the service of
attending the King's Court {curia regis), and out of this custom
grew the parliaments of later days. In theory all
Court tne king's tenants-in-chief, great and small, had a
right to be present as incident to their tenure.
It has therefore been argued by some authorities that as the
Conqueror's system of tenure constituted him the sole owner
of the land, attendance at his courts was solely an incident of
tenure, the Church having been compelled to accept the same
conditions as those imposed on laymen. But, as already pointed
out, the change in tenure had not been immediate, and there
had been no general forfeiture suffered by ecclesiastical bodies;

as much by virtue of their personal and ecclesiastical importance
as by right of tenure. The King's Court was held regularly
at the three great festivals of the Church and at such other
times as were deemed advisable. The assembly for several
generations neither possessed nor pretended to any legislative
powers. Legislative power was a product of later years, and
grew out of the custom of the Estates granting supplies only
on condition that their grievances were first redressed. The
great bulk of the tenants were present for the purpose of assenting
to special taxation above and beyond their ordinary feudal
dues. When necessary a general summons to attend was sent
through the sheriff of every county, who controlled a system
of local government which enabled him to reach every tenant.
In course of time to a certain number of barons and high
ecclesiastics, either from the great extent of their possessions,
their official duties about the king or their personal importance,
it became customary to issue a personal writ of summons, thus
distinguishing them from the general mass summoned through
the sheriff. That this custom was in being within a century
of the Conquest is clear from an incident in the bitter fight for
supremacy between Archbishop Becket and Henry II. in n 64
(Stubbs, Const. Hist. i. 504), it being recorded that the king
withheld the Archbishop's personal summons to parliament,
and put upon him the indignity of a summons through the sheriff.
During the succeeding fifty years the line becomes even more
definite, though it is evident that the Crown sometimes dis-
regarded the custom, as the barons are found complaining that
many of their number deemed entitled to a personal summons
had frequently been overlooked.

The sequel to these complaints is found in Magna Carta,
wherein it is provided that the archbishops, bishops, abbots,
earls and greater barons are to be called up to the Magna Caria
council by writ directed to each severally; and all end Personal
who hold of the king in chief, below the rank of Summons
greater barons, are to be summoned by a general ^, aJo e res
writ addressed to the sheriff of their shire. 1 Magna Barones.
Carta thus indicates the existence of two definite
sections of the king's tenants, a division which had evidently
persisted for some time. The " greater barons " are the
immediate parents of the peerages of later days, every member
of which for more than four centuries had a seat in the House
of Lords. As for the rest of the tenants-in-chief, poorer in
estate and therefore of less consequence, it is sufficient here to
note that they fell back into the general mass of country families,
and that their representatives, the knights of the shire, after
some hesitation, at length joined forces with the city and burgher
representatives to form the House of Commons.

In 1254, instead of the general summons through the sheriff
to all the lesser tenants-in-chief, the king requires them to elect

two knights for each shire to attend the council as

- - - -- - Parliament

the accredited representative of their fellows. In of j2S4.
the closing days of 1264 Simon de Montfort sum-
moned to meet him early in 1265 the first parliament worthy of
the name, a council in which prelates, earls and greater barons,
knights of the shire, citizens and burghers were present, thus
constituting a representation of all classes of people. It has been
argued that this assembly cannot be regarded as a full parlia-
ment, inasmuch as Simon de Montfort summoned personally
only such members of the baronage as were favourable to his
cause, and issued writs generally only to those counties and
cities upon which he could rely to return representatives in
support of his policy. Stubbs holds the view that the first
assembly we ought to regard as a full parliament was the Model
Parliament which met at Westminster in 1295. This Model
parliament, unlike Simon's partisan assembly of Parliament
1265, was free and representative. To every spiritual otl29s -

1 Et ab habendum commune consilium regni . . . summoneri
faciemus archiepiscopos, episcopos, abbates, comites et majores
barones sigillatim per litteras nostras et praeterea faciemus summoneri
in generali per vicecomes et ballivos nostras omnes illos qui de
nobis tenent in capite (cited in Stubbs, Const. Hist. i. 547 n.).

PEERAGE

47

and temporal baron accustomed to receive an individual
writ, one was issued. Every county elected its knights and
every city or borough of any importance was instructed
by the sheriff to elect and to return its allotted number of
representatives. Stubbs's view (Const. Hist. ii. 223) may prob-
ably be regarded as authoritative, inasmuch as it was adopted
by Lord Ashbourne in the Norfolk peerage case of 1906 (Law
Reports [1907], A.C. at p. 15). Edward I. held frequent parlia-
ments throughout his reign, and although many must be
regarded as merely baronial councils, nevertheless year after
year, on all important occasions, the knights of the shire and
the citizens appear in their places. The parliament of Shrews-
bury in 1283, for instance, has been claimed as a full parliament
in several peerage cases, but no clear decision on the point
has ever been given by the Committee for Privileges. It may
be taken for granted, however, that any assembly held
since 1295, which did not conform substantially to the model
of that year, cannot be regarded constitutionally as a full
parliament. The point is even of modern importance, as in
order to establish the existence of a barony by writ it must
be proved that the claimant's ancestor was summoned by
individual writ to a full parliament, and that either he himself
or one of his direct descendants was present in parliament.
It is now convenient to consider the various grades into
which the members of the peerage are grouped, and their
relative positions. An examination of the early writs
Peerage, issued to individuals shows that the baronage con-
sisted of archbishops, bishops, abbots, priors, earls
and barons. In course of time every member of these classes
came to hold his land by feudal tenure from the Crown, and
eventually in every instance the writs issued as an incident
of tenure. It is therefore necessary to discover, if possible,
what combination of attributes clothed the greater baron with
a right to receive the king's personal writ of summons. While
the archbishops and bishops received their writs with regularity,
the summonses to heads of ecclesiastical houses and greater
barons were intermittent. The prelate held an office which
lived on regardless of the fate of its temporary holder, and if
by reason of death, absence or translation the office became
vacant, a writ still issued to the " Guardian of the Spiritualities."
The abbot, on the other hand, often outside the jurisdiction of
the English Church, and owing allegiance to a foreign order,
was but the personal representative of a land-holding community.
It has already been pointed out that the amount of land held
direct from the king by individuals varied greatly, and that
the extent of his holding must have had something to do with
a man's importance. A landless noble in those days was
inconceivable. The conclusion, then, may be drawn that in
theory the issue of a writ was at the pleasure of the Crown, and
that in practice the moving factor in the case of the prelates
was office and personal importance, and in the case of abbots
and barons probably, in the main, extent of* possession. There
is nothing however to show that in the early years of the custom
any person had a right to claim a writ if it were the king's
pleasure or caprice to withhold it and to treat everyone not
summoned individually as being duly summoned under the
general writs issued to the sheriff of the county.

The next point for consideration is when did the peerage,
as the baronage subsequently came to be called, develop into
a body definitely hereditary ? Here again growth
Principle?' was gradual and somewhat obscure. Throughout
the reigns of the Edwards summonses were not
always issued to the same individual for successive parliaments;
and it is quite certain that the king never considered the issue
of one writ to an individual bound the Crown to its repetition
for the rest of his life, much less to his heirs in perpetuity.
Again we must look to tenure for an explanation. The custom
of primogeniture tended to secure estates in strict family
succession, and if extent of possession had originally extracted
the acknowledgment of a personal summons from the Crown
it is more than probable that as successive heirs came into their
inheritance they too would similarly be acknowledged. In

early days the summons was a burden to be suffered of necessity,
an unpleasant incident of tenure, in itself undesirable, and
probably so regarded by the majority of recipients during at
least the two centuries following the Conquest. The age of the
Edwards was in the main a rule of settled law, of increase in
population generally, of growing power in the large landowners
and of opportunities for those about the person of the king.
The times were changing, and in place of the idea of the writ
being a burden, its receipt gradually came to be looked upon
as a mark of royal favour, a recognition of position and an
opportunity leading on to fortune. Once such a view was
established it is easy to understand how desirous any individual
would be to preserve so valuable a privilege for his posterity;
and primogeniture with its strict settlement of estates pointed
out an easy way. The Crown was itself an hereditary dignity;
and what more natural than that it should be surrounded by an
hereditary peerage ? Thus the free and indiscriminate choice
of the Crown became fettered by the custom that once a
summons had been issued to an individual to sit in parliament
and he had obeyed that summons he thereby acquired a right
of summons for the rest of his lifetime; and in later years when
the doctrine of nobility of blood became established his
descendants were held to have acquired the same privilege by
hereditary right.

The earl's position in the baronage needs some explanation.
Various suggestions have been made as to Saxon or Norman
origin of a high official nature, but historical opinion ^ ar u oms-
seems generally to incline towards the theory that
the term was a name of dignity conferred by royal prerogative
on a person already classed among the greater barons. At first
the dignity was official and certainly not hereditary, and the name
of a county of which he is said to have been an officer in the king's
name was not essential to his dignity as an earl. There were
also men who, though Scottish and Norman earls, and commonly
so addressed and summoned to parliament, were rated in
England as barons (Lords Reports, ii. 116, 120; Earldom of
Norfolk Peerage Case, Law Reports [1907], A.C. p. 18). Earls
received individual summonses to parliament by the name of
Earl (q.v.) ; but there is reason to believe, as already mentioned,
that in early days at any rate they sat not in right of their
earldoms but by tenure as members of the baronage.

If we review the political situation at the beginning of the
T4th century a great change is evident. The line between
those members of the baronage in parliament and yyrtt
the rest of the people is firmly and clearly drawn. Supersedes
Tenure as the sole qualification for presence in the Tenure.
national assembly has disappeared, and in its place there
appears for the baronage a system of royal selection and for
the rest of the people one of representation. The rules and
customs of law relating to the baronage slowly crystallized so
as to provide the House of Lords, the history of which for
generations is the history of the peerage of England, whilst
the representative part of parliament, after shedding the lower
clergy, ultimately became the House of Commons.

Until the reign of Richard II. there is no trace of any use
of the term baron (q.v.) as importing a personal dignity existing
apart from the tenure of land, barons owing their seats in parlia-
ment to tenure and writ combined. This is borne out by the
fact that a husband was often summoned to parliament in his
wife's right and name, and while she lived fulfilled those feudal,
military and parliamentary obligations attached to her lands
which the physical disabilities of sex prevented her from carrying
out in her own person (Pike, House of Lards, p. 103).

Primogeniture, a custom somewhat uncertain in early Anglo-
Norman days, had rapidly developed into a definite rule of law.
As feudal dignities were in their origin inseparable pgergrg
from the tenure of land it is not surprising that they becomes a
too followed a similar course of descent, although Personal
as the idea of a dignity being exclusively personal D fr D "J''
gradually emerged, some necessary deviations from the rules of
law relating to the descent of land inevitably resulted. In the
eleventh year of his reign Richard II. created by letters patent

48

PEERAGE

John Beauchamp " Lord de Beauchamp and baron of Kydder-
mynster, to hold to him and the heirs of his body." These letters
patent were not founded on any right by tenure of land possessed
by Beauchamp, for the king makes him " for his good services and
in respect of the place which he had holden at the coronation (i.e.
steward of the household) and might in future hold in the king's
councils and parliaments, and for his noble descent, and his
abilities and discretion, one of the peers and barons of the king-
dom of England; willing that the said John and the heirs-male
of his body issuing, should have the state of baron and should
be called by the name of Lord de Beauchamp and Baron of
Kyddermynster." The grant rested wholly on the grace and
favour of the Crown and was a personal reward for services
rendered. Here then is a barony entirely a personal dignity
and quite unconnected with land. From Richard's reign to
the present day baronies (and indeed all other peerage honours)
have continued to be conferred by patent. The custom of
summons by writ was not in any way interfered with, the patent
operating merely to declare the dignity and to define its devolu-
tion. Summons alone still continued side by side for many
generations with summons founded on patent; but after the
reign of Henry VIII. the former method fell into disuse, and
during the last two hundred and fifty years there have been
no new creations by writ of summons alone. 1 So from the
reign of Richard II. barons were of two classes, the older, and
more ancient in lineage summoned by writ alone, the honours
descending to heirs-general, and the newer created by letters
patent, the terms of which governed the issue of the summons
and prescribed the devolution of the peerage in the line almost
invariably of the direct male descendants of the person
first ennobled. The principle of hereditary succession so clearly
recognized in the Beauchamp creation is good evidence to show
that a prescriptive right of hereditary summons probably existed
in those families whose members had long been accustomed to
receive individual writs. By the time the House of Lancaster
was firmly seated on the throne it may be taken that the peerage
had become a body of men possessing well-defined personal
privileges and holding personal dignities capable of descending
to their heirs.

The early origin of peerages was so closely connected with
the tenure of land that the idea long prevailed that there were
originally peerages by tenure only, i.e. dignities
Teeure? * or titles annexed to the possession (and so following
it on alienation) of certain lands held in chief of the
king. The older writers, Glanville (bk. ix. cc. 4, 6) and Bracton
(bk. ii. c. 16), lend some colour to the view. They are followed,
but not very definitely, by Coke, Selden and Madox. Black-
stone, who discusses the question in his Commentaries (bk. i.
c. xii.), seems to believe that such dignities existed in pre-
parliamentary days hut says further: " When alienations grew
to be frequent, the dignity of peerage was confined to the lineage
of the party ennobled, and instead of territorial became per-
sonal." The Earldom of Arundel case, in 1433, at first sight seems
to confirm the theory, but it may be noted that when in later
years this descent came to be discussed the high authority of
an act of parliament was found necessary to confirm the succes-
sion to the dignity. The case is discussed at some length in the
Lords Reports (ii. 115), the committee regarding it as an anomaly
from which no useful precedent can be drawn. Other cases
discussed in the same Report are those of De Lisle, Abergavenny,
Fitzwalter and Berkeley. The Berkeley case of 1858-1861 (better
reported 8 H.L.C. 21) is essential for the student who wishes
to examine the question carefully; and may be regarded as
finally putting an end to any idea of bare tenure as an existing
means of establishing a peerage right (see also Cruise on Dignities,
2nd ed. pp. 60 et seq.).
The main attribute of a peerage is that hereditary and inalien-
1 Not intentional at any rate. In some cases where it was in-
tended to call a son up ir his father's barony, a mistake in the name
has been made with the result that a new peerage by writ of sum-
mons has been created. The barony of Buller, of Moore Park
(cr. 1663), now in abeyance, is said to be an instance of such a
mistake.

able quality which ennobles the blood of the holder and his
heirs, or, as a great judge put it in 1625 in the Earldom of
Oxford case, "he cannot alien or give away this in-
heritance because it is a personal dignity annexed /n^je^i/e.
to the posterity and fixed in the blood " (Dodridge,
J., at p. 123, Sir W. Jones's Reports). Were the theory of barony
by tenure accepted it would be possible for the temporary
holder of such a barony to sell it or even to will it away to a
stranger possessing none of the holder's blood, with the effect
that, in the words of Lord Chancellor Campbell (Berkeley case,
8 H.L.C. 77), " there might be various individuals and various
lines of peers successively ennobled and created peers of parlia-
ment by a subject," an impossible condition of affairs in a
country where the sovereign has always been the: fountain of
honour. Moreover, while no peerage honour can be extinguished
or surrendered, the owner of lands can freely dispose of such
rights as he possesses by sale or transfer. Finally we may accept
the verdict in the Fitzwalter case of 1669 (Cruise, ibid. p. 66),
which was adopted by the House of Lords in the Berkeley case:
" and the nature of a barony by tenure being discussed, it
was found to have been discontinued for many ages, and not in
being, and so not fit to be revived or to admit any pretence or
right of succession thereupon."

Until the reign of Edward III. the peerage consisted only of
high ecclesiastics, earls and barons. The earls were barons
with their special name of dignity added, and their Dukes
names always appear on the rolls before those of the
barons. In 1337 King Edward created his son, the Black
Prince, duke of Cornwall, giving him precedence over the rest
of the peerage. The letters patent (under which the present
heir to the throne now holds the dukedom) limited the dignity
in perpetuity to the first-born son of the king of England. 2
Subsequently several members of the royal family were created
dukes, but no subject received such an honour until fifty years
later, when Richard II. created his favourite Robert de Vere,
earl of Oxford, duke of Ireland (for life) . The original intention
may have been to confine the dignity to the blood royal, as with
the exception of de Vere it was some years before a dukedom
was again conferred on a subject.

In 1385 Richard II. had created Robert de Vere marquess of
Dublin, thus importing an entirely new and unknown title into
the peerage. The grant was, however, only for life, Marquesses
and was in fact resumed by the Crown in 1387, when
its recipient was created duke of Ireland. It was not until 1397
that another creation was made, this time in favour of one of
the blood royal, John de Beaufort, eldest legitimated son of
John of Gaunt, who became marquess of Dorset. His title was
shortly afterwards taken away by Henry IV 's first parliament.
Subsequently creations were made only at long intervals, that
of Winchester (1551) being the only one (of old date) under
which an English marquess at present sits in the House of Lords
(see Marquess). •

Under the name of viscount (q.v.) Henry VI. added yet another
order, and the last in point of time, to the peerage, creating in
1440, John, Baron Beaumont, Viscount Beaumont viscounts.
and giving him precedence next above the barons.
The name of this dignity was also borrowed from the Continent,
having been in use for some time as a title of honour in the king's
French possessions. None of the new titles above mentioned
ever carried with them any official position; they were conferred
originally as additional honours on men who were already
members of the peerage.

The application of the hereditary principle to temporal
peerages early differentiated their holders from the spiritual
peers. Both spiritual and temporal peers were
equally lords of parliament, but hereditary preten- /£ ers "&c
sions on the one side and ecclesiastical exclusiveness
on the other soon drew a sharp line of division between the two
orders. Gradually the temporal peers, strong in their doctrine
of " ennobled " blood, came to consider that theirs was an order

2 . . . . principi et ipsius et haeredum suorum Regum Angliae
filiis primogenitis (The Prince's Case, 8 Co. Reg. 27a; 77 E.R. 513).

PEERAGE

49

above and beyond all other lords of parliament, and before long,
arrogated to themselves the exclusive right to be called peers,
and as such the only persons entitled to the privileges of peerage.
In early parliamentary days it had been the custom to summon
regularly to attend the Lords for deliberative purposes another
body of men — the judges. Less important than the prelates,
they also owed their summons to official position, and like them
were eventually overshadowed by the hereditary principle.
The force of hereditary right gave to ennobled blood a position
never possessed by either judge or prelate. It is true the prelate,
in point of antiquity, was senior to both earl and baron, and in
many cases superior in extent of possessions; but these attributes
belonged to his office, the resignation or deprivation of which
would at any time have caused him to lose his writ of summons.
The writ issued really to the office. The judge's position was
even worse. His judicial office evoked the writ, but at any
moment he might be deprived of that office at the arbitrary
pleasure of the Crown. It is doubtful whether the judges ever
had voice and vote in the same sense as the other lords of
parliament, and even if they had they soon came to be regarded
merely as counsellors and assessors.

The pretensions of the lay peers were not admitted without
a struggle on the part of the prelates, who made the mistake
of aiming at the establishment of a privileged position for their
own order while endeavouring to retain every right possessed
by their lay brethren. They fell between two stools, lost their
position as peers, and were beaten back in their fight for eccle-
siastical privilege. In the reign of Richard II. the prelates are
found clearly defining their position. Neville, archbishop of
York, de Vere, duke of Ireland and others, were " appealed "
for treason, and the archbishop of Canterbury took the oppor-
tunity in parliament of making clear the rights of his order.
He said " of right and by the custom of the realm of England
it belongeth to the Archbishop of Canterbury for the time being
as well as others his suffragans, brethren and fellow bishops,
abbots and priors and other prelates whatsoever, holding of
our lord the king by barony, to be present in person in all the
king's parliaments whatsoever as Peers of the Realm aforesaid,
and there with the other Peers of the Realm, and with other
persons having the right to be there present, to advise, treat,
ordain, establish and determine as to the affairs of the realm
and other matters there wont to be treated and to do all else
which there presses to be done." After this he went on to say
that as to the particular matters in question they intended to
be present and to take their part in all matters brought before
parliament " save our estate and order and that of each of the
prelates in all things. But because in the present parliament
there is question of certain matters, in which it is not lawful
for us or anyone of the prelates according to the institute of the
Holy Canons in any manner, to take part personally " we intend
to retire " saving always the rights of our peerage " {Rot. Pari.
ii Rich. II. No. 6 — printed iii. 236-237). At the desire of the
prelates this statement of their rights was duly enrolled in parlia-
ment, but their claim to be peers was neither denied nor admitted,
and the proceedings went on without them. For themselves
Churchmen never claimed the privilege of trial by peers.
Whenever they were arraigned they claimed to be altogether
outside secular jurisdiction, and it was therefore a matter of
small concern to them whether they were in the hands of peers
or peasants. Such was the attitude of Becket towards Henry II.
(Stubbs, Const. Hist. i. 504), of Archbishop Stratford towards
Edward III. (Pike, pp. 188 seq.), and it was probably with
the history of these two cases in his mind that the archbishop
of Richard II. 's reign speaks of the saving rights of his order.
These rights were never willingly admitted in England, and as
the pope's power for interference waned so the prelates were
forced under the ordinary law of the land. Henry VIII. cer-
tainly never regarded ecclesiastics as peers, as may be gathered
from a grant early in his reign to the then abbot of Tavistock
for himself and each succeeding abbot the right to be " one of
the spiritual and religious lords of parliament." As to abbots,
the subsequent dissolution of the monasteries put an end to the

discussion. In this reign also Cranmer and Fisher, though the
former was archbishop of Canterbury, were tried by a common
jury, and they certainly claimed no privilege of peerage. The
Standing Orders of the House of Lords for 1625 contain the
statement that " Bishops are only Lords of Parliament and not
Peers " {Lords Journals, iii. 349). In 1640 the " Lords Spiritual "
were altogether excluded from the House of Lords by act of
parliament, and were not brought back until the second year
of the Restoration. From that period there has been no ques-
tion as to their position. Peers and holders by barony when
parliaments first met, by the end of the 1 5th century thev had put
themselves outside the pale of the peerage. To-day their ancient
lands are vested in trustees (Ecclesiastical Commissioners),
and office alone constitutes a bishop's qualification, and
that only if he occupies one of the five gieat sees of Canterbury,
York, London, Durham and Winchester, or is of sufficient
seniority in appointment to fill one of the remaining twenty-one
places on the bench of bishops in the house — for there are now
only twenty-six seats for thirty-six prelates.

The reign of Henry VIII. brought about far-reaching changes
in the position of the peerage. When that king ascended the
throne the hereditary element was in a decided Henry vm.
minority, but the balance was gradually redressed and the
until at length a bare hereditary majority was Peerage.
secured and the dissolution of the monasteries made
possible. The peers, many now grown fat on abbey lands,
at once began to consolidate their position; precedents were
eagerly sought for, and the doctrine of ennobled blood began
to find definite and vigorous expression. So long, the peers
declared, as there is any ennobled blood, a peerage
must exist; and it can be extinguished only by act Bl"od '
of parliament, failure of heirs, or upon corruption
of blood by attainder. Stubbs writes with some contempt of
the doctrine {Const. Hist. iii. 458 n.), apparently on the ground
that it is absurd to speak of ennobled blood so long as the children
of a peer still remain commoners. The doctrine is neither
unreasonable nor illogical. By it is meant blood in which
there always exists a capacity to inherit a particular peerage,
and every person in whose veins the ennobled blood runs is
competent to occupy the peerage if the chances of nature should
remove those who are senior to him in the line of descent. A
good illustration is the popular use of the term " blood royal,"
which of course does not mean that an individual of the blood
royal necessarily occupies a throne but that he or she is in the
line of succession to it. Similarly, persons of " ennobled blood "
are not necessarily peers but in the line of descent to peerages,
to which they may or may not succeed. (See Nobility.)

The English peer is not like the continental noble the member
of a caste, but the holder for life of an office clothed with high
and exceptional legislative and judicial attributes entirely
dependent on his office and exercisable only in conjunction
with his fellow peers in parliament assembled. Such privileges
as he possesses are due primarily to his office rather than to his
blood. His children are commoners, who though accorded
courtesy titles by the usage of society have no legal privileges
not shared with the humblest of British subjects. It is this
peculiar official quality of an English peerage which saved
England from the curse of a privileged noble caste such as that
which so long barred all progress in France and Germany. As
a result there are hundreds of families in the United Kingdom
who, commoners there, would yet, from their purity of blood,
position and influence, be accounted noble in any continental
country.

From the doctrine of nobility of blood is derived the rule
of law that no peerage (a Scots peerage is under Scots Law)
can be surrendered, extinguished, or in any way got
rid of unless the blood be corrupted. The rule is "p^.™ St
well illustrated by the earldom of Norfolk case
{Law Reports [1907], A. C. 10) in which its development w r as
traced, and the principle authoritatively confirmed. In 1302
the hereditary earldom of Norfolk (created in 1135) was in the
possession of Hugh Bygod, one of the most powerful nobles of

5o

PEERAGE

Plantagenet days. The earl got into difficulties, and as some
say, for a consideration, and others, to spite his brother and
debtor, surrendered his earldom and all the lands thereto
belonging, to King Edward I. from whom he subsequently
received it back with an altered limitation to himself and the
heirs of his body. As he was a childless old man this was practi-
cally a short life interest to the exclusion of all his relatives, the
nearest of whom but for the surrender would have succeeded.
Soon after Bygod died, and the earldom fell into the hands of
Edward II. who granted it to his brother Thomas of Brotherton
in 13 1 2. Lord Mowbray, the lineal descendant of this Thomas,
recently came forward and claimed the earldom, but in 1906
the House of Lords decided against his claim on the ground
that in law Bygod's surrender was invalid, and that therefore
Edward II. had no valid power to grant this particular earldom
to Thomas of Brotherton. Historically there is little to support
such a decision, and indeed this rigid application of the law is
of comparatively recent date. Without doubt king, nobles and
lawyers alike were all agreed, right down to Tudor days, that
such surrenders were entirely valid. Many certainly were made,
but, according to the decision of 1906, any living heirs of line
of those nobles who thus got rid of their peerage honours can,
if their pedigrees be provable, come to the House of Lords with a
fair chance of reviving the ancient honours. Even as late as
1663 we find the Crown, naturally with the concurrence of its
legal advisers, stating in the barony of Lucas patent (1663) that,
on the appearance of co-heirs to a barony, the honour may be
suspended or extinguished at the royal pleasure. The royal view
of the law (at any rate as to extinction) was strongly objected
to by the Lords, who guarded their privileges in Stuart days
even more strictly than did the Commons. As early as 1626,
in the celebrated dispute over the earldom of Oxford, the lord
great chamberlainship and the baronies of Bolebec, Badlesmere
and Sandford, Mr Justice Dodridge, who had been called in by
the Lords to advise them, said that an earl could not give away
or alien his inheritance, because it was " a personal dignity
annexed to the posterity and fixed in the blood." Fourteen
years later, in the Grey de Ruthyn case, the Lords solemnly
resolved, " That no peer of the realm can drown or extinguish
his honour (but that it descends unto his descendants), neither
by surrender, grant, fine nor any other conveyance to the king."
In 1678 the Lords became, if possible, even more definite, in
view probably of the fact that the Crown had disregarded the
Grey de Ruthyn resolution, having in 1660 taken into its hands,
by surrender of Robert Villiers, 2nd viscount, the viscounty
of Purbeck. In 1676 the son of the second viscount applied
for his writ of summons, and on the advice of Sir William Jones,
the attorney-general, who reported that " this (surrender) was
a considerable question, never before resolved that he knew of,"
the king referred the whole matter to the Lords. The Lords
were very explicit, being " unanimously of the opinion, and do
resolve that no fine now levied, or at any time hereafter to be
levied by the king, can bar such title of honour (i:e. of a peer
of the realm), or the right of any person claiming under him that
levied, or shall levy such fine." On these resolutions passed in
the seventeenth century, the Lords of 1906 find illegal a surrender
of 1302. The result seems strange, but it is, at any rate, logical
from the legal point of view. It was urged that in 1302 no
real parliament, in the sense applied to those of later years,
was in existence; and consequently, a resolution founded on
parliamentary principles should not apply. To this answer
was made: Although it may be true that the law and practice
of parliament had not then crystallized into the definite shape
of even a hundred years later, the " Model Parliament " was
summoned seven years before Bygod's surrender, and it is neces-
sary to have some definite occurrence from which to date a
legal beginning — a point of law with which an historian can have
little sympathy.

Briefly, perhaps, from the teaching of the case it may be
permissible to state the rule as follows: In early days the
Norman and Plantagenet kings took upon themselves to deal
with the barons in a manner which, though illegal, was suffered

because no one dared oppose them; but as time went on, becom-
ing stronger and more determined to enforce their privileges
and exalt their order the peers were able to compel recognition
of their rights, and their resolutions in Stuart days were only
declaratory of law which had always existed, but had been
systematically disregarded by the Crown. This being so,
resolutions of the peers deliberately and expressly laid down
must, when in point, always be followed.

The application of the doctrine of corruption of blood to
peerages arises out of their close connexion with the tenure
of land, peerage dignities never having been regarded Attainder
as personal until well on into the 14th century, gad Cor-
Conviction for any kind of felony — and treason ruptioa of
originally was a form of felony — was always followed Blood -
by attainder. This resulted in the immediate corruption of
the blood of the offender, and its capacity for inheritance was
lost for ever. Such corruption with all its consequences could
be set aside only by act of parliament. This stringent rule of
forfeiture was to some extent mitigated by the passing in 1285
of the statute De Donis Conditionalibus (Blackstone's Commen-
taries, ii. 116) which made possible the creation of estates tail,
and when a tenant-in-tail was attainted forfeiture extended only
to his life interest. The statute De Donis was soon applied
by the judges to such dignities as were entailed (e.g. dignities
conferred by patent with limitations in tail) , but it never affected
baronies by writ, which were not estates in 'tail but in the nature
of estates in fee simple descendible to heirs general. In the
feign of Henry VIII. an act was passed (1534) which brought
estates tail within the law of forfeiture, but for high treason only.
The position then became that peerages of any kind were for-
feitable by attainder following on high treason, while baronies
by writ remained as before forfeitable for attainder following
on felony. In 1708, just after the Union with Scotland, an
act was passed by which on the death of the Pretender and three
years after Queen Anne's death the effects of corruption of blood
consequent on attainder for high treason were to be abolished,
and the actual offender only to be punished (stat. 7 Anne,
c. 21, § 10). Owing to the 1745 rising, the operation of this act
was postponed until the decease of the Pretender and all his
sons (stat. 17 Geo. II. c. 39, § 3). In 1814 forfeiture for every
crime other than high and petty treason and murder was re-
stricted to the lifetime of the person attainted (stat. 54 Geo.
III. c. 145). Finally in 1870 forfeiture, except upon outlawry,
was altogether abolished and it was provided that " no judgment
of or for any treason or felony should cause any attainder or
corruption of blood, or any forfeiture or escheat." The necessity
for ascertaining the exact condition of the law with regard to
attainder throughout the whole period of English parliamentary
history will be realized when it is remembered that there still
exist dormant and abeyant peerages dating from 1295 onwards
which may at any time be the subject of claim before the House
of Lords, and if any attainders exist in the history of such peerages
the law governing their consequences is not the law as it exists
to-day but as it existed when the attainder occurred. The
dukedom of Atholl case of 1764 is interesting as showing the
effect of attainder on a peerage where the person attainted does
not actually succeed. John first duke of Atholl died in 1725
leaving two sons James and George, George the younger was
attainted of treason in 1745 and died in 1760, leaving a son John.
James, the second son of the first duke, who had succeeded his
father in 1725 died in 1764 without issue. John his nephew then
claimed the dukedom, and was allowed it on the ground that
his father never having been in the possession of the dukedom
his attainder could not bar his son, who succeeds by reason
of his heirship to his uncle. It would have been otherwise
had the younger son outlived his brother, for he would then have
succeeded to the dukedom and so destroyed it by his attainder.
In many cases there have been passed special parliamentary
acts of attainder and forfeiture, and these, of course, operate
apart from the general law. In any event, attainder and
forfeiture of a dignity, whether resulting from the rules of the
I common law or from special or general acts of parliament can

PEERAGE

5i

only be reversed by act of parliament. The procedure in
reversing an attainder and recovering a dignity is as follows.
The Crown signifies its pleasure that a bill of restoration shall
be prepared and signs it. The bill is then brought in to the
House of Lords, passed there, and sent to the Commons for
assent. The last bills of the kind became law in 1876, when
Earl Cowper procured the removal of the attainder on one of his
Ormond ancestors and so by purging the blood of corruption
became entitled to, and was allowed, the barony of Butler of
Moore Park (created in 1663). There should also be noted the
Earldom of Mar Restitution Act 1885, which, while mainly con-
firmatory of a disputed succession, at the same time reversed
any attainders that existed.

The House of Lords grew steadily throughout the Tudor
period, and during the reign of the first two Stuarts underwent
a still greater increase. In the Great Rebellion the majority of
the peers were the king's stoutest supporters and thus inevitably
involved themselves in the ruin of the royal cause. Immediately
after the execution of Charles I. the Republicans proceeded
Common- to sweep away everything which savoured of mon-
weatth archy and aristocracy. The House of Commons
Abolition of voted the Lords " useless and dangerous," got rid of
' them as a part of parliament by the simple expedient
of a resolution (Comms. Journs. 1648-1649, vi. 111) and placed
the sole executive power in Cromwell's hands, but there was
no direct abolition of the peerage as such. Evidently it took
Cromwell but little time to realize the fallacy, in practice, of
Cmm weirs single-chamber government, as he is found ten
House of years after the " useless and dangerous " resolu-
Lords. t j Qn bygy establishing a second chamber. 1 What
to call it aroused much discussion, and eventually the unruly
Commons consented to speak of and deal with " the other
house." It is very difficult to realize what was the constitution
of this body, so short was its life and so contemptuous its treat-
ment by the Commons. The members of " the other house "
were summoned by writs under the Great Seal, similar in form
to those used to summon peers of past days. Some sixty writs
were issued, and presumably their recipients were entitled
thereby to sit for the duration of the parliament to which they
were summoned; but it may be considered as certain that
Cromwell's lords were never regarded as hereditary peers.
They were entitled to the courtesy appellation " Lord " and
appear to have been in the main substantial men — existing
peers, judges, distinguished lawyers and members of well-known
county families. Judging from Cromwell's speech at the
opening of parliament, and subsequent entries in Whitelock's
diaries, the new house appears to have had revising functions
both of a legislative and judicial nature and also the duty of
taking cognizance of foreign affairs. Cromwell certainly issued
two patents of hereditary peerage — the barony of Burnell
and the barony of Gilsland (with which went the viscounty of
Howard of Morpeth), but neither title was recognized on the
Restoration, and it does not appear that the possession of these
titles ever conferred on their holders any hereditary right to a
writ of summons to sit in " the other house." Whitelock
himself was promised a viscounty by Cromwell, but no patent
ever appears to have passed the Great Seal. Eventually business
between the two houses grew impossible, and Cromwell was
compelled to dissolve parliament. Richard's first parliament
also contained Lords as well as Commons, the latter considerately
voting " to transact business with the persons sitting in the
other house as an House of Parliament, saving the right of the
peers who had been faithful to the parliament," the saving
clause evidently a loophole for the future. The dissolution
of this parliament and the retirement of the protector Richard
into private life preceded by only a few months the restoration
to the throne of Charles II. With the king the peers returned
to their ancient places.

From the reign of William of Orange the peerage has been
freshened by a steady stream of men who as a rule have served

1 Whitelock's Memorials of English Affairs (in the reign of
Charles I. and up to the Restoration) (1853 ed. iv. 313).

their country as statesmen, lawyers and soldiers. Little of
note occurred in the history of the peerage until the reign of
Anne. By the Act of Union with Scotland (1707) Scottish
the Scottish parliament was abolished; but the Represents-
Scottish peerage were given the privilege of ™ vePeers -
electing, for each parliament of Great Britain, sixteen of
their number to represent them in the House of Lords.
Further creations in the Scottish peerage were no longer to be
made. The effect of this act was to leave the great majority
of the Scottish peers outside the House of Lords, as only sixteen
of their number were to become lords of parliament. Close
upon a hundred years later Ireland was united with Great
Britain, the Irish parliament being merged in the Irish Repre-
parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain sentative
and Ireland. Twenty-eight Irish peers were to be Peers#
elected for life by their order to represent it in the House of
Lords. One archbishop and three bishops were also chosen in
turn to represent the Irish Church in the House of Lords, but
when that Church was disestablished in 1867 the spiritual
lords lost their seats. The merger of the three kingdoms had
an important effect on their peerages. Every peer in his
own country had been a lord of parliament by hereditary right.
The English peer (and, as the Acts of Union were passed, the
peer of Great Britain and the peer of the United Kingdom)
continued by hereditary right a lord of parliament. The
Scottish and Irish peers lost this right though by the two Acts
of Union they retained every other privilege of peerage. Hence-
forth they were lords of parliament only as and when their
fellow peers elected them. Thus though not all were lords of
parliament in esse, every one was always so in posse, and in any
case it was the hereditary quality of the peerage which either
actually seated its holder in the House of Lords or made it
possible for him to get there by the votes of his fellows.

It now becomes possible to arrive at the modern meaning of
the term " a peerage," and we may define it as a dignity of
England, Scotland or Ireland, which, by its heredi- Modern
tary quality, confers on its holder for the time Meaning of
being the right to be or not to be elected a lord of " Peera £ e -
parliament. The term " peerage " is also used in a collective
sense.

The reign of Anne is remarkable for an attempt made by the
House of Lords to limit its numbers by law. The queen,
in order to secure a majority for the court party, Queen Anne
had created a batch of twelve peers at one time, a andPeerage
considerable number in relation to existing peerages; Limitation.
and it was feared this expedient might be used as ' a
precedent. A peerage limitation bill was introduced into the
House of Lords in 17 19. Six new creations were to be allowed,
but after these the Crown, except in the case of royal princes,
was to create a new peerage only when an old one became
extinct. Twenty-five hereditary peerages in Scotland were
to take the place of the sixteen representative peers for all time.
The bill passed the Lords, but was eventually thrown out in the
House of Commons, though not by an overwhelming majority.
In 1856 it was desired to strengthen the judicial element
in the House of Lords, and the Crown issued letters patent
creating Sir James Parke, one of the barons of the M/ .

exchequer, Baron Wensleydale and a peer " for Case-
and during the term of his natural life." The
burden of an hereditary peerage is heavy, and many men
thoroughly well qualified in legal attainments have been known
to refuse it on the ground of expense alone. This life-peerage
was thought to be a way out of the difficulty, and it was on
Lord Chancellor Cranworth's advice that the Crown issued the
Wensleydale patent. The House of Lords at once realized
that the creation of life-peers, at the will of the ministry of the
day, might put the hereditary section into an absolute minority,
and possibly in time, by form of law, get rid of it altogether.
Eventually it was decided by the house that " neither the said
letters patent nor the said letters patent with the usual writ of
summons enable the grantee to sit and vote in parliament,"
a formal resolution which closed the door in the face of every

52

PEERAGE

Judicial
Peers.

person whom the Crown might endeavour to make a life-peer.
The government of the day accepted the situation, and soon
afterwards a new patent was made out which followed the usual
limitation to heirs-male. The precedents in favour of the
Crown's action were not strong. The essential and outstanding
attribvte of the house was its hereditary character. The whole
balance of the constitution worked on the pivot of the indepen-
dence of the pesrs. They existed as a moderating force in the
counsels of parliament, and the alteration of the hereditary
character of the House of Lords might easily have rendered
it amenable to whatever pressure the government of the day
might see fit to exercise. In such circumstances its position
as arbiter betveen people and government would tend to dis-
appear. A change fraught with so many serious possibilities
ought not, it was said, to be made by the simple prerogative
of the Crown. If so far-reaching an alteration in the law were
justifiable it was for parliament to make it. Further, it was
pointed out, there had been no life-creations for centuries, and
those that are recorded to have been conferred since the crys-
tallization of our parliamentary system were of such a nature
that the grantees never sat in the house by virtue of their life-
honours, inasmuch as they were existing peers or women. Soon
after the Wensleydale debates the government
introduced a bill into the House of Lords to authorize
the creation of two life-peers, who were to be persons
of at least five years' standing as judges. They were to sit as
lords of appeal but to be peers for life. Eventually the bill,
disappeared in the House of Commons. In 1869 Earl Russell
introduced another life-peerage bill of far wider scope. Twenty-
eight life-peerages might be in existence at any one time, but
not more than four were to be created in any one year. The
life peers would be lords of parliament for life. They were to be
selected by the Crown from the peerages of Scotland and Ireland,
persons who had sat for ten years in the Commons, distinguished
soldiers, sailors, civil servants and judges or persons distinguished
in science, literature or art. The bill received a rough handling
in committee of the Lords, and the time was evidently not ripe
for change, as the bill failed to pass its third reading.

In 1S70 attempts were made in the House of Lords to alter
the position of the Scottish and Irish representative peers. In
Suggested 1876 the need of further judicial strength in the
Reforms and Lords was tardily admitted, and an act was passed
Alterations, authorizing the creation of two lords of appeal in
ordinary, and power was reserved to appoint two more
as certain judicial vacancies occurred. They were to be
entitled to the rank of baron during their lives but were to sit
and vote in parliament only so long as they held their judicial
office. Their dignities lasted for life only. Eleven years later
another act enabled all retired lords of appeal to sit and vote as
members of the House of Lords for life. To those interested
in House of Lords reform the pages of Hansard's Parliamen-
tary Debates are the best authority. In 1888 reform bills were
introduced by Lords Dunraven and Salisbury, and in 1907 by
Lord Newton. In December 1908 the publication of a long
report with sweeping recommendations for reform ended the
labours of a House of Lords committee which had been appointed
to consider the question in detail. In the session of 1910,
following the general election, long discussions took place in
both houses of parliament. Opinion generally was freely
expressed that the time had arrived for diminishing the number
of lords of parliament and for putting into practice the principle
that hereditary right alone should no longer confer lordship of
parliament. (See Parliament.)

The Scottish peerage, like that of England, owes its origin
to feudalism. In Anglo-Norman days Scotland was a small
country, and for some generations after England
Peerage. was set; tled the Scottish king's writ ran little beyond
the foot of the Highlands, and even the Lord of the
Isles reckoned himself an independent sovereign until the
beginning of the 1 5th century. The weak and usually ineffective
control of the Crown resulted in opportunities for acquiring
personal power which the nobles were not slow to take advantage

of. Seldom accustomed to act in concert, they soon developed
particularist tendencies which steadily increased the strength
of their territorial position. These conditions of existence
were entirely unfavourable to the establishment of any system
of parliamentary government such as centralization had made
possible in England, therefore it is not surprising to find that the
lesser barons were not relieved of their attendance at the national
assemblies until well on in the 15th century (Burton's Scotland,
iii. 111). Again, when the Scottish earls and barons came to
parliament, they did not withdraw themselves from the rest
of the people, it being the custom for the estates of Scotland
to deliberate together, and this custom persisted until the
abolition of their parliament by the Act of Union in 1707. The
territorial spirit of the nobles inevitably led them to regard the
honour as belonging to, and inseparable from, their land, and
until comparatively late in Scottish history there is nowhere
any record of the conferment of a personal dignity unattached
to land such as that conferred in England on Beauchamp by
Richard II. This explains the frequent surrenders and altered
grants which are so common in Scottish peerage history, and
which, in sharp distinction to the English rule of law, are there
regarded as perfectly legal. To-day there exists no Scottish
dukedom (except the royal dukedom of Rothesay), marquessate
or viscount)' created before the reign of James VI. of Scotland
(and I. of England). Of the existing Scottish peerages sixty-
three were created in the period between James's accession to
the English throne and the Act of Union. There are now only
eighty-seven in all. Unlike one of the English peerages owing its
origin exclusively to a writ of summons, ancient Scottish
peerages do not fall into abeyance, and when there are only
heirs-general, the eldest heir of line succeeds.

Whenever a new parliament is summoned, proclamation is
made in Scotland summoning the peers to meet at Holyrood
to elect sixteen of their number to represent them in such
parliament. The Scottish peerages are recorded on a roll,
and this is called over by the lord clerk register before the
assembled peers seated at a long table. Each peer answers to
the name of the peerage (it may be one or more) he possesses.
The roll is then read again and each peer in turn (but only once)
rises and reads out the list of those sixteen peers for whom he
votes. Proxies are allowed for absent peers and are handed in
after the second roll-call. The votes are counted and the lord
clerk register reads out the names of those elected, makes a
return, and signs and seals it in the presence of the peers
assembled. The return eventually finds its way to the House of
Lords. The Scottish representative peer so elected receives no
writ of summons to parliament, but attends the House of Lords
to take the oath, his right to sit being evidenced by the return
made. It might be thought that the rules of election in so
important a matter would be more stringent, but the fact
remains that it is quite possible for an entirely unqualified person
to attend and vote at Holyrood. No evidence of identity or
of a man's right to be present is required and the lord clerk
register is compelled to receive any vote tendered except in
respect of peerages for which no vote has been given since 1800,
these being struck off the roll (10 & n Vict. c. 52). Any
person claiming to represent such a peerage must prove his
right before the House of Lords, as was done in the case of the
barony of Fairfax in 1908. It is true that by the act last cited
any two peers may protest against a vote at Holyrood, and the
lord clerk register thereupon reports the proceedings to the
House of Lords, who will consider the question if application
be made for an inquiry, but nothing is done unless an application
is made. The right to vote certainly needs better proof than
that now accepted. For many years the House of Lords main-
tained that the Crown could not confer a new peerage of Great
Britain on a Scottish peer, the ground being that the Scottish
peerage was only entitled to the sixteen representative peers
given it by the Act of Union, but eventually in 1782 in the case
of the duke of Hamilton this contention was given up.

The Anglo-Norman conquerors of Ireland carried with them
the laws and the system of tenure to which they were accustomed

PEERAGE

53

Irish
Peerage.

in England, and consequently the growth of the baronage
and the establishment of parliamentary government in Ireland
proceeded on parallel lines with the changes which
occurred in England. Until the reign of Henry VIII.
the Irish were without representation in par-
liament, but gradually the Irish were admitted, and by the
creation of new parliamentary counties and boroughs were
enabled to elect representatives. In 1613 the whole country
shared in representation (Ball's Legislative Systems of Ireland).
Just as James I. had added many members to the Scottish
peerage, so he increased the number of Irish peers.

In 1800 the Union of Great Britain and Ireland abolished
the parliament of Ireland. By the Act of Union the Irish peers
became entitled to elect twenty-eight of their number to repre-
sent them in the House of Lords. The election is for life, and
only those peers are entitled to vote at elections of representative
peers who have proved their right of succession to the satisfaction
of the lord chancellor, who issues his notice to that effect after
each individual proof. The names of such peers are added to
the voting-roll of the peerage, and when voting papers are
distributed — the Irish peers do not meet for election purposes
as do those of Scotland — they are sent only to those peers who
have proved their right to vote. If any ciaim to the right to
vote is rejected by the lord chancellor the claimant must prove
his case before the Committee for Privileges (barony of Graves,
J907). When an Irish peer has been elected a representative
peer he receives, as a matter of course, a writ of summons at
the beginning of each parliament. The great bulk of the Irish
peerage ewes its existence to creations during the last two
centuries, only seven of the existing peerages dating back
beyond the 17th century; of the rest twenty-two were created
during the year of Union, and thirty-three have been added
since that date. Some hundred or more years ago ministers
found the Irish peerage a useful means of political reward, in
that it was possible to bestow a title of honour, with all
its social prestige, and yet not to increase the numbers of the
House of Lords.

On the death of a representative peer of Scotland or Ireland
a vacancy occurs and a new election takes place, but in accor-
dance with modern practice promotion to a United Kingdom
peerage does not vacate the holder's representative position
(May's Parliamentary Practice, p. n n.). Scottish and Irish
peers, if representative, possess all the privileges of peerage
and parliament enjoyed by peers of the United Kingdom; if
non-representative all privileges of peerage, except the right to
a writ of summons to attend parliament and to be present at and
vote in the trial of peers. A Scottish peer, if non-representa-
tive, is in the anomalous position of being disabled from serving
his country in either house of parliament, but an Irish peer
may sit for any House of Commons constituency out of Ireland,
though while a member of the Commons his peerage privileges
abate.

Though many peers possess more than one peerage, and
frequently of more than one country, only that title is publicly
used which is first in point of precedence. It was once argued
that whenever a barony by writ came into the possession of a
person already a peer of higher rank, the higher peerage " at-
tracted" or overshadowed the lower, which thenceforth followed
the course of descent of the dignity which had attracted it.
This doctrine is now exploded and cannot be regarded as apply-
ing to any case except that of the Crown (Baronies of Fitzwalter,
1660, and De Ros, 1666; Collins's Claims, 168, 261). Every
peerage descends according to the limitations prescribed in its
patent of creation or its charter, and where these are non-
existent (as in the case of baronies by writ) to heirs-general.
(See Abeyance.)

In dealing with English dignities it is essential to realize
the difference between a mere title of honour and a peerage.
The Crown as the fountain of honour is capable of conferring
upon a subject not only any existing title of honour, but
may even invent one for the purpose. So James I. instituted
an order of hereditary knights which he termed baronets,

and Edward VII. created the duchess of Fife " Princess
Royal "• — a life dignity. The dignities of prince of Wales,
earl marshal and lord great chamberlain have been creations
for centuries hereditary, and though of high court and must be
social precedence, of themselves confer no right to according
a seat in the House of Lords — they are not peerages. ° aw '
The grant of a peerage is a very different matter; its holder
becomes thereby a member of the Upper House of Parlia-
ment, and therefore the prerogative of the Crown in creat-
ing such an office of honour must be exercised strictly in
accordance with the law of the land. The Crown's prerogative
is limited in several directions. The course of descent must be
known to the law; and so, in the first place, it follows that a peer
cannot be created for life with a denial of succession to his
descendants (unless it be as one of the lords of appeal in ordinary
under the acts of 1876 and 1887). The courses of descent of
modern patents are invariably so marked out as ultimately
to fix the peerage in some male line according to the custom of
primogeniture, though the immediate successor of the first holder
may be a woman or even a stranger in blood. The following
instances may be cited; Amabell, Baroness Lucas, was in 1816
created Countess de Grey with a limitation to the heirs-male of
her sister; a nephew afterwards succeeded her and the earldom
is now held by the marquess of Ripon. Other courses of descent
known to the law are as follows: Fee simple, which probably
operates as if to heirs-general, earldoms of Oxford (1155) and
Norfolk (1135), both probably now in abeyance; and Bedford
(1367), extinct; to a second son, the eldest being alive, dukedom
of Dover (1708), extinct, and earldom of Cromartie (1861) called
out of abeyance in 1895; a son-in-law and his heirs-male by the
daughter of the first grantee, earldom of Northumberland (1747) ;
to an elder daughter and her heirs-male, earldom of Roberts
(1901); to an elder or younger brother and his heirs-male,
viscounty of Kitchener (1902) and barony of Grimthorpe (1886).
It is, however, not lawful for the Crown to make what is called
a shifting limitation to a peerage, i.e. one which might vest a
peerage in an individual, and then on a certain event happening
(e.g. his succession to a peerage of higher rank) shift it from him
to the representative of some other line. Such a limitation
was held illegal in the Buckhurst case (1864). A peerage may
not be limited to the grantee and " his heirs-male for' ever."
Such a grant was that of the earldom of Wiltes in 1398. The
original grantee died without issue, but left a male heir-at-law,
whose descendants in 1869 claimed the earldom, but the original
limitation was held invalid.

There is no limitation on the power of the Crown as to the
number of United Kingdom peerages which may be created.
As to Scotland, the Act of Union with that country operates to
prevent any increase in the number of Scottish peerages, and
consequently there have been no creations since 1707, with the
result that the Scottish peerage, as a separate order, is gradually
approaching extinction. The Irish peerage is supposed always
to consist of one hundred exclusively Irish peers, and the Crown
has power to grant Irish peerages up to the limit. When the
limit is reached no more peerages may be granted until existing
ones become extinct or their holders succeed to United Kingdom
peerages. Only four lords of appeal in ordinary may hold
office at any one time. The number of archbishops and bishops
capable of sitting in the House of Lords is fixed by various
statutes at twenty-six, but, as pointed out previously, the
spiritual lords are not now regarded as peers.

Since party government became the rule, the new peerages have
usually been created on the recommendation of the prime
minister of the day, though the Crown, especially
in considering the claims of royal blood, is believed N um t, e rs.
in some instances to take its own course; and
constitutionally such action is entirely legal. By far the
greater number of peerage honours granted during the last
two centuries have been rewards for political services. Usually
these services are well known, but there exists several instances
in which_ the reasons for conferring the honour have not been
quite clear. Until the reign of George III. the peerage was

54

PEERAGE

comparatively small, but that monarch issued no fewer than
388 patents of peerage. Many of these have become extinct
or obscured by higher titles, but the general tendency is in the
direction of a steady increase, and where the peers of Tudor times
might be counted by tens their successors of 1910 were numbered
in hundreds. The full body would be 546 English peers.
There are also 12 ladies holding English peerages. The Irish
peerage has 175 members, but 82 of these are also peers of the
United Kingdom, leaving 28 representative and 65 without
seats in the House of Lords. Of 87 Scottish peers 51 hold United
Kingdom peerages, the remainder consisting of 16 representative
and 20 without seats.

As centuries have gone by and customs changed, many
privileges once keenly asserted have either dropped out of

use or been forgotten. The most important now
ofPeerate. * n being are a seat in the House of Lords and the

right to trial by peers. The right to a seat in
parliament is one sanctioned by centuries of constitutional
usage. The right of a peer in England to a seat in parliament
was not, as pointed out in the early part of this article, entirely
admitted by the Crown until late in the Plantagenet period,
the king's pleasure as to whom he should summon always
having been a very material factor in the question. Charles I.
made a deliberate attempt to recover the ancient discretion
of the Crown in the issue of writs of summons. The earl of
Bristol was the subject of certain treasonable charges, and
though he was never put on his trial the king directed that
his writ of summons should not issue. The excluded peer
petitioned the Lords, as for a breach of privilege, and a com-
mittee to whom the matter was referred reported that there
was no instance on record in which a peer capable of sitting in
parliament had been refused his writ. There was a little delay,
but the king eventually gave in, and the earl had his writ
(Lords Journals, iii. 544).

At the beginning of a new parliament every peer entitled
receives a writ of summons issued under the authority of the
Great Seal; he presents his writ at the table of the House of
Lords on his first attendance, and before taking the oath. If
the peer be newly created he presents his letters-patent creating
the peerage to the lord chancellor on the woolsack, together
with the writ of summons which the patent has evoked. A
peer on succession presents his writ in the ordinary way, the
Journals recording, e.g. that Thomas Walter, Viscount Hampden,
sat first in Parliament after the death of his father (Lords
Journals, cxxxix. 4). The form of writ now issued (at the
beginning of a parliament: for the variation when parliament
is sitting see Lords Journals, cxxxix. 185) corresponds closely
to that in use so long ago as the 14th century. It runs as
follows: —

George the Fifth by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond
the seas King Defender of the Faith to our right trusty and well-
beloved Greeting Whereas by the advice and consent of our Council
for certain arduous and urgent affairs concerning us the state and
the defence of our said United Kingdom and the Church we have
ordered a certain Parliament to be holden at our City of Westminster
on the . . . day of . . . next ensuing and there to treat and
have conference with the prelates great men and peers of our realm
We strictly enjoining command you upon the faith and allegiance
by which you are bound to us that the weightiness of the said
affairs and imminent perils considered (waiving all excuses) you be
at the said day and place personally present with us and with the
said prelates great men and peers to treat and give your counsel
upon the affairs aforesaid. And this as you regard us and our
honour and the safety and defence of the said United Kingdom
and Church and despatch of the said affairs in no wise do you omit.

Formerly all peers were required to attend parliament, and
there are numerous recorded instances of special grants of leave
of absence, but nowadays there is no compulsion.

After the right to a summons the principal privilege possessed

Pe rsTri d ^ a P eer i s hi s right to be tried by his peers on a

bv Peers. charge of treason or felony. Whatever the origin

of this right, and some writers date it back to

Saxon times (Trial of Lord Morley, 1678, State Trials vii.

145), Magna Carta has always been regarded as its con-
firmatory authority. The important words are: —

" nullus liber homo capiatur imprisonetur aut disseisiatur de libero
tenemento suo vel libertatibus seu liberis consuetudinibus suis,
aut utlagetur aut exuletur nee aliquo modo distruatur nee dominus
rex super ipsum ibit nee super eum mittet nisi per legale judicium
parium suorum vel per legem terrae."

The peers have always strongly insisted on this privilege
of trial by their own order, and several times the heirs of those
wrongly condemned recovered their rights and heritage on the
ground that there had been no proper trial by peers (R.D.P.,
v. 24). In 1442 the privilege received parliamentary con-
firmation (stat. 20 Henry VI. c. 9). If parliament is sitting
the trial takes place before the House of Lords in full session,
i.e. the court of our lord the king in parliament, if not then
before the court of the lord high steward. The office of lord
high steward was formerly hereditary, but has not been so for
centuries and is now only granted pro hoc vice. When necessity
arises the Crown issues a special commission naming some peer
(usually the lord chancellor) lord high steward pro hac vice
(Blackstone's Comm. iv. 258). When a trial takes place in
full parliament a lord high steward is also appointed, but his
powers there are confined to the presidency of the court, all
the peers sitting as judges of law as well as of fact. Should
the lord high steward be sitting as a court out of parliament
he summons a number of peers to attend as a jury, but rules
alone on all points of law and practice, the peers present being
judges of fact only. Whichever kind of trial is in progress it
is the invariable practice to summon all the judges to attend
and advise on points of law. The distinction between the two
tribunals was fully discussed and recognized in 1760 (Trial of
Earl Ferrers, Foster's Criminal Cases, 139). The most recent trial
was that of Earl Russell for bigamy (reported 1901, A.C. 446).
Among others are the Kilmarnock, Cromarty and Balmerino
treason trials in parliament in 1746 (State Trials xviii. 441), and
in the court of the lord high steward, Lord Morley (treason, 1666,
State Trials vi. 777), Lord Cornwallis (murder, 1678 State
Trials vii. 145), Lord Delamere (1686, treason, State Trials xi.
510). Recently some doubt has been expressed as to the
origin of the court of the lord high steward. It is said that
the historical document upon which the practice is founded
is a forgery. The conflicting views are set forth in Vernon
Harcourt's His Grace the Steward and Trial of Peers, p. 429,
and in Pike's Constitutional History of the House of Lords, p. 213.
In any case, whatever its historical origin, the court for
centuries as a matter of fact has received full legal recognition
as part of the constitution. The right to trial by peers
extends only to cases of treason and felony, and not to those
of misdemeanour; nor can it be waived by any peer (Co. 3
Inst. 29; Kelyng's Rep. 56). In the case of R. v. Lord Graves
(1887), discussed in Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, 3rd series,
vol. cccx. p. 246, Lord Halsbury points out that the question
of trial by peers is one of jurisdiction established by law rather
than a claim of privilege in the discretion of the accused.
Scottish and Irish peers, whether possessing seats in the House
of Lords or not, are entitled to trial by peers, the same procedure
being followed as in the case of members of the House of Lords.
Peers with a seat in the House of Lords possess practically
the same parliamentary privileges as do members of the House
of Commons. Among other privileges peculiar to themselves
they have the right of personal access to the sovereign (Anson's
Law of the Constitution, i. 227). In the House of Lords,
when a resolution is passed contrary to his sentiments, any peer,
by leave of the house, may " protest," that is, enter his dissent
on the journals of the house (Blackstone, Comm. i. 162).
Formerly a peer might vote by proxy (Blackstone, ibid.), but
since 1868 there has been a standing order discontinuing this
right. In accordance with resolutions passed by the two
houses, neither house has power by any vote or declaration
to clothe itself with new privileges unknown to the law and
customs of parliament (Commons Journal, xiv. 555). Peeresses
and non-representative peers of Ireland and Scotland have,

PEERLKAMP— PEESEMSKY

55

with the exception of the right to sit in the House of Lords and
its attendant parliamentary privileges, every peerage privilege:
a widowed peeress retains her privilege of peerage while un-
married, but loses it if she marries a commoner (Co. Litt. 166;
Cowley v. Cowley [iqoi] A.C. 450). Dissolution of marriage
probably deprives a peeress of all peerage privileges which she
acquired by marriage.

The children of peers are commoners. The eldest son of a peer
of the rank of earl (and above) is usually known socially by the
Position of name of his father's next peerage, but the courtesy
Families of na ture of such title is clearly indicated in every public
Peers. or legal document, the phraseology employed being

" John Smith, Esq., commonly known as Viscount
Blackacre." Several cases are on record in which peers' eldest
sons have actually borne courtesy titles not possessed as peerage
honours by their fathers, but inasmuch as such are only accorded
by courtesy, no question of peerage privilege arises. The younger
sons of dukes and marquesses are entitled to the prefix " Lord "
before their Christian names, and all the daughters of earls as well
as of dukes and marquesses are entitled similarly to style them-
selves " Lady," on the principle that all the daughters are equal
in rank and precedence. The younger sons of earls and all the
younger children of viscounts and barons are entitled to the prefix
Honourable." Usually when the direct heir of a peer dies his
children are given, by the Crown, on the death of the peer, the
courtesy titles and precedence they would have enjoyed had their
father actually succeeded to the peerage.

An alien may be created a peer, but while remaining an alien
.cannot sit in the House of Lords, nor, if a Scottish or Irish peer,
can he vote at elections for representative peers. Peer-
~™ ages may be created (1) by writ of summons, (2) by

Peerages. p a t e nt. The writ of summons method is not now used
except in the case of calling up an eldest son in the barony of his
father. This does not create a new peerage but only accelerates
the heir's appearance in the House of Lords. On the father's
death the peerage remains vested in the son. Should the son die
without heir the peerage revests in the father. The invariable
method of creation in all ordinary cases is by patent. The letters
patent describe the name of the dignity, the person upon whom it
is conferred, and specify its course of descent.

Claims to peerages are of two kinds: (1) of right, (2) of grace.
In theory the Crown, as the fountain of honour, might settle any
claim without reference to the House of Lords and
Culms to j ssue a writ f summons to its petitioner. This would
Peerages. not; ; n an y wa y p reven t tfje House of Lords from
examining the patent and writ of summons when the favoured
petitioner or any heir claiming through him came to take his
seat. If of opinion that the patent was illegal the house might
refuse admittance, as it did in the Wensleydale case. In the case
of a petitioner who has persuaded the Crown to terminate in his
favour as a co-heir the abeyance of an ancient barony and who
has received his writ of summons, the-' matter is more difficult.
The house cannot refuse to admit any person properly summoned
by the Crown, as the prerogative is unlimited in point of numbers;
but it can take into account the precedence of the newcomer. If
he has an old barony he naturally expects its proper place on the
bench of barons; but if the house thought fit they might compel
him to prove his pedigree before according any precedence. If
he refused to do this they would still be bound to admit him, but
it would be as the junior baron of the house.with a peerage dating,
for parliamentary purposes, from the day of his summons. The
general result is that the Crown, unless there can be no question
as to pedigree, seldom terminates an abeyance without referring
the matter to the House of Lords, and invariably so refers all
claims which are disputed or which involve any question of law. 1
The procedure is as follows: The claimant petitions the Crown
through the home secretary, setting forth his pedigree and stating
the nature of his claim. The Crown then refers the petition to its
legal adviser, the attorney-general. The petitioner then in course
of time appears before the attorney-general with his proofs. Finally
the attorney-general reports that a prima facie case is, or is not, made
out. If a case be made out, the Crown, if it does not take immediate
action, refers the whole matter to the House of Lords, who pass it on
to their Committee for Privileges for examination and report.

The Committee for Privileges, which for peerage claims is usually
constituted of the law lords and one or two other lords interested
Committee in peerage history, sits as an ordinary court of justice
for Privl- an d follows all the rules of law and evidence. The
leges. attorney-general attends as adviser to the committee

and to watch the interests of the Crown. According to
the nature of the case the Committee reports to the house, and
the house to the Crown, that the petitioner (if successful) (1) has
made out his claim and is entitled to a writ of summons, or (2)

1 This was not done in the case of the earldom of Cromartie
called out of abeyance in 1895. The holder of the title being a
lady the house has had, as yet, no opportunity of considering the
validity of the Crown's action.

has proved his co-heirship to an existing peerage, and has also
proved the descent of all existing co-heirs. In the first case the
writ of summons is issued forthwith, but the second, being one of
abeyance, is a matter for the pleasure of the Crown, which need
not be exercised at all, but, if exercised, may terminate the abeyance
in favour of any one of the co-heirs. The seniority of a co-heir
(though this alone is of little moment), his power to support the
dignity, and the number of existing co-heirs, are all factors which
count in the chances of success.

Reference has already been made in the earlier part of this article,
to the reply of Bishop Peter de Roches to the English barons
who claimed trial by their peers, and, as was suggested Peers of
the bishop probably had in his mind the peers of France. Prance.
Possibly the word pares, as eventually used in England,
was borrowed from this source, but this is uncertain. The great
men known originally as the twelve pairs de France, were the feudal
holders of large territories under the nominal sway of the king of
France. They were the (archbishop) duke of Rheims, the (bishop)
dukes of Langres and Laon, the (bishop) counts of Beauvais, Noyon
and Chalons, the dukes of Burgundy, Normandy and Aquitaine,
and the counts of Flanders, Toulouse and Champagne. These
magnates, nominally feudatories, were practically independent
rulers, and their position can in no way be compared to that of
the English baronage. It is said that this body of peers was in-
stituted in the reign of Philip Augustus, though some writers even
ascribe its origin to Charlemagne. Some of the peers were present
at Philip's coronation in 1 179, and later again at the alleged trial
of John of England when his fief of Normandy,, was adjudged
forfeit to the French Crown.

As the central power of the French kings grew, the various fiefs
lost their independence and became united to the Crown, with the
exception of Flanders which passed into the hands of the emperor
Charles V. In the 14th century the custom arose for the sovereign
to honour his more important nobles by granting them the title
of Peer of France. At first the grant was confined to the royal
dukes, but later it was conferred on others, amongst whom late
in the 17th century appears the archbishop of Paris. To several
counties and baronies the honour of a peerage was added, but
most of these eventually became reunited with the Crown. As a
legislative body a chamber of peers in France was first founded
by Louis XVIII. in 1814; it was hereditary and modelled on the
English House of Lords. The revolution of 1830 reduced its
hereditary quality to life tenure, and in the troubles of 1848 the
chamber itself finally disappeared.

Austria, Hungary and Portugal are other countries possessing
peerages which to some extent follow the English model . In
Austria there is a large hereditary nobility and those other
members of it in whose families the legislative dignity peerages.
is hereditary by nomination of the emperor sit in the
Herrenhaus or Austrian Upper Chamber, together with certain pre-
lates and a large number of nominated life-members. In Hungary
all those nobles who possess the right of hereditary peerage (as
admitted by the act of 1885 and subsequent acts) and who pay
a land tax of cen iin value, are members of the House of Magnates,
of which they for 1 a large majority, the remainder of the mem-
bers being Romai Catholic prelates, representatives of Protestant
churches and life eers. In Portugal until recent years the House
of Peers was an hereditary body, but it is now practically a
chamber of life-peers. (G. E.*)

PEERLKAMP, PETRUS HOFMAN (1786-1865), Dutch
classical scholar and critic, descended from a family of French
refugees named Perlechamp, was born at Groningen on the
2nd of February 1786. He was professor of ancient literature
and universal history at Leiden from 1822 to 1849, when
he resigned his post and retired to Hilversum near Utrecht,
where he died on the 27th of March 1865. He was the founder
of the subjective method of textual criticism, which consisted
in rejecting in a classical author whatever failed to come up to
the standard of what that author, in the critic's opinion, ought to
have written. His ingenuity in this direction, in which be went
much farther than Bentley, was chiefly exercised oh the Odes
of Horace (the greater part of which he declared spurious),
and the Aencid of Virgil.- He also edited the Ars poetica and
Satires of Horace, the Agricola of Tacitus, the romance of
Xenophon of Ephesus, and was the author of a history of the
Latin poets of the Netherlands {De vita, doclrina, et facilitate
Nederlandorum qui carmina latino composuerunt, 1838).

See L. M tiller, Gesch. der Massischen Philologie in den Niederlanden
(1869), and J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol. (1908), iii. 276.

PEESEMSKY, ALEXEY FEOFILACTOVICH (1820-1881),
Russian novelist, was born on his father's estate, in the province
of Kostroma, on the ioth/22nd of March 1820. In his auto-
biography he describes his family as belonging to the ancient

56

PEGASUS— PEGMATITE

Russian nobility, but his more immediate progenitors were all
very poor, and unable to read or write. His grandfather
ploughed the fields as a simple peasant, and his father, as
Peesemsky himself said, was washed and clothed by a rich
relative, and placed as a soldier in the army, from which he retired
as a major after thirty years' service. During childhood
Peesemsky read eagerly the translated works of Walter Scott
and Victor Hugo, and later those of Shakespeare, Schiller,
Goethe, Rousseau, Voltaire and George Sand. From the
gymnasium of Kostroma he passed through Moscow University,
and in 1884 entered the government service as a clerk in the
office of the Crown domains in his native province. Between
1854 and 1872, when he finally quitted the civil service, he
occupied similar posts in St Petersburg and Moscow. His
early works exhibit a profound disbelief in the higher qualities
of humanity, and a disdain for the other sex, although he appears
to have been attached to a particularly devoted and sensible
wife. His first novel, Boyarstchina, was forbidden for its
unflattering description of the Russian nobility. His principal
novels are Tufak ("A Muff"), 1850; Teesicha doush ("A
Thousand Souls "), 1862, which is considered his best work of
the kind; and Vzbalomoucheneoe more ("A Troubled Sea"),
giving a picture of the excited state of Russian society about
the year 1862. He also produced a comedy, Gorkaya scudbina
("A Bitter Fate"), depicting the dark sides of the Russian
peasantry, which obtained for him the Ouvaroff prize of the
Russian Academy. In 1856 he was sent, together with other
literary men, to report on the ethnographical and commercial
condition of the Russian interior, his particular field of inquiry
having been Astrakhan and the region of the Caspian Sea.
His scepticism in regard to the liberal reforms of the 'sixties
made him very unpopular among the more progressive writers
of that time. He died at Moscow on the 2nd of February 1881
(Jan. 21, Russian style).

PEGASUS (from Gr. 7177765, compact, strong), the famous
winged horse of Greek fable, said to have sprung from the trunk
of the Gorgon Medusa when her head was cut off by Perseus.
3ellerophon caught him as he drank of the spring Peirene on
the Acrocorinthus at Corinth, or received him tamed and
bridled at the hands of Athena (Pindar, 01. xiii. 63; Pausanias
ii. 4). Mounted on Pegasus, Bellerophon slew the Chimaera
and overcame the Solymi and the Amazons, but when he tried
to fly to heaven on the horse's back he threw him and continued
his heavenward course (Apollodorus ii. 3). Arrived in heaven,
Pegasus served Zeus, fetching for him his thunder and lightning
(Hesiod, Theog. 281). Hence some have thought that Pegasus
is a symbol of the thundercloud. According to O. Gruppe
(Griechischc Mythologie, i. 75, 123) Pegasus, like Arion the
fabled offspring of Demeter and Poseidon, was a curse-horse,
symbolical of the rapidity with which curses were fulfilled. In
later legend he is the horse of Eos, the morning. The erroneous
derivation from irrjyrj, " a spring of water," may have given
birth to the legends which connect Pegasus with water; e.g.
that his father was Poseidon, that he was born at the springs
of Ocean, and that he had the power of making springs rise
from the ground by a blow of his hoof. When Mt Helicon,
enchanted by the song of the Muses, began to rise to heaven,
Pegasus stopped its ascent by stamping on the ground (Antoninus
Liberalis 9), and where he struck the earth Hippocrene (horse-
spring), the fountain of the Muses, gushed forth (Pausanias
ii. 31, ix. 31). But there are facts that speak for an independent
mythological connexion between horses and water, e.g. the
sacredness of the horse to Poseidon, the epithets Hippios and
Equester applied to Poseidon and Neptune, the Greek fable
of the origin of the first horse (produced by Poseidon striking
the ground with his trident), and the custom in Argolis of
sacrificing horses to Poseidon by drowning them in a well.
From his connexion with Hippocrene Pegasus has come to be
regarded as the horse of the Muses and hence as a symbol of
poetry. But this is a modern attribute of Pegasus, not known
to the ancients, and dating only from the Orlando innamorato
of Boiardo.

See monograph by F. Hannig, Breslauer philologische Abhani-
lungen (1902), vol. viii., pt. 4.

PEGAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
situated in a fertile country, on the Elster, 18 m. S.W. from
Leipzig by the railway to Zeitz. Pop. (1905), 5656. It has
two Evangelical churches, that of St Lawrence being a fine
Gothic structure, a 16th-century town-hall; a very old hospital
and an agricultural school. Its industries embrace the manu-
facture of felt, boots and metal wares.

Pegau grew up round a monastery founded in 1096, but does
not appear as a town before the close of the 12th century.
Markets were held here and its prosperity was further enhanced
by its position on a main road running east and west. In the
monastery, which was dissolved in 1539, a valuable chronicle
was compiled, the Annates pegavienses, covering the period
from 1039 to 1227.

See Fiissel, Anfang und Ende des Klosters St Jacob zu Pegau
(Leipzig, 1857) ; and Dillner, Grossel and Gtinther, Altes und neues
aus Pegau (Leipzig, 1905). The Annates pegavienses are published
in Bd. XVI. of the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores.

PEGMATITE (from Gr. itriy^a, a bond), the name given by
Haiiy to those masses of graphic granite which frequently occur
in veins. They consist of quartz and alkali feldspars in crystalline
intergrowth (see Petrology, Plate II. fig. 6). The term was
subsequently used by Naumann to signify also the coarsely
crystalline veins rich in quartz, feldspar and muscovite, which
often in great numbers ramify through outcrops of granite and
the surrounding rocks. This application of the name has now
obtained general acceptance, and has been extended by many
authors to include vein-rocks of similar structure and geological
relationships, which occur with syenites, diorites and gabbros.
Only a few of these pegmatites have graphic structure or mutual
intergrowth of their constituents. Many of them are exceedingly
coarse-grained; in granite-pegmatites the feldspars may be
several feet or even yards in diameter, and other minerals such
as apatite and tourmaline often occur in gigantic crystals. Peg-
matites consist of minerals which are found also in the rocks
from which they are derived, e.g. granite-pegmatites contain
principally quartz and feldspar while gabbro-pegmatites
consist of diallage and plagioclase. Rare minerals, however,
often occur in . these veins in exceptional amount and as very
perfect crystals. The minerals of the pegmatites are always
those which were last to separate out from the parent rock.
As the basic minerals are the first formed the pegmatites contain
a larger proportion of the acid or more siliceous components
which were of later origin. In granite-pegmatites there is little
hornblende, biotite or sphene, but white mica, feldspar and quartz
make up the greater part of the veins. In gabbro-pegmatites
olivine seldom occurs, but diallage and plagioclase occur in
abundance. In this respect the pegmatites and aplites agree;
both are of more acid types than the average rock from which
they came, but the pegmatites are coarsely crystalline while
the aplites are fine-grained. Segregations of the early minerals
of a rock are frequent as nodules, lumps and streaks scattered
through its mass, and often dikes of basic character (lampro-
phyres, &c.) are injected into the surrounding country. These
have been grouped together as intrusions of melanocrale facies
(yueXas, black, tcparos, strength, predominance) because in
them the dark basic minerals preponderate. The aplites and
pegmatites, on the other hand, are leucocrate (hevKos, white),
since they are of acid character and contain relatively large
amounts of the white minerals quartz and feldspar.

Pegmatites are associated with plutonic or intrusive rocks and
were evidently formed by slow crystallization at considerable
depths below the surface: nothing similar to them is known
in lavas. They are very characteristic of granites, especially
those which contain muscovite and much alkali feldspar; in
gabbros, diorites and syenites piegmatite dikes are comparatively
rare. The coarsely crystalline structure may be ascribed to

slow crystallization; and is partly the result of the rocks, in

which the veins lie, having been at a high temperature when the

minerals of the pegmatites separated out. In accordance
I with this we find that pegmatite veins are nearly always restricted

PEGNITZ— PEGOLOTTI

57

to the area occupied by the parent rock (e.g. the granite), or
to its immediate vicinity, and within the zone which has been
greatly heated by the plutonic intrusion, viz. the contact aureole.
Another very important factor in producing the coarse crystal-
lization of the pegmatite veins is the presence of abundant
water vapour and other gases which served as mineralizing
agents and facilitated the building together of the rock molecules
in large crystalline individuals.

Proof that these vapours were important agents in the forma-
tion of pegmatites is afforded by many of the minerals con-
tained in the veins. Boron, fluorine, hydrogen, chlorine and
other volatile substances are essential components of some of
these minerals. Thus tourmaline, which contains boron and
fluorine, may be common in the pegmatites but rare in the
granite itself. Fluorine or chlorine are present in apatite,
another frequent ingredient of granite pegmatites. Muscovite
and gilbertite both contain hydrogen and fluorine; topaz is
rich in fluorine also and all of these are abundant in some
pegmatites. The stimulating effect which volatile substances
exert on crystallizing molten masses is well known to experi-
mental geologists who, by mixing tungstates and fluorides with
fused powders, have been able to produce artificial minerals
which they could not otherwise obtain. Most pegmatites are
truly igneous rocks so far as their composition goes, but in their
structure they show relations to the aqueous mineral veins.
Many of them for example have a comby structure, that is to
say, their minerals are columnar and stand perpendicular to the
walls of the fissure occupied by the vein. Sometimes they have
a banding owing to successive deposits having been laid down
of different character; mica may be external, then feldspar, and
in the centre a leader or string of pure quartz. In pegmatite
veins also there are very frequently cavities or vugs, which are
lined by crystals with very perfect faces. These bear much
resemblance to the miarolitic or drusy cavities common in
granite, and like them were probably filled with the residual
liquid which was left over after the mineral substances were
deposited in crystals.

Pegmatites are very irregular not only in distribution, width
and persistence, but also in composition. The relative abun-
dance of the constituent minerals may differ rapidly and much
from point to point. Sometimes they are rich in mica, in
enormous crystals for which the rock is mined or quarried
(India). Other pegmatites are nearly pure feldspar, while others
are locally (especially near their terminations) very full of
quartz. They may in fact pass into quartz veins (alaskites)
some of which are auriferous (N. America). Quartz veins of
another type are very largely developed, especially in regions
of slate and phyllite; they are produced by segregation of
dissolved silica from the country rock and its concentration
into cracks produced by stretching of the rock masses during
folding. In these segregation veins, especially when the beds
are of feldspathic nature, crystals of albite and orthoclase may
appear, in large or small quantity. In this v/ay a second type
of pegmatite (segregation pegmatite) is formed which is very
difficult to distinguish from true igneous veins. These two
have, however, much in common as regards the conditions
under which they were formed. Great pressures, presence of
water, and a high though not necessarily very high temperature
were the principal agencies at work.

Granite pegmatites are laid down after their parent mass had
solidified and while it was cooling down : sometimes they contain
such minerals as garnet, not found in the main mass, and showing
that the temperature of crystallization was comparatively low.
Another special feature of these veins is the presence of minerals
containing precious metals or rare earths. Gold occurs in not a few
cases; tin in others, while sulphides such as copper pyrites are found
also. Beryl is the commonest of the minerals of the second group:
spodumene is another example, and there is much reason to hold
that diamond is a native of some of the pegmatites of Brazil and
India, though this is not yet incontestably proved. The syenite-
pegmatites of south Norway are remarkable both for their coarse
crystallization and for the great number of rare minerals they have
yielded. Among these may be mentioned laavenite, rinkite, rcsen-
buschite, mosandrite, pyrochlore, perofskite and lamprophyllite.

(J. S. F.)

PEGNITZ, a river of Germany. It rises near Lindenhard
in Upper Franconia (Bavaria) from two sources. At first it
is called the Fichtenohe, but at Buchau it takes the name of the
Pegnitz, and flowing in a south-westerly direction disappears
below the small town of Pegnitz in a mountain cavern. It
emerges through three orifices, enters Middle Franconia, and
after flowing through the heart of the city of Nuremberg falls
into the Regnitz at Ftirth.

See Specht, Das Pegnitzgebiet in Bezug auf seinen Wasserhaushalt
(Munich, 1905).

The Pegnitz Order (Order of the society of Pegnitz shepherds),
also known as " the crowned flower order on the Pegnitz," was
one of the societies founded in Germany in the course of the 17th
century for the purification and improvement of the German
language, especially in the domain of poetry. Georg Philipp
Harsdbrffer and Johann Klaj instituted the order in Nuremberg
in 1644, and named it after the river. Its emblem was the passion
flower with Pan's pipes, and the motto Mil Nutzen erfreulich,
or Alle zu einem Ton einslimmig. The members set themselves
the task of counteracting the pedantry of another school of
poetry by imagination and gaiety, but lacking imagination
and broad views they took refuge in allegorical subjects and
puerile trifling. The result was to debase rather than to raise
the standard of poetic art in Germany. At first the meetings
of the order were held in private grounds, but in 1681 they were
transferred to a forest near Kraftshof or Naunhof. In 1794
the order was reorganized, and it now exists merely as a literary
society.

See Tittman, Die nurnberger Dichterschule (Gottingen, 1847) ;
and the Festschrift zur 250-jahrigen Jubetfeier des pegnesischen
Blumenordens (Nuremberg, 1894).

PEGOLOTTI, FRANCESCO BALDUCCI (ft. 1315-1340),
Florentine merchant and writer, was a factor in the service
of the mercantile house of the Bardi, and in this capacity we
find him at Antwerp from 1315 (or earlier) to 1317; in London
in 13 1 7 and apparently for some time after; in Cyprus from
1324 to 1327, and again (or perhaps in unbroken continuation
of his former residence) in 1335. In this last year he obtained
from the king of Little Armenia (i.e. medieval Cilicia, &c.) a grant
of privileges for Florentine trade. Between 1335 and 1343,
probably in 1339-1340, he compiled his Libro di divisamenti
di paesi e di misuri di mercatanzie e d'altre cose bisognevoli di
sapere a' mercatanti, commonly known as the Pratica delta
mercatura (the name given it by Pagnini). Beginning with a
sort of glossary of foreign terms then in use for all kinds of taxes
or payments on merchandise as well as for " every kind of place
where goods might be bought or sold in cities," the Pratica
next describes some of the chief trade routes of the 14th century,
and many of the principal markets then known to Italian
merchants; the imports and exports of various important
commercial regions; the business customs prevalent in each of
those regions; and the comparative value of the leading moneys,
weights and measures. The most distant and extensive trade
routes described by Pegolotti are: (1) that from Tana or Azov
to Peking via Astrakhan, Khiva, Otrar, Kulja and Kanchow
(Gittarchan, Organci, Ottrarre, Armalecco and Camexu in the
Pratica) ; (2) that from Lajazzo on the Cilician coast to Tabriz
in north Persia via Sivas, Erzingan and Erzerum (Salvastro,
Arzinga and Arzerone); (3) that from Trebizond to Tabriz.
Among the markets enumerated are: Tana, Constantinople,
Alexandria, Damietta, and the ports of Cyprus and the Crimea.
Pegolotti's notices of ports on the north of the Black Sea are very
valuable; his works show us that Florentine exports had now
gained a high reputation in the Levant. In other chapters
an account is given of 14th-century methods of packing goods
(ch. 29); of assaying gold and silver (ch. 35); of shipment;
of "London in England in itself" (ch. 62); of monasteries
in Scotland and England (" Scotland of England," Scozia di
Inghilterra) that were rich in wool (ch. 63). Among the latter
are Newbattle, Balmerino, Gupar, Dunfermline, Dundrennan,
Glenluce, Coldingham, Kelso, Newminster near Morpeth,
Furness, Fountains, Kirkstall, Kirstead, Swineshead, Sawley

58

PEGU— PEIRCE

and Calder. Pegolotti's interest in England and Scotland is
chiefly connected with the wool trade.

There is only one MS. of the Pratica, viz. No. 2441 in the Riccar-
dian Library at Florence (241 fols., occupying the whole volume),
written in 1471 ; and one edition of the text, in vol. iii. of Gian
Francesco Pagnini's Delia Decima e delle altre gravezze imposte dal
commune di Firenze (Lisbon and Lucca — really Florence — 1766) ;
Sir Henry Yule, Cathay, ii. 279-308, translated into English the
most interesting sections of Pegolotti, with valuable commentary
(London, Hakluyt Society, 1866). See also W. Heyd, Commerce
du Levant, ii., 12, 50, 58, 78-79, 85-86, 112-119 (Leipzig, 1886); H.
Kiepert, in Sitzungsberichte der philos.-hist. CI. der berliner Akad.,
p. 901, &c. (Berlin, 1 881); C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modem
Geography, iii. 324-332, 550, 555 (Oxford, 1906).

PEGU, a town and former capital of Lower Burma, giving
its name to a district and a division. The town is situated
on a river of the same name, 47 m. N.E. of Rangoon by rail;
pop. (1901), 14,132. It is still surrounded by the old walls,
about 40 ft. wide, on which have been built the residences of
the British officials. The most conspicuous object is the Shwe-
maw-daw pagoda, 324 ft. high, considerably larger and even
more holy than the Shwe-dagon pagoda at Rangoon. Pegu
is said to have been founded in 573, as the first capital of- the
Talaings; but it was as the capital of the Toungoo dynasty
that it became known to Europeans in the 16th century. About
the middle of the 18th century it was destroyed by Alompra;
but it rose again, and was important enough to be the scene
of fighting in both the first and second Burmese Wars. It gave
its name to the province (including Rangoon) which was annexed
by the British in 1852.

The district, which was formed in 1883, consists of an alluvial
tract between the Pegu Yoma range and the Sittang river:
area, 4276 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 339,572, showing an increase of
43% in the decade. Christians numbered nearly 9000, mostly
Karens. Almost the only crop grown is rice, which is exported
in large quantities to Rangoon. The district is traversed by
the railway, and also crossed by the Pegu-Sittang canal, navi-
gable for 85 m., with locks.

The division of Pegu comprises the five districts of Rangoon
city, Hanthawaddy, Tharrawaddy, Pegu and Prome, lying east
of the Irrawaddy: area 13,084 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 1,820,638.

Pegu has also given its name to the Pegu Yoma, a range of hills
running north and south for about 200 m., between the Irrawaddy
and Sittang rivers. The height nowhere exceeds 2000 ft.
but the slopes are steep and rugged. The forests yield teak
and other valuable timber. The Pegu river, which rises in
this range, falls into the Rangoon river just below Rangoon
city, after a course of about 180 m.

PEILE, JOHN (1838-1910), English philologist, was born
at Whitehaven on the 24th of April 1838. He was educated at
Repton and Christ's College, Cambridge. After a distinguished
career (Craven scholar, senior classic and chancellor's medallist),
he became fellow and tutor of his college, reader of comparative
philology in the university (1884-1891), and in 1887 was elected
master of Christ's. He took a great interest in the higher
education of women and became president of Newnham College.
He was the first to introduce the great philological works of
George Curtius and Wilhelm Corssen to the English student
in his Introduction to Greek and Latin Etymology (1869). He
died at Cambridge on the 9th of October 1910, leaving
practically completed his exhaustive history of Christ's College.

PEINE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hanover, 16 m. by rail N.W. of Brunswick, on the railway to
Hanover and Hamburg. Pop. (1905), 15,421. The town has
a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church and several schools.
Its industries include iron and steel works, breweries, distilleries
and brickyards, and the manufacture of starch, sugar, malt,
machinery and artificial manure. There are also large horse
and cattle markets held here. Peine was at one time a strongly
fortified place, and until 1803 belonged to the bishopric of
Hildesheim.

PEINE FORTE ET DURE (French for "hard and severe
punishment "), the term for a barbarous torture inflicted on those
who, arraigned of felony, refused to plead and stood silent, or

challenged more than twenty jurors, which was deemed a con-
tumacy equivalent to a refusal to plead. By early English law
a prisoner, before he could be tried, must plead " guilty " or
" not guilty." Before the 13th century it was usual to imprison
and starve till submission, but in Henry IV. 's reign the peine
was employed. The prisoner was stretched on his back, and
stone or iron weights were placed on him till he either submitted
or was pressed to death. Pressing to death was abolished in
1772; " standing mute " on an arraignment of felony being then
made equivalent to conviction. By an act of 1828 a plea of
" not guilty " was to be entered against any prisoner refusing
to plead, and that is the rule to-day. An alternative to the
peine was the tying of the thumbs tightly together with whip-
cord until pain forced the prisoner to speak. This was said to be
a common practice at the Old Bailey up to the 19th century.

Among recorded instances of the infliction of the peine are:
Juliana Quick (1442) for high treason in speaking derisively of
Henry VI.; Margaret Clitherow, "the martyr of York" (1586);
Walter Calverly, of Calverly, Yorks, for the murder of his children
(1605) ; and Major Strangways at Newgate, charged with murder of
his brother-in-law (1657). In this last case it is said that upon the
weights being placed in position several cavalier friends of Strang-
ways sprang on his body and put him out of his pain. In 172 1 one
Nathaniel Hawes lay under a weight of 250 lb for seven minutes,
finally submitting. The peine was last employed in 1 741 at
Cambridge assizes, when a prisoner was so put to death ; the penalty
of thumb-tying having first been tried. In 1692 at Salem, Massa-
chusetts, Giles Corey, accused of witchcraft, refusing to plead, was
pressed to death. This is believed to be the only instance of the
infliction of the penalty in America.

PEIPUS, or Chudskoye Ozero, a lake of north-west Russia,
between the governments of St Petersburg, Pskov, Livonia and
Esthonia. Including its southern extension, sometimes known
as Lake Pskov, it has an area of 1356 sq. m. Its shores are
flat and sandy, and in part wooded; its waters deep, and they
afford valuable fishing. The lake is fed by the Velikaya, which
enters it at its southern extremity, and by the Embach, which
flows in half way up its western shore; it drains into the Gulf of
Finland by the Narova, which issues at its north-east corner.

PEIRAEUS, or Piraeus (Gr. Yleipaitbs), the port town
of Athens, with which its history is inseparably connected.
Pop. (1907), 67,982. It consists of a rocky promontory, contain-
ing three natural harbours, a large one on the north-west which
is still one of the chief commercial harbours of the Levant, and
two smaller ones on the east, which were used chiefly for naval
purposes. Themistocles was the first to urge the Athenians
to take advantage of these harbours, instead of using the sandy
bay of Phaleron; and the fortification of the Peiraeus was begun
in 493 B.C. Later on it was connected with Athens by the Long
Walls in 460 B.C. The town of Peiraeus was laid out by the
architect Hippodamus of Miletus, probably in the time of
Pericles. The promontory itself consisted of two parts — the
hill of Munychia, and the projection of Acte; on the opposite
side of the great harbour was the outwork of Eetioneia. The
most stirring episode in the history of the Peiraeus is the seizure
of Munychia by Thrasybulus and the exiles from Phyle, and the
consequent destruction of the " 30 tyrants " in 404 B.C. The
three chief arsenals of the Peiraeus were named Munychia,
Zea and Cantharus, and they contained galley slips for 82, 196
and 94 ships respectively in the 4th century B.C.

See under Athens. Also Angelopoulos, Htpi n«p<u& xal tow
\ilikva>v airov (Athens, 1898).

PEIRCE, BENJAMIN (1809-1880), American mathematician
and astronomer, was born at Salem, Massachusetts, on the
4th of April 1809. Graduating at Harvard College in 1829,
he became mathematical tutor there in 1831 and professor in
1833. He had already assisted Nathaniel Bowditch in his
translation of the Mecanique celeste, and now produced a series
of mathematical textbooks characterized by the brevity and
terseness which made his teaching unattractive to inapt pupils.
Young men of talent, on the contrary, found his instruction
most stimulating, and after Bowditch's death in 1838 Peirce
stood first among American mathematicians. His researches
into the perturbations of Uranus and Neptune (Proc. Amer.

PEISANDER— PEISISTRATUS

59

Acad., 1848) gave him a wider fame; he became in 1849 con-
sulting astronomer to the American Nautical Almanac, and for
this work prepared new tables of the moon (1852). A discussion
of the equilibrium of Saturn's rings led him to conclude in 1855
that they must be of a fluid nature. From 1867 to 1874 he was
superintendent of the Coast Survey. In 1857 he published his
best known work, the System of Analytical Mechanics, which
was, however, surpassed in brilliant originality by his Linear
Associative Algebra (lithographed privately in a few copies,
1870; reprinted in the Amer. Joum. Math., 1882). He died at
Cambridge, Mass., on the 6th of October 1880.

See New Amer. Cyclopaedia (Ripley and Dana), vol. xiii. (1861);
T. J. J. See, Popular Astronomy, iii. 49; Nature, xxii. 607; R. Grant,
Hist, of Phys. Astronomy, pp. 205, 292; J. C. Poggendorff, Biog.
lit. Handworterbuch; Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society, xli. 191.

PEISANDER, of Camirus in Rhodes, Greek epic poet, sup-
posed to have flourished about 640 B.C. He was the author
of a Heracleia, in which he introduced a new conception of the
hero, the lion's skin and club taking the place of the older
Homeric equipment. He is also said to have fixed the number
of the " labours of Hercules " at twelve. The work, which accord-
ing to Clement of Alexandria (Stromata, vt. ch. 2) was simply
a plagiarism from an unknown Pisinus of Lindus, enjoyed
so high a reputation that the Alexandrian critics admitted the
author to the epic canon. From an epigram (20) of Theocritus
we learn that a statue was erected in honour of Peisander by
his countrymen. He is to be distinguished from Peisander
of Laranda in Lycia, who lived during the reign of Alexander
Severus (a.d. 222-235), and wrote a poem on the mixed marriages
of gods and mortals, after the manner of the Eoiai of Hesiod.

See fragments in G. Kinkel, Epicorum graecorum fragmenta (1878) ;
also F. G. Welcker, Kleine Schriften, vol. i. (1844), on the twelve
labours of Hercules in Peisander.

PEISISTRATUS, (6os?-S27 B.C.), Athenian statesman, was
the son of Hippocrates. He was named after Peisistratus, the
youngest son of Nestor, the alleged ancestor of his family; he
was second cousin on his mother's side to Solon, and numbered
among his ancestors Codrus the last great king of Athens. Thus
among those who became " tyrants " in the Greek world he
gained his position as one of the old nobility, like Phalaris of
Agrigentum, and Lygdamis of Naxos; but unlike Orthagoras of
Sicyon, who had previously been a cook. Peisistratus, though
Solon's junior by thirty years, was his lifelong friend (though this
is denied), nor did their friendship suffer owing to their political
antagonism. From this widely accepted belief arose the almost
certainly false statement that Peisistratus took part in Solon's
successful war against Megara, which necessarily took place
before Solon's archonship (probably in 600 B.C.). Aristotle's
Constitution of Athens (ch. 17) carefully distinguishes Solon's
Megarian War from a second in which Peisistratus was no doubt
in command, undertaken between 570 and 565 to recapture
Nisaea (the port of Megara) which had apparently been recovered
by the Megarians since Solon's victory (see Sandys on The
Constitution of Athens, ch. 14, 1, note, and E. Abbott, History
of Greece, vol. i. app. p. 544). Whatever be the true explanation
of this problem, it is certain (1) that Peisistratus was regarded
as a leading soldier, and (2) that his position was strengthened
by the prestige of his family. Furthermore (3) he was a man
of great ambition, persuasive eloquence and wide generosity;
qualities which especially appealed at that time to the classes
from whom he was to draw his support — hence the warning of
Solon (Frag. II. B): "Fools, you are treading in the footsteps
of the fox; can you not read the hidden meaning of these charm-
ing words >" Lastly, (4) and most important, the times were
ripe for revolution. In the article on Solon {ad fin.) it is shown
that the Solonian reforms, though they made a great advance
in some directions, failed on the whole. They were too moderate
to please the people, too democratic for the nobles. It was
found that the government by Boule and Ecclesia did not mean
popular control in the full sense; it meant government by the
leisured classes, inasmuch as the industrious farmer or herdsman
could not leave his work to give his vote at the Ecclesia, or do
his duty as a councillor. Partly owing to this, and partly to

ancient feuds whose origin we cannot trace, the Athenian people
was split up into three great factions known as the Plain (Pedieis)
led by Lycurgus and Miltiades, both of noble families; the Shore
(Parali) led by the Alcmaeonidae, represented at this time by
Megacles, who was strong in his wealth and by his recent marriage
with Agariste, daughter of Cleisthenes of Sicyon; the Hill or
Upland (Diacreis, Diacrii) led by Peisistratus, who no doubt
owed his influence among these hillmen partly to the possession
of large estates at Marathon. In the two former divisions
the influence of wealth and birth predominated; the hillmen
were poorly housed, poorly clad and unable to make use of the
privileges which Solon had given them. 1 Hence their attachment
to Peisistratus, the " man of the people," who called upon them
to sweep away the last barriers which separated rich and poor,
nobles and commoners, city and countryside. Lastly, there
was a class of men who were discontented with the Solonian
constitution: some had lost by his Seisachtheia, others had
vainly hoped for a general redistribution. These men saw their
only hope in a revolution. Such were the factors which enabled
him to found his tyranny.

To enter here into an exhaustive account of the various theories
which even before, though especially after, the appearance of
the Constitution of Athens have been propounded as to the
chronology of the Peisistratean tyranny, is impossible. For
a summary of these hypotheses see J. E. Sandys's edition of the
Constitution of Athens (p. 56, c. 14 note). The following is in
brief the sequence of events: In 560 B.C. Peisistratus drove
into the market-place, showed to an indignant assembly marks
of violence on himself and his mules, and claimed to be the
victim of assault at the hands of political enemies. The people
unhesitatingly awarded their " champion " a bodyguard of
fifty men (afterwards four hundred) armed with clubs. With
this force he proceeded to make himself master of the Acropolis
and tyrant of Athens. The Alcraaeonids fled and Peisistratus
remained in power for about five years, during which Solon's
death occurred. In 555 or 554 B.C. a coalition of the Plain
and the Coast succeeded in expelling him. His property was
confiscated and sold by auction, but in his absence the strife
between the Plain and the Coast was renewed, and Megacles,
unable to hold his own, invited him to return. The condition
was that their families should be allied by the marriage of
Peisistratus to Megacles' daughter Coesyra. A second coup d'ttat
was then effected. A beautiful wotaan, it is said, by name
Phya, was disguised as Athena and drove into the Agora with
Peisistratus at her side, while proclamations were made that
the goddess herself was restoring Peisistratus to Athens. The
ruse was successful, but Peisistratus soon quarrelled with
Megacles over Coesyra. By a former marriage he already had
two sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, now growing up, and in his
first tyranny or his first exile he married an Argive, Timonassa,
by whom he had two other sons Iophon and Hegesistratus, the
latter of whom is said to be identical with Thessalus (Atk. Pol.
c. 17), though from Thucydides and Herodotus we gather that
they were distinct — e.g. Herodotus describes Hegesistratus as
a bastard, and Thucydides says that Thessalus was legitimate.
Further it is suggested that Peisistratus was unwilling to have
children by one on whom lay the curse of the Cylonian outrage.
The result was that in the seventh year (or month, see Ath. Pol.
c. 15. 1, Sandys's note) Megacles accused him of neglecting his
daughter, combined once more with the third faction, and
drove the tyrant into an exile lasting apparently for ten or eleven
years. During this period he lived first at Rhaecelus and later
near Mt Pangaeus and on the StrymOn collecting resources of
men and money. He came finally to Eretria, and, with the help
of the Thebans and Lygdamis of Naxos, whom he afterwards
made ruler of that island, he passed over to Attica and defeated
the Athenian forces at the battle of Pallenis or Pellene. From
this time till his death he remained undisputed master of Athens.
The Alcmaeonids were compelled to leave Athens, and from

1 It is suggested with probability that the Diacrii were rather
the miners of the Laurium district (P. M. Ure, J own. Hell. Stud.,
1906, pp. 131-142).

6o

PEKIN

the other noble families which remained he exacted 400 hostages
whom he put in the care of hL= ally Lygdamis.

In the heyday of the Athenian democracy, citizens both
conservative and progressive, politicians, philosophers and
historians were unanimous in their denunciation of " tyranny."
Yet there is no doubt that the rule of Peisistratus was most
beneficial to Athens both in her foreign and in her internal
relations. (1) During his enforced absence from Athens he
had evidently acquired a far more extended idea of the future
of Athens than had hitherto dawned on the somewhat parochial
minds of her leaders. He was friendly with Thebes and Argos;
his son Hegesistratus he set in power at Sigeum (see E. Abbott,
Hist, of Gr. vol. i. xv. 9) and his friend Lygdamis at Naxos.
From the mines of Thrace, and perhaps from the harbour dues
and from the mines of Laurium, he derived a large revenue;
under his encouragement, Miltiades had planted an Athenian
colony on the shores of the Thracian Chersonese; he had even
made friends with Thessaly and Macedonia, as is evidenced by
the hospitality extended by them to Hippias on his final ex-
pulsion. Finally, he did not allow his friendliness with Argos
to involve him in war with Sparta, towards whom he pursued a
policy of moderation. (2) At home it is admitted by all authori-
ties that his rule was moderate and beneficent, and that he was
careful to preserve at least the form of the established constitu-
tion. It is even said that, being accused of murder, he was ready
to be tried by the Areopagus. Everything which he did during
his third period of rule was in the interests of discipline and order.
Thus he hired a mercenary bodyguard, and utilized for his own
purposes the public revenues; he kept the chief magistracies
(through which he ruled) in the hands of his family; he imposed
a general tax 1 of 10% (perhaps reduced by Hippias to 5%)
on the produce of the land, and thus obtained control over the
fleet and spread the burden of it over all the citizens (see the
spurious letter of Peisistratus to Solon, Diog. Laert. i. 53 ; Thuc.
vi. 54 and Arnold's note ad loc; Boeckh iii. 6; Thirlwall c. xi.,
pp. 72-74; and Grote). But the great wisdom of Peisistratus is
shown most clearly in the skill with which he blinded the people
to his absolutism. Pretending to maintain the Solonian con-
stitution (as he could well afford), he realized that people would
never recognize the deception if a sufficient degree of prosperity
were ensured. Secondly, he knew that the greater the propor-
tion of the Athenians who were prosperously at work in the
country and therefore did "not trouble to interfere in the work
of government the less would be the danger of sedition, whose seeds
are in a crowded city. Hence he appears to have encouraged
agriculture by abating the tax on small farms, and even by
assisting them with money and stock. Secondly, he established
deme law-courts to prevent people from having recourse to
the city tribunals; it is said that he himself occasionally " went
on circuit," and on one of these occasions was so struck by the
plaints of an old farmer on Hymettus, that he remitted all
taxation on his land. Thus Athens enjoyed immunity from
war and internecine struggle, and for the first time for years
was in enjoyment of settled financial prosperity (see Constitution
of Athens, c. 16. 7 6 iici Kpovov j3tos).

The money which he accumulated he put to good use in the
construction of roads and public buildings. Like Cleisthenes
of Sicyon and Periander of Corinth, he realized that one great
source of strength to the nobles had been their presidency over
the local cults. This he diminished by increasing the splendour
of the Panathenaic festival every fourth year and the Dionysiac 2
rites, and so created a national rather than a local religion.
With the same idea he built the temple of the Pythian Apollo and
began, though he did not finish, the temple of Zeus (the magni-
ficent columns now standing belong to the age of Hadrian).

1 It should be noted as against this, the general account, that
Thucydides, speaking apparently with accuracy, describes the tax
as ei«wri7 (5%); the Constitution of Athens speaks of (the familiar)

S«OT*(lO%).

2 Dionysus, as the god of the rustics, was especially worshipped
at Icaria, near Marathon, and so was the god of the Diacrii. It
seems likely that Peisistratus, to please his supporters, originated
the City-Dionysia.

To him are ascribed also the original Parthenon on the Acropolis,
afterwards burned by the Persians, and replaced by the Parthenon
of Pericles. It is said that he gave a great impetus to the
dramatic representations which belonged to the Dionysiac
cult, and that it was under his encouragement that Thespis
of Icaria, by impersonating character, laid the foundation of
the great Greek drama of the 5th and 4th centuries. Lastly,
Peisistratus carried out the , purification of Delos, the sacred
island of Apollo of the Ionians; all the tombs were removed
from the neighbourhood of the shrine, the abode of the god of
light and joy.

We have spoken of his services to- the state, to the poor, to
religion. It remains to mention his alleged services to literature.
All we can reasonably believe is that he gave encouragement
to poetry as he had done to architecture and the drama; Onoma-
critus, the chief of the Orphic succession, and collector of the
oracles of Musaeus, was a member of his household. Honestly,
or to impress the people, Peisistratus made considerable use of
oracles (e.g. at the battle of Pellene), and his descendants, by
the oracles of Onomacritus, persuaded Darius to undertake
their restoration. As to the library of Peisistratus, we have no
good evidence; it may perhaps be a fiction of an Alexandrian
writer. There is strong reason for believing the story that he
first collected the Homeric poems and that his was the text
which ultimately prevailed (see Homer).

It appears that Peisistratus was benevolent to the last, and,
like Julius Caesar, showed no resentment against enemies and
calumniators. What Solon said of him in his youth was true
throughout, " there is no better-disposed man in Athens, save
for his ambition." He was succeeded by his sons Hippias
and Hipparchus, by whom the tyranny was in various ways
brought into disrepute.

It should be observed that the tyranny of Peisistratus is one
of the many epochs of Greek history on which opinion has almost
entirely changed since the age of Grote. Shortly, his services
to Greece and to the world may be summed up under three heads:
In foreign policy, he sketched out the plan on which Athens
was to act in her external relations. He advocated (a) alliances
with Argos, Thessaly and Macedon, (b) ascendancy in the Aegean
(Naxos and Delos), (c) control of the Hellespontine route
(Sigeum and the Chersonese), (d) control of the Strymon valley
(Mt Pangaeus and the Strymon). Further, his rule exemplifies
what is characteristic of all the Greek tyrannies — the advantage
which the ancient monarchy had over the republican form
of government. By means of his sons and his deputies (or
viceroys) and by his system of matrimonial alliances he gave
Athens a widespread influence in the centres of commerce,
and brought her into connexion with the growing sources
of trade and production in the eastern parts of the Greek
world. (2) His importance in the sphere of domestic policy
has been frequently underrated. It may fairly be held that
the reforms of Solon would have been futile had they not been
fulfilled and amplified by the genius of Peisistratus. (3) It
was under his auspices that Athens began to take the lead in
literature. From this period we must date the beginning
of Athenian literary ascendancy. But see Athens.

Authorities.— Ancient: Herod, i. 59; Plut. Solon 30; Arist.
Politics, v. 12, 5-1315 b.; Constitution of Athens {Ath. Pol.) cc. 14-19.
On the chronological problems see also P. Meyer, Arist. Pol. and
the Ath. Pol. pp. 48-9; Gomperz, Die Schrift v. Staatswesen, &c.
(1891); Bauer, Lit. und hist. Forsch. z. Arist. Ath. Pol. (50 sqq.).
On the characteristics of the Peisistratid tyranny see Greenidge,
Handbook of Greek Constitutional History , pp. 26 sqq. ; and the histories
of Greece. On the question of the family of Peisistratus see Wilamo-
witz-Moellendorff, Aristoteles und Athen (Berlin, 1893) and a criticism
by E. M. Walker in the Classical Review, vol. viii. p. 206, col. 2.

(J. M. M.)
PEKIN, a city and the county-seat of Tazewell county,
Illinois, U.S.A., on the Illinois river, in the central part of the
state, about 11 m. S. of Peoria, and about 56 m. N. of Springfield.
Pop. (1910), 9897. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka
& Santa Fe, the Chicago & Alton, the Chicago, Peoria &
St Louis, the Illinois Central, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago
& St Louis, the Peoria Railway Terminal Company, the Peoria

PEKING

61

& Pekin Union and (for freight between Peoria and Pekin) the
Illinois Valley Belt railways. Situated in a rich agricultural
region and in the Illinois coalfields, Pekin is a shipping point
and grain market of considerable importance, and has various
manufactures. The value of the factory products in 1905 was
$1,121,130. Pekin was first settled about 1830, was incorpor-
ated in 1839, and re-incorporated in 1874.

PEKING, or Pekin, the capital of the Chinese Empire, situated
in 39° 57' N. and n6 c 29' E., on the northern extremity of the
great alluvial delta which extends southward from its walls for
700 m. For nine centuries Peking, under various names and
under the dominion of successive dynasties, has, with some
short intervals, remained an imperial city. Its situation near
the northern frontier recommended it to the Tatar invaders as
a convenient centre for their power, and its peculiarly fortunate
position as regards the supernatural terrestrial influences per-
taining to it has inclined succeeding Chinese monarchs to accept
it as the seat of their courts. In 986 it was taken by an invading
force of Khitan Tatars, who adopted it as their headquarters
and named it Nanking, or the " southern capital." During the
early part of the 12 th century the Chinese recaptured it and re-
duced it from the rank of a metropolis to that of a provincial
city of the first grade, and called it Yen-shan Fu. In 1151 it
fell into the hands of the Kin Tatars, who made it a royal
residence under the name of Chung-tu, or " central capital."
Less than a century later it became the prize of Jenghiz Khan,
who, having his main interests centred on the Mongolian steppes,
declined to move his court southwards. His great successor,
Kublai Khan (1280-1294), rebuilt the town, which he called
Ytnking, and which became known in Chinese as Ta-tu, or
" great court," and in Mongolian as Khanbalik (Cambaluc), or
" city of the khan." During the reign of the first emperor of
the dynasty (1368-1399) which, succeeded that founded by
Jenghiz Khan the court resided at the modern Nanking, but
the succeeding sovereign Yung-lo (1403-1425) transferred his
court to Pe-king (i.e. " north-court "), which has ever since been
the seat of government. For further history see Cambaluc.

During the periods above mentioned the extent and boundaries
of the city varied considerably. Under the Kin dynasty the
walls extended to the south-west of the Tatar portion of the
present city, and the foundations of the northern ramparts of
the Khan-balik of Kublai Khan are still to be traced at a distance
of about 2 m. north beyond the existing walls. The modern
city consists of the net cli hig,ox inner city, commonly known to
foreigners as the "Tatar city," and the wai ch'eng, or outer
city, known in the same way as the " Chinese city." These
names are somewhat misleading, as the inner city is not enclosed
within the outer city, but adjoins its northern wall, which, being
longer than the nei ch'eng is wide, outflanks it considerably at
both ends. The outer walls of the double city contain an area
of about 25 sq. m., and measure 30 m. in circumference. Unlike
the walls of most Chinese cities, those of Peking are kept in
perfect order. Those of the Tatar portion, which is the oldest
part of the city, are 50 ft. high, with a width of 60 ft. at the base
and 40 ft. at the top, while those of the Chinese city, which were
built by the emperor Kia-tsing in 154.3, measure 30 ft. in height,
and have a width of 25 ft. at the base and 15 ft. at the top. The
terre-plein is well and smoothly paved, and is defended by a
crenellated parapet. The outer faces of the walls are strength-
ened by square buttresses built out at intervals of 60 yds., and
on the summits of these stand the guard-houses for the troops
on duty. Each of the sixteen gates of the city is protected by
a semi-circular enceinte, and is surmounted by a high tower
built in galleries and provided with countless loopholes.

Peking suffered severely during the Boxer movement and the
siege of the legations in the summer of 1900. Not only were
most of the foreign buildings destroyed, but also a large number
of important Chinese buildings in the vicinity of the foreign
quarter, including the ancient Hanlin Yuen, the boards of war,
riles, &c. Almost the whole of the business quarter, the
wealthiest part of the Chinese city, was laid in ashes (see
China: History).

The population of Peking is reckoned to be about 1,000,000,
a number which is out of all proportion to the immense area
enclosed within its walls. This disparity is partly accounted
for by the facts that large spaces, notably in the Chinese city,
are not built over, and that the grounds surrounding the imperial
palace, private residences and temples are very extensive. One
of such enclosures constitutes the British legation, and most
of the other foreign legations are similarly, though not so
sumptuously, lodged. Viewed from the walls Peking looks like
a city of gardens. Few crowded neighbourhoods are visible,
and the characteristic features of the scene which meets the eye
are the upturned roofs of temples, palaces, and mansions, gay
with blue, green and yellow glazed tiles, glittering among the
groves of trees with which the city abounds. It is fortunate
that the city is not close-built or crowded, for since the first
advent of foreigners in Peking in i860 nothing whatever had been
done until 1900 to improve the streets or the drainage. The
streets as originally laid out were wide and spacious, but being
unpaved and undrained they were no better than mud tracks
diversified by piles of garbage and foul-smelling stagnant pools.
Such drainage as had at one time existed was allowed to get
choked up, giving rise to typhoid fever of a virulent type. Some
attempt has been made to improve matters by macadamizing
one of the principal thoroughfares, but it will be the labour of a
Hercules to cleanse this vast city from the accumulated filth of
ages of neglect.

Enclosed within the Tatar city is the Hwang ch'tng, or
" Imperial city," which in its turn encloses the Tsze-kin ch'tng,
or " Forbidden city," in which stands the emperor's palace.
On the north of the Tsze-kin ch'eng, and separated from it by
a moat, is an artificial mound known as the Kingshan, or " Pros-
pect Hill." This mound, which forms a prominent object in
the view over the city, is about 150 ft. high, and is topped with
five summits, on each of which stands a temple. It is encircled
by a wail measuring upwards of a mile in circumference, and is
prettily planted with trees, on one of which the last emperor
of the Ming dynasty (1644), finding escape from the Manchu
invaders impossible, hanged himself. On the west of Prospect
Hill is the Si yuan, or ' Western Park," which forms part of
the palace grounds. This park is tastefully laid out, and is
traversed by a lake, which is mainly noticeable from the remark-
ably handsome marble bridge which crosses it from east to west.
Directly northwards from Prospect Hill stands the residence of
the T'itu, or " governor of the city," and the Bell and the Drum
Towers, both of which have attained celebrity from the nature
of their contents — the first from the huge bell which hangs in it,
and the second from the appliances it contains for marking the
time. The bell is one of five which the emperor Yung-lo ordered
to be cast. In common with the others, it weighs 120,000 lb,
is 14 ft. high, 34 ft. in circumference at the rim, and 9 in. thick.
It is struck by a, wooden beam swung on the outside, and only
at the changes of the night-watches, when its deep tone may be
heard in all parts of the city. In the Drum Tower incense-sticks,
specially prepared by the astronomical board, are kept burning
to mark the passage of time, in which important duty their
accuracy is checked by a clepsydra. ' Another of Yung-lo's
bells is hung in a Buddhist temple outside the north-west angle
of the city wall, and is covered both on the inside and outside
with the Chinese texts of the Lankavatara Sutra, and the Sad-
dharma pundarika Sutra.

Turning southwards we come again to the Forbidden City, the
central portion of which forms the imperial palace, where, in halls
which for the magnificence of their proportions and barbaric
splendour are probably not to be surpassed anywhere, the Son
of Heaven holds his court. In the eastern and western portions
of this city are situated the residences of the highest dignitaries
of the empire; while beyond its confines on the south stanc? the
offices of the six official boards which direct the affairs of the
eighteen provinces. It was in the " yamen " of one of these
boards — the Li Pu or board of rites — that Lord Elgin signed
the treaty at the conclusion of the war in i860 — an event whicK
I derives especial interest from the fact of its having been the firsj

62

PELAGIA, ST— PELAGIUS (POPES)

occasion on which a European plenipotentiary ever entered
Peking accompanied by all the pomp and circumstance of his
rank.

Outside the Forbidden City the most noteworthy building is
the Temple of Heaven, which stands in the outer or Chinese
city. Here at early morning on the 21st of December the
emperor offers sacrifice on an open altar to Shang-ti, and at
periods of drought or famine presents prayers for relief to the
same supreme deity. The altar at which these solemn rites
are performed consists of a triple circular marble terrace, 210 ft.
wide at the base, 150 in the middle and 90 at the top. The
uppermost surface is paved with blocks of the same material
forming nine concentric circles, the innermost consisting of nine
blocks, and that on the outside of eighty-one blocks. On the
central stone, which is a perfect circle, the emperor kneels.
In the same temple stands the altar of prayer for good harvests,
which is surmounted by a triple-roofed circular structure 99 ft.
in height. The tiles of these roofs are glazed porcelain of the
most exquisite deep-blue colour, and add a conspicuous element
of splendour to the shrine.

The other powers of nature have shrines dedicated to them in
the altar: to the Earth on the north of the city, the altars to the
Sun and Moon outside the north-eastern and north-western
angles respectively of the Chinese city, and the altar of agricul-
ture inside the south gate of the Chinese city. Next to these
in religious importance comes the Confucian temple, known as
the Kwo-tsze-kien. Here there is no splendour; everything is
quite plain; and one hall contains all that is sacred in the
building. There the tablets of " the soul of the most holy
ancestral teacher, Confucius," and of his ten principal disciples
stand as objects of worship for their countless followers. In one
courtyard of this temple are deposited the celebrated ten stone
drums which bear poetical inscriptions commemorative of the
hunting expeditions of King Suan (827-781 B.C.), in whose reign
they are believed, though erroneously, to have been cut; and
in another stands a series of stone tablets on which are inscribed
the names of all those who have obtained the highest literary
degree of Tsin-shi for the last five centuries.

In the south-eastern portion of the Tatar city used to stand
the observatory, which was built by order of Kublai Khan in
1296. During the period of the Jesuit ascendancy in the reign
of K'ang-hi (1661-1721), the superintendence of this institution
was confided to Roman Catholic missionaries, under whose
guidance the bronze instruments formerly existing were con-
structed. The inhabitants of Peking being consumers only,
and in no way producers, the trade of the city is very small,
though the city is open to foreign commerce. In 1897 a railway
was opened between Tientsin and Peking. This was only
effected after great opposition from the ultra-Conservatives,
but once accomplished the facilities were gladly accepted by all
classes, and the traffic both in goods and passengers is already
enormous. Out of deference to the scruples of the ultra-Conser-
vatives, the terminus was fixed at a place called Lu-Kou-ch'iao,
some 4 m. outside the walls, but this distance has since been
covered by an electric tramway. The trunk line constructed
by the Franco-Belgian syndicate connects Lu-Kou-ch'iao, the
original terminus, with Hankow — hence the name Lu-Han by
which this trunk line is generally spoken of, Lu being short for
Lu-Kou-ch'iao and Han for Hankow.

Bibliography. — A Williamson, Journeys in North China, Man-
churia and Eastern Mongolia (2 vols., London, 1870) ; S. W. Williams,
The Middle Kingdom, revised ed. (New York, 1883); A Favier,
Peking, histoire el description (Peking, 1900 — contains over 800
illustrations, most of them reproductions of the work of Chinese
artists) ; N. Oliphant, A Diary of the Siege of the Legations in Peking
during the Summer of igoo (London, 1901); A. H. Smith, China in
Convulsion (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1902). (R. K. D.)

PELAGIA, ST. An Antiochene saint of this name, a virgin of
fifteen years, who chose death by a leap from the housetop
rather than dishonour, is mentioned by Ambrose (De virg. iii.
7, 33; Ep. xxxvii. ad Simplic.), and is the subject of two sermons
by Chrysostom. Her festival was celebrated on the 8th of
October (Wright's Syriac Martyrology). In the Greek synaxaria

the same day is assigned to two other saints of the name of
Pelagia — one, also of Antioch, and sometimes called Margarito
and also " the sinner "; the other, known as Pelagia of Tarsus,
in Cilicia. The legend of the former of these two is famous.
She was a celebrated dancer and courtesan, who, in the full
flower of her beauty and guilty sovereignty over the youth of
Antioch, was suddenly converted by the influence of the holy
bishop Nonnus, whom she had heard preaching in front of a
church which she was passing with her gay train of attendants
and admirers. Seeking out Nonnus, she overcame his canonical
scruples by her tears of genuine penitence, was baptized, and,
disguising herself in the garb of a male penitent, retired to a
grotto on the Mount of Olives, where she died after three years
of strict penance. This story seems to combine with the name
of the older Pelagia some traits from an actual history referred
to by Chrysostom (Horn, in Matth. lxvii. 3). In associating
St Pelagia with St Marina, St Margaret (q.v.), and others, of
whom either the name or the legend recalls Pelagia, Hermann
Usener has endeavoured to show by a series of subtle deductions
that this saint is only a Christian travesty of Aphrodite. But
there is no doubt of the existence of the first Pelagia of Antioch,
the Pelagia of Ambrose and Chrysostom. The legends which
have subsequently become connected with her name are the
result of a very common development in literary history.

See Acta sanctorum, October, iv. 248 seq.; H. Usener. Legenden
der heiligen Pelagia (Bonn, 1879); H. Delehaye, The Legends of the
Saints (London, 1907), pp. 197-205. (H. De.) ,

PELAGIUS, the name of two popes.

Pelagius I., pope from 555 to 561, was a Roman by birth,
and first appears in history at Constantinople in the rank *of
deacon, and as apocrisiarius of Pope Silverius, whose over-
throw in favour of Vigilius his intrigues promoted. Vigilius
continued him in his diplomatic appointment, and he was
sent by the emperor Justinian in 542 to Antioch on eccle-
siastical business; he afterwards took part in the synod at
Gaza which deposed Paul of Alexandria. He had amassed some
wealth, which on his return to Rome he so employed among the
poor as to secure for himself great popularity; and, when Vigilius
was summoned to Byzantium in 544, Pelagius, now archdeacon,
was left behind as his vicar, and by his tact in dealing with Totila,
the Gothic invader, saved the citizens from murder and outrage.
He appears to have followed his master to Constantinople, and
to have taken part, in the Three Chapters controversy; in 553,
at all events, he signed the " constitutum " of Vigilius in favour
of these, and for refusing, with him, to accept the decrees of the
fifth general council (the 2nd of Constantinople, 553) shared
his exile. Even after Vigilius had approved the comdemnation
of the Three Chapters, Pelagius defended them, and even pub-
lished a book on the subject. But when Vigilius died (June 7,
555), he accepted the council, and allowed himself to be desig-
nated by Justinian to succeed the late pope. It was in these
circumstances that he returned to Rome; but most of the clergy,
suspecting his orthodoxy, and believing him to have had some
share in the removal of his predecessor, shunned his fellowship.
He enjoyed, however, the support of Narses, and, after he had
publicly purged himself of complicity in Vigilius's death in the
church of St Peter, he met with toleration in his own immediate
diocese. The rest of the western bishops, however, still held
aloof, and the episcopate of Tuscany caused his name to be
removed from the diptychs. This elicited from him a circular,
in which he asserted his loyalty to the four general councils,
and declared that the hostile bishops had been guilty of schism.
The bishops of Liguria and Aemilia, headed by the archbishop
of Milan, and those of Istria and Venice, headed by Paulinus of
Aquileia, also withheld their fellowship; but Narses resisted
the appeals of Pelagius, who would have invoked the secular
arm. Childebert, king of the Franks, also refused to interfere.
Pelagius died on the 4th of March 561, and was succeeded by
John III.

Pelagius II., a native of Rome, but of Gothic descent, was
pope from 579 to 590, having been consecrated successor of
Benedict I., without the sanction of the emperor, on tie 26th oi

PELAGIUS

63

November. To make his apologies for this irregularity he sent
Deacon Gregory, who afterwards became Pope Gregory the Great,
as his apocrisiarius to Constantinople. In 585 he sought to
heal the schism which had subsisted since the time of Pelagius I.
in connexion with the Three Chapters, but his efforts were
without success. In 588 John, patriarch of Constantinople, by
reviving the old and disputed claim to the title of oecumenic
patriarch, elicited a vigorous protest from Pelagius; but the
decretal which professes to convey the exact words of the
document is now known to be false. He died in January 590,
and was succeeded by Gregory I.

PELAGIUS (c. 360- c. 420), early British theologian. Of the
origin of Pelagius almost nothing is known. The name is
supposed to be a graecized form of the Cymric Morgan (sea-
begotten). His contemporaries understood that he was of
British (probably of Irish) birth, and gave him the appellation
Brito. He was a large ponderous person, heavy both in body
and mind (Jerome, " stolidissimus et Scotorum pultibus prae-
gravatus "). He was influenced by the monastic enthusiasm
which had been kindled in Gaul by Athanasius (336), and which,
through the energy of Martin of Tours (361), rapidly communi-
cated itself to the Britons and Scots. For, though Pelagius
remained a layman throughout his life, and though he never
appears in any strict connexion with a coenobite fraternity,
he yet adhered to monastic discipline ("veluti monachus "),
and distinguished himself by his purity of life and exceptional
sanctity (" egregie Christianus ")• He seems to have been one
of the earliest, if not the very earliest, of that remarkable series
of men who issued from the monasteries of Scotland and Ireland,
and carried back to the Continent in a purified form the religion
they had received from it. Coming to Rome in the beginning of
the 5th century (his earliest known writing is of date 405), he
found a scandalously low tone of morality prevalent. But his
remonstrances were met by the plea of human weakness. To
remove this plea by exhibiting the actual powers of human
nature became his first object. It seemed to him that the
Augustinian doctrine of total depravity and of the consequent
bondage of the will both cut the sinew of all human effort and
threw upon God the blame which really belonged to man. His
favourite maxim was, " If I ought, I can."

The views of Pelagius did not originate in a conscious reaction
against the influence of the Augustinian theology, although each
of these systems was developed into its ultimate form by the
opposition of the other. Neither must too much weight be
allowed to the circumstance that Pelagius was a monk, for he was
unquestionably alive to the delusive character of much that
passed for monkish sanctity. Yet possibly his monastic training
may have led him to look more at conduct than at character,
and to believe that holiness could be arrived at by rigour
of discipline. This view of things suited his matter-of-fact
temperament. Judging from the general style of his writings,
his religious development had been equable and peaceful, not
marked by the prolonged mental conflict, or the abrupt transi-
tions, which characterized the experience of his great opponent.
With no great penetration he saw very clearly the thing before
him, and many of his practical counsels are marked by sagacity,
and are expressed with the succinctness of a proverb (" corpus
non frangendum, sed regendum est "). His interests were
primarily ethical; hence his insistence on the freedom of the will
and his limitation of the action of divine grace.

The peculiar tenets of Pelagius, though indicated in the
commentaries which he published at Rome previous to 409,
might not so speedily have attracted attention had they not
been adopted by Coelestius, a much younger and bolder man than
his teacher. Coelestius, probably an Italian, had been trained
as a lawyer, but abandoned his profession for an ascetic life.
When Rome was sacked by the Goths (410) the two friends
crossed to Africa. There Pelagius once or twice met with
Augustine, but very shortly sailed for Palestine, where he justly
expected that his opinions would be more cordially received.
Coelestius remained in Carthage with the view of receiving
ordination. But Aurelius, bishop of Carthage, being warned

against him, summoned a synod, at which Paulinus, a deacon
of Milan, charged Coelestius with holding the following six
errors: (1) that Adam would have died even if he had not sinned;
(2) that the sin of Adam injured himself alone, not the human
race; (3) that new-born children are in the same condition in
which Adam was before the fall; (4) that the whole human race
does not die because of Adam's death or sin, nor will the race
rise again because of the resurrection of Christ; (5) that the law
gives entrance to heaven as well as the gospel; (6) that even before
the coming of Christ there were men who were entirely without
sin. To these propositions a seventh is sometimes added, " that
infants, though unbaptized, have eternal life," a corollary from
the third. Coelestius did not deny that he held these opinions,
but he maintained that they were open questions, on which the
Church had never pronounced. The synod, notwithstanding,
condemned and excommunicated him. Coelestius, after a futile
appeal to Rome, went to Ephesus, and there received ordination.
In Palestine Pelagius lived unmolested and revered, until in
415 Orosius, a Spanish priest, came from Augustine, who in the
meantime had written his De peccatorum meritis, to warn Jerome
against him. The result was that in June of that year Pelagius
was cited by Jerome before John, bishop of Jerusalem, and
charged with holding that man may be without sin, if only he
desires it. This prosecution broke down, and in December of
the same year Pelagius was summoned before a synod of fourteen
bishops at Diospolis (Lydda). The prosecutors on this occasion
were two deposed Gallican bishops, Heros of Aries and Lazarus
of Aix, but on account of the illness of one of them neither could
appear. The proceedings, being conducted in various languages
and by means of interpreters, lacked certainty, and justified
Jerome's application to the synod of the epithet " miserable."
But there is no doubt that Pelagius repudiated the assertion of
Coelestius, that " the divine grace and help is not granted to
individual acts, but consists in free will, and in the giving of the
law and instruction." At the same time he affirmed that a
man is able, if he likes, to live without sin and keep the command-
ments of God, inasmuch as God gives him this ability. The
synod was satisfied with these statements, and pronounced
Pelagius to be in agreement with Catholic teaching. Pelagius
naturally plumed himself on his acquittal, and provoked Augus-
tine to give a detailed account of the synod, in which he shows
that the language used by Pelagius was ambiguous, but that,
being interpreted by his previous written statements, it involved
a denial of what the Church understood by grace and by man's
dependence on it. The North African Church as a whole
resented the decisions of Diospolis, and in 416 sent up from
their synods of Carthage and Mileve (in Numidia) an appeal to
Innocent, bishop of Rome, who, flattered by the tribute thus
paid to the see of Rome, decided the question in favour of the
African synods. And, though his successor Zosimus wavered
for some time, he at length fell in with what he saw to be the
general mind of both the ecclesiastical and the civil powers.
For, simultaneously with the largely attended African synod
which finally condemned Pelagianism in the West, an imperial
edict was issued at Ravenna by Honorius on the 30th of April
418, peremptorily determining the theological question and
enacting that not only Pelagius and Coelestius but all who
accepted their opinions should suffer confiscation of goods
and irrevocable banishment. Thus prompted, Zosimus drew
up a circular inviting all the bishops of Christendom to subscribe
a condemnation of Pelagian opinions. Nineteen Italian bishops
refused, among them Julian of Eclanum in Apulia, a man of good
birth, approved sanctity and great capacity, who now became
the recognized leader of the movement. But not even his
acuteness and zeal could redeem a cause which was rendered
hopeless when the Eastern Church (Ephesus, 431) confirmed the
decision of the West. Pelagius himself disappears after 420;
Coelestius was at Constantinople seeking the aid of Nestorius
in 428.

Pelagianism. — The system of Pelagius is a consistent whole,
each part involving the existence of every other. Starting from
the idea that " ability limits obligation," and resolved that men

6 4

PELAGIUS

should feel their responsibility, he insisted that man is able to do
all that God commands, and that there is, and can be, no sin where
the will is not absolutely free — able to choose good or evil. The
favourite Pelagian formula, " Si necessitatis est, peccatum non est;
si voluntatis, vitati potest," had an appearance of finality which
imposed on superficial minds. The theory of the will involved in
this fundamental axiom of Pelagianism is that which is commonly
known as the " liberty of indifference," or " power of contrary
choice " — a theory which affirms the freedom of the will, not in the
sense that the individual is self-determined, but in the sense that in
each volition and at each moment of life, no matter what the previous
career of the individual has been, the will is in equipoise, able to
choose good or evil. We are born characterless (non pleni), and with
no bias towards good or evil (ut sine virtute, ita et sine vitio). It
follows that we are uninjured by the sin of Adam, save in so far as
the evil example of our predecessors misleads and influences us (non
propagine sed exemplo). There is, in fact, no such thing as original
sin, sin being a thing of will and not of nature ; for if it could be of
nature our sin would be chargeable on God the creator. This will,
capable of good as of evil, being the natural endowment of man, is
found in the heathen as well as in the Christian, and the heathen may
therefore perfectly keep such law as they know. But, if all men have
this natural ability to do and to be all that is required for perfect
righteousness, what becomes of grace, of the aid of the Holy Spirit,
and, in a word, of Christianity ? Pelagius vacillates considerably
in his use of the word " grace." Sometimes he makes it equivalent
to natural endowment. Indeed one of his most careful statements
is to this effect: " We distinguish three things — the ability, the will,
the act (posse, velle, esse). The ability is in nature, and must be
referred to God, who has bestowed this on His creature; the other
two, the will and the act, must be referred to man, because they flow
from the fountain of free will " (Aug., De gr. Christi, ch. 4). But at
other times he admits a much wider range to grace, so as to make
Augustine doubt whether his meaning is not, after all, orthodox.
But, when he speaks of grace " sanctifying," " assisting," and so
forth, it is only that man may " more easily " accomplish what he
could with more difficulty accomplish without grace. A decisive
passage occurs in the letter he sent to the see of Rome along with his
Confessio fidei: " We maintain that free will exists generally in all
mankind, in Christians, Jews and Gentiles; they have all equally
received it by nature, but in Christians only is it assisted by grace.
In others this good of their original creation is naked and unarmed.
They shall be judged and condemned because, though possessed of
free will, by which they might come to the faith and merit the grace
of God, they make an ill use of their freedom; while Christians shall
be rewarded because, by using their free will aright, they merit the
grace of the Lord and keep His commandments " (ibid. chs. 33, 34).
Pelagius allowed to grace everything but the initial determining
movement towards salvation. He ascribed to the unassisted human
will power to accept and use the proffered salvation of Christ. It
was at this point his departure from the Catholic creed could be
made apparent: Pelagius maintains, expressly and by implication,
that it is the human will which takes the initiative, and is the
determining factor in the salvation of the individual; while the
Church maintains that it is the divine will that takes the initiative
by renewing and enabling the human will to accept and use the
aid or grace offered.

Semipelagianism. — It was easy for Augustine to show that this
was an " impia opinio " ; it was easy for him to expose the defective
character of a theory of the will which implied that God was not
holy because He is necessarily holy ; it was easy for him to show that
the positions of Pelagius were anti-Scriptural (see Augustine) ;
but, though his arguments prevailed, they did not wholly convince,
and the rise of Semipelagianism — an attempt to hold a middle course
between the harshness of Augustinianism and the obvious errors of
Pelagianism — is full of significance. This earnest and conciliatory
movement discovered itself simultaneously in North Africa and in
southern Gaul. In the former Church, which naturally desired to
adhere to the views of its own great theologian, the monks of Adrum-
etum found themselves either sunk to the verge of despair or pro-
voked to licentiousness by his predestinarian teaching. When this
was reported to Augustine he wrote two elaborate treatises to show
that when God ordains the end He also ordains the means, and if
any man is ordained to life eternal he is thereby ordained to holiness
and zealous effort. But meanwhile some of the monks themselves
had struck out a via media which ascribed to God sovereign grace
and yet left intact man's responsibility. A similar scheme was
adopted by Cassian of Marseilles (hence Semipelagians are often
spoken of as Massilians), and was afterwards ably advocated by
Vincent of Lerins and Faustus of Rhegium. These writers, in
opposition to Pelagius, maintained that man was damaged by
the fall, and seemed indeed disposed to purchase a certificate of
orthodoxy by the abusive epithets they heaped upon Pelagians
(ranae, muscae moriturae, &c). The differentia of Semipelagianism
is the tenet that in regeneration, and all that results from it, the divine
and the human will are co-operating (synergistic) coefficient factors.
After finding considerable acceptance, this theory was ultimately
condemned, because it retained the root-principle of Pelagianism —
that man has some ability to will good and that the beginning of
salvation may be with man. The Councils of Orange and Valence

(529), however, which condemned Semipelagianism, did so with
the significant restriction that predestination to evil was not to be
taught — a restriction so agreeable to the general feeling of the
Church that, three centuries after, Gottschalk was sentenced to be
degraded from the priesthood, scourged and imprisoned for teaching
reprobation. The questions raised by Pelagius continually recur,
but, without tracing the strife as sustained by Thomists and Jansen-
ists on the one side and the Jesuits and Arminians on the other, this
article can only indicate the general bearing of the controversy on
society and the Church.

The anthropology of Pelagius was essentially naturalistic. It
threatened to supersede grace by nature, to deny all immediate
divine influence, and so to make Christianity practically useless.
Pelagius himself did not carry his rationalism through to its issues;
but the logical consequence of his system was, as Augustine per-
ceived, the denial of the atonement and other central truths of
revealed religion. And, while the Pelagians never existed as a sect
separate from the Church Catholic, yet wherever rationalism has
infected any part of the Church there Pelagianism has sooner or
later appeared; and the term " Pelagian " has been continued to
denote views which minimize the effects of the fall and unduly
magnify man's natural ability. These views and tendencies have
appeared in theologies which are not in other respects rationalistic,
as, e.g. in Arminianism; and their presence in such theologies is
explained by the desire to remove everything which might seem to
discourage human effort.

It is not easy to determine how far the vices which ate so deeply
into the life of the Church of the middle ages were due to the sharp-
ness with which some of the severer features of the Augustinian
theology were defined during the Pelagian controversy. The
pernicious belief in the magical efficacy of the sacraments and the
consequent defective ethical power of religion, the superstitious
eagerness to accept the Church's creed without examining or really
believing it, the falsity and cruelty engendered and propagated
by the idea that in the Church's cause all weapons were justifiable,
these vices were undoubtedly due to the belief that the visible church
was the sole divinely-appointed repository of grace. And the
sharply accentuated tone in which Augustinianism affirmed man's
inability quickened the craving for that grace or direct agency of
God upon the soul which the Church declared to be needful and
administered through her divinely appointed persons and sacra-
ments, and thus brought a decided impulse to the development of
the sacerdotal system.

Again, although it may fairly be doubted whether, as Baur
supposes, Augustine was permanently tainted with the Manichaean
notion of the inherent evil of matter, it can scarcely be questioned
that his views on marriage as elicited by the Pelagian controversy
gave a considerable impulse to the already prevalent idea of the
superiority of virginity. When the Pelagians declared that Augus-
tine's theory of original sin discredited marriage by the implication
that even the children of the regenerate were born in sin, he could
only reply {De nuptiis et concupiscentia) that marriage now cannot
partake of the spotless purity of the marriage of unfallen man, and
that, though what is evil in concupiscence is made a good use of in
marriage, it is still a thing to be ashamed of — not only with the
shame of natural modesty (which he does not take into account)
but with the shame of guilt. So that, even although he is careful
to point out the advantages of marriage, an indelible stigma is still
left even on the lawful procreation of children.

" The Pelagians deserve respect," says Harnack, " for their
purity of motive, their horror of the Manichaean leaven and the
opus operatum, their insistence on clearness, and their intention
to defend the Deity. But we cannot but decide that their doctrine
fails to recognize the misery of sin and evil, that in its deepest roots
it is godless, that it knows, and seeks to know, nothing of redemption
and that it is dominated by an empty formalism (a notional mytho-
logy), which does justice at no single point to actual quantities,
and on a closer examination consists of sheer contradictions. In the
form in which this doctrine was expressed by Pelagius — and in fact
also by Julian — i.e. with all the accommodations to which he
condescended, it was not a novelty. But in its fundamental
thought it was; or rather, it was an innovation because it abandoned
in spite of all accommodations in expression, the pole of the
mystical doctrine of redemption, which the Church had steadfastly
maintained side by side with the doctrine of freedom."

In the Pelagian controversy some of the fundamental differences
between the Eastern and Western theologies appear. The former laid
stress on " the supernatural character of Christianity as a fact in
the objective world " and developed the doctrines of the Trinity and
the Incarnation; the Western emphasized " the supernatural charac-
ter of Christianity as an agency in the subjective world " and
developed the doctrines of sin and grace. All the Greek fathers
from Origen to Chrysostum had been jealous for human freedom and
loath to make sin a natural power, though of course admitting a
general state of sinfulness. The early British monasteries had been
connected with the Orient. Pelagius was familiar with the Greek
language and theology, and when he came to Rome he was much in
the company of Rufinus and his circle who were endeavouring to
propagate Greek theology in the Latin Church.

Literature. — Pelagius's Commentarii in epistolas Pauli, Libellus

PELASGIANS— PELEUS

65

fidei ad Innocentium and Epistola ad Demelriadem are preserved
in Jerome's works (vol. v. of Martiani's ed., vol. xi. of Vallarsi's).
The last-named was also published separately by Semler (Halle,
1775)- There are of course many citations in the Anti-Pelagian
Treatises of Augustine. On the Commentaries see Journal of Theol.
Studies, vii. 568, viii. 526; an edition is being prepared for the
Cambridge Texts and Studies by A. Souter.

See also F. Wiggers, Darstellung des Augustinismus und Pelagianis-
mus (2 vols., Berlin, 1831-1832 ; Eng. trans, of vol. i., by R. Emerson,
Andover, 1840); J. L. Jacobi, Die Lehre d. Pelagius (Leipzig, 1842);
F. Klasen, Die innere Entwickelung des Pelagianismus (Freiburg,
1882) ; B. B. Warfield, Two Studies in the History of Doctrine (New
York, 1893) ; A. Harnack, History of Dogma, Eng. trans., v. 168-202;
F. Loofs, Dogmengeschischte and art. in Hauck-Herzog's Real-
encyklo. fiir prot. Theologie u. Kirche (end of vol. xv.), where a full
bibliography is given. (M. D.)

PELASGIANS, a name applied by Greek writers to a pre-
historic people whose traces were believed to exist in Greek lands.
If the statements of ancient authorities are marshalled in order
of their date it will be seen that certain beliefs cannot be traced
back beyond the age of this or that author. Though this does
not prove that the beliefs themselves were not held earlier, it
suggests caution in assuming that they were. In the Homeric
poems there are Pelasgians among the allies of Troy: in the
catalogue, Iliad, ii. 840-843, which is otherwise in strict geogra-
phical order, they stand between the Hellespontine towns and
the Thracians of south-east Europe, i.e. on the Hellespontine
border of Thrace. Their town or district is called Larissa and
is fertile, and they are celebrated for their spearmanship. Their
chiefs are Hippothous and Pylaeus, sons of Lethus son of
Teutamus. Iliad, x. 428-429, describes their camping ground
between the town of Troy and the sea; but this obviously
proves nothing about their habitat in time of peace. Odyssey,
xvii. 175-177, notes Pelasgians in Crete, together with two appa-
rently indigenous and two immigrant peoples (Achaeans and
Dorians), but gives no indication to which class the Pelasgians
belong. In Lemnos (Iliad, vii. 467; xiv. 230) there are no
Pelasgians, but a Minyan dynasty. Two other passages (Iliad,
ii. 681-684; xvi. 233-235) apply the epithet " Pelasgic " to a
district called Argos about Alt Othrys in south Thessaly, and
to Zeus of Dodona. But in neither case are actual Pelasgians
mentioned; the Thessalian Argos is the specific home of Hellenes
and Achaeans, and Dodona is inhabited by Perrhaebians and
Aenianes (Iliad, ii. 750) who are nowhere described as Pelasgian.
It looks therefore as if " Pelasgian " were here used connota-
tively, to mean either " formerly occupied by Pelasgian " or
simply " of immemorial age."

Hesiod expands the Homeric phrase and calls Dodona " seat
of Pelasgians " (fr. 225); he speaks also of a personal Pelasgus
as father of Lycaon, the culture-hero of Arcadia; and a later
epic poet, Asius, describes Pelasgus as the first man, whom
the earth threw up that there might be a race of men. Hecataeus
makes Pelasgus king of Thessaly (expounding Iliad, ii. 681-684) ;
Acusilaus applies this Homeric passage to the Peloponnesian
Argos, and engrafts the Hesiodic Pelasgus, father of Lycaon,
into a Peloponnesian genealogy. Hellanicus a generation later
repeats this blunder, and identifies this Argive and Arcadian
Pelasgus with the Thessalian Pelasgus of Hecataeus. For
Aeschylus (Supplices 1, sqq.) Pelasgus is earthborn, as in Asius,
and rules a kingdom stretching from Argos to Dodona and the
Strymon; but in Prometheus 879, the " Pelasgian " land simply
means Argos. Sophocles takes the same view (Inachus, fr. 256)
and for the first time introduces the word " Tyrrhenian " into
the story, apparently as synonymous with Pelasgian.

Herodotus, like Homer, has a denotative as well as a conno-
tative use. He describes actual Pelasgians surviving and
mutually intelligible (a) at Placie and Scylace on the Asiatic
shore of the Hellespont, and (b) near Creston on the Strymon;
in the latter area they have " Tyrrhenian " neighbours. He
alludes to other districts where Pelasgian peoples lived on under
changed names; Samothrace and Antandrus in Troas are
probably instances of this. In Lemnos and Imbros he describes
a Pelasgian population who were only conquered by Athens
shortly before 500 B.C., and in this connexion he tells a story of
earlier raids of these Pelasgians on Attica, and of a temporary
XXI. i

settlement there of Hellespontine Pelasgians, all dating from a
time " when the Athenians were first beginning to count as
Greeks." Elsewhere " Pelasgian " in Herodotus connotes
anything typical of, or surviving from, the state of things in
Greece before the coming of the Hellenes. In this sense all
Greece was once " Pelasgic "; the clearest instances of Pelasgian
survival in ritual and customs and antiquities are in Arcadia,
the " Ionian " districts of north-west Peloponnese, and Attica,
which have suffered least from hellenization. In Athens itself
the prehistoric wall of the citadel and a plot of ground close
below it were venerated in the 5th century as " Pelasgian "; so
too Thucydides (ii. 17). We may note that all Herodotean
examples of actual Pelasgi he round, or near, the actual Pelasgi
of Homeric Thrace; that the most distant of these is confirmed
by the testimony of Thucydides (iv. 106) as to the Pelasgian
and Tyrrhenian population of the adjacent seaboard: also
that Thucydides adopts the same general Pelasgian theory of
early Greece, with the refinement that he regards the Pelasgian
name as originally specific, and as having come gradually into
this generic use.

Ephorus, relying on Hesiodic tradition of an aboriginal Pelas-
gian type in Arcadia, elaborated a theory of the Pelasgians as a
warrior- people spreading (like " Aryans ") from a " Pelasgian
home," and annexing and colonizing all the parts of Greece
where earlier writers had found allusions to them, from Dodona
to Crete and the Troad, and even as far as Italy, where again
their settlements had been recognized as early as the time of
Hellanicus, in close connexion once more with " Tyrrhenians."

The copious additional information given by later writers
is all by way either of interpretation of local legends in the light
of Ephorus's theory, or of explanation of the name" Pelasgoi ";
as when Philochorus expands a popular etymology " stork-folk "
(■n-tXao-yoL — TreKapyoL) into a theory of their seasonal migrations;
or Apollodorus says that Homer calls Zeus Pelasgian " because
he is not far from every one of us," 8ri -rijs yrjs xeXas horiv.
The connexion with Tyrrhenians which began with Hellanicus,
Herodotus and Sophocles becomes confusion with them in the
3rd century, when the Lemnian pirates and their Attic kinsmen
are plainly styled Tyrrhenians, and early fortress-walls in Italy
(like those on the Palatine in Rome) are quoted as " Arcadian "
colonies.

Modern writers have either been content to restate or amplify
the view, ascribed above to Ephorus, that " Pelasgian " simply
means " prehistoric Greek," or have used the name Pelasgian
at their pleasure to denote some one element in the mixed
population of the Aegean — Thracian, Illyrian (Albanian) or
Semitic. G. Sergi (Origine e dijfusione delta stirpe mcdiler-
ranea, Rome, 1895; Eng. trans. The Mediterranean Race,
London, 1901), followed by many anthropologists, describes
as " Pelasgian " one branch of the Mediterranean or Eur-African
race of mankind, and one group of types of skull within that race.
The character of the ancient citadel wall at Athens, already
mentioned, has given the name " Pelasgic masonry " to all
constructions of large unhewn blocks fitted roughly together
without mortar, from Asia Minor to Spain.

For another view than that here taken see Achaeans; also
Greece: Ancient History, § 3, " Homeric Age."

Bibliography. — Besides sections on the subject in all principal
histories of Greece and bibliographies in G. Busolt, Gr. Geschichte,
i 2 (Gotha, 1893, 164-182) ; and K. F. Hermann (Thumser), Gr. Staats-
alterthiimer, § 6, see S. Bruck, Quae veteres de Pelasgis tradiderint
(Breslau, 1884); B. Giseke, Thrakisch-pelasgische Stamme auf der
Balkanhalbinsel (Leipzig, 1858); F. G. Hahn, Albancsische Studien
(Jena, 1854); P. Volkmuth, Die Pelasger als Semiten (Schaffhausen,
i860); H. Kiepert, Monatsbericht d. berl. Akaderaie (1861), pp. 114
sqq. ; K. Pauli, Eine vorgriechische Inschrift auf Lemnos (Leipzig,
1886) ; E. Meyer, " Die Pelasger " in Forschungen z. alien Geschichte
(Halle, 1892), i. 124; W. Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece (Cambridge,
1901), vol. i. ; J. L. Myres, " A History of the Pelasgian Theory "
(in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxvii. 170); H. Marsh, Horae
pelasgicae (Cambridge, 1815); L. Benloew, La Grece avant les Grecs
(Paris, 1877). (J. L. M.)

PELEUS, in Greek legend, king of the Myrmidones of Phthia
in Thessaly, son of Aeacus, king of Aegina, and brother (or

66

PELEW ISLANDS— PELHAM (FAMILY)

intimate friend) of Telamon. The two brothers, jealous of the
athletic prowess of their step-brother Phocus, slew him; but the
crime was discovered, and Peleus and Telamon were banished.
Peleus took refuge in Phthia with his uncle Eurytion, who
purified him from the guilt of murder, and gave him his daughter
Antigone to wife, and a third of the kingdom as her dowry.
Having accidentally killed his father-in-law at the Calydonian
boar-hunt, Peleus was again obliged to flee, this time to Iolcus,
where he was purified by Acastus. The most famous event in
the life of Peleus was his marriage with the sea-goddess Thetis,
by whom he became the father of Achilles. The story ran that
both Zeus and Poseidon had sought her hand, but, Themis
(or Prometheus or Proteus) having warned the former that a
son of Thetis by Zeus would prove mightier than his father,
the gods decided to marry her to Peleus. Thetis, to escape a
distasteful union, changed herself into various forms, but at
last Peleus, by the instructions of Chiron, seized and held her
fast till she resumed her original shape, and was unable to
offer further resistance. The wedding (described in the fine
Epithalamium of Catullus) took place in Chiron's cave on Mt
Pelion. Peleus survived both his son Achilles and his grandson
Neoptolemus, and was carried away by Thetis to dwell for ever
among the Nereids.

See Apollodorus Hi. 12, 13; Ovid, Metam. xi; Pindar, 'Isthmia,
viii. 70, Nemea, iv. 101 ; Catullus, lxiv. ; schol. Apoll. Rhod. iv. 816;
Euripides, Andromache, 1242-1260.

PELEW ISLANDS (Ger. Palauinseln, also Palao), a group of
twenty-six islands in the western Pacific Ocean, between 2° 35'
and 9° N., and 130° 4' and 134 40' E., belonging to Germany.
They lie within a coral barrier reef, and in the south the islands
are of coral, but in the north of volcanic rocks. They are well
wooded, the climate is healthy, and the water-supply good.
A few rats and bats represent the indigenous mammals, but the
sea is rich in fish and molluscs; and Dr Otto Finsch (Journ. des
Museum Godeffroy, 1875) enumerated 56 species of birds, of
which 12 are peculiar to the group. The total area is 175 sq. m.,
the largest islands being Babeltop (Babelthuap, Baobeltaob and
other variants), Uruktapi (Urukthopel), Korror, Nyaur, Peleliu
and Eilmalk (Irakong). The population is about 3100. The
natives are Micronesians, and are darker and shorter than their
kinsmen, the Caroline Islanders. They usually have the frizzly
hair of the Melanesians, and paint their bodies in brilliant colours,
especially yellow. The men vary in height from 5 ft. to 5 ft. 5 in.,
the women from 4 ft. 9 to. 5 ft. 2 in. The skull shows a strong
tendency to brachycephalism. Two curious customs may be
noted — the institution of an honourable order bestowed by the
king, called klilt; and a species of mutual aid society, sometimes
confined to women, and possessing considerable political influ-
ence. There are five kinds of currency in the islands, consisting
of beads of glass and enamel, to which a supernatural origin is
ascribed.

The islands were sighted in 1343 by Ruy Lopez de Villalobos,
who named them the Arrecifos. The origin of the
name Islas Palaos is doubtful. The islands were bought by
Germany from Spain in 1899, and are administered together
with the western Carolines, Yap being the administrative
centre.

See K. Semper, Die Palau-Inseln (Leipzig, 1873); J- S. Kubary,
Die sozialen Einrichtungen der Palauer (Berlin, 1 885) ; A. A. Marche,
Lucon el Palouan (Paris, 1887).

PELF, a term now chiefly used of money and always in a
derogatory sense. The word originally meant plunder, pillage
(O. Fr. pelf re, probably from Lat. pilare, to deprive of hair, pilus),
and this significance is still kept in the related word " pilfer," to
make petty thefts.

PELHAM, the name of an English family, derived from Pelham
in Hertfordshire, which was owned by a certain Walter de
Pelham under Edward I., and is alleged to have been in the
possession of the same family before the Norman conquest.
The family dignities included the barony of Pelham of Laughton
(1706-1768), the earldom of Clare (1714-1768), the dukedom of
Newcastle (1715-1768), the barony of Pelham of Stanmer from

1762, the earldom of Chichester from 1801 and the earldom of
Yarborough from 1837.

John de Pelham, who was one of the captors of John II. of
France at Poitiers, acquired land at Winchelsea by his marriage
with Joan Herbert, or Finch. His son, John de Pelham (d.
1429), was attached to the party of John of Gaunt and his son
Henry IV. In 1393 he received a life appointment as constable
of Pevensey Castle, an honour subsequently extended to his
heirs male, and he joined Henry on his invasion in 1399, if he
did not actually land with him at Ravenspur. He was knighted
at Henry's coronation, and represented Sussex in parliament
repeatedly during the reign of Henry IV., and again in 1422 and
1427. As constable of Pevensey he had at different times the
charge of Edward, duke of York, in 1405; Edmund, earl of
March, with his brother Roger Mortimer in 1406; James I. of
Scotland in 1414; Sir John Mortimer in 1422, and the queen
dowager, Joan of Navarre, from 1418 to 1422. He was con-
stantly employed in the defence of the southern ports against
French invasion, and his powers were increased in 1407 by his
appointment as chief butler of Chichester and of the Sussex
ports, and in 141 2 by the grant of the rape of Hastings. He
was treasurer of England in 1412-1413, and although he was
superseded on the accession of Henry V. he was sent in the
next year to negotiate with the French court. He was included
among the executors of the wills of Henry IV., of Thomas, duke
of Clarence, and of Henry V. He died on the 12th of February
1429, and was succeeded by his son John, who took part in
Henry V.'s expedition to Normandy in 141 7.

In the reign of Queen Elizabeth Sir William Pelham (c. 1530-
1587), third son of Sir William Pelham (d. 1538) of Laughton,
Sussex, became lord justice of Ireland. He was captain of
pioneers at the siege of Leith in 1560, and served at the siege
of Havre in 1562, and with Coligny at Caen in 1563. He then
returned to Havre, at that time occupied by English troops,
and was one of the hostages for the fulfilment of its surrender
to Charles IX. in 1 564. After his return to England he fortified
Berwick among other places, and was appointed lieutenant-
general of ordnance. He was sent to Ireland in 1579, when he
was knighted by Sir William Drury, the lord justice. Drury
died in October, and Pelham was provisionally made his
successor, an appointment subsequently confirmed by Elizabeth.
Alarmed by the proceedings of Gerald Fitzgerald, 15th earl of
Desmond, and his brother John Desmond, he proclaimed the
earl a traitor. Elizabeth protested strongly against Pelham's
action, which was justified by the sack of Youghal by Desmond.
Thomas Butler, 10th earl of Ormonde, was entrusted with the
campaign in Munster, but Pelham joined him in February 1 580,
when it was believed that a Spanish descent was about to be
made in the south-west. The English generals laid waste
northern Kerry, and proceeded to besiege Carrigafoyle Castle,
which they stormed, giving no quarter to man, woman or child.
Other strongholds submitted on learning the fate of Carrigafoyle,
and were garrisoned by Pelham, who hoped with the concourse
of Admiral Winter's fleet to limit the struggle to Kerry. He
vainly sought help from the gentry of the county, who sym-
pathized with Desmond, and were only brought to submission by
a series of " drives." After the arrival of the new deputy, Lord
Grey of Wilton, Pelham returned to England on the ground of
health. He had retained his office as lieutenant-general of
ordnance, and was now made responsible for debts incurred
during his absence. Leicester desired his services in the Nether-
lands, but it was only after much persuasion that Elizabeth set
him free to join the army by accepting a mortgage on his estates
as security for his liabilities. The favour shown by Leicester
to Pelham caused serious jealousies among the English officers,
and occasioned a camp brawl in which Sir Edward Norris
was injured. Pelham was wounded at Doesburg in 1586, and
accompanied Leicester to England in 1587. Returning to the
Netherlands in the same year he died at Flushing on the 24th of
November 1587. His half-brother, Sir Edmund Pelham (d.
1606), chief baron of the exchequer in Ireland, was the first
English judge to go on circuit in Ulster.

PELHAM, H.— PELIAS

67

Sir William married Eleanor, daughter of Henry Neville,
earl of Westmorland, and was the ancestor of the Pelhams of
Brocklesby, Lincolnshire. In the fourth generation Charles
Pelham died in 1763 without heirs, leaving his estates to his
great-nephew Charles Anderson (1749-1823), who thereupon
assumed the additional name of Pelham, and was created Baron
Yarborough in 1794. His son Charles (1781-1846), who was
for many years commodore of the Royal Yacht Squadron, was
created earl of Yarborough and Baron Worsley in 1837. Charles
Alfred Worsley, the 4th earl (b. 1859), exchanged the name of
Anderson-Pelham for that of Pelham in 1905. He married in
1886 Marcia Lane-Fox, eldest daughter of the 12th Baron
Conyers, who became in 1892 Baroness Conyers in her own
right.

Sir Nicholas Pelham (1517-1560), an elder half-brother of
Sir William Pelham, defended Seaford against the French in
1545, and sat for Arundel and for Sussex in parliament. He
was the ancestor of the earls of Chichester. His second son,
Sir Thomas Pelham (d. 1624), was created a baronet in 1611. His
descendant, Sir Thomas Pelham, 4th baronet (c. 1650-1712),
represented successively East Grinstead, Lewes and Sussex in
parliament, and was raised to the House of Lords as Baron
Pelham of Laughton in 1706. By his second marriage with
Grace (d. 1700), daughter of Gilbert Holies, 3rd earl of Clare,
and sister of John Holies, duke of Newcastle, he had five daugh-
ters, and two sons — Thomas Pelham, earl of Clare, duke of
Newcastle-on-Tyne and 1st duke of Newcastle-under-Lyme (see
Newcastle, Dukes of), and Henry Pelham (g.v.). The duke
of Newcastle died without heirs, and the dukedom of Newcastle-
under-Lyme descended to his nephew, Henry Fiennes Clinton,
afterwards known as Pelham-Clinton, and his heirs, but the
barony of Pelham of Laughton became extinct. In 1762
Newcastle had been created Baron Pelham of Stanmer, with
reversion to his cousin and heir-male, Thomas Pelham (1728-
1805), who became commissioner of trade (1754), lord of the
admiralty (1761-1764), comptroller of the household (1765-
1774), privy councillor (1765), surveyor-general of the customs
of London (1773-1805), chief justice in eyre (1774-1775) and
keeper of the wardrobe (1775-1782), and was created earl of
Chichester in 1801. His third son, George (1766-1827), was
successively bishop of Bristol, Exeter and Lincoln. Thomas
Pelham, 2nd earl of Chichester (1756-1826), son of the 1st
earl, was surveyor-general of ordnance in Lord Rockingham's
ministry (1782), and chief secretary for Ireland in the coalition
ministry of 1783. In 1795 he became Irish chief secretary
under Pitt's government, retiring in 1798; he was home secre-
tary from July 1801 to August 1803 under Addington, who
made him chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in 1803.
Pelham went out of office in 1804, and in the next year
succeeded to the earldom. He was joint postmaster-general
from 1807 to 1823, and for the remaining three years of his
life postmaster-general. His son and heir, Henry Thomas
Pelham (1804-1886), 3rd earl, was an ecclesiastical commissioner
from 1850 until his death, and was greatly interested in various
religious, philanthropic and educational movements; and two
other sons were well-known men — Frederick Thomas Pelham
(1808-1861), who became a rear-admiral in 1858, and subse-
quently lord-commissioner of the admiralty, and John Thomas
Pelham (1811-1894), who was bishop of Norwich from 1857 to
1893. The third earl's son, Walter John Pelham (1838-1892),
succeeded his father in 1886, and his nephew Jocelyn Brudenell
Pelham (b. 1871) became 6th earl of Chichester in 1905.

PELHAM, HENRY (1696-1754), prime minister of England,
younger brother of Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle,
was born in 1696. He was a younger son of Thomas, 1st Baron
Pelham of Laughton (1650-17x2; cr. 1706) and of Lady Grace
Holies, daughter of the 3rd earl of Clare (see above). He was
educated by a private tutor and at Christ Church, Oxford,
which he entered in July 17 10. As a volunteer he served in
Dormer's regiment at the battle of Preston in 171 5, spent some
time on the Continent, and in 171 7 entered parliament for
Seaford, Sussex. Through strong family influence and the

recommendation of Walpole he was chosen in 1721 a lord of the
Treasury. The following year he was returned for Sussex county.
In 1724 he entered the ministry as secretary of war, but this
office he exchanged in 1730 for the more lucrative one of
paymaster of the forces. He made himself conspicuous by
his support of Walpole on the question of the excise, and in
1 743 a union of parties resulted in the formation of an adminis-
tration in which Pelham was prime minister, with the office of
chancellor of the exchequer; but rank and influence made his
brother, the duke of Newcastle, very powerful in the cabinet,
and, in spite of a genuine attachment, there were occasional
disputes between them, which led to difficulties. Being strongly
in favour of peace, Pelham carried on the war with languor and
indifferent success, but the country, wearied of the interminable
struggle, was disposed to acquiesce in his foreign policy almost
without a murmur. The king, thwarted in his favourite
schemes, made overtures in 1746 to Lord Bath, but his purpose
was upset by the resignation of the two Pelhams (Henry and
Newcastle), who, however, at the king's request, resumed office.
Pelham remained prime minister till his death on the 6th of
March 1754, when his brother succeeded him. His very defects
were among the chief elements of Pelham's success, for one with
a strong personality, moderate self-respect, or high conceptions
of statesmanship could not have restrained the discordant
elements of the cabinet for any length of time. Moreover, he
possessed tact and a thorough acquaintance with the forms of the
house. Whatever quarrels or insubordination might exist
within the cabinet, they never broke out into open revolt. Nor
can a high degree of praise be denied to his financial policy,
especially his plans for the reduction of the national debt and
the simplification and consolidation of its different branches.
He had married in 1726 Lady Catherine Manners, daughter of the
2nd duke of Rutland; and one of his daughters married Henry
Fiennes Clinton, 2nd duke of Newcastle.

See W. Coxe, Memoirs of the Pelham Administration. (2 vols.,
1829). For the family history see Lower, Pelham Family (1873);
also the Pelham and Newcastle MSS. in the British Museum.

PELHAM, HENRY FRANCIS (1846-1907), English scholar
and historian, was born at Berg Apton, Norfolk, on the 19th
of September 1846, son of the Hon. John Thomas Pelham
(1811-1894), bishop of Norwich, third son of the 2nd earl oi
Chichester. He was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College,
Oxford, where he took a first class in literae humaniores in
1869. He was a tutor of Exeter College from 1869 to 1890. In
1887 he became university reader in ancient history, and two
years later was elected to the Camden professorship. He
became curator of the Bodleian library in 1892, and in 1897
president of Trinity College. He was also a fellow of Brasenose
College, honorary fellow of Exeter, a fellow of the British
Academy and of other learned societies, and a governor of
Harrow School. His chief contribution to ancient history was
his article on Roman history in the 9th edition of the Encyclo-
paedia Britannica (1886), which was republished with additions
as the Outlines of Roman History (1890). His university lectures,
though perhaps lacking in inspiration, were full of original
research and learning. His death on the 13th of February 1907
not only prevented the publication in systematic form of his own
important researches, but also delayed the appearance of much
that had been left in MS. by H. Furneaux and A. H. J. Greenidge,
and was at the time under his charge. Apart from the Outlines
he published only The Imperial Domains and the Colonate (1890),
The Roman Frontier System (1895), and articles in periodicals
of which the most important was an article in the Quarterly
Review on the early Caesars (April, 1905). He did much for the
study of archaeology at Oxford, materially assisted the Hellenic
Society and the British School at Athens, and was one of the
founders of the British School at Rome. He married in 1873
Laura Priscilla, daughter of Sir Edward North Buxton.

PELIAS, in Greek legend, son of Poseidon and Tyro, daughter
of Salmoneus. Because Tyro afterwards married her father's
brother Cretheus, king of Iolcus in Thessaly, to whom she bore
Aeson, Pheres and Amythaon, Pelias was by some thought to be

68

PELICAN— PELISSIER

the son of Cretheus. He and his twin-brother Neleus were
exposed by their mother, but were nurtured by a herdsman.
When grown to manhood they were acknowledged by their
mother. After the death of Cretheus, Pelias made himself master
of the kingdom of Iolous, having previously quarrelled with
Neleus, who removed to Messenia, where he founded Pylos.
In order to rid himself of Jason, Pelias sent him to Colchis in
quest of the golden fleece, and took advantage of his absence
to put to death his father, Aeson, his mother and brother.
When Jason returned he sought to avenge the death of his
parents, and Medea persuaded the daughters of Pelias to cut in
pieces and boil their father, assuring them that he would thus
be restored to youth. Acastus, son of Pelias, drove out Jason
and Medea and celebrated funeral games in honour of his father,
which were celebrated by the poet Stesichorus and represented
on the chest of Cypselus. The death of Pelias was the subject
of Sophocles' Rhizotomoi (Root-cutters), and in the Tyro he
treated another portion of the legend. Peliades (the daughters
of Pelias) was the name of Euripides' first play.

PELICAN (Fr. Pelican; Lat. Pelecanus or Pelicanus), a large
fish-eating water-fowl, remarkable for the enormous pouch
formed by the extensible skin between the lower jaws of its long,
and apparently formidable but in reality very weak, bill. The
ordinary pelican, the Onocrolalus of the ancients, to whom it was
well known, and the Pelecanus onocrolalus of ornithologists,
is a very abundant bird in some districts of south-eastern
Europe, south-western Asia and north-eastern Africa, occasionally
straying, it is believed, into the northern parts of Germany and
France; but the possibility of such wanderers having escaped
from confinement is always to be regarded, 1 since few zoological
gardens are without examples. Its usual haunts are the shallow
margins of the larger lakes and rivers, where fishes are plentiful,
since it requires for its sustenance a vast supply of them. The
nest is formed among reeds, placed on the ground and lined with
grass. Therein two eggs, with white, chalky shells, are com-
monly laid. The young during the first twelvemonth are of a
greyish-brown, but when mature almost the whole plumage,
except the black primaries, is white, deeply suffused by a rich
blush of rose or salmon-colour, passing into yellow on the crest
and lower part of the neck in front. A second and somewhat
larger species, Pelecanus crispus, also inhabits Europe, but has
a more eastern distribution. This, when adult, is readily dis-
tinguishable from the ordinary bird by the absence of the blush
from its plumage, and by the curled feathers that project from
and overhang each side of the head, which with some difference
of coloration of the bill, pouch, bare skin round the eyes and
irides give it a wholly distinct expression. Two specimens of the
"kumerus have been found in the English fens (Ibis, 1868, p. 363;
Proc. Zool. Society, 1871, p. 702), thus proving the existence of
the bird in England at no very distant period, and one of th'em
being that of a young example points to its having been bred
in this country. It is possible from their large size that they
belonged to P. crispus. Ornithologists have been much divided
in opinion as to the number of living species of the genus Pele-
canus (cf. op. cit., 1868, p. 264; 1869, p. 571; 1871, p. 631) — the
estimate varying from six to ten or eleven; but the former is the
number recognized by M. Dubois {Bull. Mus. de Belgique, 1883).
North America has one, P. erythrorhynchus, very similar to
P. onocrolalus both in appearance and habits, but remarkable
for a triangular, horny excrescence developed on the ridge of the
male's bill in the breeding season, which falls off without leaving
trace of its existence when that is over. Australia has P.
conspicillatus, easily distinguished by its black tail and wing-
coverts. Of more marine habit are P. philippensis and P. fuscus,
the former having a wide range in Southern Asia, and, it is said,
reaching Madagascar, and the latter common on the coasts of
the warmer parts of both North and South America.

The genus Pelecanus as instituted by Linnaeus included the
1 This caution was not neglected by the prudent, even so long ago
as Sir Thomas Browne's days; for he, recording the occurrence of a
pelican in Norfolk, was careful to notice that about the same time one
of the pelicans kept by the king (Charles II.) in St James's Park,
had beep lost.

cormorant (q.v.) and gannet (q.v.)~a.s well as the true pelicans,
and for a long while these and some other distinct groups, as the
snake-birds (q.v.), frigate-birds (q.v.) and tropic-birds (q.v.),
which have all the four toes of the foot connected by a web, were
regarded as forming a single family, Pelecanidae; but this name
has now been restricted to the pelicans only, though all are
still usually associated in the suborder Steganopodes of Ciconii-
form birds. It may be necessary to state that there is no founda-
tion for the venerable legend of the pelican feeding her young
with blood from her own breast, which has given it an important
place in ecclesiastical heraldry, except that, as A. D. Bartlett
suggested (Proc. Zool. Society, 1869, p. 146), the curious bloody
secretion ejected from the mouth of the flamingo may have
given rise to the belief, through that bird having been mistaken
for the "Pelican of the wilderness." 2 (A. N.)

PELION, a wooded mountain in Thessaly in the district of
Magnesia, between Volo and the east coast. Its highest point
(mod. Plessidi) is 5340 ft. It is famous in Greek mythology;
the giants are said to have piled it on Ossa in order to scale
Olympus, the abode of the gods; it was the home of the centaurs,
especially of Chiron, who had a cave near its summit, and
educated many youthful heroes; the ship " Argo " was built
from its pine-woods. On its summit was an altar of Zeus
Actaeus, in whose honour an annual festival was held in the
dog-days, and worshippers clad themselves in skins.

PELISSE (through the Fr. from Lat. pellicia: sc. vestis, a
garment made of fur, pellis, skin), properly a name of a cloak
made of or lined with fur, hence particularly used of the fur-
trimmed " dolman " worn slung from the shoulders by hussar
regiments. The word is now chiefly employed as the name of a
long-sleeved cloak of anv material worn by women and children.
PEUSSIER, AIMABLE JEAN JACQUES (1794-1864), duke
of Malakoff, marshal of France, was born on the 6th of November
1794 at Maromme (Seine Inferieure), of a family of prosperous
artisans or yeoman, his father being employed in a powder-
magazine. After attending the military college of La Fleche
and the special school of St Cyr, he in 1815 entered the army as
sub-lieutenant in an artillery regiment. A brilliant examination
in 1 81 9 secured his appointment to the staff. He served as
aide-de-camp in the Spanish campaign of 1823, and in the
expedition to the Morea in 1828-29. In 1830 he took part in
the expedition to Algeria, and on his return was promoted to
the rank of chef d'escadron. After some years' staff service in
Paris he was again sent to Algeria as chief of staff of the province
of Oran with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and remained there
till the Crimean War, taking a prominent part in many important
operations. The severity of his conduct in suffocating a whole
Arab tribe in the Dahra or Dahna caves, near Mustaganem, where
they had taken refuge (June 18, 1845), awakened such indig-
nation in Europe that Marshal Soult, the minister of war, publicly
expressed his regret; but Marshal Bugeaud, the governor-general
of Algeria, not only gave it his approval, but secured
for Pelissier the rank of general of brigade, which he held till
1850, when he was promoted general of division. After the
battles of October and November 1854 before Sevastopol,
Pelissier was sent to the Crimea, where on the 16th of May 1855
he succeeded Marshal Canrobert as commander-in-chief of the
French forces before Sevastopol (see Crimean War). His
command was marked by relentless pressure of the enemy and
unalterable determination to conduct the campaign without
interference from Paris. His perseverance was crowned with

2 The legend was commonly believed in the middle ages.
Epiphanius, bishop of Constantia, in his Physiologus (1588), writes
that the female bird, in cherishing her young, wounds them with
loving, and pierces their sides, and they die. After three days the
male pelican comes and finds them dead, and his heart is pained.
He smites his own side, and as he stands over the wounds of the dead
young ones the blood trickles down, and thus are they made alive
again. The pelican " in his piety " — i.e. in this pious act of reviving
his offspring — was a common subject for 15th-century emblem
books; it became a symbol of self-sacrifice, a type of Christian
redemption and of the Eucharistic doctrine. The device was
adopted by Bishop Fox in 1516 for his new college of Corpus Christi,
Oxford.— [H. Ch.1

PELL— PELLETAN

success in the storming of the Malakoff on the 8th of September.
On the 1 2th he was promoted to be marshal. On his return to
Paris he was named senator, created duke of Malakoff (July 22,
1856), and rewarded with a grant of 100,000 francs per annum.
From March 1858 to May 1859 he was French ambassador in
London, whence, he was recalled to take command of the army
of observation on the Rhine. In the same year he became
grand chancellor of the Legion of Honour. In i860 he was
appointed governor-general of Algeria, and he died there on the
22 nd of May 1864.

See Marbaud, Le Marechal Pclissier (1863); Castille, Portraits
historiques, 2nd series (1859).

PELL, JOHN (1610-1685), English mathematician, was born
on the 1st of March 1610 at Southwick in Sussex, where his
father was minister. He was educated at Steyning, and entered
Trinity College, Cambridge, at the age of thirteen. During his
university career he became an accomplished linguist, and even
before he took his M.A. degree (in 1630) corresponded with
Henry Briggs and other mathematicians. His great reputation
and the influence of Sir William Boswell, the English resident,
with the states-general procured his election in 1643 to the chair
of mathematics in Amsterdam, whence he removed in 1646,
on the invitation of the prince of Orange, to Breda, where he
remained till 1652.

Fmm 16 $4 to 1658 Pell acted as Cromwell's political agent
to the Protestant cantons of Switzerland. On his return to
England he took orders and was appointed by Charles II. to
the rectory of Fobbing in Essex, and in 1673 he was presented
by Bishop Sheldon to the rectory of Laindon in the same county.
His devotion to mathematical science seems to baye interfered
alike with his advancement in the Church and with the proper
management of his private affairs. For a time he was confined
as a debtor in the king's bench prison. He lived, on the
invitation of Dr Whistler, for a short time in 1682 at the College
of Physicians, but died on the 12th of December 1685 at the
house of Mr Cothorne, reader of the church of St Giles-in-the
Fields. Many of Pell's manuscripts fell into the hands of Dr
Busby, master of Westminster School, and afterwards came into
the possession of the Royal Society; they are still preserved in
something like forty folio volumes, which contain, not only
Pell's own memoirs, but much of his correspondence with the
mathematicians of his time.

The Diophantine analysis was a favourite subject with Pell;
he lectured on it at Amsterdam; and he is now best remembered
for the indeterminate equation ax 2 + i =y 2 , which is known by his
name. This problem was proposed by Pierre de Fermat first to
Berahard Frenicle de Bessy, and in 1657 to all mathematicians.
Pell's connexion with the problem simply consists of the publication
of the solutions of John YVallis and Lord Brounker in his edition of
Branker's Translation of Rhonius's Algebra (1668). His chief works
are: Astronomical History of Observations of Heavenly Motions and
Appearances (1634); Ecliptica prognoslica (1634); Controversy with
Longomonianns concerning the Quadrature of the Circle (1646?) ;
An Idea of the Mathematics, i2mo (1650); A Table of Ten Thousand
Square Numbers (fob; 1672).

PELLA, the capital of ancient Macedonia under Philip II.
(who transferred the seat of government hither from Edessa)
and Alexander the Great, who was Lorn here. It seems to have
retained some importance up to the time of Hadrian. Scanty
remains exist and some springs in the neighbourhood are still
known as the baths of Pel. The site (identified by Leake) is
occupied by the village of Neochori (Turk. Yeni-Keui) about
32 m. north-west of Salonika.

PELLAGRA (Ital. pclle agra, smarting skin), the name given,
from one of its early symptoms, to a peculiar disease, of com-
paratively modern origin. For some time it was supposed to
be practically confined to the peasantry in parts of Italy (particu-
larly Lombardy) and France, and in the Asturias {mal de la
rosa), Rumania and Corfu. But it has recently been identified
in various outlying parts of the British Empire (Barbadoes,
India) and in both Lower and Upper Egypt; also among the
Zulus and Basutos. In the United States sporadic cases had
been observed up to 1906, but since then numerous cases have
been reported. It is in Italy, however, that it has been most

prevalent. The malady is essentially chronic in character.
The indications usually begin in the spring of the year, declining
towards autumn, and recurring with increasing intensity and
permanence in the spring seasons following. A peasant who
is acquiring the malady feels unfit for work, suffers from head-
aches, giddiness, singing in the ears, a burning of the skin,
especially in the hands and feet, and diarrhoea. At the same
time a red rash appears on the skin, of the nature of erysipelas,
the red or livid spots being tense and painful, especially where
they are directly exposed to the sun. About July or August
of the first season these symptoms disappear, the spots on the
skin remaining rough and dry. The spring attack of the year
following will probably be more severe and more likely to leave
traces behind it; with each successive year the patient becomes
more like a mummy, his skin shrivelled and sallow, or even
black at certain spots, as in Addison's disease, his angles pro-
truding, his muscles wasted, his movements slow and languid,
and his sensibility diminished. Meanwhile there are more special
symptoms relating to the nervous system, including drooping
of the eyelid, dilatation of the pupil, and other disorders of
vision, together with symptoms relating to the digestive system,
such as a red and dry tongue, a burning feeling in the mouth,
pain on swallowing, and diarrhoea. After a certain stage the
disease passes into a profound disorganization of the nervous
system; there is a tendency to melancholy, imbecility, and a
curious mummified condition of body. After death a general
tissue degeneration is observed.

The causation of this obscure disease has recently come up
for new investigation in connexion with the new work done in
relation to sleeping-sickness and other tropical diseases. So
long as it was supposed to be peculiar to the Italian peasantry,
it was associated simply with their staple diet, and was regarded
as due to the eating of mouldy maize. It was by his views in
this regard that Lombroso (q.v.) first made his scientific reputa-
tion. But the area of maize consumption is now known to be
wider than that of pellagra, and pellagra is found where maize
is at least not an ordinary diet. In 1905 Dr L. W. Sambon, -"■*.
the meeting of the British Medical Association, suggested that
pellagra was probably protozoal in origin, and subsequently
he announced his belief that the protozoon was communicated
by sand-flies, just as sleeping-sickness by the tsetse fly; and this
opinion was supported by the favourable action of arsenic in
the treatment of the disease. His hypothesis was endorsed
by Sir Patrick Manson, and in January 1910 an influential
committee was formed, to enable Dr Sambon to pursue his
investigations in a pellagrous area.

PELLETAN, CHARLES CAMILLE (1846- ), French
politician and journalist, was born in Paris on the 28th of June
1846, the son of Eugene Pelletan (1813-1884), a writer of Rome
distinction and a noted opponent of the Second Empire.
Camille Pelletan was educated in Paris, passed as licentiate
in laws, and was qualified as an " archiviste paleograpbe."
At the age of twenty he became an active contributor to
the press, and a bitter critic of the Imperial Government.
After the war of 1870-71 he took a leading place among
the most radical section of French politicians, as an opponent
of the " opportunists " who continued the policy of Gambetta.
In 1880 he became editor of Justice, and worked with success
to bring about a revision of the sentences passed on the
Communards. In 1881 he was chosen member for the tenth
arrondissement of Paris, and in 1885 for the Bouches du
Rhone, being re-elected in 1889, 1893 and 1898; and he was
repeatedly chosen as " reporter " to the various bureaus. Dur-
ing the Nationalist and Dreyfus agitations he fought vigorously
on behalf of the Republican government and when the coalition
known as the "Bloc" was formed he took his place as a Radical
leader. He was made minister of marine in the cabinet of
M. Combes, June 1902 to January 1905, but his administration
was severely criticized, notably by M. de Lanessan and other naval
experts. During the great sailors' strike at Marseilles in 1904
he showed pronounced sympathy with the socialistic aims and
methods of the strikers, and a strong feeling was aroused that

7°

PELLICANUS— PELLICO

his Radical sympathies tended to a serious weakening of the
navy and to destruction of discipline. A somewhat violent
controversy resulted, in the course of which M. Pelletan's
indiscreet speeches did him no good; and he became a common
subject for ill-natured caricatures. On the fall of the Combes
ministry he became less prominent in French politics.

PELLICANUS, CONRAD (1478-1556), German theologian,
was born at Ruffach in Alsace, on the 8th of January 1478.
His German name, Kiirsner, was changed to Pellicanus by his
mother's brother Jodocus Gallus, an ecclesiastic connected with
the university of Heidelberg, who supported his nephew for sixteen
months at the university in 1491-1492. On returning to Ruffach,
he taught gratis in the Minorite convent school that he might
borrow books from the library, and in his sixteenth year resolved
to become a friar. This step helped his studies, for he was sent
to Tubingen in 1496 and became a favourite pupil of the guardian
of the Minorite convent there, Paulus Scriptoris, a man of
considerable general learning. There seems to have been at
that time in south-west Germany a considerable amount of
sturdy independent thought among the Franciscans; Pellicanus
himself became a Protestant very gradually, and without any
such revulsion of feeling as marked Luther's conversion. At
Tubingen the future " apostate in three languages " was able
to begin the study of Hebrew. He had no teacher and no
grammar; but Paulus Scriptoris carried him a huge codex of
the prophets on his own shoulders all the way from Mainz. He
learned the letters from the transcription of a few verses in the
Star of the Messiah of Petrus Niger, and, with a subsequent hint
or two from Reuchlin, who also lent him the grammar of Moses
ICimhi, made his way through the Bible for himself with the help
of Jerome's Latin. He got on so well that he was not only
a useful helper to Reuchlin but anticipated the manuals of the
great Hebraist by composing in 1501 the first Hebrew grammar
in the European tongue. It was printed in 1503, and afterwards
included in Reysch's Margarita philosophica. Hebrew remained
a favourite study to the last. Pellican's autobiography de-
scribes the gradual multiplication of accessible books on the
subjects, and he not only studied but translated a vast mass of
rabbinical and Talmudic texts, his interest in Jewish literature
being mainly philological. The chief fruit of these studies is
the vast commentary on the Bible (Zurich, 7 vols., 1 532-1539),
which shows a remarkably sound judgment on questions of the
text, and a sense for historical as opposed to typological exegesis.
Pellicanus became priest in 1501 and continued to serve his
order at Ruffach, Pforzheim, and Basel till 1526. At Basel
he did much laborious work for Froben's editions, and came to
the conclusion that the Church taught many doctrines of which
the early doctors of Christendom knew nothing. He spoke his
views frankly, but he disliked polemic; he found also more
toleration than might have been expected, even after he became
active in circulating Luther's books. Thus, supported by the
civic authorities, he remained guardian of the convent of his
order at Basel from 1519 till 1524, and even when he had to
give up his post, remained in the monastery for two years,
professing theology in the university. At length, when the
position was becoming quite untenable, he received through
Zwingli a call to Zurich as professor of Greek and Hebrew, and
formally throwing off his monk's habit, entered on a new life.
Here he remained till his death on the 6th of April 1556.

Pellicanus's scholarship, though not brilliant, was really
extensive; his sound sense, and his singularly pure and devoted
character gave him a great influence. He was remarkably free
from the pedantry of the time, as is shown by his views about
the use of the German vernacular as a vehicle of culture (Chron.
T 3S) 36). As a theologian his natural affinities were with
Zwingli, with whom he shared the advantage of having grown
up to the views of the Reformation, by the natural progress
of his studies and religious life. Thus he never lost his sym-
pathy with humanism and with its great German representative,
Erasmus.

Pellicanus's Latin autobiography {Chronicon C.P.R.) is one of the
most interesting documents of the period. It was first published

by Riggenbach in 1877, and in this volume the other sources for his
life are registered. See also Emil Silberstein, Conrad Pellicanus;
ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Studiums der hebr. Sprache (Berlin,
1900).

PELLICIER, GUILLAUME (c. 1490-1568), French prelate
and diplomatist, was educated by his uncle, the bishop of
Maguelonne, whom he succeeded in 1529. In 1536 he had
the seat of his bishopric transferred to Montpellier. Appointed
ambassador at Venice in 1539, he fulfilled his mission to the
entire satisfaction of Francis I., but on the discovery of the
system of espionage he had employed the king had to recall him
in 1542. Returning to his diocese, he was imprisoned in the
chateau of Beaucaire for his tolerance of the Reformers, so he
replaced his former indulgence by severity, and the end of his
episcopate was disturbed by religious struggles. He was a
man of wide learning, a humanist and a friend of humanists,
and took a keen interest in the natural sciences.

See J. Zeller, La Diplomatie francaise . . . d' apres le correspondance
de G. Pellicier (Paris, 1881) ; and A. Tausserat-Radel, Correspondance
politique de Guillaume Pellicier (Paris, 1899).

PELLICO, SILVIO (1788-1854), Italian dramatist, was born
at Saluzzo in Piedmont on the 24th of June 1788, the earlier
portion of his life being passed at Pinerolo and Turin under
the tuition of a priest named Manavella. At the age of ten
he composed a tragedy under the inspiration of Caesarotti's
translation of the Ossianic poems. On the marriage of his twin
sister Rosina with a maternal cousin at Lyons he went to reside
in that city, devoting himself during four years to the study of
French literature. He returned in 1810 to Milan, where he
became professor of French in the Collegio degli Orfani Militari.
His tragedy Francesca da Rimini, was brought out with success
by Carlotta Marchionni at Milan in 1818. Its publication was
followed by that of the tradegy Eujemio da Messina, but the
representation of the latter was forbidden. Pellico had in the
meantime continued his work as tutor, first to the unfortunate
son of Count Briche, and then to the two sons of Count Porro
Lambertenghi. He threw himself heartily into an attempt to
weaken the hold of the Austrian despotism by indirect educa-
tional means. Of the powerful literary executive which gathered
about Counts Porro and Confalonieri, Pellico was the able
secretary — the management of the Conciliatore, which appeared
in 1818 as the organ of the association, resting largely upon him.
But the paper, under the censorship of the Austrian officials,
ran for a year only, and the society itself was broken up by the
government. In October 1820 Pellico was arrested on the
charge of carbonarism and conveyed to the Santa Margherita
prison. After his removal to the Piombi at Venice in February
1821, he composed several Cantiche and the tragedies Ester d'En-
gaddi and Iginia d'Asti. The sentence of death pronounced
on him in February 1822 was finally commuted to fifteen years
carcere duro, and in the following April he was placed in the
Spielberg at Briinn. His chief work during this part of his
imprisonment was the tragedy Leoniero da Dertona, for the
preservation of which he was compelled to rely on his memory.
After his release in 1830 he commenced the publication of his
prison compositions, of which the Ester was played at Turin
in 1 83 1, but immediately suppressed. In 1832 appeared his
Gismonda da Mendrizio, Erodiade and the Leoniero, under the
title of Tre nuovi tragedie, and in the same year the work which
gave him his European fame, Le Mie prigioni, an account of
his sufferings in prison. The last gained him the friendship
of the Marchesa di Barolo, the reformer of the Turin prisons,
and in 1834 he accepted from her a yearly pension of 1200 francs.
His tragedy Tommaso Moro had been published in 1833, his
most important subsequent publication being the Opere inedite
in 1837. On the decease of his parents in 1838 he was received
into the Casa Barolo, where he remained till his death, assisting
the marchesa in her charities, and writing chiefly upon religious
themes. Of these works the best known is the Dei Doveri degli
uomini, a series of trite maxims which do honour to his piety
rather than to his critical judgment. A fragmentary biography
of the marchesa by Pellico was published in Italian and English
after her death. He died on the 31st of January 1854, and was

PELLISSON— PELOPONNESIAN WAR

7i

buried in the Campo Santo at Turin. His writings are defective
in virility and breadth of thought, and his tragedies display
neither the insight into character nor the constructive power
oi a great dramatist. It is in the simple narrative and naive
egotism of Le Mie prigioni that he has established his strongest
claim to remembrance, winning fame by his misfortunes rather
than by his genius.

See Piero Maroncelli, Addizioni alle mie prigioni (Paris, 1834) ;
the biographies by Latour; Gabriele Rosselli; Didier, Revue des
deux mondes (September 1842) ; De Lomenie, Galerie des contemp.
illustr. iv. (1842); Chiala (Turin, 1852); Nollet-Fabert (1854);
Giorgio Briano (1854); Bourdon (1868); Rivieri (1899-1901).

PELLISSON, PAUL (1624-1693), French author, was born at
Beziers on the 30th of October 1624, of a distinguished Calvinist
family. He studied law at Toulouse, and practised at the bar
of Castres. Going to Paris with letters of introduction to
Valentin Conrart, who was a co-religionist, he became through
him acquainted with the members of the academy. Pellisson
undertook to be their historian, and in 1653 published a Relation
contenant I'histoire de I'academie francaise. This panegyric
was rewarded by a promise of the next vacant place and by
permission to be present at their meetings. In 1657 Pellisson
became secretary to the minister of finance, Nicolas Fouquet,
and when in 1661 the minister was arrested, his secretary was
imprisoned in the Bastille. Pellisson had the courage to stand
by his fallen patron, in whose defence he issued his celebrated
Memoire in 1661, with the title Discours au roi, par un de ses
fideles sujets sur le proces de M. de Fouquet, in which the facts
in favour of Fouquet are marshalled with great skill. Another
pamphlet, Seconde defense de M. Fouquet, followed. Pellisson
was released in 1666, and from this date sought the royal favour.
He became historiographer to the king, and in that capacity
wrote a fragmentary Histoire de Louis XIV., covering the years
1660 to 1670. In 1670 he was converted to Catholicism and
obtained rich ecclesiastical preferment. He died on the 7th
of February 1693. He was very intimate with Mile de
Scudery, in whose novels he figures as Herminius and Acante.
His sterling worth of character made him many friends and
justified Bussy-Rabutin's description of him as " encore plus
honnete homme que bel esprit."

See Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. xiv. ; and F. L. Marcon,
Etude sur la vie et les osuvres de Pellisson (1859).

PELLITORY, in botany, the common name for a small hairy
perennial herb which grows on old walls, hedgebanks and
similar localities, and is known botanically as Parietaria offici-
nalis (Lat. paries, a wall). It has a short woody rootstock from
which spring erect or spreading stems 1 to 2 ft. long, bearing
slender leafy branches, and axillary clusters of small green
flowers. It belongs to the nettle order (Urticaceae) , and is
nearly allied to the nettle, Urtica, but its hairs are not stinging.

PELLOUX, LUIGI (1839- ), Italian general and politician,
was born on the 1st of March 1839, at La Roche, in Savoy, of
parents who retained their Italian nationality when Savoy was
annexed to France. Entering the army as lieutenant of artillery
in 1857, he gained the medal for military valour at the battle
of Custozza in 1866, and in 1870 commanded the brigade of
artillery which battered the breach in the wall of Rome at Porta
Pia. He was elected to the Chamber in 1881 as deputy for
Leghorn, which he represented until 1895, and joined the party
of the Left. He had entered the war office in 1870, and in 1880
became general secretary, in which capacity he introduced many
useful reforms in the army. After a succession of high military
commands he received the appointment of chief of the general
staff in 1896. He was minister of war in the Rudini and Giolitti
cabinets of 1 891-1893. In July 1896 he resumed the portfolio
of war in the Rudini cabinet, and was appointed senator. In
May 1897 he secured the adoption of the Army Reform Bill,
fixing Italian military expenditure at a maximum of £9,560,000
a year, but in December of that year he was defeated in the
Chamber on the question of the promotion of officers. Resigning
office, he was in May 1898 sent as royal commissioner to Bari,
where, without recourse to martial law, he succeeded in restoring

public order. Upon the fall of Rudini' in June 1898, General
Pelloux was entrusted by King Humbert with the formation
of a cabinet, and took for himself the post of minister of the
interior. He resigned office in May 1899, but was again en-
trusted with the formation of the ministry. He took stern
measures against the revolutionary elements in southern Italy,
and his new cabinet, was essentially military and conservative.
The Public Safety Bill for the reform of the police laws, taken
over by him from the Rudini cabinet, and eventually promul-
gated by royal decree, was fiercely obstructed by the Socialist
party, which, with the Left and Extreme Left, succeeded in
forcing General Pelloux to dissolve the Chamber in May 1900,
and to resign office after the general election in June. In the
autumn of 1901 he was appointed to the command of the Turin
army corps.

PELOMYXA, so named by R. Greeff, a genus of Lobose
Rhizopoda (q.v.), naked, multinucleate, with very blunt rounded
pseudopodia, formed by eruption (see Amoeba), often containing
peculiar vesicles (glycogen?), and full of a symbiotic bacterium.
It inhabits the ooze of decomposing organic matter at the
bottom of ponds and lakes.

PELOPIDAS (d. 364 B.C.), Theban statesman and general.
He was a member of a distinguished family, and possessed
great wealth which he expended on his friends, while content
to lead the life of an athlete. In 385 B.C. he served in a Theban
contingent sent to the support of the Spartans at Mantineia,
where he was saved, when dangerously wounded, by Epami-
nondas (q.v.). Upon the seizure of the Theban citadel by the
Spartans (383 or 382) he fled to Athens, and took the lead in a
conspiracy to liberate Thebes. In 379 his party surprised and
killed their chief political opponents, and roused the people
against the Spartan garrison, which surrendered to an army
gathered by Pelopidas. In this and subsequent years he was
elected boeotarch, and about 375 he routed a much larger Spartan
force at Tegyra (near Orchomenus). This victory he owed
mainly to the valour of the Sacred Band, a picked body of 300
infantry. At the battle of Leuctra (371) he contributed greatly
to the success of Epaminondas's new tactics by the rapidity
with which he made the Sacred Band close with the Spartans.
In 370 he accompanied his friend Epaminondas as boeotarch
into Peloponnesus. On their return both generals were unsuc-
cessfully accused of having retained their command beyond
the legal term. In 369, in response to a petition of the Thessa-
lians, Pelopidas was sent with an army against Alexander,
tyrant of Pherae. After driving Alexander out, he passed into
Macedonia and arbitrated between two claimants to the throne.
In order to secure the influence of Thebes, he brought home
hostages, including the king's brother, afterwards Philip II.,
the conqueror of Greece. Next year Pelopidas was again
called upon to interfere in Macedonia, but, being deserted by
his mercenaries, was compelled to make an agreement with
Ptolemaeus of Alorus. On his return through Thessaly he was
seized by Alexander of Pherae, and two expeditions from
Thebes were needed to secure his release. In 367 Pelopidas
went on an embassy to the Persian king and induced him to
prescribe a settlement of Greece according to the wishes of the
Thebans. In 364 he received another appeal from the Thessalian
towns against Alexander of Pherae. Though an eclipse of the
sun prevented his bringing with him more than a handful of
troops, he overthrew the tyrant's far superior force on the ridge
of Cynoscephalae; but wishing to slay Alexander with his own
hand, he rushed forward too eagerly and was cut down by the
tyrant's guards.

Plutarch and Nepos, Pelopidas; Diodorus xv. 62-81; Xenophon,
Hellenica, vii. 1. See also Thebes. (M. O. B. C.)

PELOPONNESIAN WAR, in Greek history, the name given
specially to the struggle between Athens at the head of the
Delian League and the confederacy of which Sparta was the
leading power. 1 According to Thucydides the war, which was

1 Some historians prefer to call it the Second Peloponnesian War,
the first being that of 457, which ended with the Thirty Years'
Peace.

72

PELOPONNESIAN WAR

in his view the greatest that had ever occurred in Greece, lasted
from 431 to the downfall of Athens in 404. The genius of
Thucydides has given to the struggle the importance of an
epoch in world history, but his view is open to two main criti-
cisms — (1) that the war was in its ultimate bearings little
more than a local disturbance, viewed from the standpoint
of universal history; (2) that it cannot be called a war in the
strict sense. The former of these criticisms is justified in the
article on Greece: History (q.v.). Unless we are to believe
that the Macedonian supremacy is directly traceable to the
mutual weakening of the Greek cities in 431-403, it is difficult
to see what lasting importance attaches to the war. As regards
the second, a few chief difficulties may be indicated. The very
narrative even of Thucydides himself shows that the " war "
was not a connected whole. It may be divided into three main
periods — (1) from 431 to 421 (Lysias calls it the " Archidamian "
War) , when the Peace of Nicias, not merely formally, but actually
produced a cessation of hostilities; (2) from 421 till the inter-
vention of Sparta in the Sicilian War; during these years there
was no " Peloponnesian War," and there were several years in
which there was in reality no fighting at all: the Sicilian expedi-
tion was in fact a side issue; (3) from 413 to 404, when fighting
was carried on mainly in the Aegean Sea (Isocrates calls this
the " Decelean " War). The disjointed character of the struggle
is so obvious from Thucydides himself that historians have come
to the conclusion that the idea of treating the whole struggle as
a single unit was ex post facto (see Greece: History, § A,
" Ancient " ad fin.).

The book itself affords evidence which goes far to justify this
view. A very important problem is presented by bk. v., which is
obviously put in as a connecting link to prove a theory. Thucy-
dides expressly warns us not to regard the period of this book
as one of peace, and yet the very contents of the book refute
his argument. In 419 and 417 there is practically no fighting:
the Mantinean War of 418 is a disconnected episode which did
not lead to a resumption of hostilities: in 420 there are only
obscure battles in Thrace: in 416 there is only the expedition
to Melos; and finally from 421 to 413 there is official peace.
Other details may be cited in corroboration. Book v. (ch. 26)
contains a second introduction to the subject; 85e 6 iroXefios in
i. 23 and iv. 48 is the Archidamian or Ten Years' War; in v. 26
we read of a TpHros irokenos, a varepos iroKe/xos and an avaKwxV-
Some critics think on these and other grounds that Thucydides
wrote and published bks. i.-v. 25 by itself, then bks. vi. and
vii. (Sicilian expedition), and finally revising his view joined
them into one whole by the somewhat unsatisfactory bk. v. 26
and following chapters, and began to round off the story with
the incomplete bk. viii. (on this see Greece: History, as above).
It is perhaps most probable that he retained notes made con-
temporarily and worked them up some time after 404, in a few
passages failing to correct inconsistencies and dying before
bk. viii. was completed. The general introduction in bk. i.
was unquestionably written shortly after 404.

The causes of the war thus understood are complex. The
view taken by Thucydides that Sparta was the real foe of
Athens has been much modified by modern writers. The key
to the situation is in fact the commercial rivalry of the Corin-
thians, whose trade (mainly in the West) had been seriously
limited by the naval expansion of the Delian League. This
rivalry was roused to fever heat by the Athenian intervention
in 434-33 on behalf of Corcyra, Corinth's rebellious colony (see
Corfu) and from that time the Corinthians felt that the Thirty
Years' Truce was at an end. An opportunity soon offered for
making a counter attack. Potidaea, a Dorian town on the
western promontory of Chalcidice in Thrace, a tributary ally
of Athens — to which however Corinth as metropolis still sent
annual magistrates — was induced to revolt, 1 with the support
of the Macedonian king Perdiccas, formerly an Athenian ally.
The Athenian Phormio succeeded in blockading the city so that

1 The importance of this revolt lay in the fact that it immediately
involved danger to Athens throughout the Chalcidic promontories,
and her north-east possessions generally.

its capture was merely a question of time, and this provided the
Corinthians with an urgent reason for declaring war.

Prior to these episodes Athens had not been in hostile contact
with any of the Peloponnesian confederate states for more than
ten years, and Pericles had abandoned a great part of his imperial
policy. He now laid an embargo upon Megara by which the
Megarians were forbidden on pain of death to pursue trading
operations with any part of the Athenian Empire. The circum-
stances of this decree (or decrees) are not material to the present
argument (see Grote, History of Greece, ed. 1907, p. 370
note) except that it turned special attention to the commercial
supremacy which Athens claimed to enjoy. In 432 a conference
of Peloponnesian allies was summoned and the Corinthian envoys
urged the Spartans to declare war on the ground that the power
of Athens was becoming so great as to constitute a danger to the
other states. This might have been urged with justice before
the Thirty Years' Truce (447); but by that truce Athens gave
up all her conquests in Greece proper except Naupactus and
Plataea, while her solitary gains in Amphipolis and Thurii
were compensated by other losses. The fact that the Corinthian
argument failed to impress Sparta and many of the delegates
is shown by the course of the debate. What finally impelled
the Spartans to agree to the war was the veiled threat by the
Corinthians that they would be driven into another alliance
(i.e. Argos, i. 71). We can hardly regard Sparta as the deter-
mined enemy of Athens at this time. Only twice since 461 had
she been at war with Athens — in 457 (Tanagra) and 447, when she
deliberately abstained from pushing the advantage which the
revolt in Euboea provided; she had refused to help the oli-
garchs of Samos in 440. Corinth however had not only strong,
but also immediate and urgent reasons (Potidaea and Corcyra)
for desiring war. It has been argued that the war was ulti-
mately a struggle between the principles of oligarchy and
democracy. This view, however, cannot be taken of the early
stages of the war when there was democracy and oligarchy on
both sides (see ad fin.) ; it is only in the later stages that the
political difference is prominent.

The Opposing Forces. — The permanent strength of the
Peloponnesian confederacy lay in the Peloponnesian states, all
of which except Argos and Achaea were united under Sparta's
leadership. But it included also extra-Peloponnesian states —
viz. Megara, Phocis, Boeotia and Locris (which had formed
part of the Athenian land empire), and the maritime colonies
round the Ambracian Gulf. The organization was not elaborate.
The federal assembly with few exceptions met only in time of
war, and then only when Sparta agreed to summon it. It
met in Sparta and the delegates, having stated their views
before the Spartan Apella, withdrew till the Apella had come
to a decision. The delegates were then invited to return and
to confirm that decision. It is clear that the link was purely
one of common interest, and that Sparta had little or no control
over, e.g. so powerful a confederate as Corinth. Sparta was
the chief member of the confederacy (hegemon), but the states
were autonomous. In time of war each had to provide two-thirds
of its forces, and that state in whose territory the war was to take
place had to equip its whole force.

The Athenian Empire is described elsewhere (Delian League,
Athens). Here it must suffice to point out that there was
among the real and technical allies no true bond of interest, and
that many of the states were in fact bound by close ties to
members of the Peloponnesian confederacy (e.g. Potidaea to
Corinth) . Sparta could not only rely on voluntary co-operation
but could undermine Athenian influence by posing as the
champion of autonomy. Further, Thucydides is wrong on his
own showing in saying that Sparta refused to tolerate democratic
government in confederate cities: it was not till after 418 that
this policy was adopted. Athens, on the other hand, had un-
doubtedly interfered in the interest of democracy in various
allied states (see Delian League).

No detailed examination of the comparative military and
naval resources of the combatants can here be attempted. On
land the Peloponnesians were superior: they had at least 30,000

PELOPONNESIAN WAR

73

hoplites not including 10,000 from Central Greece and Boeotia:
these soldiers were highly trained. The Athenian army was
undoubtedly smaller. There has been considerable discussion
as to the exact figures, the evidence in Thucydides being highly
confusing, but it is most probable that the available fighting
force was not more than half that of the Peloponnesian confed-
eracy. Even of these we learn (Thuc. iii. 87) that 4400 died
in the great plague. The only light-armed force was that of
Boeotia at Delium (10,000 with 500 peltasts). Of cavalry Athens
had 1000, Boeotia a similar number. The only other cavalry
force was that of Thessaly, which, had it been loyal to Athens,
would have meant a distinct superiority. In naval power the
Athenians undoubtedly had an overwhelming advantage at the
beginning, both in numbers and in training.

Financially Athens had an enormous apparent advantage.
She began with a revenue of 1000 talents (including 600 from
obfifiaxoi.) , and had also, in spite of the heavy expense which
the building schemes of Pericles had involved, a reserve of 6000
talents. The Peloponnesians had no reserve and no fixed
revenue assessment. On the other hand the Peloponnesian
armies were unpaid, while Athens had to spend considerable
sums on the payment of crews and mercenaries. In the last
stages of the war the issue was determined by the poverty of
Athens and Persian gold.

The events of the struggle from 431 to 404 may be summarized
in the three periods distinguished above.

1. The Ten Years' or Archidamian War. — The Spartans sent
to Athens no formal declaration of war but rather sought first
to create some specious casus belli by sending requisitions to
Athens. The first, intended to inflame the existing hostilities
against Pericles (q.v.) in Athens, was that he should be expelled
the city as being an Alcmaeonid (grand-nephew of Cleisthenes)
and so implicated in the curse pronounced on the murderers
of Cylon nearly 200 years before. This outrageous demand
was followed by three others — that the Athenians should (1)
withdraw from Potidaea, (2) restore autonomy to Aegina, and
(3) withdraw the embargo on Megarian commerce. Upon the
refusal of all these demands Sparta finally made the maintenance
of peace contingent upon the restoration by Athens of autonomy
to all her allies. Under the guidance of Pericles Athens replied
that she would do nothing on compulsion, but was prepared
to submit difficulties to amicable arbitration on the basis of
mutual concessions. Before anything could come of this
proposal, matters were precipitated (end of March 431) by the
attack of Thebes upon Plataea (q.v.), which immediately sought
and obtained the aid of Athens. War was begun. The Spartan
king Archidamus assembled his army, sent a herald to announce
his approach, marched into Attica and besieged Oenoc.

Meanwhile Pericles had decided to act on the defensive, i.e.
to abandon Attica, collect all its residents in Athens and treat
Athens as an island, retaining meanwhile command of the sea
and making descents on Peloponnesian shores. , The policy,
which Thucydides and Grote commend, had grave defects —
though it is by no means easy to suggest a better; e.g. it meant
the ruin of the landed class, it tended to spoil the moral of those
who from the walls of Athens annually watched the wasting of
their homesteads, and it involved the many perils of an over-
crow led city — a peril increased by, if not also the cause of, the
plague. Moreover sea power was not everything, and delay
exhausted the financial reserves of the state, while financial
considerations, as we have seen, were comparatively unimportant
to the Peloponnesians. The descents on the Peloponnese were
futile in the extreme.

Archidamus, having wasted much territory, including Achar-
nae, retired at the end of July. The Athenians retaliated by
attacking Methone (which was secured by Brasidas),by successes
in the West, by expelling all Aeginetans from Aegina (which was
made a cleruchy), and by wasting the Megarid.

In 430 Archidamus again invaded Attica, systematically
wasting the country. Shortly after he entered Attica plague
broke out in Athens, borne thither by traders from Carthage
or Egypt (Holm, Greek History, ii. 346 note}. The effect upon

the overcrowded population of the city was terrible. Of the
1200 cavalry (including mounted archers) 300 died, together with
4400 hoplites: altogether the estimate of Diodorus (xii. 58) that
more than 10,000 citizens and slaves succumbed is by no means
excessive. None the less Pericles sailed with 100 triremes, and
ravaged the territory near Epidaurus. Subsequently he re-
turned and the expedition proceeded to Potidaea. But the plague
went with them and no results were achieved. The enemies of
Pericles, who even with the aid of Spartan intrigue had hitherto
failed to harm his prestige, now succeeded in inducing the
desperate citizens to fine him for alleged malversation. The
verdict, however, shocked public feeling and Pericles was
reinstated in popular favour as strategus (c. Aug. 430). About
a year later he died. In the autumn of 430 a Spartan attack
on Zacynthus failed and the Ambraciots were repulsed from
Amphilochian Argos. In reply Athens sent Phormio to Nau-
pactus to watch her interests in that quarter. In the winter
Potidaea capitulated, receiving extremely favourable terms.

In 429 the Peloponnesians were deterred by the plague from
invading Attica and laid siege to Plataea in the interests of
Thebes. The Athenians failed in an expedition to Chalcidice
under Xenophon, while the Spartan Cnemus with Chaonian
and Epirot allies was repulsed from Stratus, capital cf Acarnania,
and Phormio with only 20 ships defeated the Corinthian fleet
of 47 sail in the Gulf of Corinth. Orders were at once sent from
Sparta to repair this disaster and 77 ships were equipped. Help
sent from Athens was diverted to Crete, and after much
manoeuvring Phormio was compelled to fight off Naupactus.
Nine of his ships were drivon ashore, but with the other n he
subsequently defeated the enemy and recovered the lost nine.
With the reinforcement which arrived afterwards he established
complete control of the western seas. A scheme for operating
with Sitalces against the Chalcidians of Thrace fell through,
and Sitalces joined Perdiccas.

The year 428 was marked by a third invasion of Attica and
by the revolt of Lesbos from Athens. After delay in fruitless
negotiations the Athenian Cleippides, and afterwards Paches,
besieged Mytilene, which appealed to Sparta. The Pelopon-
nesian confederacy resolved to aid the rebels both directly and
by a counter demonstration against Athens. The Athenians,
though their reserve of 6000 talents was by now almost exhausted
(except for 1000 talents in a special reserve), made a tremendous
effort (raising 200 talents by a special property tax), and not
only prevented an invasion by a demonstration of 100 triremes
at the Isthmus, but sent Asopius, son of Phormio, to take his
place in the western seas. In spring 427 the Spartans again
invaded Attica without result. The winter of 428-427 was
marked by the daring escape of half the Plataean garrison under
cover of a stormy night, and by the capitulation of Mytilene, which
was forced upon the oligarchic rulers by the democracy. The
Spartan fleet arrived too late and departed without attempting
to recover the town. Paches cleared the Asiatic seas of the
enemy, reduced the other towns of Mytilene and returned to
Athens with upwards of 1000 prisoners. An assembly was
held and under the invective of Cleon (q.v.) it was decided to kill
all male Mytileneans of military age and to sell the women and
children as slaves. This decree, though in accordance with the
rigorous customs of ancient warfare as exemplified by the treat-
ment which Sparta shortly afterwards meted out to the Plataeans,
shocked the feelings of Athens, and on the next day it was
(illegally) rescinded just in time to prevent Paches carrying it
out. The thousand 1 oligarchic prisoners were however executed,
and Lesbos was made a cleruchy.

Meanwhile there occurred civil war in Corcyra, in which
ultimately, with the aid of the Athenian admiral Eurymedon,
the democracy triumphed amid scenes of the wildest savagery.
In the autumn of the year Nicias fortified Minoa at the mouth
of the harbour of Megara. Shortly afterwards the Spartans

1 So Thuc. iii. 50. It is suggested that this number is an error
for 30 or 50 (i.e., A or N for A). It seems incredible that 1000
could be described as " ringleaders " out of a population of perhaps
5000.

74

PELOPONNESIAN WAR

planted an unsuccessful colony at Heraclea in the Trachinian
territory north-west of Thermopylae.

In the summer of 426 Nicias led a predatory expedition along
the north-west coast without achieving any positive victory.
More important, though equally ineffective, was the scheme of
Demosthenes to march from Naupactus through Aetolia, sub-
duing the wild hill tribes, to Cytinium in Doris (in the upper
valleys of the Cephissus) and thence into Boeotia, which was
to be attacked simultaneously from Attica. The scheme was
crushed by the courage and skill of the Aetolians, who thereupon
summoned Spartan and Corinthian aid for a counter attack on
Naupactus. Demosthenes averted this, and immediately after-
wards by superior tactics inflicted a complete defeat at Olpae
in Acarnania on Eurylochus at the head of a Spartan and
Ambracian force. An Ambracian reinforcement was annihilated
at one of the peaks called Idornene, and a disgraceful truce was
accepted by the surviving Spartan leader Menedaeus. This
was not only the worst disaster which befell any powerful state
up to the peace of Nicias (as Thucydides says), but was a serious
blow to Corinth, whose trade on the West was, as we have seen,
one of the chief causes of the war.

The year 425 is remarkable for the Spartan disaster of Pylos
(q.v.). The Athenians had despatched 40 triremes under
Eurymedon and Procles to Sicily with orders to call first at
Corcyra to prevent an expected Spartan attack. Meantime
Demosthenes had formed the plan of planting the Messenians of
Naupactus in Messenia — now Spartan territory — and obtained
permission to accompany the expedition. The fleet was, as it
chanced, delayed by a storm in the Bay of Navarino, and rough
fortifications were put up by the sailors on the promontory of
Pylos. Demosthenes was left behind in this fort, and the
Spartans promptly withdrew from their annual raid upon
Attica and their projected attack on Corcyra to dislodge him.
After a naval engagement (see Pylos) a body of Spartan hoplites
were cut off on Sphacteria. So acutely did Sparta feel their
position that an offer of peace was made on condition that the
hoplites should go free. The eloquence of Cleon frustrated the
peace party's desire to accept these terms, and ultimately to the
astonishment of the Greek world the Spartan hoplites to the
number of 292 surrendered unconditionally (see Cleon).

Thus in 424 the Athenians had seriously damaged the prestige
of Sparta, and broken Corinthian supremacy in the north-west,
and the Peloponnesians had no fleet. This was the zenith of
their success, and it was unfortunate for them that they declined
the various offers of peace which Sparta made. The next
two years changed the whole position. The doubling of the
tribute in 425 pressed hardly on the allies (see Delian League):
Nicias failed in a plot with the democratic party in Megara to
seize that town; and the brilliant campaigns of Brasidas (q.v.)
in the north-east, culminating in the capture of Amphipolis (422),
finally destroyed the Athenian hopes of recovering their land
empire, and entirely restored the balance of success and Spartan
prestige. Moreover, the admirably conceived scheme for a
simultaneous triple attack upon Boeotia at Chaeronea in the
north, Delium in the south-east, and Siphae in the south-west
had fallen through owing to the inefficiency of the generals.
The scheme, which probably originated with the atticizing party
in Thebes, resulted in the severe defeat of Hippocrates at Delium
by the Boeotians under Pagondas, and was a final blow to the
policy of an Athenian land empire.

These disasters at Megara, Amphipolis and Delium left Athens
with only one trump card — the possession of the Spartan hoplites
captured in Sphacteria. This solitary success had already in
the spring of 423 induced Sparta jn spite of the successes which
Brasidas was achieving in Thrace to accept the " truce of
Laches " — which, however, was rendered abortive by the refusal
of Brasidas to surrender Scione. The final success of Brasidas
at Amphipolis, where both he and Cleon were killed, paved
the way for a more permanent agreement, the peace parties at
Athens and Sparta being in the ascendant.

2. From 421 to 413. — Peace was signed in March 421 on the
basis of each side's surrendering what had been acquired by

the war, not including those cities which had been acquired by
capitulation. It was to last for fifty yeais. Its weak points,
however, were numerous. Whereas Sparta had been least of
all the allies interested in the war, and apart from the campaigns
of Brasidas had on the whole taken little part in it, her allies
benefited least by the terms of the Peace. Corinth did not
regain Sollium and Anactorium, while Megara and Thebes
respectively were indignant that Athens should retain Nisaea
and receive Panactum. These and other reasons rapidly led
to the isolation of Sparta, and there was a general refusal to
carry out the terms of agreement. The history of the next
three years is therefore one of complex inter-state intrigues
combined with internal political convulsions. In 421 Sparta
and Athens concluded a defensive alliance; the Sphacterian
captives were released and Athens promised to abandon Pylos.
Such a peace, giving Sparta everything and Athens nothing
but Sparta's bare alliance, was due to the fact that Nicias and
Alcibiades were both seeking Sparta's friendship. At this
time the Fifty Years' Truce between Sparta and Argos was
expiring. The Peloponnesian malcontents turned to Argos
as a new leader, and an alliance was formed between Argos,
Corinth, Elis, Mantinea and the Thraceward towns (420).
This coalition between two different elements — an anti-oligarchic
party and a war party — had no chance of permanent existence.
The war party in Sparta regained its strength under new ephors
and negotiations began for an alliance between Sparta, Argos
and Boeotia. The details cannot here be discussed. The result
was a re-shuffling of the cards. The democratic states of the
Peloponnese were driven, partly by the intrigues of Alcibiades,
now anti-Laconian, into alliance with Athens, with the object of
establishing a democratic Peloponnese under the leadership of
Argos. These unstable combinations were soon after upset
by Alcibiades himself, who, having succeeded in displacing
Nicias as strategus in 419, allowed Athenian troops to help in
attacking Epidaurus. For a cause not easy to determine
Alcibiades was defeated by Nicias in the election to the post of
strategus in the next year, and the suspicions of the Pelopon-
nesian coalition were roused by the inadequate assistance sent
by Athens, which arrived too late to assist Argos when the
Spartan king Agis marched against it. Ultimately the Spartans
were successful over the coalition at Mantinea, and soon
afterwards an oligarchic revolution at Argos led to an alliance
between that city and Sparta (c. Feb. 417). This oligarchy
was overthrown again in June, and the new democracy having
vainly sought an agreement with Sparta rejoined Athens.
It was thus left to Athens to expend men and money on
protecting a democracy by the aid of which she had hoped
practically to control the Peloponnesus. All this time, however,
the alliance between her and Sparta was not officially broken.

The unsatisfactory character of the Athenian Peloponnesian
coalition was one of the negative causes which led up to the
Sicilian Expedition of 415. Another negative cause may be
found in the failure of an attempt or attempts to subdue the
Thraceward towns. By combining the evidence of Plutarch (in
his comparison of Nicias and Crassus), Thuc. v. 83, and the in-
scription which gives the treasury payments for 418-415 (Hicks
and Hill, Gr. Hist. Inscr. 70), we can scarcely doubt that there
were expeditions in 418 (Euthydemus) and the summer of 417
(Nicias), and that in the winter of 417 a blockading squadron
under Chaeremon was despatched. This policy — which was
presumably that of Nicias in opposition to Alcibiades — having
failed, the way was cleared for a reassertion of that policy of
western conquest which had always had advocates from
Themistocles onward in Athens, 1 and was part of the
democratic programme.

The tragic fiasco of the Sicilian expedition, involving the death

1 In 454 Athens made a treaty with Segesta (inscr. Hicks and
Hill, Greek Hist. Inscr. 34) : in 433 with Rhegium and Leontini
(Hicks and Hill, 51 and 52; cf. Thuc. iii. 86, iraXaid vv/iftaxla witb
Chalcidic towns in Sicily) : in 444 the colony of Thurii was founded:
in 427 (see above) 60 ships were sent to Sicily; and if we may
believe Aristophanes (Eq. 1302) Hyperbolus asked for 100 triremes
for Carthage.

PELOPONNESIAN WAR

75

of Nicias and the loss of thousands of men and hundreds of ships,
was a blow from which Athens never recovered (see under
Syracuse and Sicily). Even before the final catastrophe
the Spartans had reopened hostilities. On the advice of
Alcibiades (g.v.), exiled from Athens in 415, they had fortified
Decelea in Attica within fifteen miles of Athens. This place
not only served as a permanent headquarters for predatory
expeditions, but cut off the revenue from the Laurium mines,
furnished a ready asylum for runaway slaves, and rendered the
transference of supplies from Euboea considerably more difficult
(i.e. by the sea round Cape Sunium). Athens thus entered
upon the third stage of the conflict with exceedingly poor
prospects.

3. The Ionian or Decelean War. — From the Athenian stand-
point this war may be broken up into three periods: (1) period of
revolt of allies (413-41 1), (2) the rally (410-408), (3) the relapse
(407-404). As contrasted with the Archidamian War, this
war was fought almost exclusively in the Aegean Sea, the enemy
was primarily Sparta, and the deciding factor was Persian gold.
Furthermore, apart from the gradual disintegration of the
empire, Athens was disturbed by political strife.

In 412 many Ionian towns revolted, and appealed either to
Agis at Decelea or to Sparta direct. Euboea, Lesbos, Chios,
Erythrae led the way in negotiation and revolt, and simul-
taneously the court of Susa instructed the satraps Pharnabazus
and Tissaphernes to renew the collection of tribute from the
Greek cities of Asia Minor. The satraps likewise made over-
tures to Sparta. The revolt of the Ionian allies was due in part
to Alcibiades also, whose prompt action in co-operation with his
friend the ephor Endius finally confirmed the Chian oligarchs
in their purpose. In 411 a treaty was signed by Sparta and
Tissaphernes against Athens: the treaty formally surrendered
to the Fersian king all territory which he or his predecessors
had held. It was subsequently renewed in a form somewhat
less disgraceful to Greek patriotism by the Spartans Astyochus
and Theramenes. On the other hand, a democratic rising in
Samos prevented the rebellion of that island, which for the
remainder of the war was invaluable to Athens as a stronghold
lying between the two great centres of the struggle.

After the news of the Sicilian disaster Athens was compelled
at last to draw on the reserve of 1000 talents which had lain
untouched in the treasury. 1 The revolt of the Ionian allies,
and (in 411) the loss of the Hellespontine, Thracian and Island
tributes (see Delian League), very seriously crippled her
finances. On the other hand, Tissaphernes undertook to pay
the Peloponnesian sailors a daily wage of one Attic drachma
(afterwards reduced to § drachma). In Attica itself Athens
lost Oenoe and Oropus, and by the end of 411 only one quarter
of the empire remained. In the meanwhile Tissaphernes began
to play a double game with the object of wasting the strength
of the combatants. Moreover Alcibiades lost the confidence
of the Spartans and passed over to Tissaphernes, at whose
disposal he placed his great powers of diplomacy, at the same
time scheming for his restoration to Athens. He opened
negotiations with the Athenian leaders in Samos and urged
them to upset the democracy and establish a philo-Persian
oligarchy. After elaborate intrigues, in the course of which
Alcibiades played false to the conspirators by forcing them to
abandon the idea of friendship with Tissaphernes owing to the
exorbitant terms proposed, the new government by the Four
Hundred was set up in Athens (see Theramenes). This
government (which received no support from the armament in
Samos) had a brief life, and on the final revolt of Euboea was
replaced by the old democratic system. Alcibiades (q.v.) was
soon afterwards invited to return to Athens.

The war, which, probably because of financial trouble, the
Spartans had neglected to pursue when Athens was thus in the
throes of political convulsion, was now resumed. After much
manoeuvring and intrigues a naval battle was fought at Cynos-

1 She had already abolished the system of tribute in favour of
a 5 % ad valorem tax on all imports and exports carried by sea
between her ports and those of the allies.

sema in the Hellespont in which victory on the whole rested
with the Athenians (Aug. 411), though the net result was
inconsiderable. About this time the duplicity of Tissaphernes —
who having again and again promised a Phoenician fleet and
having actually brought it to the Aegean finally dismissed it
on the excuse of trouble in the Levant — and the vigorous honesty
of Pharnabazus definitely transferred the Peloponnesian forces
to the north-west coast of Asia Minor and the Hellespont.
There they were regularly financed by Pharnabazus, while the
Athenians were compelled to rely on forced levies. In spite of this
handicap Alcibiades, who had been seized and imprisoned by
Tissaphernes at Sardis but effected his escape, achieved a remark-
able victory over the Spartan Mindarus at Cyzicus (about April
410). So complete was the destruction of the Peloponnesian
fleet that, according to Diodorus, peace was offered by Sparta
(see ad fin.)&nd would have been accepted but for the warlike
speeches of the " demagogue " Cleophon representing the
extreme democrats. 2 Another result was the return to allegiance
(409) of a number of the north-east cities of the empire. Great
attempts were made by the Athenians to hold the Hellespont
and then to protect the corn-supply from the Black Sea. In
Greece these gains were compensated by the loss of Pylos and
Nisaea. -

In 408 Alcibiades effectively invested Chalcedon, which
surrendered by agreement with Pharnabazus, and subsequently
Byzantium also fell into his hands with the aid of some of its
inhabitants.

Pharnabazus, weary of bearing the whole cost of the war for
the Peloponnesians, agreed to a period of truce so that envoys
might visit Susa, but at this stage the whole position was changed
by the appointment of Cyrus the Younger as satrap of Lydia,
Greater Phrygia and Cappadocia. His arrival coincided with
the appointment of Lysander (c. Dec. 408) as Spartan admiral —
the third of the three great commanders (Brasidas and Gylippus
being the others) whom Sparta produced during the war. Cyrus
promptly agreed on the special request of Lysander (q.v.) to pay
slightly increased wages to the sailors, while Lysander established
a system of anti-Athenian clubs and oligarchic governments
in various cities. Meanwhile Alcibiades (May 407), having
exacted levies in Caria, returned at length to Athens and was
elected strategus with full powers (see Strategus). He raised
a large force of men and ships and endeavoured to draw Lysander
(then at Ephesus) into an engagement. But Cyrus and Lysander
were resolved not to fight till they had a clear advantage, and
Alcibiades took a small squadron to Phocaea. In spite of his
express orders his captain Antiochus in his absence provoked a
battle and was defeated and killed at Notium. This failure and
the refusal of Lysander to fight again destroyed the confidence
which Alcibiades had so recently regained. Ten strategi were
appointed to supersede him and he retired to fortified ports in
the Chersonese which he had prepared for such an emergency
(c. Jan. 406). At the same time Lysander's year of office expired
and he was superseded by Callicratidas, to the disgust of all those
whom he had so carefully organized in his service. Callicratidas,
an honourable man of pan-Hellenic patriotism, was heavily
handicapped in the fact that Cyrus declined to afford him the
help which had made Lysander powerful, and had recourse to
the Milesians and Chians, with whose aid he fitted out a fleet of
140 triremes (only 10 Spartan). With these he pursued Conon
(chief of the ten new Athenian strategi), captured 30 of his 70
ships and besieged him in Mytilene. Faced with inevitable
destruction, Conon succeeded in sending the news to Athens,
where by extraordinary efforts a fleet of no ships was at once
equipped. Callicratidas, hearing of this fleet's approach, with-
drew from Mytilene, leaving Eteonicus in charge of the blockade.
Forty more ships were collected by the Athenians, who met
and defeated Callicratidas at Arginusae with a loss of more than
half his fleet. The immediate result was that Eteonicus left
Mytilene and Conon found himself free. Unfortunately the
victorious generals at Arginusae, through negligence or owing

2 Xenophon, Hell, does not mention it : Thucydides's history
had by this time come to an end.

7 6

PELOPONNESUS— PELOTA

to a storm, failed to recover the bodies of those of their crews
who were drowned or killed in the action. They were therefore
recalled, tried and condemned to death, except two who had
disobeyed the order to return to Athens.

At this point Lysander was again sent out, nominally as
secretary to the official admiral Aracus. Cyrus, recalled to
Susa by the illness of Darius, left him in entire control of his
satrapy. Thus strengthened he sailed to Lampsacus on the
Hellespont and laid siege to it. Conon, now in charge of the
Athenian fleet, sailed against him, but the fleet was entirely
destroyed while at anchor at Aegospotami (Sept. 405), Conon
escaping with only 12 out of 180 sail to Cyprus. In April 404
Lysander sailed into the Peiraeus, took possession of Athens,
and destroyed the Long Walls and the fortifications of Peiraeus.
An oligarchical government was set up (see Critias), and
Lysander having compelled the capitulation of Samos, the last
Athenian stronghold, sailed in triumph to Sparta.

Two questions of considerable importance for the full understand-
ing of the Peloponnesian War may be selected for special notice :
(1) how far was it a war between two antagonistic theories of govern-
ment, oligarchic and democratic ? and (2) how far was Athenian
statesmanship at fault in declining the offers of peace which Sparta
made?

1. A common theory is that Sparta fought throughout the war
as an advocate of oligarchy, while Athens did not seek to interfere
with the constitutional preferences of her allies. The view is based
partly on Thuc. i. 19, according to which the Spartans took care that
their allies should adhere to a policy convenient to themselves. This
idea is disproved by Thucydides' own narrative, which shows that
down to 418 (the battle of Mantinea) Sparta tolerated democratic
governments in Peloponnesus itself — e.g. Elis, Mantinea, Sicyon,
Achaea. It was only after that date that democracy was suppressed
in the Peloponnesian League, and even then Mantinea remained
democratic. In point of fact, it was only when Lysander became
the representative of Spartan foreign policy — i.e. in the last years
of the war — that Sparta was identified with the oligarchic policy.

On the other hand, there is strong evidence that the Athenian
Empire at a much earlier date was based upon a uniform democratic
type of government (cf. Thuc. i. 19, viii. 64; Xen. Pol. i. 14, Hell.
iii. 47; Arist. Pol. viii. 69). It is true that we find oligarchic govern-
ment in Chios and Lesbos (up to 428) and in Samos (up to 440),
but this is discounted by the fact that all three were " autonomous "
allies. Moreover, in the case of Samos there was a democracy in
439, though in 412 the government was again oligarchic. The
case of Selymbria (see Hicks and Hill, op. oil. 77) is of little account,
because at that time (409) the Empire was in extremis. In general
we find that Athenian orators take special credit on the ground that
the Athenian had given to her allies the constitutional advantages
which they themselves enjoyed.

2. In view of the disastrous issue of the war, it is important to
notice that on three occasions — (a) after Pylos, (b) after Cyzicus,
(c) after Arginusae — Athens refused formal peace proposals from
Sparta, (a) Though Cleon was probably wise in opposing peace
negotiations before the capture of the Spartans in Sphacteria, it
seems in the light of subsequent events that he was wrong to refuse
the terms which were offered after the hoplites had been captured.
No doubt, however, the temper in Athens was at that time pre-
dominantly warlike, and the surrender of the hoplites was a unique
triumph. Possibly, too, Cleon foresaw that peace would have
meant a triumph for the philo-Laconian party. (6) The peace
proposals of 410 are given by Diodorus, who says that the ephor
Endius proposed that a peace should be made on the basis of uti
possidetis, except that Athens should evacuate Pylos and Cythera,
and Sparta, Decelea. Cleophon, however, perhaps doubting
whether the offer was sincere (cf. Philochorus in Schol. ap. Eurip.
Orest. 371; Fragm. ed. Didot, 117, 118), demanded the status quo
ante (413 or 431). (c) The proposals of 406, mentioned by Ath. Pol.
34, were on the same lines, except that Athens no longer had Pylos
and Cythera, and had lost practically half her empire. At this time
peace must therefore have been advantageous to Athens as showing
the world that in spite of her losses she was still one of the great
powers of Greece. Moreover, an alliance with Sparta would have
meant a check to Persian interference. It is probable, again, that
party interest was a leading motive in Cleophon's mind, since a
peace would have meant the return of the oligarchic exiles and the
establishment of a moderate oligarchy.

Authorities. — G. Busolt, Griech. Gesch., Bd. iii., Teil ii. (1904),
" Der Peloponnesische Krieg " is essential. All histories of Greece
may be consulted (see Greece: History, Ancient, section
" Authorities "). (J. M. M.)

PELOPONNESUS (" Island of Pelops "), the ancient and
modern Greek official name for the part of Greece south of the
Isthmus of Corinth. In medieval times it was called the Morea,

from its resemblance to a mulberry-leaf in shape, and this name
is still current in popular speech.

PELOPS, in Greek legend, the grandson of Zeus, son of Tantalus
and Dione, and brother of Niobe. His father's home was on
Mt Sipylus in Asia Minor, whence Pelops is spoken of as a
Lydian or a Phrygian. Tantalus one day served up to the
gods his own son Pelops, boiled and cut in pieces. The gods
detected the crime, and none of them would touch the food
except Demeter (according to others, Thetis), who, distracted by
the loss of her daughter Persephone, ate of the shoulder. The
gods restored Pelops to life, and the shoulder consumed by
Demeter was replaced by one of ivory. Wherefore the descen-
dants of Pelops had a white mark on their shoulder ever after
(Ovid, Metam. vi. 404; Virgil, Georgics, iii. 7). This tale is
perhaps reminiscent of human sacrifice amongst the Greeks.
Poseidon carried Pelops off to Olympus, where he dwelt with the
gods, till, for his father's sins, he was cast out from heaven.
Then, taking much wealth with him, he crossed over from Asia
to Greece. He went to Pisa in Elis as suitor of Hippodameia,
daughter of king Oenomaus, who had already vanquished in
the chariot-race and slain many suitors for his daughter's hand.
But by the help of Poseidon, who lent him winged steeds, or
of Oenomaus's charioteer Myrtilus, whom he or Hippodameia
bribed, Pelops was victorious in the race, wedded Hippodameia,
and became king of Pisa (Hyginus, Fab. 84). The race of
Pelops for his wife may be a reminiscence of the early practice of
marriage by capture. When Myrtilus claimed his promised
reward, Pelops flung him into the sea near Geraestus in Euboea,
and from his dying curse sprang those crimes and sorrows of the
house of Pelops which supplied the Greek tragedians with such
fruitful themes (Sophocles, Eleclra, 505, with Jebb's note) I
Among the sons of Pelops by Hippodameia were Atreus, Thyestes
and Chrysippus. From Pisa Pelops extended his sway over the
neighbouring Olympia, where he celebrated the Olympian games
with a splendour unknown before. His power and fame were so
great that henceforward the whole peninsula was known to the
ancients as Peloponnesus, " island of Pelops " (vfjaos, island).
In after times Pelops was honoured at Olympia above all other
heroes; a temple was built for him by Heracles, his descendant
in the fourth generation, in which the annual magistrates sacri-
ficed to him a black ram.

From the reference to Asia in the tales of Tantalus, Niobe and
Pelops it has been conjectured that Asia was the original seat of
these legends, and that it was only after emigration to Greece that
the people localized a part of the tale of Pelops in their new home.
In the time of Pausanias the throne of Pelops was still shown on
the top of Mt Sipylus. The story of Pelops is told in the first
Olympian ode of Pindar and in prose by Nicolaus Damascenus.

PELOTA (Sp. " little ball," from Lat. pila), a ball game which,
originating centuries ago in the Basque provinces, has developed
into several forms of the sport. Epigrams of Martial show that
there were at least three kinds of pelota played in his time.
Blaid, practically hand fives against the back wall of a court, is
still played on both sides of the Pyrenees. It is so popular that
the authorities had to forbid its being played against the walls
of the cathedral at Barcelona. In uncovered courts of large size
there are two varieties of pelota. One, the favourite pastime of
the Basque, is played against a front wall (fronton), either bare-
handed, with a leather or wooden long glove-like protector
(cesta), or with a chistera strapped to the wrist, a sickle-shaped
wicker-work implement three feet long, much like a hansom-wheel
basket mud-guard, in the narrow groove of which the ball is
caught and from which, thanks to the leverage afforded, it can
be hurled with tremendous force. There are several players to a
side, frequently an uneven number to allow a handicap. The
score is announced by a cantara, whose melodious vocal efforts
make him not the least appreciated participant in the game. In
the other form of the game, played nearly exclusively by profes-
sionals (pelolaris) , there are usually three players on each side,
two forwards and a back, distinguished by a coloured sash or cap.
The server (butteur) slips off his chistera to- serve, bouncing the
ball on the but, a kind of stool, about 30 ft. from the wall, and

PELOTAS— PEMBA

striking it low against the wall. The side that wins the toss has
the first service. The ball must be replayed by the opposing
side at the wall, which it must hit over a line 3 ft. from the
base of the wall and under the net fixed at the top of the wall.
The game is counted 15, 30, 40, game, reckoned by the number
of faults made by the opposing side. A fault is scored (a) when
after the service the ball is not caught on the volley or first
bounce, (t>) when it does not on the return strike the wall within
the prescribed limits, (c) when it goes out of the prescribed limits
of the court, (d) when it strikes the net fixed at the top of the
court. The side making the fault loses the service. A game like
this has been played in England by Spanish professionals on a
court 250 ft. long, against a wall 30 ft. high and 55 ft. wide. The
ball used, a trifle smaller than a base-ball, is hard rubber wound
with yarn and leather-covered, weighing 5 ounces. The server
bounces the ball on the concrete floor quite near the fronton, and
hits it with his chistera against the wall with a force to' make it
rebound beyond a line 80 ft. back. It usually goes treble that
distance.

PELOTAS, a city of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil,
on the left bank of the Sao Gonpalo river near its entrance into
tne Lagoa dos Patos, about 30 m. N.W. of the city of Rio
Grande. Pop. (1900), city, about 24.000; municipio (commune,
1037 sq. m.), 43,091. The Rio Grande Bage railway communi-
cates with the city of Rio Grande, and with the railways extend-
ing to Bage, Cacequy, Santa Maria, Passo Fundo and Porto
Alegre. The Sao Goncalo river is the outlet of Lag6a Mirim,
and Pelotas is therefore connected with the inland water routes.
The city is built on an open grassy plain (campo) little above the
level of the lake (28 ft. above sea-level). The public buildings
include the church of Sao Francisco, dating from the early part
of the 19th century, the municipal hall, a fine theatre, the
Misericordia hospital, a public library containing about 25,000
volumes and a great central market. Pelotas is the centre of the
xarque or came secca (jerked beef) industry of Rio Grande do Sul.
In its outskirts and the surrounding country are an immense
number of xarqueadas (slaughter-houses), with large open yards
where the dressed beef, lightly salted, is exposed to the sun and
air. There are many factories or packing houses where the by-
products are prepared for market. Pelotas was only a small
settlement at the beginning of the 19th century and had no
parochial organization until 1812. It became a villa in 1830 and
a city in 1835.

PELOUZE, THEOPHILE JULES (1807-1867), French chemist,
was born at Valognes, in Normandy, on the 26th (or 13th) of
February 1807. His father, Edmond Pelouze (d. 1847), was an
industrial chemist and the author of several technical handbooks.
The son, after spending some time in a pharmacy at La Fere,
acted as laboratory assistant to Gay-Lussac and J. L. Lassaigne
(1800-1859) at Paris from 1827 to 1829. In 1830 he was ap-
pointed associate professor of chemistry at Lille, but returning
to Paris next year became repetiteur, and subsequently professor,
at the Erole Polytechnique. He also held the chair of chemistry
at the College de France, and in 1833 became assayer to the mint
and in 1848 president of the Commission des Monnaies. After
the coup d'itat in 185 1 he resigned his appointments, but con-
tinued to conduct a laboratory-school he had started in 1846.
He died in Paris on the 1st of June 1867. Though Pelouze made
no discovery of outstanding importance, he was a busy investi-
gator, his work including researches on salicin, on beetroot sugar,
on various organic acids — gallic, malic, tartaric, butyric, lactic,
&c. — on oenanthic ether (with Liebig), on the nitrosulphates, on
gun-cotton, and on the composition and manufacture of glass.
He also carried out determinations of the atomic weights of
several elements, and with E. Fremy, published Traite de chimie
generate (1847-1850); Abrege de chimie (1848); and Notions
generates de chimie (1853).

PELTIER, JEAN CHARLES ATHANASE (1785-1845), French
physicist, was born at Ham (Somme) on the 22nd of February
1785. He was originally a watchmaker, but retired from
business about the age of thirty and devoted himself to experi-
mental and observational science. His papers, which are

numerous, are devoted in great part to atmospheric electricity,
waterspouts, cyanometry and polarization of skylight, the
temperature of water in the spheroidal state, and the boiling-
point at great elevations. There are also a few devoted to curious
points of natural historjr. But his name will always be associ-
ated with the thermal effects at junctions in a voltaic circuit.
His great experimental discovery, known as the " Peltier effect,"
was that if a current pass from an external source through a
circuit of two metals it cools the junction through which it passes
in the same direction as the thermo-electric current which would
be caused by directly heating that junction, while it heats the
other junction (see Thermoelectricity). Peltier died in Paris
on the 27th of October 1845.

PELTUINUM [mod. Civita Ansidonia], a town of the Vestini,
on the Via Claudia Nova, 12 m. E.S.E. of Aquila. It was
apparently the chief town of that portion of the Vestini who
dwelt west of the main Apennine chain. Remains of the town
walis, of an amphitheatre, and of other buildings still exist.

PELUSIUM, an ancient city and port of Egypt, now repre-
sented by two large mounds close to the coast and the edge of
the desert, 20 m. E. of Port Said. It lay in the marshes at the
mouth of the most easterly (Pelusiac) branch of the Nile, which
has long since been silted up, and was the key of the land towards
Syria and a strong fortress, which, from the Persian invasion at
least, played a great part in all wars between Egypt and the East.
Its name has not been found on Egyptian monuments, but it may
be the Sin of the Bible and of Assur-bani-pal's inscription.
Pelusium (" the muddy ") is the Farama of the Arabs, Pere-
moun in Coptic; the name Tina which clings to the locality seems
etymologically connected with the Arabic word for clay or mud.
The site, crowned with extensive ruins of burnt brick of the
Byzantine cr Arab period, has not yielded any important
remains. (F. Ll. G.)

PELVIS (Lat. for " basin," cf. Gr. ireXXts), in anatomy, the
bony cavity at the lower part of the abdomen in which much of
the genito-urinary apparatus and the lower part of the bowels are
contained (see Skeleton, § Appendicular).

PEMBA, an island in the Indian Ocean off the east coast of
Africa, forming part of the sultanate of Zanzibar. Pemba lies
30 m. N.N.E. of Zanzibar island between 4 80' and 5 30' S.,
and 39 35' and 39 50' E. It is some 40 m. long and 10 across
at its broadest part, and has an area of 380 sq. m. It is of coral-
line formation. On the side facing the mainland the coast is
much indented. From its luxuriant vegetation it gets its' Arabic
name of Al-huthera — " The Green." The interior is diversified
by hills, some of which exceed 600 ft. The land is chiefly owned
by great Arab proprietors, who work their plantations with
Swahili labour, and with negroes from the mainland. Prior to
1897 the labourers were all slaves. Their gradual manumission
was accomplished without injury to the prosperity of the island.
The population is estimated at between 50,000 and 60,000, of
whom 2000 to 3000 are Arabs. Most of the inhabitants are of
Bantu stock, and are known as Wapemba. In the ports there
are many Hindu traders and a few Europeans. The plantations •
are nearly all devoted to cloves (the annual average output being
10,000,000 lb) and coco-nut palms (for the preparation of
copra). The number of coco-nut plantations is very small
compared with those devoted to cloves. Yet cloves need much
care and attention and yield small profit, while the coco-nut
palm yields a fairly uniform crop of nuts and will grow almost
anywhere. The preponderance of clove plantations dates from
a cyclone which in 1872 destroyed nearly all the clove-trees in
the island of Zanzibar. Thereupon, to benefit from the great
rise in the price of cloves, the Pemba planters cut down their
palms and planted cloves. The value of the cloves exported in
1907 was £339,000, or 92 % of the total exports. India, Germany
and Great Britain are, in the order named, the chief purchasers.
Other exports include fire-wood, skins and hides, mother-of-pearl,
wax and small quantities of rubber, cowries, tortoiseshell and
so-called tortoise-nail. The " tortoise-nail " is the valve with
which a shell-fish closes its shell. The Llandolphia rubber-vine
is indigenous, and since 1006 Ceara rubber-trees have been

7«

PEMBROKE, EARLS OF

extensively planted. Rice, the chief of Pemba's imports, could
easily be grown on the island. Cotton cloths (Kangas) form the
next most considerable item in the imports.

Pemba has three ports, all on the west side of the island.
Shaki-Shaki, the capital and the centre of trade, is centrally
situated at the head of a shallow tidal creek partly blocked by
dense growths of mangroves. Mkoani is on the south-west
coast, Kishi-Kashi on the north-west coast; at the last-named
port there is a deep and well-sheltered harbour, approached
however by a narrow and dangerous channel.

Pemba is administered as an integral part of the Zanzibar
dominions, and yields a considerable surplus to the exchequer,
mainly from a 2 5 % duty imposed on cloves exported. There is
a weekly steamship service to Zanzibar, and in 1907 the two
islands were connected by wireless telegraphy (see Zanzibar).

PEMBROKE, EARLS OF. The title of earl of Pembroke
has been held successively by several English families, the
jurisdiction and dignity of a palatine earldom being originally
attached to it. The first creation dates from 1138, when the
earldom of Pembroke was conferred by King Stephen on Gilbert
de Clare (d. 1148), son of Gilbert Fitz-Richard, who possessed
the lordship of Strigul (Estrighoiel, in Domesday Book), the
modern Chepstow. After the battle of Lincoln (1141), in which
he took part, the earl joined the party of the empress Matilda,
and he married Henry I.'s mistress, Isabel, daughter of Robert
de Beaumont, earl of Leicester.

Richard de Clare, 2nd earl of Pembroke (d. 11 76), commonly
known as " Strongbow," son of the first earl, succeeded to his
father's estates in 1148, but had forfeited or lost them by 11 68.
In that year Dermot, king of Leinster, driven out of his kingdom
by Roderick, king of Connaught, came to solicit help from
Henry II. He secured the services of Earl Richard, promising
him the hand of his daughter Eva and the succession to Leinster.
The earl crossed over in person (11 70), took both Waterford and
Dublin, and was married to Eva. But Henry II., jealous of
this success, ordered all the troops to return by Easter 1171.
In May Dermot died; this was the signal of a general rising, and
Richard barely managed to keep Roderick of Connaught out of
Dublin. Immediately afterwards he hurried to England to
solicit help from Henry II., and surrendered to him all his lands
and castles. Henry crossed over in October 1172; he stayed in
Ireland six months, and put his own men into nearly all the
important places, Richard keeping only Kildare. In 1173 he
went in person to France to help Henry II., and was present at
Verneuil, being reinstated in Leinster as a reward. In n 74 he
advanced into Connaught and was severely defeated, but for-
tunately Raymond le Gros re-established his supremacy in
Leinster. Early in 1176 Richard died, just as Raymond had
taken Limerick for him. Strongbow was the statesman, as the
Fitzgeralds were the soldiers, of the conquest. He is vi\idly
described by Giraldus Cambrensis as a tall and fair man, of
pleasing appearance, modest in his bearing, delicate in features,
of a low voice, but sage in council and the idol of his soldiers.
He was buried in the cathedral church of Dublin, where his
effigy and that of his wife are still preserved.

See Giraldus Cambrensis, Expugnatio hibernica; and the Song of
Dermot, edited by G. H. Orpen (1892).

Strongbow having died without male issue, his daughter
Isabel became countess of Pembroke in her own right, and the
title was borne by her husband, Sir William Marshal, or
Le Marechal, second son of John le Marechal, by Sibylle, the
sister of Patrick, earl of Salisbury. John le Marechal was a
partisan of the empress Matilda, and died about 1164.

The date of Sir William Marshal's birth is uncertain, but his
parents were married not earlier than 1141, and he was a mere
child in 1152, when he attracted the notice of King Stephen.
In 1 1 70 he was selected for a position in the household of Prince
Henry, the heir-apparent, and remained there until the death
of his young patron (1183). He undertook a pilgrimage to the
Holy Land, where he served as a crusader with distinction for
two years. Although he had abetted the prince in rebellion he
was pardoned by Henry H. and admitted to the royal service

about 1 188. In 1189 he covered the flight of Henry II. from
Le Mans to Chinon, and, in a skirmish, unhorsed the undutiful
Richard Coeur de Lion. None the less Richard, on his accession,
promoted Marshal and confirmed the old king's licence for his
marriage with the heiress of Strigul and Pembroke. This match
gave Marshal the rank of an earl, with great estates in Wales
and Ireland, and he was included in the council of regency which
the king appointed on his departure for the third crusade (1190).
He took the side of Prince John when the latter expelled the
justiciar, William Longchamp, from the kingdom, but he soon
discovered that the interests of John were different from those
of Richard. Hence in 1193 he joined with the loyalists in
making war upon the prince. Richard forgave Marshal his first
error of judgment, allowed him to succeed his brother, John
Marshal, in the hereditary marshalship, and on his death-bed
designated him as custodian of Rouen and of the royal treasure
during the interregnum. Though he quarrelled more than once
with John, Marshal was one of the few English laymen who clung
to the royal side through the Barons' War. He was one of John's
executors, and was subsequently elected regent of the king and
kingdom by the royalist barons in 1216. In spite of his advanced
age he prosecuted the war against Prince Louis and the rebels
with remarkable energy. In the battle of Lincoln (May 1217)
he charged and fought at the head of the young king's army, and
he was preparing to besiege Louis in London when the war was
terminated by the naval victory of Hubert de Burgh in the
straits of Dover. He was criticized for the generosity of the
terms he accorded to Louis and the rebels (September 1217);
but his desire for an expeditious settlement was dictated by
sound statesmanship. Self-restraint and compromise were the
key-notes of Marshal's policy. Both before and after the peace
of 1 217 he reissued Magna Carta. He fell ill early in the year
1219, and died on the 14th of May at his manor of Caversham
near Reading. He was succeeded in the regency by Hubert de
Burgh, in his earldom by his five sons in succession. 1

See the metrical French life, Histoire de Guillaume le Marechal
(ed. P. Meyer, 3 vols., Paris, 1891-1901) ; the Minority of Henry III.,
by G. J. Turner (Trans. Royal Hist. Soc, new series, vol. xviii.
pp. 245-295) ; and W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, chs. xii. and
xiv. (Oxford, 1896-1897).

Marshal's eldest son, William Marshal (d. 1231), 2nd earl of
Pembroke of this line, passed some years in warfare in Wales and
in Ireland, where he was justiciar from 1224 to 1226; he also
served Henry III. in France. His second wife was the king's
sister, Eleanor, afterwards the wife of Simon de Montfort, but
he left no children. His brother Richard Marshal (d. 1234),
3rd earl, came to the front as the leader of the baronial party,
and the chief antagonist of the foreign friends of Henry III.
Fearing treachery he refused to visit the king at Gloucester in
August 1233, and Henry declared him a traitor. He crossed to
Ireland, where Peter des Roches had instigated his enemies to
attack him, and in April 1 234 he was overpowered and wounded,
and died a prisoner. His brother Gilbert (d. 1241), who
became the 4th earl, was a friend and ally of Richard, earl of
Cornwall. When another brother, Anselm, the 6th earl, died
in December 1245, the male descendants of the great earl marshal
became extinct. The extensive family possessions were now
divided among Anselm's five sisters and their descendants, the
earldom of Pembroke reverting to the Crown.

The next holder of the lands of the earldom of Pembroke was
William de Valence (d. 1296), a younger son of Hugh de Lusignan,
count of La Marche, by his marriage with Isabella of Angouleme
(d. 1246), widow of the English king John, and was born at
Valence, near Lusignan. In 1247 William and his brothers,
Guy and Aymer, crossed over to England at the invitation of their
half-brother, Henry III. In 1250 Aymer (d. 1260) was elected
bishop of Winchester, and in 1247 Henry arranged a marriage
between William and Joan de Munchensi (d. 1307) a grand-
daughter of William Marshal, 1st earl of Pembroke. The
custody of Joan's property, which included the castle and lordship
of Pembroke, was entrusted to her husband, who in 1295 was
summoned to parliament as earl of Pembroke. In South Wales

PEMBROKE, EARLS OF

79

Valence tried to regain the palatine rights which had been
attached to the earldom of Pembroke. But his energies were
not confined to South Wales. Henry III. heaped lands and
honours upon him, and he was soon thoroughly hated as one of
the most prominent of the rapacious foreigners. Moreover, some
trouble in Wales led to a quarrel between him and Simon de
Montfort, and this soon grew more violent. He would not
comply with the provisions of Oxford, and took refuge in Wolvesey
Castle at Winchester, where he was besieged and compelled to
surrender and leave the country. In 1259 he and Earl Simon
were formally reconciled in Paris, and in 1261 he was again in
England and once more enjoying the royal favour. He fought
for Henry at the battle of Lewes, and then, after a stay in France,
he landed in Pembrokeshire, and took part in 1265 in the siege
of Gloucester and the battle of Evesham. After the royalist
victory he was restored to his estates and accompanied Prince
Edward, afterwards Edward I., to Palestine. He went several
times to France on public business; he assisted in the conquest of
North Wales; and he was one of Edward's representatives in
the famous suit over the succession to the crown of Scotland in
1201 and 1292. He died at Bayonne on the 13th of June 1296,
his body being buried in Westminster Abbey. His eldest
surviving son, Aymer (c. 1265-1324), succeeded to his father's
estates, but was not formally recognized as earl of Pembroke
until after the death of his mother Joan about 1307. He was
appointed guardian of Scotland in 1306, but with the accession
of Edward II. to the throne and the consequent rise of Piers
Gaveston to power, his influence sensibly declined; he became
prominent among the discontented nobles and was one of those
who were appointed to select the lord ordainers in 131 1. In
131 2 he captured Gaveston at Scarborough, giving the favourite
a promise that his life should be spared. Ignoring this under-
taking, however, Guy Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, put Gaveston
to death, and consequently Pembroke left the allied lords and
attached himself to Edward II. Valence was present at Bannock-
burn; in 1317, when returning to England from Rome, he was
taken prisoner and was kept in Germany until a large ransom was
paid. In 1318 he again took a conspicuous part in making peace
between Edward and his nobles, and in 1322 assisted at the
formal condemnation of Earl Thomas of Lancaster, and received
some of his lands. His wife, Mary de Chatillon, a descendant
of King Henry III., was the founder of Pembroke College,
Cambridge.

In 1339 Laurence, Lord Hastings (d. 1348), a great-grand-
son of William de Valence, having inherited through the female
line a portion of the estates of the Valence earls of Pembroke
was created, or recognized as, earl of Pembroke. His son John
(d. 1376) married Margaret Plantagenet, daughter of King
Edward III., and on the death without issue of his grandson
in 1389 the earldom of Pembroke reverted again to the Crown,
while the barony of Hastings became dormant and so remained
till 1840.

In 1414 Humphrey Plantagenet, fourth son of King Henry
IV., was created duke of Gloucester and earl of Pembroke for
life, these titles being subsequently made hereditary, with a
reversion as regards the earldom of Pembroke, in default of
heirs to Humphrey, to William de la Pole, earl of Suffolk.
Accordingly, on the death of Humphrey, without issue, in 1447
this nobleman became earl of Pembroke. He was beheaded in
1450 and his titles were forfeited. In 1453 the title was given to
Sir Jasper Tudor, half-brother of King Henry VI. Sir Jasper
being a Lancastrian, his title was forfeited during the pre-
dominance of the house of York, but was restored on the
accession of Henry VII. On his death without heirs in 1495,
his title became extinct.

During his attainder Sir Jasper was taken prisoner by Sir
William Herbert (d. 1469), a zealous Yorkist, who had been
raised to the peerage as Baron Herbert by Edward IV., and for
this service Lord Herbert was created earl of Pembroke in 1468.
His son William (d. 1491) received the earldom of Huntingdon
in lieu of that of Pembroke, which he surrendered to Edward IV.,
who thereupon conferred it (1479) on his son Edward, prince

of Wales; and when this prince succeeded to the throne as
Edward V., the earldom of Pembroke merged in the crown.
Anne Boleyn, a few months previous to her marriage with
Henry VIII., was created marchioness of Pembroke in 1532.
It is doubted by authorities on peerage law whether the title
merged in the royal dignity on the marriage of the marchioness
to the king, or became extinct on her death in 1536.

The title of earl of Pembroke was next revived in favour of
Sir William Herbert (c. 1501-1570), whose father, Richard,
was an illegitimate son of the 1st earl of Pembroke of the house
of Herbert. He had married Anne Parr, sister of Henry VIII. 's
sixth wife, and was created earl in 15s 1. The title has since been
held by his descendants.

An executor of Henry VIII. 's will and the recipient of valuable
grants of land, Herbert was a prominent and powerful personage
during the reign of Edward VI., both the protector Somerset and
his rival, John Dudley, afterwards duke of Northumberland,
angling for his support. He threw in his lot with Dudley, and
after Somerset's fall obtained some of his lands in Wiltshire and
a peerage. It has been asserted that he devised the scheme for
settling the English crown on Lady Jane Grey; at all events he
was one of her advisers during her short reign, but he declared for
Mary when he saw that Lady Jane's cause was lost. By Mary
and her friends Pembroke's loyalty was at times suspected, but
he was employed as governor of Calais, as president of Wales
and in other ways. He was also to some extent in the confidence
of Philip II. of Spain. The earl retained his place at court under
Elizabeth until 1569, when he was suspected of favouring the
projected marriage between Mary, queen of Scots, and the duke
of Norfolk. Among the monastic lands granted to Herbert was
the estate of Wilton, near Salisbury, still the residence of the
earls of Pembroke.

His elder son Henry (c. 1534-1601), who succeeded as 2nd earl,
was president of Wales from 1586 until his death. He married
in 1577 Mary Sidney, the famous countess of Pembroke (c. 1561-
1621), third daughter of Sir Henry Sidney and his wife Mary
Dudley. Sir Philip Sidney to whom she was deeply attached
through life, was her eldest brother. Sir Philip Sidney spent the
summer of 1580 with her at Wilton, or at Ivychurch, a favourite
retreat of hers in the neighbourhood. Here at her request he
began the Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia, which was intended
for her pleasure alone, not for publication. The two also worked
at a metrical edition of the Psalms. When the great sorrow of
her brother's death came upon her she made herself his literary
executor, correcting the unauthorized editions of the Arcadia
and of his poems, which appeared in 1590 and 1591. She also
took under her patronage the poets who had looked to her brother
for protection. Spenser dedicated his Ruines of Time to her,
and refers to her as Urania in Colin Clout's come home againe ; in
Spenser's Astrophel she is " Clorinda." In 1599 Queen Elizabeth
was her guest at Wilton, and the countess composed for the
occasion a pastoral dialogue in praise of Astraea. After her
husband's death she lived chiefly in London at Crosby Hall,
where she died.

The Countess's other works include: A Discourse of Life and
Death, translated from the French of Plessis du Mornay (1593), and
Antoine (1592), a version of a tragedy of Robert Gamier.

William Herbert, 3rd earl of Pembroke (1580-1630), son of
the 2nd earl and his famous countess, was a conspicuous figure
in the society of his time and at the court of James I. Several
times he found himself opposed to the schemes of the duke of
Buckingham, and he was keenly interested in the colonization
of America. He was lord chamberlain of the royal household
from 1615 to 1625 and lord steward from 1626 to 1630. He was
chancellor of the university of Oxford in 1624 when Thomas
Tesdale and Richard Wightwick refounded Broadgates Hall and
named it Pembroke College in his honour. By some Shake-
spearian commentators Pembroke has been identified with the
" Mr W. H. " referred to as " the onlie begetter "of Shakespeare's
sonnets in the dedication by Thomas Thorpe, the owner of the
published manuscript, while his mistress, Mary Fitton (?.».), has
been identified with the " dark lady " of the sonnets. In both

8o

PEMBROKE

cases the identification rests on very questionable evidence (see
Shakespeare, William). He and his brother Philip are the
" incomparable pair of brethren " to whom the first folio of
Shakespeare is inscribed. The earl left no sons when he died in
London on the 10th of April 1630. Clarendon gives a very
eulogistic account of Pembroke, who appears, however, to have
been a man of weak character and dissolute life. Gardiner
describes him as the Hamlet of the English court. He had
literary' tastes and wrote poems; one of his closest friends
was the poet Donne, and he was generous to Ben Jonson,
Massinger and others.

His brother, Philip Herbert, the 4th earl (1584-1650), was
for some years the chief favourite of James I., owing this position
to his comely person and his passion for hunting and for field
sports generally. In 1 605 the king created him earl of Montgomery
and Baron Herbert of Shurland, and since 1630, when he succeeded
to the earldom of Pembroke, the head of the Herbert family has
carried the double title of earl of Pembroke and Montgomery.
Although Philip's quarrelsome disposition often led him into
trouble he did not forfeit the esteem of James I., who heaped
lands and offices upon him, and he was also trusted by Charles I.,
who made him lord chamberlain in 1626 and frequently visited
him at Wilton. He worked to bring about peace between the
king and the Scots in 1639 and 1640, but when in the latter year
the quarrel between Charles and the English parliament was
renewed, he deserted the king who soon deprived him of his office
of chamberlain. Trusted by the popular party, Pembroke was
made governor of the Isle of Wight, and he was one of the repre-
sentatives of the parliament on several occasions, notably during
the negotiations at Uxbridge in 1645 and at Newport in 1648, and
when the Scots surrendered Charles in 1647. From 1641 to 1643,
and again from 1647 to 1650, he was chancellor of the university
of Oxford; in 1648 he removed some of the heads of houses from
their positions because they would not take the solemn league
and covenant, and his foul language led to the remark that he was
more fitted " by his eloquence in swearing to preside over Bedlam
than a learned academy." In 1649, although a peer, he was
elected and took his seat in the House of Commons as member for
Berkshire, this " ascent downwards " calling forth many satirical
writings from the royalist wits. The earl was a great collector
of pictures and had some taste for architecture. His eldest
surviving son, Philip (1621-1669), became 5th earl of Pembroke,
and 2nd earl of Montgomery; he was twice married, and was
succeeded in turn by three of his sons, of whom Thomas, the 8th
earl (c. 1656-1733), was a person of note during the reigns of
William III. and Anne. From 1690 to 1692 he was first lord
of the admiralty; then he served as lord privy seal until 1699,
being in 1697 the first plenipotentiary of Great Britain at the
congress of Ryswick. On two occasions he was lord high admiral
for a short period; he was also lord president of the council and
lord-lieutenant of Ireland, while he acted as one of the lords
justices seven times; and he was president of the Royal Society
in 1689-1690. His son Henry, the 9th earl (c. 1689-1750), was a
soldier, but was better known as the " architect earl." He was
largely responsible for the erection of Westminster Bridge. The
title descended directly to Henry, 10th earl (1734-1794), a soldier,
who wrote the Method of Breaking Horses (1762); George
Augustus, nth earl (1759-1827), an ambassador extraordinary to
Vienna in 1807; and Robert Henry, 12th earl (1791-1862), who
died without issue. George Robert Charles, the 13th earl
(1850-1895), was a grandson of the nth earl and a son of Baron
Herbert of Lea (q.v.), whose second son Sidney (b. 1853) inherited
all the family titles at his brother's death.

See G. T. Clark, The Earls, Earldom and Castle of Pembroke (Tenby,
1880); J. R. Planche, "The Earls of Strigul" in vol. x. of the
Proceedings of the British Archaeological Association (1855); an d
G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage, vol. vi. (London, 1895).

PEMBROKE, a town of Ontario, Canada, capital of Renfrew
county, 74 m. W.N.W., of Ottawa by rail on the south shore of
Allumette Lake, an expansion of the Ottawa river, and on the
Canadian Pacific and Canada Atlantic railways. Pop. (1901),
5156. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric, an

important centre in the lumber trade, and contains saw, grist
and woollen mills, axe. factory, &c. The Muskrat river affords
excellent water-power.

PEMBROKE {Penfro), an ancient municipal borough, a
contributory parliamentary borough and county-town of Pem-
brokeshire, Wales, situated on a narrow peninsula at the head of
the Pennar tidal inlet or " pill " of Miiford Haven. Pop. (1901),
4487; together with Pembroke Dock 15,853. Pembroke is a
station on the South Wales system of the Great Western railway.
The old-fashioned town, consisting chiefly of one long broad
street, retains portions of its ancient walls. A large mill-dam is
a conspicuous feature on the north of the town. St Mary's
church in the centre of the town possesses a massive tower of the
12 th century. Near the ruined West Gate is the entrance to
Pembroke Castle, a splendid specimen of medieval fortified
architecture. The circular vaulted keep erected by Earl William
Marshal (c. 1200), remains almost intact. Close to the keep
stands the ruined chamber wherein, according to local tradition,
Henry VII. was born in 1457. Beneath the fine banqueting hall,
a flight of steps descends into " the Wogan," a vast subterranean
chamber giving access to the harbour. Facing the castle, on the
western side of the pill, stand the considerable remains of
Monkton Priory, a Benediction house founded by Earl William
Marshal as a cell to the abbey of Seez or Sayes in Normandy,
but under Henry VI. transferred to the abbey of St Albans.
The priory church, now the parish church of the suburb of
Monkton, contains monuments of the families of Meyrick of
Bush and Owen of Orielton. St Daniel's chapel forms a
prominent landmark on the ridge south of the town.

Pembroke Dock (formerly known as Pater, or Paterchurch), a
naval dockyard and garrison town, is situated close to Hobb's
Point, at the eastern extremity of Miiford Haven. It forms the
Pater Ward of Pembroke, from which it is distant 2 m. to the
north-west. The place owes its origin to the decision of the
government in 1814 to form a naval depot on Miiford Haven.
The dockyard, enclosed by high walls and covering 80 acres,. is
protected by a powerful fort — the construction and repairing of
ironclads are extensively carried on here. There is a submarine
depot at Pennar Gut, and also accommodation for artillery and
infantry. Ferry boats ply frequently between Pembroke Dock
and Neyland on the opposite shore of the Haven.

Pembroke is probably an Anglo-Norman form of the Cymric
Penfro, the territory lying between Miiford Haven and the
Bristol Channel, now known as the Hundred of Castlemartin.
During the invasion of South Wales under William Rufus,
Arnulf de Montgomeri, fifth son of Roger earl of Shrewsbury,
seems to have erected a fortress of stone (c. 1090) on the site of
the castle. The first castellan of this new stronghold was
Giraldus de Windsor, husband of the Princess Nest of South
Wales and grandfather of Giraldus Cambrensis. Throughout
the 1 2th and 13th centuries the castle was strengthened and
enlarged under successive earls palatine of Pembroke, who made
this fortress their chief seat. As the capital of the palatinate
and as the nearest port for Ireland, Pembroke was in Plantagenet
times one of the most important fortified cities in the kingdom.
The town, which had grown up under the shadow of the almost
impregnable castle, was first incorporated by Henry I. in 1109
and again by Earl Richard de Clare in n 54 (who also encircled
the town with walls), and these privileges were confirmed and
extended under succeeding earls palatine and kings of England.
In 1835 the corporation was remodelled under the Municipal
Corporations Act. Henry II. occasionally visited Pembroke,
notably in 117 2, and until the close of the Wars of the Roses,
both town and castle played a prominent part in the history of
Britain. With the passing of the Act of Union of Wales and
England in 1536 however, the jura regalia of the county palatine
of Pembroke were abolished, and the prosperity of the town
began to decline. Although acknowledged as the county town
of Pembrokeshire, Pembroke was superseded by Haverfordwest
as the judicial and administrative centre of the shire on account
of the more convenient position of the latter place. By the act
1 of 1536 Pembroke was declared the leading borough in the

PEMBROKESHIRE

81

Pembroke parliamentary district, yet the town continued to
dwindle until the settlement of the government dockyard and
works on Milford Haven. At the outbreak of the Civil Wars the
town and castle were garrisoned for parliament by the mayor,
John Poyer, a leading Presbyterian, who was later appointed
governor, with Rowland Laugharne of St Brides for his lieu-
tenant. But at the time of the Presbyterian defection in 1647,
Poyer and his lieutenant-governors, Laugharne and Powell,
declared for Charles and held the castle in the king's name. In
June 1648 Cromwell himself proceeded to invest Pembroke
Castle, which resisted with great obstinacy. But after the
water-supply of the garrison had been cut off, the besieged were
forced to capitulate, on the nth of July 1648, on the condition of
surrendering up the three chief defenders of the castle. Poyer,
Laugharne and Powell were accordingly brought to London,
but finally only Poyer was executed. The magnificent ruin of
Pembroke Castle is the nominal property of the Crown, but has
been held on lease since the reign of James II. by the family of
Pryse of Gogerddan in Cardiganshire.

PEMBROKESHIRE (Sir Benjro, Dyfed), the most westerly
county of South Wales, bounded N.E. by Cardigan, E. by Carmar-
then, S. by the Bristol Channel and W. and N.W. by St Bride's
Bay and Cardigan Bay of St George's Channel. Area 615 sq. m.
The whole coast is extremely indented, extending over 140 m. in
length. The principal inlets are Milford Haven, St Bride's Bay,
Freshwater Bay, Fishguard Bay and Newport Bay. The chief
promontories are Cemmaes, Dinas, Scrumble, St David's, St
Ann's and St Gowan's Heads. Five islands of moderate size lie
off the coast, viz. Ramsey, Grassholm, Skomer and Skokholm
in St Bride's Bay, and Caldy Island (Ynys Pyr) opposite Tenby;
the last named having a population of about 70 persons. Rare
birds, such as peregrine falcons, ravens and choughs are not
uncommon, while guillemots, puffins and other sea-fowl breed in
immense numbers on the Stack Rocks, on Ramsey Island and at
various points of the coast. Seals are plentiful in the caves of
St Bride's Bay and Cardigan Bay. The county is undulating,
and large tracts are bare, but the valleys of the Cleddau, the
Nevcrn, the Teifi and the Gwaun are well-wooded. The
Preselley Mountains stretch from Fishguard to the border of
Carmarthen, the principal heights being Preselley Top (1760 ft.)
and Cam Englyn (1022 ft.). Treffgarn Rock in the Plumstone
Mountains is popularly supposed to mark the northern limit of
the ancient settlement of the Flemings. The principal rivers are
the Teifi, forming the northern boundary of the county from
Abercych to Cardigan Bay; the Nevern and the Gwaun, both
falling into Cardigan Bay; and the Eastern and Western Cleddau,
forming the Daugleddau after their junction below Haverford-
west. All these streams contain trout and salmon. There are
no lakes, but the broad tidal estuaries of the Daugleddau and
other rivers, which fall into Milford Haven and are locally called
" pills," constitute a peculiar feature of south Pembrokeshire
scenery.

Geology. — Pembrokeshire is divisible into a northern portion
occupied mainly by Ordovician and Silurian strata, which have been
subjected to pressures from the north, the strike of the beds being
south-west-north-east ; and a southern portion, the westerly con-
tinuation of the South Wales coalfield, with associated Lower
Carboniferous, Old Red Sandstone and narrow belts cf Silurian
rocks, the whole having been considerably folded and faulted by
pressure from the south, which has produced a general north-west-
south-east strike. In the neighbourhood of St Davids are the Pre-
Cambrian granitic rocks (Dimetian) and volcanic rocks (Pebedian).
These are surrounded by belts of unconformable Cambrian strata
(Lingula Flags, Tremadoc beds), followed by Ordovician (Arenig,
Llandeilo and Bala beds) with associated igneous rocks. These
comprise gabbros and diabases of Strumble Head, Fishguard,
Llanwnda, Prescelly; diorites north-west of St Davids, bostonites
and porphvrites about Abercastle and the basaltic laccolite of Pen
Caer, besides various contemporaneous acid lavas and tuffs. The
Ordovician and Silurian rocks extend southward to the neighbour-
hood of Xarberth and Haverfordwest, where Arenig, Llandeilo and
Bala beds (Slade and Red Hill beds; Sholeshook and Robeston
Walthen Limestone) and Llandovery beds are recorded. The Coal
Measures, highly inclined and anthracitic, stretch across from
Carmarthen Bay to the shore of St Bride's Bay; they are bordered
on the north and south-east by the Millstone Grits, Carboniferous
Limestone series and Old Red Sandstone. On account of the folding

the limestone appears again farther south at Pembroke, Caldy
Island and St Gowan's Head; most of the remaining ground about
Milford Haven being occupied by Old Red Sandstone with infolded
strips of Silurian. A fairly large tract of blown-sand occurs in
Freshwater Bay south of Milford Haven. Silver-bearing lead has
been mined at Llanfyrnach.

Climate and Industries. — The climate is everywhere mild, and
in the sheltered valleys near the coast sub-tropical vegetation
flourishes in the open air. In the south the rainfall is small, and
the districts round Pembroke suffer from occasional droughts.
The chief industry is agriculture, wherein stock-raising is
preferred to the growing of cereals. Of cattle the long-horned,
jet-black Castlemartin breed is everywhere conspicuous. South
Pembroke has long been celebrated for its horses, which are bred
in great numbers by the farmers. The deep-sea fisheries of
Tenby and Milford are valuable; and fresh fish of good quality
is exported by rail to the large towns. Oysters are found at
Langwm and near Tenby; lobsters and crabs abound on the
western coast. The South Wales coalfield extends into south
Pembroke, and coal is worked at Saundersfoot, Begelly, Temple-
ton, Kilgetty and other places. There are slate quarries at
Glogue, Cilgerran and elsewhere; copper has been worked near St
Davids, and lead at Llanfyrnach.

Communications. — The South Wales branch of the Great
Western railway enters Pembrokeshire from the east near
Clynderwen Junction, whence the main line leads to Fishguard
Harbour with its important Irish traffic. Other lines proceed
to Neyland and Milford Haven by way of Haverfordwest, and
a branch line from Clynderwen to Goodwick joins the main- line
at Letterston. The Whitland-Cardigan branch traverses the
north-east by way of Crymmych and Cilgerran. Another line
running south-west from Whitland proceeds by way of Narberth
and Tenby to Pembroke Dock.

Population and Administration. — The area of Pembrokeshire
is 395,151 acres with a population in 1891 of 89,138 and 1901
of 88,732, showing a slight decrease. The municipal boroughs
are Pembroke (pop. 15,853); Haverfordwest (6007); and
Tenby (4400). The hamlet of Bridgend and a part of St
DogmeO's parish are included within the municipal limits of
Cardigan. Newport (Trefdraeth) (1222), the chief town of
the barony of Kemes, or Cemmaes, still possesses a mayor and
corporation under a charter granted in 1215 by Sir Nicholas
Marteine, lord of Kemes, whose hereditary representative
still nominates the mayor and aldermen, but its surviving
municipal privileges are practically honorary. Milford Haven
(5102), Narberth (1070) and Fishguard (2002) are urban districts.
Other towns are St Davids (17 10), St Dogmells (Llandudoch)
(1286); and Cilgerran (1038). Pembrokeshire lies in the South
Wales circuit, and assizes are held at Haverfordwest. Two
members are returned to parliament; one for the county, and
one for the united boroughs of Pembroke, Haverfordwest,
Tenby, Fishguard, Narberth, Neyland, Milford and Wiston
(Castell Gwys). Ecclesiastically, the county contains 153
parishes and lies wholly in the diocese of St Davids.

History. — Pembrokeshire, anciently known to the Welsh
as Dyfed, was originally comprised in the territory of the
Dimetae, conquered by the Romans. During the 6th century
St David, or Dewi Sant, moved the chief seat of South Welsh
monastic and ecclesiastical life from Caerleon-on-Usk to his
native place Menevia, which, known in consequence as Tyddewi,
or St Davids, continued a centre of religious and educational
activity until the Reformation, a period of 1000 years. On
the death of Rhodri Mawr in 877, Dyfed fell nominally under the
sway of the princes of Deheubarth, or South Wales; but their
hold was never very secure, nor were they able to protect the
coast towns from the Scandinavian pirates. In 1081 William
the Conqueror penetrated west as far as St Davids, where he is
said to have visited St David's shrine as a devout pilgrim.
In 1092 Arnulf de Montgomeri, son of Roger, earl of Shrewsbury,
did homage to the king for the Welsh lands of Dyfed. With
the building of Pembroke Castle, of which Gerald de Windsor
was appointed castellan, the Normans began to spread over
southern Dyfed; whilst Martin de Tours, landing in Fishguard

82

PEMBROKESHIRE

Bay and building the castle of Newport at TrSfdraeth, won for
himself the extensive lordship of Kernes (Cemmaes) between
the river Teifi and the Preselley Mountains. The systematic
planting of Flemish settlers in the hundred of Rhos, or Roose,
in or about the years 1106, 1108 and nil with the approval
of Henry I., and again in 1156 under Henry II., marks an
all-important episode in the history of Pembrokeshire. The
castles of Haverfordwest and Tenby were now erected to protect
these aliens, and despite the fierce attacks of the Welsh princes
their domain grew to be known as " Little England beyond
Wales," a district whereof the language, customs and people
still remain characteristic. In 1138 Gilbert de Clare, having
previously obtained Henry I.'s permission to enjoy all lands
he might win for himself in Wales, was created earl of Pembroke
in Stephen's reign with the full powers of an earl palatine in
Dyfed. The devolution of this earldom is dealt with in a
separate article.

In 1536, by the Act of Union (27 Henry VIII.), the king
abolished all special jurisdiction in Pembrokeshire, which he
placed on an equal footing with the remaining shires of Wales,
while its borders were enlarged by the addition of Kernes,
Dewisland and other outlying lordships. By the act of 1536
the county returned to parliament one knight for the shire
and two burgesses; one for the Pembroke boroughs and one
for the town and county of Haverfordwest, both of which since
1885 have been merged in the^ Pembroke-and-Haverfordwest
parliamentary division. The Reformation deprived the county
of the presence of the bishops of St Davids, who on the partial
dismantling of the old episcopal palace at St Davids removed
their chief seat of residence to Abergwiliy, near Carmarthen.
Meanwhile the manor of Lamphey was granted to the family
of Devereux, earls of Essex, and other episcopal estates were
alienated to court favourites, notably to Sir John Perrot of
Haroldstone (1517-1592), afterwards lord-deputy of Ireland.
During the Civil Wars the forces of the parliament, commanded
by Colonel Laugharne and Captain Swanley, reduced the royal
forts at Tenby, Milford and Haverfordwest. In February
1797 some French frigates appeared off Fishguard Bay and
landed about 1400 Frenchmen at Llanwnda. The invaders
soon capitulated to the local militia, practically without striking
a blow. The 19th century saw the establishment of the naval
dockyard at Paterchurch and the building of docks and quays
at Neyland and Milford. In 1906 extensive works for cross-
traffic with Ireland were opened at Fishguard Harbour.

Many of the old Pembrokeshire families, whose names appear
prominent in the county annals, are extinct in the county itself.
Amongst these may be mentioned Perrot of Haroldstone,
Devereux of Lamphey, Barlow of Slebech, Barrett of Gilliswick,
Wogan of Wiston, Elliot of Amroth and Owen of Henllys.
Amongst ancient families still existing are Philipps of Lydstep
and Amroth (descendants of the old Welsh lords of Cilsant);
Philipps of Picton Castle (a branch of the same house in the
female line) ; Lort of Stackpole Court, now represented by Earl
Cawdor; Scourfield of Moate; Bowen of Llwyngwair; Edwardes,
Lords Kensington, of St Brides; Meyrickof Bush; Lort-Philipps
of Lawrenny; Colby of Ffynone; Stokes of Cuff em; Lloyd of
Newport Castle (in which family is vested the hereditary lord-
ship of the barony of Kernes); Saunders-Davies of Pentre; and
Go wer of Castle Malgwyn. ■> . V _. '

Antiquities. — There are few remaining traces in the county
of the Roman occupation of Dimetia, but in British encamp-
ments, tumuli, cromlechs and monumental stones Pembrokeshire
is singularly rich. Of the cromlechs the best preserved are those
at Longhouse, near Mathry; at Pentre Evan in the Nevern
Valley; and at Llech-y-dribedd, near Moylgrove; whilst of the
many stone circles and alignments, that known as Pare-y-Marw,
or " The Field of the Dead," near Fishguard, is the least injured.
Stones inscribed in Ogam characters are not uncommon, and
good examples exist at Caldy Island, Bridell, St Dogmells
and Cilgerran. There are good specimens of Celtic floriated
churchyard crosses at Carew, Penally and Nevern. Interesting
examples of medieval domestic architecture are the ruins

of the former episcopal mansions at Llawhaden, St Davids
and Lamphey, the two latter of which were erected by Bishop
Gower between the years 1328-1347. With the exception of
the cathedral at St Davids and the principal churches of Haver-
fordwest and Tenby, the parish churches of Pembrokeshire
are for the most part small, but many are ancient and possess
fine monuments or other objects of interest, especially in
" Little England beyond Wales." Amongst the more note-
worthy are the churches at Stackpole Elidur, Carew, Burton,
Gumfreston, Nevern, St Petrox and Rudbaxton, the last-named
containing a fine Jacobean monument of the Hayward family.
Pembrokeshire has long been famous for its castles, of which the
finest examples are to be observed at Pembroke; Manorbier,
built in the 12th century and interesting as the birthplace and
home of Giraldus Cambrensis; Carew, exhibiting many interest-
ing features both of Norman and Tudor architecture; and
Picton, owned and inhabited by a branch of the Philipps family.
Other castles are the keep of Haverfordwest and the ruined for-
tresses at Narberth, Tenby, Newport, Wiston, Benton, Upton and
Cilgerran. There are some remains of monastic houses at Tenby
and Pembroke, but the most important religious communities
were the priory of the Augustinian friars at Haverfordwest
and the abbey of the Benedictines at St Dogmells. Of this
latter house, which was founded by Martin de Tours, first lord
of Kemes, at the close of the nth century, and who owned the
priories of Pill and Caldy, considerable ruins exist near the left
bank of the Teifi about 1 m. below Cardigan. Of the ancient
preceptory of the Knights of St John at Slebech scarcely a trace
remains, but of the college of St Mary at St Davids founded by
Bishop Houghton in 1377, the shell of the chapel survives in
fair preservation. Pembrokeshire contains an unusually large
number of county seats, particularly in the south, which includes
Stackpole Court, the residence of Earl Cawdor, a fine mansion
erected in the 18th century; Picton Castle; Slebech, once the
seat of the Barlows; Orielton, formerly belonging to the Owens;
and Ffynone, the residence of the Colby family.

Customs, &*<;. — The division of Pembrokeshire ever since the
1 2th century into well-defined Englishry and Welshry has
produced two distinct sets of languages and customs within the
county. Roughly speaking, the English division, the Anglia
Transwattiana of Camden, occupies the south-eastern half and
comprises the hundreds of Roose, Castlemartin, Narberth and
Dungleddy. In the Welshry, which includes the hundreds of
Dewisland and Cilgerran together with the old barony of Kemes,
the language, customs, manners and folk-lore of the inhabitants
are almost identical with those of Cardigan and Carmarthen.
The old Celtic game of Knappan, a pastime partaking of the
nature both of football and hockey, in which whole parishes
and even hundreds were wont to take an active part, was pre-
valent in the barony of Kemes so late as the 16th century,
as George Owen of Henllys, the historian and antiquary, records;
and the playing of knappan lingered on after Owen's day.
Amongst the settlers of the Englishry, who are of mingled Anglo-
Saxon, Flemish, Welsh and perhaps Scandinavian descent,
many interesting superstitions and customs survive. The
English spoken by these dwellers in " Little England beyond
Wales " contains many curious idioms and words and the pronun-
ciation of some of the vowels is peculiar. Certain picturesque
customs, many of them dating from pre-Reformation times,
are still observed, notably in the neighbourhood of Tenby.
Such are the sprinkling of persons with dewy evergreens on
New Year's morning; the procession of the Cutty Wren on St
Stephen's day, and the constructing of little huts at Lammastide
by the farm boys and girls. As early as the opening years of
the 19th century, cripples and ophthalmic patients were in the
habit of visiting the ancient hermitage at St Gowan's Head to
bathe in its sacred well; and Richard Fenton, the county historian
alludes (c. 1808) to the many crutches left at St Gowan's chapel
by grateful devotees. Belief in ghosts, fairies, witches, &c,
is still prevalent in the more remote places, and the dress of
the fishwives of Langwm near Haverfordwest is highly picturesque
with its short skirt, scarlet shawl and buckled shoes.

PEMMICAN— PEN

83

Authorities. — Richard Fenton, A Historical Tour through
Pembrokeshire (London, 1810) ; Edward Laws, History of Little Eng-
land beyond Wales (London, 1888); Basil Jones and £. A. Freeman,
History and Antiquities of St David's (London, 1856), &c.

PEMMICAN, a North American Indian (Cree) word for a
meat prepared in such a way as to contain the greatest amount
of nourishment in the most compact form. As made by the
Indians it was composed of the lean parts of the meat, dried in
the sun-, and pounded or shredded and mixed into a paste with
melted fat. It is flavoured with acid berries. If kept dry it
will keep for an indefinite time, and is thus particularly service-
able in arctic or other explorations. fc*<

PEMPHIGUS (Gr. 7r£ju<^i£, a bubble), a skin disease, in which
large blebs appear, on a red base, containing a clear or yellowish
fluid; the blebs occasion much irritation, and when they burst
leave raw ulcerated surfaces. The disease is principally known
in unhealthy or neglected children. A variety of the malady,
pemphigus foliaceous, affects the whole body, and gradually
proves fatal. Pemphigus of an acute septicaemic type occurs
in butchers or those who handle hides, and a diplococcus has
been isolated by William Bullock. The treatment is mainly
constitutional, by means of good nourishment, warm baths,
local sedatives and tonics. In chronic pemphigus, streptococci
have been found in the blebs, and the opsonic index was low
to streptococci. Improvement has been known to take place
on the injection of a vaccine of streptococci.

PEN (Lat. penna, a feather, pen), an instrument for writing
or for forming lines with an ink or other coloured fluid. The
English word, as well as its equivalents in French (plume) and in
German (Feder), originally means a wing-feather, but in ancient
times the implements used for producing written characters
were not quills. The earliest writing implement was probably
the stilus (Gr. ypa<j>is), a pointed bodkin of metal, bone or ivory,
used for producing incised or engraved letters on boxwood
tablets covered with wax. The calamus (Gr. KoWafios) or arundo,
the hollow tubular stalk of grasses growing in marshy lands,
was the true ancient representative of the modern pen; hollow
joints of bamboo were similarly employed.

An early specific allusion to the quill pen occurs in the writings
of St Isidore of Seville (early part of the 7th century), 1 but there
is no reason to assume that it was not in use at a still more
remote date. The quills still largely employed among Western
communities as writing instruments are obtained principally
from the wings of the goose (see Feather). In 1809 Joseph
Bramah devised and patented a machine for cutting up the
quill into separate nibs by dividing the barrel into three or even
four parts, and cutting these transversely into " two, three,
four and some into five lengths." Bramah's invention first
familiarized the public with the appearance and use of the nib
slipped into a holder. In 181 8 Charles Watt obtained a patent
for gilding and preparing quills and pens, which may be regarded
as the precursor of the gold pen. But a more distinct advance
was effected in 1822, when J. I. Hawkins and S. Mordan patented
the application of horn and tortoise-shell to the formation of
pen-nibs, the points of which were rendered durable by small
pieces of diamond, ruby or other very hard substance, or by
lapping a small piece of thin sheet gold over the end of the
tortoise-shell.

Metallic pens, though not unknown in classical times — a
bronze pen found at Pompeii is in the Naples Museum — were
little used until the 19th century and did not
become common till near the middle of that cen-
tury. It is recorded that a Birmingham split-ring manufacturer,
Samuel Harrison, made a steel pen for Dr Joseph Priestley
in 1780. Steel pens made and sold in London by a certain
Wise in 1803 were in the form of a tube or barrel, the edges of
which met to form the slit, while the sides were cut away as in
the case of an ordinary quill. Their price was about five shillings
each, and as they were hard, stiff and unsatisfactory instruments
they were not in great demand. A metallic pen patented by

1 " Instrumenta scribae calamus et penna; ex his enim verba
paginis infiguntur; sed calamus arboris est, penna avis, cujus acumen
dividitur in duo."

Steel Pens.

Bryan Donkin in 1808 was made of two separate parts, flat or
nearly so, with the flat sides placed opposite each other to form
the slit, or alternatively of one piece, flat and not cylindrical as in
the usual form, bent to the proper angle for insertion in the
tube which constituted the holder. To John Mitchell prob-
ably belongs the credit of introducing machine-made pens,
about 1822, and James Perry is believed to have been the first
maker of steel slip pens. In 1828 Josiah Mason, who had been
associated with Samuel Harrison, in the manufacture of split
rings, saw Perry's pens on sale in Birmingham, and after examin-
ing them saw his way both to improve and to cheapen the process
of making them. He therefore put himself in communication
with Perry, and the result was that he began to make barrel
pens for him in 1828 and slip pens in 1829. Perry, who did much
to popularize the steel pen and bring it into general use, in his
patent of 1830 sought to obtain greater flexibility by forming
a central hole between the points and the shoulders and by
cutting one or more lateral slits on each side of the central
slit; and Joseph Gillot, in 1831 described an improvement
which consisted in forming elongated points on the nibs of
the pens.

The metal used consists of rolled sheets of cast steel of the
finest quality made from Swedish charcoal iron. These sheets,
after being cut into strips of suitable width, annealed in a muffle-
furnace and pickled in a bath of dilute sulphuric acid to free
the surface from oxidized scale, are rolled between steel rollers till
they are reduced to ribbons of an even thickness, about xhs i n -
From these ribbons the pen blanks are next punched out, and
then, after being embossed with the name of the maker or other
marks, are pierced with the central perforation and the side or
shoulder slits by which flexibility is obtained. After another
annealing, the blanks, which up to this point are flat, are
"raised" or rounded between dies into the familiar semi-
cylindrical shape. The next process is to harden and temper
them by heating them in iron boxes in a muffle-furnace, plunging
them in oil, and then heating them over a fire in a rotating
cylindrical vessel till their surfaces attain the dull blue tint
characteristic of spring-steel elasticity. Subsequently they
are " scoured " in a bath of dilute acid, and polished in a
revolving cylinder. The grinding of the points with emery
follows, and then the central slit is cut by the aid of two
very fine-edged cutters. Finally the pens are again polished,
are coloured by being heated over a fire in a revolving
cylinder, and in some cases are coated with a varnish of shellac
dissolved in alcohol. Birmingham was the first home of the
steel-pen industry, and continues its principal centre. The
manufacture on a large scale was begun in the United States
about i860 at Camden, N. J., where the Esterbrook Steel Pen
Manufacturing Company was incorporated in 1866.

Metals other than steel have frequently been suggested by
inventors, those most commonly proposed being gold, silver,
zinc, German silver, aluminium and aluminium
bronze. Dr W. H. Wollaston, it is recorded, had
a gold pen composed of two thin strips of gold tipped
with rhodium, apparently made on the principle patented by
Donkin in 1808, and Lord Byron used one in 1810. Gold
being extremely resistant to corrosion, pens made of it are very
durable, but the metal is too soft for the points, which wear
quickly unless protected by some harder material. For this
purpose iridium is widely employed, by fusing the gold round
it with a blowpipe.

Various devices have been adopted in order to increase the
time for which a pen can be used without a fresh supply of ink.
These fall into two main classes. In one, the form _
of the nib itself is modified, or some attachment p ens .
is added, to enlarge the ink capacity; in the other,
which is by far the more important, the holder of the pen is
utilized as a cistern or reservoir from which ink is supplied
to the nib. Pens of the second class, which have the further
advantage of being portable, are heard of under the name of
" fountain inkhorns " or " fountain pens " so far back as the
beginning of the 18th century, but it was not till a hundred

84.

PENALTY— PENANG

years later that inventors applied themselves seriously to their
construction. Joseph Bramah patented several plans; one was
to employ a tube of silver or other metal so thin that it could
be readily squeezed out of shape, the ink within it being thus
forced out to the nib, and another was to fit the tube with a
piston that could slide down the interior and thus eject ink.
In modern fountain pens a feed bar conveys, by capillary action,
a fresh supply of ink to replace that which has been left on the
paper in the act of writing, means being also provided by which
air can pass into the reservoir and fill the space left empty by
the outflowing ink. In another form of reservoir pen, which
is usually distinguished by the name stylograph, there is no
nib, but the ink flows out through a minute hole at the end
of the holder, which terminates in a conical point. An iridium
needle, held in place by a fine spring, projects slightly through
the hole and normally keeps the aperture closed; but when
the pen is pressed on the paper, the needle is pushed back and
allows a thin stream of ink to flow out.

See J. P. Maginnis, " Reservoir, Stylographic and Fountain
Pens," Cantor Lectures, Society of Arts (1905).

PENALTY (Lat. poena, punishment), in its original meaning,
a punishment inflicted for some violation of the law or rule
of conduct. Although still freely used in its original sense in
such phrases, for example, as " the death penalty," " the penalty
of rashness," &c., the more usual meaning attached to the word
is that of a pecuniary mulct. Penalty is used specifically for
a sum of money recovered by virtue of a penal statute, or re-
coverable in a court of summary jurisdiction for infringement
of a statute. A sum of money agreed upon to be paid in case
of non-performance of a condition in a bond or in breach of a
contract or any stipulation of it is also termed a penalty (see
Damages).

PENANCE (Old Fr. penance, fr. Lat. poenitentia, penitence),
strictly, repentance of sins. Thus in the Douai version of the
New Testament the Greek word fieravoLa is rendered " penance,"
where the Authorized Version has " repentance." The two
words, similar in their derivation and original sense, have
however come to be symbolical of conflicting views of the essence
of repentance, arising out of the controversy as to the respective
merits of " faith " and " good works." The Reformers, uphold-
ing the doctrine of justification by faith, held that repentance
consisted in a change of the whole moral attitude of the mind
and soul (eirLOTpkfco-dai, Matt. xiii. 15; Luke xxii. 32), and that
the Divine forgiveness followed true repentance and confession
to God without any reparation of " works." This is the view
generally held by Protestants. In the Roman Catholic Church
the sacrament of penance consists of three parts: contritio,
confessio, satisfactio. Contritio is in fact repentance as Protestant
theologians understand it, i.e. sorrow for sin arising from love
of God, and long before the Reformation the schoolmen debated
the question whether complete "contrition" was or was not
in itself sufficient to obtain the Divine pardon. The Council
of Trent, however, decided that "reconciliation" could not
follow such contrition without the other parts of the sacrament,
which form part of it (sine sacramenti volo, quod in ilia includatur).
Contrition is also distinguished from " attrition " (atlritio), i.e.
repentance due to fear of punishment. It was questioned
whether a state of mind thus produced would suffice for obtaining
the benefits of the sacrament; this point was also set at rest by
the Council of Trent, which decided that attrition, though not
in itself capable of obtaining the justification of the sinner, is
also inspired by God and thus disposes the soul to benefit by
the grace of the sacrament.

The word " penance," applied to the whole sacrament, is
also used of the works of satisfaction imposed by the priest on
the penitent, i.e. the temporal punishment (poena). This
varies with the character and hcinousness of the offences com-
mitted. In the middle ages " doing penance " was often a
process as terrible and humiliating to the penitent as it was
possibly edifying to the Church. Public penances have, how-
ever, long been abolished in all branches of the Christian
Church. (See Confession.)

PENANG (Pulau Pinang, i.e. Areca-nut Island), Jhe town
and island which, after Singapore, form the most important
portion of the crown colony of the Straits Settlements. The
island is situated in 5° 24' N. and 100° 21' E., and distant about
2 1 m. from the west coast of the Malay Peninsula. The island is
about 1 5J m. long by iof m. wide at its broadest point. Its area
is something over 107 sq. m. The town, which is built on a pro-
montory at a point nearest to the mainland, is largely occupied by
Chinese and Tamils, though the Malays are also well represented;
Behind the town, Penang Hill rises to a height of some 2700 ft.,
and upon it are built several government and private bungalows.
The town possesses a fine European club, a racecourse, and good
golf links. Coco-nuts are grown in considerable quantities
along the seashore, and rice is cultivated at Balek Pulau and in
the interior, but the jungle still spreads over wide areas. Penang
has an excellent harbour, but has suffered from its proximity
to Singapore. There are a Church of England and a Roman
Catholic church in the town, and a training college under the
Roman Catholic missionaries of the Societe des Missions
Etrangeres at Pulau Tikus, a few miles outside the town.

Administration. — Since 1867 Penang has been under the
administrative control of a resident councillor who is responsible
to the governor of the Straits. He is aided in his duties by
officers of the Straits Civil Service. Two unofficial members
of the legislative council of the colony, which holds its sittings
in Singapore, are nominated by the governor, with the sanction
of the secretary of state for the colonies, to represent Penang.
Their term of office is for five years. The official name of the
island is Prince of Wales Island and that of the town is George-
town; neither of these names, however, is in general use. Among
the Malays Penang is usually spoken of as Tanjong or " The
Cape," on account of the promontory upon which the town is
situated. The town is administered by a municipal council
composed of ex officio, nominated, and elected members.

Population. — The population of Penang at the time of the
census of 1901 was 128,830, of whom 85,070 were males (69,210
over and 15,860 under 15 years of age), and 43,760 were females
(28,725 over and 15,035 under 15 years of age). The population
was composed of 71,462 Chinese, 34,286 Malays, 18,740 Tamils
and other natives of India, 1649 Eurasians, 993 Europeans and
Americans, and 1699 persons of other nationalities. As in other
parts of the Straits Settlements the men are far more numerous
than the women. The total population of the settlement of
Penang, which includes not only the island but Province
Wellesley and the Dindings, was 248,207 in 1901.

Shipping. — The number of ships which entered and left the port
of Penang during 1906 was 2324 with an aggregate tonnage of
2,868,459. Of these 1802 were British with an aggregate tonnage of
1,966,286. These figures reveal a considerable falling-off during the
past decade, the number of vessels entering and leaving the port
in 1898 being 5114 with an aggregate tonnage of 3,761,094. This
is mainly due to the construction of the railway which runs from a
point on the mainland opposite to Penang, through the Federated
Malay States of Perak, Selangor and the Negri Sembllan to Malacca,
and has diverted to other ports and eventually to Singapore much
of the coastal traffic which formerly visited Penang.

Finance and Trade. — The revenue of Penang, that is to say, not
only of the island but of the entire settlement, amounted in 1906
to $6,031,917, of which $2,014,033 was derived from the revenue
farms for the collection of import duties on opium, wine and spirits;
$160,047 from postal revenue; $119,585 from land revenue; $129,151
from stamps. The expenditure for 1906 amounted to $5,072,406,
of which $836,097 was spent on administrative establishments,
$301,252 on the upkeep of existing public works; $415,175 on the
construction of works and buildings, and of new roads, streets,
bridges, &c. The imports in 1906 were valued at $94,546,112;
the exports at $90,709,225. Of the imports $57,880,889 worth
came from the United Kingdom or from British possessions or
protectorates; $23,937,737 worth came from foreign countries;
and $3,906,241 from the Dindings, Malacca and Singapore. Of the
exports, $23,122,947 went to the United Kingdom, or to British
possessions or protectorates; $37,671,033 went to foreign countries;
and $2,754,238 went to the Dindings, Malacca or Singapore.

History— Penang was founded on the 17th of July 1786,
having been ceded to the East India Company by the Sultan
of Kedah in 1785 by an agreement with Captain Light, for an
annuity of $10,000 for eight years. In 1791 the subsidy was

PENARTH— PENATES

85

changed to $6ooc, in perpetuity; for some years later this was
raised to $10,000, and is still annually paid. This final addition
was made when Province Wellesley was purchased by the East
India Company for $2000 in 1798. At the time of the cession
Penang was almost uninhabited. In 1796 it was made a penal
settlement, and 700 convicts were transferred thither from the
Andaman Islands. In 1805 Penang was made a separate
presidency, ranking with Bombay and Madras; and when in
1826 Singapore and Malacca were incorporated with it, Penang
continued to be the seat of government. In 1829 Penang was
reduced from the rank of a presidency, and eight years later
the town of Singapore was made the capital of the Settlements.
In 1867 the Straits Settlements were created a Crown colony,
in which Penang was included.

See Straits Settlements Blue Book igo6 (Singapore, 1907); The
Straits Directory (Singapore, 1907); Sir Frank Swettenham, British
Malaya (London, 1906). (H. Cl.)

PENARTH, an urban district and seaport in the southern
parliamentary division of Glamorganshire, Wales, 166 m. by rail
from London, picturesquely situated on rising ground on the
south side of the mouth of the Ely opposite Cardiff, from which
it is 4 m. distant by rail and 2 m. by steamer. Pop. (1901), 14,228.
The place derives its name from two Welsh words, " pen," a head,
and " garth," an enclosure. Penarth was a small and unimpor-
tant village until a tidal harbour at the mouth of the Ely was
opened in 1859, and a railway, 6 m. long, was made about the
same time, connecting the harbour with the Taff Vale railway
at Radyr. A dock, authorized in 1857, was opened in 1865,
when all three undertakings, which had cost £775,000, were
leased in perpetuity to the Taff Vale Railway Company. The
monopoly which the Bute Docks at Cardiff had previously
enjoyed in shipping coal from the valleys of the Taff and Rhondda
was thus terminated. The town is frequented in summer as a
bathing-place, and the Rhaetic beds at the head are of special
interest to geologists. On this head there stood an old church,
probably Norman, which served as a landmark for sailors.
The remains of an old chantry have been converted into a barn.
Besides two Established and one Roman Catholic church, the
principal buildings of Penarth are its various Nonconformist
chapels, intermediate and technical school (1894), custom house,
dock offices, and Turner House with a private art gallery which
is thrown open on certain days to the public. Three miles to
the west is Dinas Powis Castle. In 1880-1883 gardens were
laid out along the cliff, in 1894 a promenade and landing-pier
with a length of 630 ft. were constructed, and in 1900 a marine
subway open at all times for foot passengers was made under
the river Ely. The dock, as first constructed, comprised 17!
acres, was extended in 1884 at a cost of £250,000, and now
covers 23 acres with a basin of 3 acres. It is 2900 ft. in length,
has a minimum depth of 26 ft., and is furnished with every
modern appliance for the export of coal, of which from 20,000
to 30,000 tons can be stored in the sidings near by. The
Penarth-Ely tidal harbour has a water area of 55 acres with
a minimum depth of 20 ft., and a considerable import trade is
carried on here mainly by coasting vessels; but as only one of
its sides has wharves (about 3000 ft. along) scarcely more than 5%
of the total shipping of the port is done here. It has commo-
dious warehouses, also tanks to hold about 6000 tons of oil.

PENATES (from Lat. pemis, eatables, food), Roman gods of the
store-room and kitchen. The store-room over which they
presided was, in old times, beside the atrium, the room which
served as kitchen, parlour, and bedroom in one; but in later
times the store-room, was in the back part of the house. It was
sanctified by the presence of the Penates, and none but pure
and chaste persons might enter it, just as with the Hindus
the kitchen is sacred and inviolable. They had no individual
names, but were always known under the general designation,
Penates. Closely associated with the Penates were the Lares
(q.v.) another species of domestic deity, who seem to have
been the deified spirits of deceased ancestors. But while each
family had two Penates it had but one Lar. In the household
shrine the image of the Lar (dressed in a toga) was placed

between the two images of the Penates, which were represented
as dancing and elevating a drinking-horn in token of joy and
plenty. The three images together were sometimes called
Penates, sometimes Lares, and either name was used metaphori-
cally for" home." The shrine stood originally in the atrium,
but when the hearth and the kitchen were separated from the
atrium and removed to the back of the house, and meals were
taken in an upper storey, the position of the shrine was also
shifted. In the houses at Pompeii it is sometimes in the kitchen,
sometimes in the rooms. In the later empire it was placed
behind the house-door, and a taper or lamp was kept burning
before it. But the worship in the interior of the house was also
kept up even into Christian times; it was forbidden by an
ordinance of Theodosius (a.d. 392). The old Roman used, in
company with his children and slaves, to offer a morning sacrifice
and prayer to his household gods. Before meals the blessing
of the gods was asked, and after the meal, but before dessert,
there was a short silence, and a portion of food was placed on
the hearth and burned. If the hearth and the images were not
in the eating-room, either the images were brought and put
on the table, or before the shrine was placed a table on which
were set a salt-cellar, food and a burning lamp. Three days
in the month, viz. the Calends, Nones and Ides (i.e. the first,
the fifth or seventh, and the thirteenth or fifteenth), were set
apart for special family worship, as were also the Caristia
(Feb. 22) and the Saturnalia in December. On these days as
well as on such occasions as birthdays, marriages, and safe
returns from journeys, the images were crowned and offerings
made to them of cakes, honey, wine, incense, and sometimes a
pig. As each family had its own Penates, so the state, as a
collection of families, had its public Penates. Intermediate
between the worship of the public and private Penates were
probably the rites (sacra) observed by each clan (gens) or collec-
tion of families supposed to be descended from a common
ancestor. The other towns of Latium had their public Penates as
well as Rome. The sanctuary of the whole Latin league was at
Lavinium. To these Penates at Lavinium the Roman priests
brought yearly offerings, and the Roman consuls, praetors
and dictators sacrificed both when they entered on and when
they laid down their office. To them, too, the generals sacrificed
before departing for their province. Alba Longa, the real
mother-city of Latium, had also its ancient Penates, and the
Romans maintained the worship on the Alban mount long after
the destruction of Alba Longa. The Penates had a temple of
their own at Rome. It was on the Velia near the Forum, and
has by some been identified with the round vestibule of the
church of SS. Cosma e Damiano. In this and many other temples
the Penates were represented by two images of youths seated
holding spears. The Penates were also worshipped in the neigh-
bouring temple at Vesta. To distinguish the two worships
it has been supposed that the Penates in the former temple
were those of Latium, while those in the temple of Vesta were
the Penates proper of Rome. Certainly the worship of the
Penates, whose altar was the hearth and to whom the kitchen
was sacred, was closely connected with that of Vesta, goddess
of the domestic hearth.

The origin and nature of the Penates was a subject of much
discussion to the Romans themselves. They were traced to the
mysterious worship of Samothrace; Dardanus, it was said, took
the Penates from Samothrace to Troy, and after the destruction
of Troy, Aeneas brought them to Italy and established them at
Lavinium. From Lavinium Ascanius carried the worship to
Alba Longa, and from Alba Longa it was brought to Rome.
Equally unsatisfactory with this attempt to connect Roman
religion with Greek legend are the vague and mystic speculations
in which the later Romans indulged respecting the. nature of
the Penates. Some said they were the great gods to whom we
owe breath, body and reason, viz. Jupiter representing the
middle ether, Juno the lowest air and the earth, and Minerva
the highest ether, to whom some added Mercury as the god
of speech (Servius, on Aen. ii. 296; Macrobius, Sat. iii. 4, 8;
Arnobius, Adv. Nat. iii. 40). Others identified them with Apollo

86

PENCIL— PENDA

and Neptune (Macrob. iii. 4, 6; Arnob. loc. cit.; Servius, on
Aen. iii. 1 19). The Etruscans held the Penates to be Ceres, Pales
and Fortuna, to whom others added Genius Jovialis (Servius on
Aen. ii. 325; Arnob. loc. cit.). The late writer Martianus Capella
records the view that heaven was divided into sixteen regions, in
the first of which were placed the Penates, along with Jupiter,
the Lares, &c. More fruitful than these misty speculations is
the suggestion, made by the ancients themselves, that the
worship of these family gods sprang from the ancient Roman
custom (common to many savage tribes) of burying the dead
in the house. But this would account for the worship of the
Lares rather than of the Penates. A comparison with other
primitive religious beliefs suggests the conjecture that the
Penates may be a remnant of fetishism or animism. The Roman
genii seem certainly to have been fetishes and the Penates were
perhaps originally a species of genii. Thus the Penates, as
simple gods of food, are probably much more ancient than
deities like Jupiter, Neptune, Apollo and Minerva.

With the Penates we may compare the kindly household gods
of old Germany; they too had their home on the kitchen hearth
and received offerings of food and clothing. In the castle of
Hudemiihlen (Hanover) there was a kobold for whom a cover
was always set on the table. In Lapland each house had one
or more spirits. The souls of the dead are regarded as house-
spirits by the Russians; they are represented as dwarfs, and are
served with food and drink. Each house in Servia has its
patron-saint. In the mountains of Mysore every house has its
bhuta or guardian deity, to whom prayer and sacrifices are
offered. The Chinese god of the kitchen presents some curious
analogies to the Penates: incense and candles are burnt before
him on the first and fifteenth of the month; some families burn
incense and candles before him daily; and on great festivals,
one of which is at the winter solstice (nearly corresponding to
the Saturnalia), he is served with cakes, pork, wine, incense,
&c, which are placed on a table before him.

See Roman Religion. (J. G. Fx. ; X.)

PENCIL (Lat. penicillus, brush, literally little tail), a name
originally applied to a small fine-pointed brush used in painting,
and still employed to denote the finer camel's-hair and sable
brushes used by artists, but now commonly signifying solid
cones or rods of various materials used for writing and drawing.
It has been asserted that a manuscript of Theophilus, attributed
to the 13th century, shows signs of having been ruled with a
black-lead pencil; but the first distinct allusion occurs in the
treatise on fossils by Conrad Gesner of Zurich (1565), who
describes an article for writing formed of wood and a piece of
lead, or, as he believed, an artificial composition called by some
stimmi anglicanum (English antimony). The famous Borrowdale
mine in Cumberland having been discovered about that time,
it is probable that we have here the first allusion to that great
find of graphite. While the supply of the Cumberland mine
lasted, the material for English pencils consisted simply of the
native graphite as taken from the mine. The pieces were
sawn into thin sheets, which again were cut into the slender
square rods forming the " lead " of the pencil.

Strenuous efforts were made on the continent of Europe and
in England to enable manufacturers to become independent
of the product of the Cumberland mine. In Nuremberg, where
the great pencil factory of the Faber family (q.v.) was established
in 1760, pencils were made from pulverized graphite cemented
into solid blocks by means of gums, resins, glue, sulphur and
other such substances, but none of these preparations yielded
useful pencils. In the year 1795 N. J. Conte (q.v.), of Paris,
devised the process by which now all black-lead pencils, and
indeed pencils of all sorts, are manufactured. In 1843 William
Brockedon patented a process for compressing pure black-lead
powder into solid compact blocks by which he was enabled to
use the dust, fragments, and cuttings of fine Cumberland lead.
Brockedon's process would have proved successful but the
exhaustion of the Borrowdale supplies and the excellence of
Conte's process rendered it more of scientific interest than of
commercial value.

The pencil leads prepared by the Conte process consist of a
mixture of graphite and clay. The graphite, having been pulver-
ized and subjected to any necessary purifying processes, is
" floated " through a series of settling tanks, in each of which
the comparatively heavy particles sink, and only the still finer
particles are carried over. That which sinks in the last of the
series is in a condition of extremely fine division, and is used
for pencils of the highest quality. The clay, which must be free
from sand and iron, is treated in the same manner. Clay and
graphite so prepared are mixed together in varying propor-
tions with water to a paste, passed repeatedly through a
grinding mill, then placed in bags and squeezed in a
hydraulic press till they have the consistency of stiff dough,
in which condition they are ready for forming pencil rods. For
this purpose the plastic mass is placed in a strong upright
cylinder, from which a plunger or piston, moved by a screw,
forces it out through a perforated base-plate in a continuous
thread. This thread is finally divided into suitable lengths,
which are heated in a closed crucible for some hours. The two
factors which determine the comparative hardness and blackness
of pencils are the proportions of graphite and clay in the leads
and the heat to which they are raised in the crucible. According
as the proportion of graphite is greater and the heat lower the
pencil is softer and of deeper black streak.

The wood in which the leads are cased is pencil cedar from
Juniperus virginiana for the best qualities, and pine for the
cheaper ones. A board of the selected wood, having a thickness
about equal to half the diameter of the finished pencil and as
wide as four or six pencils, is passed through a machine which
smooths the surface and cuts round or square grooves to receive
the leads. The leads being placed in the grooves the board is
covered with another similarly grooved board, and the two
are fastened together with glue. When dry they are taken
to rapidly revolving cutters which remove the wood between
the leads. The individual pencils thus formed only need to
be finished by being dyed and varnished and stamped with
name, grade, &c. Instead of wood, paper has been tried for
the casings, rolled on in narrow strips which are torn off to
expose fresh lead as the point becomes worn down by use.

Black pencils of an inferior quality are made from the dust of
graphite melted up with sulphur and run into moulds. Such, with
a little tallow added to give them softness, are the pencils commonly
used by carpenters. Coloured pencils consist of a mixture of clay,
with appropriate mineral colouring matter, wax, and tallow, treated
by the Conte method, as in making lead pencils. In indelible and
copying pencils the colouring matter is an aniline preparation mixed
with clay and gum. The mixture not only makes a streak which
adheres to the paper, but, when the writing is moistened with water,
it dissolves and assumes the appearance and properties of an ink.

PENDA, king of Mercia (d. 654 or 655), son of Pybba, probably
came to the throne in 626, but it is doubtful whether he actually
became king of Mercia until 633, the year of the defeat and death
of Edwin of Northumbria. According to the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle he was eighty years old at his death, but the energy
of his administration and the evidence with regard to the ages
of his children and relatives render it almost impossible. In
628 the Chronicle records a battle between him and the West
Saxons at Cirencester in that year. In 633 Penda and Ceadwalla
ovei threw Edwin at Hatfield Chase; but after the defeat of
the Welsh king at Oswald at " Hefenfelth " in 634, Mercia
seems to have been for a time subject to Northumbria. In
642 Penda slew Oswald at a place called Maerfeld. He was
continually raiding Northumbria and once almost succeeded
in reducing Bamborough. He drove Cenwalh of Wessex, who
had divorced his sister, from his throne. In 654 he attacked the
East Angles, and slew their king Anna (see East Anglia).
In 654 or 655 he invaded Northumbria in spite of the attempts
of Oswio to buy him off, and was defeated and slain on the
banks of the " Winwaed." In the reign of Penda the districts
corresponding to Cheshire, Shropshire and Herefordshire were
probably acquired, and he established his son Peada as a
dependent prince in Middle Anglia. Although a pagan, he
allowed his daughter Cyneburg to marry Alchfrith, the son of

PENDANT— PENDLETON, E.

87

Oswio, and it was in his reign that Christianity was introduced
into Middle Anglia by his son Peada.

See Bede, Hist. Eccl. (ed. C. Plummer, Oxford, 1896) ; Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford, 1899).

PENDANT (through Fr. from Lat. pendere, to hang), any hang-
ing object, such as a jewel or other ornament hanging from
a brooch, bracelet, &c, or the loose end of a knight's belt left
hanging after passing through the buckle, and terminating in
an ornamental end. In architecture the word is applied to an
elongated boss, either moulded or foliated, such as hangs down
from the intersection of ribs, especially in fan tracery, or at the
end of hammer beams. Sometimes long corbels, under the wall
pieces, have been so called. The name has also been given to
the large masses depending from enriched ceilings, in the later
works of the Pointed style. " Pendants " or " Pendent posts "
are those timbers which are carried down the side of the wall
from the plate, and receive the hammer braces.

PENDENTIVE, the term given in architecture to the bridging
across the angles of a square hall, so as to obtain a circular base
for a dome or drain. This may be done by corbelling out in
the angles, in which case the pendentive may be a portion of a
hemisphere of which the half diagonal of the square hall is the
radius; or by throwing a series of arches across the angle, each
ring as it rises advancing in front of the one below and being
carried by it during its construction; in this case the base
obtained is octagonal, so that corbels or small pendentives
are required for each angle of the octagon, unless as in the church
of SS. Sergius and Bacchus at Constantinople a portion of the
dome is set back; or again, by a third method, by sinking a
semicircular niche in the angle. The first system was that
employed in St Sophia at Constantinople, and in Byzantine
churches generally, also in the domed churches of Perigord and
Aquitaine. The second is found in the Sassanian palaces of
Serbistan and Firuzabad, and in medieval architecture in
England, France and Germany, where the arches are termed
" squinches." The third system is found in the mosque at
Damascus, and was often adopted in the churches in Asia
Minor. There is still another method in which the pendentive
and cupola are part of the same hemispherical dome, and in
this case the ring courses lie in vertical instead of horizontal
planes, examples of which may be found in the vault of Magnesia
on Maeander in Asia Minor, and in the tomb at Valence known
as le pendent if de Valence. The problem is one which has taxed
the ingenuity of many builders in ancient times; the bas-reliefs
found at Nimrud show that in the 9th century B.C. domes were
evidently built over square halls, and must have been carried
on pendentives of some kind.

PENDER, SIR JOHN (1816-1S96), British cable pioneer, was
born in the Yale of Leven, Scotland, on the 10th of September
18:6, and after attending school in Glasgow became a successful
merchant in textile fabrics in that city and in Manchester.
His name is chiefly known in connexion with submarine cables,
of which on the commercial side he was an important promoter.
He was one of the 345 contributors who each risked a thousand
pounds in the Transatlantic Cable in 1857, and when the Atlantic
Telegraph Company was ruined by the loss of the 1865 cable he
formed the Anglo-American Telegraph Company to continue
the work, but it was not till he had given his personal guarantee
for a quarter of a mil 1 ion pounds that the makers would under-
take the manufacture of a new cable. But in the end he was
justified, and telegraphic communication with America became
a commercial success. Subsequently he fostered cable enter-
prise in all parts of the world, and at the time of his death,
which occurred at Footscray Place, Kent, on the 7th of July
1896, he controlled companies having a capital of 15 millions
sterling and owning 73,640 nautical miles of cables. He repre-
sented Wick Burghs in parliament from 1872 to 1885 and from
1892 to 1896. He was made a K.C.M.G. in 1888 and was pro-
moted in 1892 to be G.C.M.G. His eldest son James (b. 1841),
who was M.P. for Mid Northamptonshire in 1895-1900, was
created a baronet in 1897; and his third son, John Denison
(b. 1855), was created a K.C.M.G. in 1901.

PENDLESIDE SERIES, in geology, a series of shales between
the upper division of the Carboniferous Limestone and the
Millstone Grits occurring in the Midlands between Stoke-on-
Trent and Settle. It consists of black limestones at the base,
followed by black shales with calcareous nodules, which pass
into sandy shales with ganister-like sandstones. In places
the series attains a thickness of 1500-1000 ft., and where it is
thickest the Millstone Grits also attain their maximum thickness.
The peculiarities of the series, which is characterized by a rich
fauna with Produclus giganteus, P. striatus, Dibunophyllum,
Cyathaxonia cornu and Lonsdaleia floriformis, can be best
studied on the western slope of Pendle Hill, Lancashire, in the
valley of the Hodder, dividing the counties of Lancashire and
Yorkshire, at Mam Tor and the Edale valley in Derbyshire, and
Morredge, the Dane valley in north Staffordshire, Bagillt and
Teilia in North Wales, and Scarlett and Poolvash, Isle of Man.
The limestones at the base are hard, compact and fissile, often
cherty, and vary much in the amount of calcium carbonate which
they contain, at times passing into calcareous shales.

These limestones and shales contain a distinct fauna which
appears for the first time in the Midlands, characterized by
Pterinopecten papyraceus, Posidoniella laevis, Posidonomya
Becheri, Posidonomya membranacea, Nomismoceras rotiforme
and Glyphioceras striatus. Immediately below beds with this
fauna are thin limestones with Prolecanites compressus, Strobo-
ceras bisulcatus, many trilobites, and corals referable to the
genera Cyathaxonia, Zaphrentis and Amplexizaphrentis. The
fauna characteristic of the Carboniferous Limestone becomes
largely extinct and is replaced by a shale fauna, but the
oncoming of the age of Goniatites is shown by the presence
in the upper part of the Carboniferous Limestone of numerous
species and genera of this group, Glyphioceras crenestria being
the most common and having the wider horizontal range.
The whole Pendleside series can be divided into zones by the
different species of Goniatites. At the base Prolecanites com-
pressus characterizes the passage beds between the Carboniferous
Limestone and the Pendlesides; Nomismoceras rotiforme and
Glyphioceras striatus are found in a narrow zone immediately
above. Then Glyphioceras reticulatum appears and reaches
its maximum, and is succeeded by Glyphioceras diadema
and Glyphioceras spirale, while immediately below the
Millstone Grits Glyphioceras bilingue appears and passes up in
that series. The Millstone Grits are characterized by the
presence of Gaslrioceras Listeri. The Pendleside series is
therefore characterized by an Upper Carboniferous fauna,
Pterinopecten papyraceus, Posidoniella laevis and some other
species which pass up right through the Coal Measures appearing
for the first time, and the base of the series marks the division
between Upper and Lower Carboniferous times.

The series passes eastward into Belgium and thence into
Germany, when the same fossil zones are found in the basin of
Namur and the valley of the Dill. Traced westward the series is
well developed in Co. Dublin and on the west coast of Cos. Clare
and Limerick. There can be no doubt that the Pendleside series
of the Midlands represents the Lower Culm of Codden Hill,
north Devon, and the Lower Culm of the continent of Europe.
The faunas in these localities have the same biological succession
as in the midlands.

See Wheelton Hind and J. Allen Howe, Quart. Journ. Geog.
Soc. vol. lvii. (1901), and numerous other papers by the first-named
author. . (W. Hi.)

PENDLETON, EDMUND (1721-1803), American lawyer and
statesman, was born, of English Royalist descent, in Caroline
county, Virginia, on the 9th of September 1721. He was
self-educated, but after reading law and being admitted to the
bar (1744) his success was immediate. He served in the
Virginia House of Burgesses from 1752 until the organization
of the state government in 1776, was the recognized leader of
the conservative Whigs, and took a leading part in opposing
the British government. He was a member of the Virginia
committee of correspondence in 1773, in 1774 was president
of the Virginia provincial convention, and a member of the first

88

PENDLETON, G. H.— PENGUIN

Continental Congress. In 1776, as president of the provincial
convention, which adopted a state constitution for Virginia,
he drew up the instructions to the Virginia members of Congress
directing them to advocate the independence of the American
colonies. In the same year he became president of the Virginia
committee of safety, and in October was chosen the first
speaker of the House of Delegates. With Jefferson and Chan-
cellor George Wythe he drew up a new law code for Virginia.
He was president of the court of chancery in 1777-1788, and
from 1779 until his death was president of the Virginia court of
appeals. He was an enthusiastic advocate of the Federal consti-
tution, and in 1788 exerted strong influence to secure its ratifi-
cation by his native state. He was a leader of the Federalist
party in Virginia until his death at Richmond, Va., on the
23rd of October 1803.

PENDLETON, GEORGE HUNT (1825-1889), American lawyer
and legislator, was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, on the 25th of
July 1825. He was educated at the university of Heidelberg,
studied law, was admitted to the bar, and began to practise
at Cincinnati. He was a member of the Ohio Senate in 1854
and 1855, and from 1857 to 1865 was a Democratic member of
the national House of Representatives, in which he opposed
the war policy of Lincoln. In 1864 he was the Democratic
candidate for vice-president. After leaving Congress he became
one of the earliest champions of the " Ohio idea " (which
he is said to have originated), demanding that the government
should pay the principal of its 5-20-year 6% bonds in the
" greenback " currency instead of in coin. The agricultural
classes of the West regarded this as a means of relief, and
Pendleton became their recognized leader and a candidate for the
Democratic nomination to the presidency in 1868, but he failed
to receive the requisite two-thirds majority. In 1869 he was the
Democratic candidate for governor of Ohio, but was defeated
by Rutherford B. Hayes. For the next ten years he devoted
himself to the practice of law and to the supervision of the
Kentucky Railroad Company, of which he had become president
in 1869. From 1879 to 1885 he was a Democratic member of
the United States Senate, and introduced the so-called Pendleton
Act of 1883 for reforming the civil service, hostility to which
lost him his seat in 1885. He was minister to Germany from
1885 to the summer of 1889, and died at Brussels on the 24th
of November 1889.

PENELOPE, in Greek legend, wife of Odysseus, daughter of
Icarius and the nymph Periboea. During the long absence
of her husband after the fall of Troy many chieftains of Ithaca
and the islands round about became her suitors; and, to rid
herself of the importunities of the wooers, she bade them wait
till she had woven a winding-sheet for old Laertes, the father
of Odysseus. But every night she undid the piece which she
had woven by day. This she did for three years, till her maids
revealed the secret. She was relieved by the arrival of Odysseus,
who returned after an absence of twenty years, and slew the
wooers. The character of Penelope is less favourable in late
writers than in the Homeric story. During her husband's absence
she is said to have become the mother of Pan by Hermes, and
Odysseus, on his return, repudiated her as unfaithful (Herodotus
ii. 145 and schol.). She thereupon withdrew to Sparta and
thence to Mantineia, where she died and where her tomb was
shown. According to another account she married Telegonus
the son of Odysseus and Circe, after he had killed his father,
and dwelt with him in the island of Aeala or in the Islands of
the Blest (Hyginus, Feb. 127).

PENGELLY, WILLIAM (1812-1894), English geologist and
anthropologist, was born at East Looe in Cornwall on the 12th
of January 181 2, the son of the captain of a small coasting vessel.
He began life as a sailor, after an elementary education in
his native village, but in 1828 he abandoned a seafaring life.
He had developed a passion for learning, and about 1836 he
removed to Torquay and started a school; in 1846 he became
a private tutor in mathematics and natural science. Geology
had in early years attracted his attention, but it was not until
he was about 30 years of age that he began seriously to cultivate

the study. In 1837 he was instrumental in the reorganization
of the Torquay Mechanics' Institute, in 1844 mainly owing to
his energy the Torquay Natural History Society was founded,
and in 1862 he assisted in founding the Devonshire Association
for the Advancement of Literature, Science and Art. Meanwhile
he had been occupied in collecting fossils from many parts
of Devon and Cornwall, and in i860 the Baroness Burdett-
Coutts acquired and presented them to the Oxford Museum,
where they form " The Pengelly Collection." Through the
generosity of the same lady he was called upon to examine
the lignites and clays of Bovey Tracey, in conjunction with
Dr Oswald Heer, who undertook the determination of the
plant-remains. Their report was published by the Royal
Society (1862), and Pengelly was elected F.R.S. in 1863. He
aided in the investigations of the Brixham bone-cavern from
the date of its discovery in 1858, the full report being issued
in 1873; and he was the main explorer of Kent's Hole, Torquay,
and from 1864 for more than fifteen years he laboured with
unflagging energy in examining and recording the exact position
of the numerous organic remains that were disinterred during
a systematic investigation of this cave, carried on with the aid
of grants from, the British Association. He first attended the
British Association at the Cheltenham meeting in 1856, and was
present at subsequent meetings (except that at Montreal in
1884) until 1889. His observations assisted in establishing
the important fact of the contemporaneity of Palaeolithic man
with various Pleistocene mammalia, such as the mammoth,
cave-bear, cave-lion, &c. He was awarded the Lyell medal
by the Geological Society of London in 1886. He died at
Torquay on the 16th of March 1894.

See Memoir of William Pengelly, edited by his daughter Hester
Pengelly, with a summary of his scientific work by the Rev. Pro-
fessor T. G. Bonney (1897).

PENGUIN, the name of a flightless sea-bird, 1 but, so far as
is known, first given to one inhabiting the seas of Newfound-
land as in Hore's "Voyage to Cape Breton," 1536 (Hakluyt,
Researches, in. 168-170), which subsequently became known
as the great auk or garefowl (q.v.) ; though the French equiva-
lent Pingouin 2 preserves its old application, the word penguin
is by English ornithologists always used for certain birds
inhabiting the Southern Ocean, called by the French Manchots,
the Spheiiiscidae of ornithologists. For a long while their
position was very much misunderstood, some systematists
having placed them with the Alcidae or Auks, to which they
bear only a relationship of analogy, as indeed had been perceived
by a few ornithologists, who recognized in the penguins a very
distinct order, Impcnnes. L. Stejneger {Standard Nat. Hist.
vol. iv., Boston, 1885) gave the Impennes independent rank
equivalent to the rest of Carinate birds; M. A. Menzbier
{Vergl. Osteol. d. Penguine, Moscow, 1887) took a similar
view; M. Fiirbringer was first to show their relation to
Procellariformes, and this view is now generally accepted.

1 Of the three derivations assigned to this name, the first is by
Drayton in 1613 {Polyolbion, Song 9), where it is said to be the Welsh
pen gwyn, or "white head"; the second, which seems to meet
with Littre's approval, deduces it from the Latin pinguis (fat),
which idea has given origin to the German name, Fettgdnse, for these
birds; the third supposes it to be a corruption of " pin-wing " {Ann.
Nat. History, 4th series, vol. iv. p. 133), meaning a bird that has under-
gone the operation of pinioning or, as in one part at least of England
it is commonly called, " pin-winging." The first hypothesis has
been supported on the ground that Breton sailors speaking a language
closely allied to Welsh were acquainted with the great auk, and
that the conspicuous white patches on the head of that bird
justified the name " white head." To the second hypothesis Skeat
{Dictionary, p. 433) objects that it " will not account for the suffix -in,
and is therefore wrong; besides which the ' Dutchmen ' [who were
asserted to be the authors of the name] turn out to be Sir Francis
Drake " and his men. In support of the third hypothesis Mr Reeks
wrote {Zoologist, 2nd series, p. 1854) that the people in Newfoundland
who used to meet with this bird always pronounced its name
" pin wing." Skeat's inquiry {loc. cit.), whether the name may not
after all be South American, is to be answered in the negative, since,
so far as evidence goes, it was given to the North-American bird
before the South-American was known in Europe.

2 Gorfou has also been used by some French writers, being a
corruption of Geirfugl or Garefowl.

PENHALLOW— PENINGTON

89

There is a total want of quills in their wings, which are incapable
of flexure, though they move freely at the shoulder-joint, and
some at least of the species occasionally make use of them for
progressing on land. In the water they are most efficient
paddles. The plumage, which clothes the whole body, generally
consists of small scale-like feathers, many of them consisting
only of a simple shaft without the development of barbs; but
several of the species have the head decorated with long cirrhous
tufts, and in some the tail-quills, which are very numerous,
are also long. J In standing these birds preserve an upright
position, sometimes resting on the " tarsus " 2 alone, but in
walking or running this is kept nearly vertical, and their weight
is supported by the toes alone.

The most northerly limit of the penguins' range in the
Atlantic is Tristan d'Acunha, and in the Indian Ocean Amsterdam
Island, but they also occur off the Cape of Good Hope and along
the coast of Australia, as well as on the south and east of New
Zealand, while in the Pacific one species at least extends
along the west coast of South America and to the Galapagos;
but north of the equator none are found. In the breeding
season they resort to the most desolate lands in higher southern
latitudes, and indeed have been met with as far to the south-
ward as navigators have penetrated. Possibly the Falkland
Islands are richest in species, though, as individuals, they

King- Penguin {Aptenodytes pennanti).

are not nearly so numerous there as in many other places. The
food of penguins consists of crustaceans, cephalopods and other
molluscs, varied by fish and vegetable matter. The birds
form immense breeding colonies, known as " rookeries." The
nest of grass, leaves, or where vegetation is scanty of stones
or rubbish, is placed on the ground or in holes. Two chalky
white or greenish eggs are laid. The young penguins, clad
in thick down, are born blind and are fed by the parents for
an unusually long time before taking to the water. Penguins
bite savagely when molested, but are easily trained and
display considerable intelligence.

The S pheniscidae have been divided into at least eight genera,
but three, or at most four, seem to be all that are needed, and

1 The pterylographical characters of the penguins are well
described by A. Hyatt (Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. History, 1871). A. D.
Bartlett has observed (Proc. Zool. Soc, 1879, pp. 6-9) that,
instead of moulting in the way that birds ordinarily do, penguins,
it least in passing from the immature to the adult dress, cast off
the short scale-like feathers from their wings in a manner that he
compares to " the shedding of the skin in a serpent."

2 The three metatarsals in the penguins are not, as in other birds,
united for the whole of their length, but only at the extremities, thus
preserving a portion of their originally distinct existence, a fact
probably attributable to arrest of development, since the researches
of C. Gegenbaur show that the embryos of all birds, so far as is known,
possess these bones in an independent condition.

three can be well distinguished, as pointed out by E. Coues in
Proc. Acad, of Nat. Sci. of Philadelphia, 1872 (pp. 170-212),
by anatomical as well as by external characters. They are: (1)
Aptenodyles, easily recognized by its long and thin bill, slightly
decurved, from which Pygoscelis, as M. Watson has shown,
is hardly distinguishable; (2) Eudyptes, in which the bill is
much shorter and rather broad; and (3) Spheniscus, in which
the shortish bill is compressed and the maxilla ends in a conspi-
cuous hook. Aplenodytes contains the largest species, among
them those known as the " Emperor " and " King " penguins
A. patagonica and A. longirostris. Three others belong also
to this genus, if Pygoscelis be not recognized, but they seem
not to require any particular remark. Eudyptes, containing
the crested penguins, known to sailors as " Rock-hoppers "
or" Macaronis," would appear to have five species, and Sphenis-
cus four, among which S. mendiculus, which occurs in the
Galapagos, and therefore has the most northerly range of the
whole group, alone needs notice here. (A. N.)

The generic and specific distribution of the penguins is the subject
of an excellent essay by Alphonse Milne-Edwards in the Annates
des sciences naturelles for 1880 (vol. ix. art. 9, pp. 23-81); see also
the Records of the Antarctic Expedition, 1901-1904.

PENHALLOW, SAMUEL (1665-1726), American colonist
and historian, was born at St Mabon, Corn, '11, England,
on the 2nd of July 1665. From 1683 to 1686 he attended a
school at Newington Green (near London) conducted by the
Rev. Charles Morton (1627-1698), a dissenting clergyman,
with whom he emigrated to Massachusetts in 1686. He was
commissioned by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
in New England to study the Indian languages and to preach
to the Indians; but he was soon diverted from this work.
Removing to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, he there married a
daughter of John Cutt (1625-1681), president of the province
of New Hampshire in 1679-1680, a successful merchant and
mill-owner, and thus came into possession of considerable
property (including much of the present site of Portsmouth).
In 1 70c he was speaker of the Assembly and in 1702 became a
member of the Provincial Council, but was suspended by
Lieut. -Governor George Vaughan (1676-17 24). Penhallow,
however, was sustained by Governor Samuel Shute (1662-1742),
and Vaughan was removed from office in 1716. In 1714
Penhallow was appointed a justice of the superior court of
judicature, and from 171 7 until his death was chief justice of that
court; and he also served as treasurer of the province in 1699-
1726, and as secretary of the province in 1714-1726. He died at
Portsmouth on the 2nd of December 1726. He wrote a valuable
History of the War of New England with the Eastern Indians,
or a Narrative of their Continued Perfidy and Cruelty (1726;
reprinted in the Collections of the New Hampshire Historical
Society, vol. i., 1824, and again at Cincinnati in 1859), which
covers the period from 1703 to 1726, and is a standard contem-
porary authority.

PENINGTON, SIR ISAAC (c. 1587-1661), lord mayor of London,
eldest son of Robert Penington, a London fishmonger, was born
probably in 1587. His father besides his London business had
landed estates in Norfolk and Suffolk, which Isaac inherited
in addition to a property in Buckinghamshire which he himself
purchased. In 1638 Isaac became an alderman and high
sheriff of London. In 1640 he was elected to the House of
Commons as member for the city of London, and immediately
took a prominent place among the Puritan party. In 1642
he was elected lord mayor of London, but retained his seat in
parliament by special leave of the Commons; and he was
elected lord mayor for a second term in the following year,
continuing while in office to raise large sums of money for the
opposition to the Court party. From 1642 to 1645 he was
lieutenant of the Tower, in which capacity he was present at
the execution of Laud; but, though one of the commissioners
for the trial of Charles I., he did not sign the death warrant.
After the king's death Penington served on Cromwell's council
of state, and on several committees of government. His
services were rewarded by considerable grants of land, and a

9°

PENINSULA— PENINSULAR WAR

knighthood conferred in 1649. He was tried and convicted
of treason at the Restoration, and died while a prisoner in the
Tower on the 17th of December 1661. He was twice married,
and had six children by his first wife, several of whom became
Quakers.

Isaac Penington (1616-1679), Sir Isaac's eldest son, was
one of the most notable of the 17th-century Quakers. He
was early troubled by religious perplexities, which found expres-
sion in many voluminous writings. No less than eleven religious
works, besides a political treatise in defence of democratic
principles, were published by him in eight years. He belonged
for a time to the sect of the Independents; but about 1657,
influenced probably by the preaching of George Fox, whom he
heard in Bedfordshire, Penington and his wife joined the Society
of Friends. His wife was daughter and heiress of Sir John
Proude, and widow of Sir William Springett, so that the worldly
position of the couple made them a valuable acquisition to the
Quakers. Isaac Penington was himself a man of very consider-
able gifts and sweetness of character. In 1661 he was imprisoned
for refusing to take the oath of allegiance, and on several subse-
quent occasions he passed long periods in Reading and Aylesbury
gaols. He died on the 8th of October 1679; his wife, who wrote
an account of his imprisonments, survived till 1682. In 1681
Penington's writings were published in a collected edition,
and several later editions were issued before the end of the 18th
century. His son John Penington (1655-17 10) defended his
father's memory against attack, and published some con-
troversial tracts against George Keith. Edward Penington
(1667-1711), another of Isaac Penington's sons, emigrated to
Pennsylvania, where he founded a family. Isaac Penington's
stepdaughter, Gulielma Springett, married William Penn.

See Maria Webb, The Penns and Peningtons of the 17th Century
(London, 1867); Lord Clarendon, History of the Rebellion and Civil
Wars in England (7 vols., Oxford, 1839); Bulstrode Whitelocke,
Memorials of English Affairs: Charles I. to the Restoration (London,
1732); J. Gurney Bevan, Life of Isaac Penington (London, 1784);
Thomas Ellwood, History of the Life of Ellwood by his own hand
(London, 1765); Willem Sewel, History of the Quakers (6th ed., 2
vols., London, 1834).

PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula,
an island), in physical geography, a piece of land nearly sur-
rounded by water. In its original sense it connotes attachment
to a larger land-mass by a neck of land (isthmus) narrower than
the peninsula itself, but it is often extended to apply to any
long promontory, the coast-line of which is markedly longer than
the landward boundary.

PENINSULAR WAR (1808-14). This important war, the
conduct and result of which greatly enhanced the prestige of
British arms, had for its main object the freedom of the Peninsula
of Spain and Portugal from the domination of Napoleon; and
hence it derives its name, though it terminated upon the soil
of France.

Nelson having destroyed the French fleet at Trafalgar,
Napoleon feared the possibility of a British army being landed
on the Peninsular coasts, whence in conjunction with Portuguese
and Spanish forces it might attack France from the south. He
therefore called upon Portugal, in August 1807, to comply with
his Berlin decree of the 21st of November 1806, under which
continental nations were to close their ports to British subjects,
and have no communication with Great Britain. At the same
time he persuaded the weak king of Spain (Charles IV.) and
his corrupt minister Godoy to permit a French army to pass
through Spain towards Portugal; while under a secret treaty
signed at Fontainebleau on the 27th of October 1807 Spanish
troops were to support the French. Portugal was to be sub-
sequently divided between Spain and France, and a new princi-
pality of the Algarve was to be carved out for Godoy. Portugal
remonstrated against Napoleon's demands, and a French corps
(30,000) under General Junot was instantly despatched to
Lisbon. Upon its approach the prince regent fled, and the
country was occupied by Junot, most of the Portuguese troops
being disbanded or sent abroad. Napoleon induced the king
of Spain to allow French troops to occupy the country and to

send the flower of the Spanish forces (15,000) under the marquis
of Romana 1 to assist the French on the Baltic. Then Dupont
de l'Etang (25,000) was ordered to cross the Bidassoa on the
22nd of November 1807; and by the 8th of January 1808 he had
reached Burgos and Valladolid. Marshal Moncey with a corps
occupied Biscay and Navarre; Duhesme with a division entered
Catalonia; and a little later Bessieres with another corps had
been brought up. There were now about 100,000 French
soldiers in Spain, and Murat, grand duke of Berg, as " lieutenant
for the emperor," entered Madrid. During February and
March 1808 the frontier fortresses of Pampeluna, St Sebastian,
Barcelona and Figueras were treacherously occupied and Spain
lay at the feet of Napoleon. The Spanish people, in an outburst
of fury against the king and Godoy, forced the former to abdicate
in favour of his son Ferdinand; but the inhabitants of Madrid
having (May 2, 1808) risen against the French, Napoleon refused
to recognize Ferdinand; both he and the king were compelled
to renounce their rights to the throne, and a mercenary council
of regency having been induced to desire the French emperor to
make his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, king, he acceded to their
request. 2

The mask was now completely thrown off, and Spain and
Portugal rose against the French. Provincial " juntas " (com-
mittees of government) were organized; appeals for assistance
made to the British government, which granted arms, money
and supplies, and it was resolved to despatch a British force
to the Peninsula. Before it landed, the French under Dupont,
Moncey and Marshal Bessieres (75,000) had occupied parts
of Biscay, Navarre, Aragon and the Castiles, holding Madrid
and Toledo, while General Duhesme (14,000) was in Catalonia.
Moncey (7000) had marched towards the city of Valencia, but
been repulsed in attempting to storm it (June 28); Bessieres
had defeated the Spanish general Joachim Blake at Medina
de Rio Seco (June 14, 1808) and Dupont (13,000) had been
detached (May 24) from Madrid to reduce Seville and Cadiz in
Andalusia. Spanish levies, numbering nearly 100,000 regulars
and militia, brave and enthusiastic, but without organization,
sufficient training, or a commander-in-chief, had collected
together; 30,000 being in Andalusia, a similar number in Galicia,
and others in Valencia and Estremadura. but few in the central
portion of Spain.

At this juncture Dupont, moving upon Cadiz, met with a reverse
which greatly influenced the course of the Peninsular War. On
the 7th of June 1808 he had sacked Cordova; but while he was
laden with its spoils the Spanish general Castanos with the army
of Andalusia (30,000), and also a large body of armed peasantry,
approached. Falling back to Andujar, where he was reinforced
to 22,000 strong, Dupont detached a force to hold the mountain
passes in his rear, whereupon the Spaniards interposed between
the detachment and the main body and seized Baylen. Failing
to dislodge them, and surrounded by hostile troops and an
infuriated peasantry, Dupont capitulated with over Battle of
20,000 men. This victory, together with the in- Baylen, July
trepid defence of Saragossa by the Spanish general '
Jose Palafox (June 15 to August 13, 1808) temporarily
paralysed the French and created unbounded enthusiasm in
Spain. Duhesme, having failed to take Gerona, was blockaded
in Barcelona, Joseph fled from Madrid (Aug. 1, 1808), and the
French forces closed to their rear to defend their communications
with France. The British troops were directed towards Lisbon
and Cadiz, in order to secure these harbours, to prevent the
subjugation of Andalusia, and to operate up the basins of the
Guadiana, Tagus and Douro into Spain. The British force
consisted of 9000 men from Cork, under Sir Arthur Wellesley —
at first in chief command; 5000 from Gibraltar, under General
(Sir Brent) Spencer; and 10,000 under Sir John Moore coming
from Sweden; Wellesley and Moore being directed towards
Portugal, and Spencer to Cadiz. On the 1st of August 1808

1 They subsequently escaped from Jutland, on British vessels,
and reached Santander in October 1808.

2 The king, the queen and Godoy were eventually removed to
Rome, and Ferdinand to Valencay in France.

PENINSULAR WAR

91

Wellesley began to land his troops, unopposed, near Figueira da
Foz at the mouth of the Mondego; and the Spanish victory of
Baylen having relieved Cadiz from danger, Spencer now joined
him, and, without waiting for Moore the army, under 15,000 in
all (which included some Portuguese) 1 with 18 guns, advanced
towards Lisbon.

Campaign in Portugal, 1808. — The first skirmish took place
at Obidos on the 15th of August 1808, against Delaborde's
division (5000 men with 5 guns), which fell back to Roleia
(Rorica or Rolica). A battle took place here (Aug. 17) in which
Sir Arthur Wellesley attacked and drove him from two successive
positions. The allied loss was about 500: the French 600 and
three guns. 1 On the 20th of August the Allies, strengthened
by the arrival of two more brigades (4000 men), occupied some
heights north of Vimiera (Vimeira or Vimeiro) where the roads
branch off to Torres Vedras and Mafra. Wellesley meant to
turn the defile of Torres Vedras by Mafra at once if possible;
but on this night Sir Harry Burrard, his senior, arrived off
Vimiera, and though he did not land, gave instructions to wait
for Sir John Moore. On the 21st of August the Allies were
attacked by Junot at Vimiera, who, leaving a force at Lisbon,
had come up to reinforce Delaborde. In this battle the Allies
Battle of numbered about 18,000 with 18 guns, French nearly
Vimiera, 14,000, with 20 guns. Junot, believing the allied
August 21, j e f t t0 kg W eakly held, attacked it without recon-
m8 ' noitring, but Wellesley's regiments, marched thither

behind the heights, sprang up in line; and under their volleys
and bayonet charge, supported by artillery fire, Junot's deep
columns were driven off the direct road to Lisbon. The losses
were: Allies about 800, French 2000 and 13 guns. It was now
again Wellesley's wish to advance and seize Torres Vedras; but
Sir Hew Dalrymple, having at this moment assumed command,
decided otherwise. On the 2nd of August Junot, knowing
of the approach of Moore with reinforcements, and afraid of
a revolt in Lisbon, opened negotiations, which resulted in the
Convention of Cintra 2 (Aug. 30, 1808), under which the French
evacuated Portugal, on condition that they were sent with
their artillery and arms to France. Thus this campaign had been
rapidly brought to a satisfactory conclusion; and Sir Arthur
Wellesley had already given proof of his exceptional gifts as
a leader. In England however a cry was raised that Junot
should have been forced to an absolutely unconditional surrender;
and Sir Arthur Wellesley, Sir Hew Dalrymple and Sir Harry
Burrard 3 were brought before a court of inquiry in London.
This acquitted them of blame, and Sir John Moore in the mean-
time after the departure of Dalrymple (Oct. 6, 1808) had assumed
command of the allied army in Portugal, now about 32,000
strong.

Moore's Campaign in Spain, 1808-9— The British govern-
ment notified to Sir John Moore that some 10,000 men were
to be sent to Corunna under Sir David Baird; that he, with
20,000, was to join him, and then both act in concert with the
Spanish armies. As the conduct of this campaign was largely
influenced by the operations of the Spanish forces, it is necessary
to mention their positions, and also the fact that greater reliance
had been placed, both in England and Spain, upon them than
future events justified. On the 26th of October 1808, when
Moore's troops had left Lisbon to join Baird, the French still
held a defensive position behind the Ebro; Bessieres being in the
basin of Vitoria, Marshal Key north-west of Logrono, and Moncey
covering Pampeluna, and near Sanguessa. With the garrisons
of Biscay, Navarre, and a reserve at Bayonne, their strength
was about 75,000 men. Palafox (20,000) was near Saragossa and
observing Sanguessa; Castafios with the victors of Baylen

1 In this account of the war the losses and numbers engaged in
different battles are given approximately only; and the former
include killed, wounded and missing. Historians differ much on
these matters.

'■ It was not, however, signed at Cintra, but at Lisbon, and was
mainly negotiated near Torres Vedras.

3 The two latter were recalled from the Peninsula ; Sir Arthur
Wellesley had proceeded to London upon leave, and had only signed
the armistice with Junot, not the convention itself.

(34,000) west and south of Tudela and near Logrono; Blake
(32,000) east of Reynosa, having captured Bilbao; Count de
Belvedere (11,000) near Burgos; reserves (57,000) were assem-
bling about Segovia, Talavera and Cordova; Catalonia was held
by 23,000, and Madrid had been reoccupied.

Moore had to decide whether to join Baird by sea or land.
To do so by sea at this season was to risk delay, while in moving
by land he would have the Spanish armies between him and the
French. For these reasons he marched by land; and as the
roads north of the Tagus were deemed impassable for guns, while
transport and supplies for a large force were also difficult to
procure, he sent Sir John Hope, with the artillery, cavalry and
reserve ammunition column, south of the river, through Badajoz
to Almaraz, to move thence through Talavera, Madrid and the
Escurial Pass, involving a considerable detour; while he himself
with the infantry, marching by successive divisions, took the
shorter roads north of the Tagus through Coimbra and Almeida,
and also by Alcantara and Coria to Ciudad Rodrigo and Sala-
manca. Baird was to move south through Galicia to meet him,
and the army was to concentrate at Valladolid, Burgos, or
whatever point might seem later on to be best. But as Moore
was moving forward, the whole situation in Spain changed.
Napoleon's forces, now increased to some 200,000 men present
and more following, were assuming the offensive, and he himself
on the 30th of October — had left Paris to place himself at
their head. Before them the Spaniards were routed in every
direction: Castafios was defeated near Logrono (Oct. 27);
Castafios and Palafox at Tudela (Nov. 23); Blake at Zornoza
(Oct.' 29), Espinosa (Nov. n) and Reynosa (Nov. 13); and
Belvedere at Gamonal, near Burgos (Nov. 10). Thus when
Moore reached Salamanca (Nov. 28) Baird was at Astorga;
Hope at the Escurial Pass; Napoleon himself at Aranda; and
French troops at Valladolid, Arevalo and Segovia; so that the
French were nearer than either Baird or Hope to Moore at
Salamanca. Moore was ignorant of their exact position and
strength, but he knew that Valladolid had been occupied, and
so his first orders were that Baird should fall back to Galicia
and Hope to Portugal. But these were soon changed, and he
now took the important resolution of striking a blow for Spain,
and for the defenders of Madrid, by attacking Napoleon's
communications with France. Hope having joined him through
Avila, and magazines having been formed at Benavente, Astorga
and Lugo, in case of retreat in that direction, he moved
forward, and on the 13th of December approached the Douro,
at and near Rueda east of Toro. Here he learnt that Madrid
had fallen to Napoleon (Dec. 3) after he had by a brilliant
charge of the Polish lancers and chasseurs of the Guard forced
the Somosierra Pass (Nov. 30) and in another action stormed
the Retiro commanding Madrid itself (Dec. 3) ; that the French
were pressing on towards Lisbon and Andalusia; that Napoleon
was unaware of his vicinity, and that Soult's corps, isolated on
the Carrion River, had been ordered towards Benavente. He
then finally decided to attack Soult (intending subsequently to
fall back through Galicia) and ordered up transports from
Lisbon to Corunna and Vigo; thus changing his base from
Portugal to the north-west of Spain; Blake's Spanish army,
now rallying under the marquis de la Romana near Leon, was
to co-operate, but was able to give little effective aid.

On the 20th of December Baird joined Moore near Mayorga,
and a brilliant cavalry combat now took place at Sahagun, in
which the British hussar brigade distinguished itself. But on
the 23rd of December, when Moore was at Sahagun and about
to attack Soult, he learnt that overwhelming French forces
were hastening towards him, so withdrew across the Esla, near
Benevente (Dec. 28), destroying the bridge there. Napoleon,
directly he realized Moore's proximity, had ordered Soult to
Astorga to cut him off from Galicia; recalled his other troops
from their march towards Lisbon and Andalusia, and, with
50,000 men and 150 guns, had left Madrid himself (Dec. 22). He
traversed over 100 m. in less than five days across the snow-
covered Escurial Pass, reaching Tordesillas on the Douro on the
26th of December. Hence he wrote to Soult, " If the English

9 2

PENINSULAR WAR

pass to-day in their position (which he believed to be Sahagun)

they are lost." But Moore had passed Astorga by the 31st of

December, where Napoleon arrived on the 1st of January 1809.

Thence he turned back, with a large portion of his army towards

France, leaving Soult with over 40,000 men to follow Moore.

On the " Retreat to Corunna " fatigue, wet and bitter cold,

combined with the sense of an enforced retreat, shook the

discipline of Moore's army; but he reached Corunna on the nth

of January 1809, where he took up a position across the road

from Lugo, with his left on the river Mero. On the 14th of

January the transports arrived; and on the 16th Soult attacked.

Battle of Ii this battle the French numbered about 20,000 with

Contnaa, 40 guns; the British 15,000 with 9 very light guns.

January 16, Soult failed to dislodge the British, and Moore was
1809

about to deliver a counter-attack when he himself

fell mortally wounded. Baird was also wounded, and as night
was approaching, Hope suspended the advance, and subse-
quently embarked the army, with scarcely any further loss. The
British casualties were about 1000, the French 2000. When the
troops landed in England, half clothed and half shod, their
leader's conduct of the campaign was at first blamed, but his
reputation as a general rests solidly upon these facts, that
when Napoleon in person, having nearly 300,000 men in Spain,
had stretched forth his hand to seize Portugal and Andalusia,
Moore with 30,000, forced him to withdraw it, and follow him to
Corunna, escaping at the same time from his grasp. Certainly a
notable achievement.

Campaign in Portugal and Spain, i8og. — On the 22iidof April
1809 Sir Arthur Wellesley reached Lisbon. By this time,
French armies, to a great extent controlled by Napoleon from a
distance, had advanced — Soult from Galicia to capture Oporto
and Lisbon (with General Lapisse from Salamanca moving on
his left towards Abrantes) and Marshal Victor, still farther
to the left, with a siege train to take Badajoz, Merida and subse-
quently Cadiz. Soult (over 20,000), leaving Ney in Galicia, had
taken and sacked Oporto (March 29, 1809); but the Portuguese
having closed upon his rear and occupied Vigo, he halted,
detaching a force to Amarante to keep open the road to Braganza
and asked for reinforcements. Victor had crossed the Tagus, and
defeated Cuesta at Medellin (March 28, 1809); but, surrounded
by insurgents, he also had halted; Lapisse had joined him, and
together they were near Merida, 30,000 strong. On the allied
side the British (25,000), including some German auxiliaries,
were about Leiria: the Portuguese regular troops (16,000) near
Thomar; and some thousands of Portuguese militia were observ-
ing Soult in the north of Portugal, a body under Silveira being
at Amarante, which Soult was now approaching. Much progress
had been made in the organization and training of the Portuguese
levies; Major-General William Carr Beresford, with the rank of
marshal, was placed at their head. Of the Spaniards, Palafox,
after his defeat at Tudela had roost gallantly defended Saragossa
a second time (Dec. 20, 1808- Feb. 20, 1809); the Catalonians,
after reverses at Molins de Rey (Dec. 21, 1808) and at Vails
(Feb. 25, 1800) had taken refuge in Tarragona; and Rosas had
fallen (Dec. 5, 1808) to the French general Gouvion St Cyr who,
having relieved Barcelona, was besieging Gcrona. Romana's
force was now near Orense in Galicia. A supreme junta had been
formed which could nominally assemble about 100,000 men,
but jealousy among its members was rife, and they still declined
to appoint any commander-in-chief.

On the 5th of May 1809, Wellesley moved towards the
river Douro, having detached Beresford to seize Amarante,
from which the French had now driven Silveira. Soult
Passage of expected the passage of the Douro to be attempted
the Douro, near its mouth, with fishing craft; but Wellesley, by
May 12,1809. a c i ar ; n g surprise, crossed (May 12) close above
Oporto, and also by a ford higher up. After some fighting
Oporto was taken, and Soult driven back. The Portuguese
being in his rear, and Wellesley closing with him, the only good
road of retreat available lay through Amarante, but he now
learned that Beresford had taken this important point from
Silveira; so he was then compelled, abandoning his guns and

much baggage, to escape, with a loss of some 5000 men, over the
mountains of the Sierra Cataiina to Salamonde, and thence to
Orense.

During the above operations, Victor, with Lapisse, had forced
the passage of the Tagus at Alcantara but, on Wellesley return-
ing to Abrantes, he retired. News having been received that
Napoleon had suffered a serious check at the battle of Aspern,
near Vienna (May 22, 1809), Wellesley next determined — leaving
Beresford (20,000) near Ciudad Rodrigo — to move with 22,000
men, in conjunction with Cuesta's Spanish army (40,000)
towards Madrid against Victor, who, with 25,000 supported
by King Joseph (50,000) covering the capital, was near Talavera.
Sir Robert Wilson with 4000 Portuguese from Salamanca, and
a Spanish force under Venegas (25,000) from Carolina, were to
co-operate and occupy Joseph, by closing upon Madrid. Cuesta,
during the advance up the valley of the Tagus, was to occupy
the pass of Bafios on the left flank; the Spanish authorities were
to supply provisions, and Venegas was to be at Arganda, near
Madrid, by the 22nd or 23rd of July; but none of these arrange-
ments were duly carried out, and it was on this that the remain-
der of the campaign turned. Writing to Soult from Austria,
Napoleon had placed the corps of Ney and Mortier under his
orders, and said: " Wellesley will most likely advance by the
Tagus against Madrid; in that case, pass the mountains, fall on
his flank and rear, and crush him."

By the 20th of July Cuesta had joined Wellesley at Oropesa;
and both then moved forward to Talavera, Victor falling back
before them: but Cuesta, irritable and jealous,
would not work cordially with Wellesley; Venegas — Talavera,
counter-ordered it is said by the Spanish junta — did July 27, 28,
not go to Arganda, and Wilson, though he advanced '
close to Madrid, was forced to retire, so that Joseph joined
Victor, and the united force attacked the Allies at Talavera
de la Reina on the Tagus. The battle lasted for two days,
and ended in the defeat of the French, who fell back towards
Madrid. 1 Owing to want of supplies, the British had fought
in a half-starved condition; and Wellesley now learnt to his sur-
prise that Soult had passed the mountains and was in his rear.
Having turned about, he was on the march to attack him, when
he heard (Aug. 23) that not Soult's corps alone, but three French
corps, had come through the pass of Bafios without opposition;
that Soult himself was at Naval Moral, between him and the
bridge of Almaraz on the Tagus, and that Cuesta was retreating
from Talavera. Wellesley's force was now in a dangerous
position: but by withdrawing at once across the Tagus at
Arzobispo, he reached Jaraicejo and Almaraz (by the south
bank) blowing up the bridge at Almaraz, and thence moved,
through Merida, northwards to the banks of the Agueda,
commencing to fortify the country around Lisbon.

Elsewhere in the Peninsula during this year, Blake, now
in Catalonia, after routing Suchet at Alcaniz (May 23, 1809),
was defeated by him at Maria (June 15) and at Belchite (June
18); Venegas, by King Joseph and Sebastiani, at Almonacid
on the nth of August; Del Parque (20,000), after a previous
victory near Salamanca (Oct. 18), was overthrown at Alba de
Tormes by General Marchand (Nov. 28) ; the old forces of Venegas
and Cuesta (50,000), now united under Areizaga, were decisively
routed by King Joseph at OcafLa (Nov. 19); and Gerona after
a gallant defence, had surrendered to Augereau (Dec. 10).

Sir Arthur Wellesley was for this campaign created Baron
Douro and Viscount Wellington. He was made captain-general
by Spain, and marshal-general by Portugal. But his experience
after Talavera had been akin to that of Moore; his expectations
from the Spaniards had not been realized; he had been almost
intercepted by the French, and he had narrowly escaped from a
critical position. Henceforth he resisted all proposals for joint
operations, on any large scale, with Spanish armies not under
his own direct command.

1 After the battle the Light Division, under Robert Craufurd,
joined Wellesley. In the endeavour to reach the field in time it
had covered, in heavy marching order, over 50 m. in 25 hours, in
hot July weather.

PENINSULAR WAR

93

Campaign in Portugal, 18io. — Napoleon, having avenged
Aspern by the victory of Wagram (July 6, 1809), despatched to
Spain large reinforcements destined to increase his army there
to about 370,000 men. Marshal Massena with 120,000, including
the corps of Ney, Junot, Reynier and some of the Imperial
Guard, was to operate from Salamanca against Portugal; but
first Soult, appointed major-general of the army in Spain
(equivalent to chief of the staff), was, with the corps of Victor,
Mortier and Sebastiani (70,000), to reduce Andalusia. Soult
(Jan. 31, 1810) occupied Seville and escaping thence to Cadiz,
the Supreme Junta resigned its powers to a regency of five
members (Feb. 2, 18 10). Cadiz was invested by Victor's corps
(Feb. 4), and then Soult halted, waiting for Massena, who arrived
at Valladolid on the 15th of May.

In England a party in parliament were urging the withdrawal
of the British troops, and any reverse to the allied arms would
have strengthened its hands. Wellington's policy was thus
cautious and defensive, and he had already commenced the since
famous lines of Torres Vedras round Lisbon. In June 1810 his
headquarters were at Celorico. With about 35,000 British,
30,000 Portuguese regular troops and 30,000 Portuguese militia,
he watched the roads leading into Portugal past Ciudad Rodrigo
to the north, and Badajoz to the south of the Tagus, as also the line
of the Douro and the country between the Elga and the Ponsul.

Soult having been instructed to co-operate by taking Badajoz
and Elvas, Massena, early in June 18 10, moved forward, and
Ciudad Rodrigo surrendered to him (June 10). Next pushing
back a British force under Craufurd, he invested Almeida,
taking it on the 27th of August. Then calling up Reynier,
who during this had moved on his left towards Alcantara,
he marched down the right bank of the Mondego, and
entered Viseu (Sept. 21). Wellington fell back before him
down the left bank, ordering up Rowland Hill's force from
the Badajoz road, the peasantry having been previously
called upon to destroy their crops and retire within the lines of
Torres Vedras. A little north of Coimbra, the road which
Massena followed crossed the Sierra de Bussaco (Busaco), a very
strong position where Wellington resolved to offer him battle.
Massena, superior in numbers and over-confident, made a direct
attack upon the heights on the 27th of September 1810: his
Battle of strength being about 60,000, while that of the Allies
Busaco, was about 50,000, of whom nearly half were Portu-
September g Uese . After a stern conflict the French were

27 IS tO

' ' repulsed, the loss being five generals and nearly 5000
men, while the Allies lost about 1300. The next day Massena
turned the Sierra by the Boyalva Pass and Sardao, which latter
place, owing to an error, had not been occupied by the Portu-
guese, and Wellington then retreated by Coimbra and Leiria
to the lines, which he entered on the nth of October, having
within them fully 100,000 able-bodied men.

The celebrated " Lines of Torres Vedras " were defensive
works designed to resist any army which Napoleon could send
Lines of a g amst them. They consisted of three great lines,
Torres strengthened by about 150 redoubts, and earthworks
Vedras, of various descriptions, mounting some 600 cannon;
ISJO-II. tne outer jj nej nearly 30 m. long, stretching over
heights north of Lisbon, from the Tagus to the sea. As Massena
advanced, the Portuguese closing upon his rear retook Coimbra
(Oct. 7) , and when he neared the lines, astounded at their strength,
he sent General Foy to the emperor to ask for reinforcements.
After an effort, defeated by Hill, to cross the Tagus, he withdrew
(Nov. 15) to Santarem. This practically closed Wellington's
operations for the year 1810, his policy now being not to lose
men in battle, but to reduce Massena by hunger and distress.

In other parts of Spain, Augereau had taken Hostalrich (May
10); captured Lerida (May 14); Mequinenza (June 8); and
invested Tortosa (Dec. 15). The Spanish levies had been unable
to contribute much aid to the Allies; the French having subdued
almost all Spain, and being now in possession of Ciudad Rodrigo
and Almeida. On the other hand Wellington still held Lisbon
with parts of Portugal, Elvas and Badajoz, for Soult had not
felt disposed to attempt the capture of the last two fortresses.

Campaign of 1811.— Napoleon, whose attention was now
directed towards Russia, refused to reinforce Massena, but
enjoined Soult to aid him by moving against Badajoz. Soult,
therefore, leaving Victor before Cadiz, invested Badajoz (Jan.
26, 1811) and took it from the Spaniards (March 10). With the
hope of raising the blockade of Cadiz, a force under Sir Thomas
Graham (afterwards Lord Lynedoch [q.v.]) left that harbour by
sea, and joining with Spanish troops near Tarifa, advanced by
land against Victor's blockading force, a Spanish general, La
Pena, being in chief command. As they neared Barrosa, Victor
attacked them, the Allies numbering in the battle about 13,000
with 24 guns, 4000 being British; the French 9000, actually
engaged, with 14 guns; but with 5000 more a few miles off and
others in the French lines. Hard fighting, chiefly B ut .
between the French and British, now ensued, and Barrosa,
at one time the Barrosa ridge, the key of the position MarchS,
left by La Pefia's orders, practically undefended, ,8,t '
fell into the French hands: but Graham by a resolute
counter-attack regained it, and Victor was in the end driven
back. La Pena, who had in the battle itself failed to give
proper support to Graham, would not pursue, and Graham
declining to carry on further operations with him, re-entered
Cadiz. The French afterwards resumed the blockade, so that
although Barrosa was an allied victory, its object was not
attained. The British loss was about 1200; the French 2000,
6 guns and an eagle.

On the day of the above battle Massena, having destroyed
what guns he could not horse, and skilfully gained time by a
feint against Abrantes, began his retreat from before
the lines, through Coimbra and Espinhal. His

MassSaa's
Retreat,

army was in serious distress; he was in want of food
and supplies; most of his horses were dead, and his men were
deserting. Wellington followed, directing the Portuguese to
remove all boats from the Mondego and Douro, and to break
up roads north of the former river. Beresford was detached
to succour Badajoz, but was soon recalled, as it had fallen to
Soult. Ney, commanding Massena's rearguard, conducted
the retreat with great ability. In the pursuit, Wellington
adhered to his policy of husbanding his troops for future offensive
operations, and let sickness and hunger do the work of the sword.
This they effectually did. Nothing could well exceed the horrors
of Massena's retreat. Rearguard actions were fought at Pombal
(March 10) , Redinha (March 1 2) and Condeixa (March 13) . Here
Ney was directed to make a firm stand; but, ascertaining that the
Portuguese were at Coimbra and the bridge there broken, and
fearing to be cut off also from Murcella, he burnt Condeixa,
and marched to Cazal Nova. An action took place here (March
14) and at Foz d'Arouce (March 15). Wellington now sent off
Beresford with a force to retake Badajoz; and Massena, sacri-
ficing much of his baggage and ammunition, reached Celorico
and Guarda (March 21). Here he was attacked by Wellington
(March 29) and, after a further engagement at Sabugal (April 3,
181 1), he fell back through Ciudad to Salamanca, having lost
in Portugal n%arly 30,000 men, chiefly from want and disease,
and 6000 in the retreat alone.

The key to the remaining operations of 181 1 lies in the impor-
tance attached by both Allies and French to the possession of
the fortresses which guarded the two great roads from Portugal
into Spain — Almeida and Ciudad Rodrigo on the northern, and
Badajoz and Elvas on the southern road; all these except Elvas
were in French hands. Wellington, on the 9th of April 181 1,
directed General Spencer to invest Almeida; he then set off
himself to join Beresford before Badajoz, but after reconnoitring
the fortress with his lieutenant he had at once to return north
on the news that Massena was moving to relieve Almeida. On
the 3rd of May Loison attacked him at Fuentes d'Onor near
Almeida, and Massena coming up himself made a more serious
attack on the 5th of May. The Allies numbered Batt j e ot
about 33,000, with 42 guns; the French 45,000 with Fuentes
30 guns. The battle is chiefly notable for the steadi- d'Onor,
ness with which the allied right, covered by the Light Ma ? s - '*"•
Division in squares, changed position in presence of the French

94

PENINSULAR WAR

cavalry; and for the extraordinary feat of arms of Captain
Norman Ramsay, R.H.A., in charging through the French cavalry
with his guns. Massena failed to dislodge the Allies, and on
the 8th of May withdrew to Salamanca, Almeida falling to
Wellington on the nth of May 1811. The allied loss in the
fighting on both days at Fuentes d'Onor was about 1500: the
French 3000.

In the meantime Soult (with 23,000 men and 50 guns), ad-
vancing to relieve Badajoz, compelled Beresford to suspend
Battle of *-he s i e § e > an ^ to ta ^ e U P a Position with about 30,000
Albuera, men (of whom 7000 were British) and 38 guns
May 16, behind the river Albuhera (or Albuera). Here
Soult attacked him on the 16th of May. An unusu-
ally bloody battle ensued, in which the French efforts were
chiefly directed against the allied right, held by the Spaniards.
At one time the right appeared to be broken, and 6 guns were
lost, when a gallant advance of Sir Lowry Cole's division
restored the day, Soult then falling back towards Seville. The
allied loss was about 7000 (including about half the British
force) ; the French about 8000.

After this Wellington from Almeida rejoined Beresford and
the siege of Badajoz was continued: but now Marshal Marmont,
having succeeded Massena, was marching southwards to join
Soult, and, two allied assaults of Badajoz having failed, Welling-
ton withdrew. Subsequently, leaving Hill in the Alemtejo, he
returned towards Almeida, and with 40,000 men commenced
a blockade of Ciudad Rodrigo, his headquarters being at Fuente
Guinaldo. Soult and Marmont now fell back, the former to
Seville, the latter to the valley of the Tagus, south of the pass of
Bafios.

In September, Marmont joined with the army of the north
under General Dorsenne, coming from Salamanca — their total
force being 60,000, with 100 guns — and succeeded (Sept. 25) in
introducing a convoy of provisions into Ciudad Rodrigo. Before
so superior a force, Wellington had not attempted to maintain
the blockade; but on Marmont afterwards advancing towards
him, he fought a rearguard action with him at El Bodon (Sept.
25), notable, as was Fuentes d'Onor, for the coolness with which
the allied squares retired amidst the enemy's horsemen; and
again at Fuente Guinaldo (Sept. 25 and 26) he maintained for
30 hours, with 15,000 men, a bold front against Marmont's
army of 60,000, in order to save the Light Division from being
cut off. At Aldea de Ponte there was a further sharp engage-
ment (Sept. 27)., but Wellington taking up a strong position near
Sabugal, Marmont and Dorsenne withdrew once more to the
valley of the Tagus and Salamanca respectively, and Wellington
again blockaded Ciudad Rodrigo.

Thus terminated the main operations of this year. On the
28th of October 1811, Hill, by a very skilful surprise, captured
Arroyo de los Molinos (between Badajoz and Trujillo), almost
annihilating a French corps under Gerard; and in December 181 1
the French were repulsed in their efforts to capture Tarifa near
Cadiz. In the east of Spain Suchet took Tortosa (Jan. 1, 1811);
Tarragona (June 28) ; and Murviedro (Oct. 26), defeating Blake's
relieving force, which then took refuge in Valencia. Macdonald
also retook Figueras which the Spaniards had taken on the 9th
of April 1811 (Aug. 19). Portugal had now been freed from the
French, but they still held Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the
two main gates into Spain.

Campaign in Spain, 1812. — The campaign of 181 2 marks an
important stage in the war. Napoleon, with the Russian War in
prospect, had early in the year withdrawn 30,000 men from
Spain; and Wellington had begun to carry on what he termed a
war of " magazines." Based on rivers (the navigation of which
greatly improved) and the sea, he formed depots or magazines
of provisions at many points, which enabled him always to take
and keep the field. The French, on the other hand, had great
difficulty in establishing any such reserves of food, owing to
their practice of depending for sustenance entirely upon the
country in which they were quartered. Wellington assumed
the offensive, and by various movements and feints, aided the
guerrilla bands by forcing the French corps to assemble in their

districts, which not only greatly harassed them but also materi-
ally hindered the combination of their corps for concerted action.
Having secretly got a battering train into Almeida and directed
Hill, as a blind, to engage Soult by threatening Badajoz, he
suddenly (Jan. 8, 181 2) besieged Ciudad Rodrigo.

The French, still numbering nearly 200,000, now held the
following positions: the Army of the North — Dorsenne (48,000) —
was about the Pisuerga, in the Asturias, and along the northern
.coast; the Army of Portugal — Marmont' (50,000) — mainly in
the valley of the Tagus, but ordered to Salamanca; the Army of
the South — Soult (55,000) — in Andalusia; the Army of the Centre
— Joseph (19,000) — about Madrid.

The siege of Ciudad Rodrigo was calculated in the ordinary
course to require twenty-four days: but on it becoming known that
Marmont was moving northward, the assault was 5/ e ~ /
delivered after twelve days only (Jan. 19). The ciudad
gallantry of the troops made it successful, though with Rodrigo,
the loss of Generals Craufurd and McKinnon,and 1300 "fif"}^ *"
men, and Marmont's battering train of 1 50 .guns here
fell into the allied hands. Then, after a feint of passing on into
Spain, Wellington rapidly marched south and, with 22,000 men,
laid siege to Badajoz (March 17, 1812), Hill with 30,000 covering
the siege near Merida. Wellington was hampered by want of
time, and had to assault prematurely. Soult and Marmont
having begun to move to relieve the garrison, the assault was
delivered on the night of the 7th of April, and siege of
though the assailants failed at the breaches, the Badajoz,
carnage at which was terrible, a very daring escalade March it to
of one of the bastions and of the castle succeeded, p '
and Badajoz fell, Soult's pontoon train being taken in it. After
the assault, some deplorable excesses were committed by the
victorious troops. The allied loss was 3600 in the assault alone
and 5000 in the entire siege.

The Allies had how got possession of the two great gates into
Spain: and Hill, by an enterprise most skilfully carried out,
destroyed (May 19) the Tagus bridge at Almaraz, by which
Soult to the south of the river chiefly communicated with Mar-
mont to the north. Wellington then, ostentatiously making
preparations to enter Spain by the Badajoz line, once more
turned northward, crossed the Tormes (June 17, 1812), and
advanced to the Douro, behind which the French were drawn
up. Marmont had erected at Salamanca some strong forts,
the reduction of which occupied Wellington ten days, and cost
him 600 men. The Allies and French now faced each other along
the Douro to the Pisuerga. The river was high, and Wellington
hoped that want of supplies would compel Marmont to retire,
but in this he was disappointed.

On the 15th of July 181 2, Marmont, after a feint against
Wellington's left, suddenly, by a forced march, turned his
right, and made rapidly towards the fords of Huerta and Alba
on the Tormes. Some interesting manoeuvres now took place,
Wellington moving parallel and close to Marmont, but more
to the north, making for the fords of Aldea Lengua and
Santa Marta on the Tormes nearer to Salamanca, and being
under the belief that the Spaniards held the castle and ford at
Alba on that river. But Marmont's manoeuvring and marching
power had been underestimated, and on the 21st of July while
Wellington's position covered Salamanca, and but indirectly
his line of communications through Ciudad Rodrigo, Marmont
had reached a point from which he hoped to interpose between
Wellington and Portugal, on the Ciudad Rodrigo road. This
he endeavoured to do on the 22nd of July 1812, which' brought
on the important battle of Salamanca (q.v.) in which g a m e „f
Wellington gained a decisive victory, the French Salamanca,
falling back to Valladolid and thence to Burgos. J "' 3 l 22,
Wellington entered Valladolid (July 30), and thence
marched against Joseph, who (July 21) had reached Blasco
Sancho with reinforcements for Marmont. Joseph retired
before him, and Wellington entered Madrid (Aug. 12, 1812),
where, in the Retiro, 1700 men, 180 cannon, two eagles, and a
quantity of stores were captured. Soult now raised the siege
of Cadiz (Aug. 26), and evacuating Andalusia joined Suchet

PENINSULAR WAR

95

with some 55,000 men. Wellington then brought up Hill to
Madrid.

On the 1 st of September 181 2, the French armies having begun
once more to collect together, Wellington marched against the
Stem of the ^ TTR y °^ l ^ e North, now under General Clause], and
Castle of laid siege to the castle of Burgos (Sept. 19) to secure
Burgos, the road towards Santander on the coast. But the
nrt"'"?/' t0 strength of the castle had been underrated ;
Wellington had insufficient siege equipment and
transport for heavy guns; five assaults failed, and Soult (having
left Suchet in Valencia) and also the Army of Portugal were
both approaching, so Wellington withdrew on the night of the
Retreat 21st of October, and, directing the evacuation of
from Madrid, commenced the " Retreat from Burgos."

Burgos. j n this retreat, although military operations were
skilfully conducted, the Allies lost 7000 men, and discipline, as
in that to Corunna, became much relaxed.

By November 181 2, Hill having joined him at Salamanca,
Wellington once more had gone into cantonments near Ciudad
Rodrigo, and the French armies had again scattered for con-
venience of supply. In spite of the failure before Burgos, the
successes of the campaign had been brilliant. In addition to
the decisive victory of Salamanca, Madrid had been occupied,
the siege of Cadiz raised, Andalusia freed, and Ciudad Rodrigo
and Badajoz stormed. Early in January also the French had
abandoned the siege of Tarifa, though Valencia had surrendered
to them (Jan. 9). One important result of the campaign was
that the Spanish Cortes nominated Wellington (Sept. 22, 1812)
to the unfettered command of the Spanish armies. For the
operations of this campaign Wellington was created earl, and
subsequently marquess of Wellington; duke of Ciudad Rodrigo
by Spain, and marquis of Torres Vedras by Portugal.

Campaign in Spain and the South of France, 1813. — At the
opening of 1813, Suchet, with 63,000 men, had been left to hold
Valencia, Aragon and Catalonia; and the remainder of the
French (about 137,000) occupied Leon, the central provinces and
Biscay, guarding also the communications with France. Of
these about 60,000 under Joseph were more immediately
opposed to Wellington, and posted, in scattered detachments,
from Toledo and Madrid behind the Tormes to the Douro, and
along that river to the Esla. Wellington had further organized
the Spanish forces — Castanos (40,000), with the guerrilla bands
of Mina, Longa and others, was in Galicia, the Asturias and
northern Spain; Copons (10,000) in Catalonia; Elio (20,000) in
Murcia; Del Parque (12,000) in the Sierra Morena, and O'Donell
(15,000) in Andalusia. More Portuguese troops had been
raised, and reinforcements received from England, so that the
Allies, without the Spaniards above alluded to, now numbered
some 75,000 men, and from near the Coa watched the Douro and
Tormes, their line stretching from their left near Lamego to the
pass of Bafios, Hill being on the right. The district of the Tras-
os-Montes, north of the Douro, about the Tamega, Tua and
Sabor, was so rugged that Wellington was convinced that
Joseph would expect him to advance by the south of the river.
He therefore, moving by the south bank himself with Hill, to
confirm Joseph in this expectation, crossed the Tormes near and
above Salamanca, having previously — which was to be the
decisive movement — detached Graham, with 40,000 men, to
make his way, through the difficult district above mentioned,
towards Braganza, and then, joining with the Spaniards, to turn
Joseph's right. Graham, crossing the Douro near Lamego,
carried out his laborious march with great energy, and Joseph
retired precipitately from the Douro, behind the Pisuerga. The
allied army, raised by the junction of the Spanish troops in
Galicia to 90,000, now concentrated near Toro, and moved to-
wards the Pisuerga, when Joseph, blowing up the castle of
Burgos, fell back behind the Ebro. Once more Wellington
turned his right, by a sweeping movement through Rocamunde
and Puente Arenas near the source of the Ebro, when he retreated
behind the Zadorra near the town of Vitoria.

Santander was now evacuated by the French, and the allied
line of communications was changed to that port. On the 20th

of June Wellington encamped along the river Bayas, and the
next day attacked Joseph. For a description of the decisive
battle of Vitoria (June 21, 1813), see Vitoria. In it Battle of
King Joseph met with a crushing defeat, and, after vitoria,
it, the wreck of his army, cut off from the Vitoria- June 21,
Bayonne road, escaped towards Pampeluna. Within I813 -
a few days Madrid was evacuated, and all the French forces,
with the exception of the garrisons of San Sebastian (3000),
Pampeluna (3000), Santona (1500), and the troops under Suchet
holding posts in Catalonia and Valencia, had retired across the
Pyrenees into France. The Spanish peninsula was, to all
intents and purposes, free from foreign domination, although
the war was yet far from concluded. The French struggled
gallantly to the close: but now a long succession of their leaders
— Junot, Soult, Victor, Massena, Marmont, Joseph — had been
in turn forced to recoil before Wellington; and while their troops
fought henceforward under the depressing memory of many
defeats, the Allies did so under the inspiriting influence of great
successes, and with that absolute confidence in their chief
which doubled their fighting power.

For this decisive campaign, Wellington was made a field
marshal in the British army, and created duke of Victory 1
by the Portuguese government in Brazil. He now, with about
80,000 men, took up a position with his left (the Spaniards) on
the Bidassoa near San Sebastian. Thence his line stretched
along the Pyrenees by the passes of Vera, Echallar, Maya and
Roncesvalles, to Altobiscar; his immediate object now being
to reduce the fortresses of San Sebastian and Pampeluna. Not
having sufficient matSriel for two sieges, he laid siege to San
Sebastian only, and blockaded Pampeluna. Sir Thomas Graham
commenced the active siege of San Sebastian on the 10th of
July 1 8 13, but as Soult was approaching to its relief, the assault
was ordered for daylight on the 24th. Unfortunately siege of San
a conflagration breaking out near the breaches Sebastian,
caused it to be postponed until nightfall, when, the Ju, y 10-24,
breaches in the interval having been strengthened,
it was delivered unsuccessfully and with heavy loss. Wellington
then suspended the siege in order to meet Soult, who endeavoured
(July 25) to turn the allied right, and reach Pampeluna.
Attacking the passes of Maya and Roncesvalles, he obliged their
defenders to retire, after sharp fighting, to a position g ati i es f
close to Sorauren, which, with 25,000 men, he thePyre-
attempted to carry (July 28). By this time Welling- nees,Jufy2S
ton had reached it from the allied left ; reinforcements t° August 2,
were pressing up on both sides, and about 1 2,000 allied
troops faced the French. A struggle, described by Wellington as
" bludgeon work," now ensued, but all efforts to dislodge the
Allies having failed, Soult, withdrawing, manoeuvred to his right
towards San Sebastian. Wellington now assumed the offensive,
and, in a series of engagements, drove the French back (Aug. 2)
beyond the Pyrenees. These included Roncesvalles and Maya
(July 25); Sorauren (July 28 and 30); Yanzi (Aug. 1); and
Echallar and Ivantelly (Aug. 2), the total losses in them being
about — Allies under 7000, French 10,000. After this, Wellington
renewing the siege of San Sebastian carried the place, excepting
the castle, after a heavy expenditure of life (Aug. 31). Upon
the day of its fall Soult attempted to relieve it, but storm of San
in the combats of Vera and St Marcial was repulsed. Sebastian,
The castle surrendered on the 9th of September, August 31,
the losses in the entire siege having been about —
Allies 4000, French 2000. Wellington next determined to throw
his left across the river Bidassoa to strengthen his own position,
and secure the port of Fuenterrabia.

Now commenced a series of celebrated river passages, which
had to be effected prior to the further invasion of France. At
daylight on the 7th of October 1813 he crossed the Bidassoa in
seven columns, and attacked the entire French position,
which stretched in two heavily entrenched lines from north

1 Duque da Victoria, often incorrectly duke of Vitoria. The
coincidence of the title with the place-name of the battle which had
not yet been fought when the title was conferred, is curious, but
accidental.

9 6

PENINSULAR WAR

of the Irun-Bayonne road, along mountain spurs to the Great
Rhune, 2800 ft. high. The decisive movement was a passage in
Passage strength near Fuenterrabia, to the astonishment of
of the the enemy, who in view of the width of the river
Bidassoa, and the shifting sands, had thought the crossing
October 7, impossible at that point. The French right was
,813 ' then rolled back, and Soult was unable to reinforce his

right in time to retrieve the day. His works fell in succession
after hard fighting, and he withdrew towards the river Nivelle.
The loss was about — Allies, 1600; French, 1400. The passage
of the Bidassoa " was a general's not a soldiers' battle "
(Napier).

On the 31st of October Pampeluna surrendered, and Welling-
ton was now anxious to drive Suchet from Catalonia before
further invading France. The British government, however,
in the interests of the continental powers, urged an immediate
advance, so on the night of the 9th of November 1813 he
brought up his right from the Pyrenean passes to the northward
of Maya and towards the Nivelle. Soult's army (about 79,000),
in three entrenched lines, stretched from the sea in front of St
Jean de Luz along commanding ground to Amotz and thence,
behind the river, to Mont Mondarin near the Nive. Each army
had with it about 100 guns; and, during a heavy cannonade,
Wellington on the 10th of November 1813 attacked this extended
Passage of position of 16 m. in five columns, these being so
the Nivelle, directed that after carrying Soult's advanced works
Nov. 10, a mass of about 50,000 m en converged towards the
1813. French centre near Amotz, where, after hard fighting,

it swept away the 18,000 of the second line there opposed to it,
cutting Soult's army in two. The French right then fell back to
St Jean de Luz, the left towards points on the Nive. It was now
late and the Allies, after moving a few miles down both banks
of the Nivelle, bivouacked, while Soult, taking advantage of the
respite, withdrew in the night to Bayonne. The allied loss was
about 2700; that of the French 4000, 51 guns, and all their
magazines. The next day Wellington closed in upon Bayonne
from the sea to the left bank of the Nive.

After this there was a period of comparative inaction, though
during it the French were driven from the bridges at Urdains
and Cambo. The weather had become bad, and the Nive
unfordable; but there were additional and serious causes of
delay. The Portuguese and Spanish authorities were neglecting
the payment and supply of their troops. Wellington had also
difficulties of a similar kind with his own government, and also
the Spanish soldiers, in revenge for many French outrages, had
become guilty of grave excesses in France, so that Wellington
took the extreme step of sending 25,000 of them back to Spain
and resigning the command of their army, though his resignation
was subsequently withdrawn. So great was the tension at
this crisis that a rupture with Spain seemed possible. These
matters, however, having been at length adjusted, Wellington,
who in his cramped position between the sea and the Nive could
not use his cavalry or artillery effectively, or interfere with the
French supplies coming through St Jean Pied de Port, deter-
mined to occupy the right aswell as the left bank of the Nive.
He could not pass to that bank with his whole force while Soult
held Bayonne, without exposing his own communications
through Irun. Therefore, on the 9th of December 1813, after
making a demonstration elsewhere, he effected the passage with
Passage of a portion of his force only under Hill and Beresford,
the Nive, near Ustaritz and Cambo, his loss being slight, and
Dec. 9, thence pushed down the river towards Villefranque,
1813. where Soult barred his way across the road to

Bayonne. The allied army was now divided into two portions
by the Nive; and Soult from Bayonne at once took advantage
of his central position to attack it with all his available force,
first on the left bank and then on the right. On the morning
of the 10th of December he fell, with 60,000 men and 40 guns,
upon Hope, who with 30,000 men and 24 guns held a position
from the sea. 3 m. south of Biarritz on a ridge behind two lakes
(or tanks) through Arcangues towards the Nive. Desperate
fighting now ensued, but fortunately, owing to the intersected

ground, Soult was compelled to advance slowly, and in the end,

Wellington coming up with Beresford from the right bank, the

French retired baffled. On the nth and 12th of Battles

December there were engagements of a less severe ^/cre

character, and finally on the 13th of December Soult ^ ay °, ane ' ( "
. , 11 , Battles of

with 35,000 men made a vehement attack up the the Nive,

right bank of the Nive against Hill, who with about Dec 10 -13,
14,000 men occupied some heights from Villefranque ist3.
past St Pierre (Lostenia) to Vieux Moguerre. The conflict about
St Pierre (Lostenia) was one of the most bloody of the war; but
for hours Hill maintained his ground, and finally repulsed the
French before Wellington, delayed by his pontoon bridge over
the Nive having been swept away, arrived to his aid. The losses
in the four days' fighting in the battles before Bayonne (or battles
of the Nive) were — Allies about 5000, French about 7000. Both
the British and Portuguese artillery, as well as infantry, greatly
distinguished themselves in these battles.

In eastern Spain Suchet (April n, 1813) had defeated Elio's
Murcians at Yecla and Villena, but was subsequently routed
by Sir John Murray 1 near Castalla (April 13), who then besieged
Tarragona. The siege was abandoned after a time, but was
later on renewed by Lord W. Bentinck. Suchet, after the
battle of Vitoria, evacuated Tarragona (Aug. 17) but defeated
Bentinck in the combat of Ordal (Sept. 13).

Campaign in the South of France, 1814. — When operations re-
commenced in February 1814 the French line extended from
Bayonne up the north bank of the Adour to the Pau, thence
bending south along the Bidouze to St Palais, with advanced
posts on the Joyeuse and at St Jean Pied de Port. Wellington's
left, under Hope, watched Bayonne, while Beresford, with Hill,
observed the Adour and the Joyeuse, the right trending back
till it reached Urcuray on the St Jean Pied de Port road. Exclu-
sive of the garrison of Bayonne and other places, the available
field force of Soult numbered about 41,000, while that of the
Allies, deducting Hope's force observing Bayonne, was of much
the same strength. It had now become Wellington's object
to draw Soult away from Bayonne, in order that the allied army
might, with less loss, cross the Adour and lay siege to the place
on both banks of the river.

At its mouth the Adour was about 500 yds. wide, and its
entrance from the sea by small vessels, except in the finest
weather, was a perilous undertaking, owing to the shifting sands
and a dangerous bar. On the other hand, the deep sandy soil
near its banks made the transport of bridging materiel by land
laborious, and almost certain of discovery. Wellington, con-
vinced that no effort to bridge below Bayonne would be expected,
decided to attempt it there, and collected at St Jean Pied de
Port and Passages a large number of country vessels (termed
chasse-maries) . Then, leaving Hope with 30,000 men co watch
Bayonne, he began an enveloping movement round Soult's
left. Hill on the 14th and 15th of February, after a combat
at Garris, drove the French posts beyond the Joyeuse; and
Wellington then pressed these troops back over the Bidouze
and Gave 2 de Mauleon to the Gave d'Oleron. Wellington's
object in this was at once attained, for Soult, leaving only 10,000
men in Bayonne, came out and concentrated at Orthes on the
Pau. Then Wellington (Feb. 19) proceeded to St Jean de Luz
to superintend the despatch of boats to the Adour. Unfavour-
able weather, however, compelled him to leave this to Sir
John Hope and Admiral Penrose, so returning to the Gave
d'Oleron he crossed it, and faced Soult on the Pau (Feb. 25).
Hope in the meantime, after feints higher up the Adour, suc-
ceeded (Feb. 22 and 23) in passing 600 men across Passage of
the river in boats. The nature of the ground, the Adour,
and there being no suspicion of an attempt at this Feb- 22 to
point, led to the French coming out very tardily to 26 > ls,4 ~
oppose them; and when they did, some Congreve rockets
(then a novelty) threw them into confusion, so that the right
bank was held until, on the morning of the 24th, the flotilla of

1 Commander of a British expedition from the Mediterranean
islands.

2 "Gave" in the Pyrenees means a mountain stream or torrent.

PENINSULAR WAR

97

chasse-marees appeared from St Jean de Luz, preceded by men-
of-war boats. Several men and vessels were lost in crossing the
bar; but by noon on the 26th of February the bridge of 26
vessels had been thrown and secured; batteries and a boom
placed to protect it, 8000 troops passed over, and the enemy's
gunboats driven up the river. Bayonne was then invested on
both banks as a preliminary to the siege.

On the 27 th of February Wellington, having with little loss
effected the passage of the Pau below Orthes, attacked Soult.
In this battle the Allies and French were of about equal strength
(37,000): the former having 48 guns, the latter 40. Soult held
Battle of a strong position behind Orthes on heights command-
Orthes, ing the roads to Dax and St Sever. Beresford was
Feb. 27, directed to turn his right, if possible cutting him off
,814 ' from Dax, and Hill his left towards the St Sever road.

Beresford's attack, after hard fighting over difficult ground, was
repulsed, when Wellington, perceiving that the pursuing French
had left a central part of the heights unoccupied, thrust up the
Light Division into it, between Soult's right and centre. At the
same time Hill, having found a ford above Orthes, was turning
the French left, when Soult retreated just in time to save being
cut off, withdrawing towards St Sever, which he reached on the
28th of February. The allied loss was about 2000; the French
4000 and 6 guns.

From St Sever Soult turned eastwards to Aire, where he
covered the roads to Bordeaux and Toulouse. Beresford, with
1 2,000 men, was now sent to Bordeaux, which opened its gates as
promised to the Allies. Driven by Hill from Aire on the 2nd of
March 1814, Soult retired by Vic Bigorre, where there was a
combat (March 19), and Tarbes, where there was a severe action
(March 20), to Toulouse behind the Garonne. He endeavoured
also to rouse the French peasantry against the Allies, but in
vain, for Wellington's justice and moderation afforded them no
grievances. Wellington wished to pass the Garonne above
Toulouse in order to attack the city from the south — its weakest
side — and interpose between Soult and Suchet. But finding it
impracticable to operate in that direction, he left Hill on the
west side and crossed at Grenade below Toulouse (April 3).
When Beresford, who had now rejoined Wellington, had passed
over, the bridge was swept away, which left him isolated on the
right bank. But Soult did not attack; the bridge (April 8)
was restored; Wellington crossed the Garonne and the Ers, and
attacked Soult on the 10th of April. In the battle of Toulouse
the French numbered about 40,000 (exclusive of the local
National Guards) with 80 guns; the Allies under 52,000 with 64
Battle of guns. Soult's position to the north and east of the
Toulouse, city was exceedingly strong, consisting of the canal
of Languedoc, some fortified suburbs, and (to the
extreme east) the commanding ridge of Mont Rave,
crowned with redoubts and earthworks. Wellington's columns,
under Beresford, were now called upon to make a flank march
of some two miles, under artillery, and occasionally musketry,
fire, being threatened also by cavalry, and then, while the
Spanish troops assaulted the north of the ridge, to wheel up,
mount the eastern slope, and carry the works. The Spaniards
were repulsed, but Beresford gallantly took Mont Rave and
Soult fell back behind the canal. On the 12th of April Welling-
ton advanced to invest Toulouse from the south, but Soult on
the night of the nth had retreated towards Villefranque, and
Wellington then entered the city. The allied loss was about
5000; the French 3000. Thus, in the last great battle of the
war, the courage and resolution of the soldiers of the Peninsular
army were conspicuously illustrated.

On the 13th of April 1814 officers arrived with the announce-
ment to both armies of the capture of Paris, the abdication of
Xapoleon, and the practical conclusion of peace; and on the
18th a convention, which included Suchet's force, was entered
into between Wellington and Soult. Unfortunately, after
Toulouse had fallen, the Allies and French, in a sortie from
Bayonne on the 14th of April, each lost about 1000 men: so
that some 10,000 men fell after peace had virtually been made.
In the east, during this year (1814), Sir W. Clinton had, on
xxi. 4

April 10,
1814.

the 1 6th of January, attacked Suchet at Molins de Rey and
blockaded Barcelona (Feb. 7); the French posts of Lerida,
Mequinenza and Monzon had also been yielded up, and Suchet,
on the 2nd of March, had crossed the Pyrenees into France.
Figueras surrendered to Cuesta before the end of May; and peace
was formally signed at Paris on the 30th of May.

Thus terminated the long and sanguinary struggle of the
Peninsular War. The British troops were partly sent to England,
and partly embarked at Bordeaux for America, with which
country war had broken out (see American War of 181 2-1 5):
the Portuguese and Spanish recrossed the Pyrenees: the French
army was dispersed throughout France: Louis XVIII. was
restored to the French throne: and Napoleon was permitted
to reside in the island of Elba, the sovereignty of which had been
conceded to him by the allied powers. For the operations
of this campaign Wellington was created marquess of Douro
and duke of Wellington, and peerages were conferred upon
Beresford, Graham and Hill.

The events of the Peninsular War, especially as narrated
in the Wellington Despatches, are replete with instruction not
only for the soldier, but also for the civil administrator. Even
in a brief summary of the war one salient fact is noticeable,
that all Wellington's reverses were in connexion with his sieges,
for which his means were never adequate. In his many battles
he was always victorious, his strategy eminently successful,
his organizing and administrative power exceptionally great,
his practical resource unlimited, his soldiers most courageous;
but he never had an army fully complete in its departments
and warlike equipment. He had no adequate corps of sappers
and miners, or transport train. In 181 2 tools and material
of war for his sieges were often insufficient. In 1813, when he
was before San Sebastian, the ammunition ran short ; a battering
train, long demanded, reached him not only some time after
it was needed, but even then with only one day's provision of
shot and shell. For the siege of Burgos heavy guns were avail-
able in store on the coast; but he neither had, nor could procure,
the transport to bring them up. By resource and dogged
determination Wellington rose superior to almost every diffi-
culty, but he could not overcome all; and the main teaching of
the Peninsular War turns upon the value of an army that is
completely organized in its various branches before hostilities
break out. (C. W. R.)

Authorities. — The Wellington Despatches, ed. Gurwood (London,
1 834-1 839); Supplementary Wellington Despatches (London, 1858-
1861 and 1867-1872) ; Sir W. Napier, History of War in the Peninsula
and South of France (London, 1828-1840); C. W. C. Oman, History
of the Peninsular War (London, 1902) ; Sir J. Jones, Journals and
Sieges in Spain, 1811-12 (London, 1814); and Account of the War
in Spain, Portugal and South of France, 1808-14 (London, 1 82 1) ; Sir
J. F. Maurice, Diary of Sir John Moore (London, 1904); Command-
ant Balagny, Campagne de VEmpereur Napoleon en Espagne, 1808-
180Q (Paris, 1902); Major-General C. W. Robinson, Wellington's
Campaigns (London, 1907) ; Sir A. Alison, History of Europe, 1789-
18 IS (London, 1 835-1 842); T. Choumara, Considerations militaires
sur les memoires du Marechal Suchet et stir la bataille de Toulouse
(Paris, 1838) ; Commandant Clerc, Campagne du Marechal Soult
dans les Pyrenees occidentales en 1813-14 (Paris, 1894); Memoires
du Baron Marbot (Paris, 1891 ; Eng. trans, by A. J. Butler, London,
1902); H. R. Clinton, The War in the Peninsula, &fc. (London, 1889);
Marshal Suchet's Memoires (Paris, 1826; London, 1829); Captain L.
Butler, Wellington's Operations in the Peninsula, 1808-14 (London,
1904) ; Batty, Campaign of the Left Wing of the Allied Army in the
Western Pyrenees and South of France, 1813-14 (London, 1823) ;
Foy, Histoire de la guerre de la Peninsule, &c, sous Napoleon (Paris
and London, 1827); Lord Londonderry, Narrative of the Peninsular
War, 1808-13 (London, 1829) ; R. Southey, History of the Peninsular
War (London, 1823-1832); Major A. Griffiths, Wellington and Water-
loo (illustrated; London, 1898); Thiers, Histoire du consulat et de
V empire (Paris, 1 845-1 847; and translated by D. F. Campbell,
London, 1845); Captain A. H. Marindin, The Salamanca Campaign
(London, 1906); Marmont's Memoires (Paris, 1857); Colonel Sir
A. S. Frazer, Letters during the Peninsular and Waterloo Campaigns
(ed. by Major-General E. Sabine, London, 1859); Lieut. -Colonel
W. Hill- James, Battles round Biarritz, Nivelle and the Nive (London,
1 896) ; Battles round Biarritz, Garres and the Bridge of Boats (Edin-
burgh, 1897); H. B. Robinson, Memoirs of Lieutenant-Ceneral Sit
T. Picton (London, 1835): G. C. Moore-Smith, Autobiography of
Lieutenant-General Sir Harry Smith (London, 1901); Life of John
Colborne (F.-M. Lord Seaton) (London, 1903) ; Rev. A. H. Crauford,

9 8

PENISCOLA— PENITENTIARY

General Craufurd and his Light Division (London, 1891); Sir George
Larpent, Private Journal of F. S. Larpent during the Peninsular War
(London, 1853); Major-General H. D. Hutchinson, Operations in
the Peninsula, 1808-Q (London, 1905) ; The Dickson MSS., being
Journals of Major-General Sir Alexander Dickson during the Penin-
sular War (Woolwich, 1907).

PEfilSCOLA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Cas-
tellon de la Plana, and on the Mediterranean Sea, 5 m. by road
S. of Benicarlo. Pop. (1900), 3142. Peniscola, often called the
Gibraltar of Valencia, is a fortified seaport, with a lighthouse,
built on a rocky headland about 220 ft. high, and only joined
to the mainland by a narrow strip of sand. Originally a
Moorish stronghold, it was captured in 1233 by James I. of
Aragon, who entrusted it to the Knights Templar. In the
14th century it was garrisoned by the knights of Montesa, and
in 1420 it reverted to the Crown. From 141 5 it was the home
of the schismatic pope Benedict XIII. (Pedro de Luna), whose
name is commemorated in the Bufador de Papa Luna, a curious
cavern with a landward entrance through which the sea-water
escapes in clouds of spray.

PENITENTIAL (Lat. poenitentiale, libellus poenitenlialis,
&c), a manual used by priests of the Catholic Church for
guidance in assigning the penance due to sins. Such manuals
played a large role in the early middle ages, particularly in
Ireland, England and Frankland, and their influence in the
moral education of the barbarian races has not received
sufficient attention from historians. They were mainly com-
posed of canons drawn from various councils and of dicta from
writings of some of the fathers. Disciplinary regulations in
Christian communities are referred to from the very borders of the
apostolic age, and a system of careful oversight of those admitted
to the mysteries developed steadily as the membership grew
and dangers of contamination with the outside world increased.
These were the elaborate precautions of the catechumenate, a,nd
— as a bulwark against the persecutions — the rigid system known
as the Discipline of the Secret (disciplina arcani). The treat-
ment of the lapsed, which produced the Novatian heresy, was
also responsible for what has frequently been referred to as
the first penitential. This is the libellus in which, according
to Cyprian (Ep. 51), the decrees of the African synods of 251
and 255 were embodied for the guidance of the clergy in dealing
with their repentant and returning flocks. This manual,
which has been lost, was evidently not like the code-like com-
pilations of the 8th century, and it is somewhat misleading to
speak of it as a penitential. Jurisdiction in penance was still
too closely limited to the upper ranks of the clergy to call forth
such literature. Besides the bishop an official well versed
in the penitential regulations of the Church, called the poeni-
tentiarius, assigned due penalties for sins. For their guidance
there was considerable conciliar legislation (e.g. Ancyra, Nicaea,
Neocaesarea, &c), and certain patristic letters which had
acquired almost the force of decretals. Of the latter the
most important were the three letters of St Basil of Caesarea
(d. 379) to Bishop Amphilochus of Iconium containing over
eighty headings.

Three things tended to develop these rules into something
like a system of penitential law. These were the development
of auricular confession and private penance; the extension of
the penitential jurisdiction among the clergy owing to the
growth of a parochial priesthood; and the necessity of adapting
the penance to the primitive ideas of law prevailing among the
newly converted barbarians, especially the idea of compensation
by the wergild. In Ireland in the middle of the 5th century
appeared the " canons of St Patrick." In the first half of the
next century these were followed by others, notably those of
St Finian (d. 552). At the same time the Celtic British Church
produced the penitentials of St David of Menevia (d. 544) and
of Gildas (d. 583) in addition to synodal legislation. These
furnished the material to Columban (d. 615) for his Liber de
poenitentia and his monastic rule, which had a great influence
upon the continent of Europe. The Anglo-Saxon Church
was later than the Irish, but under Theodore of Tarsus (d.690),
archbishop of Canterbury, the practice then in force was made

the basis of the most important of all penitentials. The
Poenitentiale Theodori became the authority in the Church's
treatment of sinners for the next four centuries, both in England
and elsewhere in Europe. The original text, as prepared by
a disciple of Theodore, and embodying his decisions, is given
in Haddan and Stubbs's Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents
relating to Great Britain and Ireland (iii. 173 seq.). A.
Penitentiale Commeani (St Cumian), dating apparently from
the early 8th century, was the third main source of Frankish
penitentials. The extent and variety of this literature led the
Gallican Church to exercise a sort of censorship in order to
secure uniformity. After numerous synods, Bishop Haltigar
of Cambrai was commissioned by Ebo of Reims in 829 to prepare
a definitive edition. Haltigar used, among his other materials,
a so-called poenitentiale romanum, which was really of Frankish
origin. The canons printed by David Wilkins in his Concilia
(1737) as being by Ecgbert of York (d. 767) are largely a transla-
tion into Anglo-Saxon of three books of Haltigar's penitentials.
In 841 Hrabanus Maurus undertook a new Liber poenitentium
and wrote a long letter on the subject to Heribald of Auxerre
about 853. Then followed the treatise of Reginon of Prum
in 906, and finally the collection made by Burchard, bishop of
Worms, between 1012 and 1023. The codification of the canon
law by Gratian and the change in the sacramental position of
penance in the 12 th century closed the history of penitentials.

Much controversy has arisen over the question whether
there was an official papal penitential. It is claimed that
(quite apart from Haltigar's poenitentiale romanum) such a
set of canons existed early in Rome, and the attempt has been
made by H. J. Schmitz in his learned treatise on penitentials
(Buszbucher und das kanonische Buszverfahren, 1883 and 1898)
to establish their pontifical character. The matter is still in
dispute, Schmitz's thesis not having met with universal
acceptance.

In addition to the works mentioned above the one important work
on the penitentials was L. W. H. Wasserschleben's epoch-making
study and collection of texts, Die Buszordnungen der abendldndischen
Kirche nebst einer rechtsgeschichtlichen Einleitung (Halle, 1851).
See articles in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexikon, Hauck's Real-
encyklopddie, and Haddan and Stubbs's Councils. See also Seebasz
in Zeitschrift filr Kirchengeschichte , xviii. 58. On the canons of
St Patrick see the Life of St Patrick by J. B. Bury (pp. 233-275).

PENITENTIARY (med. Lat. poenitentiarius, from poenitentia,
penance, poena, punishment, a term used both as adjective and
substantive, referring either to the means of repentance or
that of punishment. In its ecclesiastical use the word is used
as the equivalent both of the Latin poenitentiarius, " penitentiary
priest," and poenitentiaria, the dignity or office of a poenitenti-
arius. By an extension of the latter sense the name is applied
to the department of the Roman Curia known as the apostolic
penitentiary (sacra poenitentiaria apostolica), presided over
by the cardinal grand penitentiary (major poenitentiarius,
Ital. penitenziere maggiore) and having jurisdiction more particu-
larly in all questions in foro interno reserved for the Holy See
(see Curia Romana). In general, the poenitentiarius, or peni-
tentiary priest, is in each diocese what the grand penitentiary
is at Rome, i.e. he is appointed to deal with all cases of conscience
reserved for the bishop. In the Eastern Church there are very
early notices of such appointments; so far as the West is con-
cerned, Hinschius (Kirchenrecht, i. 428, note 2) quotes from
the chronicle of Bernold, the monk of St Blase (c. 1054-1100),
as the earliest record of such appointment, that made by
the papal legate Odo of Ostia in 1054. In 1215 the fourth
Lateran Council, by its 10th canon, ordered suitable men to
be ordained in all cathedral and conventual churches, to act
as coadjutors and assistants to the bishops in hearing confessions
and imposing penances. The rule was not immediately nor
universally obeyed, the bishops being slow to delegate their
special powers. Finally, however, the council of Trent (Sess.
xxiv. cap. viii. de reform.) ordered that, " wherever it could
conveniently be done," the bishop should appoint in his cathedral
a poenitentiarius, who should be a doctor or licentiate in theology
or canon law and at least forty years of age.

PENKRIDGE— PENN, WILLIAM

99

See P. Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, i. 427, &c. (Berlin, 1869); Du
Cange, Glossarium s.v. " Poenitentiarius " ; Herzog-Hauck, Real-
encyklopddie (ed. 1904), s.v. " Ponitentiarius."

PENKRIDGE, a town in the western parliamentary division
of Staffordshire, England; 134 m. N.W. from London by the
London & North-Western railway, on the small river Penk.
Pop. (1901), 2347. Trade is chiefly agricultural and there are
stone-quarries in the vicinity. The church of St Michael and
All Angels, formerly collegiate and dedicated to St Mary, is a
fine building principally Perpendicular, but with earlier portions.
The Roman Watling Street passes from east to west 3 m. south
of Penkridge. In the neighbourhood is Pillaton Hall, retaining
a picturesque chapel of the 15th century.

PENLEY, WILLIAM SYDNEY (1852- ), English actor,

was born at Broadstairs, and educated in London, where his
father had a school. He first made his mark as a comedian
by his exceedingly amusing performance as the curate in The
Private Secretary, a part in which he succeeded Beerbohm
Tree; but he is even more associated with the title role in
Brandon Thomas's Charley's Aunt (1892), a farce which had
an unprecedentedly long run and was acted all over the world.

PENMARC'H, a village of western France in the department
of Finistere, 18 m. S.W. of Quimper by road. Pop. (1906), of
the village, 387; of the commune, 5702. On the extremity of
the peninsula on which it is situated are fortified remains of a
town which was of considerable importance from the 14th to
the 16th centuries and included, besides Penmarc 'h, St Guenole
and Kerity. It owed its prosperity to its cod-banks, the dis-
appearance of which together with the discovery of the New-
foundland cod-banks and the pillage of the place by the bandit
La Fontenelle in 1595 contributed to its decadence. The
church of St Nouna, a Gothic building of the early 16th century
at Penmarc 'h, and the church of St Guenole, an unfinished
tower of the 15th century and the church of Kerity (15th
century) are of interest. The coast is very dangerous. On
the Point de Penmarc 'h stands the Phare d'Eckmuhl, with a
light visible for 60 miles. There are numerous megalithic
monuments in the vicinity.

PENN, WILLIAM (1621-1670), British admiral, was the
son of Giles Penn, merchant and seaman of Bristol. He served
his apprenticeship at sea with his father. In the first Civil
War he fought on the side of the parliament, and was in com-
mand of a ship in the squadron maintained against the king
in the Irish seas. The service was arduous and called for both
energy and good seamanship. In 1648 he was arrested and
sent to London, but was soon released, and sent back as rear
admiral in the " Assurance " (32). The exact cause of the
arrest is unknown, but it may be presumed to have been that
he was suspected of being in correspondence with the king's
supporters. It is highly probable that he was, for until the
Restoration he was regularly in communication with the Royal-
ists, while serving the parliament, or Cromwell, so long as their
service was profitable, and making no scruple of applying for
grants of the confiscated lands of the king's Irish friends.
The character of " mean fellow " given him by Pepys is borne
out by much that is otherwise known of him. But it is no less
certain that he was an excellent seaman and a good fighter.
After 1650 he was employed in the Ocean, and in the Mediter-
ranean in pursuit of the Royalists under Prince Rupert. He
was so active on this service that when he returned home on
the 18th of March 1651 he could boast that he had not put foot
on shore for more than a year. When the first Dutch War
broke out Penn was appointed vice-admiral to Blake, and was
present at the battle of the 28th of September off the Kentish
Knock. In the three days' battle off Portland, February
1653, he commanded the Blue squadron, and he also served
with distinction in the final battles of the war in June and July.
In December he was included in the commission of admirals
and generals at sea, who exercised the military command of
the fleet, as well as " one of the commissioners for ordering and
managing the affairs of the admiralty and navy." In 1654 he
offered to carry the fleet over to the king, but in October of

the same year he had no scruple in accepting the naval command
in the expedition to the West Indies sent out by Cromwell,
which conquered Jamaica. He was not responsible for the
shameful repulse at San Domingo, which was due to a panic
among the troops. On their return he and his military colleague
Vena.bles were sent to the Tower. He made humble submission,
and when released retired to the estate he had received from
confiscated land in Ireland. He continued in communication
with the Royalists, and in 1660 had a rather obscure share in
the Restoration. He was reappointed commissioner of the
navy by the king, and in the second Dutch War served as
" great captain commander" or captain of the fleet, with
the duke of York (afterwards King James II.) at the battle
of Lowestoft (June 3, 1665). When the duke withdrew from,
the command, Penn's active service ceased. He continued
however to be a commissioner of the navy. His death occurred
on the 16th of September 1670, and he was buried in the church
of St Mary Redcliffe, Bristol. His portrait by Lely is in the
Painted Hall at Greenwich. By his wife Margaret Jasper, he
was the father of William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania.
Though Sir William Penn was not a high-minded man, he is
a figure of considerable importance in British naval history.
As admiral and general for the parliament he helped in 1653
to draw up the first code of tactics provided for the navy. It
was the base of the " Duke of York's Sailing and Fighting
Instructions," which continued for long to supply the orthodox
tactical creed of the navy.

See the Memorials of the Professional Life and Times of SirWilliam
Penn, by Granville Penn. (D. H.)

PENN, WILLIAM (1644-1718), English Quaker and founder
of Pennsylvania, son of Admiral Sir William Penn (1621-1670)
and Margaret Jasper, a Dutch lady, was born at Tower Hill,
London, on the 14th of October 1644. During his father's
absence at sea he lived at Wanstead in Essex, and went to school
at Chigwell close by, in which places he was brought under
strong Puritan influences. Like many children of sensitive
temperament, he had times of spiritual excitement; when about
twelve he was " suddenly surprised with an inward comfort,
and, as he thought, an external glory in the room, which gave
rise to religious emotions, during which he had the strongest
conviction of the being of a God, and that the soul of man was
capable of enjoying communication with Him." Upon the
death of Cromwell, Penn's father, who had served the Protector
because there was no other career open, remained with his family
on the Irish estates which Cromwell had given him, of the value
of £300 a year. On the resignation of Richard Cromwell he
at once declared for the king and went to the court in Holland,
where he was received into favour and knighted; and at the
elections for the convention parliament he was returned for
Weymouth. Meanwhile young Penn studied under a private
tutor on Tower Hill until, in October 1660, he was entered as a
gentleman commoner at Christ Church. He appears in the
same year to have contributed to the Threnodia, a collection
of elegies on the death of the young duke of Gloucester.

The rigour with which the Anglican statutes were revived,
and the Puritan heads of colleges supplanted, roused the spirit
of resistance at Oxford to the uttermost. With this spirit Penn,
who was on familiar terms with John Owen (1616-1683), and
who had already fallen under the influence of Thomas Loe
the Quaker, then at Oxford, actively sympathized. He and
others refused to attend chapel and church service, and were
fined in consequence. How far his leaving the university
resulted from this cannot be clearly ascertained. Anthony
Wood has nothing regarding the cause of his leaving, but says
that he stayed at Oxford for two years, and that he was noted
for proficiency in manly sports. There is no doubt that in
January 1662 his father was anxious to remove him to Cambridge,
and consulted Pepys on the subject ; and in later years he speaks
of being " banished " the college, and of being whipped, beaten
and turned out of doors on his return to his father, in the
anger of the latter at his avowed Quakerism. A reconciliation,
however, was effected ; and Penn was sent to France to forget this

IOO

PENN, WILLIAM

folly. The plan was for a time successful. Perm appears to have
entered more or less into the gaieties of the court of Louis XIV.,
and while there to have become acquainted with Robert Spencer,
afterwards earl of Sunderland, and with Dorothy, sister to
Algernon Sidney. What, however, is more certain is that he
somewhat later placed himself under the tuition of Moses
Amyraut, the celebrated president of the Protestant college
of Saumur, and at that time the exponent of liberal Calvinism,
from whom he gained the patristic knowledge which is so
prominent in his controversial writings. He afterwards travelled
in Italy, returning to England in August 1664, with " a great
deal, if not too much, of the vanity of the French garb and
affected manner of speech and gait." 1

Until the outbreak of the plague Penn was a student of
Lincoln's Inn. For a few days also he served on the staff of
his father — now great captain commander — and was by him
sent back in April 1665 to Charles with despatches. Returning
after the naval victory off Lowestoft in June, Admiral Penn.
found that his son had again become settled in seriousness and
Quakerism. To bring him once more to views of life not incon-
sistent with court preferment, the admiral sent him in February
1666 with introductions to Ormonde's pure but brilliant court
in Ireland, and to manage his estate in Cork round Shannan-
garry Castle, his title to which was disputed. Penn appears
also later in the year to have been " clerk of the cheque "
at Kinsale, of the castle and fort of which his father had the
command. When the mutiny broke out in Carrickfergus Penn
volunteered for service, and acted under Arran so as to gain
considerable reputation. The result was that in May 1666
Ormonde offered him his father's company of foot, but, for
some unexplained reason, the admiral demurred to this arrange-
ment. It was at this time that the well-known portrait was
painted of the great Quaker in a suit of armour; and it was at
this time, too, that the conversion, begun when he was a boy
by Thomas Loe in Ireland, was completed at the same place
oy the same agency. 2

On the 3rd of September 1667 Penn attended a meeting of
Quakers in Cork, at which he assisted to expel a soldier who
had disturbed the meeting. He was in consequence, with
others present, sent to prison by the magistrates. From prison
he wrote to Lord Orrery, the president of Munster, a letter,
in which he first publicly makes a claim for perfect freedom of
conscience. He was immediately released, and at once returned
to his father in London, with the distinctive marks of Quakerism
strong upon him. Penn now became a minister of the denomi-
nation, and at once entere.d upon controversy and authorship.
His first book, Truth Exalted, was violent and aggressive in the
extreme. The same offensive personality is shown in The Guide
Mistaken, a tract written in answer to John Clapham's Guide
to the True Religion. It was at this time, too, that he appealed,
not unsuccessfully, to Buckingham, who on Clarendon's fall
was posing as the protector of the Dissenters, to use his efforts
to procure parliamentary toleration.

Penn's first public discussion was with Thomas Vincent, a
London Presbyterian minister, who had reflected on the
" damnable " doctrines of the Quakers. The discussion, which
had turned chiefly upon the doctrine of the Trinity, ended
uselessly, and Penn at once published The Sandy Foundation
Shaken, a tract of ability sufficient to excite Pepys's astonish-
ment, in which orthodox views were so offensively attacked
that Penn was placed in the Tower, where he remained for nearly
nine months. The imputations upon his opinions and good
citizenship, made as well by Dissenters as by the Church, he
repelled in Innocency with her Open Face, in which he asserts
his full belief in the divinity of Christ, the atonement, and
justification through faith, though insisting on the necessity
of good works. It was now, too, that he published the most
important of his books, No Cross, No Crown, which contained
an able defence of the Quaker doctrines and practices, and a
scathing attack on the loose and unchristian lives of the clergy.

1 Pepys, August 30. 1664.

2 Webb, The Penns and Penningtons (1867), p. 174.

While completely refusing to recant Penn addressed a letter
to Arlington in July 1669, in which, on grounds of religious
freedom, he asked him to interfere. It is noteworthy, as
showing the views then predominant, that he was almost at
once set at liberty.

An informal reconciliation now took place with his father,
who had been impeached through the jealousy of Rupert and
Monk (in April 1668), and whose conduct in the operations of
1665 he had publicly vindicated; and Penn was again sent on
family business to Ireland. At the desire of his father, whose
health was fast failing, Penn returned to London in 1670.
Having found the usual place of meeting in Gracechurch Street
closed by soldiers. Penn, as a protest, preached to the people
in the open street. With William Mead he was at once arrested
and indicted at the Old Bailey on the 1st of September for
preaching to an unlawful, seditious and riotous assembly,
which had met together with force and arms. The Conventicle
Act not touching their case, the trial which followed, and which
may be read at length in Penn's People's Ancient and Just
Liberties Asserted, was a notable one in the history of trial by
jury. With extreme courage and skill Penn exposed the
illegality of the prosecution, while the jury, for the first time,
asserted the right of juries to decide in opposition to the ruling
of the court. They brought in a verdict declaring Penn and
Mead " guilty of speaking in Gracechurch Street," but refused
to add " to an unlawful assembly "; then, as the pressure upon
them increased, they first acquitted Mead, while returning
their original verdict upon Penn, and then, when that verdict
was not admitted, returned their final answer " not guilty "
for both. The court fined the jurymen 40 marks each for their
contumacy, and, in default of payment, imprisoned them,
whereupon they vindicated and established for ever the right
they had claimed in an action (known as Bushell's case from the
name of one of the jurymen) before the court of common pleas,
when all twelve judges unanimously declared their imprisonment
illegal.

Penn himself had been fined for not removing his hat in court,
had been imprisoned on his refusal to pay, and had earnestly
requested his family not to pay for him. The fine, however,
was settled anonymously, and he was released in time to be
present at his father's death on the 16th of September 1670,
at the early age of forty-nine. Penn now found himself in
possession of a fortune of £1500 a year, and a claim on the
Crown for £16,000, lent to Charles II. by his father. Upon his
release Penn at once plunged into controversy, 'challenging a
Baptist minister named Jeremiah Ives, at High Wycombe, to
a public dispute and, according to the Quaker account, easily
defeating him. No account is forthcoming from the other
side. Hearing at Oxford that students who attended Friends'
meeting were rigorously used, he wrote a vehement and abusive
remonstrance to the vice-chancellor in defence of religious
freedom. This found still more remarkable expression in the
Seasonable Caveat against Popery (Jan. 1671).

In the beginning of 1671 Penn was again arrested for preaching
in Wheeler Street meeting-house by Sir J. Robinson, the
lieutenant of the Tower, formerly lord mayor, and known as a
brutal and bigoted churchman. Legal proof being wanting
of any breach of the Conventicle Act, and the Oxford or Five
Mile Act also proving inapplicable, Robinson, who had some
special cause of enmity against Penn, urged upon him the oath
of allegiance. This, of course, the Quaker would not take,
and consequently was imprisoned for six months. During this
imprisonment Penn wrote several works, the most important
being The Great Case of Liberty of Conscience (Feb. 1671),
a noble defence of complete toleration. Upon his release he
started upon a missionary journey through Holland and
Germany; at Emden he founded a Quaker society, and
established an intimate friendship with the princess palatine
Elizabeth.

Upon his return home in the spring of 1672 Penn married
Gulielma Springett, daughter of Mary Pennington by her first
husband, Sir William Springett; she appears to have been

PENN, WILLIAM

101

equally remarkable for beauty, devotion to her husband, and
firmness to the religious principles which she had adopted when
little more than a child. 1 He now settled at Rickmansworth
in Hertfordshire, and gave himself up to controversial writing.
To this year, 1672, belong the Treatise on Oaths and England's
Present Interest Considered. In the year 1673 Penn was still
more active. He secured the release of George Fox, addressed
the Quakers in Holland and Germany, carried on public
controversies with Thomas Hicks, a Baptist, and John Faldo, an
Independent, and published his treatise on the Christian Quaker
and his Divine Testimony Vindicated, the Discourse of the General
Rule of Faith and Practice, 2 Reasons against Railing (in answer
to Hicks), Counterfeit Christianity Detected, and a Just Rebuke
to One-and-twenly Learned Divines (an answer to Faldo and to
Quakerism no Christianity). His last public controversy was
in 1675 with Richard Baxter, in which, of course, each party
claimed the victory.

At this point Penn's connexion with America begins. The
province of New Jersey, comprising the country between the
Hudson and Delaware rivers on the east and west, had been
granted in March 1663-1664 by Charles II. to his brother; James
in turn had in June of the same year leased it to Lord Berkeley
and Sir G. Carteret in equal shares. By a deed, dated 18th
of March 1673-1674, John Fenwick, a Quaker, bought one of
the shares, that of Lord Berkeley (Stoughton erroneously says
Carteret's) in trust for Edward Byllinge, also a Friend, for
£1000. This sale was confirmed by James, after the second
Dutch War, on the 6th of August 1680. Disputes having arisen
between Fenwick and Byllinge, Penn acted as arbitrator; and
then, Byllinge being in money difficulties, and being compelled
to sell his interest in order to satisfy his creditors, Penn was
added, at their request, to two of themselves, as trustee. The
disputes were settled by Fenwick receiving ten out of the hundred
parts into which the province was divided, 3 with a considerable
sum of money, the remaining ninety parts being afterwards
put up for sale. Fenwick sold his ten parts to two other Friends,
Eldridge and Warner, who thus, with Penn and the other two,
became masters of West Jersey, West New Jersey, or New West
Jersey, as it was indifferently called. 4 The five proprietors
appointed three commissioners, with instructions dated from
London the 6th of August 1676, to settle disputes with Fenwick
(who had bought fresh land from the Indians, upon which Salem
was built, Penn being himself one of the settlers there) and to
purchase new territories, and to build a town — New Beverley,
or Burlington, being the result. For the new colony Penn drew
up a constitution, under the title of " Concessions." The
greatest care is taken to make this constitution " as near as
may be conveniently to the primitive, ancient and fundamental
laws of the nation of England." But a democratic element
is introduced, and the new principle of perfect religious freedom
stands in the first place (ch. xvi.). With regard to the liberty
of the subject, no one might be condemned in life, liberty or
estate, except by a jury of twelve, and the right of challenging
was granted to the uttermost (ch. xvii.). Imprisonment for
debt was not abolished (as Dixon states), but was reduced to a
minimum (ch. xviii.), while theft was punished by twofold
restitution either in value or in labour to that amount (ch.
xxviii.). The provisions of ch. xix. deserve special notice.
All causes were to go before three justices, with a jury. " They,
the said justices, shall pronounce such judgment as they shall
receive from, and be directed by the said twelve men, in whom
only the judgment resides, and not otherwise. And in case of
their neglect and refusal, that then one of the twelve, by consent
of the rest, pronounce their own judgment as the justices should
have done." The justices and constables, moreover, were

1 For a very charming account of her, and the whole Pennington
connexion, see Maria Webb's The Penns and Penningtons.

2 See on this Stoughton's Penn, p. 113.

3 The deed by which Fenwick and Byllinge conveyed West New
Jersey to Penn, Lawry and Nicholas Lucas is dated the loth of
February 1674-1675.

4 The line of partition was " from the east side of Little Egg
Harbour, straight north, through the country, to the utmost branch
of Delaware River."

elected by the people, the former for two years only (ch. xli.).
Suitors might plead in person, and the courts were public
(ch. xxii.). Questions between Indians and settlers were to be
arranged by a mixed jury (ch. xxv.). An assembly was to
meet yearly, consisting of a hundred persons, chosen by the
inhabitants, freeholders and proprietors, one for each division
of the province. The election was to be by ballot, and each
member was to receive a shilling a day from his division, " that
thereby he may be known to be the servant of the people."
The executive power was to be in the hands of ten commissioners 5
chosen by the assembly. Such a constitution soon attracted
large numbers of Quakers to West Jersey.

It was shortly before these occurrences that Penn inherited
through his wife the estate of Worminghurst in Sussex, whither
he removed from Rickmansworth. He now (July 25, 1677)
undertook a second missionary journey to the continent along
with George Fox, Robert Barclay and George Keith. He
visited particularly Rotterdam and all the Holland towns,
renewed his intimacy with the princess Elizabeth at Herwerden,
and, under considerable privations, travelled through Hanover,
Germany, the lower Rhine and the electorate of Brandenburg,
returning by Bremen and the Hague. It is worthy of recollec-
tion that the Germantown (Philadelphia) settlers from Kirch-
heim, one of the places which responded in an especial degree
to Penn's teaching, are noted as the first who declared it wrong
for Christians to hold slaves. Penn reached England again on
the 24th of October. He tried to gain the insertion in the bill
for the relief of Protestant Dissenters of a clause enabling Friends
to affirm instead of taking the oath, and twice addressed the
House of Commons' committee with considerable eloquence
and effect. The bill, however, fell to the ground at the sudden
prorogation.

In 1678 the popish terror came to a head, and to calm and
guide Friends in the prevailing excitement Penn wrote his
Epistle to the Children of Light in this Generation. A far more
important publication was An Address to Protestants of all
Persuasions, by William Penn, Protestant, in 1679; a powerful
exposition of the doctrine of pure tolerance and a protest against
the enforcement of opinions as articles of faith. This was
succeeded, at the general election which followed the dissolution
of the pensionary parliament, by an important political manifesto,
England's Great Interest in the Choice of this New Parliament, in
which he insisted on the following points: the discovery and
punishment of the plot, the impeachment of corrupt ministers
and councillors, the punishment of " pensioners," the enactment
of frequent parliaments, security from popery and slavery, and
ease for Protestant Dissenters. Next came One Project for the
Good of England, perhaps the most pungent of all his political
writings. But he was not merely active with his pen. He was
at this time in close intimacy with Algernon Sidney, who stood
successively for Guildford and Bramber. In each case, owing
in a great degree to Penn's eager advocacy, Sidney was elected,
only to have his elections annulled by court influence. Toleration
for Dissenters seemed as far off as ever. Encouraged by his suc-
cess in the West Jersey province, Penn again turned his thoughts
to America. In repayment of the debt mentioned above he
now asked from the Crown, at a council held on the 24th of June
1680, for " a tract of land in America north of Maryland, bounded
on the east by the Delaware, on the west limited as Maryland
[i.e. by New Jersey], northward as far as plantable"; this
latter limit Penn explained to be " three degrees northwards."
This formed a tract of 300 m. by r6o, of extreme fertility, mineral
wealth and richness of all kinds. Disputes with James, duke
of York, and with Lord Baltimore, who had rights over
Maryland, delayed the matter until the 14th of March 1681,
when the grant received the royal signature, and Penn was made
master of the province of Pennsylvania. His own account of
the name is that he suggested " Sylvania," that the king added
the " Penn " in honour of his father, and that, although he

5 Penn's letter of the 26th of August 1676 says twelve, and Clark-
son has followed this ; but the Concessions, which were not assented
to by the inhabitants until the 3rd of March 1676-1677, say ten.

102

PENN, WILLIAM

strenuously objected and even tried to bribe the secretaries, he
could not get the name altered. It should be added that early
in 1682 Carteret, grandson of the original proprietor, transferred
his rights in East Jersey to Penn and eleven associates, who
soon afterwards conveyed one-half of their interest to the earl
of Perth and eleven others. It is uncertain to what extent
Penn retained his interest in West and East Jersey, and when
it ceased. The two provinces were united under one governor
in 1699, and Penn was a proprietor in 1700. In 1702 the
government of New Jersey was surrendered to the Crown.

By the charter for Pennsylvania Penn was made proprietary
of the province. He was supreme governor; he had the power
of making laws with the advice, assent and approbation of the
freemen, of appointing officers, and of granting pardons. The
laws were to contain nothing contrary to English law, with a
saving to the Crown and the privy council in the case of
appeals. Parliament was to be supreme in all questions of
trade and commerce; the right to levy taxes and customs was
reserved to England; an agent to represent Penn was to reside
in London; neglect on the part of Penn was to lead to the passing
of the government to the Crown (which event actually took place
in 1692); no correspondence might be carried on with countries
at war with Great Britain. The importunity of the bishop of
London extorted the right to appoint Anglican ministers,
should twenty members of the colony desire it, thus securing
the very thing which Penn was anxious to avoid — the
recognition of the principle of an establishment.

Having appointed Colonel (Sir William) Markham, his cousin,
as deputy, and having in October sent out three commissioners
to manage his affairs until his arrival, Penn proceeded to draw
up proposals to adventurers, with an account of the resources of
the colony. He negotiated, too, with James and Lord Balti-
more with the view, ultimately successful, of freeing the mouth
of the Delaware, wrote to the Indians in conciliatory terms,
and encouraged the formation of companies to work the infant
colony both in England and Germany, especially the " Free
Society of Traders in Pennsylvania," to whom he sold 20,000
acres, absolutely refusing, however, to grant any monopolies.
In July he drew up a body of " conditions and concessions."
This constitution, savouring strongly of Harrington's Oceana,
was framed, it is said, in consultation with Sidney, but the
statement is doubtful. Until the council of seventy-two (chosen
by universal suffrage every three years, twenty-four retiring
each year) , and the assembly (chosen annually) were duly elected,
a body of provisional laws was added. ■ ■, ■■■■..'.■ ^ \j-

It was in the midst of this extreme activity that Penn was
made a Fellow of the Royal Society. Leaving his family
behind him, Penn sailed with a hundred comrades from Deal
in the " Welcome " on the 1st of September 1682. His Last
Farewell to England and his letter to his wife and children contain
a beautiful expression of his pious and manly nature. He
landed at New Castle on the Delaware on the 27th of October,
his company having lost one-third of their number by small-pox
during the voyage. After receiving formal possession, and
having visited New York, Penn ascended the Delaware to the
Swedish settlement of Upland, to which he gave the name of
Chester. The assembly at once met, and on the 7th of December
passed the " Great Law of Pennsylvania." The idea which
informs this law is that Pennsylvania was to be a Christian state
on a Quaker model. Philadelphia was now founded, and within
two years contained 300 houses and a population of 2500. At
the same time an act was passed, uniting under the same govern-
ment the territories which had been granted by feoffment by
James in 1682. Realistic and entirely imaginative accounts (cf.
Dixon, p. 270), inspired chiefly by Benjamin West's picture,
have been given of the treaty which there seems no doubt Penn
actually made in November 1683 with the Indians. His con-
nexion with them was one of the most successful parts of his
management, and he gained at once and retained through life
their intense affection.

Penn now wrote an account of Pennsylvania from his own
observation for the " Free Society of Traders," in which he

shows considerable power of artistic description. Tales of
violent persecution of the Quakers, and the necessity of settling
disputes, which had arisen with Lord Baltimore, his neighbour
in Maryland, brought Penn back to England (Oct. 2, 1684)
after an absence of two years. In the spring of 1683 he had
modified the original charter at the desire of the assembly, but
without at all altering its democratic character. 1 He was, in
reference to this alteration, charged with selfish and deceitful
dealing by the assembly. Within five months after his arrival
in England Charles II. died, and Penn found himself at once in
a position of great influence. Penn now took up his abode
at Kensington in Holland House, so as to be near the court.
His influence there was great enough to secure the pardon of
John Locke, who had been dismissed from Oxford by Charles,
and of 1200 Quakers who were in prison. At this time, too,
he was busy with his pen once more, writing a further account
of Pennsylvania, a pamphlet in defence of Buckingham's essay
in favour of toleration, in which he is supposed to have had some
share, and his Persuasive to Moderation to Dissenting Christians,
very similar in tone to the One Project for the Good of England.
When Monmouth's rebellion was suppressed he appears to have
done his best to mitigate the horrors of the western commission,
opposing Jeffreys to the uttermost. 2 Macaulay has accused
Penn of being concerned in some of the worst actions of the court
at this time. His complete refutation by Forster, Paget,
Dixon and others renders it unnecessary to do more than allude
to the cases of the Maids of Taunton, Alderman Kiffin, and
Magdalen College (Oxford).

In 1686, when making a third missionary journey to Holland
and Germany, Penn was charged by James with an informal
mission to the prince of Orange to endeavour to gain his assent
to the removal of religious tests. Here he met Burnet, from
whom, as from the prince, he gained no satisfaction, and who
greatly disliked him. On his return he went on a preaching
mission through England. His position with James was
undoubtedly a compromising one, and it is not strange that,
wishing to tolerate Papists, he should, in the prevailing temper of
England, be once more accused of being a Jesuit, while he was
in constant antagonism to their body. Even Tillotson took up
this view strongly, though he at once accepted Penn's vehement
disavowal. In 1687 James published the Declaration of indul-
gence, and Penn probably drew up the address of thanks on
the part of the Quakers. It fully reflects his views, which are
further ably put in the pamphlet Good Advice to the Church
of England, Roman Catholics, and Protestant Dissenters, in
which he showed the wisdom and duty of repealing the Test
Acts and Penal Laws. At the Revolution he behaved with
courage. He was one of the few friends of the king who remained
in London, and, when twice summoned before the council, spoke
boldly in his behalf. He admitted that James had asked him
to come to him in France; but at the same time he asserted his
perfect loyalty. During the absence of William in 1690 he was
proclaimed by Mary as a dangerous person, but no evidence of
treason was forthcoming. It was now that he lost by death
two of his dearest friends, Robert Barclay and George Fox.
It was at the funeral of the latter that, upon the information
of the notorious informer William Fuller] (1670-1717?), an
attempt was made to arrest him,but[he had just left the ground;
the fact that no further steps were then taken shows how little
the government believed in his guilt. He now lived in retire-
ment in London, though his address was perfectly well known
to his friends in the council. In 1691, again on Fuller's evidence,
a proclamation was issued for the arrest of Penn and two others
as being concerned in Preston's plot. In 1692 he began to write
again, both on questions of Quaker discipline and in defence of
the sect. Just Measures in an Epistle of Peace and Love, The
New Athenians (in reply to the attacks of the Athenian Mercury),
and A Key opening the Way to every Capacity are the principal
publications of this year.

Meantime matters had been going badly in Pennsylvania

1 Dixon, p. 276.

s Burnet, iii. 66; Dalrymple, i. 282.

PENN, WILLIAM

103

Penn had, in 1686, been obliged to make changes in the com-
position of the executive body, though in 1689 it reverted to
the original constitution; the legislative bodies had quarrelled;
and Penn could not gain his rents. The chief difficulty in
Pennsylvania was the dispute between the province — i.e. the
country given to Penn by the charter — and the " territories,"
or the lands granted to him by the duke of York by feoffment in
August 1682, which were under the same government but had
differing interests. The difficulties which Quaker principles
placed in the way of arming the colony — a matter of grave
importance in the existing European complications — fought
most hardly against Penn's power. On the 21st of October
1692 an order of council was issued depriving Penn of the
governorship of Pennsylvania and giving it to Colonel Benjamin
Fletcher, the governor of New York. To this blow were added
the illness of his wife and a fresh accusation of treasonable
correspondence with James. In his enforced retirement he
wrote the most devotional and most charming of his works —
the collection of maxims of conduct and religion entitled The
Fruits of Solitude. In December, thanks to the efforts of his
friends at court, among whom were Buckingham, Somers,
Rochester, and Henry Sidney, he received an intimation that
no further steps would be taken against him. The accusation,
however, had been public, and he insisted on the withdrawal
being equally public. He was therefore heard in full council
before the king, and honourably acquitted of all charges of trea-
son. It was now that he wrote an Essay towards the Present
and Future Peace of Europe, in which he puts forth the idea of
a great court of arbitration, a principle which he had already
carried out in Pennsylvania.

f. In 1694 (Feb. 23) his wife Gulielma died, leaving two
sons, Springett and William, and a daughter Letitia, afterwards
married to William Aubrey. Two other daughters, Mary and
Hannah, died in infancy. He consoled himself by writing his
Account of the Rise and Progress of the People called Quakers.
The coldness and suspicion with which he had been regarded by
his own denomination had now ceased, and he was once more
regarded by the Quaker body as their leader. About the same
time (Aug. 20) he was restored to the governorship of
Pennsylvania; and he promised to supply money and men for
the defence of the frontiers. In 1695 he went on another
preaching mission in the west, and in March 1696 he formed
a second marriage, with Hannah Callowhill, his son Springett
dying five weeks later. In this year he wrote his work On Primi-
tive Christianity, in which he argues that the faith and practice of
the Friends were those of the early Church. In 1697 Penn removed
to Bristol, and during the greater part of 1698 was preaching
with great success against oppression in Ireland, whither he
had gone to look after the property at Shannangarry.

In 1699 he was back in Pennsylvania, landing near Chester
on the 30th of November, where the success of Colonel Robert
Quary, judge of the admiralty in Pennsylvania — who was in the
interests of those who wished to make the province an imperial
colony — and the high-handed action of the deputy Markham in
opposition to the Crown, were causing great difficulties. Penn
carried with him particular instructions to put down piracy,
which the objections of the Quakers to the use of force had
rendered audacious and concerning which Quary had made
strong representations to the home government, while Markham
and the inhabitants apparently encouraged it. Penn and
Quary, howevei came at once to a satisfactory understanding
on this matter, and the illegal traffic was vigorously and success-
fully attacked. In 1696 the Philadelphian Yearly Meeting
had passed a resolution declaring slavery contrary to the first
principles of the gospel. Penn, however, did not venture upon
emancipation; but he insisted on the instruction of negroes,
permission for them to marry, repression of polygamy and
adultery, and proposed regulations for their trial and punishment.
The assembly, however, a very mixed body of all nations, now
refused to accept any of these proposals except the last-named.
His great success was with the Indians; by their treaty with
him in 1700 they promised not to help any enemy of England,

to traffic only with those approved by the governor, and to sell
furs or skins to none but inhabitants of the province. At the
same time he showed his capacity for legislation by the share
he took with Lord Bellomont at New York in the consolidation
of the laws in use in the various parts of America.

Affairs now again demanded his presence in England. The king
had in 1701 written to urge upon the Pennsylvania government
a union with other private colonies f< r defence, and had asked
for money for fortifications. The difl culty felt by the Crown
in this matter was a natural one. A bill was brought into the
lords to convert private into Crown colonies. Penn's son
appeared before the committee of the house and managed to
delay the matter until his father's return. On the 15th of
September Penn called the assembly together, in which the
differences between the province and the territories again broke
out. He succeeded, however, in calming them, appointed a
council of ten to manage the province in his absence, and gave
a borough charter to Philadelphia. In May 1700, experience
having shown that alterations in the charter were advisable,
the assembly had, almost unanimously, requested Penn to revise
it. On the 28th of October 1701 he handed it back to them in
the form in which it afterwards remained. An assembly was
to be chosen yearly, of four persons from each county, with all
the self-governing privileges of the English House of Commons.
Two-thirds were to form a quorum. The nomination of sheriffs,
coroners, and magistrates -for each county was given to the
governor, who was to select from names handed in by the free-
men. Moreover, the council was no longer elected by the
people, but nominated by the governor, who was thus practically
left single in the executive. The assembly, however, who, by
the first charter, had not the right to propound laws, but might
only amend or reject them, now acquired that privilege. In
other respects the original charter remained, and the inviol-
ability of conscience was again emphatically asserted. Penn
reached England in December 1701. He once more assumed
the position of leader of the Dissenters and himself read the
address of thanks for the promise from the Throne to maintain
the Act of Toleration. He now took up his abode again at
Kensington, and published while here his More Fruits of
Solitude.

In 1703 he went to Knightsbridge, where he remained until
1706, when he removed to Brentford, his final residence being
taken up in 1710 at Field Ruscombe, near Twyford. In 1704
he wrote his Life of Bulstrode Whitelocke. He had now much
trouble from America. The territorialists were openly rejecting
his authority, and doing their best to obstruct all business in the
assembly; and matters were further embarrassed by the inju-
dicious conduct of Governor John Evans in 1706. Moreover,
pecuniary troubles came heavily upon him, while the conduct of
his son William, who became the ringleader of all the dissolute
characters in Philadelphia, was another and still more severe
trial. This son was married, and had a son and daughter, but
appears to have been left entirely out of account in the settle-
ment of Penn's proprietary rights on his death.

Whatever were Penn's great qualities, he was deficient in
judgment of character. This was especially shown in the choice
of his steward Ford, from whom he had borrowed money, and
who, by dexterous swindling, had managed, at the time of his
death, to establish, and hand down to his widow and son, a
claim for £14,000 against Penn. Penn, however, refused to pay,
and spent nine months in the Fleet rather than give way. He
was released at length by his friends, who paid £7500 in composi-
tion of all claims. Difficulties with his government of Penn-
sylvania continued to harass him. Fresh disputes took place
with Lord Baltimore, the owner of Maryland, and Penn also felt
deeply what seemed to him the ungraceful treatment which
he met with at the hands of the asser bly. He therefore in
1 7 10 wrote, in earnest and affectionat' language, an address
to his " old friends," setting forth his wrongs. So great was the
effect which this produced that the assembly which met in
October of that year was entirely in his interests; revenues were
properly paid; the disaffected were silenced and complaints

104

PENNANT— PENNINE CHAIN

were hushed; while an advance in moral sense was shown by
the fact that a bill was passed prohibiting the importation of
negroes. This, however, when submitted to the British parlia-
ment, was cancelled. Penn now, in February 171 2, being in
failing health, proposed to surrender his powers to the Crown.
The commission of plantations recommended that Penn should
receive £12,000 in four years from the time of surrender, Penn
stipulating only that the queen should take the Quakers under
her protection; and £1000 was given him in part payment.
Before, however, the matter could go further he was seized with
apoplectic fits, which shattered his understanding and memory.
A second attack occurred in 17 13. He died on the 30th of May
1 7 18, leaving three sons by his second wife, John, Thomas and
Richard, and was buried along with his first and second wives at
Jourdans meeting-house, near Chalfont St Giles in Buckingham-
shire. In 1790 the proprietary rights of Penn's descendants
were bought up for a pension of £4000 a year to the eldest male
descendant by his second wife, and this pension was commuted
in 1884 for the sum of £67,000.

Penn's Life was written by Joseph Besse, and prefixed to the
collected edition of Penn's Works (1726); see also the bibliographical
note to the article in Diet. Nat. Biog. W. Hepworth Dixon's bio-
graphy, refuting Macaulay's charges, appeared in 1851. In 1907
Mrs Colquhoun Grant, one of Penn's descendants, brought out a
book, Quaker arid Courtier: the Life and Work of William Penn.

(O. A.)

PENNANT, THOMAS (1726-1798), British naturalist and
antiquary, was descended from an old Welsh family, for many
generations resident at Downing, Flintshire, where he was born
on the 14th of June 1726. He received his early education at
Wrexham, and afterwards entered Queen's College, Oxford,
but did not take a degree. At twelve years of age he was
inspired with a passion for natural history through being
presented with Francis Willughby's Ornithology; and a tour in
Cornwall in 1 746-1 747 awakened his strong interest in minerals
and fossils. In 1750 his account of an earthquake at Downing
was inserted in the Philosophical Transactions, where there also
appeared in 1756 a paper on several coralloid bodies he had
collected at Coalbrookdale, Shropshire. In the following year,
at the instance of Linnaeus, he was elected a member of the
Royal Society of Upsala. In 1766 he published the first part
of his British Zoology, a work meritorious rather as a laborious
compilation than as an original contribution to science. During
its progress he visited the continent of Europe and made the
acquaintance of Buffon, Voltaire, Haller and Pallas. In 1767
he was elected F.R.S. In 1771 was published his Synopsis
of Quadrupeds, afterwards extended into a History of Quadrupeds.
At the end of the same year he published A Tour in Scotland in
17 6q, which proving remarkably popular was followed in 1774
by an account of another journey in Scotland, in two volumes.
These works have proved invaluable as preserving the record
of important antiquarian relics which have now perished.
In 1778 he brought out a similar Tour in Wales, which was
followed by a Journey to Snowdon (pt. i. 1781; pt. ii. 1783),
afterwards forming the second volume of the Tour. In 1782
he published a Journey from Chester to London. He brought
out Arctic Zoology in 1785-1787. In 1790 appeared his Account
of London, which went through a large number of editions, and
three years later he published the Literary Life of the late T.
Pennant, written by himself. In his later years he was engaged
on a work entitled Outlines of the Globe, vols. i. and ii. of which
appeared in 1798, and vols. iii. and iv., edited by his son David
Pennant, in 1800. He was also the author of a number of
minor works, some of which were published posthumously.
He died at Downing on the 16th of December 1798.

PENNAR, or Penner, two rivers of southern India, distin-
guished as North an South. The native name is Pinakini.
Both rise near the hil. of Nandidrug in Mysore state, and flow
eastward into the Baj of Bengal. The northern is the more
important and has a total length of 355 m., that of the southern
being 245 m. This latter bears the alternative name of the
Ponniar. The Pennar (northern) river canal system comprises
more than 30 m. of canals, irrigating 155,500 acres.

PENNE, a town and episcopal see of Italy, in the province
of Teramo, 26 m. S.E. of Teramo, and 16 m. inland from the
Adriatic, 1437 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 10,394. The
cathedral has been much altered; in its treasury is some fine
13th (?) century silversmiths' work; the church of S. Giovanni
has a fine cross by Nicola di Guardiagrele, and that of S. Maria
in Colleromano, outside the town, a Romanesque portal. Many
of the houses have fine terra-cotta friezes. It occupies the site
of the ancient Pinna, the chief city of the Vestini, who entered
into alliance with Rome in 301 B.C. and remained faithful to
her through the Hannibalic wars and even during the revolt
of the Italian allies in 90 B.C. No remains of the Roman period
exist, even the city walls being entirely medieval.

See G. Colasanti, Pinna (Rome, 1907) ; V. B'indi, Monumenti
degli Abruzzi (Naples, 1889, pp. 565 sqq.).

PENNELL, JOSEPH (i860- ), American artist and author,
was born in Philadelphia on the 4th of July i860, and first
studied there, but like his compatriot and friend, J. M. Whistler,
he afterwards went to Europe and made his home in London.
He produced numerous books (many of them in collaboration
with his wife, Elizabeth Robins Pennell) , but his chief distinction
is as an original etcher and lithographer, and notably as an
illustrator. Their close acquaintance with Whistler led to
Mr and Mrs Pennell undertaking a biography of that artist in
1906, and, after some litigation with his executrix on the right
to use his letters, the book was published in 1908.

PENNI, GIANFRANCESCO (1488-1528), Italian painter,
surnamed " II Fattore," from the relation in which he stood
to Raphael, whose favourite disciple he was after Giulio Romano,
was a native of Florence, but spent the latter years of his life
in Naples. He painted in oil as well as in fresco, but is chiefly
known for his work in the Loggie of the Vatican.

PENNINE CHAIN, an extensive system of hills in the north of
England. The name is probably derived from the Celtic pen,
high, appearing in the Apennines of Italy and the Pennine Alps.
The English system is comprised within the following physical
boundaries. On the N. a well-marked depression, falling below
500 ft. in height, between the upper valleys of the Irthing and
the south Tyne, from which it is known as the Tyne Gap,
separates the Pennines from the system of the Cheviots. On
the N.E., in Northumberland, the foothills extend to the North
Sea. On the N.W. the Eden valley forms part of the boundary
between the Pennines and the hills of the Lake District, and the
division is continued by the upper valley of the Lune. For the
rest the physical boundaries consist of extensive lowlands —
on the E. the vale of York, on the W. the coastal belt of Lan-
cashire and the plain of Cheshire, and on the S. and S.E. the
valley of the river Trent. The Pennines thus cover parts of
Cumberland, Westmorland and Northumberland, Lancashire
and Yorkshire, Cheshire and Derbyshire, while the southern
foothills extend into Staffordshire and Nottinghamshire.

The Pennine system is hardly a range, but the hills are in
effect broken up into numerous short ranges by valleys cut back
into them in every direction, for the Pennines form a north and
south watershed which determines the course of all the larger
rivers in the north of England. The chain is divided into two
sections by a gap formed by the river Aire flowing east, a member
of the Humber basin, and the Ribble flowing west and entering
the Irish Sea through a wide estuary south of Morecambe Bay.

The northern section of the Pennine system is broader and
generally higher than the southern. Its western slope is generally
short and steep, the eastern long and gradual ; this distinction apply-
ing to the system at large. In the north-west a sharp escarpment
overlooks the Eden valley. This is the nearest approach to a true
mountain range in the Pennine system and indeed in England.
It is known as the Cross Fell Edge from its highest point, Cross Fell
(2930 ft.), to the south-east of which a height of 2780 ft. is reached
in Milburn Forest, and of 2591 ft. in Mickle Fell. This range is
marked off eastward by the upper valleys of the south Tyne and the
Tees, and, from the divide between these two, branch ranges spring
eastward, separated by the valley of the Wear, at the head of which
are Burnhope Seat (2452 ft.) and Dead Stones (2326 ft.). In the
northern range the highest point is Middlehope Moor (2206 ft.), and
in the southern. Chapel Fell Top (2294 ft.). It is thus seen that the

PENNSYLVANIA

105

higher elevations, like the steeper slopes, lie towards the west.
Cross Fell Edge terminates southward at a high pass (about 1400 ft.)
between the head of the Belah, a tributary of the Eden, and the
Greta, a tributary of the Tees. This pass is followed by the Tebay
and Barnard Castle line of the North Eastern railway. The hills
between the Lune valley on the west and the headstream of the
Eden and the Ribble on the east are broken into masses by the dales
of tributaries to the first-named river — here the chief elevations are
Wild Boar Fell (2323 ft.), Whernside (2414 ft.), and Ingleborough
(2373 ft.). The Ribble and Eden valleys afford a route for the main
line of the Midland railway. Well-marked eastward ranges occur
here between Swaledale and the river Ure, which traverses the
celebrated Wensleydale (?.».), and between the Ure and Wharfe.
In the first the highest points are High Seat (2328 ft.) and Great
Shunner Fell (2340 ft.) ; and in the second Buckden Pike (2302 ft.)
and Great Whernside (2310 ft.). There is then a general southerly
slope to the Aire gap.

The southern section of the system calls for less detailed notice.
Heights exceeding 2000 ft. are rare. The centre of the section is
the well-known Peak (q.v.) of Derbyshire. Both here and through-
out the system the summits of the hills are high uplands, rounded
or nearly flat, consisting of heathery, peaty moorland or hill pasture.
The profile of the Pennines is thus not striking as a rule, but much
fine scenery is found in the narrow dales throughout; Wensleydale,
Wharfedale and other Yorkshire dales being no less famous than
the dales of Derbyshire. In the parts about Settle below Ingle-
borough, in Derbyshire, and elsewhere, remarkable caverns and
subterranean watercourses in the limestone have been explored to
great depths. In Ingleborough itself are the Ingleborough cave, near
Clapham; the chasm of Gaping Ghyll, over 350 ft. deep; Helln or
Hellan Pot, a vast swallow-hole 359 ft. deep, only exceeded by Row-,
ten Pot (365 ft.) near Whernside; and many others. Malham Tarn,
near the head of the Aire, is drained by a stream which quickly
disappears below ground, and the Aire itself is fed by a brook
gushing forth in full stream at the foot of the cliffs of Malham Cove.
A notable example in Derbyshire is the disappearance of the Wye into
Plunge Hole, after which it traverses Poole's Cave, close to Buxton.
There may also be noted the remarkable series of caverns near
Castleton (q-v.). Lakes are few and small in the Pennine district,
but in some of the upland valleys, such as those of the Nidd and the
Etherow, reservoirs have been formed for the supply of the populous
manufacturing districts of Lancashire and the West Riding of York-
shire, which lie on either flank of the system between the Aire gap
and the Peak. (For geology see England and articles on the
several counties.)

PENNSYLVANIA, a North Atlantic state of the United
States of America and one of the original thirteen, lying for
the most part between latitudes 39° 43' 26-3" and 42° N. and
between longitudes 74° 40' and 8o° 31' 36" W. The state is in
the form of a rectangle, except in the north-west where a
triangular projection, extending to 42 15' N.lat., gives it a shore-
line of almost 40 m. on Lake Erie, on the east where the Dela-
ware river with two large bends separates it from New York and
New Jersey, and in the south-east where the arc of a circle which
was described with a 12-m. radius from New Castle, Delaware,
forms the boundary between it and Delaware. The forty-second
parallel of N. latitude forms the boundary between it and New
York on the N. ; Mason and Dixon's line is the border between
it and Maryland and West Virginia on the south and a north
and south line marks the boundary between it and West
Virginia and Ohio on the west. The total area is 45,126 sq. m.
and of this 294 sq. m. are water surface.

Physical Features. — Pennsylvania skirts the coastal plain in the
south-east below Philadelphia, is traversed from north-east to
south-west by the three divisions of the Appalachian province —
Piedmont or older Appalachian belt, younger Appalachian ridges
and valleys and Alleghany plateau — and in the north-west corner
is a small part of the Erie plain. The entire surface has a mean
elevation of about 1 100 ft. above the sea. It rises from 20 ft. or
less on the bank of the Delaware between Philadelphia and Chester
to 2000-3000 ft. on the higher ridges in the middle section (3136 ft.
on Blue Knob in Bedford county), and falls again to 900-1000 ft.
on the Ohio border and to 750 ft. or less on the Erie plain; in the
south-east is an area of about 6100 sq. m. that is less than 500 ft.
above the sea, while on the ridges in the middle of the state is an
aggregate area of about 2000 sq. m. that everywhere exceeds
2000 ft. in elevation. The area below 500 ft. is mostly in the
Triassic lowland of the Piedmont region, or, as the Pennsylvania
portion of it is called, the south-east province. This is an un-
dulating plain which has been produced by the wearing away of
weak sandstones, &c. On the north and west borders of this
plain are two parts of a chain of semi-detached and usually rounded
hills, known as the South Mountains. The north-east part is a
south-westward arm of the New England uplands, is known as the
Reading Prong, and extends from New Jersey through Easton to

Reading. The south-west part is a north-eastern prolongation of
the Virginia Piedmont, is known as the Cumberland Prong, and
extends N.N.E. through the south part of Cumberland county.
In the Reading Prong most of the hills rise 900-1000 ft. above the
sea and about one-half that height above the surrounding country;
in the Cumberland Prong their height increases to the southward
until, on the Maryland border, they rise 2100 ft. above the sea
and 1400 ft. above the adjoining plain. Another range of hills,
known as the Trenton Prong, extends from the northern suburbs
of Philadelphia both westward and southward through Chester,
Delaware, Lancaster and York counties, but these rise only 400-600
ft. above the sea and have few steep slopes. Both of these ranges
of hills are composed of hard crystalline rocks, and between them
lies the lowland eroded on the weaker sandstones and sediments.
In Bucks and Montgomery counties is a large sandstone area;
traversing Chester county is the narrow Chester Valley with a
limestone bottom, and in Lancaster county is the most extensive
limestone plain. The Pennsylvania portion of the younger Ap-
palachian ridges and valleys, known as the central province of
the state, embraces the region between the South Mountains, on
the south-east, and the crest of the Alleghany plateau or Alleghany
Front, on the north-west. It extends from south-west to north-
east about 230 m. and has a nearly uniform width of 50 m. except
that it narrows rapidly as it approaches the north-east corner of
the state. The ridges and intervening valleys, long parts of which
have an approximately parallel trend from south-west to north-east,
were formed by the erosion of folded sediments of varying hardness,
the weak belts of rock being etched out to form valleys and the
hard belts remaining as mountain ridges. After the folding the
whole region was worn down nearly to sea-level, forming a low
plain which bevelled across the geological structure of the entire '
state, including the Piedmont area to the south-east and the plateau
area to the north-west. Then came a broad uplift followed by the
erosion which carved out the valleys, leaving hard rocks as mountain
ridges which rise about to the level of the old erosion plain. In
Bedford county and elsewhere the ridges rise to 2400 ft. or more
above the sea, but their more usual height is 1400 to 2000 ft. above
the sea and 500 to 1000 ft. above the intervening valleys. Their
crest lines are often of nearly uniform height for miles and generally
are little broken except by an occasional V-shaped wind gap, a
narrow water gap or a rounded knob. The valleys rarely exceed
more than a few miles in width, are usually steep-sided, and fre-
quently are traversed by longitudinal ranges of hills and cross ridges ;
but the Pennsylvania portion of the Appalachian or Great Valley,
which forms a distinct division of the central province and lies
between the South Mountains and the long rampart of Blue
Mountain, is about 10 m. in width on the Maryland border and to
the north-east its width increases to 20 m. The north-west part
of it is a slate belt that has been much dissected by eroding streams,
but the south-east part is a gently rolling belt of limestone to which
occasionally a steep hill descends from the slate belt. The Pocono
plateau, into which the central province merges at its north-east
extremity, is a continuation of the Catskill plateau southward
from New York and covers Wayne, Pike and Monroe counties and
the east portion of Carbon county. Its surface is underlaid by a
hard sandstone and conglomerate which erode slowly, and the general
upland level, which is 1400-1800 ft. above the sea, is little broken
except by shallow valleys and occasional knobs. The Alleghany
plateau, which extends from the crest of the Alleghany Front to
and beyond the west and north borders of Pennsylvania and
covers more than one-half of the state, is much more dissected.
In Tioga and Potter counties on the north middle border, it rises
2400-2500 ft. above the sea, but from this height the general upland
level falls gradually to 1200-1300 ft. in the south-west and 900-
1000 ft. along the Ohio border, and in Erie county there is a sudden
fall of about 200 ft. to the Erie plain. In the northern, middle
and south-west portions of this plateau province the upland is cut
by an intricate network of narrow valleys and ravines that are
commonly 300-600 ft. deep and occasionally 800-1000 ft. deep,
but west of the Allegheny river, where harder rocks have resisted
such deep dissection and glacial drift has filled depressions or
smoothed rough surfaces, the uplands are broader and the valleys
wider and shallower. Most of the Pennsylvania shore of Lake
Erie is lined with a wall of sand and clay 50-100 ft. in height and
along the foot of this is only a narrow beach, but in front of the
city of Erie the shore currents have formed a spit, known as Presque
Isle, which affords a good harbour.

The Pocono plateau, nearly all of the central and south-east
provinces and the north-east portion of the Alleghany plateau are
drained by the Susquehanna and Delaware river-systems into the
Chesapeake and Delaware Bays; the greater part of the Alleghany
plateau is drained by the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers into
the Ohio river; the extreme southern portion of the central province
and the extreme western portion of the south-east province are
drained by tributaries of the Potomac ; the Erie plain is drained by
short streams into Lake Erie; and a very small section of the
Alleghany plateau, in the northern part of Potter county, is drained
by the Genesee river into Lake Ontario. The Susquehanna drains
about 21 ,000 sq. m. of the state ; the Ohio, Allegheny and Monongahela

io6

PENNSYLVANIA

14,747 sq. m. ; and the Delaware 6443 sq. m. The Susquehanna
is a wide and shallow stream with a zigzag course and numerous
islands, but both the Susquehanna and the Delaware, together
with their principal tributaries, flow for the most part transverse
to the geological structure, and in the gorges and water-gaps through
which they pass ridges in the mountain region, is some of the most
picturesque scenery in the state; a number of these gorges, too,
have been of great economic importance as passages for railways.
The lower portion of the Delaware river has been entered by the
sea as the result of the depression of the land, giving a harbour, at
the head of which developed the city of Philadelphia. The present
course of the Upper Allegheny river is the result of the glacier
which blocked the northward drainage of the region through
which it flows and turned it southward. The Monongahela is an
older stream, but like the Allegheny, it meanders much, and both
rivers flow in deeply intrenched valleys. The few small lakes
of the state are mostly on the Pocono plateau, where they were
formed by glaciation; here, too, are some streams with picturesque
cascades.

Fauna. — Under the protection of a game commission which was
created in 1895, of some game preserves which have been estab-
lished by this commission, and of various laws affecting wild
animals and birds, the numbers of Virginia deer, black bear, rabbits,
ruffed grouse, quail and wild turkeys have increased until in some
of the wilder sections they are quite plentiful, while the numbers
of weasels, minks, lynx and foxes have been diminished. Squirrels,
racoons, woodchucks and skunks are common, and musk-rats,
porcupines and opossums are found in some sections. Two species
of venomous snakes — the rattlesnake and the copper-head — occur
in the sparsely settled regions. The avifauna include — among the
birds of prey — the red-shouldered hawk, red-tailed hawk, marsh
hawk, Cooper's hawk, sharp-shinned hawk and sparrow hawk ; the
great horned owl, the barn owl and the screech owl ; and bald eagles
are not uncommon in the mountainous regions along the larger rivers.
The " turkey-buzzard " — turkey-vulture — (very valuable as a
scavenger) is seen occasionally, especially in the south and south-west.
The game birds include the ruffed grouse, quail and English pheasant
(which have increased rapidly under protection), besides woodcock,
snipe, many species of ducks and a few Canada geese. The song and
insectivorous birds — thrushes, flycatchers, vireos and woodpeckers —
of this latitude, are well represented, and the high plateaus (particu-
larly the Pocono plateau) have especial ornithological interest as the
tarrying-places, during the migratory seasons, of many species of
birds whose natural breeding ground is much farther north. Perch,
sunfish, trout, bass, pike and pickerel abound in many of the streams.
Yellow perch are especially plentiful in the lakes on the Pocono
plateau. Pike-perch and a few blue pike are taken in the Susque-
hanna, where shad are no longer plentiful since work was begun
on McCall's Ferry dam, and in 1908 the entire catch for the river
was valued at about $20,000, but in the Delaware there are valuable
shad?and herring fisheries. The blue pike, whitefish and herring,
obtained on Lake Erie are of. considerable commercial importance.
In 1908 the total catch on Lake Erie was valued at $200,860, the
principal items being herring ($90,108), blue pike ($13,657) and
whitefish ($31,580). The catch of herring was twice as much in
1908 as in 1907 and that of whitefish nearly four times as much
in 1908 as in 1907; this increase was attributed to the work of the
state hatcheries. There were eight hatcheries in 1910 and the
number of fish distributed from these during 1908 was about
662,000,000; they consisted chiefly of pickerel, yellow perch, wall-
eyed pike, white fish, herring, blue pike, trout and shad.

Flora. — Except on some portions of the Pocono plateau, Penn-
sylvania was originally well forested, and, although most of the
merchantable timber has been cut, about one-half of the state is
still woodland. On the higher elevations the trees are mostly
white pine, yellow pine and hemlock, but in the valleys and lower
levels are oaks, hickories, maples, elms, birches, locusts, willows,
spruces, gums, buckeyes, the chestnut, black walnut, butternut,
cedar, ash, linden, poplar, buttonwood, hornbeam, holly, catalpa,
magnolia, tulip-tree, Kentucky coffee-tree, sassafras, wild cherry,
pawpaw, crab-apple and other species. The flora is most varied
in the Susquehanna Valley below Harrisburg, and on Presque
Isle are some plants peculiar to the Lake region. The state has
forest reserves (918,000 acres in 1910) in 26 counties, the largest
areas being in Potter, Clinton, Center, Cameron, Lycoming, Hunting-
don, Union and Mifflin counties; and there is an efficient department
of forestry under a state commissioner of forestry. A state forest
academy (the only one in the United States) is at Mont Alto,
where there is one of the three state nurseries; its first class gradu-
ated in 1906. In 1909 the state legislature passed an act authorizing
any city, borough or township of the first class to acquire, subject
to the approval of the commissioner of forestry, a municipal
forest; and it authorized the distribution of seedling forest trees,
at cost, to those who would plant and protect them, for growing
private forests.

Climate. — The temperature is quite mild and equable in the
south-east province where the ocean influences it and where the
mountains bounding it on the north and north-west are some
protection from the colder winds. The crests of the higher ridges
in the central province are delightfully cool in summer, but the

adjacent valleys are subject to excessive heat in summer and severe
cold in winter. The mean annual temperature decreases to the
north-westward on the Alleghany plateau, but on the Erie plain,
in the extreme north-west, Lake Erie exerts its moderating influence,
the mean temperature rises, and extremes shorten. The mean
annual temperature in the south-east province is about 52 ° F. ;
it decreases to 50 ° in the central province and to 47 ° or less in some
of the north-west counties of the Alleghany plateau, but rises to
49° on the shore of Lake Erie. At Philadelphia the mean tempera-
ture in winter (December, January and February) is 34°, the mean
temperature in summer (June, July and August) is 74 °, and the
range of extremes here for a long period of years ending with 1907
was within 103 ° and 6°. At Huntingdon, Huntingdon county, in
the Juniata Valley, the winter mean is 30°, the summer mean 71 °,
and within the period from 1888 to 1907 extremes ranged from
104 to 23 . The summer maxima on the mountains are usually
8° to io° less than in the valleys directly below them; Saegerstown,
Crawford county, is nearly 30 m. south of Erie, on Lake Erie, and
yet the winter mean is 28 ° at Erie and only 25 ° at Saegerstown,
and the lowest temperature on record for Erie is -16° while for
Saegerstown it is -27°. During the period from 1875 to 1905
inclusive, extremes within the state ranged from 107° at York,
York county, in July 1901, to -42 ° at Smithport, McKean county,
in January 1904. July is the warmest month in all parts of the
state. January is the coldest in some and February in others.
The average annual rainfall is 44 in. It is 50 in. or more in some
regions along the south-east border of the mountain district or
farther south-east where the rains are occasionally heavy, and it is
less than 40 in. in some of the north-east and south-west counties.
The amount of rainfall during the summer is about 3 in. more than
that during either autumn or winter and 2 in. more than that during
spring. In the mountain region and in the vicinity of Lake Erie
there is often a fall of several inches of snow during the winter
months and the rapid melting of this produces floods on the Dela-
ware, Susquehanna and Ohio rivers and some of their tributaries.
The prevailing winds are westerly, but they are frequently interrupted
by warm breezes from the south, or moisture-bearing currents from
the east. -1

Soils. — The most productive soil is that in the south-east section
of the Great Valley and in Chester Valley where it is derived largely
from limestone. There is some of the same formation as well as
that derived from red shales on the sandstone hills in the south-east
province and in many of the middle and western valleys, but often
a belt of inferior slate soil adjoins a limestone belt, and many of
the ridges are covered with a still more sterile soil derived from
white and grey sandstones. The north-west and north-east sections
contain some glacial drift but the soil in these parts is not suitable
for cultivation except in the larger valleys in the north-west where
it is drained by glacial gravel or there is some sandy loam mixed
with clay.

Agriculture. — Pennsylvania is noted for its mineral wealth and
manufactures rather than for its agricultural resources, but in 1900
about two-thirds of its land was included in farms, a little more
than two-thirds of its farm-land was improved, and in several
crops the state has long ranked high. The number of farms in-
creased from 127,577 in 1850 to 224,248 in 1900, the increase
resulting in part from a reduction of their size but more largely
from the appropriation of new lands for farming purposes. The
average size in 1900 was 86-4 acres. Nearly 60% of them con-
tained less than 100 acres and only about 2-7% contained 260
acres or more. More than seven-tenths (160,105) were worked by
owners or part owners, and only 34,529 by share tenants, and
2 3.737 by cash tenants. Hay, Indian corn, wheat, oats, potatoes,
fruits, vegetables and tobacco are the principal crops. Of the total
crop acreage in 1899 nearly two-fifths was devoted to hay and
forage, and the value of the hay crop in 1909 ' (when the crop was
3,742,000 tons, valued at $54,633,000) was greater than that of any
other state in the Union except New York. Hay is grown in largest
quantities in the north, and in the section south-east of Blue
Mountain. More than one-half of the crop acreage in 1899 was
devoted to cereals, and of the total cereal acreage 32 % was of
wheat, 31-2% was of Indian corn, 24-8% was of oats, 6-5% was
of rye, and 5-3 % was of buckwheat. The product of Indian corn
was 48,800,000 bushels in 1909; of wheat 26,265,000 bushels; of
oats 25,948,000 bushels; of barley 196,000 bushels; of rye 5,508,000
bushels; and of buckwheat 5,665,000 bushels.

Indian corn, wheat and rye, are cultivated most extensively
in the south-east counties. Some of the larger oat-producing
counties also are in the south-east, but most of the buckwheat,
barley and oats are grown in the north and west counties. The
dairy business, for which much of the hay crop is needed, has grown
with the growth of the urban population as is shown in part by a
steady increase in the number of dairy cows from 530,224_ in 1850
to 1,140,000 in 1910; the value of the dairy products in 1899
($35,860,110) was exceeded only in New York. The number of
other cattle has fluctuated somewhat, but there were 917,000 in
1910 as against 623,722 in 1850. Horses increased in number

1 Statistics for 1909 and 19 10 are from the Year Book of the
United States Department of Agriculture.

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PENNSYLVANIA

107

from 350,398 in 1850 to 619,000 in 1910. The number of mules
increased steadily from 2259 in 1850 to 43,000 in 1910. The
raising of sheep and swine was of considerably less relative impor-
tance in 1910 than in 1850, there being 1,882,357 sheep and 1,040,366
swine in 1850 and 1,112,000 sheep and 931,000 swine in 1910. The
dairy business is largest in the regions around Philadelphia and
Pittsburg, and in Erie and Bradford counties. Cattle other than
dairy cows as well as horses and sheep are most numerous in the
western counties, in Bradford county on the north border, and in
some of the counties of the south-east. Swine are mort numerous
in the south-east and south-west counties. The state ranks high
in the production of potatoes, cabbages, lettuce and turnips, and
it produces large crops of sweet Indian corn, tomatoes, cucumbers,
musk-melons, asparagus and celery. The total value of all vegetables
produced in 1899 was $15,832,904, an amount exceeding that of
any other state except New York. A large portion of the vegetables
are grown in the vicinity of Philadelphia or in the vicinity of Pitts-
burg. The culture of tobacco, which was introduced as early as
1689, was a small industry until the middle of the 19th century,
but it then developed rapidly except during a brief interruption
caused by the Mexican War. In 1909 the crop was 30,732,000 lb.
More than two-thirds of the state's crop of 1899 was produced in
Lancaster county, which is one of the largest tobacco-producing
counties in the United States, and most of the other third was
produced in York, Tioga, Bradford and Clinton counties. Apples,
cherries and pears are the principal orchard fruits. Grapes, peaches,
plums and prunes, apricots, strawberries, raspberries and logan-
berries, blackberries and dewberries, currants and gooseberries
are also grown. Orchard fruits are most abundant south-east
of Blue Mountain, and small fruits near the larger cities, but
about two-thirds of the grapes are grown in Erie county. Flori-
culture is an important industry in Philadelphia and its vicinity.
The sale of nursery products, more than one-half of which were
grown in Chester and Montgomery counties, amounted in 1899
to $541,032, and although this was less than one-third that of New
York it was exceeded in only three other states.

Minerals. — Pennsylvania is by far the most important coal-
producing state in the Union, and as much of the iron ore of the
Lake Superior region is brought to its great bituminous coal-field
for rendering into pig-iron, the value of the state's mineral products
constitutes a large fraction of the total value for the entire country;
in 1907, when the value of the mineral products of the state was
$657,783,345, or nearly one-third that of all the United States,
and in 1908 when the total for the state was $473,083,212, or more
than one-fourth that of the whole United States, more than four-
fifths of it was represented by coal and pig-iron. With the ex-
ception of two small areas in Colorado and New Mexico, Penn-
sylvania contains the only anthracite-coal region in the country.
This is in the east of the state, and although it has a total area of
about 3300 sq. m., its workable measures are mostly in Lacka-
wanna, Luzerne, Carbon, Schuylkill and Northumberland counties
in an area of less than 500 sq. m. This coal was discovered as
early as 1762 near the site of the present city of Wilkes- Barre and
during the War of Independence it was used at Carlisle in the manu-
facture of war materials, but it was of little commercial importance
until early in the next century. In 18 15 the output was reported
as only 50 tons, but it steadily rose to 74,347,102 tons (valued at
$158,178,849) in 1908. Besides having practically all the anthracite,
Pennsylvania has the thickest bituminous coal-measures, and most
of the coal obtained from these is of the best quality. They form
the northern extremity of the great Appalachian coal-field and under-
lie an area of 15,000 sq. m. or more in the west of the state. The
Pittsburg district, comprising the counties of Allegheny, Washing-
ton, Fayette and Westmoreland, is exceptionally productive, and
the coal in Allegheny and Washington counties is noted for its
gas-producing qualities, while in Fayette and Westmoreland counties
is obtained the famous Connellsville coking coal. The bituminous
coal was first used at nearly the same time as the anthracite and it
was first shipped from Pittsburg in 1803. In 1840 the state's
output was 464,826 tons. It increased to 1,000,000 tons in 1 850,
to 1 1,760,000 tons in 1875, to 79,842,326 tons in 1900, to 150,143,177
tons in 1907; and was 117,179,527 tons in 1908, when it was 35-2 %
of that of the entire country and was valued at $118,816,303.
In 1880 the output of coal (anthracite and bituminous) in Penn-
sylvania was_ 66% of that of the entire country; in 1908 it was
48-2%; but in the latter year the Pennsylvania mines produced
more coal thtn the combined production of all the countries of
the world excepting Great Britain, Germany and Austria-Hungary,
and it was nearly four times as much as the total mined in Austria,
nearly five times as much as that mined in France, and seven times
as much as the output of Russia in that year. Extending from the
south-west corner of the state through Greene, Washington, Alle-
gheny, Beaver, Butler, Venango, Clarion, Forest, Elk, Warren,
McKean and Tioga counties is the Pennsylvania section of the
Appalachian oil-field which, with the small section in New York,
furnished nearly all of the country's supply of petroleum for some
years following the discovery of its value for illuminating purposes.
The mineral was made known to white men by the Indians, who
sold it, under the name of Seneca oil, as a cure for various ills,
and burned it at some of their ceremonies. The early settlers in

west Pennsylvania also found that some unknown people had dug
pits several feet in depth around the oil springs apparently for the
purpose of collecting the oil. But it was not until the middle of
the 19th century that its value as an illuminating oil became known
and not until 1859 was the first petroleum well drilled. Thd
was the Drake well, on the flats of Oil Creek at Titusville; it
was about 70 ft. in depth, and when 25 barrels were pumped from
it in a day its production was considered enormous. By the close
of 1 861 wells had been drilled from which 2000 to 3000 barrels
flowed in a day without pumping, and the state's yearly output
continued to increase until 1891, when it amounted to 31,424,206
barrels. Since then, however, wells have been going dry, and when,
in 1895, the output fell to 19,144,390 barrels it was exceeded by
that of Ohio. It went down quite steadily to 9,424,325 in 1908,
and in that year Pennsylvania was out-ranked as an oil-producing
state by Oklahoma, California, Illinois, Texas and Ohio. In drilling
for some of the first oil wells gas escaped, and in a few instances
this was used as a fuel for generating steam in the boilers of the
drilling-engines. In some instances, too, wells which were drilled
for oil produced only gas. A little later, about 1868, successful
experiments were made with gas as a manufacturing fuel, and in
1872 the gas industry was fairly well established near Titusville
by drilling a well and piping the gas for consumption both as fuel
and light. The value of the state's output increased from approxi-
mately $75,000 in 1882 to approximately $19,282,000 in 1888,
and the total value of its output during these and the intervening
years was more than 80% that of all the United States. The
industry then became of greater importance in several other states
and declined in Pennsylvania until in 1896 the value of Penn-
sylvania's product amounted to only $5,528,610, or 42-5% of that
of the United States. This temporary decline was, however,
followed by a rather steady rise and in 1908 the output was valued
at $19,104,944, which was still far in excess of that of any other
state and nearly 35% of that of the entire country. The gas
region has an area of about 15,000 sq. m. and embraces about all
of the Pennsylvania section of the Alleghany plateau except a
narrow belt along its east and south-east border. There are de-
posits of various kinds of iron ore in the eastern, south-eastern, .
middle and some of the western counties, and from the middle of
the 18th century until near the close of the 19th Pennsylvania
ranked high among the iron-ore-producing states. As late as 1880
it ranked first, with a product amounting to 1,951,496 long tons.
But the state's iron foundries moved rapidly westward after the
first successful, experiments in making pig-iron with bituminous
coal, in 1845, and the discovery, a few years later, that rich ore
could be obtained there at less cost from the Lake Superior region
resulted in a decline of iron-mining within the state until, in 1902,
the product amounted to only 822,932 long tons, 72-2 % of which
was magnetite ore from the Cornwall mines in Lebanon county
which have been among the largest producers of this kind of ore
since the erection of the Cornwall furnace in 1742. In 1908 the
entire iron-ore product of the state, amounting to 443,161 long
tons, was not I -3 % of that of the United States, but the production
of the magnetite-ore alone (343,998 long tons) was more than one-
fifth that of all the United States. In the manufacture of pig-iron
Pennsylvania is easily first among the states, with a product value
in 1908 of $111,385,000, nearly 43-8% of that of the entire country.
Pennsylvania has extensive areas of limestone rock suitable for
making cement, and in Northampton and Lehigh counties enormous
quantities of it are used in this industry. Natural-rock cement was
first made in the state soon after the discovery, in 1 83 1, of deposits
of cement rock near Williamsport, Lycoming county, and the in-
dustry was greatly promoted in 1850 when the vast deposits in
the lower Lehigh Valley were discovered and large quantities of
cement were required in the rebuilding of the Lehigh Canal. Com-
petition produced in Lehigh county the first successful Portland
cement plant in the United States in 1870. The output of the
natural-rock cement continued greater than that of the Portland until
1896, but for the succeeding ten years the enormous development
of the cement industry was almost entirely in the Portland branch,
its production in the state increasing from 825,054 barrels in 1896
to 8,770,454 barrels in 1902, and to 18,254,806 barrels (valued at
$13,899,807) in 1908, when it was more than 30% of that of the
United States. The production of natural-rock cement was 608,000
barrels in 1896 and only 252,479 barrels (valued at $87,192) in
1908. Limestones and dolomites suitable for building purposes
are obtained chiefly in Montgomery, Chester and Lancaster counties,
and even these are generally rejected for ornamental work on account
of their colour, which is usually bluish, grey or mottled. However
until increased facilities of transport brought more desirable stones
into competition they were used extensively in Philadelphia and
with them the main building of Girard College and the United
States Naval Asylum were erected and the long rows of red-brick
residences were trimmed. There are limestone quarries in nearly
two-thirds of the counties and great quantities of the stone are
used for flux in the iron furnaces, for making quicklime, for railway
ballast and for road making. The total value of the limestone
output in 1908 amounted to $4,057,471, and the total value of all
stone quarried was $6,371,152. In Dauphin county is a quarry
of bluish-brown Triassic sandstone that has been used extensively

io8

PENNSYLVANIA

especially in Philadelphia, for the erection of the so-called brown
stone fronts. On the Pocono plateau is a large deposit of a fine-
grained dark-blue stone of the Devonian formation which is known
as the Wyoming Valley stone, and, like the New York " bluestone,"
which it closely resembles, is much used for window and door trim-
mings, steps and nagging. Several of the western counties contain
Carboniferous or sub-Carboniferous sandstones that are used locally
for building and for various other purposes. In 1908 the value of
Pennsylvania sandstone and bluestone was $1,368,784. North-
ampton, Lehigh and York counties contain the most productive
slate quarries in the country, and in 1908 the value of their output
was $3,902,958; the Northampton and Lehigh slate is the only
kind in the United States used for school blackboards. There is
an extensive area in the south-east part of the state containing
shale clay of a superior quality for making common brick. Kaolin
abounds in Chester and Delaware counties, and fire-clay in several
of the western counties. In 1908 the state ranked first in the
value of its output of brick and tile ($18,981,743), which was 14-74 %
of the entire product of the United States, and was second only to
Ohio in the total value of its clay products ($14,842,982), which
was 11-14% °f that for the entire country. Glass sand abounds
both in the eastern and in the western sections and for many years
Pennsylvania has used this more extensively in the manufacture
of glass than any other state. Deposits of crystalline graphite
are found in Chester and Berks counties. In Chester county, also,
is one of the most productive deposits of feldspar, second in impor-
tance only to those of Maine. Soapstone is quarried in Montgomery
and Northampton counties, phosphate rock, in Juniata county;
rocks from which mineral paints are made, in several counties, and
there is some garnet in Delaware county.

Manufactures. — The state ranks second to New York in the value
of its manufactures, which increased from $155,044,910 in 1850
to $1,955,551,332 (factory products alone) in 1905, a growth which
has been promoted by an abundance of fuel, by a good port on the
Atlantic seaboard, by a network of canals which in the early years
was of much importance in connecting the port with the Mississippi
river system, by its frontage on Lake Erie which makes the ores
of the Lake Superior region easily accessible, and by a great railway
system which has been built to meet the demands arising from the
natural resources. By far the most important industry is the
production of iron and steel. The manufacture of iron was es-
tablished on a commercial basis in 1716-1718, when a furnace was
built on Manatawney Creek above Pottstown, and before the close
of the colonial era Pennsylvania had risen to first rank among the
iron-producing colonies, a position which it has always held among
the states of the Union. So long as charcoal only was used in the
furnaces (until about 1840) and during the brief period in which
this was replaced largely by anthracite, the industry was of chief
importance in the eastern section, but with the gradual increase in
the use of bituminous coal, or of coke made from it, the industry
moved westward, where, especially in the Pittsburg district, it
received a new impetus by the introduction of iron ore from the
Lake Superior region. The value of the output of iron and steel
increased from $264,571,624 in 1890 to $471,228,844 in 1905, and
the state furnished 46-5 % of the pig-iron and 54 % of the steel
and malleable iron produced in the entire country. The manu-
facture of great quantities of coke has resulted from the demand
for this product in the iron and steel industry and from the abun-
dance of coking coal ; the manufacture of glass has been promoted
by the supply of glass sand and natural gas in the west of the state ;
the manufacture of leather by the abundance of hemlock bark; the
manufacture of pottery, terra-cotta and fire-clay products by the
abundance of raw material; the manufacture of silk and silk goods
by the large number of women and girls who came into the state
in families of which the men and boys were employed in mining
and picking anthracite coal; and in each of these industries as
well as in a few others the state has for many years produced a
large portion of the country's product.

In 1905 the twelve leading manufactures, with the value of each,
were: steel and malleable iron, $363,773,577; foundry and machine-
shop products, consisting most largely of steam locomotives, metal-
working machinery and pumping machinery, $119,650,913; pig-
iron, $107,455,267; leather, $69,427,852; railway cars and repairs
by steam railway companies, $61,021,374; refined petroleum,
$47,459,502; silk and silk goods, $39,333,520; tobacco, cigars and
cigarettes, $39,079,122; flour and grist-mill products, $38,518,702;
refined sugar and molasses, $37,182,504; worsted goods, $35,683,015;
and malt liquors, $34,863,823. The most marked advances from
1900 to 1905 were in worsted goods (61-4 %) structural iron-work
(60 0/ o), and tin and terne-plate (54-4 %). Philadelphia is the
great manufacturing centre. Within its limits, in 1905, all the
sugar and molasses were manufactured and much of the petroleum
was refined, nearly all of the iron and steel ships and steam loco-
motives were built, and 93 % of the carpets and rugs were made,
and the total value of the manufactures of this city in that year
was nearly one-third of that for the entire state. Nearly 20 % of
the iron and steel was produced by Pittsburg together with Alle-
gheny ,with which it has since been consolidated, and the production
of these is the leading industry of New Castle, Johnstown, Duquesne,
McKeesport, Sharon, Braddock and Dubois, also in the west part of

the state and of Reading, Harrisburg, Steelton, South Bethlehem,
Pottstown, Lebanon, Phoenixville and Danville in the east part.
The silk and cement industries are confined largely to the eastern
cities and boroughs; the coke, tin and terne-plate, and pickling
industries to the western; and the construction and repair of rail-
way cars to Altoona, Meadville, Dunmore, and repair of railway
cars to Altoona, Meadville, Dunmore, Chambersburg, Butler and
Philadelphia.

Transport and Commerce. — The new road cut through the Juniata
region in the march of the army of Brigadier-General John Forbes,
against Fort Duquesne in 1758, was a result of the influence of
Pennsylvania, for it was considered even then a matter of great
importance to the future prosperity of the province that its seaport,
Philadelphia, be connected with navigation on the Ohio by the
easiest line of communication that could be had wholly within its
limits. As early as 1762 David Rittenhouse and others made a
survey for a canal to connect the Schuylkill and the Susquehanna
rivers, and in 1791 a committee of the state legislature reported
in favour of a project for establishing communication by canals
and river improvement from Philadelphia to Lake Erie by way
of the Susquehanna river. Before anything was done, the need of
improved means of transportation between Philadelphia and the
anthracite coal-fields became. the more pressing. The Schuylkill
Canal Company, chartered in 1815, began the construction of a
canal along the Schuylkill river from Philadelphia to Mount Carbon,
Schuylkill county, in 1816, and completed it in 1826. In 1818 the
Lehigh Navigation Company was formed to improve the naviga-
tion of the Lehigh river from its confluence with the Delaware to
Coalport, and two years later coal was successfully carried down
the Lehigh and Delaware rivers to Philadelphia in " arks " or
rectangular boxes, two or more of which were joined together and
steered by a long oar. So prosperous was the business that in
1827-1829 the company built a number of locks which made the
Lehigh navigable in either direction, and in 1827-1832 the state
did the same for the Delaware between the mouth of the Lehigh
and Bristol. , The Union Canal Company, incorporated in 181 1,
completed a canal from Middletown on the Susquehanna to Reading
on the Schuylkill in 1827. In 1824 the state legislature authorized
the appointment of a commission to explore routes from the Schuyl-
kill to Pittsburg, and from the West Branch of the Susquehanna
to the Allegheny, and in the three or four succeeding yerrs the
state committed itself to a very extensive system of internal
improvements. Work was begun on the system in 1826 and was
continued without interruption until 1840, when the completed or
nearly completed portions embraced a railway from Philadelphia
to Columbia on the Susquehanna, a canal up the Susquehanna and
the Juniata from Columbia to Hollidaysburg, a portage railway
from Hollidaysburg through Blair's Gap in the Alleghany Front to
Johnstown on the Conemaugh river, a canal down the Conemaugh,
Kiskiminetas, and Allegheny rivers to Pittsburg, a canal up the
Susquehanna and its west branch from the mouth of the Juniata
to Farrandsville, in Clinton county, a canal up the Susquehanna
and its north branch from Northumberland nearly to the New
York border, and a canal up the Delaware river from Bristol to
the mouth of the Lehigh ; considerable work had also been done on
two canals to connect the Ohio river with Lake Erie. Work was
stopped, in 1840, before the system was completed because of the
intense popular discontent arising from the burden of debt which
had been assumed and because the success of competing railways
was then fully assured. In 1845 the state began to sell its canals
and railways to private corporations and the sale was completed
in 1859. The western division of the system was abandoned by
the new owners in 1865 and the worked portion of the east division
gradually decreased until it, too, was wholly abandoned in 1904,
with the exception of the Delaware Division Canal, which since
1866 has been worked by the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Company
in connexion with the Lehigh Canal. In its natural condition there
were bars in the Delaware river below Philadelphia which obstructed
the navigation of vessels drawing more than 17-20 ft. of water,
but in 1899 the Federal government adopted a project for obtaining
a channel having a minimum depth of 30 ft. The Federal govern-
ment has much improved the navigation of the Monongahela and
Allegheny rivers and is committed to a project for slack-water
navigation on the Ohio which is expected to give Pittsburg com-
munication with the sea by vessels drawing 9 ft. of water.

The first railway in the state was that built in 1827 by the Lehigh
Coal & Navigation Company from Mauch Chunk to its mines,
9 m. distant; but this was only a gravity road down which cars
loaded with coal descended by their own gravity and up which the
empty cars were drawn by mules. In 1823 a company was incor-
porated to build a railway from Philadelphia to Columbia, but
nothing further was done until 1828, when the state canal com-
missioners were directed to build this road and the Allegheny
Portage railway from Hollidaysburg to Johnstown. The latter
was built with ten inclined planes, five on each side of the summit
at Blair's Gap and cars were drawn up these by stationary engines.
Both the Philadelphia & Columbia and the Allegheny Portage
railways were completed in 1834. From these and other begin-
nings the state's railway mileage gradually increased to 1240 m.
in 1850. to 4656 m. in 1870, to 8639 m. in 1890 and to 11,373 m. at

PENNSYLVANIA

109

the end of 1908, when it was exceeded by only two states in the
Union, Texas and Illinois. The principal railways are the lines
operated by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company from New York
to Washington through Philadelphia; from Philadelphia to Cincin-
nati, Cleveland, Chicago and St Louis through Harrisburg and
Pittsburg; from Baltimore, Maryland, to Sodus Point on Lake
Ontario (Northern Central) through Harrisburg and Williamsport ;
from Williamsport to Buffalo and to Erie, and from Pittsburg to
Buffalo; the Philadelphia & Reading; the Lehigh Valley; the Erie;
the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western; the Baltimore & Ohio;
and the Buffalo, Pvochester & Pittsburg.

The state has one port of entry along the Atlantic coast, one on
the Ohio river, and one on the Great Lakes. Philadelphia, the
Atlantic port, exports chiefly petroleum, coal, grain and flour, and
imports chiefly iron ore, sugar, drugs and chemicals, manufactured
iron, hemp, jute and flax. In 1909 the value of its exports,
$80,650,274, was greater than that of any other Atlantic port
except New York, and the value of its imports, $78,003,464, was
greater than that of any except New York and Boston. Pittsburg
ranks high among the interior ports of the country in foreign
commerce and first among the cities of the United States in the
tonnage of its domestic commerce. Erie is quite unimportant
among the lake ports in foreign commerce, but has a large domestic
trade in iron ore, copper, wheat and flour.

Population. — The population of Pennsylvania was 434,373
in 1790; 602,365 in 1800; 810,091 in 1810; 1,049,458 in 1820;
1,348,233 in l8 3°; i,7 2 4,o33 in 1840; 2,311,786 in 1850; 2,906,215
in i860; 3,521,951 in 1870; 4,282,891 in 1880; 5,258,014 in
1890; 6,302,115 in 1900; 7,665,111 in 1910. Of the total in 1900,
985,250, or 15-6%, were foreign-born, 156,845 were negroes,
1639 were Indians, 1927 were Chinese and 40 were Japanese.
Nearly 95% of the foreign-born was composed of natives of
Germany (212,453), Ireland (205,909), Great Britain (180,670),
Poland (76,358), Austria (67,492), Italy (66,655), Russia (5°>959)>
Hungary (47,393) and Sweden (24,130). Of the native popula-
tion (5,316,865) 90-7% were born within the state and a little
more than two-fifths of the remainder were natives of New
York, Maryland, Ohio, New Jersey, Virginia, New England,
Delaware and West Virginia. Almost two-thirds of the Indians
were in Cumberland county where, at Carlisle, is a United
States Indian Industrial School. In 1906 the total number of
communicants of different religious denominations in the state
was 2,977,022, of whom 1,717,037 were Protestants and 1,214,734
' were Roman Catholics. There is a large number of the smaller
religious sects in the state; the principal denominations,
with the number of communicants of each in 1906, are: Metho-
dist (363,443), Lutheran (33 5,643) ,_ Presbyterian (322,542),
Reformed Church (177,270), Baptist (141,694), Protestant
Episcopalian (99,021), United Brethren (55,574), United Evan-
gelical Church (45,480), Disciples of Christ (26,458), German
Baptist Brethren (23,176), Eastern Orthodox Churches (22,123),
Mennonites (16,527), Congregational (14,811), Evangelical Asso-
ciation (13,294), Friends (12,457), Church of God or " Winne-
brennerians " (11,157), and Moravian (5322).

Of the total population in 1900, 3,223,337, or 51- 1 %, were urban (i.e.
in places having a population of 4000 or more), 762,846, or 12-15%,
were semi-urban (i.e. in incorporated places having a population
less than 4000) and 2,315,932, or 36-75%, were rural (i.e. outside of
the incorporated places). From 1890 to 1900 the urban population
increased 854,730, or 36%, and the semi-urban 134,077, or 18-4%,
but the rural increased only 55,195, or 2-4%. The populations of
the principal cities in 1900 were as follows: Philadelphia, 1,293,697;
Pittsburg, 321,616; Allegheny, 129,896 (subsequently annexed to
Pittsburg); Scranton, 102,026; Reading, 78,961; Erie, 52,733;
Wilkes- B a rre, 51,721; Harrisburg, 50,167; Lancaster, 41,459;
Altoona, 38,973 ; Johnstown, 35,936; Allentown, 35,416; McKeesport,
34,227; Chester, 33,988; York, 33,708; Williamsport, 28,757; New
Castle, 28,339; Easton, 25,238; Norristown, 22,265; Shenandoah,
20,321 ; Shamokin (borough), 18,202; Lebanon, 17,628.

Administration. — Pennsylvania has been governed' under
constitutions of 1776, 1790 and 1838 ; the present government
is under the constitution of the 16th of December 1873 with
amendments adopted on the 5th of November 1901. An
amendment to the constitution to be adopted must be approved
by a majority of the members elected to each house of the
general assembly in two successive legislatures and then, at
least three months after the second approval of the general
assembly, by a majority of the popular vote cast on the adoption
of the amendment. All male citizens over 21 years of age,

who have been citizens of the United States for one month,
residents of the state for one year and of the election district
for two months immediately preceding the election, have the
right of suffrage, provided they have paid within two years a
state or county tax, which shall have been assessed at least
two months and paid at least one month before the election.
The Australian or " Massachusetts " ballot, adopted in 1891
under a law which fails to require personal registration, by a
provision like that in Nebraska makes it easy to vote a straight
ticket; party names are arranged on the ballot according to
the number of votes secured by each party at the last preceding
election.

Executive. — The office of governor, superseded in 1776 by a presi-
dent and council of twelve, was restored in 1790. Under the present
constitution the governor serves for four years and is ineligible for
the next succeeding term. The governor and lieutenant-governor
must be at least 30 years old, citizens of the United States, and
inhabitants of the state for seven years last preceding election;
no member of Congress or person holding any office under the
United States or Pennsylvania may be governor or lieutenant-
governor. The governor controls a large amount of patronage,
appointing, subject to the advice and consent of two-thirds of the
senate, a secretary of the commonwealth and an attorney-general
during pleasure, and a superintendent of public instruction for four
years, and may fill vacancies in various offices which occur during
the recess of the senate. He has a right of veto, extending to items
in appropriation bills, which may be overridden by a two-thirds
vote in each house. His power of pardon is limited, being subject
to the recommendation of three members of a board which consists
of the lieutenant-governor, secretary of the commonwealth, attorney-
general and secretary of internal affairs. The other executive
officials are the lieutenant-governor and the secretary of internal
affairs, elected for four years, the auditor-general, elected for three
years, the treasurer, elected for two years, and (all appointed by the
governor) the secretary of the commonwealth, the attorney-general
and a superintendent of public instruction. All those chosen by
election are ineligible for a second consecutive term except the
secretary of internal affairs. The department of internal affairs
consists of six bureaus: the land office, vital statistics, weather
service, assessments, industrial statistics, and railroads, canals,
telegraphs and telephones. There are also many statutory admini-
strative officials and boards, such as the adjutant-general, insurance
commissioner, board of health, board of agriculture, board of public
grounds and buildings, commissioners of fisheries, and factory and
mining inspectors.

Legislature. — During the colonial period and the early years of
statehood the legislature was composed of one house, but the
bicameral system was adopted in the constitution of 1790. There
are fifty senators, elected for four years, and approximately two
hundred representatives, elected for two years. Senators must be
at least 25 years old, citizens and inhabitants of the state for four
years next before election and inhabitants of the senatorial districts
from which each is elected for one year next before election;
representatives must be at least 21 years old and must have lived
in the state three years and in the district from which, elected one
year next before election. To avoid the possibility of metropolitan
domination provision is made that no city or county shall be entitled
to more than one-sixth of the total number of senators. Sessions
are biennial. The powers of the two houses are the same except
that the senate exercises the usual right of confirming appointments
and of sitting as a court of impeachment, while the House of Repre-
sentatives initiates money bills and impeachment cases. •
Judiciary. — The supreme court consists of seven judges elected
by the voters of the state at large. Minority representation is.
secured by the provision that each elector shall vote for one less than
the number of judges to be chosen at each election. The state is
divided into three supreme judicial districts, the eastern, the middle
and the western. This court was formerly very much overworked,
but it was relieved by an act of the 24th of June 1895 establishing
a superior court (now of seven judges) with appellate jurisdiction.
There were in 1910 fifty-six district courts of common pleas, one for
each county of forty thousand inhabitants and not more than four
counties in a district. The judges of the common pleas are also
judges of the courts of oyer and terminer, quarter sessions of the
peace and general gaol delivery, and the orphans' courts, although
there are separate orphans' courts in the counties (ten in 1909)
having a population of more than one hundred and fifty thousand.
Justices of the peace are elected in wards, districts, boroughs and
townships. In the colonial period all judges were appointed by the
governor during good behaviour. The constitution of 1776 provided
for terms of seven years, that of 1790 restored the life term, and that
of 1838 fixed the terms for judges of the common pleas at ten years
and judges of the supreme court at fifteen. A constitutional amend-
ment of 1850 provided that all judges should be elected by the people. 1

1 The constitution of 1873 made provision for minority represen-
1 tation as follows: " Whenever two judges of the supreme court are

I IO

PENNSYLVANIA

At present supreme court judges serve for twenty-one years and are
ineligible for re-election. Superior court and common pleas judges
serve for ten years, and justices of the peace for five. Judges may be
impeached for misdemeanour in office or they may be removed by
the governor, with the consent of two-thirds of each house of the
general assembly, for any reasonable cause which shall not be
sufficient ground for impeachment.

Local Government. — The local government is a combination of
the county system of the South and the township system of New
England. The county officers are sheriffs, coroners, prothonotaries,
registers of wills, recorders of deeds, commissioners, treasurers,
surveyors, auditors or comptrollers, clerks of the courts, and district
attorneys, elected for three years. The three commissioners and the
three auditors in each county are chosen by the same limited vote
process as the supreme-court judges, thus allowing a representation
to the minority party. Pennsylvania has suffered more perhaps
than any other state in the Union from legislative interference in
local affairs. Under an act of the general assembly passed in 1870
the people of Philadelphia were forced to contribute more than
$20,000,000 for the construction of a city-hall. To guard against
such encroachments in the future the constitution of 1873 imposed
the most detailed limitations upon special legislation. The object
of the provision, however, has been in a large measure nullified by
the system of city classification, under which Philadelphia is the
only city of the first class. The passage of the " Ripper Bill " of 1901
shows that the cities of the second class are by no means secure.
The apparent object of the measure was to deprive the people of
Pittsburg temporarily of the privileges of self-government by
empowering the governor to appoint a recorder (in 1903 the title of
mayor was again assumed) to exercise (until 1903, when the muni-
cipal executive should be again chosen by the people) the functions
of the mayor, thus removed by the governor under this statute;
and this act applied to the other cities of the second class, Allegheny
and Scranton, although they had not offended the party managers.

Miscellaneous Laws. — A woman's right to hold, manage and
acquire property in her own right is not affected by marriage, but
for a married woman to mortgage or convey her real estate the
joint action of herself and her husband is necessary. _ The rights
of dower and courtesy both obtain. When a husband dies intestate
leaving a widow and issue, the widow has the use of one-third
of his real estate for life and one-third of his personal estate abso-
lutely ; if he leaves no issue but there be collateral heirs or other
kindred, the widow has the real or personal estate or both to the
value of $5000, the use of one-half the remaining real estate for
life, and one-half the remaining personal estate absolutely; if the
husband leaves a will the widow has the choice between her dower
right and the terms of the will. When a wife dies intestate leaving
a husband and issue the husband has the use of all her real estate
for life, and the personal estate is divided among the husband and
children share and share alike; if there be no issue the husband has
the use of all her real estate for life and all her personal estate
absolutely; if the wife leaves a will the husband has the choice
between its terms and his right by courtesy. Whenever there is
neither issue nor kindred the surviving husband or wife has all the
estate. The principal grounds for an absolute divorce are impo-
tency, adultery, wilful or malicious desertion, cruel and barbarous
treatment, personal abuse and conviction of any such crime as
arson, burglary, embezzlement, forgery, kidnapping, larceny,
murder, perjury or assault with intent to kill. Before filing a
petition for a divorce the plaintiff must have resided within the
state at least one year. A suit for a divorce on the ground of deser-
tion may be commenced when the defendant has been absent six
months, but the divorce may not be granted until the desertion
has continued two years. The party convicted of adultery is
forbidden to marry the co-respondent during the lifetime of the
other party. A marriage of first cousins or a bigamous marriage
may be declared void. Pennsylvania has no homestead law, but
the property of a debtor amounting to $300 in value, exclusive of
the wearing apparel of himself and family and of all Bibles and
school-books in use, is exempt from levy and sale on execution or
by distress for rent ; and the exemption extends to the widow and
children unless there is a lien on the property for purchase money.
The child-labour law of 1909 forbids the employment of children
under eighteen years of age in blast furnaces, tanneries, quarries,
in managing elevator lifts or hoisting machines, in oiling dangerous
machinery while in motion, at switch tending, as brakesmen,
firemen, engineers, motormen and in other positions of similar
character. The same law prescribes conditions under which
children between fourteen and eighteen years of age may be em-
ployed in the manufacture of white-lead, red-lead, paints, phos-
phorus, poisonous acids, tobacco or cigars, in mercantile establish-
ments, stores, hotels, offices or in other places requiring protection
to their health or safety; and it forbids the employment of boys
under sixteen years of age or of girls under eighteen years of age in
such factories or establishments more than ten hours a day (unless
it be to prepare for a short day) or for more than fifty-eight hours

to be chosen for the same term of service each voter shall vote for
one only, and when three are to be chosen he shall vote for no more
than two; candidates highest in vote shall be declared elected."

a week, or their employment there between nine o'clock in the
evening and six o'clock in the morning, except that in the factories
requiring continuous night and day employment boys not under
fourteen years of age may be employed partly by day and partly
by night not exceeding nine hours in any twenty-four. The em-
ployment of children under fourteen years of age in coal-mines is
forbidden, as is also the employment of children under fourteen
years of age in any cotton, woollen, silk, paper, bagging or flax
factory, or in any laundry, or the employment of children under
twelve years of age in any mill or factory whatever within the
commonwealth.

Prisons and Charities. — Penal and charitable institutions are
under the supervision of a board of public charities of ten members,
established in 1869, and a committee in lunacy, composed of five
members of this board, appointed under an act of 1883. An agita-
tion begun by the Philadelphia society for assisting distressed
prisoners in 1776, checked for a time by the War of Independence,
led ultimately to the passage of a statute in 181 8 for the establish-
ment of the Western Penitentiary at Allegheny (opened 1826) and
another of 1821 for the establishment of the Eastern Penitentiary
in Philadelphia (opened 1829). In the former penitentiary prisoners
are congregated ; in the latter they are kept in solitary confinement.
An act of 1878 provided for a third penitentiary in the middle
district, but through the efforts of Governor Henry M. Hoyt the
plans were changed and instead the Industrial Reformatory was
established at Huntingdon (opened 1889). The House of Refuge
of western Pennsylvania, located in Allegheny in 1854 ( act of
1850), became the Pennsylvania Reform School in 1872, and was
removed to Morganza, Washington county, in 1876. Few states
have done so much as Pennsylvania for the humane and scientific
treatment of its dependent and defective classes. Largely as a
result of the efforts of Dorothea Lynde Dix (q.v.), a hospital for the
insane was established at Harrisburg in 1851 (act of 1845). A
second hospital was opened at Pittsburg in 1853 (act of 1848), but
the location was ruined by Pennsylvania railway improvements,
and in 1862 it was removed to a new site about 7 m. from the city,
which was called Dixmont in honour of Miss Dix; the hospital is
not a state institution, but the state provides for the maintenance
there of patients committed by the courts or the poor authorities
in the thirteen counties forming the western district. For three
other districts three state institutions have been established — at
Danville, 1872 (act of 1868), Warren, 1880 (act of 1873), and Norris-
town, 1880 (act of 1876). An act of 1901 established a homoeopathic
hospital for the insane at Allentown. A distinction is made between
hospitals and asylums. The asylum for the chronic insane is at
South Mountain, 1894 (act of 1891). A state institution for feeble-
minded of western Pennsylvania at Polk, Venango county, was
opened in 1897 (act of 1893), and the eastern Pennsylvania state
institution for feeble-minded and epileptic at Spring City, Chester
county, was opened in 1908 (act of 1903). There are institutes for
the blind at Overbrook and Pittsburg, and for the deaf and dumb
at Philadelphia and Edgewood Park, an oral school for the deaf
at Scranton, a home for the training of deaf children at Philadelphia,
a soldiers' and sailors' home at Erie (1886), a soldiers' orphans'
industrial school (1895) at Scotland, Franklin county, the Thaddeus
Stevens industrial school (1905) at Lancaster, hospitals for the
treatment of persons injured in the mines, at Ashland (1879),
Hazleton (1887) and Shamokin (1907), and cottage hospitals at
Blossburg, Connellsville, Mercer and Philipsburg (all 1887). In
addition to the institutions under state control a large number of
local charities receive aid from the public treasury. In 1907-
1908, $14,222,440 was appropriated for institutions: $7,479,732
for state institutions, $1,240,108 for semi-state institutions,
$4,757,100 for general hospitals, $149,500 for hospitals for con-
sumptives, and $745,900 for homes, asylums, &c. The system of
juvenile courts, created under a statute of 1901, has done much to
ameliorate the condition of dependent and delinquent children.

Education. — During the colonial period there were many sectarian
and neighbourhood subscription schools in which the poor could
receive a free education, but public schools in the modern American
sense were unknown. The famous Friends' public school, founded
in Philadelphia in 1689 and chartered in 1697, still exists as the
William Penn charter school. An agitation begun soon after the
War of Independence resulted in the creation of a school fund in
1 83 1 and the final establishment of the present system of public
schools in 1834. The attempt to repeal the law in 1835 was defeated
largely through the efforts of Thaddeus Stevens, who was then a
member of the state house of representatives. During the years
1 852-1 857 the educational department became a separate branch
of the state government, the office of county school superintendent
was created, the state teachers' association (known since 1900 as
the Pennsylvania educational association) was organized, and a
law was enacted for the establishment of normal schools. Since
1893 the state has furnished textbooks and other necessary supplies
free of charge, and since 1895 education has been compulsory for
all children between the ages of eight and thirteen. Schools must
be kept open not less than seven and not more than ten months
in the year. Out of a total expenditure of $30,021,774 for the
fiscal year 1909, $7,875,083 was for educational purposes, of which
$6,810,906 was for common schools, being appropriations to the

PENNSYLVANIA

in

counties, There is a biennial school appropriation of $15,000,000.
In addition the district directors levy local rates which must
not be greater than the state and county taxes combined. The
Pennsylvania state college at State College, Center county, was
established in 1855 as the farmers' high school of Pennsylvania, in
1862 became the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania, and received
its present name in 1874 after the income from the national land
grant had been appropriated to the use of the institutions; in
1909-1910 it had 147 instructors, 1400 students and a library of
37,000 volumes. Other institutions for higher education are the
University of Pennsylvania, at Philadelphia (1749), an endowed
institution which receives very little support from the state; the
University of Pittsburgh (1819), at Pittsburg {q.v.) ; Dickinson
College (Methodist Episcopal, 1783), at Carlisle; Haverlord College
(Society of Friends, 1833), at Haverford; Franklin and Marshall
(German Reformed, 1853), at Lancaster; Washington and Jefferson
(Presbyterian, 1802), at Washington ; Lafayette (Presbyterian, 1832),
at Easton; Bucknell University (Baptist, 1846), at Lewisburg;
Waynesburg (Cumberland Presbyterian, 1851), at Waynesburg;
Ursinus (German Reformed, 1870), at Collegeville ; Allegheny
College (Methodist Episcopal, 18 15), at Meadville; Swarthmore
(Society of Friends (Hicksites), 1866), at Swarthmore; Muhlenberg
(Lutheran, 1867), at Allentown; Lehigh University (non- sectarian,
1867), at Bethlehem; and for women Bryn Mawr College (Society
' of Friends, 1885), at Bryn Mawr; the Allentown College (German
Reformed, 1867), at Allentown; Wilson College (Presbyterian, 1870),
and the Pennsylvania College for women (1869), at Pittsburg.
There are theological seminaries at Pittsburg, the Allegheny Semin-
ary (United Presbyterian, 1825), Reformed Presbyterian (1856),
and Western Theological Seminary (Presbyterian, 1827); at Lan-
caster (German Reformed, 1827); at Meadville (Unitarian, 1844);
at Bethlehem (Moravian, 1807); at Chester, the Crozer Theological
Seminary (Baptist, 1868); at Gettysburg (Lutheran, 1826); and in
Philadelphia several schools, notably the Protestant Episcopal Church
divinity school (1862) and a Lutheran seminary (1864), at Mount
Airy. There are many technical and special schools, such as
Girard College, Drexel institute and Franklin institute at Phila-
delphia, the Carnegie institute at Pittsburg and the United States
Indian school at Carlisle (1891).

Finance. — The revenues of the state are derived primarily from
corporation taxes, business licences, and a 5 % rate on collateral
inheritance. Taxes on real estate have been abolished and those
on personal property are being reduced, although the heavy
expenditures on the new capitol at Harrisburg checked the
movement temporarily. The total receipts for the year ending on
the 30th of November 1909 were $28,945,210, and the expenditure
was $30,021,774. During the provincial period Pennsylvania, in
common with the other colonies, was affected with the paper money
craze. From 1723 to 1775 it issued £1,094,650 and from 1775 to
1785 £1,172,000 plus $1,550,000. Acts were passed in 1781,
1792, 1793 and 1794 to facilitate redemption at depreciated rates,
and the last bills were called in on the 1st of January 1806. The
state was also carried along by the movement which began about
1825 for the expenditure of public funds on internal improvements.
On turnpikes, bridges, canals and railways $53,352,649 was spent
between 1826 and 1843, the public debt in the latter year reaching
the high-water mark of $42,188,434. An agitation was then begun
for retrenchment, the public works were put up for sale, and were
finally disposed of in 1858 (when the debt was $39,488,244) to the
Pennsylvania Railroad Company for $7,500,000. Under authority
of a constitutional amendment of 1857 a sinking fund commission
was established in 1858. Aside from a temporary increase during
the Civil War (1861-65) the debt has been rapidly reduced. The
constitution of 1873 and subsequent legislation have continued
the commission, but the sources of revenue have been very much
curtailed, being restricted to the interest on the deposits of the
fund and interest on certain Allegheny Railroad bonds. The total
debt on the 30th of November 1909 was $2,643,917, of which the
greater part were 3 J and 4% bonds, maturing on the 1st of February
1912. The sinking fund at the samedate amounted to $2,652,035,
leaving a net surplus in the sinking fund of $8118. The sinking
fund was formerly divided among certain favoured banks in such
manner as would best advance the political interests of the organi-
zation which controlled the state; but just after the reform victory
in the election of 1905 the sinking fund commission instituted the
policy of buying bonds at the market price, and the debt is now
being reduced by that method. The financial institutions of Penn-
sylvania other than national banks are created by state charters
limited to twenty years and are subject to the supervision of a
commissioner of banking.

History. — The chief features of Pennsylvania history in
colonial days were the predominance of Quaker influence, the
heterogeneous character of the population, liberality in matters
of religion, and the fact that it was the largest and the most
successful of proprietary provinces. The earliest European
settlements within the present limits of the state were some small
trading posts established by the Swedes and the Dutch in the

lower valley of the Delaware River in 1623-1681. Between
1650 and 1660 George Fox and a few other prominent members
of the Society of Friends had begun to urge the establishment
of a colony in America to serve as a refuge for Quakers who were
suffering persecution under the " Clarendon Code." William
Penn (g.v.) became interested in the plan at least as early as
1666. For his charters of 1680-1682 and the growth of the
colony under him see Penn, William.

During Penn's life the colony was involved in serious boundary
disputes with Maryland, Virginia and New York. A decree of
Lord Chancellor Hardwicke, in 1750, settled the Maryland-
Delaware dispute and led to the survey in 1763-1767 of the
boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland (lat. 39 43'
26-3" N.), called the Mason and Dixon line in honour of the
surveyors; it acquired considerable importance later as separat-
ing the free and the slave states. In 1784 Virginia agreed to
the extension of the line and to the establishment of the western
limit (the present boundary between Pennsylvania and Ohio)
as the meridian from a point on the Mason and Dixon line five
degrees of longitude west of the Delaware river. The 42nd
parallel was finally selected as the northern boundary in 1780,
in 1792 the Federal government sold to Pennsylvania the
small triangular strip' of territory north of it on Lake Erie. A
territorial dispute with Connecticut over the Wyoming Valley
was settled in favour of Pennsylvania in 1782 by a court of
arbitration appointed by the Continental Congress.

Upon William Penn's death, his widow became proprietary.
Sir William Keith, her deputy, was hostile to the council, which
he practically abolished, and was popular with the assembly,
which he assiduously courted, but was discharged by Mrs Penn
after he had quarrelled with James Logan, secretary of the
province. His successors, Patrick Gordon and George Thomas,
under the proprietorship of John, Thomas and Richard Penn,
continued Keith's popular policy of issuing a plentiful paper
currency ; but with Thomas the assembly renewed its old struggle,
refusing to grant him a salary or supplies because of bis efforts
to force the colony into supporting the Spanish War. Again,
during the Seven Years' War the assembly withstood the gov-
ernor, Robert Hunter Morris, in the matter of grants for military
expenses. But the assembly did its part in assisting General
Braddock to outfit; and after Braddock's defeat all western
Pennsylvania suffered terribly from Indian attacks. After the
proprietors subscribed £5000 for the protection of the colony
the assembly momentarily gave up its contest for a tax on the
proprietary estates and consented to pass a money bill, without
this provision, for the expenses of the war. But in 1760 the
assembly, with the help of Benjamin Franklin as agent in
England, won the great victory of forcing the proprietors to
pay a tax (£566) to the colony; and thereafter the assembly
had little to contest for, and the degree of civil liberty attained
in the province was very high. But the growing power of the
Scotch-Irish, the resentment of the Quakers against the pro-
prietors for having gone back to the Church of England and
many other circumstances strengthened the anti-proprietary
power, and the assembly strove to abolish the proprietorship
and establish a royal province; John Dickinson was the able
leader of the party which defended the proprietors; and Joseph
Galloway and Benjamin Franklin were the leaders of the
anti-proprietary party, which was greatly weakened at home
by the absence after December 1764 of Franklin in England
as its agent. The question lost importance as independence
became the issue.

In 1755 a volunteer militia had been created and was led with
great success by Benjamin Franklin; and in 1756 a line of forts
was begun to hold the Indians in check. In the same year a
force of pioneers under John Armstrong of Carlisle surprised
and destroyed the Indian village of Kittanning (or Atique)
on the Allegheny river. But the frontier was disturbed by
Indian attacks until the suppression of Pontiac's conspiracy.
In December 1763 six Christian Indians, Conestogas, were
massacred by the " Paxton boys " from Paxton near the
present Harrisburg; the Indians who had escaped were taken

112

PENNSYLVANIA

to Lancaster for safe keeping but were seized and killed by the
" Paxton boys," who with other backwoodsmen marched upon
Philadelphia early in 1764, but Quakers and Germans gathered
quickly to protect it and civil war was averted, largely by the
diplomacy of Franklin. The Paxton massacre marked the close
of Quaker supremacy and the beginning of the predominance of
the Scotch-Irish pioneers.

Owing to its central position, its liberal government, and its
policy of religious toleration, Pennsylvania had become during
the 1 8th century a refuge for European immigrants, especially
persecuted sectaries. In no other colony were so many different
races and religions represented. There were Dutch, Swedes,
English, Germans, Welsh, Irish and Scotch-Irish; Quakers,
Presbyterians, Episcopalians, Catholics, Lutherans (Reformed),
Mennonites, Dunkers, Schwenkfelders, and Moravians. Most
of these elements have now become merged in the general type,
but there are still many communities in which the popular
language is a corrupt German dialect, largely Rheno-Franconian
in its origin, known as " Pennsylvania Dutch." Before the
Seven Years' War the Quakers dominated the government,
but from that time until the failure of the Whisky Insurrection
(1704) the more belligerent Scotch-Irish (mostly Presbyterians)
were usually in the ascendancy, the reasons being the growing
numerical strength of the Scotch-Irish and the increasing
dissatisfaction with Quaker neglect of means of defending the
province.

As the central colony, Pennsylvania's attitude in the struggle
with the mother country was of vast importance. The British
party was strong because of the loyalty of the large Church of
England element, the neutrality of many Quakers, Dunkers,
and Mennonites, and a general satisfaction with the liberal and
free government of the province, which had been won gradually
and had not suffered such catastrophic reverses as had em-
bittered the people of Massachusetts, for instance. But the
Whig party under the lead of John Dickinson, Thomas Mifflin
and Joseph Reed was successful in the state, and Pennsylvania
contributed greatly to the success of the War of Independence,
by the important services rendered by her statesmen, by
providing troops and by the financial aid given by Robert
Morris (q.v.). The two Continental Congresses (1774, and
1775-1781) met in Philadelphia, except for the months when
Philadelphia was occupied by the British army and Congress
met in Lancaster and York, Pennsylvania, and then in Prince-
ton, New Jersey. In Philadelphia the second Congress adopted
the Declaration of Independence, which the Pennsylvania
delegation, excepting Franklin, thought premature at the time,
but which was well supported by Pennsylvania afterwards.
During the War of Independence battles were fought at Brandy-
wine (1777), Paoli (1777), Fort Mifflin (1777) and Germantown
(1777), and Washington's army spent the winter of 1777-1778
at Valley Forge; and Philadelphia was occupied by the British
from the 26th of September 1777 to the 18th of June 1778.
The Penns lost their governmental rights in 1776, and three
years later their territorial interests were vested in the common-
wealth in return for a grant of £120,000 and the guarantee of
titles to private estates held in severalty. They still own con-
siderable property in and around Wilkes-Barre, in Luzerne
county, and in Philadelphia. The first state constitution of
September 1776 was the work of the Radical party. It deprived
the Quakers of their part in the control of the government
and forced many Conservatives into the Loyalist party. This
first state constitution was never submitted to popular vote.
It continued the unicameral legislative system, abolished the
office of governor, and provided for an executive council of
twelve members. It also created a curious body, known as the
council of censors, whose duty it was to assemble once in seven
years to decide whether there had been any infringements of
the fundamental law. The party which had carried this con-
stitution through attacked its opponents by withdrawing the
charter of the college of Philadelphia (now the university of
Pennsylvania) because its trustees were anti-Constitutionalists
and creating in its place a university of the state of Pennsyl-

vania. The Constitutional party in 1785 secured the annulment
by the state assembly of the charter of the Bank of North
America, which still retained a congressional charter; and the
cause of this action also seems to have been party feeling against
the anti-Constitutionalists, among whom Robert Morris of the
bank was a leader, and who, especially Morris, had opposed the
paper money policy of the Constitutionalists. These actions
of the state assembly against the college and the bank probably
were immediate causes for the insertion in the Federal Constitu-
tion (adopted by the convention in Philadelphia in 1787) of the
clause (proposed by James Wilson of Pennsylvania, a friend
of the college and of the bank) forbidding any state to pass a
law impairing the obligation of contracts. The state ratified the
Federal Constitution, in spite of a powerful opposition — largely
the old (state) Constitutional party — on the 22nd of December
1787, and three years later revised its own constitution to make
it conform to that document. Under the constitution of 1790
the office of governor was, restored, the executive council and
the council of censors were abolished, and the bicameral legis-
lative system was adopted. Philadelphia was the seat of the
Federal government, except for a brief period in 1 789-1 790,
until the removal to Washington in 1800. The state capital
was removed from Philadelphia to Lancaster in 1799 and from
Lancaster to Harrisburg in 181 2.

The state was the scene of the Scotch-Irish revolt of 1794
against the Federal excise tax, known as the Whisky Insurrection
{q.v.) and of the German protest (1799) against the house tax,
known as the Fries Rebellion from its leader John Fries (q.v.).
In 1838 as the result of a disputed election to the state house of
representatives two houses were organized, one Whig and the
other Democratic, and there was open violence in Harrisburg.
The conflict has been called the " Buckshot War." The Whig
House of Representatives gradually broke up, many members
going over to the Democratic house, which had possession of
the records and the chamber and was recognized by the state
Senate. Pennsylvania was usually Democratic before the
Civil War owing to the democratic character cf its country
population and to the close commercial relations between
Philadelphia and the South. The growth of the protectionist
movement and the development of anti-slavery sentiment,
however, drew it in the opposite direction, and it voted the
Whig national ticket in 1840 and in 1848, and the Republican
ticket for Lincoln in i860. A split among the Democrats in
1835, due to the opposition of the Germans to internal improve-
ments and to the establishment of a public school system,
resulted in the election as governor of Joseph Ritner, the anti-
Masonic candidate. The anti-Masonic excitement subsided
as quickly as it had risen, and under the leadership of Thaddeus
Stevens the party soon became merged with the Whigs. During
the Civil War (1861-65) the state gave to the Union 336,000
soldiers; and Generals McClellan, Hancock, Meade and Reynolds
and Admirals Porter and Dahlgren were natives of the state.
Its nearness to the field of war made its position dangerous.
Chambersburg was burned in 1862; and the battle of Gettys-
burg (July 1863), a defeat of Lee's attempt to invade the North
in force was a turning point in the war.

The development of the material resources of the state since
1865 has been accompanied by several serious industrial dis-
turbances. The railway riots of 1877, which centred at Pittsburg
and Reading, resulted in the destruction of about two thousand
freight cars and a considerable amount of other property. An
organized association, known as the Molly Maguires (q.v.),
terrorized the mining regions for 'many years, but was finally
suppressed through the courageous efforts of President Franklin
Benjamin Gowen (1863-1889) of the Philadelphia & Reading rail-
road with the assistance of Allan Pinkerton and his detectives.
There have been mining strikes at Scranton (1871), in the Lehigh
and Schuylkill regions (1875), at Hazleton (1897), and one in the
anthracite fields (1902) which was settled by a board of arbitra-
tors appointed by President Roosevelt; and there were street
railway strikes at Chester in 1908 and in Philadelphia in 1910.
The calling in of Pinkerton detectives from Chicago and New

PENNSYLVANIA

ii3

York to settle a strike in the Carnegie steel works at Homestead
in 1892 precipitated a serious riot, in which about twenty persons
were killed. It was necessary to call out two brigades of
the state militia before the disorder was finally suppressed.
The labour unions took advantage of this trouble to force
Pennsylvania, Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, Colorado and several
other states to pass anti-Pinkerton statutes making it illegal to
import irresponsible armed men from a distance to quell local
disturbances. On the political side the chief features in the
history of the state since 1865 have been the adoption of the
constitution of 1873, the growth of the Cameron-Quay-Penrose
political machine, and the attempts of the reformers to over-
throw its domination. The constitution of 1838, which super-
seded that of 1700, extended the functions of the legislature,
limited the governor's power of appointment, and deprived
negroes of the right of suffrage. The provision last mentioned
was nullified by the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to
the constitution of the United States. The chief object of the
present state constitution (1873) was to prohibit local and special
legislation. It increased the number of senators and represen-
tatives, created the office of lieutenant-governor, substituted
biennial for annual sessions of the legislature, introduced minority
representation in the choice of the higher judiciary and of the
county commissioners and auditors and provided (as had an
amendment adopted in 1850) for the election of all judges by
popular vote. The political organization founded by Simon
Cameron (q.v.) and strengthened by his son, James Donald
Cameron, Matthew Stanley Quay and Boies Penrose (b. i860),
is based upon the control of patronage, the distribution of state
funds among favoured banks, the support of the Pennsylvania
railway and other great corporations, and upon the ability of
the leaders to persuade the electors that it is necessary to vote
the straight Republican, ticket to save the protective system.
Robert E. Pattison (1850-1904), a Democrat, was elected
governor in 1883 and again in 1891, but he was handicapped by
Republican legislatures. In 1905 a Democratic state treasurer
was elected.

Pennsylvania Governors.
Under Dutch Rule (1624-1664). 1

Cornelis Jacobsen Mey Director . . 1624-1625

William van Hulst ,, . . 1625-1626

Peter Minuit Governor . . 1626-1632

David Pieterzen de Vries .... ,, . . 1632-1633

Wouter van Twiller ,, . . 1633-1638

William Kieft ,, . . 1638-1647

Peter Stuyvesant ,, . . 1 647-1 664

Under Swedish Rule (1638-1655). 2

Peter Minuit 1638-1641

Peter Hollender 1641-1642

John Printz 1642-1653

John Pappegoya 1653-1654

John Claude Rysingh 1654-1655

Under the Duke of York (1664-1673).

Richard Nicolls 1664-1667

Robert Carr Deputy . . 1664-1667

Robert Needham . . Commander on the Delaware 1664-1668

Francis Lovelace 1667-1673

John Carr .... Commander on the Delaware 1668-1673
Under Dutch Rule (1673-1674).

Anthony Colve 1673-1674

Peter Alrichs Deputy on the Delaware 1673-1674

Under the Duke of York (1674-1681).

Sir Edmund Andros 1674-1681

Under the Proprietors (1681-1693).
William Markham .... Deputy-Governor . 1681-1682

William Penn 1682-1684

Thomas Lloyd President of the Council 1684-1686

Thomas Lloyd

Robert Turner |

Arthur Cook I Executive Commissioners 1686-1688

John Simcock

John Eckley ■>

John Blackwell Deputy-Governor . 1688-1690

1 Governors of New Netherland and of the Dutch settlements
on the Delaware.

* The Swedish colonies on the Delaware conquered by the Dutch
in 1655.

Thomas Lloyd President of the Council 1690-1691

Thomas Lloyd Deputy-Governor . 1691-1693

William Markham 3 ,, . 1691-1693

Under the Crown (1693-1695).
Benjamin Fletcher 1693-1695

William Markham .... Deputy-Governor .

Under the Proprietors (1695-1776).

William Markham
William Penn
Andrew Hamilton
Edward Shippen
John Evans
Charles Gookin .
Sir William Keith
Patrick Gordon
James Logan
George Thomas
Anthony Palmer
James Hamilton
Robert H. Morris
William Denny .
James Hamilton
John Penn
James Hamilton
Richard Penh
John Penn

Period

Benjamin Franklin, Chairman of the Committee of Safety 1776-1777

Deputy-Governor .

1693-1695

1695-1699

1699-1701

. Deputy-Governor . 1 701-1703

President of the Council 1 703-1 704

Lieutenant-Governor 1 704-1 709

1 709-1 717

11 1717-1726

• . „ 1726-1736

President of the Council 1736-1738

Deputy-Governor 1 738-1 747

President of the Council 1 747-1 748

Lieutenant-Governor
Deputy-Governor

President of the Council
Lieutenant-Governor

of Statehood (1776-

)•

1 748-1 754
1 754-1 756
1 756-1 759
1 759-1 763
1 763-1 77 1
1771
1771-1773
1773-1776

President of the Council 1777-1778
Acting President of the Council 1777

President of the Council 1778-1781
1781-1782

Thomas Wharton, Jr.
George Bryan 4 .
Joseph Reed
William Moore .
John Dickinson .
Benjamin Franklin
Thomas Mifflin .
Thomas Mifflin .
Thomas McKean
Simon Snyder
William Finley .
Joseph Heister .
John A. Shulze .
George Wolf
Joseph Ritner
D. R. Porter
F. R. Shunk
W. F. Johnston 5
William Bigler .
James Pollock
W. F. Packer .
A. G. Curtin
John W. Geary .
John F. Hartranft
Henry M. Hoyt
Robert E. Pattison
James A. Beaver
Robert E. Pattison
Daniel H. Hastings
William A. Stone
Samuel W. Pennypacker
Edwin S. Stuart
John K. Tener

Bibliography. — For the physiography of Pennsylvania, see W. S.
Tower's "Regional and Economic Geography of Pennsylvania,' in
the Bulletins of the Geographical Society of Philadelphia, vols, iv.,
v. and vi. (Philadelphia, 1 904-1908) ; j. P. Lesley, A Summary
Description of the Geology of Pennsylvania (Harrisburg, 1892-1895);
C. B. Trego, A Geography of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1843);
and Topographic and Geologic Survey of Pennsylvania, iqo6-iqc8
(Harrisburg, 1909). For industrial statistics see reports of the
Twelfth United States Census, the Special Reports on Manufactures
in 1905, by the United States Census Bureau, the annual reports
on the Mineral Resources of the United States, by the United States
Geological Survey, and the Year Book of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

For the administration of the state see: The Constitution of the
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, adopted December 16, 1873,
amended November 5, 1901 (Harrisburg, 1902); S. George et al.
(editors), Laws, of Pennsylvania, 1682-1700, preceded by the Duke
of York's Laws, 1676-1682 (Harrisburg, 1879); A. J. Dallas (editor),
Laws of Pennsylvania, 1700-1801 (Philadelphia and Lancaster,
1 797-1 801); Laws of the General Assembly of Pennsylvania

3 Lloyd was deputy-governor of the province, the present state
of Pennsylvania ; Markham of the lower counties, the present state
of Delaware.

4 The state was governed by a supreme executive council in
1777-1790.

5 Governor Shunk resigned in July 1848 and was succeeded by
W. F. Johnston, president of the state senate.

II

1782-1785

,,

1785-1788

,,

1788-1790

Federalist .

1 790-1 799

ocratic-Republican

1 799-1 808

,,

1808-1817

11

1817-1820

' ,,

1820-1823

,,

1823-1829

Democrat .

1 829-1 835

Anti-Masonic

1835-1839

Democrat .

1 839-1 845

,,

1 845- 1 848

Whig . .

1 848-1 852

Democrat .

1852-1855

,,

1855-1858

,,

1858-1861

Republican .

1861-1867

n

1 867-1 873

,,

1873-1879

,,

1879-1883

Democrat .

1883-1887

Republican . .

1887-1891

Democrat .

1891-1895

Republican .

1 895-1 899

,,

1 899-1903

1,

1903-1907

,,

1907-1911

11

1911-

PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF

114

(Philadelphia, 1801 sqq. and Harrisburg, 1802 sqq.); and The
Statutes at Large of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1896 sqq.), published
under an act of 1887. Some valuable information is to be found
in B. A. and M. L. Hinsdale, History and Civil Government of Penn-
sylvania . . . (Chicago, 1899) ; and in the various editions of
Smull's Legislative Handbook and Manual. For the history of
penal and charitable institutions, see the Annual Reports of the
Board of Commissioners of Public Charities (Harrisburg, 1871 sqq.) ;
the Annual Reports of the Committee on Lunacy (Harrisburg, 1883
sqq.); and Amos H. Mylin, Penal and Charitable Institutions of
Pennsylvania (2 vols., Harrisburg, 1897), an official publication,
well written and handsomely illustrated. For educational history,
see N. C. Schaeffer, The Common School Laws of Pennsylvania
(Harrisburg, 1904); B. A. Hinsdale, Documents Illustrative of
American Educational History (Washington, 1895); and J. P.
Wickersham, History of Education in Pennsylvania (Lancaster,
1886), one of the best state histories of education. For finance
and banking, see the annual reports of the state treasurer, auditor-
general, sinking fund commissioners, and the commissioner of
banking, all published at Harrisburg; An Historical Sketch of the
Paper Money of Pennsylvania, by a member of the Numismatic
Society of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1862); and B. M. Mead,
A Brief Review of the Financial History of Pennsylvania . . . to
the Present Time (1682-1881) (Harrisburg, 1881).

The only complete history of the entire period is Howard M.
Jenkins, et al., Pennsylvania, Colonial and Federal (3 yols.,_ Phila-
delphia, 1903). This is especially valuable for the detailed histories
of gubernatorial administrations from 1790 to 1 903. The .third
volume contains useful chapters on education, the judiciary, the
medical profession, journalism, military affairs, internal improve-
ments, &c. S. G. Fisher, Pennsylvania, Colony and Commonwealth
(Philadelphia, 1S97) contains the best short account of the colonial
and revolutionary history, but it gives only a very brief summary
of the period since 1783. W. R. Shepherd, History of Proprietary
Government in Pennsylvania (New York, 1896), a detailed study
of the proprietary from the political, governmental and territorial
points of view, is scholarly, and gives a good account of the boundary
disputes with Maryland, Virginia, New York and Connecticut.
Among the older standard works are Samual Hazard, Annals _ j>f
Pennsylvania from the Discovery of the Delaware, 1600-1682 (Phila-
delphia, 1850), an elaborate account of the early Dutch and Swedish,
settlements on the Delaware river and bay; and Robert Proud,
History of the Pennsylvania from 1681 until after the year 1742 (2 vols.,
Philadelphia, 1797-1798), written from the Quaker standpoint.
For early literary history, see M. K. Jackson, Outline of the Literary
History of Colonial Pennsylvania (New York, 1908). W. H. Egle,
Illustrated. History of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (Harris-
burg, 1877), contains trustworthy histories of individual counties
by various writers. J. B. McMaster and F. D. Stone, Pennsylvania
and the Federal Constitution, 1787-1788 (Philadelphia, 1888), is
a useful work. For the anti-Masonic movement, see Charles
McCarthy, The Anti-Masonic Party (Washington, 1903). S. G.
Fisher, The Making of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1896), intro-
ductory to the same author's Colony and Commonwealth, is an
interesting study of the various nationalities and religions repre-
sented among the settlers of the state. For the period of Quaker
predominance (1681-1756), see Isaac Sharpless, History of Quaker
Government in Pennsylvania (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1898-1899).
See also J. Taylor Hamilton's " History of the Moravian Church "
(Nazareth, Pa., 1900), vol. vi. of the Transactions of the Moravian
Historical Society; Proceedings and Addresses of the Pennsylvania
German Society, vols. vii. and viii. (Reading, 1897-1898) ; J. F. Sachse,
German Pietists of Provincial Pennsylvania, 1694-1708 (Phila-
delphia, 1895), and German Sectarians of Pennsylvania, 1708-1800
(2 vols., Philadelphia, 1899-1901). The chief sources are the
Pennsylvania Archives (first series, 12 vols., Philadelphia, 1852-
1856; second series, 19 vols., Harrisburg, 1 874-1 893; and third
series, 4 vols., Harrisburg, 1 894-1 895); Colonial Records, 1683-
1700 (16 vols., Philadelphia, 1852); and Samuel Hazard, Register
of Pennsylvania (16 vols., Philadelphia, 1828-1836). The Penn-
sylvania Historical Society, organized in Philadelphia in 1825, has
published 14 vols, of Memoirs (1 826-1 895), a Bulletin of 13
numbers (1845-1847), one volume of Collections (1853), and the
Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, a Quarterly
(1877 sqq.). There is a good account of the public archives, both
printed and manuscript, in the first report of the Public Archives
Commission of the American Historical Association, published in
vol. ii. of the annual report of the association for the year 1900
(Washington, 1901).

PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF, an American institution
of higher learning, in Philadelphia, occupying about 60 acres,
near the west bank of the Schuylkill river, north-east of the
Philadelphia Hospital, east of 39th Street, south-east of
Woodland Avenue, and south of Chestnut Street. In this
irregular area are all the buildings except the Flower
Astronomical Observatory (1896), which is 2 m. beyond the
city limits on the West Chester Pike. The northernmost

of these buildings is the law school, between Chestnut
and Sansom Streets, on 34th Street. In a great triangular
block bounded by Woodland Avenue, Spruce Street, and 34th
Street are: the university library, which had in 1909 about
275,000 bound volumes and 50,000 pamphlets, including the
Biddle Memorial law library (1886) of 40,000 volumes, the
Colwell and Henry C. Carey collections in finance and economics,
the Francis C. Macauley library of Italian, Spanish and Portu-
guese authors, with an excellent Dante collection, the classical
library of Ernst von Leutsch of Gottingen, the philological
library of F. A. Pott of Halle, the Germanic library of R. Bech-
stein of Rostock, the Semitic library of C. P. Caspari of Copen-
hagen, the (Hebrew and Rabbinical) Marcus Jastrow Memorial
library, the ethnological library of D. G. Brinton, and several
special medical collections; College Hall, with the university
offices; Howard Houston Hall (1896) the students' club; Logan
Hall; the Robert Hare chemical laboratory; and (across 36th
Street) the Wistar institute of anatomy and biology. Imme-
diately east of this triangular block are: Bennett House; the
Randal Morgan laboratory of physics; the engineering building
(1906); the laboratory of hygiene (1892); dental hall; and the
John Harrison laboratory of chemistry. Farther east are the
gymnasium, training quarters and Franklin (athletic) field, with
brick grand-stands. South of Spruce Street are: the free
museum of science and art (1899), the north-western part of
a projected group, with particularly valuable American, Egyp-
tian, Semitic and Cretan collections, the last two being the
results in part of university excavations at Nippur (1888-1902)
and at Gournia (1901-1904); between 34th and 36th Streets
the large and well-equipped university hospital (1874) ; large
dormitories, consisting in 1909, of 29 distinct but connected
houses; medical laboratories; a biological hall and vivarium;
and across Woodland Avenue, a veterinary hall and hospital.
The university contains various departments, including the
college (giving degrees in arts, science, biology, music, architec-
ture, &c), the graduate school (1882), a department of law
(founded in 1790 and re-established in 1850) and a department
of medicine (first professor, 1756; first degrees granted, 1768),
the oldest and probably the most famous medical school in
America. Graduation from the school of arts in the college is
dependent on the successful completion of 60 units of work (the
unit is one hour's work a week for a year in lectures or recita-
tions or two hours' work a week for a year in laboratory courses) ;
this may be done in three, four or five years; of the 60 counts:
22 must be required in studies (chemistry, 2 units; English, 6;
foreign languages, 6; history, logic and ethics, mathematics, and
physics, 2 each); 18 must be equally distributed in two or three
" groups " — the 19 groups include astronomy, botany, chemistry,
economics, English, fine arts, French, geology, German, Greek,
history, Latin, mathematics, philosophy, physics, political
science, psychology, sociology and zoology; and in the remaining
20 units the student's election is practically free. Special work
in the senior year of the college counts 8 units for the first
year's work in the department of medicine. College scholar-
ships are largely local, two being in the gift of the governor of
the state, fifty being for graduates of the public schools of the
city of Philadelphia, and five being for graduates of Pennsyl-
vania public schools outside Philadelphia; in 1909 there were
twenty-eight scholarships in the college not local. In the
graduate school there are five fellowships for research, each
with an annual stipend of $800, twenty-one fellowships valued
at $500 each, for men only, and five fellowships for women,
besides special fellowships and 39 scholarships.

The corporation of the university is composed of a board of
twenty-four trustees, of which the governor of Pennsylvania
is ex-officio president. The directing head of the university,
and the head of the university faculty and of the faculty of each
department is the provost — a title rarely used in American
universities; the provost is president pro tempore of the board
of trustees.

In 1908-1909 the university had 454 officers of instruction,
of whom 220 were in the college and 157 in the department

PENNY

of medicine, and an enrolment of 4570 students, of whom 2989
were in the college (412 in the school of arts; 987 in the Towne
scientific school; 472 in the Wharton school, and 253 in the
evening school of accounts and finance; 384 in courses for
teachers; and 481 in the summer school), 353 in the graduate
school, 327 in the department of law, 559 in the department
of medicine, 385 in the department of dentistry, and 150 in the
department of veterinary medicine.

In August 1907 the excess of the university's assets over its
liabilities was 813,239,408 and the donations for the year were
$305,814 A very large proportion of the university's investments
is in real estate, especially in Philadelphia. In 1907 the total
value of real estate (including the university buildings) was
$6,829,154; and libraries, museums, apparatus and furniture
were valued at $2,025,357. Students' tuition fees vary from
$150 to S200 a year in the college; and are $160 in the department
of law, S200 in the department of medicine, $150 in the depart-
ment of dentistry and $100 in the department of veterinary
science. The income from tuition fees in 1906-1907 was $458,396;
the payments for "educational salaries" amounted to $433,311,
and for " administration salaries " to $135,314.

The university publishes the following series: Astronomical
Series (1899 sqq.); Contributions from the Botanical Laboratory
(1892 sqq.) ; Contributions from the Laboratory of Hygiene (1898 sqq.) ;
Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory (1893 sqq.); Series in
History (1901 sqq.); Series in Mathematics (1897 sqq.); Series in
Philology and Literature (1891 sqq.); Series in Romanic Languages
and Literatures (1907 sqq.); Series in Philosophy (1890 sqq.);
Series in Political Economy and Public Law ( 1 885 sqq . ) ; The A merican
Law Register (1852 sqq.); The University of Pennsylvania Medical
Bulletin (1888 sqq.); Transactions of the Department of Archaeology
(1904 sqq.) ; the Journal of Morphology (i887,sqq.) ; and Transactions
and Proceedings of the Botanical Society of Pennsylvania (1897 sqq.).
There are also occasional publications by institutes and depart-
ments connected with the university. Student publications
include: a daily, The Pennsylvanian (1885); the weekly, Old Penn
(1902); a comic monthly, The Punch Bowl; a literary monthly,
The Red and Blue; a quarterly of the department of dentistry,
The Penn Dental Journal; an annual, The Record; and The Alumni
Register (1896), a monthly.

Benjamin Franklin in 1749 published a pamphlet, entitled
Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pensilvania,
which led to the formation of a board of twenty-four trustees,
nineteen of whom, on the 13th of November 1749, met for
organization and to promote " the Publick Academy in the
City of Philadelphia," and elected Benjamin Franklin president
of the board, an office which he held until 1756. So closely
was Franklin identified with the plan that Matthew Arnold
called the institution " the University of Franklin." On the
1 st of February 1750 there was conveyed to this board of
trustees the " New Building " on Fourth Street, near Arch,
which had been erected in 1740 for a charity school— a use to
which it had not been put— and as a " house of Publick Worship,"
in which George Whitefield had preached in November 1740;
the original trustees (including Franklin) of the " New Building "'
and of its projected charity school date from 1740, and therefore
the university attaches to its seal the words " founded 1740."
In the " New Building " the academy was opened on the 7th
of January 1751, the city having voted £200 in the preceding
August for the completion of the building. On the 16th of
September 1751 a charitable school " for the instruction of poor
Children gratis in Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic!} " was
opened in the " New Building." The proprietaries, Thomas
and Richard Penn, incorporated " The Trustees of the Academy
and Charitable School in the Province of Pennsylvania " in
1753; and in 1755 issued a confirmatory charter, changing the
corporate name to " The Trustees of the College, Academy and
Charitable School," &c, whereupon William Smith (1727-1803)
of the university of Aberdeen, who had become rector of the
academy in 1752 and had taken orders in the Church of England
in 1753, became provost of the college. In 1756 Dr Smith
established a complete and liberal curriculum which was adopted
by Bishop James Madison in 1777 when he became president
of the College of William and Mary. In 1757 the first college
class graduated. Under Smith's control the Latin school grew
in importance at the expense of the English school, to the great
annoyance of Franklin. In 1 762-1 764 Dr Smith collected for

!I5

the college in England about £6900; and in 1764 his influence
had become so strong that it was feared that the college would
become sectarian. The Penns and others deprecated this
and the trustees bound themselves (1764) to " use their utmost
endeavours that . . . (the original plan) be not narrowed, nor
the members of the Church of England, nor those dissenting
from them ... be put on any worse footing in this seminary
than they were at the time of receiving the royal brief." From
September 1777 to June 1778 college exercises were not held
because Philadelphia was occupied by British troops. In 1779
the state legislature, on the ground that the trustees' declara-
tion in 1764 was a " narrowing of the foundation," 1 confiscated
the rights and property of the college and chartered a new
corporation " the Trustees of the University of the State of
Pennsylvania"; in 1789 the college was restored to its rights
and property and Smith again became its provost; in 1791 the
college and the university of the State of Pennsylvania were
united under the title, "the University of Pennsylvania,"
whose trustees were elected from their own members by the
board of trustees of the college and that of the university. In
1802 the university purchased new grounds on Ninth Street,
between Market and Chestnut, where the post office building
now is; there until 1829 the university occupied the building
erected for the administrative mansion of the president of the
United States; there new buildings were erected after 1829;
and from these the university removed to its present site in
1872.

The provosts have been: in 1755-1779 and in 1789-1803,
William Smith; in 1779-1791, of the university of the state
of Pennsylvania, John Ewing (1732-1802); in 1807-1810, John
McDowell (1750-1820) ; in i8io-i8i3,John Andrews (1746-1813);
in 1813-1828, Frederick Beasley (1777-1845); in 1828-1833,
William Heathcote De Lancey (1797-1865); in 1834-1853,
John Ludlow (1793-1857); in 1854-1859, Henry Vethake
(i792-i866);in 1860-1868, Daniel Raynes Goodwin (1811-1890);
in 1868-1880, Charles Janeway Stille (1819-1899); in 1881-1894,
William Pepper (1843-1898); in 1894-1910, Charles Custis Har-
rison (b. 1844), and in 1911 sqq. Edgar Fahs Smith (b. 1856).

See T. H. Montgomery, A History of the University of Pennsylvania
from its Foundation to A.D. 1770 (Philadelphia, 1900); George B
Wood, Early History of the University of Pennsylvania (3rd ed '
ibid., 1896); J. B. McMaster, The University of Pennsylvania (ibid.
1897); G. E. Nitzsche, Official Guide to the University of Penn-
sylvania (ibid., 1906); and Edward P. Cheyney, "University of
Pennsylvania," in vol. i. of Universities and their Sons (Boston
1901).

PENNY (Mid. Eng. peni or peny, from O. Eng. form penig,
earlier penning and pending; the word appears in Ger. Pfennig
and Du. penning; it has been connected with Du. pand, Ger.
Pfand, and Eng. " pawn," the word meaning a little pledge
or token, or with Ger. Pfanne, a pan), an English coin, equal
in value to the one-twelfth of a shilling. It is one of the oldest
of English coins, superseding the sceatta or sceat (see
Numismatics; and Britain: Anglo Saxon, § " Coins "). It was
introduced into England by Offa. king of Mercia, who took as a
model a coin _ first struck by Pippin, father of Charlemagne,
about 735, which was known in Europe as novus denarius. Offa's
penny was made of silver and weighed 22^ grains, 240 pennies
weighing one Saxon pound (or Tower pound, as it was afterwards
called), hence the term pennyweight (dwt.). In 1527 the Tower
pound of 5400 grains was abolished, and the pound of 5760
grains adopted instead. The penny remained, with some few
exceptions, the only coin issued in England until the introduction
of the gold florin by Edward III. in 1343. It was not until
the reign of Edward I. that halfpence and farthings became a
regular part of the coinage, it having been usual to subdivide
the penny for trade purposes by cutting it into halves and
quarters, a practice said to have originated in the reign of
jEthelred II. In 1257, in the reign of Henry III., a gold penny,

1 Probably the actual reason was that the assembly, dominated
by the advocates of the radical constitution of 1776, was attempting
to punish the trustees of the college, who were almost all " anti-
constitutionalists. ' '

n6

PENN YAN— PENRHYN, 2nd BARON

of the value of twenty silver pence, was struck. The weight
and value of the silver penny steadily declined from 1300
onwards, as will be seen from the following table: —

Value in silver

Reign.

Weight.

925 fine, at
5s. 6d. per oz.

Grains.

Penny.

William I., 1066 ....

22j

3-°9

Edward I., 1300 ....

22

3-02

III., 1344 • • •

20|

2-78

HI., I34 6 . . .

20

2-75

III., 1351 • • •

18

2-47

Henry IV., 1412 ....

15

2-06

Edward IV., 1464

12

1-65

Henry VIII., 1527 . .

IO§

1-44

„ VIII., 1543 • ■ •

10

1-37

Edward VI., 1552

8

I-IO

Elizabeth, 1601 ....

71

14,

i-o6

The last coinage of silver pence for general circulation was
in the reign of Charles II. (1661-1662), since which time they
have only been coined for issue as royal alms on Maundy Thurs-
days, Copper halfpence were first issued in Charles II. 's reign, 1
but it was not until 1797, in the reign of George III., that copper
pence were struck. This copper penny weighed 1 oz. avoir-
dupois. In the same year copper twopences were issued weighing
2 oz., but they were found too cumbersome and were discon-
tinued. In i860 bronze was substituted for the copper coinage,
the alloy containing 95 parts of copper, 4 of tin, and 1 of zinc.
The weight was also reduced, 1 lb of bronze being coined into
48 pennies, as against 24 pennies into which 1 lb of copper
was coined.

PENN YAN, a village and the county-seat of Yates county,
New York, U.S.A., situated N. of Keuka Lake, on the outlet
extending to Lake Seneca, about 170 m. W. of Albany, and
about 95 m. E. by S. of Buffalo. Pop. (1905), 4504; (1910)
4597. It is served by the New York Central & Hudson River
and the Northern Central railways and by electric railway to
Branchport, and has steamboat connexions with Hammonds-
port at the head of Keuka Lake. The lake, one of the most
beautiful of the so-called " finger lakes " of central New York,
abounds in lake and rainbow trout, black bass, pickerel and
pike, and there are many summer cottages along its shores. At
Keuka Park, on the west shore of the lake, is Keuka College
(1890), and at Eggleston's Point is held a summer "natural
science camp " for boys. The village is the seat of the Penn
Yan Academy (1859). The lake furnishes water-power, and
among the manufactures are paper, lumber, carriages, shoes,
&c. Much ice is shipped from the village. Penn Yan is an
important shipping point in the apple and grape-growing region
of central New York, and winemaking is an important industry.
The first frame dwelling at Penn Yan was built in 1799; the
village became the county-seat in 1823, when Yates county was
created, and was incorporated in 1833. The first settlers
were chiefly followers of Jemima Wilkinson (1753-1819), a
religious enthusiast, born in Cumberland township, Providence
county, Rhode Island, who asserted that she had received a
divine commission. She preached in Rhode Island, Connec-
ticut, Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. Obtaining a large
tract (which was called Jerusalem in 1789) in the present Yates
county, she founded in 1788 the village of Hopeton on the outlet
of Keuka Lake about a mile from Seneca Lake. Many followers
settled there, and she herself lived there after 1790. Some of
her followers left her before 1800, and then the community
gradually broke up. The name of the village is said to have
been derived from the first syllables of " Pennsylvania " and
" Yankee," as most of the early settlers were Pennsylvanians
and New Englanders.

1 The figure of Britannia first appeared on this issue of copper
coins. The original of Britannia is said to have been Frances
Stewart, afterwards duchess of Richmond (Pepys, Diary, Feb. 25,
1667). It was in Charles II.'s reign, too, that the practice was
established of placing the sovereign's bust in a direction contrary
to that of his predecessor.

See Lewis C. Aldrich, History of Yates County, New York (Syracuse,
1892).

PENNYROYAL, in botany, a herb formerly much used in
medicine, the name being a corruption of the old herbalist's
name " Pulioll-royall," Pulegium regium. It is a member
of the mint genus, and has been known to botanists since the
time of Linnaeus as Mentha pulegium. It is a perennial herb
with a slender branched stem, square in section, up to a foot
in length and rooting at the lower nodes, small opposite stalked
oval leaves about half-inch long, and dense clusters of small
reddish-purple flowers in the leaf axils, forming almost globular
whorls. It grows in damp gravelly places, especially near pools,
on heaths and commons. It has a strong smell somewhat like
that of spearmint, due to a volatile oil which is readily obtained
by distillation with water, and is known in pharmacy as Oleum
pulegii. The specific name recalls its supposed property of
driving away fleas (pulices). Like the other mints it has
carminative and stimulant properties.

PENOBSCOT, a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian
stock. Their old range was the country around the river
Penobscot in Maine. They sided with the French in the colonial
wars, but made a treaty of peace with the English in 1749.
They fought against the English in the War of Independence,
and were subsequently settled on an island in the Penobscot
river, near Oldtown.

PENOLOGY (Lat. poena, punishment), the modern name
given to penitentiary science, that concerned with the processes
devised and adopted for the repression and prevention of crime.
(See Crime; Criminology; Prison; Juvenile Offenders;
Recidivism, &c.)

PENRHYN, GEORGE SHOLTO GORDON DOUGLAS-PEN-
NANT, 2nd Baron (1836-1907), was the son of Colonel Edward
Gordon Douglas (1800-1886), brother of the 19th earl of Morton,
who, through his wife, Juliana, elder daughter and coheir of
George Hay Dawkins-Pennant, of Penrhyn Castle, Carnarvon,
had large estates in Wales and elsewhere, and was created
Baron Penrhyn in 1866. Dawkins had inherited the estates
from Richard Penryn, who was created Baron Penryn in 1763,
the title becoming extinct on his death in 1808.

George Douglas-Pennant was conservative M.P. for Car-
narvonshire in 1866-1868 and 1874-1880, and succeeded his
father in the title in 1886. A keen sportsman, a benevolent
landlord, a kind and considerate employer, Lord Penrhyn
came of a proud race, and was himself of an imperious disposition.
He came prominently before the public in 1897 and subsequent
years in connexion with the famous strike at his Welsh slate-
quarries. During his father's lifetime the management of the
Penrhyn quarry had been left practically to an elective com-
mittee of the operatives, and it was on the verge of bankruptcy
when in 1885 he took matters in hand; he abolished the com-
mittee, and with the help of Mr E. A. Young, whom he brought
in from London as manager, he so reorganized the business
that this slate-quarry yielded a profit of something like £150,000
a year. The new men and new methods were, however, not
to the taste of the trade unionist leaders of the quarrymen,
and in 1897, when the " new unionism " was rampant in
labour questions throughout England, a strike was deliberately
fomented. Lord Penrhyn refused to recognize the union or its
officials, though he was willing to consider any grievances from
individual quarrymen, and a protracted struggle ensued, in
which his determination was invincible. He became the object
of the bitterest political hostility, and trade unionism exerted
itself to the utmost, but vainly, to bring about some form of
government intervention. Penrhyn strikers perambulated
the country, singing and collecting contributions to their funds.
But in spite of every pressure Lord Penrhyn insisted on being
master of his own property, and by degrees the agitation col-
lapsed. His death on the 10th of March 1907 evoked general
and genuine regret. Lord Penrhyn was twice married, and had
fifteen surviving children. He was succeeded in the title by
his eldest son, Edward Sholto (b. 1864), who was Unionist M.P.
for South Northamptonshire from 1895 to 1900.

PENRITH— PENRYN

117

PENRITH, a municipality of Cumberland county, New South
Wales, Australia, on the Nepean River, 34 m. by rail W. by N.
of Sydney. Penrith and the adjoining township of St Mary's
are chiefly remarkable for their connexion with the railway.
The iron tubular bridge which carries the line over the Nepean
is the best of its kind in the colony, while the viaduct over
Knapsack Gulley is the most remarkable erection of its kind
in Australia. There are large engineering works and railway
fitting shops at Penrith, which is also the junction for all the
western goods traffic. The inhabitants of both towns are mainly
railway employes. Pop. (1901), of Penrith 3539, of St Mary's
1840.

PENRITH, a market town in the Penrith parliamentary
division of Cumberland, England, in a valley near the river
Eamont, on the Cockermouth, Keswick & Penrith, London
& North Western and North Eastern railways. Pop. of urban
district (1901), 9182. It contains some interesting brasses.
A 14th-century grammar school was refounded by Queen
Elizabeth; and there are two mansions dating from the same
reign, which have been converted into inns. Though there are
breweries, tanneries and saw-mills, the town depends mainly
on agriculture. There are some ruins of a castle erected as a
protection against the Scots. Near Penrith on the south, above
the precipitous bank of the Eamont, stands a small but beau-
tiful old castellated house, Yanwath Hall. To the north-east
of the town is Eden Hall, rebuilt in 1824. Among many fine
paintings, it contains portraits by Hoppner, Kneller, Lely, Opie
and Reynolds. The " Luck of Eden Hall," which has been
celebrated in a ballad by the duke of Wharton, and in a second
ballad written by Uhland, the German poet, and translated
by Longfellow, is an enamelled goblet, kept in a leathern case
dating from the times of Henry IV. or Henry V. It was long
supposed to be Venetian, but has been identified as of rare
Oriental workmanship. The legend tells how a seneschal of
Eden Hall one day came upon a company of fairies dancing at
St Cuthbert's Well in the park. These flew away, leaving their
cup at the water's edge, and singing " If that glass either break
or fall, Farewell to the luck of Eden Hall." Its true history
is unknown.

Penrith, otherwise Penreth, Perith, Perath, was founded by
the Cambro-Celts, but on a site farther north than the present
town. In 1222 Henry III. granted a yearly fair extending from
the eve of Whitsun to the Monday after Trinity and a weekly
market on Wednesday, but some time before 1787 the market
day was changed to Tuesday. The manor in 1242 was handed
over to the Scottish king who held it till 1295, when Edward I.
seized it. In 1397 Richard II. granted it to Ralph Neville,
first earl of Westmorland; it then passed to Warwick the king-
maker and on his death to the crown. In 1694 William III.
granted the honour of Penrith to the earl of Portland, by whose
descendant it was sold in 1787 to the duke of Devonshire. A
court leet and view of frankpledge have been held here from
time immemorial. In the 18th and early part of the 19th century
Penrith manufactured checks, linen cloth and ginghams, but
the introduction of machinery put an end to this industry, only
the making of rag carpets surviving. Clock and watch-making
seems to have been an important trade here in the 18th century.
The town suffered much from the incursions of the Scots, and
Ralph, earl of Westmorland, who died 1426, built the castle,
but a tower called the Bishop's Tower had been previously
erected on the same site. In 1597-1598 a terrible visitation of
plague attacked the town, in which, according to an old inscrip-
tion on the church, 2260 persons perished in Penrith, by which
perhaps is meant the rural deanery. During the Civil War the
castle was dismantled by the Royalist commandant. In 1745
Prince Charles Edward twice marched through Penrith, and a
skirmish took place at Clifton. The church of St Andrew
is of unknown foundation, but the list of vicars is complete
from 1223.

PENRY, JOHN (1559-1593), Welsh Puritan, was born in
Brecknockshire in 1559; tradition points to Cefn Brith, a farm
near Llangammarch, as his birthplace. He matriculated at

Peterhouse, Cambridge, in December 1580, being then almost
certainly a Roman Catholic; but soon became a convinced
Protestant, with strong Puritan leanings. Having graduated
B.A., he migrated to St Alban's Hall, Oxford, and proceeded
M.A. in July 1586. He did not seek episcopal ordination, but
was licensed as University Preacher. The tradition of his
preaching tours in Wales is slenderly supported; they could
only have been made during a few months of 1 586 or the autumn
of 1587. At this time ignorance and immorality abounded in
Wales. In 1562 an act of parliament had made provision for
translating the Bible into Welsh, and the New Testament was
issued in 1567; but the number printed would barely supply
a copy for each parish church. Indignant at this negligence,
Penry published, early in 1587, The ^Equity of an Humble
Supplication — in the behalf of the country of Wales, that some
order may be taken for the preaching of the Gospel among those
people. Archbishop Whitgift, angry at the implied rebuke, caused
him to be brought before the High Commission and imprisoned
for about a month. On his release Penry married a lady of
Northampton, which town was his home for some years. With
the assistance of Sir Richard Knightley and others, he set up
a printing press, which for nearly a year from Michaelmas 1 588
was in active operation. It was successively located at East
Moulsey (Surrey), Fawsley (Northampton), Coventry and other
places in Warwickshire, and finally at Manchester, where it was
seized in August 1589. On it were printed Penry's Exhortation
to the governours and people of Wales, and View of . . . such
publike wants and disorders as are in the service of God . . . in
Wales; as well as the celebrated Martin Mar prelate tracts.
In January 1 590 his house at Northampton was searched and his
papers seized, but he succeeded in escaping to Scotland. There
he published several tracts, as well as a translation of a learned
theological work known as Theses Genevenses. Returning
to England in September 1592, he joined the Separatist Church
in London, in which he declined to take office, though after the
arrest of the ministers, Francis Johnson and John Greenwood,
he seems to have been the regular preacher. He was arrested
in March 1593, and efforts were made to find some pretext for
a capital charge. Failing this a charge of sedition was based
on the rough draft of a petition to the queen that had been found
among his private papers; the language of which was indeed
harsh and offensive, but had been neither presented nor published.
He was convicted by the Queen's Bench on the 21st of May
1593, and hanged on the 29th at the unusual hour of 4 p.m.,
the signature of his old enemy Whitgift being the first of those
affixed to the warrant.

See the Life, by John Waddington (1854).

PENRYN, a market town and port, and municipal and
contributary parliamentary borough of Cornwall, England,
2 m. N.W. of Falmouth, on a branch of the Great Western
railway. Pop. (1901), 3190. It lies at the head of the estuary
of the Penryn River, which opens from the main estuary of the
Fal at Falmouth. Granite, which is extensively quarried in
the neighbourhood, is dressed and polished at Penryn, and there
are also chemical and bone manure works, engineering, iron
and gunpowder works, timber-yards, brewing, tanning and
paper-making. The harbour dries at low tide, but at high
tide has from 9 to i2j ft. of water. Area, 291 acres.

Penryn owed its development to the fostering care of the
bishops of Exeter within whose demesne lands it stood. These
lands appear in Domesday Book under the name of Trelivel.
In 1230 Bishop Briwere granted to his burgesses of Penryn
that they should hold their burgages freely at a yearly rent of
1 2d. by the acre for all service. Bishop Walter de
Stapeldon secured a market on Thursdays and a fair at the
Feast of St Thomas. The return to the bishop in 1307 was
£7, 13s. 2^d. from the borough and £26, 7s. 5d. from the forum.
In 13 1 1 Bishop Stapeldon procured a three days' fair at the
Feast of St Vitalis. Philip and Mary gave the parliamentary
franchise to the burgesses in 1553. James I. granted and
renewed the charter of incorporation, providing a mayor, eleven

n8

PENSACOLA— PENSION

aldermen and twelve councillors, markets on Wednesdays and
Saturdays, and fairs on the ist of May, the 7th of July and the
21st of December. The charter having been surrendered,
James II. by a new charter inter alia confined the parliamentary
franchise to members of the corporation. This proviso however
was soon disregarded, the franchise being freely exercised by all
the inhabitants paying scot and lot. An attempt to deprive
the borough of its members, owing to corrupt practices, was
defeated by the House of Lords in 1827. The act of 1832
extended the franchise to Falmouth in spite of the rivalry
existing between the two boroughs, which one of the sitting
members asserted was so great that no Penryn man was ever
known to marry a Falmouth woman. In 1885 the united
borough was deprived of one of its members. The corporation
of Penryn was remodelled in 1835, the aldermen being reduced
to four. Its foreign trade, which dates from the 14th century,
is considerable. The extra-parochial collegiate church of
Glasney, founded by Bishop Bronescombe in 1265, had a revenue
at the time of its suppression under the act of 1545 of £221, 18s. 4d.
See Victoria County History, Cornwall; T. C. Peter, Glasney
Collegiate Church.

PENSACOLA, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of
Escambia county, Florida, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the
state, on Pensacola Bay, about 6 m. (11 m. by channel) N. of the
Gulf of Mexico. Pop. (1900) 17,747; Oe-to) 22,982. It ranks
second in size among the cities of Florida. The city is served
by the Louisville & Nashville and the Pensacola, Alabama &
Tennessee railways, and by steamers to West Indian, European
and United States ports. The harbour 1 is the most important
deep-water harbour south of Hampton Roads. The narrow
entrance is easily navigable and is defended by Fort Pickens on
the west end of Santa Rosa Island, with a great sea-wall on the
Gulf side (completed in 1909), Fort McRee on a small peninsula
directly opposite, and Fort Barrancas on the mainland imme-
diately north-east of Fort McRee. On the mainland 1 m. east of
Fort Barrancas are a United States Naval Station, consisting of a
yard (84 acres enclosed) with shops, a steel floating dry dock and
marine barracks; and a reservation (1800 acres) on which are a
naval hospital, a naval magazine, two timber ponds, a national
cemetery, and the two villages of Warrington andWoolsey,
with a population of about 1500, mostly employes of the yard.
The city's principal public buildings are the state armoury,
the Federal building, and the city hall. The mean annual
temperature is about 72 F., and breezes from the Gulf temper
the heat. Pensacola is a shipping point for lumber, naval
stores, tobacco, phosphate rock, fish, cotton and cotton-seed
oil, meal and cake, and is one of the principal markets in the
United States for naval stores. In 1895 the foreign exports
were valued at $3,196,609, in 1897 at $8,436,679, and in 1909
at $20,971,670; the imports in 1909 were valued at $1,479,017.
The important factor in this vast development has been the
Louisville & Nashville railway, which after 1895 built exten'ive
warehouses and docks at Pensacola. There are excellent coaling
docks — good coal is brought hither from Alabama — and a grain
elevator. Among the manufactures are sashes, doors and
blinds, whiting, fertilizers, rosin and turpentine, and drugs.

Pensacola Bay may have been visited by Ponce de Leon in
1513 and by Panfilo de Narvaez in 1528. In 1540 Maldonado,
the commander of the fleet that brought De Soto to the Florida
coast, entered the harbour, which he named Puerta d'Auchusi,
and on his recommendation De Soto designated it as a basis
of supplies for his expedition into the interior. In 15 59 a perma-
nent settlement was attempted by Tristan de Lu:ia, who renamed
the harbour Santa Maria, but two years later this settlement
was abandoned. In 1696 another settlement was made by
Don Andres d'Arriola, who built Fort San Carlos near the site
of the present Fort Barrancas, and seems to have named the
place Pensacola. In 17 19, Spain and France, being at war,
Pensacola was captured by Sieur de Bienville, the French

1 In 1881 the United States government began to improve the
harbour by dredging, and in June 1909 the depth of the channel,
for a minimum width of about 300 ft., was 30 ft. at mean low water.

governor of Louisiana. Later in the same year it was succes-
sively re-taken by a Spanish force from Havana and recaptured
by Bienville, who burned the town and destroyed the fort.
In 1723, three years after the close of hostilities, Bienville
relinquished possession. The Spanish then transferred their
settlement to the west end of Santa Rosa Island, but after a
destructive hurricane in 1754 they returned to the mainland.
In 1763, when the Floridas were ceded to Great Britain, Pensa-
cola became the seat of administration for West Florida and
most of the Spanish inhabitants removed to Mexico and Cuba.
During the War of American Independence the town was a
place of refuge for many Loyalists from the northern colonies.
On the 9th of May 1781 it was captured by Don Bernardo de
Galvez, the Spanish governor at New Orleans. Most of the
English inhabitants left, but trade remained in the hands of
English merchants. During the War of 181 2 the British made
Pensacola the centre of expeditions against the Americans, and
in 1814 a British fleet entered the harbour to take formal posses-
sion. In retaliation General Andrew Jackson attacked the town,
driving back the British. In 1818, on the ground that the
Spanish encouraged the Seminole Indians in their attacks
upon the American settlements in the vicinity, Jackson again
captured Pensacola, and in 1821 Florida was finally transferred
to the United States. On the 12th of January 1861 the Navy
Yard was seized by order of the state government, but Fort
Pickens, defended first by an insignificant force under Lieut.
Adam J. Slemmer (1828-68) and afterwards by a larger force
under Lieut. -Colonel Harvey Brown (1796-1874), remained
in the hands of the Union forces, and on the 8th of May 1862
the Confederates abandoned Pensacola. Pensacola was chartered
as a city in 1895.

PENSHURST, a village in the south-western parliamentary
division of Kent, England, at the confluence of the Eden and
Medway, 4^ m. S. W. of Tonbridge. Pop. (1901), 1678. Thevillage
is remarkable for some old houses, including a timbered house
of the 15th century, and for a noted factory of cricket implements.
The church, chiefly late Perpendicular, contains a large number
of monuments of the Sidney family and an effigy of Sir Stephen
de Penchester, Warden of the Cinque Ports in the time of
Edward I. Penshurst Place is celebrated as the home of the
Sidney family. Anciently the residence of Sir Stephen de Pen-
chester, Penshurst was granted to Henry. VIII. 's chamberlain, Sir
William Sidney, whose grandson, Sir Philip Sidney, was born
here in 1554. It passed to Sir Philip's younger brother Robert,
who in 1 6 1 8 was created earl of Leicester. On the death
of the seventh earl in 1743 the estates devolved upon his niece
Elizabeth, whose only child married Sir Bysshe Shelley of Castle
Goring. Their son was created a baronet in 181 8 as Sir John
Shelley-Sidney, and his son was created Baron de L'Isle and
Dudley in 1835. The mansion is quadrangular, and has a fine
court, chapel and hall (c. 1341) with open timber roof and a
minstrels' gallery. The various rooms contain an interesting
collection of portraits, armour and other family relics. The
praises of the park and the house have been sung in Sir Philip
Sidney's Arcadia, and by Ben Jonson, Edmund Waller and
Robert Southey.

PENSION (Lat. pensio, a payment, from pendere, to weigh,
to pay), a regular or periodical payment made by private
employers, corporations or governments, in consideration either
of past services or of the abolition of a post or office. Such
a pension takes effect on retirement or when the period of service
is over. The word is also used in the sense of the payment
by members of a society in respect of dues.

United Kingdom.

In the United Kingdom the majority of persons in the employ
of the government are entitled to pensions on reaching a certain
age and after having served the state for a certain minimum
number of years. That such is the case, and moreover that
it is usual to define such pensions as being given in consideration
of past services, has led to the putting forward very generally
the argument that pensions, whether given by a government or

PENSION

H9

by private employers, are in the nature of deferred pay, and that
holders of posts which carry pensions must therefore be rewarded
by a remuneration less than the full market rate, by the difference
of the value of the pension. This view is hardly correct, for
the object of attaching a pension to a post is not merely to reward
past services, but to attract continuity of service by the holder
as well as to enable the employer to dispense with the services
of the employe without hardship to him should age or infirmity
render him less efficient. Dissatisfaction had been expressed
from time to time by members of the English civil service with
the system in force, viz. that the benefit of long service was
confined only to survivors, and that no advantage accrued to
the representatives of those who died in service. This was altered
by an act of 1909. See Royal Commission on Superannuation
in the Civil Service: Report and Evidence (1903). For the gefieral
pensions given by the state to the aged poor see Old Age
Pensions.

Civil Service. — In the English civil service the grant of pensions
on superannuation is regulated by statute, the four principal acts
being the Superannuation Acts of 1834, I 859, 1887 and 1909. To
qualify for a pension it is necessary (1) that a civil servant should
have been admitted to the service with a certificate from the civil
service commissioners, or hold an office specially exempted from
this requirement; (2) that he should give his whole time to the
public service; (3) that he should draw the emoluments of his
office from public funds exclusively; (4) that he should have served
for not less than ten years; (5) that if under the age of 60 years
he should be certified to be permanently incapable, from infirmity
of body or mind, of discharging his official duties, or have been
removed from his office on the ground of his inability to discharge
his duties efficiently. On retirement on these conditions a
civil servant is qualified for a pension calculated at one-eightieth
of his retiring salary (or, in certain cases, of his average salary for
the last three years) for each complete year of service, subject to
a maximum of forty-eightieths. Civil servants retiring on the
ground of ill health after less than ten years' service qualify for
a gratuity of one month's pay for each year of service. Previous
to the Superannuation Act of 1909 the pension was calculated at
the rate of one-sixtieth of the retiring salary for each completed
year of service, subject to a maximum of forty-sixtieths. This is
still the rate for those who entered the service previous to the pass-
ing of the act (September 20, 1909) unless they availed themselves
of the permission in the act to take advantage of its provisions,
which were more than a compensation for the lowering of the rate.
The act gave power to the treasury to grant by way of additional
allowance to a civil servant who retired after not less than two
years' service, in addition to his superannuation, a lump sum equal
to one-thirtieth of his annual salary and emoluments multiplied
by the number of completed years he has served, so however, that
such lump sum does not exceed one and a half times his salary, while if
he retires after attaining the age of sixty-five years, there must be
deducted from that lump sum one-twentieth for every completed
year that he has served after attaining that age. In the case of
those who entered the service before the passing of the act, and
take advantage of the act, this additional allowance is increased by
one-half per cent, for each completed year served at the passing of
the act. The act also provided that where a civil servant died after
serving five years or upwards, a gratuity equal to his annual salary
and emoluments might be granted to his legal personal repre-
sentatives. Where the civil servant attains the age of sixty-five
this gratuity is reduced by one-twentieth for each completed year
beyond that age. On the other hand, where the civil servant
has retired from the service and all the sums received by him at
his death on account of superannuation are less than his annual
salary his representatives may receive the difference as a gratuity.
Provision was also made in the act for granting compensation on
abolition of office, provided that such compensation does not
exceed what the recipient might be granted or b^ entitled to if he
retired on the ground of ill health. Pensions are also sometimes
awarded in excess of the scale as a reward for special services, as
compensation for injury in certain cases, or to holders of pro-
fessional office?, appointed at an age exceeding that at which
public service ordinarily begins. In the estimates for civil services
for the year 1909-1910, there was provided for non-effective and
charitable services (as pensions and gratuities in lieu of pensions
are known as) the sum of £9,625,920; this, however, included an
item of £8,750,000 for old-age pensions, leaving a sum of £875,920.
There was charged on the Consolidated Fund, on account of pensions
and compensation allowance for civil, judicial and other services,
a sum of £142,767, while the following sums for civil pensions were
provided in the estimates of the several departments: War Office,
£158,000; Admiralty, £369,800; Customs and Excise, £412,358;
Inland Revenue, £116,096; Post Office, £649,000; Royal Irish
Constabulary, £416,500; Dublin Metropolitan Police, £33,646,
making a total of £2,298,167, or a gross total for civil pensions of

£3,174,087. A return is published annually containing a complete
list of the various pensions.

Perpetual or Hereditary Pensions. — Perpetual pensions were
freely granted either to favourites or as a reward for political
services from the time of Charles II. onwards. Such pensions
were very frequently attached as " salaries " to places which were
sinecures, or, just as often, posts which were really necessary were
grossly overpaid, while the duties were discharged by a deputy
at a small salary. Prior to the reign of Queen Anne such pensions
and annuities were charged on the hereditary revenues of the
sovereign and were held to be binding on the sovereign's successors
(The Bankers' Case, 1691 ; State Trials, xiv. 3-43). By I Anne
c. 7 it was provided that no portion of the hereditary revenues
could be charged with pensions beyond the life of the reigning
sovereign. This act did not affect the hereditary revenues of
Ireland and Scotland, and many persons were quartered, as they
had been before the act, on the Irish and Scottish revenues who
could not be provided for in England — for example, the duke of
St Albans, illegitimate son of Charles II., had an Irish pension of
£800 a year; Catherine Sedley, mistress of James II., had an Irish
pension of £5000 a year; the duchess of Kendall and the countess
of Darlington, mistresses of George I., had pensions of the united
annual value of £5000, while Madame de Walmoden, a mistress of
George II., had a pension of £3000 (Lecky, History of Ireland in
the Eighteenth Century). These pensions had been granted in every
conceivable form — during the pleasure of the Crown, for the life
of the sovereign, for terms of years, for the life of the grantee, and
for several lives in being or in reversion (Erskine May, Constitutional
History of England). On the accession of George III. and his
surrender of the hereditary revenues in return for a fixed civil
list, this civil list became the source from which the pensions were
paid. The subsequent history of the civil list will be found under
that heading (Civil List), but it may be here mentioned that the
three pension lists of England, Scotland and Ireland' were con-
solidated in- 1830, and the civil pension list reduced to £75,000,
the remainder of the pensions being charged on the Consolidated
Fund.

In 1887, Charles Bradlaugh, M.P., protested strongly against
the payment of perpetual pensions, and as a result a Committee of
the House of Commons inquired into the subject (Report of Select
Committee on Perpetual Pensions, 248, 1887). An appendix to the
Report contains a detailed list of all hereditary pensions, pay-
ments and allowances in existence in 1881, with an explanation
of the origin in each case and the ground of the original grant;
there are also shown the pensions, &c, redeemed from time to
time, and the terms upon which the redemption took place. The
nature of some of these pensions may be gathered from the follow-
ing examples: To the duke of Marlborough and his heirs in per-
1 petuity, £4000 per annum; this annuity was redeemed in August
I 1884 for a sum of £107,780, by the creation of a ten years' annuity
of £12,796, 17s. pet annum. By an act of 1806 an annuity of £5000
per annum was conferred on Lord Nelson and his heirs in perpetuity.
In 1793 an annuity of £2000 was conferred on Lord Rodney and
his heirs. All these pensions were for services rendered, and although
justifiable from that point of view, a preferable policy is pursued
in the 20th century, by parliament voting a lump sum, as in the
cases of Lord Kitchener in 1902 (£50,000) and Lord Cromer in 1907
£50,000). Charles II. granted the office of receiver-general and
controller of the seals of the court of king's bench and common
pleas to the duke of Grafton. This was purchased in 1825 from
the duke for an annuity of £843, which in turn was commuted in
1883 for a sum of £22,714, 12s. 8d. To the same duke was given
the office of the pipe or remembrancer of first-fruits and tenths of
the clergy. This office was sold by the duke in 1765, and after
passing through various hands was purchased by one R. Harrison
in 1798. In 1835 on the loss of certain fees the holder was com-
pensated by a perpetual pension of £62, 9s. 8d. The duke of Grafton
also possessed an annuity of £6870 in respect of the commutation
of the dues of butlerage and prisage. To the duke of St Albans
was granted in 1684 the office of master of the hawks. The sums
granted by the original patent were: master of hawks, salary,
£391, is. 5d.; four falconers at £50 per annum each, £200; provision
of hawks, £600; provision of pigeons, hens and other meats,
£182, ios.; total, £1373, us. 5d. This amount was reduced by
office fees <ind other deductions to £965, at which amount it stood,
antii commuted in 1891 for £18,335. To the duke of Richmond
and his heirs was granted in 1676 a duty of one shilling per ton on
all coals exported from the Tyne for consumption in England.
This was redeemed in 1799 for an annuity of £19,000 (chargeable
on the consolidated fund), which was afterwards redeemed for
£633,333. The duke of Hamilton, as hereditary keeper of the
palace, Holyrood House, received a perpetual pension of £45, ios.,
and the descendants of the heritable usher of Scotland drew a salary
of £242, ios. The conclusions of the committee were that pensions,
allowances and payments should not in future be granted in per-
petuity, on the ground that such grants should be limited to the
persons actually rendering the services, and that such rewards
should be defrayed by the generation benefited; that offices with
salaries and without duties, or with merely nominal duties, ought

120

PENSION

to be abolished; that all existing perpetual pensions and payments
and all hereditary offices should be abolished : that where no service
or merely nominal service is rendered by the holder of an hereditary
office or the original grantee of a pension, the pension or payment
should in no case continue beyond the life of the present holder
and that in all cases the method of commutation ought to ensure
a real and substantial saving to the nation (the existing rate, about
27 years' purchase, being considered by the committee to be too
high). These recommendations of the committee were adopted
by the government and outstanding hereditary pensions were
gradually commuted, the only ones left outstanding being those to
Lord Rodney (£2000) and to Earl Nelson (£5000), both chargeable
on the consolidated fund.

Political Pensions. — By the Political Offices Pension Act 1869,
pensions were instituted for those who had held political office.
For the purposes of the act political offices were divided into three
classes'. (1) those with a yearly salary of not less than £5000;

(2) those with a salary of less than £5000 and not less than £2000;

(3) those with a salary of less than £2000 and more than £1000.
For service in these offices there may be awarded pensions for life
in the following scale: (1) a first class pension not exceeding £2000
a year, in respect of not less than four years' service or its equivalent,
in an office of the first class; (2) a second class pension not exceeding
£1200, in respect of service of not less than six years or its equivalent,
in an office of the second class; (3) a third class pension not exceed-
ing £800 a year, in respect of service of not less than ten years in
an office of the third class. The service need not be continuous,
and the act makes provision for counting service in lower classes
as a qualification for pension in a higher class. These pensions
are limited in number to twelve, but a holder must not receive any
other pension out of the public revenue, if so, he must inform the
treasury and surrender it if it exceeds his political pension, or if
under he must deduct the amount. He may, however, hold office
while a pensioner, but the pension is not payable during the time he
holds office. To obtain a political pension, the applicant must file
a declaration stating the grounds upon which he claims it and that
his income from other sources is not sufficient to maintain his
station in life.

Civil List Pensions. — These are pensions granted by the
sovereign from the civil list upon the recommendation of the first
lord of the treasury. By I & 2 Vict. c. 2 they are to be granted to
" such persons only as have just claims on the royal beneficence
or who by their personal services to the Crown, or by the perform-
ance of duties to the public, or by their useful discoveries in science
and attainments in literature and the arts, have merited the gracious
consideration of their sovereign and the gratitude of their country."
A sum of £1200 is allotted each year from the civil list, in addition
to the pensions already in .force. From a Return issued in 1908
the total of civil list pensions payable in that year amounted to
£24,665.

Judicial, Municipal, &c. — There are certain offices of the exe-
cutive whose pensions are regulated by particular acts of parliament.
Judges of the Supreme Court, on completing fifteen years' service
or becoming permanently incapacitated for duty, whatever their
length of service, may be granted a' pension equal to two-thirds of
their salary (Judicature Act 1873). The lord chancellor of England
however short a time he may have held office, receives a pension
of £5000, but he usually continues to sit as a law lord in the House
of Lords — so also does the lord chancellor of Ireland, who receives
a pension of £3,692 6s. id. A considerable number of local author-
ities have obtained special parliamentary powers for the pur-
pose of superannuating their officials and workmen who have
reached the age of 60-65. Poor law officers receive superannua-
tion allowances under the Poor Law Officers Superannuation Acts
1864-1897.

Ecclesiastical Pensions. — Bishops, deans, canons or incumbents
who are incapacitated by age or infirmity from the discharge of
their ecclesiastical duties may receive pensions which are a charge
upon the revenues of the see or cure vacated.

Navy pensions were first instituted by William III. in 1693 and
regularly established by an order in council of Queen Anne in 1700.
Since then the rate of pensions has undergone various modifications
and alterations; the full regulations concerning pensions to all
ranks will be found in the quarterly Navy List, published by the
authority of the Admiralty. In addition to the ordinary pensions
there are also good-service pensions, Greenwich Hospital pension
and pensions for wounds. An officer is entitled to a pension when
he is retired at the age of 45, or if he retires between the ages of
40 and 45 at his own request, otherwise he receives only half pay.
The amount of his pension depends upon his rank, length of service
and age. The maximum retired pay of an admiral is £830 per
annum, for which 30 years' service or its equivalent in half-pay
time is necessary; he may, in addition, hold a good service pension
of £300 per annum. The maximum retired pay of a vice-admiral,
with 29 years' service is £725 ; of rear-admirals with 27 years'
service £600 per annum. Pensions of captains who retire at the
age of 55, commanders, who retire at 50, and lieutenants who retire
at 45, range from £200 per annum for 17 years' service to £525 for
24 years' service. The pensions of other officers are calculated
in the same way. according to age and length of service. The

good-service pensions consist of ten pensions of £300 per annum
for flag-officers, two of which may be held by vice-admirals and two
by rear-admirals; twelve of £150 for captains; two of £200 a year
and two of £150 a year for engineer officers; three of £100 a year for
medical officers of the navy; six of £200 a year for general officers
of the Royal Marines and two of £150 a year for colonels and lieut.-
colonels of the same. Greenwich Hospital pensions range from
£150 a year for flag officers to £25 a year for warrant officers. All
seamen and marines who have completed twenty-two years' service
are entitled to pensions ranging from iod. a day to a maximum of
is. 2d. a day, according to the number of good-conduct badges,
together with the good-conduct medal, possessed. Petty officers,
in addition to the rates of pension allowed them as seamen, are
allowed for each year's service in the capacity of superior petty
officer, 15s. 2d. a year, and in the capacity of inferior petty officer
7s. 7d. a year. Men who are discharged the service on account
of injuries and wounds or disability attributable to the service are
pensioned with sums varying from 6d. a day to 2s. a day. Pensions
are also given to the widows of officers in certain circumstances
and compassionate allowances made to the children of officers.
In the Navy estimates for 1908-1909 the amount required for half-
pay and retired-pay was £868,800, and for pensions, gratuities and
compassionate allowances £1,334,600, a total of £2,203,400.

Army. — The system of pensions in the British Army is somewhat
intricate, provision being made for dealing with almost every case
separately. As a general rule officers can retire after eight years'
service on a pension of £100 per annum for ten years, provided that
they take commissions in either the Imperial Yeomanry or Special
Reserve and attend the annual trainings during that period. The
other pensions are as follows: 2nd lieutenants, lieutenants, captains
and majors after 15 years' service (or 12 years in the West India
regiment), £120, if 45 years of age £200 ; majors, after 25 years'service,
£200. Royal artillery or royal engineers if commissioned, after 21
years of age, £300, if 48 years of age, £300; lieutenant -colonels, after
3 years as such, with 15 years' service, £250, with 27 years' service,
£300, with 30 years' service, £365, after term of employment as lieu-
tenant-colonel commanding a unit, or staff appointment as lieutenant-
colonel, or after 5 years as lieutenant-colonel cavalry and infantry,
£420. Royal artillery, royal engineers and army service corps,
£450; Colonels, after 5 years as colonel, cavalry and infantry, £420.
Royal artillery, royal engineers and army service corps, £450,
after completing the term of command of a regimental district or
a regiment of foot-guards, or employed in any other capacity for
three years, £45o-£soo according to age; Brevet-colonels, with the
substantive rank of lieutenant-colonel, receive, cavalry or infantry,
£420; royal artillery, royal engineers and army service corps, £450.
Major-generals retire at the age of 62 with a pension of £700;
lieutenant-generals at 67 with £850; generals at 67 with £1000.

Officers whose first permanent commission bears date prior to

the 1st of January, 1887, retire with a gratuity in lieu of pension.

Officers of the departmental corps retire either with pensions

ranging from £1125 yearly to 10s. daily, or with gratuities ranging

from £2500 to £1000.

Warrant officers with 5 years' service as such, and 20 years' total
service, receive 3s. 6d. per diem if discharged from the service on
account of disability, reduction of establishment or age. On dis-
charge for any reasons (except misconduct or inefficiency) they
receive from 3s. 6d. to 5s. per diem, according to length of service
and corps. If they have less than 5 years' service as warrant
officers, but not less than 21 years' total service, they receive at
least 3s. per diemj and if discharged at their own request after
18 years' total service, 2s. 7§d.

Additional pensions are given at the rate of 6d. per diem for
gallant conduct, and i|d. to is. per diem for re-employed pensioners
on completing their second term of employment, with 3d. per diem
extra if promoted while so serving. Special pensions are also
granted in exceptional cases.

For the purposes of pensions, non-commissioned officers are
divided into four classes, corresponding roughly to quartermaster-
sergeants, colour-sergeants, sergeants and corporals.

With not more than 21 years' total service, and with the following
continuous service in one of the above classes, the rates of pensions
(per diem) are : —

Class.

12 years'
Service.

9 years'
Service.

6 years'
Service.

3 years'
Service.

s. d.

s. d.

s. d.

s. d.

I.

2 9

2 6

2 3

2

II.

2 6

2 3

2

1 9

III.

2 3

2

1 9

I 6

IV.

1 8

1 6

I 4

I

Privates (Class V.) receive the following pensions :-

21 years'
Service.

20 years'
Service.

19 years'
Service.

18 years'
Service.

14 to 18 years'
Service.

is. id.

is. od.

nd.

iod.

8d. to iod.

PENSION

121

For service in excess of 21 years, the following amounts are added
to the pensions enumerated above : —

Classes I. to III.
Classes IV. and V.

For each complete year in excess of 21 years.

id. per diem to oxi. per diem,
id. per diem to 5d. per diem.

A man promoted to higher rank within one year of his com^
pleting 21 years' service, receives, on his discharge in the higher rank,
an extra 3d. per diem, provided that he has completed 25 years'
service in all. An additional pension of 6d. per diem is awarded
for gallant conduct, as in the case of warrant officers.

N.C.O.'s and men disabled through military service are granted
the following pensions: —

If partially capable of earning a livelihood

Per diem.

Class I. to III

„ IV

V

is. to 3s.
9d. to 2s.
6d. to is. 6d.

If totally incapable of earning a livelihood

Per diem.

Class I. to III

„ IV

„ V

2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d.
2s. od. to 3s. od.
is. 6d. to 2s. 6d.

Pensions may also be granted to N.C.O.'sand men who are disabled
by causes other than military service, according to circumstances.

United States.
In the ordinary sense of the word, pensions in the United
States are confined to federal judges and officers of the army
and navy, but the United States " Pension Fund " is so singular
a feature of the national budget, that it is desirable to give an
account of the different classes of allowances which are granted.
In the United States allowances for services in wars prior to the
4th of March 1861 are called " old war " pensions, and may be
divided into three classes, viz.,(i) invalid pensions, based upon
wounds or injuries received, or disease contracted in the course
of duty, (2) " service " pensions, and (3) land bounties, both
granted for service irrespective of injuries.

The first provision made by Congress for pensions was a resolution
passed on the 26th of August 1776, promising invalid pensions to
officers and men of the army or navy who lost a limb or were other-
wise disabled in the War of Independence, at a rate equal to half
of their monthly pay as officers or soldiers during life or continuance
of the disability, those not totally disabled to receive an adequate
monthly pension not to exceed half of their pay. Then followed
various Acts of Congress enlarging the provisions for invalid pensions
and extending them to those who had been in the war of 1812,
and to the widows and children of those who died in the war or from
wounds received in the war. The act of the 3rd of May 1846,
provided for the prosecution of the war with Mexico and for pension-
ing those volunteers wounded or otherwise disabled in service.
Other acts were subsequently passed making further provision for
pension on account of service in the Mexican war. The first general
law granting " service " pensions was not passed until the 18th of
March 1818, thirty-five years after the termination of the War of
Independence. Its beneficiaries were required to be in indigent
circumstances and in need of assistance from their country. Two
years later Congress became alarmed by reason of the large number
of claims filed (about 8000), and enacted what was known as the
" Alarm Act," requiring each applicant for pension and each
pensioner on the rolls to furnish a schedule of his whole estate and
income, clothing and bedding excepted. Many pensioners were
dropped who were possessed of as much as $150 worth of property.
Numerous acts were, however, passed from time to time liberaliz-
ing the law or dealing more generously with the survivors of the
Revolution. Service pensions were not granted to widows of the
soldiers of this war until 1836, and then only for a period of five
years and on condition that the marriage of the soldier was prior to
his last service, and that the soldier's service was not less than six
months. In 1853, seventy years after the close of the war, the limi-
tation as to the time of marriage was removed. The rolls in 1901
contained nine and in 1908 two pensions based upon service in the
War of Independence. The last survivor was Daniel F. Bakeman,
who died on the 5th of April 1869, aged 109 years and 6 months.

The first law granting service pensions on account of the war of
1812 was passed in 1871, fifty-six years after the close of the war.
This act required sixty days' service. Widows were not pension-
able unless the marriage to the soldier had taken place prior to the
treaty of peace of 15th February 1815. On 9th March 1878,
sixty-three years after the war, an act was passed reducing the
requisite period of service to fourteen days and removing the
limitations as to date of marriage. In 1908 the pension rolls

contained the names of 471 widows of this war, the last male survivor
having died in 1905, at the age of 105 years. Service pensions
were provided for those who served in the Black Hawk war, Creek
war, Cherokee disturbances and the Seminole war (1832 to 1842),
on the 27th of July 1892, fifty years after the period embraced in
the act ; they were granted to those who had served for thirty days
and were honourably discharged, and to their widows. In 1908
there were 1820 survivors and 3018 widows, pensioners of the
Indian wars. Service pensions were granted to the survivors of
the war with Mexico by an act passed on the 29th of January
1887, thirty-nine years after the Guadeloupe-Hildalgo treaty. The
pensions were granted to those who were honourably discharged
and to the widows, for service of sixty days, if sixty-two years of
age, or disabled or dependent. This law was liberalized by the
acts of the 5th of January 1893, 23rd of April 1900, 6th of February
1907, and 19th of April 1908, increasing the pension to $15 for
those who have reached the age of seventy years, and to $20 for
those seventy-five years and over. In 1908 the pension rolls
contained the names of 2932 survivors and 6914 widows on account
of service in the Mexican war. To give title to bounty land, service
must have been for at least fourteen days or in a battle prior to
3rd March 1855; and if in the navy or regular army, must have
been in some war in which the United States was engaged. Bounty
land warrants are issued for 160 acres, and over 70,000,000 acres
have been granted under the different Bounty Land Acts.

For services rendered in the Civil War (1861-65) in the army
or navy of the United States, or in their various branches, the law
provided two distinct systems of pensioning — (1) the general laws,
granting pensions for wounds or injuries received, or disease con-
tracted in service in the line of duty, the pensions ranging from
$6 to $100 per month; and (2) the so-called Dependent Pension
Act and amending acts, granting pensions for permanent disabilities
regardless of the time and manner of their origin, provided thay
were not the result of vicious habits, the pensions ranging from
$6 to $12 per month. What is known as the general law for dis-
abilities incurred in service and in the course of duty was constituted
in the act of the 14th of July 1862, as amended by the act of the
3rd of March 1873. Under its provisions the following classes of
persons are entitled to benefit, viz. any officer of the army, navy
or marine corps, or any enlisted man in the military or naval service
of the United States, whether regularly mustered or not ; any master
or any pilot, engineer, sailor or other person not regularly mustered,
serving upon any gunboat or war-vessel of the United States; any
acting assistant or contract surgeon; any provost-marshal, deputy
provost-marshal or enrolling officer; subject to the several con-
ditions in each particular case prescribed in the law. This law
also embraces in its provisions the following classes, each class
being subject to certain specified conditions, viz. widows, children
under sixteen years of age, dependent parents, and brothers and
sisters. This act has been the subject of numerous amendments
along more liberal lines. As an illustration a case may be cited
where a soldier lost both hands in the service in the course of duty,
and was discharged in 1862. He is entitled to a pension of $8
per month from the date of his discharge. Under subsequent
acts he is entitled to $25 per month from 4th July 1864; $31-25
from 4th June 1872; $50 from 4th June 1874; $72 from 17th
June 1878, and $100 from 12th February 1889.

Under the general law a widow or dependent relative could not
be pensioned unless the cause of the soldier's death originated in
service in the line of duty; if it were so shown, a widow might be
pensioned whether she were rich or poor. Upon the death or
remarriage of the widow the minor children of the soldier under the
age of sixteen years become entitled to pension. If the soldier
died of causes due to his service, and left no widow or minor children,
his other relatives become entitled, if dependent, in the following
order, viz; first, the mother; secondly, the father; thirdly, orphan
sisters and brothers under sixteen years of age, who shall be pen-
sioned jointly. In 1908 the number of invalids pensioned under
the general law was 142,044, and the number of widows and depen-
dent relatives was 81,168.

The so-called Dependent Pension Act was based upon an Act
of Congress approved 27th June 1890, which was amended on
9th May 1900. Properly speaking, it might be called " dependent "
only as regards widows and parents. The main conditions as to
the soldier or sailor were, ninety days' service, an honourable
discharge, and a permanent disability from disease or otherwise,
not the result of his own vicious habits, to such an extent as to
render him unable to maintain himself by manual labour. The
rates of pension under this act were $6, $8, $10 and $ 12 per month.
Widows became entitled under this law if they married the soldier
or sailor prior to 27th June 1890, provided they were without
means of support other than their daily labour, and an actual
net income not exceeding $250 per year, and had not remarried.
Claims of children under sixteen years of age were governed by the
same conditions as applied to claims of widows, except that their
dependence was presumed, and need not be shown by evidence.
If a minor child was insane, idiotic or otherwise physically or ment-
ally helpless, the pension continued during the life of said child
or during the period of disability. Further acts made more liberal
provisions. That of the 6th of February 1907, granted pensions

122

PENSIONARY— PENT ASTOMIDA

to persons who had served ninety days or more in the military or
naval service in the civil war, or sixty days in the Mexican war,
and were honourably discharged, no other conditions being attached.
The rate of pension was fixed at $12 per month when sixty-two
years of age, $15 per month when seventy years of age and $20
per month when seventy-five years of age. The act of April
1908, fixed the rate of pension for widows, minor children under the
age of sixteen and helpless minors on the roll or afterwards to be
placed on it at 812 per month, and granted pensions at the same
rate to the widows of persons who served ninety days or more
during the civil war, without regard to their pecuniary condition.
In 1908 there were 140,600 invalids on the roll, and 4294 minor and
helpless children. In the same year under the act of 1907 there
were 338,341 dependants, while under the act of 1908^ 188,445
widows were put on the roll. All women employed by competent
authority as nurses during the Civil War for six months or more,
who are unable to earn a support, are granted a pension of $12
per month by an act of the 5th of August 1892. In 1908
the pension rolls contained the names of 31 10 pensioners under
this act.

There were on the roll in 1908 on account of the Spanish war,
11,786 invalids and 3722 dependants. The total amount paid in
pensions in 1908 on account of that war and the insurrection in
the Philippine Islands was $3,654,122. The grand total of pen-
sioners on the roll for all wars was, in 1908, 951,687.

In addition to pensions, the United States government grants
the following gratuities: First: If a soldier lost a limb in the
service, or as a result of his service in line of duty, he is furnished
with an artificial limb free of cost every three years, or commuta-
tion therefor, and transportation to and from a place where he
shall select the artificial limb. Second: An honourably discharged
soldier or sailor is given preference for appointment to places of
trust and profit, and preference for retention in all civil service
positions. Third: There are ten National Soldiers' Homes situ-
ated at convenient and healthy points in different parts of the
country, where comfortable quarters, clothing, medical attendance,
library and amusements of different kinds are provided free of all
expense; government providing the soldiers free transportation to
the home, continuing payments of pension while they are members
of the home, and increasing the same as disabilities increase.
Fourth: There are thirty homes maintained by the different
states, which are similar in their purpose to the National Homes,
the sum of $100 per year being paid by the general government for
each inmate. Many of these state homes also provide for the wives
and children of the inmates, so that they need not be separated
while they are members of such home. Fifth: Schools are estab-
lished by the different states for the maintenance and education
of soldiers' orphans until they attain the age of sixteen years.

From the close of the Civil War in 1865 to 1908, the government of
the United States paid to its pensioners for that war the sum of
*3>533.593>° 2 5- The payments on account of all wars for the
fiscal year ended on the 30th of June 1908 were $153,093,086.
Over $17,000,000 has been paid to surgeons for making medical
examinations of pensioners and applicants for pensions. The
total disbursement for pensions from 1790 to 1908 amounted to
$3.75'. 108,809. No other nation or government in all time has
dealt so liberally with its defenders.

The money appropriated by Congress for the payment of pensions
is disbursed by eighteen pension agents established in different
parts of the country. Pensions are paid quarterly, and the agencies
are divided into three classes, one of which pays on the 4th of every
month.

PENSIONARY, a name given to the leading functionary and
legal adviser of the principal town corporations of Holland,
because they received a salary, or pension. At first this official
was known by the name of " clerk " or " advocate." The
office originated in Flanders. The earliest " pensionaries "
in Holland were those of Dort (1468) and of Haarlem (1478).
The pensionary conducted the legal business of the town, and
was the secretary of the town council and its representative
and spokesman at the meetings of the Provincial States. The post
of pensionary was permanent and his influence was great.

In the States of the province of Holland pensionary of the
order of nobles {Ridderschap) was the foremost official of that
assembly and he was na med — until the death of Oldenbarneveldt
in 1619 — the land's advocate, or more shortly, the advocate.
The importance of the advocate was much increased after the
outbreak of the revolt in 1572, and still more so during the long
period 1586-1619 when John van Oldenbarneveldt held the
office. The advocate drew up and introduced all resolutions,
concluded debates and counted the votes in the Provincial
Assembly. When it was not in session he was a permanent
member of the college of deputed councillors who carried on
the administration. He was minister of justice and of finance.

All correspondence passed through his hands, and he was the
head and the spokesman of the deputation, who represented the
province in the States General. The conduct of foreign affairs
in particular was entrusted almost entirely to him.

After the downfall of Oldenbarneveldt the office of lands'-
advocate was abolished, and a new post, tenable for five year?
only, was erected in its place with the title of Raad-Pensionaris.
or Pensionary of the Council, usually called by English writers
Grand Pensionary. The first holder of this office was Anthony
Duyck. Jacob Cats and Adrian Pauw, in the days of tht
stadtholders Frederick Henry and William of Orange II. had
to be content with lessened powers, but in the stadtholderless
regime 1650-1672 the grand pensionary became even more
influential than Oldenbarneveldt himself, since there was no
prince of Orange filling the offices of stadtholder, and of admiral
and captain-general of the Union. From 1653-1672 John de Witt,
re-elected twice, made the name of grand pensionary of Holland
for ever famous during the time of the wars with England.
The best known of his successors was Anthony Heinsius, who
held the office from 1688 to his death in 1720. He was the
intimate friend of William III., and after the decease of the king
continued to carry out his policy during the stadtholderless
period that followed. The office was abolished after the conquest
of Holland by the French in 1795.

See Robert Fruin,. Geschiedenis der Staats-Instellingen in Neder-
land, The Hague, 1901 ; G. W. Vreede, Inleiding tot eene Gesch. der
Nederlandsche Diplomatic (Utrecht, 1858). (G. E.)

PENTAMETER, the name given to the second and shorter
line of the classical elegaic verse. It is composed of five (ireire)
feet or measures (juerpa), and is divided into two equal parts
of two and a half feet each: the second of these parts must be
dactylic, and the first may be either dactylic or spondaic. The
first part must never overlap into the second, but there must
be a break between them. Thus:

- u u I — I

In the best Latin poets, the first foot of each part of the penta-
meter is a dactyl. The pentameter scarcely exists except in
conjunction with the hexameter, to which it always succeeds
in elegaic verse. The invention of the rigidly dactylic form
was attributed by the Greeks to Archilochus. Schiller described
the sound and method of the elegaic couplet in two very skilful
verses, which have been copied in many languages:

Im Hexameter steigt des Springquells fliissige Saule,
Im Pentameter drauf fallt sie melodisch herab.

The pentameter was always considered to add a melancholy
air to verse, and it was especially beloved by the Greeks in those
recitations (/5a<^co5eiT<u) to the sound of the flute, which
formed the earliest melodic performances at Delphi and else-
where.

PENTASTOMIDA, or Linguattjuna, vermiform entoparasitic
animals, of which the exact zoological position is unknown,
although they are usually regarded as highly modified degenerate
Arachnida of the order Acari.

The body is sub-cylindrical or somewhat convex above, flatter
below, broad and oval in front and narrowed and elongate behind.
Its integument is marked by a large number of transverse grooves
simulating the segmentation of Annelids, and near the anterior
extremity close to the mouth are two pairs of recurved chitinous
hooks. The alimentary canal is a simple tube traversing the body
from end to end, the anus opening at the extremity of its narrowed
tail-like termination. The nervous system is represented by ah
oesophageal collar and a suboesophageal ganglion, whence paired
nerves pass outwards to innervate the anterior extremity and
backwards towards its posterior end. No respiratory or circulatory
organs are known. The sexes are distinct but dissimilar in size,
the female being usually much larger than the male. The generative
organs occupy a large part of the body cavity. In the female the
ovary is a large unpaired organ from the anterior end of. which
arise two oviducts, and connected with the latter are a pair of
large so-called copulatory pouches, which perhaps act as receptacula
seminis. These and the oviducts lie on the anterior half of the
body; but the oviducts themselves soon unite to form a single
tube of great length, which runs backwards to its posterior
extremity, terminating in the genital orifice close to the anus.

PEMl«3Ui»§©4^TlGPST

In the male, on the contrary, this orifice is situated in the anterior
half of the body, not far behind the mouth. The orifice leads
into a large pouch lodging a pair of very long penes, which are
coiled up when not in use. The two testicles, which extend far
back into the posterior part of the body, are long and tubular.
Anteriorly their vasa deferentia soon unite into a common duct,
which opens into the pouch containing the penes. Also com-
municating with this pouch is a pair of long slender flagelliform
tubes, of which the function is unknown.

The structure of the adult Linguatula or Pentastomum, above
described, does not supply convincing evidence of relationship with
the Acari. At the same time some Acari, like Eriophyes (Phytoptus)
and Demodex, have the body elongated and annulated, but in these
groups the elongation of the body is caudal or post-anal, as is
attested by the position of the anus far forwards on its ventral
surface. Again, the adult Pentastomum shows no trace of appen-
dages, unless the two pairs of chitinous hooks are to be regarded
as the vestiges of jaws or ambulatory limbs. In the embryo,
however, what have been regarded as remnants of limbs may be
seen.

In the mature stage Pentastomida live in the respiratory-
passages of mammalia, principally in the nasal cavities. The
remarkable life-history of one species, Linguatula taenioides,
has been worked out in detail and presents a close analogy to
that of some Cestodes. The adults live in the nose of dogs,
where they have been known to survive over fifteen months.
Each female lays a vast number of eggs, about 500,000 being
the estimated amount. These are expelled along with mucus
by the sneezing of the host. If they fall on pasture land or
fodder of any kind and are eaten by any herbivorous animal,
such as a hare, rabbit, horse, sheep or ox, the active embryos
or larvae are set free in the alimentary canal of the new host.

Fig. 1 . — Linguatula taenioides,
Rud. adult.

Fig. 2. — The same, in the first
larval stage ; under side.
a ... a, Leg-like processes.

These larvae are minute oval creatures with a comparatively
short apically fringed caudal prolongation and furnished with two
pairs of short two-clawed processes, which may represent the limbs
of anthropods and possibly the two pairs of legs found in Acari of
the family Eriophyidae. The larva is also armed anteriorly with a
median piercing probe and a pair of sharp hooks by means of which
it perforates the walls of the alimentary tract and makes its way
into the body cavity, lungs or liver. Here it becomes encysted,
and losing its boring apparatus and claw-bearing processes remains
for a time quiescent. After a series of moults it passes into the
second larval stage, somewhat like the parent but differing in having
each integumental ring armed with a fringe cf backwardly directed
short bristles. This sexually immature stage, regarded at one time
as representing a distinct species and named Linguatula denticulata,
is reached in about six or seven months and measures from 6 to
8 mm. in length. In the event of the host escaping being killed
and eaten it is believed that some of these larvae wander about or
ultimately make their way to the exterior, possibly through the
bronchi ; nevertheless it seems to be certain that they can only
reach sexual maturity in the nasal passages of some carnivorous
animal, and the chance of attaining this environment is afforded
when the viscera of the host are devoured by some flesh-eating
mammal.

The adult female of L. taenioides measures about 4 in. long and
the male barely one-fourth of that. The adult and immature
stages are, however, by no means confined respectively to car-
nivorous and herbivorous species of mammals. The adult stage,
for example, has been found in the nasal passages of sheep, goata,

horses and even of man, and the larval stage in the pleura) and
peritoneal cavities of dogs and cats. (R. I. P.)

PENTATEUCH, the name found as early as in Tertullian and
Origen corresponding to the Jewish trnnd wain nam (the
five-fifths of the Torah, or Law), and applied to the first five
books of the Old Testament (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Num-
bers, Deuteronomy). The several books were named by the
Jews from their initial words, though at least Leviticus,
Numbers, and Deuteronomy had also titles resembling those
we use, viz. n'na mm, o<-npsn ren (Anixea^eKwdetn, Origen,
in Eus., H. E. vi. 25), and rnw mro. The Pentateuch,
together with Joshua, Judges and Ruth, with which it is usually
united in Greek MSS., makes up the Octateuch; the Pentateuch
and Joshua together have recently been named the Hexateuch.
On the critical questions arising from the Pentateuch or Hexa-
teuch, see Bible and the articles on the several books.

PENTECOST, a feast of the Jews, in its original meaning a
" harvest feast, " as consisting of the first-fruits of human toil
(Exod. xxiii. 16), extending over the seven weeks which fairly
correspond with the duration of the Canaanite harvest. Hence
it was the closing feast of the harvest gladness.

The agricultural character of this feast clearly reveals its
Canaanite origin (see Hebrew Religion). It does not, however,
rank equal in importance with the other two agricultural festivals
of pre-exilian Israel, viz. the Massoth or feast of unleavened
cakes (which marked the beginning of the corn-harvest), and
the Aslph (" ingathering," later called succoth, " booths ")
which marked the close of all the year's ingathering of vegetable
products. This is clear in the ideal scheme of Ezekiel (xlv. 21
seq.) in which according to the original text, Pentecost is omitted
(see Cornill's revised text and his note ad loc). It is a later hand
that has inscribed a reference to the " feast of weeks " which
is found in our Massoretic Hebrew text. Nevertheless occasional
allusions to this feast, though secondary, are to be found in
Hebrew literature, e.g. Isa. ix. 3 (2 Heb.) and Ps . iv. 7 (8 Heb.).

In both the early codes, viz. in Exod. xxiii. 16 (E) and in
Exod. xxxiv 22 (J, in which the harvest festival is called " feast
of weeks ") we have only a bare statement that the harvest
festival took place some weeks after the opening spring festival
called Massoth. It is in Deut. xvi. 9 that we find it explicitly
stated that seven weeks elapsed between the beginning of the
corn-harvest (" when thou puttest the sickle to the corn ")
and the celebration of the harvest festival {%.asir). We also
note the same generous inclusion of the household slaves and of
the resident alien as well as the fatherless and widow that charac-
terizes the autumnal festival of " Booths."

But when we pass to the post-exilian legislation (Lev. xxiii.
10-21; cf. Num. xxviii. 26 seq.) we enter upon a far more detailed
and specific series of ritual instructions. (1) A special ceremonial
is described as taking place on " the morrow after the Sabbath,"
i.e. in the week of unleavened cakes. The first-fruits of the
harvest here take the form of a sheaf which is waved by the
priest before Yahweh. (2) There is the offering of a male
lamb of the first year without blemish and also a meal offering
of fine flour and oil mixed in defined proportions as well as a
drink-offering of wine of a certain measure. After this " morrow
after the Sabbath " seven weeks are to be reckoned, and when
we reach the morrow after the seventh Sabbath fifty days have
been enumerated. Here we must bear in mind that Hebrew
numeration always includes the day which is the terminus a quo
as well as that which is term, ad quern. On this fiftieth day
two wave-loaves made from the produce of the fields occupied
by the worshipper (" your habitations ") are offered together
with seven unblemished lambs of the first year as well as one
young bullock and two rams as a burnt offering; We have
further precise details respecting the sin-offering and the peace-
offerings which were also presented. 1 This elaborate ceremonial
connected with the wave-offering (developed in the post-exile
period) took place on the morrow of the seventh Sabbath called

1 On the critical questions involved in these ritual details of
Lev. xxiii. 18 as compared with Num. xxviii. 27-30 cf. Driver
and White in 5. B. O. T., note on Lev. xxiii. 18.

124

PENTELICUS— PENZA

a " day of holy convocation " on which no servile work was to
be done. It was called a " fiftieth-day feast." Pentecost
or " Fiftieth " day is only a Greek equivalent of the last name
(irevrriKOCTTr)) in the Apocrypha and New Testament. The orthodox
later Jews reckoned the fifty days from the 16th of Nisan,
but on this there has been considerable controversy among
Jews themselves. The orthodox later Jews assumed that
the Sabbath in Lev. xxiii. n, 15 is the 15th Nisan, or the
first day of the feast of Massoth. Hitzig maintained that in
the Hebrew calendar 14th and 21st Nisan were always Sabbaths,
and that 1st Nisan was always a Sunday, which was the opening
day of the year. " The morrow after the Sabbath " means,
according to Hitzig, the day after the weekly Sabbath, viz.
22nd Nisan. Knobel (Comment, on Leviticus) and Kurtz agree
with Hitzig's premises but differ from his identification of the
Sabbath. They identify it with the 14th Nisan. Accordingly
the " day after " falls on the 15th. (See Purves's article, " Pente-
cost," in Hastings's Diet, of the Bible, and also Ginsburg's article in
Kitto's Cyclopaedia). Like the other great feasts, it came to be
celebrated by fixed special sacrifices. The amount of these is
differently expressed in the earlier and later priestly law (Lev.
xxiii. 18 seq.; Num. xxviii. 26 seq.); the discrepancy was met
by adding the two lists. The later Jews also extended the
one day of the feast to two. Further, in accordance with the
tendency to substitute historical for economic explanations
of the great feasts, Pentecost came to be regarded as the feast
commemorative of the Sinaitic legislation.

To the Christian Church Pentecost acquired a new significance
through the outpouring of the Spirit (Acts ii.). (See Whit-
sunday.)

It is not easy to find definite parallels to this festival in other
ancient religious cults. The Akitu festival to Marduk was a
spring festival at the beginning of the Babylonian year (Nisan).
It therefore comes near in time to the feast of unleavened cakes
rather than to the later harvest festival in the month Sivan
called " feast of weeks." Zimmern indeed connects the Akitu
festival with that of Purim on the 15th Adar (March); see
K.A.T? p. 514 seq. Also the Roman Cerealia of April 12th-
19th rather correspond to Massoth than to Kasir. (O. C. W.)

PENTELICUS (BP1X770-0-65, or UevreKiKov opos from the
deme TlevTekr); mod. Mendeli), a mountain to the N.E. of the
Athenian plain, height 3640 ft. Its quarries of white marble
were not regularly worked until after the Persian wars; of this
material all the chief buildings of Athens were constructed, as
well as the sculpture with which they were ornamented. The
ancient quarries are mostly on the south side of the mountain.
The best modern quarries are on the north side. The top
of Pentelicus commands a view over the plain of Marathon,
and from it the Athenian traitors gave the signal to the
Persians by a flashing shield on the day of the battle. There
was a statue of Athena on the mountain.

PENTHEUS, in Greek legend, successor of Cadmus as king
of Thebes. When Dionysus, with his band of frenzied women
(Maenads) arrived at Thebes (his native place and the first city
visited by him in Greece), Pentheus denied his divinity and
violently opposed the introduction of his rites. His mother
Agave having joined the revellers on Mount Cithaeron, Pentheus
followed and climbed a lofty pine to watch the proceedings.
Being discovered he was torn to pieces by Agave and others,
who mistook him for some wild beast. His head was carried
back to Thebes in triumph by his mother. Labdacus and
Lycurgus, who offered a similar resistance, met with a like
fearful end. Some identify Pentheus with Dionysus himself
in his character as the god of the vine, torn to pieces by the
violence of winter. The fate of Pentheus was the subject of
lost tragedies by Thespis and Pacuvius.

See Euripides, Bacckae, passim; Ovid, Melam. iii. 511 ; Theocritus
xxvi; Apollodorus iii. 5, 2; Nonnus, Dionysiaca, xliv-xlvi; on
representations in art see O. Jahn, Pentheus und die Mainaden (1841).

PENTHIEVRE, COUNTS OF. In the nth and 12th centuries
the countship of Penthievre in Brittany (dep. of C6tes-du-Nord)

belonged to a branch of the sovereign house of Brittany. Henry
d'Avaugour, heir of this dynasty, was dispossessed of the count-
ship in 1235 by the duke of Brittany, Pierre Mauclerc, who gave
it as dowry to his daughter, Yolande, on her marriage in 1238
to Hugh of Lusignan, count of La Marche. Duke John I.
of Brittany, Yolande's brother, seized the countship on her
death in 1272. In 1337 Joan of Brittany brought Penthievre
to her husband, Charles de Chatillon-Blois. In 1437 Nicole de
Blois, a descendant of this family, married Jean de Brosse, and
was deprived of Penthievre by the duke of Brittany, Francis II.,
in 1465. The countship, which was restored to Sebastian of
Luxemburg, heir of the Brasses through his mother, was erected
for him into a duchy in the peerage of France (duche-pairie)
in 1569, and was afterwards held by the duchess of Mercceur,
daughter of the first duke of Penthievre, and then by her daughter,
the duchess of Vend6me. The duchess of Vendome's grandson,
Louis Joseph, inherited Penthievre in 1669, but it was taken
from him by decree in 1687 and adjudged to Anne Marie de
Bourbon, princess of Conti. In 1696 it was sold to the count
of Toulouse, whose son bore the title of duke of Penthievre.
This title passed by inheritance to the house of Orleans.

PENTHOUSE, a sloping roof attached to a building either
to serve as a porch or a covering for an arcade, or, if supported
by walls, as a shed, a " lean-to." In the history of siegecraft,
the word is particularly applied to the fixed or movable construc-
tions used to protect the besiegers when mining, working batter-
ing-rams, catapults, &c, and is thus used to translate Lat.
vinea and pluteus, and also testudo, the shelter of locked shields
of the Romans. The Mid. Eng. form of the word is pentis, an
adaptation of O. Fr. apentis, Med. Lat. appendilium or appen-
dicium, a small structure attached to, or dependent on, another
building, from appendere, to hang on to. The form " pent-
house " is due to a supposed connexion with " house " and Fr.
pente, sloping roof. The more correct form " pentice " is now
frequently used.

PENTSTEMON, in botany, a genus of plants (nat. order
Scrophulariaceae), chiefly natives of North America, with
showy open-tubular flowers. The pentstemon of the florist
has, however, sprung from P. Hartwegii and P. Cobaea, and
possibly some others. The plants endure English winters
unharmed in favoured situations. They are freely multiplied
by cuttings, selected from the young side shoots, planted early
in September, and kept in a close cold frame till rooted. They
winter safely in cold frames, protected by mats or litter during
frost. They produce seed freely, new kinds being obtained
by that means. When special varieties are not required true
from cuttings, the simplest way to raise pentstemons is to sow
seed in heat (65° F.) early in February, afterwards pricking
the seedlings out and hardening them off, so as to be ready
for the open air by the end of May. Plants formerly known
under the name of Chelone (e.g. C. barbata, C. campanulata)
are now classed with the pentstemons.

PENUMBRA (Lat. paene, almost, umbra, a shadow), in astro-
nomy, the partial shadow of a heavenly body as cast by the sun.
It is defined by the region in which the light of the sun is partially
but not wholly cut off through the interception of a dark body.
(See Eclipse.)

PENZA, a government of eastern Russia, bounded N. by the
government of Nizhniy-Novgorod, E. by Simbirsk, and S.
and W. by Saratov and Tambov; area 14,992 sq. m.; pop.
(est. 1906) 1,699,000. The surface is undulating, with deep
valleys and ravines, but does not exceed 900 ft. above sea-level.
It is principally made up of Cretaceous sandstones, sands, marls
and chalk, covered in the east by Eocene deposits. Chalk,
potter's clay, peat and iron are the chief mineral products in
the north. The soil is a black earth, more or less mixed with
clay and sand; marshes occur in the Krasnoslobodsk district;
and expanses of sand in the river valleys. There are extensive
forests in the north, but the south exhibits the characteristic
features of a steppeland. The government is drained by the
j Moksha, the Sura (both navigable), and the Khoper, belonging
I to the Oka, Volga and Don systems. Timber is floated down

PENZA— PEONAGE

"5

several smaller streams, while the Moksha and Sura are important
means of conveyance. The climate is harsh, the average tem-
perature at the city of Penza being only 38 . The popula-
tion consists principally of Russians, together with Mordvinians,
Meshcheryaks and Tatars. The Russians profess the Ortho-
dox Greek faith, and very many, especially in the north, are
Raskolniks or Nonconformists, The chief occupation is agri-
culture. The principal crops are rye, oats, buckwheat, hemp,
potatoes and beetroot. Grain and flour are considerable
exports. The local authorities have established depots for the
sale of modern agricultural machinery. There are several
agricultural and horticultural schools, and two model dairy-
farms. Cattle breeding and especially horse-breeding are
comparatively flourishing. Market-gardening is successfully
carried on, and improved varieties of fruit-trees have been
introduced through the imperial botanical garden at Penza
and a private school of gardening in the Gorodishche district.
Sheep-breeding is especially developed in Chembar and Insar.
The Mordvinians devote much attention to bee-keeping. The
forests (22 % of the total area) are a considerable source of wealth,
especially in Krasnoslobodsk and Gorodishche. The manufac-
tures are few. .Distilleries come first, followed by beet sugar
and oil mills, with woollen cloth and paper mills, tanneries,
soap, glass, machinery and iron-works. Trade is limited to
the export of corn, spirits, timber, hempseed-oil, tallow, hides,
honey, wax, woollen cloth, potash and cattle, the chief centres
for trade being Penza, Nizhni-Lomov, Mokshany, Saransk and
Krasnoslobodsk.

The government is divided into ten districts, the chief towns
of which are Penza, Gorodishche, Insar, Kerensk, Krasnoslobodsk,
Mokshany, Narovchat, Nizhni-Lomov, Saransk and Chembar.
The present government of Penza was formerly inhabited by
Mordvinians, who had the Mescheryaks on the W. and the Bulgars
on the N. In the 13th century these populations fell under
the dominion of the Tatars, with whom they fought against
Moscow. The Russians founded the town of Mokshany in
1535. Penza was founded in the beginning of the 17th century,
the permanent Russian settlement dating as far back as 1666.
In 1776 it was taken by the rebel Pugashev. The town was
almost totally destroyed by conflagrations in 1836, 1839 and 1858.
PENZA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the
same name, 492 m. by rail S.E. from Moscow. It stands on a
plateau 567 ft. above the sea, at the confluence of the Penza with
the navigable Sura. Pop. (1897), 61,851. The older parts of
the town are constructed of wood, but the newer parts are well
built. The cathedral was erected in 1820-1821. Penza has
technical schools, public libraries, a museum of antiquities, and
a theatre which has played some part in the history of the
Russian stage. The bulk of the inhabitants support themselves
by agriculture or fishing in the Sura. An imperial botanical
garden is situated within two miles of the town. Apart from
paper-mills and steam Hour-mills, the manufacturing establish-
ments are small. There is a trade in corn, oil, tallow, timber and
spirits, and two fairs where cattle and horses are sold.

PENZANCE, a municipal borough, market town and seaport
in the St Ives parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, the
terminus of the Great Western railway, 3255 m. W.S.W. of
London. Pop. (1901), 13,136. It is finely situated on the
western shore of Mount's Bay, opposite St Michael's Mount,
being the westernmost port in England. The site of the old
town slopes sharply upward from the harbour, to the west of
which there extends an esplanade and modern residential
quarter; for Penzance, with its mild climate, is in considerable
favour as a health resort. The town has no buildings of great
antiquity, but the public buildings (1867), in Italian style, are
handsome. By the market house is a statue of Sir Humphry
Davy, who was born here in 1778. Among institutions there are
a specially fine public library, museums of geology and natural
history and antiquities, mining and science schools, the West
Cornwall Infirmary and a meteorological station. The harbour,
enclosed within a breakwater, has an area of 24 acres, with 1 2 to
16 ft. depth of water, and floating and graving docks. There is a

large export trade in fish, including that of pilchards to Italy.
Other exports are tin and copper, granite, serpentine, vegetables
and china clay. Imports are principally coal, iron and timber.
Great quantities of early potatoes and vegetables, together with
flowers and fish, are sent to London and elsewhere. The
borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
Area, 35s acres.

Nearly two miles inland to the north-west is Madron (an
urban district with a population of 3486). The church of St
Maddern is principally Perpendicular, with earlier portions and
a Norman front. Near the village a " wishing well " of ancient
fame is seen, and close to it the ruins of a baptistery of extreme
antiquity. Monoliths and cromlechs are not uncommon in the
neighbourhood. Three miles north-east is the urban district of
Ludgvan .(pop. 2274), and to the south is Paul (6332), which
includes the village of Newlyn (q.v.).

Penzance. (Pensans) was not recognized as a port until the
days of the Tudors, but its importance as a fishing village dates
from the 14th century. In 1327 thirty burgesses in Penzance
and thirteen boats paying 13s. yearly are found among the pos-
sessions of the lords of Alverton, of which manor it formed a
portion of the demesne lands. The year 151 2 marks the begin-
ning of a new era.. Until then St Michael's Mount had been
regarded as the port of Mounts Bay; but in that year Henry
VIII. granted the tenants of Penzance whatever profits might
accrue from the " ankerage, kylage and busselage " of ships
resorting thither, so long as they should repair and maintain
the quay and bulwarks for the safeguard of the ships and town.
Nevertheless thirty years later it is described by Leland as the
westernmost market town in Cornwall " with no socur for Botes
or shippes but a forsed Pere or Key." During the war with
Spain the town was devastated in 1595. The charter of incor-
poration granted in 16 14 states that by the invasion of the
Spaniards it had been treacherously spoiled and burnt but that
its strength, prosperity and usefulness for navigation, and the
acceptable and laudable services of the inhabitants in rebuilding
and fortifying it, and their enterprise in erecting a pier, have
moved the king to grant the petition for its incorporation. This
charter provides for a mayor, eight aldermen and twelve assist-
ants to constitute the common council, the mayor to be chosen
by the council from the aldermen, the aldermen to be chosen from
the assistants, and the assistants from the most sufficient
and discreet of the inhabitants. It also ratified Henry's grant
of anchorage, keelage and busselage. In 1663 Penzance was
constituted a coinage town for tin. It has never enjoyed
independent parliamentary representation. In 1332 a market
on Wednesdays and a fair at the Feast of St Peter ad
Vincula were granted to Alice de Lisle and in 1405 this market
was ratified and three additional fairs added, viz. at the feasts
of St Peter in Cathedra and the Conception and Nativity of the
Blessed Virgin. The charter of 1614 substicuted markets on
Tuesdays and Thursdays for the Wednesday market and added
two fairs one at Corpus Christi and the other on the Thursday
before St Andrew. Of the fairs only Corpus Christi remains;
markets are now held on Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday.
Apart from fishing and shipping, Penzance has never been an
industrial centre.

PEONAGE (Span, peon; M. Lat. pedo (pes), primarily a foot-
soldier, then a day-labourer), a system of agricultural servitude
common in Spanish America, particularly in Mexico. In the
early days the Spanish government, with the idea of protecting
the Indians, exempted them from compulsory military service,
the payment cf tithes and other taxes, and regulated the system
of labour; but left them practically at the mercy of the Spanish
governors. The peons, as the Indian labourers were called,
were of two kinds: (1) the agricultural workman who was free
to contract himself, and (2) the criminal labourers who, often for
slight offences, or more usually for debt, were condemned to
practical slavery. Though legally peonage is abolished, the
unfortunate peon is often lured into debt by his employer and
then kept a slave, the law permitting his forcible detention till he
has paid his debt to his master.

126

PEOPLE— PEPE

PEOPLE, a collective term for persons in general, especially
as forming the body of persons in a community or nation, the
" folk " (the O.E. and Teut. word, cf. Ger. Volk). The earlier
forms of the word were peple, poeple, puple, &c. ; the present form
is found as early as the 1 5th century, but was not established till
the beginning of the 16th. Old French, from which it was
adapted, had many of these forms as well as the mod. Fr. peuple.
The Lat. populus is generally taken to be a reduplication from
the root pie, — fill, seen in plenus, full; plebs, the commons;
Gr. 7rX?)0os, multitude.

PEORIA, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Peoria
county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the north central part of the state, on
the lower end of Lake Peoria, an expansion of the Illinois river,
and about 150 m. S.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 56,100;
(1910) 66,950. It is served by 13 railways, of which the most
important are the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago,
Rock Island & Pacific, the Chicago & Alton, the Illinois Central,
the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Chicago
& North-Western. The Illinois river is navigable to its mouth,
and at La Salle, above Peoria, connects with the Illinois &
Michigan Canal extending to Chicago. The river is spanned at
Peoria by two railway bridges and a wagon bridge. The
residential portion of the city is situated on bluffs overlooking
Lake Peoria, and the business streets lie on the plain between
these elevations and the water front. The park system includes
more than 400 acres; Bradley Park (140 acres), the largest, was
given to the city by Mrs Lydia Moss Bradley (1816-1908) and
was named in her honour. On a bluff north-east of the city is
Glen Oak Park (103 acres), modelled after ForestPark, St Louis,
Missouri; in the south-western part of the city is Madison Park
(88 acres); and in the lo%ver part of the city is South Park (10
acres). In the Court House Square there are two monuments in
honour of the Federal soldiers and sailors of Peoria county who
perished in the Civil War; in Springdale Cemetery there are two
similar memorials, one of which (a large granite boulder) is in
memory of the unknown dead; and in the same cemetery there
is a monument erected by the state (1906) to mark the grave of
Thomas Foid (d. 1851), governor of Illinois in 1842-1846.
Among the principal public buildings and institutions are the
Peoria Public Library founded in 1855, the City Hall, the Court
House, the Federal building, St Mary's Cathedral, the Bradley
Polytechnic Institute (affiliated with the university of Chicago),
founded in 1896 by Mrs Lydia Moss Bradley, who gave it an
endowment of $2,000,000; Spalding Institute, founded through
the efforts of John L. Spalding (b. 1840), who was Bishop of the
Roman Catholic diocese of Peoria in 187 7-1 908; an Evangelical
Lutheran Orphans' Home (1902), an Industrial School for girls
(1892), Cottage Hospital (1876), St Francis Hospital (1875), a
Florence Crittenton Home (1902), a Home for the Friendless
(1876), and a House of the Good Shepherd (1891), and the Guyer
Memorial (1889), St Joseph's (1892), and John C. Proctor homes
for the aged and infirm (1907). At Bartonville, a suburb, there
is a state hospital for the incurable insane.

In 1900 and in 1905 Peoria ranked second among the cities
of Illinois in the value of its manufactures. The invested capital
amounted in 1905 to $22,243,821, and the factory products were
valued at $60,920,411. The principal industry is the manufac-
ture of distilled liquors, which were valued in 1905 at $42,170,815.
Other important manufactures are agricultural implements
($2,309,962), slaughter-house and meat-packing products
($1,480,398), glucose, cooperage ($1,287,742), malt liquors
($887,570), foundry and machine-shop products, strawboard,
automobiles, brick and stone, and flour and grist mill products.
Peoria is also an important shipping point for grain and coal.

Peoria was named from one of the five tribes of the Illinois
Indians. In 1680 La Salle, the explorer, built Fort Crevecceur,
on the lake shore bluffs, opposite the present city; this fort,
however, was destroyed and deserted in the same year by La
Salle's followers after he had set out to return to Fort Frontenac.
There is evidence that a French mission was established on or
near the site of Peoria as early as 1711; and certainly by 1725 a
settlement, known as Peoria, and composed of French and

" breed " traders, trappers and farmers, had been established
about i|m. above the foot of the lake, on its west shore. This
village was practically deserted during the later years (1781-
1783) of the War of Independence, and when its inhabitants
returned after the peace they settled in a village which had been
established about 1778, on the present site of Peoria, by Jean
Baptiste Maillet (d. 1801), and was at first called La Ville de
Maillet. It is probable that Jean Baptiste Point de Saible,
believed to have been a Santo Domingan negro, and jocularly
spoken of "as the first white seUler in Chicago," lived in the
" old village " of Peoria as early as 1773 — or six years before he
settled on the present site of Chicago — and again about 1783.
In November 181 2 about half of the town was burned by a
company of Illinois militia who had been sent thither to build a
fort, and whose captain asserted that his boats had been fired
upon at night by the villagers. In the following year a fort,
named Fort Clark in honour of George Rogers Clark, was erected
on the site of the old village; it was evacuated in 18 18, and soon
afterwards was burned by the Indians. After the town was
burned there was no serious attempt to rebuild until 1819.
Peoria was incorporated as a town in 1835 and was chartered
as a city in 1845. In 1900 North Peoria was annexed.

See David McCulloch, Early Days of Peoria and Chicago, an address
read before the Chicago Historical Society in 1904, and published
by that society, (n.d.j, and " Old Peoria," by the same author,
in publication No. 6 of the Illinois State Historical Society Trans-
actions (Springfield, 111. 1901); also Historical Encyclopaedia of
Illinois (Chicago, 1900), ed. by Newton Bateman and Paul Selby;
History of Peoria County,.. III. (Chicago, 1880) ; and C. Ballance,
History of Peoria (Peoria, 1870).

PEPE, 6UGLIELM0 (1 783-1855), Neapolitan general, was
born at Squillace in Calabria. He entered the army at an early
age, but in 1799 he took part in the republican movement at
Naples inspired by the French Revolution; he fought against
the Bourbon troops under Cardinal Ruffo, was captured and
exiled to France. He entered Napoleon's army and served with
distinction in several campaigns, including those in the Nea-
politan kingdom, first under Joseph Bonaparte and later under
Joachim Murat. After commanding a Neapolitan brigade in the
Peninsular campaign, Pepe returned to Italy in 18 13, with the
rank of general, to help to reorganize the Neapolitan army.
When the news of the fall of Napoleon (1814) reached Italy
Pepe and several other generals tried without success to force
Miirat to grant a constitution as the only means of saving the
kingdom from foreign invasion and the return of the Bourbons.
On Napoleon's escape from Elba (1815) Murat, after some
hesitation, placed himself on the emperor's side and waged war
against the Austrians, with Pepe on his staff. After several
engagements the Neapolitans were forced to retire, and eventually
agreed to the treaty of Casalanza by which Murat was to abandon
the kingdom; but the Neapolitan officers retained their rank
under Ferdinand IV. who now regained the throne of Naples.
While engaged in suppressing brigandage in the Capitanata,
Pepe organized the carbonari (q.v.) into a national militia, and
was preparing to use them for political purposes. He had hoped
that the king would end by granting a constitution, but when
that hope failed he meditated seizing Ferdinand, the emperor
of Austria, and Metternich, who were expected at Avellino, and
thus compelling them to liberate Italy (1819). The scheme broke
down through an accident, but in the following year a military
rising broke out, the mutineers cheering for the king and the
constitution. Pepe himself was sent against them, but while
he was hesitating as to what course he should follow Ferdinand
promised a constitution (July 1820). A revolt in Sicily having
been repressed, Pepe was appointed inspector-general of the
army. In the meanwhile the king, who had no intention of
respecting the constitution, went to Laibach to confer with the
sovereigns of the holy alliance assembled there, leaving his son
as regent. He obtained the loan of an Austrian army with
which to restore absolute power, while the regent dallied with the
Liberals. Pepe, who in parliament had declared in favour of
deposing the king, now took command of the army and marched
against the Austrians. He attacked them at Rieti (March 2,

PEPERINO— PEPPER

127

1821), but his raw levies were repulsed. The army was gradually
disbanded, and Pepe spent several years in England, France and
other countries, publishing a number of books and pamphlets
of a political character and keeping up his connexion with the
Carbonari. When in 1848 revolution and war broke out all
over Italy, Pepe returned to Naples, where a constitution had
again been proclaimed. He was given command of the Nea-
politan army which was to co-operate with Piedmont against the
Austrians, but when he reached Bologna the king, who had already
changed his mind, recalled him and his troops. Pepe, after
hesitating between his desire to fight for Italy, and his oath to
the king, resigned his commission in the Neapolitan service and
crossed the Po with 2000 Volunteers to take part in the campaign.
After a good deal of fighting in Venetia, he joined Manin in
Venice and took command of the defending army. When the
city was forced by hunger to surrender to the Austrians, Pepe and
Manin were among those excluded from the amnesty; he again
went into exile and died in Turin in 1855.

The story of Pepe's life down to 1846 is told in his own interesting
Memorie (Lugano, 1847), and his Narrative of the Events. . . at
Naples in 1820 and 1821 (London, 1821); for the later period of
his life see the general histories of the Risorgimento, and the bio-
graphical sketch in vol. ii. of L. Carpi's Risorgimento (Milan, 1886).

PEPERINO, an Italian name applied to a brown or grey
volcanic tuff, containing fragments of basalt and limestone, with
disseminated crystals of augite, mica, magnetite, leucite, &c.
The typical peperino occurs in the Alban Hills, near Rome, and
was used by the ancients, under the name of lapis albanus, as a
building stone and for the basins of fountains. Other tuffs and
conglomerates in Auvergne and elsewhere are also called peperino.
The name originally referred to the dark coloured inclusions,
suggestive of pepper-corns. In English the word has sometimes
been written peperine.

PEPPER, WILLIAM (1843-1808), American physician, was
born in Philadelphia, on the 21st of August 1843. He was
educated at the university of Pennsylvania, graduating from
the academic department in 1862 and from the medical depart-
ment in 1864. In 1868 he became lecturer on morbid anatomy
in the same institution, and in 1870 lecturer on clinical medicine.
From 1876 to 1887 he was professor of clinical medicine, and in
1887 succeeded Dr Alfred Stille as professor of theory and practice
of medicine. He was elected provost of the university in 1881,
resigning that position in 1894. For his services as medical
director of the Centennial Exhibition in 1876 he was made knight
commander of St Olaf by the king of Sweden. He founded the
Philadelphia Medical Times, and was editor of that journal" in
1870-1871. He was known particularly for his contributions
on the subject of the theory and practice of medicine, and the
System of Medicine which he edited in 1885-1886 became one
of the standard textbooks in America. Among his contribu-
tions to the medical and scientific journals of the day, were
" Trephining in Cerebral Disease " (1871); " Local Treatment in
Pulmonary Cavities" (1874); "Catarrhal Irrigation" (1881);
"Epilepsy " (1883); and " Higher Medical Education: the True
Interest of the Public and the Profession. " He died on the 28th
of July 1808 at Pleasanton, California.

PEPPER, a name applied to several pungent spices known
respectively as black, white, long, red, or cayenne, Ashanti,
Jamaica, and melegueta pepper, but derived from at least three
different natural orders of plants.

Black pepper is the dried fruit of piper nigrum, a perennial
climbing shrub indigenous to the forests of Travancore and
Malabar, from whence it has been introduced into Java, Sumatra,
Borneo, the Malay Peninsula, Siam, the Philippines, and the
West Indies. It climbs on tree-trunks by roots in the same way
as ivy, and from its climbing habit is known as the pepper vine.
It is one of the earliest spices known to mankind, and for many
ages formed a staple article of commerce between India and
Europe. Tribute has been levied in pepper; one of the articles
demanded in 408 by Alaric as part of the ransom of Rome was
3000 lb of pepper. Its exorbitant price during the middle ages
was one of the inducements which led the Portuguese to seek a

sea-route to India. The discovery or! the passage round the
Cape of Good Hope led (1498) to a considerable fall in the price,
and about the same time the cultivation of the plant was ex-
tended to the western islands of the Malay Archipelago. Pepper,
however, remained a monopoly of the Portuguese crown as late
as the 18th century. In Great Britain it was formerly taxed
very heavily, the impost in 1623 amounting to 5s., and as late as
1823 to 2s. 6d. lb.

The largest quantities of pepper are produced in Penang, the
island of Riouw, and Johore near Singapore — Penang affording
on an average about half of the entire crop. Singapore is the
great emporium for this spice in the East, the largest proportion
being shipped thence to Great Britain. The varieties of black
pepper met with in commerce are known as Malabar, Aleppy
or Tellicherry, Cochin, Penang, Singapore and Siam.

longitudinal section 01

Piper nigrum,
a. Twig with fruit (about J nat. size) ; b,
flower much enlarged ; c, section of fruit.

It owes its pungency to a resin, and its flavour to a volatile oil,
of which it yields from 1-6 to 2-2%. The oil agrees with oil of
turpentine in composition as well as in specific gravity and boiling
point. In polarized light it deviates the ray, in a column 50 mm.
long, 1-2° to 3-4° to the left. Pepper also contains a yellow crystal-
line alkaloid, called piperine, to the extent of 2 to 8 %. This
substance has the same empirical formula as morphine, C17 H19 NO3,
but differs in constitution and properties. It is insoluble in water
when pure, is devoid of colour, flavour and odour, and may be
resolved into piperic acid, G2H10O4, and piperidine, C 6 HnN. The
latter is a liquid colourless alkaloid, boiling at 106° C, has an odour
of pepper and ammonia, and yields crystallizable salts. A fatty
oil is found in the pericarp of pepper, and the berries yield on
incineration from 4-1 to 5-7 of ash. The only use of black pepper
is as a condiment, but it may be given therapeutically in doses
of 5 to 20 grains. It has the pharmacological actions of a volatile
oil.

In the south-west of India, where the pepper-plant grows wild,
it is found in rich, moist, leafy soil, in narrow valleys, propagating
itself by running along the ground and giving off roots into the
soil. The only method of cultivation adopted by the natives is to
tie up the end of the vines to the neighbouring trees at distances
of at least 6 ft., especially to those having a rough bark, in order
that the roots may easily attach themselves to the surface. The
underwood is then cleared away, leaving only sufficient trees to
provide shade and permit free ventilation. The roots are manured
with a heap of leaves, and the shoots are trained twice a year. In
localities where the pepper does not grow wild, ground is selected
which permits of free drainage, but which is not too dry nor liable
to inundation, and cuttings are planted at about a foot from the
trees either in the rainy season in June or in the dry season in
February. Sometimes several cuttings about 18 in. long are
placed in a basket and buried at the root of the tree, the cuttings
being made to slope towards the trunk. In October or November
the young plants are manured with a mixture of leaves and cow-
dung. On dry soils the young plants require watering every other
day during the dry season for the first three years. The plants
bear in the fourth or fifth year, and if raised from cuttings are

128

PEPPER-GORN— PEPPERMINT

fruitful for seven years, ifvfrom seed for fourteen years. The pepper
from plants raised from cuttings is said to be superior in quantity
and quality, and this method is in consequence most frequently
adopted. Where there are no trees the ground is made into terraces
and enclosed by a mud wall, and branches of Erythrina indica
are put into the ground in the rainy season and in the course of a
year are capable of supporting the young pepper plants. In the
meantime mango trees are planted, these being preferred as
supports, since their fruit is not injured by the pepper plant, while
the Erythrina is killed by it in fourteen or fifteen years.

In Sumatra the ground is cleared, ploughed, and sown with rice,
and cuttings of the vine are planted in September, 5 ft. apart each
way, together with a sapling of quick growth and rough bark.
The plants are now left for twelve or eighteen months and then
entirely buried, except a small piece of bent stem, whence new shoots
arise, three or four of which are allowed to climb the tree near
which they are planted. These shoots generally yield flowers and
fruits the next year. Two crops are collected every year, the
principal one being in December and January and the other in
July and August, the latter yielding pepper of inferior quality and
in less quantity.

Two or three varieties are met with in cultivation; that yielding
the best kinds has broadly ovate .leaves, five to seven in number,
nerved and stalked. The flower-spikes are opposite the leaves,
stalked and from 3 to 6 in. long; the fruits are sessile and fleshy.
A single stem will bear from twenty to thirty of these spikes. The
harvest begins as soon as one or two berries at the base of the spikes
begin to turn red, and before the fruit is mature, but when full-
grown and still hard; if allowed to ripen, the berries lose pungency,
and ultimately fall off and are lost. The spikes are collected in
bags or baskets and dried in the sun. When dry the pepper is
put into bags containing from 64 to 128 lb. In Sumatra the yield
is estimated at about 15 ft) per plant per annum. In Malabar each
vine gives 2 lb a year up to the fifteenth or twentieth year, or about
24 lb from each tree, a single tree sometimes supporting eight
or twelve vines; an acre is calculated to bear 2500 plants, to cost
about £4. in outlay to bring it into bearing, and to yield a produce
of £80 when in its best condition.

White pepper differs only in being prepared from the ripe fruits.
These, after collection, are kept in the house three days and then
bruised and washed in a basket with the hand until the stalks
and pulpy matter are removed, after which the seeds are dried.
It is, however, sometimes prepared from the dried black pepper
by removing the dark outer layer. It is less pungent than the
black but possesses a finer flavour. It is chiefly prepared at the
island of Riouw, but the finest comes from Tellicherry.

White pepper affords on an average not more than 1-9% of
essential oil ; but, according to Cazeneuve, as much as 9 % of piperine,
and of ash not more than 1 • 1 %.

Long pepper is the fruit-spike of Piper officinarum a-nd P.
longum, gathered shortly before it reaches maturity and dried.
The former is a native of the Indian Archipelago, and has oblong-
ovate, acuminate leaves, which are pinnately veined. The latter
is indigenous in the hotter provinces of India, Ceylon, Malacca
and the Malay Islands; it is distinguished from P. officinarum by
the leaves being cordate at the base and five-veined.

Long pepper appears to have been known to the ancient Greeks
and Romans under the name of irkvtpi fianpov; and in the 10th
century mention is made of long pepper, or macropiper, in conjunc-
tion with black and white peppers. The spice consists of a dense
spike of minute baccate fruits closely packed around the central
axis, the spike being about l| in. long and i in. thick; as met
with in commerce they have the appearance of having been limed.
In Bengal the plants are cultivated by suckers, which are planted
about 5 ft. apart on dry rich soil on high ground. An English
acre will yield about 3 maunds (80 lb) the first year, 12 the second,
and 18 the third year; after this time the yield decreases, and the
roots are therefore grubbed up and sold as pipli mul, under which
name they are much used as a medicine in India. After the fruit
is collected, which is usually in January, the stem and leaves die
down to the ground. Long pepper contains piperine, resin and
volatile oil and yields about 8 % of ash. Penang and Singapore are
the principal centres in the East for its sale.

Ashanti or West African pepper is the dried fruit of Piper
Clusii, a plant widely distributed in tropical Africa, occurring
most abundantly in the country of the Niam-niam. It differs
from black pepper in being rather smaller, less wrinkled, and in
being attenuated into a stalk, like cubebs (the dried unripe fruits
of P. Cubeba), to which it bears considerable resemblance
externally. The taste, however, is pungent, exactly like that of
pepper, and the fruit contains piperine. It was imported from
the Grain Coast by the merchants of Rouen and Dieppe as early

as 1364 and was exported from Benin by the Portuguese in
1485; but, according to Clusius, its importation was forbidden
by the king of Portugal for fear it should depreciate the value
of the pepper from India. In tropical Africa it is extensively
used as a condiment, and it could easily be collected in large
quantities if a demand for it should arise.

Jamaica pepper is the fruit of Pimenta officinalis, an evergreen
tree of the Myrtle family. It is more correctly termed " pimento"
or " allspice," as it is not a true pepper.

Melegueta pepper, known also as " Guinea grains," " grains of
paradise" (q.v.) or " alligator pepper," is the seed of Amomum
Melegueta, a plant of the ginger family; the seeds are exceedingly
pungent, and are used as a spice throughout central and northern
Africa.

For Cayenne pepper, see that article.

PEPPER-CORN, the fruit or seed of the pepper plant ; hence
anything very small or insignificant. Pepper-corn rent is a
merely nominal rent, reserved for the purpose of having the
tenancy acknowledged by the tenant. Building leases fre-
quently reserve a pepper-corn as rent for the first few years.
See Rent.

PEPPERMINT, an indigenous perennial herb of the natural
order Labiatae, and genus Mentha (see Mint), the specific name
being Mentha piperita, is distinguished from other species of the
genus by its stalked leaves and oblong-obtuse spike-like heads of
flowers. It is met with, near streams and in wet places, in
several parts of England and on the European continent, and is
also extensively cultivated for the sake of its essential oil in
England, 1 in several parts of continental Europe, and in the

Fig. 1. — Mentha piperita.

a, Flowering branch (about 5 nat. size) ; b, flower showing form of

calyx teeth (enlarged).

United States. Yet it was only recognized as a distinct species
late in the 17th century, when Dr Eales discovered it in Hertford-
shire and pointed it out to Ray, who published it in the second
edition of his Synopsis stirpium britannicarum (1696). The
medicinal properties of the plant were speedily recognized and
it was admitted into the London Pharmacopoeia in 1721, undei
the name of Mentha piperitis sapore.

Two varieties are recognized by growers, the white and the
black mint. The former has purplish and the latter green stemsj
the leaves are more coarsely serrated in the white. The black
is more generally cultivated, probably because it is found to
yield more oil, but that of the white variety is considered to
have a more delicate odour, and obtains a higher price. The
white is the kind chiefly dried for herbalists. The flavour varies
to a slight extent even with particular plots of land, badly
drained ground being known to give unfavourable results both
as to the quantity and quality of the oil. That of the Japanese

1 Near Mitcham in Surrey, Wisbech in Cambridgeshire, Market
Deeping in Lincolnshire and Hitchin in Hertfordshire.

PEPPERRELL

129

and Chinese oil also differs slightly from the English, and is thus
distinguishable by experts. In America the oil is liable to be
injured in flavour by aromatic weeds which grow freely among
the crop, the most troublesome of these being Erigeron canadense,
and Erechlhites hieracifolia. When pure the oil is nearly colour-
less and has an agreeable odour and powerful aromatic taste,
followed by a sensation of cold when air is drawn into the mouth.
It has a specific gravity of 0-84 to 0-92, and boils at 365 F.
Mitcham oil, when examined by polarized light in a column 50
mm. long, deviates from 14-2° to 10-7° to the left, the American
4-3°. When oil of peppermint is cooled to 4 C. it sometimes
deposits colourless hexagonal prisms of menthol, C10H20O, which
are soluble in alcohol and ether, almost insoluble in water, and
fusible at 02° F. The oil consists chiefly of menthol and a terpene
called menthene, Ci Hi 8 . Oil of peppermint is often adulter-
ated with a third part of rectified spirit, which may be detected
by the milkiness produced when the oil is agitated with water.
Oil of rosemary and rectified oil of turpentine are sometimes used
for the same purpose. If the oil contains turpentine it will
explode with iodine. If quite pure it dissolves in its own weight

of rectified spirits of wine. Pep-
permint oil is largely distilled at
Canton, a considerable quantity
being sent to Bombay, also a
large quantity of menthol. The
species cultivated in the neigh-
bourhood of Canton, is Mentha
arvensis, var. glabraia. Pepper-
mint is chiefly cultivated in the
province of Kiang-si; and accord-
ing to native statements as much
as 40 piculs of oil of peppermint
are sent annually to ports on
the coast. In Japan also the
distillation of oil of peppermint
forms a considerable industry, the
plant cultivated being M. arvensis,
var. piperascens. The oil, under
the name of hakka no abura, is
exported from Hiogo and Ozaka,
but is said to be frequently adul-
terated. The menthol is obtained
by subjecting the oil to a low
temperature, when it crystallizes
out and is separated. The two
varieties of M. arvensis just
named yield much more menthol than M. piperita. It is
remarkable, however, that the M. arvensis, var. javanica,
growing in Ceylon, has not the flavour of peppermint but that
of garden mint, while typical form of M. arvensis grown in
Great Britain has an odour so different from peppermint that
it has to be carefully removed from the field lest it should spoil
the flavour of the peppermint oil when the herb is distilled.
M. incana, cultivated near Bombay as a herb, also possesses
the flavour of peppermint. In the form in which menthol is
imported it bears some resemblance to Epsom salts, with which
it is sometimes adulterated.

The volatile oil of Mentha piperita is a valuable and widely used
drug. Its chief constituents are menthol and menthene, which is
a liquid terpene. The British pharmacopoeia contains two pre-
parations of this oil, the Aqua menthae piperilae and the Spiritus
menthae piperitae. The oil has the characters of its class, with
certain special features. Its local anaesthetic action is exceptionally
strong. It is also powerfully antiseptic. These two properties
make it valuable in the relief of toothache and in the treatment
of carious cavities in the teeth. They also render the drug valuable
in certain forms of dyspepsia and in colic generally, " soda-mint
lozenges " being a familiar form. The characteristic anti-spasmodic
action of the volatile oils is perhaps more marked in this than in
any other oil, and greatly adds to its power of relieving pains arising
in the alimentary canal. The volatile oil of spearmint is also
official in Great Britain and the United States, being given in the
same doses and for the same purposes as oil of peppermint. It
is of less value medicinally, not containing any appreciable quantity
of menthol, the place of which is taken in the oleum menthae viridis —

xxi. 5

Fig. 2. — Mentha -arvensis,
var. piperascens.

a, Flowering branch re-
duced) ; b, calyx showing form
of teeth (enlarged).

the pharmacopoeial name — by carvone, CioHuO, found in caraway
oil, and isomeric with thymol.

The following mode of cultivation of peppermint is adopted
at Market Deeping. A rich friable soil, retentive of moisture, is
selected, and the ground is well tilled 8 to 10 in. deep. The
plants are propagated in the spring, usually in April and May.
When the young shoots from the crop of the previous year have
attained a height of about 4 in. they are pulled up and trans-
planted into new soil. They grow vigorously the first year, and
throw out numerous stolons on the surface of the ground. After
the crop has been removed these are allowed to harden or become
woody, and then farm-yard manure is scattered over the field and
ploughed in. In this way the stolons are divided into numerous
pieces, and covered with soil before the frost sets in. If the autumn
is wet they are liable to become sodden, and rot, and the next
crop fails. In the spring the fields are dressed with Peruvian guano.
In new ground the peppermint requires hand- weeding two or three
times, as the hoe cannot be used without injury to the plants. Moist
heavy weather in August is apt to cause the foliage to drop off
and leave the stems almost bare. In these circumstances rust
(Puccinia menthae) also is liable to attack the plants. This is.
prevented to a certain extent by a rope being drawn across the plants,
by two men walking in the furrows, so as to remove excessive
moisture. The average yield of peppermint is about 165 cwt.
per acre. The first year's crop is always cut with the sickle to
prevent injury to the stolons. The herb of the second and third
year is cut with scythes, and then raked by women into loose heaps
ready for carting. The field is then gleaned by boys, who add
what they collect to the heaps. The plants rarely yield a fourth
crop on the same land. The harvest usually commences in the
beginning or middle of August, or as soon as the plants begin to
flower, and lasts for six week?, the stills being kept going night
and day. The herb is carted direct from the field to the stills,
which are made of copper, and contain about 5 cwt. of the herb.
Before putting the peppermint into the still water is poured in to
a depth of about 2 ft., at which height a false bottom is placed,
and on this the herb is thrown and trodden down by men. The
lid, which fits into a water-joint, is then let down by pulleys and
fastened by two bars, any excess of. pressure or temperature being
indicated by the water that is ejected at the joint. The distillation
is conducted by the application of direct heat at the lowest pos-
sible temperature, and is continued for about four and a half hours.
When this operation is completed, the lid is removed and a rope is
attached to a hook on the false bottom, which, as well as the herb
resting on it, is raised bodily by a windlass and the peppermint
carried away in the empty carts on their return journey to the fields,
where it is placed in heaps and allowed to rot, being subsequently
mixed with the manure applied in the autumn as above stated.
The usual yield of oil, if the season be warm and dry, is said to be
I oz. from 5 lb of the fresh flowering herb, but, if wet and unfavour-
able, the product is barely half that quantity. The yield of a charge
of the still is estimated at from I lb 12 oz. to 5 R>. The oil improves
in mellowness even if kept as long as ten or fourteen years. The
green colour sometimes present in the oil is stated to be due to a
quantity of water larger than necessary having been used in the
distillation ; on the other hand, if the herb be left in the still from
Saturday to Monday, the oil assumes a brown tint.

In France peppermint is cultivated on damp rich ground at Sens,
in the department of the Yonne. In Germany it is grown in the
neighbourhood of Leipzig, where the little town of Colleda produces
annually as much as 40,000 cwt. of the herb. In the United States
peppermint is cultivated on a most extensive scale, chiefly in south-
west Michigan, the west districts of New York state, and Ohio. The
yield averages from 10 to 30 lb per acre. In Michigan the plant
was introduced in 1855.

PEPPERRELL, SIR WILLIAM (1696-1759), American soldier,
was born in Kittery, Maine, then a part of Massachusetts, on
the 27th of June 1696. He studied surveying and navigation,
and joined his father in his ship-building, fishing and general
trading business, quickly becoming one of the wealthiest and
most influential men in the province. He was commissioned
captain (17 17), major, lieutenant-colonel, and in 1726 colonel of
militia. Pepperrell served in the Massachusetts general court
(1726-1727), and in the governor's council (1727-1759), of
which for eighteen years he was president. Although not a
trained lawyer, he was chief justice of the court of common pleas
from 1730 until his death. In 1745 he was commander-in-chief
of the New England force of about 4000, which, with the assist-
ance of a British squadron under Commodore Peter Warren,
besieged and captured the French fortress of Louisburg, the
garrison surrendering on the 16th of June and Pepperrell and
Warren taking possession on the following day. For his services
Pepperrell, in November 1746, was created a baronet — the oniv
New Englander so honoured. He was active in raising troops

PEPPER TREE— PEPYS, SAMUEL

130

during the " French and Indian War," and received the rank of
lieutenant-general in February 1 7 59. He died in Kittery, Maine,
on the 6th of July in the same year.

See Usher Parsons, Life of Sir William Pepperrell, Bart. (Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1855), based on the family papers.

PEPPER TREE, a tree which has no proper connexion with
the true pepper {Piper), and is really a member of the natural
order Anacardiaceae, being known botanically as Schinus Molle,
from the Peruvian name Mvlli. It is a native of tropical South
America and is grown in the open air in the south of Europe. It
is a small tree with unequally pinnate leaves, the segments
linear, entire or finely saw-toothed, the terminal one longer than
the rest, and all filled with volatile oil stored in large cells or
cysts, which are visible to the naked eye and appear like holes
when the leaf is held up to the light. When the leaves are thrown
upon the surface of water the resinous or oily fluid escapes with
such force as violently to agitate them. The flowers are small,
whitish, arranged in terminal clusters and polygamous or uni-
sexual, with five sepals, as many petals, ten stamens (as large as
the petals in the case of the male flower, very small in the female
flower, but in both springing from a cushion-like disk surrounding
the base of the three-celled ovary). The style is simple or three-
cleft, and the fruit a small, globose, pea-like drupe with a bony
kernel enclosing a single seed. The fleshy portion of the fruit
has a hot aromatic flavour from the abundance of the resin it
contains. The resin is used for medicinal purposes by the
Peruvians, and has similar properties to mastic. The Japan
pepper tree is Xanthoxylum piperitum the fruits of which have
also a hot taste. Along the Riviera the tree known as Melia
Azedarach, or the " Pride of India," is also incorrectly called the
pepper tree by visitors.

PEPSIN, an enzyme or ferment obtained by drying the mucous
lining of the fresh and healthy stomach of a pig, sheep or calf.
As used in medicine it consists of a light yellow-brown or white
powder or of pale yellow translucent grains or scales. It is only
slightly soluble in water and alcohol. Pepsin is used to help
gastric digestion in old people and in those in whom there is a
deficient secretion of the gastric juice. It is useful in chronic
catarrhal conditions of the stomach, the dyspepsia of alcoholism,
and in gastric ulcer and cancer of the stomach.

Pepsin digests the albumens but is useless in the digestion of
fats or carbohydrates. It may also be used to predigest albuminous
foods. The following is a method of peptonizing beef. Take \ lb
of minced raw lean beef, J pint of water containing 0-2 % of
hydrochloric acid, place in a jar with 30 grs. of pepsin, set in a warm
place at 1 io° F. for 3 hours, stirring occasionally. Then quickly
boil it. It is usually unnecessary to strain it, as the meat is reduced
to a fine almost impalpable powder which is readily assimilated.
Many varieties of proprietary peptonizing tablets are on the market
and are convenient for the preparation of peptonized milk. The
following is a method of preparing it. Take a clean glass quart
bottle, pour in a pint of perfectly fresh cold milk, then add a teacup-
ful of cold water in which a peptonizing tablet has been dissolved.
Submerge the bottle in a can of water at loo° F. for from 5 to 10
minutes, take out the bottle and place on ice to prevent the further
action of the pepsin. If no ice is convenient bring the milk to a
boil for the same purpose. If the action of the pepsin be continued
for a much longer period the milk becomes bitter to the taste from
the development of excess of peptones. Predigested foods should
not be used over a long period or the digestive functions of the
stomach may atrophy from disuse.

Pancreatic solution, derived from the pancreas of a pig digested
in alcohol, has the power of converting starch into sugar, and
albumen and fibrin into peptones. It only acts in an alkaline
medium and at a temperature under 140 F. If used to peptonize
milk sodium bicarbonate should be added. Many commercial
preparations are on the market. Trypsin, the principal ferment
of the pancreas, also changes proteids into peptones.

PEPUSCH, JOHN CHRISTOPHER (1667-1752), English
musician, of German parentage, was born in Berlin. He began
his study of music at an early age, and about 1700 left Berlin
and went to England, where he had various engagements, and
where he went on with his researches into ancient music. He
composed a number of church services and instrumental pieces,
besides music for masques and plays, but he is best known in
connexion with the founding in 17 10 of the Academy of Ancient
Music. In 1713 he was made a Mus.D. of Oxford, and in 1746

F.R.S. In 1718 he married Margarita de 1'Epine (d. 1746), who,
as the first Italian to sing in England, was described in 1692 in
the London Gazette simply as " the Italian woman." Pepusch
died in London on the 20th of July 1752. His Treatise on
Harmony (anonymous 1st ed. 1730) is believed to have been an
embodiment of his rules drafted by his pupil Viscount Paisley,
afterwards earl of Abercorn.

PEPYS, SAMUEL (1633-1703), English diarist, was born on
the 23rd of February 1633. The place of his birth is not known.
The name was pronounced in the 17th century, and has always
been pronounced by the family, " Peeps." The family can be
traced in Cambridgeshire as far back as the reign of Edward I.
They rose by slow degrees from the class of small copyholders
and yeoman farmers to the position of gentry. In 1563 they had
a recognized right to use a coat of arms. John Pepys, Samuel's
father, was a younger son, who, like other gentlemen in his
position in that age, went into trade. He was for a time estab-
lished as a tailor in London, but in 1661 he inherited a small
estate at Brampton near Huntingdon, where he lived during the
last years of his life.

Samuel was fifth child and second son of a large family, all
of whom he survived. His first school was in Huntingdon, but
he was afterwards sent to St Paul's in London, where he remained
till 1650. While at St Paul's he was an eye-witness of the execu-
tion of King Charles I. On the 21st of June in that year his
name was entered as a sizar on the books of Trinity Hall,
Cambridge, but it was transferred to Magdalene on the 1st of
October. On the 5th of March he entered into residence, and
he remained there till 1654 or 1655. He obtained a Spendluffe
scholarship a month after entering, and one on Dr John Smith's
foundation on the 14th of October 1653. Nothing is known of
his university career except that on the 21st of October 1653 he
was publicly admonished with another undergraduate for having
been " scandalously overserved with drink." At Cambridge he
wrote a romance, Love is a Cheat, which he afterwards destroyed.
On the 1st of December 1655 he was married at St Margaret's
church, Westminster, to Elizabeth, daughter of Alexander
Marchant, Sieur de St Michel, a French Huguenot exile from
Anjou who had married an English lady named Kingsmill.
Pepys had at this time no independent means, and probably
relied on his cousins, the Montagues, to provide for him. On the
26th of March 1658 he was cut for the stone, an event which
he always kept in memory by a solemn anniversary. In 1659
he went as secretary with his cousin, Edward Montagu, after-
wards earl of Sandwich, on a voyage to the Sound. On his
return he was engaged as a clerk under Mr (afterwards Sir)
Edward Downing, one of the four tellers of the exchequer. In
1660 he accompanied his cousin, who commanded the fleet which
brought King Charles II. back from exile. In that year, by the
interest of his cousin, he was named " clerk of the acts " in the
navy office, but. was compelled to buy off a competitor, one
Barlow, by an annuity of £100.

Pepys was now fairly established in the official career which led
him to honour. On the 1st of January 1660 he had begun his
second and hidden life as a diarist. It is in that capacity that
he is of such unique interest. But if his diary had never been
written, or had been lost, he would still be a notable man, as an
able official, the author of valuable Memoirs of the Navy (1690),
an amateur musician and protector of musicians, a gentleman
who took an enlightened interest in science, and was elected
president of the Royal Society. To his contemporary diarist,
John Evelyn, he appeared as " a worthy, industrious and curious
person." It is true that Andrew Marvel accused him of having
accumulated a fortune of £40,000 by " illegal wages." But this
charge, made in a pamphlet called A List of the principal
Labourers in the great design of Popery and Arbitrary Power,
was attributed to political animosity. To the world he appeared
as an honourable and religious man, and so he would seem to have
been to us if he had not recorded in his diary all those weaknesses
of character and sins of the flesh which other men are most
careful to conceal.

His place of clerk to the Navy Board was equivalent to the

PEPYS, SAMUEL

131

post of permanent under secretary in modern times. It made
him chief of the secretariat and a member of the administrating
body of the navy. Though he was so ignorant of business that
he did not even know the multiplication table when he first took
office, he soon mastered the needful mechanical details by work-
ing early and late. He had other posts and honours, which
came to him either as consequential on his clerkship or because
he was a useful official. On the 23rd of July 1660 he was ap-
pointed one of the clerks of the privy seal, an office which returned
him £3 a day in fees. He was made a justice of the peace. In
1662 he was appointed a younger brother of the Trinity House,
and was named a commissioner for managing the affairs of
Tangier, then occupied by an English garrison. In 1664 he
became a member of the corporation of the Royal Fishery, to
which body he was named treasurer when another official had
brought the accounts into confusion. In that year he also
joined the Royal Society. During the naval war with Holland
(1664-67) he proved himself an indefatigable worker. As sur-
veyor of the victualling, the whole burden of a most important
department was thrown on him in addition to his regular duties.
He in fact organized the department. While the plague was
raging in London in 1666 he remained at his post when many of
his colleagues ran away, and he manfully avowed his readiness
to take the risk of disease, as others of the king's servants faced
the dangers of war. He had now gained the full confidence of the
lord high admiral, the duke of York, afterwards King James II.
When, on the termination of the war, the navy office was violently
attacked in parliament, he was entrusted with its defence. The
speech which he delivered at the bar of the House of Commons
on the 5th of March 1668 passed for a complete vindication. In
sober fact the charges of mismanagement were well founded, but
the fault was not in the officials of the navy office only, and Pepys, .
who was master of the details, had no difficulty in throwing dust
in the eyes of the House of Commons, which was ignorant.
Nobody indeed was better acquainted with the defects of the
office, for in 1668 he drew up for the duke of York two papers of
inquiry and rebuke, " The Duke's Reflections on the severall
Members of the Navy Board's Duty " and " The Duke's answer
to their severall excuses " (Harleian MS. 6003). In 1669 he
travelled abroad. His success in addressing parliament gave him
the ambition to become a member of the House of Commons.
He stood for Aldborough, but the death of his wife, on the 10th
of November 1669, prevented him from conducting his canvass
in person, and he was not elected. In 1673 he was returned for
Castle Rising. The validity of his election was questioned by his
opponent, Mr Offley, and the committee of privilege decided
against him, but the prorogation of the house prevented further
action. The no-popery agitation was now growing in strength.
The duke of York was driven from office by the Test Act, and
Pepys was accused of " popery," partly on the ground that he
was said to keep a crucifix and altar in his house, partly because
he was accused of having converted his wife to Roman Catholi-
cism. The crucifix story broke down on examination, but there
is some reason to believe that Mrs Pepys did become a Roman
Catholic. Pepys was transferred by the king from the navy
office to the secretaryship of the admiralty in 1673. In 1679 he
was member for Harwich, and in the height of the popish plot
mania he was accused, manifestly because he was a trusted
servant of the duke of York, of betraying naval secrets to the
French, but the charges were finally dropped. Pepys was released
on bail on the 12th of February 1680. In that year he accom-
panied the king to Newmarket, and took down the narrative of
his escape after the battle of Worcester. A proposal to make him
head of King's College, Cambridge, in 1681, came to nothing.
In 1682 he accompanied the duke of York to Scotland, where the
uncleanly habits of the people caused him great offence. In
1683-1684 he was engaged in arranging for the evacuation of
Tangier. He visited the place and kept a diary of his voyage.
In 1684 he was elected president of the Royal Society. On the
accession of King James II. in 1685 he retained his place as
secretary to the admiralty, to which he had been appointed by
patent when James resumed the lord high admiralship (June 10,

1684), and Pepys was in effect minister for the navy. The
revolution of 1688 ended his official career. He was dismissed
on the 9th of March 1689, and spent the rest of his life in retire-
ment, and, except for a brief imprisonment on the charge of
Jacobite intrigue in 1690, in peace. He died at his house in
Clapham on the 25th of May 1703. His last years were passed
in correspondence with his friends, who included Evelyn and
Dryden, or in arranging his valuable library. It was left on his
death to his nephew, John Jackson, son of his sister Pauline, and
in 1 7 24, by the terms of his will, was transferred to Magdalene
College, Cambridge, where it is still preserved.

Such was the outward and visible life of Samuel Pepys, the
public servant whose diligence was rewarded by success. The
other Pepys, whom Sir Walter Scott called " that curious
fellow," was revealed in 1825, when his secret diary was partly
published. The first entry was made on the 1st of January 1660,
the last on the 31st of May 1669, when the increasing weakness
of his eyes, which had given him trouble since 1664, compelled
him to cease writing in the conditions he imposed upon himself.
If there is in all the literature of the world a book which can be
called " unique " with strict propriety it is this. Confessions,
diaries, journals, autobiographies abound, but such a revelation
of a man's self has not yet been discovered. The diary is a thing
apart by virtue of three qualities which are rarely found in per-
fection when separate and nowhere else in combination. It was
secret; it was full; and it was honest. That Pepys meant it for
his own eye alone is clear. He wrote it in Shelton's system of
tachygraphy published in 1641, which he complicated by using
foreign languages or by varieties of his own invention whenever
he had to record the passages least fit to be seen by his servants
or by " all the world." Relying on his cypher he put down what-
ever he saw, heard, felt or imagined, every motion of his mind,
every action of his body. And he noted all this, not as he desired
it to appear to others, but as it was to his seeing. The result is
" a human document " of amazing vitality. The man who displays
himself to himself in the diary is often odious, greedy, cowardly,
casuistical, brutal. He tells how he kicked his cook, and blacked
his wife's eye, and was annoyed when others saw what he had
done. He notes how he compelled the wives of unfortunate
men who came to draw their husband's pay at the navy office to
prostitute themselves; how he took " compliments," that is to
say gifts, from all who had business to do with the navy office;
how he got tipsy and suffered from sick headache; how he
repented, made vows of sobriety, and found casuistical excuses
for breaking them. The style is as peculiar as the matter —
colloquial, garrulous, racy from simplicity of language, and full
of the unconscious humour which is never absent from a truthful
account of the workings of nature in the average sensual man.
His position enabled him to see much. His complete harmony
with the animalism and vulgarity of the Restoration makes him
a valuable witness for his time. To his credit must be put the
facts that he knew the animalism and vulgarity to be what they
were; that he had a real love of music and gave help to musicians,
Cesare Morelli for instance; that though he made money out of
his places he never allowed bad work to be done for the navy if
he could help it; that he was a hard worker; and that he had a
capacity for such acts of kindness and generosity as are com-
patible with a gross temperament and a pedestrian ambition.

The diary, written in a very small hand in six volumes, was
included among his books at Magdalene. On the publication of
Evelyn's diary in 1818, the then head of Magdalene, the Hon.
and Rev. George Neville, decided to publish Pepys's. Part of the
MS. was deciphered by his cousin Lord Grenville. The library
contained both the short and the long-hand copies of Pepys's
account of King Charles's adventures, but its books were so little
known by the curators that this key was overlooked. The MS.
was deciphered by John Smith, afterwards rector of Baldock
in Hertfordshire, between 1819 and 1822. The first and partial
edition, edited by Richard Neville Griffin, 3rd Lord Braybrooke,
appeared in 1825 in two volumes quarto (London). It attracted
great attention and was reviewed by Sir Walter Scott in the
Quarterly for January 1826. A second edition in two octavo

132

PEQUOT— PERCEVAL

volumes followed in 1828 (London). A third and enlarged edition
in five volumes octavo appeared in 1848-1840, and a fourth in
four in 1854 (London) . In 1875-1870 Dr Minors Bright published
a still fuller edition in six volumes octavo (London). Many
portraits of Pepys are known to have been taken and several can
be traced. One was taken by Savill (1661), another by John
Hales (1666), now in the National Portrait Gallery. A portrait
by Sir Peter Lely is in the Pepysian library, Magdalene College,
Cambridge. Three portraits were taken by Sir Godfrey Kneller,
of which one belongs to the Royal Society, and another is in the
Hall of Magdalene. Pepys's only known publication in his life
was the Memoirs of the Navy, but other writings have been
attributed to him.

Authorities. — The standard edition of Pepys's Diary is that
by H. B. Wheatley, in nine volumes octavo, with a supplementary
volume of Pepysiana (London, 1893-1899). See also Wheatley's
Samuel Pepys, and the world he lived in (London, 1880) ; The Life,
Journals and Correspondence of Pepys, by J. Smith (London, 1841);
E. H. Moorhouse, Samuel Pepys, Administrator, Observer, Gossip
(1909) ; and P. Lubbock, Samuel Pepys (1909). (D. H.)

PEQUOT, an Algonquian tribe of North-American Indians, a
branch of the Mohicans. They occupied the coast of Connecticut
from Niantic river to the Rhode Island boundary. Together
with their kinsmen, the Mohegans, they formed a powerful and
warlike people, bitterly hostile to the early settlers. In 1637 the
Pequots were surprised by the whites at their fort on the Mystic
river, and suffered so completely a defeat that the tribe was broken
up, and its remnants took refuge with neighbouring tribes. The
Pequot country passed under the control of the Mohegans. At
the height of their power the Pequots numbered, it is estimated,
some 3000.

PERCEPTION (from Lat. percipere, to perceive), in psychology,
the term specially applied to the mental process by which the
mind becomes conscious of an external object; it is the mental
completion of a sensation, which would otherwise have nothing
but a momentary existence coextensive with the duration of the
stimulus, and is intermediate between sensation and the " ideal
revival," which can reinstate a perceptual consciousness when
the object is no longer present. This narrow and precise usage
of the term " perception " is due to Thomas Reid, whose view has
been generally adopted in principle by modern psychologists.
On the other hand some psychologists decline to accept the view
that the three processes are delimited by sharp lines of cleavage.
It is held on the one hand that sensation is in fact impossible as a
purely subjective state without cognition; on the other that
sensation and perception differ only in degree, perception being
the more complex. The former view admits, which the latter
practically denies, the distinction in principle. Among those
who adopt the second view are E. B. Titchener and William
James. James {Principles of Psychology, ii. 76) compares
sensation and perception as " the barer and the richer conscious-
ness," and says that " beyond the first crude sensation all our
consciousness is a matter of suggestion, and the various sugges-
tions shade gradually into each other, being one and all products
of the same psychological machinery of association." Similarly
Wundt and Titchener incline to obliterate the distinction between
perception and ideal revival. Prior to Reid, the word perception
had a long history in the wider sense of cognition in general.
Locke and Hume both use it in this sense, and regard thinking as
that special kind of perception which implies deliberate attention.
(See Psychology.)

PERCEVAL, or Percyvelle (Ger. Parzival, Fr. Perlesvaus,
Welsh, Peredur), the hero of a comparatively small, but highly
important, group of romances, forming part of the Arthurian
cycle. Originally, the story of Perceval was of the character of a
folk-tale, and that one of remarkable importance and world-wide
diffusion. He is represented as the son of a widow, " la dame
veuve," his father having been slain in tourney, battle or by
treachery, either immediately before, or shortly after his birth.
The mother, fearful lest her son should share his father's fate,
flies to the woods, either alone with one attendant, or with a small
body of faithful retainers, and there brings up her son in ignorance
of his name, his parentage and all knightly accomplishments.

The youth grows up strong, swift-footed and of great personal
beauty, but, naturally enough, of very limited intelligence. This
last is one of the most characteristic traits of the Perceval story,
connecting it alike with the Irish Lay of the Great Fool, and the
Teutonic Dummling tales. He spends his days chasing the
beasts of the forest, running them down by sheer speed, or killing
them with darts (javelots) or bow and arrows, the only weapons
he knows.

One day, however, he meets a party of knights in armour; he
first adores the leader as God, and then takes them to be some
new and wondrous kind of animal, asking the most naive
questions as to their armour and equipment. Being told that
they are knights he determines that he too will be one, and
returns to his mother announcing his intention of at once setting
forth into the world to seek for knighthood. Dressed as a
peasant (or a fool), he departs (his mother, in some versions,
dying of grief), and comes to the king's court. Of course in the
romance it is the court of Arthur; probably in the original tale
it was simply " the king." Here his uncouth behaviour and great
personal beauty attract general attention, and he is alike mocked
by Kay, and his future distinction mysteriously foretold. He
slays a foe of Arthur's, the Red Knight, who has insulted the
king, and challenged the knights of the court, who, for some
mysterious reason, are unable to respond to the challenge.
Dressing himself in the armour of the slain knight, which he has
great difficulty in handling and eventually puts on over his
peasant's garb, he sets out on a series of adventures which differ
greatly in the various versions, but the outcome of which is that
he becomes a skilful and valiant knight and regains the heritage
of his father.

This, the Perceval story proper, has been recognized by
scholars as a variant of a widespread folk-tale theme, designated
by J. C. von Hahn as the Aryan Expulsion and Return formula,
which counts among its representatives such heroes as Perseus,
Cyrus, Romulus and Remus, Siegfried, and, as Alfred Nutt has
pointed out, Arthur himself. This particular variant appears to
be of British-Celtic origin, and the most faithful representative
of the original tale is now very generally held to be the English
Syr Percyvelle of Galles, a poem preserved in the Thornton
manuscript. Here the hero is nephew to Arthur on the mother's
side, and his father, of the same name as himself, is a valiant
knight of the court. A noticeable feature of the story is the
uncertainty as to the hero's parentage; the mother is always a
lady of rank, a queen in her own right, or sister of kings (as a
rule of the Grail kings) ; but the father's rank varies, he is never
a king, more often merely a valiant knight, and in no instance
does he appear to be of equal rank with his wife. This
distinguishes the story from that of Lancelot, with which some
modern scholars have been inclined to identify it; for Lancelot's
parentage is never in doubt, he is fis du roi.

The connexion of the story with Arthur and his court brought
about a speedy and more important development, the precise
steps of which are not yet clear: Perceval became the hero of the
Grail quest, in this ousting Gawain, to whom the adventure
originally belonged, and the Perceval became merged iri the Grail
tradition. Of the Perceval-Grail romances the oldest from the
point of view of manuscript preservation is the Perceval or
Conte del Graal of Chretien de Troyes. Two manuscripts, indeed,
the British Museum and Mons texts, preserve a fragment relating
the birth and infancy of the hero, which appears to represent
the source at the root alike of Chretien and of the German
Parzival, but it is only a fragment, and so far no more of the poem
has been discovered. Chretien left his poem unfinished, and we
do not know how he intended to complete the adventures of his
hero; but those writers who undertook the task, Wauchier de
Denain, Gerbert de Montreuil and Manessier, carried it out with
such variety of detail, and such a bewildering indifference to
Chretien's version, that it seems practically certain that there
must have been, previous to Chretien's work, more than one
poem dealing with the same theme. The German poet, Wolfram
von Eschenbach, whose Parzival in parts closely agrees with the
Perceval and who was long held to be a mere translator of Chretien,

PERCEVAL, S.— PERCH

i33

differs widely in the setting of his story. He gives an introduction,
in which the adventures of the father, here a prince of Anjou,
are related; a conclusion, in which the Swan-Knight, Lohengrin,
is made Parzival's son; he represents the inhabitants of the
Grail castle as Templars (Templeisen) ; and makes the Grail itself
a stone. Finally, he reproaches Chretien with having told the
story amiss, whereas Kiot, the Provencal, whose version Wolfram
was following, had told it aright from beginning to end. It is
certain that Gerbert knew, and used, a Perceval which, if not
Kiot's poem, must have been closely akin to it; as he too makes
the Swan-Knight a descendant of the Grail hero. The probability
seems to be that the earliest Perceval- Grail romance was com-
posed at Fescamp, and was coincident with the transformation,
under the influence of the Saint-Sang legend, of the originally
Pagan talisman known as the Grail into a Christian relic, and
that this romance was more or less at the root of all subsequent
versions.

Besides the poems, we have also two prose Perceval romances,
the relative position of which has not yet been satisfactorily deter-
mined. The first is found in two manuscripts only, the so-called
" Didot " (from its original possessor M. Firmin-Didot) ,"now in the
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris; the other, and much superior text,
in the Biblioteca Estense, Modena. In both cases the romance
follows the prose rendering of Borron's Joseph of Arimathea
and Merlin, and precedes a Mort Artus, thus forming part of
a complete cycle. The text shows a curious mingling of sources;
the real primitive Perceval story, the Enfances, is omitted; he
grows up in his father's house and goes to court at his wish.
Later, however, stories which certainly derive from an early
non-Grail tradition are introduced, and there are references
which imply a knowledge of the prose Lancelot and of Chretien's
poem. The romance is probably a somewhat late, and not
very skilful, compilation. The other prose romance, the
Perlesvaus, is decidedly superior in literary form, but here too
we have a mingling of old and new elements. The Enfances
story is omitted, and there are parallels with the German
Parzival, with Wauchier de Denain and with Gerbert, while
much is peculiar to the Perlesvaus itself. It is not improbable
that it represents a free and individual working over of the
original Fescamp version, and that in its later shape it was
intended to form, and did at one time form, the Quest section
of the cyclic redaction of the Arthurian prose romances, being
dislodged from this position by the Galahad Quite. It is a
curious fact that the printed editions always give it in conjunc-
tion with this latter and that the two have also been preserved
together in a Welsh manuscript translation. We also possess
in one of the so-called Mabinogi a Welsh version of the tale,
Pcredur, son of Evrawc. This appears to be a free rendering of
the adventures found in Chretien combined with incidents
drawn from Welsh tradition. This was at one time claimed as
the original source of all the Perceval romances, but this theory
cannot be maintained in face of the fact that the writer gives in
one place what is practically a literal translation of Chretien's
text in a passage which there is strong reason to believe was
borrowed by Chretien from an earlier poem. In order of time
the Peredur probably ranks latest in the series of Perceval
romances, which, however, does not detract from its interest as
a possible representative of genuine Welsh traditions, unknown
to other writers.

The value and interest of the Perceval romances stand very
high, not alone for their intrinsic merit, though that is con-
siderable — Chretien's Perceval, though not his best poem, is a
favourable specimen of his work, and von Eschenbach's Parzival,
though less elegant in style, is by far the most humanly interest-
ing, and at the same time, most deeply spiritual, of the Grail
romances— but also for the interest of the subject matter. The
Perceval story is an admirable folk-tale, the Grail problem
is the most fascinating problem of medieval literature; the two
combined form a romance of quite unique charm and interest.
This has been practically proved by the extraordinary success
which has attended Richard Wagner's dramatic re-telling of
the legend in his Parsifal. The immediate source of this

version is the poem of Wolfram von Eschenbach, though the
Grail, of course, is represented in the form of the Christian
relic, not as the jewel talisman of the Parzival; but the psycho-
logical reading of the hero's character, the distinctive note of
von Eschenbach's version, has been adapted by Wagner with
marvellous skill, and his picture of the hero's mental and spiritual
development, from extreme simplicity to the wisdom born of
perfect charity, is most striking and impressive.

Bibliography. — There are early printed editions of the Perceval
(1530) and of the Perlesvaus (1516 and 1523). The Perceval was
edited from the Mons text by Potvin (6 vols., 1866-1871); Syr
Percyvelle of Galles, in The Thornton Romances, by Halliwell (1844)
for the Camden Society. Parzival exists in numerous editions;
critical texts have been edited by Lachmann (1891), Martin (1903)
and Leitzmann (1902-1903). For the general reader the most
useful text is that of Bartsch in Deutsche Classiker des Mittelalters,
as it includes notes and a glossary. Modern German versions
are by Simrock (very close to the original) and Hertz (freer, but
with excellent notes and appendices); Eng. trans, by J. L. Weston
(1894). The " Didot " Perceval was published by Hucherin vol. i.
of Le Saint Graal (1875-1878); an edition of the Modena text has
also been prepared. Perlesvaus was published by Potvin in vol. i.
of his edition of Chretien's poem. The Welsh text, with translation,
has been edited by Canon Williams. A fine translation by Dr
Sebastian Evans is published in " The Temple Classics," under the
title of The High History of the Holy Grail. Peredur will be found
in Alfred Nutt's edition of the Mabinogion (1902). For the critical
treatment of the subject see The Legend of Sir Perceval (Grimm
Library, vol. xvii.) ; Perlesvaus by Nitze (1902) ; Legends of the
Wagner Drama by J. L. Weston. (J. L. W.)

PERCEVAL, SPENCER (1762-1812), prime minister of Eng-
land from 1809 to 181 2, second son of John, 2nd earl of Egmont,
was born in Audley Square, London, on the 1st of November
1762. He was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College,
Cambridge, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1786.
A very able speech in connexion with a famous forgery case
having drawn attention to his talents, his success was from that
time rapid, he was soon regarded as the leading counsel on the
Midland circuit, and in 1796 became a K.C. Entering parlia-
ment for Northampton in April of that year, he distinguished
himself by his speeches in support of the administration of Pitt.
In 1 801, on the formation of the Addington administration, he
was appointed solicitor-general, and in 1802 he became attorney-
general. An ardent opponent of Catholic Emancipation, he
delivered in 1807 a speech on the subject which helped to give
the deathblow to the Grenville administration, upon which he
became chancellor of the exchequer under the duke of Portland,
whom in 1809 he succeeded in the premiership. Notwithstand-
ing that he had the assistance in the cabinet of no statesman
of the first rank, he succeeded in retaining office till he was shot
by a man named Bellingham, a bankrupt with a grievance, who
had vainly applied to him for redress, in the lobby of the House
of Commons on the nth of May 1812. Bellingham was cercainly
insane, but the plea was set aside and he was hanged. Perceval
was a vigorous debater, specially excelling in replies, in which
his thorough mastery of all the details of his subject gave him
a great advantage. He married in 1790 and had six sons and
six daughters; one of the latter married Spencer Horatio Walpole
(d. 1898), home secretary, and their son Sir Spencer Walpole,
the well-known historian, published an excellent biography of
Perceval in 1874.

See also P. Treherne, Spencer Perceval (1909).

PERCH (through Fr. from Lat. perca, Gr. irepKij; the last
word is connected with mpuvos, dark-coloured, spotted), a
fresh-water fish {Perca fluviatilis) , generally distributed over
Europe, northern Asia and North America, and so well known
as to have been selected for the type of an entire family of spiny-
rayed fishes, the Percidae, which is represented in European
fresh-waters by several other fishes such as the pope (Acerina
cernua) and the pike-perch (Lucioperca). It inhabits rivers as
well as lakes, but thrives best in waters with a depth of not
less than 3 ft.; in large deep lakes it frequently descends to
depths of 50 fathoms and more. It occurs in Scandinavia as
far north as the 69th parallel, but does not extend to Iceland
or any of the islands north of Europe. In the Alps it ascends to
an altitude of 4000 ft.

J 34

PERCH— PERCY (FAMILY)

The shape of its body is well proportioned, but many varia-
tions occur, some specimens being singularly high-backed, others
low and long-bodied; sometimes such variations are local, and
Agassiz and other naturalists at one time thought it possible to
distinguish two species of the common perch of Europe; there
are not even sufficient grounds, however, for separating specifi-
cally the North-American form, which in the majority of ichthyo-
logical works is described as Perca flavescens. The brilliant and
striking colours of the perch render it easily recognizable even
at a distance. A rich greenish-brown with golden reflections
covers the back and sides, which are ornamented with five or
seven dark cross-bands. A large black spot occupies the

The Perch, Perca fluviatilis.
membrane between the last spines of the dorsal fin; and the
ventral, anal and lower part of the caudal are bright ver-
milion. In the large peaty lakes of north Germany a beautiful
variety is not uncommon, in which the golden tinge prevails,
as in a goldfish.

The perch is strictly carnivorous and most voracious; it
wanders about in small shoals within a certain district, playing
sad havoc among small fishes, and is therefore not to be toler-
ated in waters where valuable fry is cultivated. Perch of three
pounds in weight are not infrequently caught in suitable local-
ities; one of five would now be regarded as an extraordinarily
large specimen, although in older works we read of individuals
exceeding even that weight.

Perch are good, wholesome food, and highly esteemed in inland
countries where marine fish can be obtained only with difficulty.
The nearly allied pike-perch is one of the best European food-
fishes. The perch is exceedingly prolific; it begins to spawn
when three years old, in April or in the first half of May, deposit-
ing the ova, which are united by a viscid matter in lengthened or
net-shaped bands, on water plants.

PERCH (through Fr. perche from Lat. pcrtica, a pole or rod
used for measurement), a bar or rod used for various purposes, as
e.g. for a navigation mark in shallow waters, for a support on
which a bird may rest, or for a pole which joins the back with
the fore part of a wagon or other four-wheeled vehicle. As a
term of linear measurement, " perch," also " rod " or " pole,"
= i6j ft., si yds.; of superficial area, = 30^ sq. yds.; 160 perches
= 1 acre. As a stonemason's measure, a " perch " = i linear
perch in length by 1^ ft. in breadth and 1 ft. in thickness.

PERCHE, a region of northern France extending over the
departments of Orne, Eure, Eure-et-Loir and Sarthe. Its
boundaries are Normandy on the N. and W., Maine on the S.W.,
Vendomois and Dunois on the S., Beauce on the E. and Thime-
rais on the N.E. The greater part of the district is occupied
by a semicircle of heights (from 650 to 1000 ft. in height) stretch-
ing from Moulins-la-Marche on the north-west to Montmirail
on the south ; within the basin formed thereby the shape of which
is defined by the Huisne, an affluent of the Sarthe, lie the chief
towns — Mortagne, Nogent-le-Rotrou and Belleme. Stock-raising
and dairy-farming are flourishing in the Perche, which is famous
for the production of a breed of large and powerful horses.
Cider-apples and pears are grown throughout the district. In
the middle ages the Perche constituted a countship of which
Corbon, Mortagne and Nogent-le-Rotrou were successively the
capitals. Under the ancien rigime it formed, together with
Maine, a gouvernement of which Mortagne was the capital.

PERCIVAL, JAMES GATES (1795-1856), American poet,
philologist and geologist, was born in Kensington parish, Berlin,
Connecticut, on the 15th of September 1795. He graduated

at Yale in 1815, and in 1820 took the degree of M.D., and started
practice in Berlin. He contributed verse to the Microscope,
a semi- weekly paper, founded at New Haven in 1820.
In this first appeared his best-known poem," " The Suicide,"
which reflects his chronic melancholy, due doubtless to ill-health;
it was begun in 1816 and finished in 1820, after he had actually
made two attempts on his own life. In 1823 Percival became
an editor of the Connecticut Herald at New Haven; and in 1824
he was in turn an assistant-surgeon and lecturer on chemistry
at West Point, and an inspector of recruits at the Charlestown
(Mass.) Navy Yard. He prepared (1826-1831) an English
edition of Malte-Brun's Geography (published 1834); and in
1827-1829 read the manuscripts and proof-sheets of Webster's
Dictionary, giving special attention to scientific words. In 1835-
1840, with Professor Charles U. Shepard (1804- 1886), he made
a geological survey of Connecticut; his Report (1842) showed
great learning and much patient research. In 1854 he became
state geologist of Wisconsin, and in 1855 published one volume
of his Report; the second he had nearly completed at the time
of his death, on the 22nd of May 1856, at Hazel Green, Wisconsin.
See his Poetical Works ( 2 vols., Boston, 1859), w 'th a biographical
sketch by L. W. Fitch; and Julius H. Ward, Life and Letters of
James Gates Percival (Boston, 1866).

PERCY (Family). This family, whose deeds are so prominent
in English history, was founded by William de Perci (c. 1030-
1096), a follower of the Conqueror, who bestowed on him a
great fief in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. The register of Whitby
Abbey, which he founded anew, and in later days the heralds,
were responsible for the fabulous origin and pedigree of the
family which are still current. By Emma, daughter of Hugh de
Port, a great Hampshire baron, William was father of several
sons, of whom Alan the eldest succeeded him. His grandson
William was the last of the house in the direct line, and left two
sisters and coheiresses, Maud countess of Warwick, who died
childless, and Agnes. Agnes de Perci had married Josceline,
styled " brother of the queen " {i.e. Adeliza of Louvaih, second
wife of Henry I.), whose legitimacy has been questioned, and
from this marriage descended the second house of Percy (which
name it assumed), till its own extinction in the male line five
centuries later (1670). By it was brought into the family the
great Petworth estate in Sussex, which Josceline had obtained
from his sister, who was holding Arundel and its fief. His son
Richard (c. 1170-1244) and Richard's nephew William (c. 1183-
1245) were among the barons who rose in arms against John,
but the latter made his peace with Henry III., and had his
lands restored to him. Richard de Percy was one of the twenty-
five barons appointed to enforce the observance of Magna
Carta.

The next important member of the family is William's grandson
Henry de Percy (c. 1272-1315), whom Edward I., after the deposi-
tion of John Baliol, appointed governor of Galloway, and who
was one of his most active agents in the subjugation of Scotland
till the success of Robert Bruce drove him out of Turnberry
Castle, and made him withdraw into England. He was rewarded
by Edward II. with the barren title of earl of Carrick, declared
to be forfeited by the Scottish hero; and the same king appointed
him governor of the castles of Bamburgh and Scarborough.
But in 1309 he himself made his position strong in the north of
England by purchasing lands from Anthony Bek, bishop of
Durham, among which was the honour of Alnwick, the principal
seat of the family ever since. The Percies had chiefly resided
till then at Spofforth in Yorkshire, and their connexion with
Northumberland dates from this acquisition. Henry's son,
another Henry (c. 1299-1352), took part in the league against
Edward II. 's favourites the Despensers, was in favour with
Edward III., and obtained from Edward Baliol as king of
Scotland grants of Lochmaben, Annandale and Moffatdale,
which he surrendered to the English king for the castle and
constableship of Jedburgh, or Jedworth, with the forest of Jed-
worth and some neighbouring towns. A few years later, in fuller
recompense of the unprofitable gift of Baliol, a grant of 500
marks a year was made to him out of the old customs at Berwick;

PERCY (HOTSPUR)

i35

and in 1346 he did splendid service to his sovereign by defeating
and taking prisoner David II., king of Scotland, at the battle of
Neville's Cross.

To him succeeded another Henry Percy (1322-1368), a feudal
baron like his predecessors, who fought at Crecy during his
father's lifetime and whose brother Thomas Percy (1333-1369)
was bishop of Norwich from 1356-1369. The next head of the
Percys was Henry's son, another Henry, who was made earl
of Northumberland at the coronation of Richard II., and whose
younger brother Thomas (d. 1403) was created earl of Worcester
in 1397. The 1st earl of Northumberland, father of the famous
Hotspur, Sir Henry Percy (g.v.), was killed at Bramham Moor
in 1408, while in arms against the king, and his title and estates
were forfeited. But, by an act no less gracious than politic,
Henry V. restored them in 1414 to this earl's grandson, Henry
(1394-1455), then a prisoner with the Scots, whose liberation
he had no difficulty in procuring from the duke of Albany during
the time of James I.'s captivity. From that day the loyalty
of the family to the house of Lancaster was steadfast and
undeviating. The 2nd earl died fighting for Henry VI. at
the first battle of St Albans in 1455; the 3rd, Henry (1421-
1461), was slain on the bloody field of Towton; the 4th,
Henry (1446-1489), was killed in quelling an insurrection in the
time of Henry VII. So strong was the Lancastrian feeling of
the family that even Sir Ralph Percy (1425-1464), a brother
of the earl who fell at Towton, though he had actually submitted
once to Edward IV., turned again, and when he fell at Hedgley
Moor in April 1464 consoled himself with the thought that he
had, as he phrased it, " saved the bird in his bosom."

No wonder, then, that in Edward IV. 's days the title and
estates of the family were for a time taken away and given to
John Neville Lord Montagu, brother of Warwick the king-maker.
But the north of England was so accustomed to the rule of the
Percys that in a few years Edward saw the necessity of restoring
them, and did so even at the cost of alienating still further the
powerful family of the Nevilles, who were then already on the
point of rebellion.

A crisis occurred in the fortunes of the family in the reign of
Henry VIII. on the death of Henry, the 6th earl (c. 1502-
IS37). whose brothers Sir Thomas and Sir Ingelram Percy,
much against his will, had taken part in the great insurrection
called the Pilgrimage of Grace. A thriftless man, of whom it is
recorded that in his youth he was smitten with the charms of
Anne Boleyn, but was forced to give her up and marry a woman
he did not love, he died childless, after selling many of the family
estates and granting the others to the king. The title was
forfeited on his death, and was granted by Edward VI. to the
ambitious John Dudley, earl of Warwick, who was attainted
in the succeeding reign. It was restored in the days of Queen
Mary to Thomas Percy (1 528-1 572), a nephew of the 6th earl,
who, being a stanch Roman Catholic, was one of the three
earls who took the lead in the celebrated rising of 1572, and was
beheaded at York. His brother Henry (c. 1532-1585), who
succeeded him, was no less unhappy. Involved in Throg-
morton's conspiracy, he was committed to the Tower of London,
and was supposed to have shot himself in bed with a pistol
found beside him; but there were grave suspicions that it had
been discharged by another hand. His son, Henry (1567-1632),
the next earl, suffered like his two predecessors for his attachment
to the religion of his forefathers. The Crown lawyers sought
in vain to implicate him in the Gunpowder Plot, but he was
imprisoned for fifteen years in the Tower and compelled to pay
a fine of £30,000. Algernon (1602-1668), the son who next
succeeded, was a parliamentary general in the Civil War. At
length, in 1670, the male line of this illustrious family became
extinct, at least in the direct line, about five hundred years after
the marriage of Agnes de Perci with Josceline of Louvain.

The representation of the earlier Percys had passed away
through the daughters of Earl Thomas, beheaded in 1572, but
his earldom of Northumberland (created anew for him in 1557)
had passed to his brother Henry, under a special remainder,
and appears to have become extinct in 1670, though persistently

claimed by James Percy, " the trunk-maker. " The last earl's
daughter Elizabeth, a great heiress, was mother by Charles
Seymour, 6th duke of Somerset, of Algernon, 7th duke, who was
summoned (in error) as Lord Percy in 1722 and created earl of
Northumberland in 1749. On the duke's death in 1750 his
earldom of Northumberland passed under a special remainder,
with the main inheritance of the Percys, to Sir Hugh Smithson,
bart. (1715-1786), who had married his daughter and eventual
heiress in 1740, and was created duke of Northumberland and
Earl Percy in 1766. From this marriage descends the present
ducal house, which bears the name of Percy in lieu of Smithson,
and owns vast estates in Northumberland.

Alnwick Castle, their chief seat, where much state is still kept
up, has been described by Mr Clark as " probably the finest
extant example of a Norman castle of this type, having an open
keep and a complete enceinte." It had been hardly occupied
and in decay for some two centuries when the present family
succeeded to it, but was restored by them to its former splendour
between 1750 and 1786. "Princely Petworth," however, the
seat of the later Percys, with their ancient Sussex estates and
those in Yorkshire (Leconfield) and Cumberland (Cockermouth),
all passed away in 1750 with the earldom of Egremont and
barony of Cockermouth to Charles Wyndham, nephew of the
7th duke of Somerset, and these estates are now held by Lord
Leconfield. The actual representation in blood of the later
Percys (i.e. from 1572) passed in 1865, on the death of the
4th duke, to the dukes of Atholl, who in virtue of it are Lords
Percy, under the writ of 1722, the oldest of the family titles now
remaining. The ancient London residence of the Percys,
Northumberland Plouse, Charing Cross, was removed to make
way for Northumberland Avenue. Above it stood the Percy
crest, a (blue) lion with stiffly extended tail; but the famous badge
of the house was the white crescent or half moon — " the Half-
Moone shining all soe faire " of " the Northern Rising " ballad —
with a pair of manacles. Their coat of arms was a blue lion
rampart on a yellow ground — " Jaune o un bleu lyon rampart "
of the Carlaverock roll, stated, but wrongly, to have been
derived from the dukes of Louvain and Brabant. With it they,
quartered the " Luces " coat of the Lucys of Cockermouth after
succeeding to their estates, whence the lines in The Battle of
Otlerbourne:—

" The Lucetts and the Cressaunts both,
The Skotts fought them agayne."
See E. B. De Fonblanque, Annals of the House of Percy (1887),
and G. Brenan, History of the House of Percy (edited by W. A.
Lindsay, 1902), both somewhat adulatory and needing critical
revision; Tate, History of Alnwick (1866); Hartshorne's paper on
the Percys and their Castles in the Newcastle volume of the Archaeo-
logical Institute (1852) ; E. A. Freeman, " The Percy Castles " (1875)
in English Towns and Districts; G. T. Clark, Medieval Military
Architecture (1884) ;G. E.C(okayne), Complete Peerage^ 1895), vol. vi. ;
Bishop Percy, Northumberland Household Booh. See also the
article Northumberland, Earls and Dukes of. (J. Ga. ; J. H. R.)

PERCY, SIR HENRY, called Hotspur (1364-1403), eldest son
of Henry, 1st earl of Northumberland, was born on the 20th
of March 1364. He saw active service when he was fourteen
at the siege of Berwick. Six years later he was associated with
his father in the wardenship of the eastern march of Scotland,
and his zeal in border warfare won the name of Hotspur for
him from his opponents. In 1386 he was sent to Calais, and
raided French territory, but was shortly afterwards recalled
to defend England against a naval attack by France. In
popular story and ballad he is known as one of the heroes of
Otterburn or Chevy Chase, which is the subject of one of the
most stirring recitals of Froissart. In the summer of 1388 the
Scots invaded England by way of Carlisle, sending a small body
under the earls of Douglas, Mar and Moray to invade Northum-
berland. The earl of Northumberland remained at Alnwick,
but sent his sons Sir Henry and Sir Ralph against the enemy.
In hand-to-hand fighting before the walls of Newcastle, Douglas
is said to have won Sir Henry's pennon, which he swore to fix
upon the walls of Dalkeith. The Scots then retreated to Otter-
burn, where Percy, who was bent on recovering his pennon,
attacked them on a fine August evening in 1388. Douglas was

136

PERCY, T.

slain in the battle, though not, as is stated by Walsingham, by
Percy's hand: Henry Percy was captured by Sir John Mont-
gomery, and his brother Ralph by Sir John Maxwell. Hotspur
was released on the payment of a heavy ransom, to which
Richard II. contributed £3000, and in the autumn his term as
warden of Carlisle and the West March was extended to five
years. In 1399 together with his father he joined Henry of
Lancaster. Henry IV. gave the charge of the West March to
Northumberland, while Henry Percy received the castles of
Bamburgh, Roxburgh and Berwick, and the wardenship of the
East March, with a salary of £3000 in peace time and £12,000 in
war. During the first year of Henry's reign Hotspur further
was appointed justiciar of North Wales and constable of the
castles of Chester, Flint, Conway, Denbigh and Carnarvon.
Henry also gave him a grant of the island of Anglesey, with the
castle of Beaumaris. William and Rees ap Tudor captured
Conway Castle on the 1st of April 1401, and Percy in company
with the prince of Wales set out to recover the place, Percy
providing the funds. In May he reported to the king the
pacification of Merioneth and Carnarvon, and before the end
of the month Conway was surrendered to him. Meanwhile he
wrote demanding arrears of pay, with the threat of resignation
if the money were not forthcoming, but the king intimated
that the loss of Conway had been due to his negligence, and only
sent part of the money. He had the same difficulty in obtaining
money for his northern charge that he had experienced in
Wales. 1 Anglesey was taken from him, and he was deprived of
Roxburgh Castle in favour of his rival, the earl of Westmorland.
The Scots again invaded England in the autumn of 1402, headed
by the earl of Douglas and Murdoch Stewart, son of the duke
of Albany. Northumberland and Hotspur barred their way at
Millfield, near Wooler, and the Scots were compelled to fight
at Humbledon, or Homildon Hill, on the 14th of September.
The English archers were provided with a good target in the
masses of the Scottish spearmen, and Hotspur was restrained
from charging by his ally, George Dunbar, earl of March. The
Scottish army was almost destroyed, while the English loss is
said to have been five men. Disputes with the king arose over
the disposal of the Scottish prisoners, Percy insisting on his right
to hold Douglas as his personal prisoner, and he was summoned
to court to explain. It is related that when he arrived Henry
asked for Douglas, and Hotspur demanded in return that
his brother-in-law, Edmund Mortimer, should be allowed to
ransom himself from Owen Glendower, with whom he was a
prisoner. High words followed, in the course of which Henry
called Percy a traitor, struck him on the face, and drew his
sword on him Percy is said to have answered this defiance
with the words, " Not here, but on the field." This was late
in 1402, and in 1403 Hotspur issued a proclamation in Cheshire
stating that Richard II. was alive, and summoning the inhabi-
tants to his standard. He made common cause with his prisoner
Douglas, and marched south to join forces with Glendower,
who was now reconciled with Mortimer. He was reinforced
by his uncle Thomas, earl of Worcester, who, although steward
to the household of the prince of Wales, joined his family in
rebellion. The mythical Richard II. was heard of no more, and
Percy made himself the champion of the young earl of March.
When he arrived at the Castle Foregate, Shrewsbury, early on
the 21st of July, and demanded provisions, he found the king's
forces had arrived before him. He retired in the direction of
Whitchurch, and awaited the enemy about 3! m. from
Shrewsbury. After a long parley, in which a truce of two days
was even said to have been agreed on, the Scottish earl of
March, fighting on the royal side, forced on the battle in the
afternoon, the royal right being commanded by the prince of
1 The dissatisfaction of the Percys seems to have been chiefly
due to the money question. Sir J. H. Ramsay (Lancaster and
York) estimates that in the four years from 1399 to 1403 they had
received from the king the sum of £41,750, which represented a
very large capital in the 14th century, and they had also received
considerable grants of land. King Henry IV. was about to march
north himself to look into the real relations between the Percys
and the Scots, when on the 6th of July 1403 Henry Percy was in
open rebellion.

Wales. Hotspur was killed, the earls of Douglas and Worcester,
Sir Richard Venables of Kinderton, and Sir Richard Vernon
were captured, and the rebel army dispersed. Worcester,
Venables and Vernon were executed the next day. Percy's
body was buried at Whitchurch, but was disinterred two days
later to be exhibited in Shrewsbury. The head was cut off, and
fixed on one of the gates of York.

See Northumberland, Earls and Dukes of; and Percy:
(Family). Also Chronique de la traison et mort de Richard II.,
ed. B. Williams (Eng. Hist. Soc, 1846); J. Creton, Histoire du roy
Richard II., ed. John Webb, in Archaeologia (xx., 1824); and Adam
of Usk's Chronicon, 1377-1404, ed. E. M. Thompson (1876); the
authorities are cited in detail in J. H. Wylie's England under
Henry IV. (1884-1898), and Sir J. H. Ramsay's Lancaster and
York (Oxford, 1892). Holinshed's Chronicle was the chief source
of Shakespeare's account of Hotspur in Henry IV.

PERCY, THOMAS (c. 1 560-1605), one of the Gunpowder
Plot conspirators, was a son of Edward Percy of Beverley, who
was grandson of Henry Percy, 4th earl of Northumberland.
Though brought up a Protestant, he early became well-affected
to the Roman Catholics and finally an adherent. He entered
the service of his cousin, Henry Percy, 9th earl of Northumber-
land, and was appointed by him constable of Alnwick Castle
and agent for his northern estates, in which capacity he showed
himself tyrannical and extortionate. In 1602 he was sent by
Northumberland to James in Scotland to secure toleration for
the Roman Catholics and returned announcing favourable
promises from the king, the extent of which he probably greatly
exaggerated; and when James, after his succession to the English
throne, did not immediately abrogate the penal laws, Percy,
although he had accepted the court appointment of gentleman
pensioner, professed himself highly indignant and indulged
himself in thoughts of revenge. Some time in May 1603 Percy
angrily declared his intention to Catesby of killing the king,
and in April 1604 he met Catesby with John Wright, Thomas
Winter and Guy Fawkes, and was then initiated into Catesby's
gunpowder plot, which met with his zealous approval and
support. To Percy was allotted the special duty after the
explosion of seizing the infant prince Charles and riding off
with him on his saddle to Warwickshire. All the preparations
being complete, Percy went to Alnwick in October and collected
£3000 of the earl of Northumberland's rents which he intended
using in furtherance of the plot, returning to London on the 1st
of November. Meanwhile the plot had been revealed through the
letter to Lord Monteagle on the 26th of October, and it was Percy's
insistence at the last meeting of the conspirators on the 3rd that
decided them not to fly but to hazard the attempt. On the
news of Guy Fawkes's arrest, Percy with the rest of the conspira-
tors, except Tresham, fled on horseback, taking refuge ulti-
mately at Holbeche, near Stourbridge, in Staffordshire, where on
the 8th of November, during the attack of the sheriff's men upon
the house, he was struck down by a bullet, fighting back to back
with Catesby, and died two days later. Percy married a sister
of the conspirator John Wright and left a son Robert and two
daughters, one of whom is said to have married Robert, the son
of Catesby.

PERCY, THOMAS (1729-1811), bishop of Dromore, editor
of the Percy Reliques, was born at Bridgnorth on the 13th of
April 1729. His father, Arthur Lowe Percy, a grocer, was of
sufficient means to send his son to Christ Church, Oxford, in
1746. He graduated in 1750 and proceeded M.A. in 1753. In
the latter year he was appointed to the vicarage of Easton Maudit,
Northamptonshire, and three years later was instituted to the
rectory of Wilby in the same county, benefices which he retained
until 1782. In 1759 he married Anne, daughter of Barton Gutter-
ridge. At Easton Maudit most of the literary work for which
he is now remembered — including the Reliques — was completed-
When his name became famous he was made domestic chaplain
to the duke and duchess of Northumberland, and was tempted
into the belief that he belonged to the illustrious house of Percy.
Through his patron's influence he became dean of Carlisle in
1778 and bishop of Dromore in Ireland in 1782. His wife died
before him in 1806; the good bishon. blind but otherwise in

PERDICCAS— PERE DAVID'S DEER

137

sound health, lived until the 30th of September 1811. Both
were buried in the transept which Percy added to Dromore
Cathedral.

Dr Percy's first work was a translation from a Portuguese
manuscript of a Chinese story, published in 1761. Two years
later he published Five Pieces of Runic Poetry, translated from
the Islandic. In 1763 he edited the earl of Surrey's poems with
an essay on early blank verse, translated the Song of Solomon,
and published a key to the New Testament. His Northern
Antiquities (1770) is a translation from the French of Paul Henri
Mallet. His reprint of The Household Book of the Earl of Northum-
berland in ijia is of the greatest value for the illustrations of
domestic life in England at that period. But these works are
of little estimation when compared with the Reliques of Ancient
English Poetry (1765). This was based on an old manuscript
collection of poetry, rescued by Percy in Humphrey Pitt's house
at Shifnal, Shropshire, from the hands of the housemaid who
was about to light the fire with it. The manuscript was edited
in its complete form by J. W. Hales and F. J. Furnivall
in 1867-1868.

See A. C. C. Gaussen, Percy: Prelate and Poet (1908). The
Reliques has been edited by various hands, notably by H. B. Wheat-
ley (1876). The fourth edition was by Percy's nephew, Thomas
Percy (1768-1808), himself a writer of verse.

PERDICCAS, the name of three kings of Macedonia, who
reigned respectively c. 700 B.C., c. 454-413 B.C., and 364-359
B.C., and of one of Alexander the Great's generals, son of Orontes,
a descendant of the independent princes of the province of
Orestis. The last named distinguished himself at the conquest
of Thebes (335 B.C.), and held an important command in the
Indian campaigns of Alexander. In the settlement made after
Alexander's death (323) it was finally agreed that Philip Arrhi-
daeus, an insane son of the great Philip, and Roxana's unborn
child (if a son) should be recognized as joint kings, Perdiccas
being appointed, according to one account, guardian and regent,
according to another, chiliarch under Craterus. He soon showed
himself intolerant of any rivals, and acting in the name of the
two kings (for Roxana gave birth to a son, Alexander IV.)
sought to hold the empire together under his own hand. His
most loyal supporter was Eumenes, governor of Cappadocia
and Paphlagonia. These provinces had not yet been conquered
by the Macedonians, and Antigonus (governor of Phrygia,
Lycia and Pamphylia) refused to undertake the task at the
command of Perdiccas. Having been summoned to the royal
presence to stand his trial for disobedience, Antigonus fled to
Europe and entered into alliance with Antipater, Craterus and
Ptolemy, the son of Lagus. Perdiccas, leaving the war in Asia
Minor to Eumenes, marched to attack Ptolemy in Egypt. He
reached Pelusium, but failed to cross the Nile. A mutiny
broke out amongst the troops, disheartened by failure and
exasperated by his severity, and Perdiccas was assassinated by
some of his officers (321). (E. R. B.)

See Macedonian Empire.

PEREDA, JOSE MARiA DE (1833-1906), one of the most
distinguished of modern Spanish novelists, was born at Polanco
near Santander on the 6th of February 1833. He was educated
at the Instituto Cantabro of Santander, whence he went in
1852 to Madrid, where he studied with the vague purpose of
entering the artillery corps. Abandoning this design after
three years' trial, he returned home and began his literary career
by contributing articles to a local journal, La Abeja montanesa
in 1858. He also wrote much in a weekly paper, El Tio Cayetdn,
and in 1864 he collected his powerful realistic sketches of local life
and manners under the title of Escenas montanesas. Pereda
fought against the revolution of 1868 in El Tio Cayetdn, writing
the newspaper almost single-handed. In 1871 he was elected as
the Carlist deputy for Cabuerniga. In this same year he pub-
lished a second series of Escenas montanesas under the title of
Tipos y paisajes; and in 1876 appeared Bocetos al temple,
three tales, in one of which the author describes his disenchanting
political experiences. The Tipos trashumantes belongs to the
year 1877, as does El Buey suelto, which was intended as a reply

to the thesis of Balzac's work, Les P elites miseres de la vie con-
jugate. More and more pessimistic as to the political future
of his country, Pereda took occasion in Don Gonzalo Gonzdlez
de la Gonzalera (1879) to ridicule the Revolution as he had seen
it at work, and to pour scorn upon the nouveaux riches who
exploited Liberalism for their personal ends. Two novels by
his friend Perez Galdos, Dona Perfecta and Gloria, drew from
Pereda a reply, De Tal polo tal astilla (1880), in which he endea-
vours to show that tolerance in religious matters is disastrous
alike to nations and to individuals. The Esbozos y rasguiios
(1881) is of lighter material, and is less attractive than El Sabor
de la Tierruca (1882), a striking piece of landscape which won
immediate appreciation.. New ground was broken in Pedro
Sdnchez (1883), where Pereda leaves his native province to
portray the disillusion of a sincere enthusiast who has plunged
into the political life of the capital. Pereda's masterpiece is
Sotileza (1884), a vigorous rendering of marine life by an artist
who perceives and admires the daily heroisms of his fisher-folk.
It has often been alleged against the author that he confines
himself to provincial life, to lowly personages and to unrefined
subjects, and no doubt an anxiety to clear himself from this
absurd reproach led him to attempt a description of society at
the capital in La Montdlvez (1888), which is certainly the least
interesting of his performances. In La Puchera (1889) he
returned to the marine subjects which he knew and loved best.
Again, in Penas arriba (1895), the love of country life is mani-
fested in the masterly contrast between the healthy, moral
labour of the fields and the corrupt, squalid life of cities.
Pereda's fame was now established; the statutes of the Spanish
Academy, which require members to reside at Madrid, were
suspended in his favour (1896). But his literary career was
over. The tragic death of his eldest son, the disastrous cam-
paign in Cuba and the Philippines, darkened his closing years,
and his health failed long before his death at Polanco on the
1st of March 1906.

Pereda belongs to the native realistic school of Spain, which,
founded by the unknown author of Lazarillo de Tormes, was
continued by Meteo Aleman, Cervantes, Quevedo, Castillo
Solorzano and many others. With the single exception of
Cervantes, however, the picaresque writers are almost entirely
wanting in the spirit of generous sympathy and tenderness
which constitutes a great part of Pereda's charm. His realism
is purely Spanish, as remote from Zola's moroseness as from
the graceful sentimentality of Pierre Loti. Few 19th-century
writers possessed the virile temperament of Pereda, and, with
the single exception of Tolstoy, none kept a moral end more
steadily in view. This didactic tendency unquestionably
injures his effects. Moreover, his grim satire occasionally
degenerates into somewhat truculent caricature, and the exces-
sive use of dialect and technical terms (which caused him to
supply Sotileza with a brief vocabulary) is a grave artistic
blemish. But he saw, knew, understood character; he created
not only types, but living personages, such as Andres, Cleto
and Muergo in Sotileza, Pedro Juan and Pilara in La Puchera;
and he personified the tumult and calm of the sea with more
power than Victor Hugo displayed in Les Travailleurs de la
mer. His descriptive powers were of the highest order, and
his style, pure of all affectations and embellishments, is of singular
force and suppleness. With all his limitations, he was as
original a genius as Spain produced during the 19th century.

(J. F.-K.)
PERE DAVID'S DEER, the mi-lou of the Chinese, an aberrant
and strangely mule-like deer (q.v.), the first evidence of whose
existence was made known in Europe by the Abbe (then Pere)
David, who in 1865 obtained the skin of a specimen from the
herd kept at that time in the imperial park at Pekin. This
skin, with the skull and antlers, was sent to Paris, where it was
described in 1866 by Professor Milne-Edwards. In lacking a brow-
tine, and dividing in a regular fork-like manner some distance
above the burr, the large and cylindrical antlers of this species
conform to the general structural type characteristic of the
American deer. The front prong of the main fork, however,

i 3 8

PEREGRINUS PROTEUS— PEREYASLA VI.

curves somewhat torward and again divides at least once; while
the hind prong is of great length undivided, and directed back-
wards in a manner found in no other deer. As regards general
form, the most distinctive feature is the great relative length
of the tail, which reaches the hocks, and is donkey-like rather
than deer-like in form. The head is long and narrow, with a
prominent ridge for the support of the antlers, moderate-sized
ears, and a narrow and pointed muzzle. A gland and tuft are
present on the skin of the outer side of the upper part of the
hind cannon-bone; but, unlike American deer, there is no gland
on the inner side of the hock. Another feature by which this
species differs from the American deer is the conformation of
the bones of the lower part of the fore-leg, which have the same
structure as in the red deer group. The coat is of moderate
length, but the hair on the neck and throat of the old stags is
elongated to form a mane and fringe. Although new-born
fawns are spotted, the adults are in the main uniformly coloured;
the general tint of the coat at all seasons being reddish tawny
with a more or less marked tendency to grey: It has been
noticed at Woburn Abbey that the antlers are shed and replaced
twice a year.

The true home of this cteer has never been ascertained, and
probably never will be; all the few known specimens now living
being kept in confinement — the great majority in the duke of
Bedford's park at Woburn, Bedfordshire. (R. L.*)

PEREGRINUS PROTEUS (2nd cent, a.d.), Cynic philosopher,
of Parium in Mysia. At an early age he was suspected of
parricide, and was obliged to leave his native place. During
his wanderings he reached Palestine, where he ingratiated him-
self with the Christian community, and became its virtual head.
His fanatical zeal and craving for notoriety led to his imprison-
ment, but the governor of Syria let him go free, to prevent his
posing as a martyr. He then returned to Parium to claim his
paternal inheritance, but finding that the circumstances of his
father's death were not yet forgotten, he publicly surrendered
all claims to the property in favour of the municipality. He
resumed his wandering life, at first assisted by the Christians,
but having been detected profaning the rites of the Church, he
was excommunicated. During a visit to Egypt he made the
acquaintance of the famous Cynic Agathobulus and joined the
sect. Meeting with little encouragement, he made his way to
Rome, whence he was expelled for insulting the emperor Anto-
ninus Pius. Crossing to Greece, he finally took up his abode
at Athens. Here he devoted himself to the study and teaching
of philosophy, and obtained a considerable number of pupils,
amongst them Aulus Gellius, who speaks of him in very favour-
able terms. But, having given offence by his attacks on Herodes
Atticus and finding his popularity diminishing, he determined
to create a sensation. He announced his intention of immolating
himself on a funeral pyre at the celebration of the Olympian
games in 165, and actually carried it out. Lucian, who was
present, has given a full description of the event.

C. M. Wieland's Geheime Geschichte des Philosophen Peregrinus
Proteus (Eng. trans., 1796) is an attempt to rehabilitate his char-
acter. See also Lucian, De morte Peregrini; Aulus Gellius xii. 11;
Ammianus Marcellinus xxix. ; Philostratus, Vit. Soph. ii. I, 33;
J. Bemays, Lucian und die Kyniker (1875); E. Zeller, " Alexander
und Peregrinus," in his Vortrdge und Abhandlungen, ii. (1877).

PEREIRE [Pereira], GIACOBBO RODRIGUEZ (1715-
1780), one of the inventors of deaf-mute language, a member
of a Spanish-Jewish family, was born at Estremadura, Spain,
on the nth of April 1715- At the age of eighteen he entered
a business at Bordeaux. Here he fell in love with a young girl
who had been dumb from birth, and henceforth devoted himself
to discover a method of imparting speech to deaf-mutes. His
first subject was Aaron Baumann, a co-religionist, whom he
taught to enunciate the letters of the alphabet, and to articulate
certain ordinary phrases. He next devised a sign alphabet for
the use of one hand only, and in 1 749 he brought his second
pupil before the Paris Academy of Sciences, the members of
which were astonished at the results he had accomplished.
In 1759 Pereire was made .a member of the Royal Society of
London. He died at Paris on the 15th of September 1780.

PEREKOP, a town of Russia, in the government of Taurida,
60 m. S.E. of Kherson, on the isthmus which connects the Crimea
with the Continent, and commanding the once defensive ditch
and dike which cross from the Black Sea to the Sivash (putrid)
lagoon. Pop. about 5000. It was formerly an important
place, with a great transit trade in salt, obtained from salt
lakes in the immediate neighbourhood. Since the opening of
the railway route from Kharkov to Simferopol in the Crimea
Perekop has greatly declined. In ancient times the isthmus
was crossed (about 17 m. south of the present town) by a ditch
which gave the name of Taphros to a Greek settlement. This
line of defence having fallen into decay, a fort was erected and a
new ditch and dike constructed in the 15th century by the
Tatar khan of the Crimea, Mengli Ghirai, and by his son and
successor Sahib Ghirai. The fort, known as Kapu or Or-Kapu,
became the nucleus of the town. In the middle ages Perekop
was known as Tuzla. In 1736 it was captured by the Russians
under Munnich, and again in 1738 under Lascy (Lacy), who
blew up the fort and destroyed a great part of the dike. In
1754 the fort was rebuilt by Krim Ghirei; but the Greek and
Armenian inhabitants of Perekop formed a new settlement
at Armyanskiy Bazar (Armenian Market), 3 m. farther south.
Captured by the Russians in 1771, the town passed into Russian
possession with the rest of the Crimea in 1783.

PEREMPTORY, an adjective adapted from the Roman law
term peremptorium edictum, peremptoria exceptio, a decree or
plea which put an end to or quashed (Lat. perimere, to destroy)
an action, hence decisive, final. A similar use is found in English
law in " peremptory challenge," a challenge to a jury allowed
to a prisoner without cause shown, or " peremptory mandamus,"
an absolute command. The natural repugnance to a final
order has given this word in its ordinary usage a sense of objec-
tionable and intolerant emphasis.

PEREYASLAVL, a town of Russia, in the government of
Poltava, 26 m. S.E. of the city of Kiev, at the confluence of
the Trubezh and the Alta, which reach the Dnieper 5 m. lower
down at the town's port, the village of Andrushi. Pop. 14,609.
Besides the town proper there are three considerable suburbs.
Though founded in 993 by Vladimir the Great of Moscow in
memory of his signal success over the Turkish Pechenegs,
Pereyaslavl has now few remains of antiquity. The town has
a trade in grain, salt, cattle and horses, and some manufactures
—tallow, wax, tobacco, candles and shoes.

From 1054 Pereyaslavl was the chief town of a separate
principality. As a southern outpost it often figures in the nth,
1 2th and 13th centuries, and was plundered by the Mongols
in 1 239. In later times it was one of the centres of the Cossack
movement; and in 1628 the neighbourhood of the town was the
scene of the extermination of the Polish forces known as " Tara's
Night." It was by the Treaty of Pereyaslavl that in 1654
the Cossack chieftain Bogdan Chmielnicki acknowledged the
supremacy of Tsar Alexis of Russia.

PEREYASLAVL (called Zalyeskiy, or " Beyond the Forest,"
to distinguish it from the older town in Poltava after which
it was named), one of the oldest and most interesting cities in
middle Russia, situated in the government of Vladimir, 45 m.
N.E. of Moscow on the road to Yaroslavl, and on both banks
of the Trubezh near its entrance into Lake Pleshcheevo. Pop.
8662. Pereyaslavl was formerly remarkable for the number
and importance of its ecclesiastical foundations. Among
those still standing are the 12th-century cathedral, with ancient
wall-paintings and the graves of Demetrius, son of Alexander
Nevsky, and other princes, and a church founded by Eudoxia
(Euphrosyne), wife of Demetrius Donskoi, in the close of
the 14th century. It is by its extensive cotton manufactures
that Pereyaslavl is now best known. The fisheries in the
lake (20 m. sq. in extent and 175 ft. deep) have long been of
great value.

Founded in n 52 by Yuryi Dolgoruki, prince of Suzdal,
Pereyaslavl soon began to play a considerable part in the history
of the country. From 1195 till 1302 it had princes of its own;
and the princes of Moscow, to whom it was at the latter date

PEREZ, A.— PERl^ IGALDOS

139

bequeathed, kept it (apart from some temporary alienations
in the 14th century) as part of their patrimony throughout
the 15th and 16th centuries. Lake Pleshcheevo was the scene
of Peter the Great's first attempts (1691) at creating a fleet.

PEREZ, ANTONIO (c. 1 540-161 1), for some years the favourite
minister of Philip II. of Spain and afterwards for many more the
object of his unrelenting hostility, was by birth an Aragonese.
His reputed father, Gonzalo Perez, an ecclesiastic, has some place
in history as having been secretary both to Charles V. and to
Philip II., and in literature as author of a Spanish translation
of the Odyssey ( La Ulyxea de Homero, Antwerp, 1556). Antonio
Perez, who was legitimated by an imperial diploma issued at
Valladolid in 1542, was, however, believed by many to be in
reality the son of Philip's minister, Ruy Gomez de Silva, prince
of Eboli, to whom, on the completion of a liberal education at
home and abroad, he appears at least to have owed his first
introduction to a diplomatic career. 1 In 1567 he became
one of the secretaries of state, receiving also about the same
time the lucrative appointment of protonotary of Sicily, and in
1573 the death of Ruy Gomez himself made room for Perez's
promotion to be head of the " despacho universal," or private
bureau, from which Philip attempted to govern by assiduous
correspondence the affairs of his vast dominions. Another of
the king's secretaries at this time, though in a less confidential
relation, was a friend and contemporary of Perez, named Juan
de Escovedo, who, however, after the fall of Tunis in 1574, was
sent off to supersede Juan de Soto as secretary and adviser of
Don John of Austria, thus leaving Perez without a rival. Some
time after Don John's appointment to the governorship of the
Netherlands Perez accidentally became cognisant of his incon-
veniently ambitious " empresa de Inglaterra," in which he was
to rescue Mary Queen of Scots, marry her, and so ascend the
throne of England. The next step might even be against Spain
itself. This secret scheme the faithful secretary at once carried
to Philip, who characteristically resolved to meet it by quietly
removing his brother's aider and abettor. With the king's full
cognisance, accordingly, Perez, after several unsuccessful
attempts to poison Escovedo, succeeded in procuring his assas-
sination in a street of Madrid on the 31st of March 1578. The
immediate effect was to raise Perez higher than ever in the royal
confidence and favour, but, wary though the secretary had been,
he had not succeeded in obliterating all trace of his connexion
with the crime, and very soon a prosecution was set on foot by
the representatives of the murdered man. For a time Philip
was both willing and able to protect his accomplice, but ulti-
mately he appears to have listened to those who, whether truly
or falsely, were continually suggesting that Perez had had
motives of his own, arising out of his relations with the princess
, of Eboli, for compassing the assassination of Don John's secre-
tary; be this as it may, from trying to screen Perez the king
came to be the secret instigator of those who sought his ruin.
The process, as such matters often have been in Spain, was a
slow one, and it was not until 1589 that Perez, after more than
one arrest and imprisonment on a variety of charges, seemed
on the eve of being convicted and condemned as the murderer
of Escovedo. At this juncture he succeeded in making his escape
from prison in Castile into Aragon, where, under the ancient
" fueros " of the kingdom he could claim a public trial in open
court, and so bring into requisition the documentary evidence
he possessed of the king's complicity in the deed. This did not
suit Philip, who, although he instituted a process in the supreme
tribunal of Aragon, speedily abandoned it and caused Perez
to be attacked from another side, the charge of heresy being
now preferred, arising out of certain reckless and even blasphe-
1 On the other hand it is suggested that this story of his being
the son of Gomez was only circulated by Ruy Gomez's wife, Ana
de Mendoza, as a refutation of the possibility of a supposed amour
between her and Perez. It is contended by Mignet that this
intrigue between her and Perez was known to Escovedo, and that
this accounts for the part played by Perez in Escovedo's murder,
because Ana had also been Philip's mistress, and Escovedo might
have made mischief between Philip and Perez. Major Hume
appears to combine the latter theory with Philip's political objection
to Escovedo.

mous expressions Perez had used in connexion with his troubles
in Castile. But all attempts to remove the accused from the
civil prison in Saragossa to that of the Inquisition raised popular
tumults, which in the end led to Perez's escape across the
Pyrenees, but unfortunately also furnished Philip with a pretext
for sending an army into Aragon and suppressing the ancient
"fueros" altogether (1591). From the court of Catherine de
Bourbon, at Pau, where he was well received, Perez passed to
that of Henry IV. of France, and both there and in England his
talents and diplomatic experience, as well as his well-grounded
enmity to Philip, secured him much popularity. While in
England he became the " intimate coach-companion and bed-
companion " of Francis Bacon, and was also much in the society
of the earl of Essex. The peace of Vervins in 1598 greatly
reduced his apparent importance abroad, and Perez now tried
to obtain the pardon of Philip III., that he might return to his
native country. His efforts, however, proved vain, and he died
in comparative obscurity in Paris on the 3rd of November
1611.

Perez's earliest publication was a small quarto, dedicated to the
earl of Essex, written and apparently printed in England about
1594, entitled Pedazos de historia, and professedly published &'-
Leon. A Dutch translation appeared in 1594, and in 1598 he pub-
lished his Relaciones, including the Memorial del kecho de su causa,
drawn up in 1590, and many of his letters. Much has been done,
by Mignet {Antonio Perez et Philippe II , 1845; 4th ed., 1874) and
by Froude (" An Unsolved Historical Riddle," Nineteenth Cent.,
1883) among others, towards the elucidation of various difficult
points in Perez's somewhat perplexing story. For the murder of
Escovedo, see Andrew Lang's discussion of it in his Historical
Mysteries (1904); and the Espanoles e ingleses (1903) of Major
Martin Hume, who had access to various newly discovered MSS.

PEREZ GALDdS, BENITO (1845- ), was born at Las
Palmas, in the Canary Islands, on the 10th of May 1845. In
1863 he was sent to Madrid to study law, drifted into literature,
and was speedily recognized as one of the most promising recruits
on the Liberal side. Shortly after the Revolution of 1868 he
abandoned journalism, and employed fiction as the vehicle for
propagating advanced opinions His first novel, La Fontana
de oro, was printed in 1871, and later in the same year appeared
El Audaz. The reception given to these early essays encouraged
the writer to adopt novel-writing as a profession. He had al-
ready determined upon the scheme of his Episodios nacionales,
a series which might compare with the Comedie humairie. Old
charters, old letters, old newspapers were collected by- him with
the minuteness of a German archivist; no novelist was ever more
thoroughly equipped as regards the details of his period. Tra-
falgar, the first volume of the Episodios nacionales, appeared
in 1879; the remaining books of this first series are entitled
La Cort de Carlos IV., El ig de mdrzo y el 2 de mayo, Bailen,
Napoledn en Chamarlin, Zaragoza, Gerona, Cadiz, Juan Martin
el Empecinado and La Batalla de Ar piles. As the titles suffice
to show, the author's aim was to write the national epic of the
19th century in prose; and he so completely succeeded that,
long before the first series ended in 1881, he took rank among
the foremost novelists of his time. A second series of Episodios
nacionales, beginning with El Equipaje del rey Jose and ending
with a tenth volume, Un Faccioso mas y algunas frailes menos,
was brought to a close in 1883, and was, like its predecessor,
a monument of industry and exact knowledge, of realism
and romantic conception; and he carried on the Episodios
nacionales into a fourth series, raising the total of volumes to
forty. In fecundity and in the power of creating characters,
Perez Galdos vies with Balzac. Parallel with his immense
achievement in historical fiction, Perez Galdos published
a collection of romances dealing with contemporary life,
its social problems and religious difficulties. Of these the
best known, and perhaps the best, are Dona Perfecla (1876);
Gloria (1877) ! La Familia de Le6n Rock (1878) ; Marianela (1878) ;
Fortunata y Jacinta (1887); and Angel Guerra (1891). Nor
does this exhaust his prodigious activity. Besides adapting
several of his novels for stage purposes, he wrote original dramas
such as La Loca de la casa (1893), San Quintin (1894), Elecira
(1900) and Mariucha (1904); but his diffuse, exuberant genius

140

PERFUMERY

•was scarcely accommodated to the convention of theatrical
form. Perez Galdos became a member of the Spanish Academy,
and was also elected to the Cortes; but it is solely as a ro-
mancer that his name is familiar wherever Spanish is spoken,
as a national novelist of fertile talent, and a most happy
humorist who in his eccentrics and oddities is hardly inferior
to Dickens. (J. F.-K.)

PERFUMERY (Lat. per, through, and fumare, to smoke), the
preparation of perfumes, or substances which are pleasing to
the sense of smell. Perfumes may be divided into two classes, the
first of which includes all primitive or simple odoriferous bodies
derived from the animal or vegetable kingdom, as well as the
definite chemical compounds specially manufactured, while
the second comprises the various " bouquets " or " melanges "
made by blending two or more of the foregoing in varying
proportions — toilet powders, dentifrices, sachets, &c. To the
former class belong (1) the animal products, ambergris, castor,
civet, musk; (2) the essential oils (also called attars), mostly
procured by the distillation of the stems, leaves, flowers and other
parts of plants; (3) the philicome butters or oils, which are
either solid or liquid fats charged with odours by the processes
of inflowering or maceration; (4) the odoriferous gum-resins or
balsams which exude naturally or from wounds in the trunks of
various trees and shrubs, such as benzoin, opoponax, Peru, Tolu,
storax, myrrh; (5) the large number of synthetic perfumes
which simulate the odour of the natural scents. The second
class contains the endless combination of tinctures sold under
fancy names which may or may not afford a clue to their compo-
sition, such as " comedie francaise," "eau de senteur," " eau de
Cologne," " lavendre ambree," " blumengeist." In general,
they are mixtures of a number of perfumes dissolved in alcohol.
Strictly speaking, most of the perfumes on the market belong to
the second class, since, in most cases, they are prepared by
blending various natural or artificial odorous principles.

Natural Perfumes. — The animal perfumes are extremely
limited in number. Ambergris (q. v.), one of the most important,
is secreted by the sperm whale; musk (q.v.), the best known
scent of this class, is secreted by the male musk-deer and other
animals — musk-ox, musk-rat, &c; civet (q.v.) is a musky scent
named from the animal which secretes it; and castor or castoreum
is a somewhat similar secretion of the beaver (q.v.). More
important are the scents yielded by flowering plants. As a
general rule fragrant flowers flourish in hot climates, but the more
delicate perfumes are yielded by plants having a colder habitat;
it must be remembered, however, that some costly perfumes
are obtained from the plants of Ceylon, the East Indies, Mexico
and Peru. In Europe, Grasse, Cannes and Nice are the centres
of the natural perfume industry. Cannes is famous for its rose,
acacia, jasmine and neroli oil; Nimes for its thyme, rosemary
and lavender; and Nice for its violets. Citron and orange oil
come from Sicily; iris and bergamot from Italy; and roses are
extensively cultivated in Bulgaria, and in European Turkey.
England is unsurpassed for its lavender and peppermint, which
flourish at Mitcham and Hitchin.

The natural sources of the attars or essential oils are the
different parts of the plants which yield them — the wood (lign,
aloe, santal, cedar), the bark (cinnamon, cascarilla), the leaves
(patchouli, bay, thyme), the flowers (rose, lavender, orange-
blossom), the fruit (nutmeg, citron), or the seeds (caraway,
almond). Some plants yield more than one, such as lemon and
bergamot. They are mostly obtained by distilling that part
of the plant in which they are contained with water, or with high-
pressure or superheated steam; but some few, as those from the
rind of bergamot (from Citrus bergamia), lemon (citron zeste,
from C. Limonum), lime (C. Limetta), by "expression." The
outer layer of the cortex is rasped off from the unripe fruits,
the raspings placed in a canvas bag, and squeezed in a screw
or hydraulic press. The attars so obtained are separated from
the admixed water by a tap-funnel, and are then filtered.
Certain flowers, such as jasmine, tuberose, violet, cassia, either
do not yield their attars by distillation at all, or do it so sparingly
as not to admit of its collection for commercial purposes; and

sometimes the attar, as in the case of orange (neroli), has an
odour quite different from that of the fresh blossoms. In these
cases the odours are secured by the processes of inflowering
(enfleurage) or by maceration. Both depend upon the remark-
able property which fats and oils possess of absorbing odours.
Enfleurage consists in laying the leaves or flowers on plates
covered with a layer of fat. The flowers are renewed every
morning, and when the fat has sufficient odour it is scraped off,
melted and strained. Maceration consists in soaking the flowers
in heated fat; in due time they are strained off and replaced by
fresh ones, as in the enfleurage process. The whole of the
necessary meltings and heatings of the perfumed greases are
effected by means of water-baths, whereby the temperature
is kept from rising too high. For the manufacture of perfumes
for the handkerchief the greases now known as pomades, butters
or philocomes are treated with rectified spirit of wine 60° over-
proof, i.e. containing as much as 95% °f absolute alcohol by
volume, which practically completely abstracts the odour.

The gum-resins and resins have been employed as perfumes
from the earliest times. The more important are incense,
frankincense and myrrh (q.v.). They are largely used in the
manufacture of perfumes, both for burning as pastilles, ribbon
of Bruges, incenses, &c, and in tinctures, to which they impart
their characteristic odours, affording, at the same time, a certain
fixity to other perfumes of a more fleeting nature when mixed
with them.

Synthetic Perfumes. — Under this heading are included all
perfumes in which artificial substances are odorous ingredients.
Although the earliest perfumes of this class were introduced in
about the middle of the 19th century, the important industry
which now prevails is to be regarded as dating from the 'seventies
and 'eighties. Three main lines of development may be dis-
tinguished: (1) the chance discovery of substances which have
odours similar to natural perfumes; (2) the elucidation of the
composition of the natural scents, and the chemical constitution
of their ingredients, followed by the synthetic preparation of
the substances so determined; and (3), which may be regarded
as connected with (2), the extraction and separation of the
essential oils yielded by less valuable plants, and their reblending
to form marketable perfumes.

The first synthetic perfume was the " essence of Mirbane "
introduced by Collas in about 1850; this substance was the
nitro-benzene discovered by E. Mitscherlich in 1834. Soon after-
wards many esters of the fatty acids simulating the odours of
fruits were introduced; and in 1888 Baur discovered the " arti-
ficial musks," which are derivatives of s-trinitrobenzene. The
above are instances of the first line of progress. The second line
has for early examples the cases of artificial oil of wintergreen,
which followed Cahour's discovery that the natural oil owed its .
odour, in the main, to methyl salicylate, and of artificial oil of
bitter almonds which followed the preparation of benzaldehyde
from benzal chloride in 1868. The synthesis of coumarin, the
odorous principle of hay and woodruff, by Sir W. H. Perkin in
1868; of vanillin, the odorous principle of vanilla, by F. Tiemann
and W. Haarmann in 1875; and of ionone, almost identical
with the natural irone, the odorous principle of violets, by
Tiemann and P. Kriiger in 1898, are to be regarded as of the
highest importance. Equally important are the immense
strides made in the elucidation of the constitution and syntheses
of the terpenes (q.v.), a group of compounds which are exception-
ally abundant as odorous principles in the essential oils.

The present state of our knowledge does not permit a strict
correlation of odour and chemical constitution. One theory
regards odour as due to " osmophores," or odour-producing
groups, in much the same way as colour is associated with
chromophores. Such osmophores are hydroxyl (OH), aldehyde
(CHO), ketone (CO), ether (-0-), nitrile (CN), nitro (N0 2 ), &c;
we may also notice the isonitrile group (-NG) associated with an
unpleasant odour, and the iso-thiocyanate group (-NCS) to
which the mustard oils owe their characteristic smell. The same
group, however, is not invariably associated with the same odour,
or even any odour at all, as, for instance, in such closely related

PERFUMERY

J 4i

compounds as the members of a homologous series. For
example, the lower fatty aldehydes have unpleasant odours,
those with ten carbon atoms (and also double linkages, which
in itself may affect odour) form some of the most delicate scents,
while the higher members are odourless. The absence of odour
in the higher members may be possibly associated with the low
volatility exhibited by compounds of high molecular weight.
Certain osmophores have practically equal effects; for example,
benzaldehyde, nitrobenzene, benzonitrile, and phenyl azoimide
have practically identical odours, and among the " artificial
musks," a nitro group may be replaced by the azoimido group
without the odour being modified. As a general rule, homologues
have similar odours, but many exceptions are known. For
example the methyl and ethyl ethers of /3-naphthol have the
odour of neroii; on the other hand, of the esters of anthranilic
acid, the methyl has the odour of orange blossoms, the ethyl
has a slight odour, and the isobutyl is odourless. The introduc-
tion of a methyl group into the benzene ring generally involves
little or no change in odour; but when it (and more especially
higher alkyl radicals) is introduced into side chains the odour
may be entirely changed. For example, benzene and its
homologues have similar odours; phthalide is odourless, but the
isopropyl and butyl phthalides, in which substitution occurs in
the side chain, smell of celery. Especially characteristic are
the derivatives of phenylacetylene. This hydrocarbon is
distinctly unpleasant; on the other hand, para-ethyl and para-
methyl phenylacetylene smell of anise. While the triply-linked
carbon system is generally associated with strong and unpleasant
odours, the doubly linked system gives pleasant ones. Thus the
unpleasant phenylacetylene, CeHs-CiCH, is contrasted with
styrolene, C6H 5 'CH:CH 2 , which occurs in storax, and phenyl-
propiolic aldehyde with cinnamic aldehyde, C 6 H 5 -CH:CH-CHO,
which occurs in cassia and cinnamon. The reduction of a
double to a single linkage may not destroy odour. Thus
hydrocinnamic aldehyde, the reduction product of cinnamic
aldehyde, smells of jasmine and lilac, and melilotin, which occurs
in yellow melilot (Melilotus officinalis), has the same odour
(woodruff) as its oxidation product coumarin. The orientation
of the substituent groups in the benzene nucleus also affects
odour. In general, the meta compounds are odourless, while
the ortho and para may have odour. Thus ^-methoxyaceto-
phenone has a pleasant odour, the meta compound is odourless,
<?-aminoacetophenone, o-aminobenzaldehyde, and o-nitrophenol
have strong odours, while the meta and para bodies are odourless.
Of the three trinitrobenzenes only the symmetrical form gives
origin to perfumes.

The concentration and even the solvent has considerable
effect on the odour of a substance. Many of the artificial
principles — vanillin, heliotropine, ionone, &c. — have very
different odours in strong and in dilute solution; phenyl acetic
acid and /3-naphthylamine are odourless when solid, but have
disagreeable odours when dissolved. Traces of impurities
often have the effect of making odourless or pleasant- smelling
compounds quite intolerable. Acetylene as generated from
calcium carbide, and carbon disulphide prepared from its
elements are quite intolerable, though when pure they are, at
least, not unpleasant; artificial benzaldehyde must be very care-
fully purified before it can be used in the preparation of the more
delicate scents. In all cases the natural scents are complex
mixtures of many ingredients, and a variation in the amount of
any one may completely alter the scent. Such mixtures would
be difficult to reproduce economically; the perfumer is content
with a product having practically an identical odour, with or
without the natural substance which it is designed to compete
with.

We now give an account of the artificial scents, principally
arranged according to their chemical relations. The fatty esters
are interesting as providing many of the fruit essences; in fact, by
appropriate blending, any fruit odour can be reproduced. Their
use, however, is inhibited by the fact that they irritate the re-
spiratory organs, producing coughing and headaches. Isobutyl
carbinol acetic ester (amyl acetate), <CH3) 2 -CHCH 2 -CH 2 -OGCH3,
forms when in dilute alcoholic solution the artificial pear oil; a
similar odour is possessed by isoamyl-M-butyrate, CsHt-CCVCbHu.

»-Octyl acetate, CgHn-OjC-CHs, has the odour of oranges. Isoamyl
propionate, C 5 Hir0 2 C-C 2 H 5 , and ethyl-ra-butyrate, C3H 7 -0 2 C-C 2 H 5 ,
have the odour of pineapple, the latter constituting the artificial
pineapple oil of commerce. Isoamyl isovalerate, C 6 Hir0 2 C-C4H 9 ,
is the artificial apple oil. Of the fatty ketones, methyl nonyl
ketone, CHs-CO-C 9 Hi9, which is the scent of oil of rue, and methyl-
ethyl acetone, CHs-CO-CHtCHs) (C 2 H 5 ), which has the odour of
peppermint, receive commercial application. Of exceptional im-
portance in the chemistry of perfumes are the unsaturated open
chain compounds containing at least eight carbon atoms. These
are chemically considered, along with the related cyclic compounds,
in the article Terpenes ; here we notice their odours and occurrence
in perfumes. Of the alcohols, /-linalol occurs in oil of lavender,
bergamot, limet and origanum; d-linalol in coriander; citronellol
and geraniol in rose, geranium and pelargonium oils. Of the
aldehydes, citral or geranial has the odour of lemons; citronellal
is the chief constituent of citronella oil. By condensing citral with
acetone and treating the product with dilute sulphuric acid, the
valuable violet substitute ionone results. This substance is a
hydroaromatic ketone, and closely resembles the natural principle
irone. By successive treatment with acetic anhydride (to form
isopulegol), oxidation to isopulegone, and treatment with baryta
citronellal yields the cyclic compound pulegone, the chief constituent
of oil of pennyroyal. The olefinic terpenes are generally convertible
into methyl heptenone, (CH 3 ) 2 C :CH(CH 2 ) 2 -CO-CH3, which has been
synthesized from sodium acetonylacetone and amylene dibromide;
this ketone occurs in several essential oils, and has the odour of
rue. For the occurrence of cyclic terpenes in the essential oils
reference should be made to the table below, which contains the
names, sources and chief ingredients of the more important essential
oils. 1 The terpenes are printed in italics, the aliphatic and benzenoid
compounds in ordinary type.

Name of Oil.

Source.

Anise

Bay . . .

Bergamot .

Cajaput .
Cassia .

Caraway
Camphor

Chamomile .

Cinnamon .

Clove
Coriander
Cumin .
Eucalyptus

Fennel .
Geranium

Jasmine .

Lavender
Lemon .

Lemon-grass
Neroii .

Orange .
Peppermint .

Pine-needle .
Rose .
Rose .

Geranium .
Rosemary .

Sage .
Sassafras
Spearmint .
Star anise .
Tansy .
Thyme .
Wormwood .
Ylang-ylang

Constituents.

Pimpinella anisum
Pimenta acris

Citrus bergamia

Melaleuca, sp.
Cinnamonum cassia

Carum carvi
Cinnamonum camphor

Anthemis nobilis

Cinnamonum Zeylani

cum
Eugenia caryophyllata
Coriandum sativum
Cuminum cymium
Eucalyptus globulus

Foeniculum vulgare
Andropogon schoen-

anthus
Jasminum grandi-

florum

Lavendula vera
Citrus limonum

Andropogon citratus
Citrus bigardia

Citrus aurantium
Mentha piperita

Pinus sylvestris
Rosa damascena
Pelargonium odoratis

semum
Rosamarinus officina-
lis
Salvia officinalis
Sassafras officinalis
Mentha viridis
Illicium anisatum
Tanacetum vulgare
Thymus vulgaris
Artemisia absinthum
Cananga odorata

Anethole, estragole.
Eugenol, methyl eugenol,

chavicol, estragole,myrcene,

phellandrene.
Linalol, linalyl acetate, d-

limonene, bergaptene.
Cineol.
Cinnamic aldehyde, cinnamyl

acetate.
Carvone, d-limonene.
d-Pinene, phellandrene, terpi-

neol, eugenol, safrole.
Isobutyl and isoamyl esters

of angelic and tiglic acids.
Cinnamic aldehyde.

Eugenol.

Linalol.

Cumic aldehyde, cymene.

Cineol, d-pinene, and fatty

aldehydes.
Anethole, fenchone, d-pinene.
Geraniol, citronellol.

Methyl anthranilate, indol,
benzyl alcohol, benzyl ace-
tate, linalol, linalyl acetate.

Linalol, l-linalyl acetate.

Limonene, phellandrene, citral,
citronellal, geranyl acetate,
linalol.

Citral.

l-Linalol, geraniol, limonene,
methyl anthranilate.

d-Limonene.

Menthol, menthyl acetate and
valerate.

d-Pinene, d-sylvestrene.

Geraniol, \-citronellol.

Geraniol, citronellol.

Pinene, camphene, camphor,

cineol, borneol.
Pinene, cineol,thujone,borneol.
Safrole.

\-Linalol, l-carvone.
Anethole.
Thujone.
Thymol.

Thujone and thujyl esters.
\-Linalol, geraniol.

1 See J. B. Cohen, Organic Chemistry, p. 532 ; or J. Parry, Chemistry
of Perfumes (1908).

142

PERGA— PERGAMUM

The chief benzenoid compounds used as perfumes are aldehydes,
oxyaldehydes, phenols and phenol ethers. Benzaldehyde has the
odour of almonds, cinnamic aldehyde of cinnamon, and cumin
aldehyde gives the odour to cumin oil. Of oxyaldehydes salicyl-
aldehyde gives the odour to spiraea oil, and vanillin is the active
ingredient of vanilla (q.v.). Anisaldehyde smells like hawthorn,
and is extensively used under the name aubepine for scenting soaps
and extracts. Carvacrol and thymol are isomeric methyl propyl
phenols; both have the odour of thyme. Of phenol ethers eugenol
(allyl guaiacol) has the odour of cloves, and anethole (allyl phenyl
methyl ether) is the chief constituent of anise oil, being chiefly used
in the manufacture of liqueurs. Several piperonyl compounds are
of commercial importance. Thealdehyde, CH2[0] 2 :C6H3-CHO(i,2,4),
piperonal, has the odour of heliotrope; an allyl derivative,
safrole CH 2 [0]2:C 6 H3-C3H6(i,2,4), occurs in sassafras, while apiole
or dimethoxy safrole has the odour of parsley oil. Of other syn-
thetic perfumes amyl salicylate is used under the names of orchidee
or trefol as the basis of many perfumes, in particular of clover
scents; methyl anthranilate occurs in the natural neroli and other
oils, and has come into considerable use in the preparation of arti-
ficial bergamot, neroli, jasmine and other perfumes (the Trolene,
Marceol and Amanthol of the Actien Gesellschaft fur Anilin Fabrika-
tion have this substance as a base); the "artificial musks" are
derivatives of i-trinitrobenzene ; coumarin is the principle of wood-
ruff; and /S-naphthol methyl ether is used for the preparation of
artificial neroli.

The Odophone. — The most important element in the perfumer's
art is the blending of the odorous principles to form a mixture
which gratifies the sense of smell. Experience is the only guide.
It is impossible to foretell the odour of a mixture from the odours
of its components. Septimus Piesse endeavoured to show that
a certain scale or gamut existed amongst odours as amongst sounds,
taking the sharp smells to correspond with high notes and the heavy
smells with low. He illustrated the idea by classifying some fifty
odours in this manner, making each to correspond with a certain
note, one-half in each clef, and extending above and below the
lines. For example, treble clef note E (4th space) corresponds
with Portugal (orange), note D (1st space below clef) with violet,
note F (4th space above clef) with ambergris. It is readily noticed
in practice that ambergris is much sharper in smell (higher) than
violet, while Portugal is intermediate. He asserted that properly
to constitute a bouquet the odours to be taken should correspond
in the gamut like the notes of a musical chord — one false note
among the odours as among the music destroying the harmony.
Thus on his odophone, santal, geranium, acacia, orange-flower,
camphor, corresponding with C (bass 2nd line below), C (bass
2nd space), E (treble 1st line), G (treble 2nd line), C (treble 3rd
space), constitute the bouquet of chord C.

Other Branches of Perfumery. — As a natural outcome of the
development of the perfume industry, scented articles for toilet
and other uses are now manufactured in large quantities. Soaps,
toilet powders, tooth powders, hair-washes, cosmetics generally,
and note-paper have provided material on which the perfumer
works. For the preparation of scented soaps two methods are in
use ; both start with a basis either of fine yellow soap (which owes
its odour and colour to the presence of resin), or of curd soap (which
is hard, white and odourless, and is prepared without resin). In
one process the soap is melted by superheated steam, and while
still hot and semi-fluid mixed by means of a stirrer of wood with
iron cross-bar, technically called a " crutch," with the attars and
colouring matter. It is then removed from the melting pan to
a rectangular iron mould or box, the sides of which can be removed
by unscrewing the tie-rods which hold them in position; when
cold the mass is cut into slabs and bars with a thin brass wire.
In the other or cold process the soap is first cut into chips or shavings
by a plane or " chipping machine," then the colouring matters are
added and thoroughly incorporated by passing the soap between
rollers; the tinted soap emerges in a continuous sheet but little
thicker than paper. The perfumes are then added, and after
standing for about twelve hours the soap is again sent through the
rolling machine. It is next transferred to a bar-forming machine,
from which it emerges as a continuous bar almost as hard as wood.
Soap thus worked contains less than 10% of water; that prepared
by melting contains 20 and even 30%. The amount of perfume
added depends upon its nature, and amounts usually to about
7 or 8 %. The] finest soaps are always manufactured by the cold
process.

Toilet Powders are of various sorts. They consist of rice-starch or
wheat-starch, with powdered orris-root in varying proportions, and
with or without the addition of zinc oxide, bismuth oxide or French
chalk. The constituent powders, after the addition of the perfume,
are thoroughly incorporated and mixed by sifting through a fine
sieve. Violet powder for the nursery should consist entirely of
powdered violet root (Iris florentina) , from the odour of which the
powder is named. It is of a yellowish tint, soft and pleasant to
the touch. The white common so-called " violet powders " consist
of starch scented with bergamot, and are in every sense inferior.

Tooth Powders consist for the most part of mixtures of powdered
orris-root with precipitated chalk, and some other constituent
destined to particularize it as to properties or flavour, such as

charcoal, finely pulverized pumice, quassia, sugar, camphor, &c.
The perfume of the contained orris-root is modified, if required, by
the addition of a little of some perfume. Tooth Pastes are formed
of the same constituents as the powders, and are worked into a
paste by the addition of a little honey or glucose syrup, which sub-
stances are usually believed ultimately to have an injurious effect
on the teeth.

Perfume Sachets consist either of a powder composed of a mixture
of vanilla, musk, Tonqua beans, &c, one or other predominating
as required, contained m an ornamental silk sac; or of some of the
foregoing substances spread upon card or chamois leather or flannel
after being made into a paste with mucilage and a little glycerin.
When dry the card so prepared is daintily covered with various
parti-coloured silks for sale. Where the ingredients employed in
their manufacture are of good quality these cards, known as " peau
d'Espagne " sachets, retain their odour unimpaired for years.

Adulterations. — There is, as might be expected, considerable
scope for the adulteration of the " matieres premieres " employed
in perfumery. Thus, in the case of musk, the " pods " are fre-
quently found to be partially emptied of the grain, which has been
replaced by hide or skin, while the weight has been increased by the
introduction of lead, &c. In other instances the fraud consists in
the admixture of refuse grain, from which the odour has been ex-
hausted with spirit, with dried blood, and similar substances, whilst
pungency is secured by the addition of ammonium carbonate.
Attar of rose is diluted with attar of Palma rosa, a variety of
geranium of only a quarter or a fifth of the value. The main
adulterant of all the natural essential oils, however, is castor oil.
This is a bland neutral body, practically odourless, and completely
soluble in alcohol; it therefore presents all the requisites for the
purpose.

Bibliography. — See generally, J. C. Sawyer, Odorographia, vol. i.
(1892), vol. ii. (1894) ; G. W. Askinson, Perfumes (Eng. trans, by Isidor
Fiirst, 1892); S. Piesse, Art of Perfumery (1891); Paul Hubert,
Plantes i parfumes (1909); M. Otto, V Industrie des parfums (1909).
Synthetic perfumes are treated in detail in C. Deite, Manual of
Toilet Soap-making (Eng. trans, by S. I. King, 1905), and in E. J.
Parry, Chemistry of the Essential Oils and Artificial Parfumes (2nd
ed., 1908). Reference may also be made to T. Roller, Cosmetics
(1902). The standard works on the essential oils are given in the
article Oils. G. Cohn, Die Riechstoffe (1904), treats the chemistry,
and Zwaardemaker, Physiologic des Geruchs (1895), the physiology
of perfumes. See also the reports and bulletins of Schimmel & Co.
and Rouse Bertrand et Fils.

PERGA (mod. Murtana), an ancient city of Pamphylia,
situated about 8 m. inland, at the junction of a small stream
(Sari Su) with the Cestrus. It was a centre of native influences
as contrasted with the Greek, which were predominant in
Attalia, and it was a great seat of the worship of " Queen "
Artemis, here represented as a human-headed cone and a purely
Anatolian nature goddess. There Paul and Barnabas began
their first mission in Asia Minor (Acts ix. 13). A much
frequented route into Phrygia and the Maeander valley began at
Perga, and Alexander made it the starting-point of his invasion
of inner Asia Minor. Long the metropolis of Pamphylia Secunda,
it was superseded in Byzantine times by its port, Attalia, which
became a metropolis in 1084. The extensive ruins all lie in
the plain south of the Acropolis. The walls are well preserved,
but of late Roman or Byzantine reconstruction. The lines of
intersecting streets can be easily made out, and there are ruins
of two sets of baths, two basilicas and a forum. But the most
notable monument is the theatre, which lies outside the walls
on the south-west, near the stadium. This is as perfect as those
of Myra and Patara, but larger than either, and yields the palm
only to those of Aspendus and Side. Modern Murtana is a large
village, long under the dominion of the Dere Beys of the Tekke
Oglu family.

See C. Lanckoronski, Villes de la Pamphylie et de la Pisidie,
vol. i. (1890) ; Sir W. M. Ramsay, Church in the Roman Empire
(1893). (D. G. H.)

PERGAMENEOUS (Lat. pergamena, parchment), a technical
term used of anything of the texture of parchment, as in zoology
of the wing-covers of insects.

PERGAMUM, or Pergamus (mod. Bergama), an ancient city
of Teuthrania, a district in Mysia. It is usually named Hepyanov
by Greek writers, but Ptolemy has the form Hepyanos. The
name, which is related to the German burg, is appropriate to the
situation on a lofty isolated hill in a broad fertile valley, less
than 15 m. from the mouth of the Cai'cus. According to the
belief of its inhabitants, the town was founded by Arcadian
colonists, led by Telephus, son of Heracles. Auge, mother of

PERGAMUM

Plate I.

["HE NORTH WING, WEST AND SOUTH SIDES.

THE SOUTH WING, WEST AND SOUTH SIDES.

THE GREAT ALTAR OF ZEUS, FROM THE NORTH-WEST, AS SET UP IN THE KAISER FRIEDRICH MUSEUM, BERLIN,

XXI. 14a. From photographs by W. Tileenthalcr, Berlin.

Plate II.

PERGAMUM

NORTH, SOUTH, EAST, AND WEST SIDES OF THE GREAT ALTAR OF ZEUS.

From photographs by W. Titzenthaler, Berlin.
21

PERGOLA— PERGOLESI, G. B.

H3

Telephus, was priestess of Athena Alea at Tegea, and daughter I
of Aleus; fleeing from Tegea, she became the wife of Teuthras,
the eponymous king of Teuthrania, and her son Telephus
succeeded him. Athena Polias was the patron-goddess of
Pergamum, and the legend combines the ethnological record of
the connexion claimed between Arcadia and Pergamum with the
usual belief that the hero of the city was son of its guardian
deity, or at least of her priestess. Nothing more is recorded of
the city till the time of Xenophon, when it was a small fortified
town on the summit of the hill; but it had been striking coins
since 420 B.C. at latest. Its importance began under Lysimachus,
who deposited his treasures, 9000 talents, in this strong fortress
under the charge of a eunuch, Philetaerus of Tium. In 283 B.C.
Philetaerus rebelled, Lysimachus died without being able to
put down the revolt, and Pergamum became the capital of a
little principality. Partly by clever diplomacy, partly through
the troubles caused by the Gaulish invasion and by the dissen-
sions among the rival kings, Philetaerus contrived to keep on
good terms with his neighbours on all sides (283-263 B.C.). His
nephew Eumenes (263-241) succeeded him, increased his power,
and even defeated Antiochus II. of Syria in a pitched battle near
Sardis. His successor Attalus I. (241-197) won a great battle
over the Gauls, and assumed the title of king. The other
Greek kings who aimed at power in Asia Minor were his natural
enemies, and about 222 reduced Pergamenian power to a very
low ebb. On the other hand, the influence of the Romans was
beginning to make itself felt in the East. Attalus prudently
connected himself with them and shared in their continuous
success. Pergamum thus became the capital of a considerable
territory and a centre of art and regal magnificence. The wealth
of the state and the king's desire to celebrate his victories by
monuments of art led to the rise of the " Pergamenian school "
in sculpture. The splendour of Pergamum was at its height
under Eumenes II. (197-159). He continued true to the Romans
during their wars with Antiochus and Perseus, and his kingdom
spread over the greater part of western Asia Minor, including
Mysia, Lydia, great part of Phrygia, Ionia and Caria. To
celebrate the great achievement of his feign, the defeat of the
barbarian Gauls, he built in the agora a vast altar to Zeus
Soter (see below). He left an infant son, Attalus (III.), and
a brother, Attalus II. (Philadelphus), who ruled 159-138, and
was succeeded by his nephew, Attalus III. (Philometor). The
latter died in 133, and bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans,
who erected part of it (excluding Great Phrygia, which they
gave to Mithradates of Pontus) into a province under the name
of Asia. Pergamum continued to rank for two centuries as the
capital, and subsequently, with Ephesus and Smyrna, as one of
the three great cities of the province; and the devotion of its
former kings to the Roman cause was continued by its citizens,
who erected on the Acropolis a magnificent temple to Augustus.
It was the seat of a conventus, including the cities of the Caicus
valley and some of those in the northern part of the Hermus
valley. Under the Roman Empire Pergamum was one of the
chief seats of the worship of Asclepius " the Saviour "; invalids
came from distant parts of the country to ask advice from the
god and his priests. The temple and the curative establishment
of the god were situated outside the city. Pergamum was the
chief centre of the imperial cult under the early empire, and, in
W. M. Ramsay's opinion, was for that reason referred to in
Rev. ii. 13 as the place of " Satan's throne." It was also an
early seat of Christianity, and one of the Seven Churches.
The place, re-fortified by the Byzantines, and still retaining its
name as Bergama, passed into Moslem hands early in the
14th century. The lower town was rebuilt, and in the 17th
and 18th centuries became a chief seat of the great Dere Bey
family of Kara Osman Oglu (see Manisa), which did not resign
it to direct Ottoman control until about 1825. It is still an
administrative and commercial centre of importance, having
some 20,000 inhabitants.

Excavations.— The site of the ancient city has been the scene
of extensive excavations promoted by the Berlin museum since
1878, and directed first by K. Humann and A. Conze, and

afterwards by W. Dorpfeld. The first impulse to them was given
in 1873 by the reception in Berlin of certain reliefs, extracted
by Humann from the walls of Bergama. These were recognized as
probably parts of the Great Altar of Zeus erected by Eumenes II.
in 180 B.C. and decorated with a combat of gods and giants,
symbolic of the struggle between the Pergamene Greeks and the
Gaulish barbarians. Excavation at the south end of the Acro-
polis led to the discovery of the Altar itself and the rest of its
surviving reliefs, which, now restored and mounted in Berlin,
form one of the glories of that city. In very high relief and
representing furious action, these sculptures are the finest which
survive from the Pergamene school, which replaced the repose
and breadth of earlier schools by excess of emphasis and detail.
The summit of the Acropolis is crowded with public buildings,
between the market place, which lies at the southern point, and
the Royal Gardens on the north. In the interval are the Zeus
altar; the great hexastyle Doric temple of Athena flanked by
the palace on the east, by the theatre and its long terrace on the
west, and by a library on the north; and a large Corinthian temple
of Trajan. The residential part of the Greek, and practically
all the Roman city lay below the Acropolis on ground now
mostly occupied by modern Bergama; but west of the river
Selinus, oh rising ground facing the Acropolis, are to be seen
notable remains of a Roman theatre, an amphitheatre and a
circus.

See, beside general authorities for Asia Minor, J. Dallaway,
Constantinople, &c. (1797); W. M. Ramsay, Letters to the Seven
Churches (1904) ; and especially the publication by the Royal Museum
of Berlin, Alterthumer von Pergamon (1885 sqq.); "Operations at
Pergamon 1906-1907," in Athenische Mitteil. (1908), xxxiii. 4;
G. Leroux, "La Pretendue basilique de Pergame" in Bull. Corr.
Hell. (1909), pp. 238 sqq. (D. G. H.) ,

PERGOLA (Lat. pergula, a projecting roof, shed, from pergety,
to reach forward, project), a term adopted from the Italian
for an arbour of trellis- work over which are trained creeping
plants, vines, &c, and especially for a trellis- work covering a
path, walk or balcony in a garden.

PERGOLESI (or Pergolese), GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1710-
1736), Italian musical composer, was born at Jesi near Ancona
on the 3rd of January 17 10, and after studying music undei
"local masters until he was sixteen was sent by a noble patron
to complete his education at Naples, where he became a pupil
of Greco, Durante and Feo for composition and of Domenico de
Matteis for the violin. His earliest known composition was a
sacred drama, La Conversione di S. Guglielmo d' Aquitania,
between the acts of which was given the comic intermezzo II
Maestro di tnusica. These works were performed in 1731,
probably by fellow pupils, at the monastery of St Agnello
Maggiore. Through the influence of the prince of Stigliano and
other patrons, including the duke of Maddaloni, Pergolesi was
commissioned to write an opera for the court theatre, and in the
winter of 1731 successfully produced La Sallustia, followed in
1732 by Ricimero, which was a failure. Both operas had comic
intermezzi, but in neither case were they successful. After this
disappointment he abandoned the theatre for a time and wrote
thirty sonatas for two violins and bass for the prince of Stigliano.
He was also invited to compose a mass on the occasion of the
earthquake of 1731, and a second mass, also for two choirs and
orchestra, is said to have been praised by Leo. In September

1732 he returned to the stage with a comic opera in Neapolitan
dialect, Lo Frate inammorato, which was well received; and in

1733 he produced a serious opera, II Prigionier, to which the
celebrated Serva padrona furnished the intermezzi. There
seems, however, no ground for supposing that this work made
any noticeable difference to the composer's already established
reputation as a writer of comic opera. About this time (1733-
1734) Pergolesi entered the service of the duke of Maddaloni, and
accompanied him to Rome, where he conducted a mass for five
voices and orchestra in the church of St Lorenzo in Lucina
(May 1734). There is no foundation for the statement that he
was appointed maestro di cappella at the Holy House of Loreto;
he was, in fact, organist of the royal chapel at Naples in 1735.

1 The complete failure of L'Olimpiade at Rome in January 1735

144

PERGOLESI, M. A.— PERIANDER

is said to have broken his health, and determined him to abandon
the theatre for the Church; this statement is, however, incom-
patible with the fact that his comic opera // Flaminio was
produced in Naples in September of the same year with un-
doubted success. His ill health was more probably due to his
notorious profligacy. In 1736 he was sent by the duke of
Maddaloni to the Capuchin monastery at Pozzuoli, the air of
the place being considered beneficial to cases of consumption.
Here he is commonly supposed to have written the celebrated
Stabat Mater; Paisiello, however, stated that this work was
written soon after he left the Conservatorio dei poveri di Gesu
Crista in 1729. We may at any rate safely attribute to this
period the Scherzo jatto ai Cappuccini di Pozzuoli, a musical jest
of a somewhat indecent nature. He died on the 17th of March
1736, and was buried in the cathedral of Pozzuoli.

Pergolesi's posthumous reputation has been exaggerated
beyond all reason. This was due partly to his early death, and
largely to the success of La Serva padrona when performed by
the Bouffons Italiens at Paris in 1752. Charming as this little
piece undoubtedly is, it is inferior both for music and for humour
to Pergolesi's three-act comic operas in dialect, which are remem-
bered now only by the air " Ogni pena piu spietata " from Lo
Frate inammorato. As a composer of sacred music Pergolesi is
effective, but essentially commonplace and superficial, and the
frivolous style of the Stabat Mater was rightly censured by
Paisiello and Padre Martini. His best quality is a certain senti-
mental charm, which is very conspicuous in the cantata L'Orfeo
and in the genuinely beautiful duets " Se cerca, se dice " and
" Ne' giorni tuoi felici " of the serious opera L'Olimpiade;
the latter number was transferred unaltered from his early
sacred drama S. Guglielmo, and we can thus see that his
natural talent underwent hardly any development during the
five years of his musical activity. On the whole, however,
Pergolesi is in no way superior to his contemporaries of the same
school, and it is purely accidental that a later age should have
regarded him as its greatest representative.

Bibliography. — The most complete life of Pergolesi is that by
E. Faustini Fasini (Gazzetta musicale di Milano, 31st of August
1899, &c, published by Ricordi in book form, 1900); G. Annibaldi's
II Pergolesi in Pozzuoli, vita inlima (Jesi, 1890) gives some interest-
ing additional details derived from documents at Jesi, but is cast in
the form of a romantic novel. H. M. Schletterer's lecture in the
Sammlung musikalischer Vortrage, edited by Count P. von Walder-
see, is generally inaccurate and uncritical, but gives a good account
of later performances of Pergolesi's works in Italy and elsewhere.
Various portraits are reproduced in the Gazz. mus. di Milano for
the 14th of December 1899, and in Musica e musicisti, December
1905. Complete lists of his compositions are given in Eitner's
Quellen-Lexicon and in Grove's Dictionary (new ed.). (E. J. D.)

PERGOLESI, MICHAEL ANGELO, an 18th-century Italian
decorative artist, who worked chiefly in England. Biographical
details are almost entirely lacking, but like Cipriani he was
brought, or attracted, to England by Robert Adam after his
famous continental tour. He worked so extensively for the
Adams, and his designs are so closely typical of much upon which
their reputation rests, that it is impossible to doubt his influence
upon their style. His range, like theirs, was catholic. He
designed furniture, mantelpieces, ceilings, chandeliers, doors and
mural ornament with equal felicity, and as an artist in plaster
work in low relief he was unapproached in his day. He delighted
in urns and sphinxes and interlaced gryphons, in amorini with
bows and torches, in trophies of musical instruments and martial
weapons, and in flowering arabesques which were always graceful
if sometimes rather thin. The centre panels of his walls and
ceilings were often occupied by classical and pastoral subjects
painted by Cipriani, Angelica Kauffmann, Antonio Zucchi, her
husband, and sometimes by himself. These nymphs and
amorini, with their disengaged and riant air and classic grace,
were not infrequently used as copies for painting upon that
satinwood furniture of the last quarter of the 18th century which
has never been surpassed for dainty elegance, and for the
popularity of which Pergolesi was in large measure responsible;
they were even reproduced in marquetry. Some of this painted
work was, apparently, executed by his own hand; most of the

pieces attributed to him are remarkable examples of artistic
taste and technical skill. His satin-wood table-tops, china
cabinets and side-tables are the last word in a daintiness which
here and there perhaps is mere prettiness. Pergolesi likewise
designed silver plate, and many of his patterns are almost
instinctively attributed to the brothers Adam by the makers
and purchasers of modern reproductions. There is, moreover,
reason to believe that he aided the Adam firm in purely archi-
tectural work. In later life Pergolesi appears, like Angelica
Kauffmann, to have returned to Italy.

Our chief source of information upon his works is his own publi-
cation, Designs for Various Ornaments on Seventy Plates, a series
of folio sheets, without text, published between 1777 and 1801.

PERI, JACOPO (1561-16 ?), Italian musical composer,
was born at Florence on the 20th of August 1561, of a noble
family. After studying under Cristoforo Malvezzi of Lucca,
he became maestro di cappella, first to Ferdinand, duke of
Tuscany, and later to Cosmo II. He was an important member
of the literary and artistic circle which frequented the house of
Giovanni Bar,di, conte de Vernio, where the revival of Greek
tragedy with its appropriate musical declamation was a favourite
subject of discussion. With this end in view the poet Ottavio
Rinuccini supplied a drama with the title of Dafne, to which
Peri composed music, and this first attempt at opera was per-
formed privately in 1597 in the Palazzo Corsi at Florence. This
work was so much admired that in 1600 Rinuccini and Peri
were commissioned to produce an opera on the occasion of the
marriage of Henry IV. of France with Maria di' Medici. This
work {V Euridice) attracted a great deal of attention, and the
type once publicly established, the musical drama was set on
the road to success by the efforts of other composers and the
patronage of other courts. Peri himself seems never to have
followed up his success with other operas; he became maestro
di cappella to the duke of Ferrara in 1601, but after the publica-
tion of his Varie musiche a una, due e tre voci at Florence in
1609, nothing more is known of him.

Peri's Dafne (which has entirely disappeared) and Euridice
(printed at Florence 1600; reprinted Venice 1608 and Florence
1863) are of the greatest importance not only as being the
earliest attempts at opera, but as representing the new monodic
and declamatory style which is the basis of modern music as
opposed to the contrapuntal methods of Palestrina and his
contemporaries. Peri's work is of course primitive in the
extreme, but it is by no means without beauty, and there are
many scenes in Euridice which show a considerable dramatic
power.

PERIANDER (Gr. UepiavSpos) , the second tyrant of Corinth
(625-585 B.C.). In contrast with his father Cypselus, the founder
of the dynasty, he is generally represented as a cruel despot, or
at any rate as having used all possible devices for keeping his
city in subjection. Among numerous anecdotes the following
is characteristic. Periander, on being consulted by the tyrant
Thrasybulus of Miletus as to the best device for maintaining
himself in power, by way of reply led the messenger through a
cornfield, and as he walked struck off the tallest and best-grown
ears (a legend applied to Roman circumstances in Livy i. 54).
It seems, however, that the prevalent Greek tradition concerning
him was derived from the versions of the Corinthian aristocracy,
who had good reasons for giving a prejudiced account, and the
conflicting character of the various legends further shows that
their historical value is slight. A careful sifting of the available
evidence would rather tend to represent Periander as a ruler
of unusual probity and insight, and the exceptional firmness and
activity of his government is beyond dispute. His home admin-
istration was so successful that he was able to dispense with
direct taxation. He fostered wealth by the steady encourage-
ment of industry and by drastic legislation against idleness,
luxury and vice; and the highest prosperity of the Corinthian
handicrafts may be assigned to the period of his rule (see
Corinth). At the same time he sought to check excessive
accumulation of wealth in individual hands and restricted the
influx of population into the town. Employment was found

PERICLES

145

for the proletariat in the erection of temples and of public works.
Periander further appears as a patron of literature, for it was by
his invitation that the poet Arion came to Corinth to organize
the dithyramb. He devoted no less attention to the increase
of Corinthian commerce, which in his days plied busily on both
eastern and western seas. With this end in view he established
colonies at Potidaea and Apollonia in Macedonia, at Anactorium
and Leucas in north-western Greece, and he is said to have
projected a canal through the Isthmus, In Greece proper he
conquered Epidaurus, and with the help of his fleet of triremes
brought the important trading centre of Corcyra under his
control, while his interest in the Olympian festival is perhaps
attested by a dedication which may be ascribed to him — the
famous " chest of Cypselus." He cultivated friendly relations
with the tyrants of Miletus and Mytilene, and maintained a
connexion with the kings of Lydia, of Egypt and, possibly, of
Phrygia. In spite of these varied achievements Periander
never entirely conciliated his subjects, for he could not trust
himself without a bodyguard. Moreover his family life, accord-
ing to all accounts, was unfortunate. His sons all died or
were estranged from him, and the murder of his last remaining
child Lycophron, the governor of Corcyra, is said to have broken
his spirit and hastened on his death.

Periander was reckoned one of the seven sages of Greece,
and was the reputed author of a collection of maxims ('TirodrjKai)
in 2000 verses. The letters ascribed to him by Diogenes Laertius
are undoubtedly spurious.

Herodotus iii. 48-53, v. 92; Aristotle, Politics, v. 6, 10-12;
Heracleides Ponticus in C. Miiller's Frag. hist, grate, ii. 212;
Nicolaus Damascenus, ibid., iii. 393; Diogenes Laertius, De vitis
darorum philosophorum, i. ch. 7. (M. O. B. C.)

PERICLES (490-429 B.C.), Athenian statesman, was born
about 490 B.C., the son of Xanthippus and Agariste. His father 1
took a prominent part in Athenian politics, and in 479 held high
command in the Greek squadron which annihilated the remnants
of Xerxes' fleet at Mycale; through his mother, the niece of
Cleisthenes, he was connected with the former tyrants of Sicyon
and the family of the Alcmaeonidae. His early training was
committed to the ablest and most advanced teachers of the day:
Damon instructed him in music, Zeno the Eleatic revealed to
him the powers of dialectic; the philosopher Anaxagoras, who
lived in close friendship with Pericles, had great influence on
his cast of thought and was commonly held responsible for that
calm and undaunted attitude of mind which he preserved in the
midst of the severest trials.

The first important recorded act of Pericles falls in 463, when he
helped to prosecute Cimon on a charge of bribery, after the latter's
Thasian campaign; but as the accusation could hardly have been
meant seriously Pericles was perhaps put forward only as a
lay-figure. Undue prominence has commonly been assigned to
him in the attack upon th2 Areopagus in 462 or 461 (see
Areopagus, Cimon). The Aristotelian Constitution of Athens
shows conclusively that Pericles was not the leader of this cam-
paign, for it expressly attributes the bulk of the reforms to
Ephialtes (ch. 25), and mentions Ephialtes and Archestratus
as the authors of the laws which the reactionaries of 404 sought
to repeal (ch. 35): moreover, it was Ephialtes, 2 not Pericles, on
whom the Conservatives took revenge as the author of their
discomfiture. To Ephialtes likewise we must ascribe the
renunciation of the Spartan alliance and the new league with
Argos and Thessaly (461).

Not long after, however, when Ephialtes fell by the dagger,
Pericles undoubtedly assumed the leading position in the state.

1 He must have been born before 485-484, in which years his
father was ostracized. On the other hand, Plutarch describes him
as vios S>v, i.e. not yet 30, in 463.

2 The later eminence of Pericles has probably misled historians
into exaggerating his influence at this time. Even the Const. Ath.
(ch. 27) says that Pericles took " some " prerogatives from the
Areopagus; this looks like a conjecture based on Arist. Pol: ii. 9
(12), 1273; T-qv iv 'Apeiai f&7(j) /SouXiji' 'E<t>ta\Trjs e«SXoutr€ ko.1 HepiKXijs,
a passage which realiy proves nothing. Plutarch, who is clearly
blinded by Pericles' subsequent brilliance, makes him suddenly biirst
into prominence and hold the highest place for 40 years (i.e. from
469) ; he degrades Ephialtes into a tool of Pericles.

The beginning of his ascendancy is marked by an unprecedented
outward expansion of Athenian power. In continuance of
Cimon's policy, 200 ships were sent to support the Egyptian
insurgents against Persia (459) , 3 while detachments operated
against Cyprus and Phoenicia. At the same time Athens
embarked on several wars in Greece Proper. An alliance with
the Megarians, who were being hard pressed by their neighbours
of Corinth, led to enmity with this latter power, and before long
Epidaurus and Aegina were drawn into the struggle. On sea
the Athenians, after two minor engagements, gained a decisive
victory which enabled them to blockade Aegina. On land
their general Myronides beat off two Corinthian attacks on
Megara, which had been further secured by long walls drawn
between the capital and its port Nisaea, nearly a mile distant.
In 4S7 the Athenians and their allies ventured to intercept a
Spartan force which was returning home from central Greece.
At Tanagra in Boeotia a pitched battle was fought, in which
both Pericles and the partisans of Cimon distinguished them-
selves. The Spartans were successful but did not pursue their
advantage, and soon afterwards the Athenians, seizing their
opportunity, sallied forth again, and, after a victory under
Myronides at Oenophyta, obtained the submission of all Boeotia,
save Thebes, and of Phocis and Locris. In 455 Tolmides
ravaged Laconia and secured Naupactus on the Corinthian
gulf; in 454 4 Pericles himself defeated the Sicyonians, and made
a descent upon Oeniadae at the mouth of the gulf, and in 453
conducted a cleruchy to the Thracian Chersonese. These years
mark the zenith of Athenian greatness. Yet the drain on the
country's strength was severe, and when news arrived in 453
that the whole of the Egyptian armament, together with a
reserve fleet, had been destroyed by the Persians, a reaction
set in, and Cimon, who was recalled on Pericles' motion (but see
Cimon), was empowered to make peace with Sparta on the basis
of the status quo. For a while the old anti-Persian policy again
found favour in Athens, and Cimon led a great expedition against
Cyprus; but on Cimon's death hostilities were suspended, and a
lasting arrangement with Persia was brought about. 5 It was
probably in order to mark the definite conclusion of the Persian
War and to obtain recognition for Athens' work in punishi;; s
the Mede that Pericles now 6 proposed a pan-Hellenic congress
at Athens to consult about the rebuilding of the ruined temples
and the policing of the seas; but owing to the refusal of Sparta
the project fell through.

Pericles may now have hoped to resume his aggressive policy
in Greece Proper, but the events of the following years completely
disillusioned him. In 447 an Athenian army, which had marched
into Boeotia to quell an insurrection, had to surrender in a body
at Coronea, and the price of their ransom was the evacuation
of Boeotia. Upon news of this disaster Phocis, Locris and
Euboea revolted, and the Megarians massacred their Athenian
garrison, while a Spartan army penetrated into Attica as far as
Eleusis. In this crisis Pericles induced the Spartan leaders to
retreat, apparently by means of a bribe, and hastened to re-
conquer Euboea; but the other land possessions could not be
recovered, and in a thirty years' truce which was arranged in
445 Athens definitely renounced her predominance in Greece
Proper. Pericles' foreign policy henceforward underwent a
profound change — to consolidate the naval supremacy, or to
extend it by a cautious advance, remained his only ambition.

3 The chronology of these years down to 449 is not quite certain.

4 An abortive expedition to reinstate a Thessalian prince probably
also belongs to this year; there is also evidence that Athens inter-
fered in a war between Selinus and Segesta in Sicily about this
time.

6 The " peace of Callias " is perhaps a fiction of the 4th century
orators. All the earlier evidence goes to show that only an informal
understanding was arrived at, based on the de facto inability of
either power to cripple the other (see Cimon).

6 448 seems the most likely date. Before 460 Pericles' influence
was as yet too small; 460-451 were years of war. After 445 Athens
was hardly in a position to summon such a congress, and would
not have sent 10 envoys out of 20 to northern and central Greece,
where she had just lost all her influence; nor is it likely that the
building of the Parthenon ( begun not later than 447) was entered
on before the congress.

£46

PERICLES

While scouting the projects of the extreme Radicals for interfering
in distant countries, he occasionally made a display of Athens'
power abroad, as in his expedition to the Black Sea, 1 and
in the colonization of Thurii, 2 which marks the resumption of a
Western policy.

The peaceful development of Athenian power was interrupted
by the revolt of Samos in 440. Pericles himself led out a fleet
against the seceders and, after winning a first engagement,
unwisely divided his armament and allowed one squadron to be
routed. In a subsequent battle he retrieved this disaster, and
after a long blockade reduced the town itself. A demand for
help which the Samians sent to Sparta was rejected at the
instance of the Corinthians.

Turning to Pericles' policy towards the members of the
Delian League, we find that he frankly endeavoured to turn the
allies into subjects (see Delian League). A special feature
of his rule was the sending out of numerous cleruchies(g.i).),
which served the double purpose of securing strategic points
to Athens and converting the needy proletariate of the capital
into owners of real property. The land was acquired either by
confiscation from disaffected states or in exchange for a lowering
of tribute. The chief cleruchies of Pericles are: Thracian
Chersonese (453-452), Lemnos and Imbros, Andros, Naxos and
Eretria (before 447) ; 5 Brea in Thrace (446) ; Oreus (445) ; Amisus
and Astacus in the Black Sea (after 440); Aegina (431).

In his home policy Pericles carried out more fully Ephialtes'
project of making the Athenian people truly self-governing.
His chief innovation was the introduction of payment from the
public treasury for state service. Chief of all, he provided a
remuneration of 1 to 2 obols a day for the jurymen, probably
in 451. 4 Similarly he created a"theoricon" fund which enabled
poor citizens to attend the dramatic representations of the
Dionysia. To him we may also attribute the 3 obols pay which
the soldiers received during the Peloponnesian War in addition
to the old-established provision-money. The archons and
members of the boule, who certainly received remuneration in
411, and also some minor magistrates, were perhaps paid for
the first time by Pericles. In connexion with this system of
salaries should be mentioned a somewhat reactionary law
carried by Pericles in 451, by which an Athenian parentage
on both sides was made an express condition of retaining the
franchise and with it the right of sitting on paid juries. The
measure by which the archonship was opened to the third and
(practically) to the fourth class of citizens (the Zeugitae and
Thetes) may also be due to Pericles; the date is now known to be
457 (Const. Ath. 26; and see Archon).

The last years of his life were troubled by a new period of
storm and stress which called for his highest powers of calculation
and self-control. A conflict between Corcyra and Corinth, the
second and third naval powers of Greece, led to the simultaneous
appearance in Athens of an embassy from either combatant
(433). Pericles had, as it seems, resumed of late a plan of
Western expansion by forming alliances with Rhegium and
Leontini, and the favourable position of Corcyra on the trade-
route to Sicily and Italy, as well as its powerful fleet, no doubt
helped to induce him to secure an alliance with that island,
and so to commit an unfriendly act towards a leading repre-
sentative of the Peloponnesian League. Pericles now seemed to
have made up his mind that war with Sparta, the head of that

1 The date can hardly be fixed ; probably it was after 440.

1 It has been doubted whether Pericles favoured this enterprise,
but among its chief promoters were two of his friends, Lampon
the soothsayer and Hippodamus the architect. The oligarch
Cratinus (in a frag, of the "t>v7<^«) violently attacks the whole
project.

s These dates are suggested by the decrease of tribute which the
inscriptions prove for this year.

* This is the date given by the Const. Ath., which also mentions
a Sia\l'T)[<t><.o pis tS>i> &iko.<ttS>v] (Blass' restoration) in frag. c. 18.
The confused story of Philochorus and Plutarch, by which 4760
citizens were disfranchised or even sold into slavery in 445, when
an Egyptian prince sent a largess of corn, may refer to a subsequent
application of Pericles' law, though probably on a much milder
scale than is here represented.

League, had become inevitable. In the following spring he
fastened a quarrel upon Potidaea, a town in Chalcidice, which
was attached by ancient bonds to Corinth, and in the campaign
which followed Athenian and Corinthian troops came to blows.
A further casus belli was provided by a decree forbidding the
importation of Megarian goods into the Athenian Empire, 5 pre-
sumably in order to punish Megara for her alliance with Corinth
(spring 432). The combined complaints of the injured parties
led Sparta to summon a Peloponnesian congress which decided
on war against Athens, failing a concession to Megara and
Corinth (autumn 432). In this crisis Pericles peisuaded the
wavering assembly that compromise was useless, because Sparta
was resolved to precipitate a war in any case. A further embassy
calling upon the Athenians to expel the accursed family of the
Alcmaeonidae, clearly aimed at Pericles himself as its chief
representative, was left unheeded, and early in 431 hostilities
began between Athens and Sparta and their respective allies
(see Peloponnesian War).

At the same time, Pericles was being sorely hampered by his
adversaries at home. The orthodox Conservatives and some
democrats who were jealous of his influence, while afraid
to beard the great statesman himself, combined to assail his
nearest friends. The sculptor Pheidias (q.v.) was prosecuted on
two vexatious charges (probably in 433), and before he could
disprove the second he died under arrest. Anaxagoras was
threatened with a law against atheists, and felt compelled to
leave Athens. A scandalous charge against his mistress Aspasia,
which he defeated by his personal intercession before the court,
was taken very much to heart by Pericles. His position at
home scarcely improved during the war. His policy of aban-
doning the land defence was unpopular with the land-owning
section of the people, who from the walls of Athens could see
their own property destroyed by the invaders. At the end of
the first year of war (early in 430) Pericles made a great appeal
to the pride of his countrymen in his well-known funeral speech.
But in the ensuing summer, after a terrible outbreak of plague
had ravaged the crowded city, the people became thoroughly
demoralized. Pericles led a large squadron to harry the coasts
of the Peloponnese, but met with little success. On his return
the Athenians sued for peace, though without success, and a
speech by Pericles had little effect on their spirits. Late in 430
they deposed him from his magistracy. In addition to this
they prosecuted him on a charge of embezzlement, and imposed
a fine of 50 talents. A revulsion of feeling soon led to his rein-
statement, apparently with extraordinary powers. But the
plague, which had carried off two of his sons and a sister, had
left its mark also on Pericles himself. In the autumn of 429 he
died 6 and was buried near the Acadetnia, where Pausanias (150
a.d.) saw his tomb. A slightly idealized portrait of Pericles
as strategus is preserved to us in the British Museum bust,
No. 549, which is a good copy of the well-known bronze original
by Cresilas.

If we now endeavour to give a general estimate of Pericles'
character and achievements, it will be well to consider the many
departments of his activity one by one. In his foreign policy
Pericles differs from those statesmen of previous generations
who sought above all the welfare of Greece as a whole. His
standpoint was at all times purely Athenian. Nor did he com-
bine great statesmanlike qualities with exceptional ability in the
field. We may clearly distinguish two periods in his adminis-
tration of foreign affairs. At first, joining to Cimon's anti-
Persian ambitions and Themistocles' schemes of Western expan-
sion a new policy of aggression on the mainland, he endeavoured
to push forward Athenian power in every direction, and engaged
himself alike in Greece Proper, in the Levant and in Sicily.
After Cimon's death he renounced the war against Persia, and
the collapse of 447-445 had the effect of completing his change

6 The general impression in Greece was that this decree was the
proximate cause of the war. Tne scurrilous motives which Aristo-
phanes suggests for this measure can be entirely disregarded.

6 His dying boast, that " no Athenian had put on mourning
through his doing," perhaps refers to his forbearance towards his
political rivals, whom he refused to ruin by prosecution.

PERIDOT

H7

of attitude. Henceforward he repressed all projects of reckless
enterprise, and confined himself to the gradual expansion and
consolidation of the empire. It is not quite easy to see why he
abandoned this successful policy in order to hasten on a war with
Sparta, and neither the Corcyrean alliance nor the Megarian
decree seems justified by the facts as known to us, though com-
mercial motives may have played a part which we cannot now
gauge. In his adoption of a purely defensive policy at the
beginning of the Peloponnesian War, he miscalculated the temper
of the Athenians, whose morale would have been better sustained
by a greater show of activity. But in the main his policy in
431-429 was sound, and the disasters of the war cannot fairly
be laid to his charge. The foundation of cleruchies was an
admirable device, which in many ways anticipated the colonial
system of the Romans.

In his attitude towards the members of the Delian League
Pericles likewise maintained a purely Athenian point of view.
But he could hardly be said seriously to have oppressed the
subject cities, and technically all the League money was spent
on League business, for Athena, to whom the chief monuments
in Athens were reared, was the patron goddess of the League.
Under Pericles Athens also attained her greatest measure
of commercial prosperity, and the activity of her traders all
over the Levant, the Black Sea and the West, is attested not
only by literary authority, but also by numerous Attic coins,
vases, &c.

Pericles' home policy has been much debated since ancient
times. His chief enactments relate to the payment of citizens
for State service. These measures have been interpreted as an
appeal to the baser instincts of the mob, but this assumption is
entirely out of keeping with all we know of Pericles' general
attitude towards the people, over whom Thucydides says he
practically ruled as a king. We must, then, admit that Pericles
sincerely contemplated the good of his fellow-countrymen, and
we may believe that he endeavoured to realize that ideal Athens
which Thucydides sketches in the Funeral Speech — an Athens
where free and intelligent obedience is rendered to an equitable
code of laws, where merit finds its way to the front, where
military efficiency is found along with a free development in
other directions and strangles neither commerce nor art. In
accordance with this scheme Pericles sought to educate the whole
community to political wisdom by giving to all an active share
in the government, and to train their aesthetic tastes by making
accessible the best drama and music. It was most unfortunate
that the Peloponnesian War ruined this great project by
diverting the large supplies of money which were essential
to it, and confronting the remodelled Athenian democracy,
before it could dispense with his tutelage, with a series of
intricate questions of foreign policy which, in view of its in-
experience, it could hardly have been expected to grapple
with successfully.

Pericles also incurred unpopularity because of his rationalism
in religious matters; yet Athens in his time was becoming ripe
for the new culture, and would have done better to receive it
from men of his circle — Anaxagoras, Zeno, Protagoras and Meton
— than from the more irresponsible sophists. The influence of
Aspasia on Athenian thought, though denounced unsparingly
by most critics, may indeed have been beneficial, inasmuch as
it tended towards the emancipation of the Attic woman from the
over-strict tutelage in which she was kept. As a patron of
art Pericles was a still greater force. His policy in encouraging
the drama has already been mentioned: among his friends he
could count three of the greatest Greek writers — the poet
Sophocles and the historians Herodotus and Thucydides.
Pericles likewise is responsible for the epoch-making splendour
of Attic art in his time, for had he not so- fully appreciated and
given such free scope to the genius of Pheidias, Athens would
hardly have witnessed the raising of the Parthenon and other
glorious structures, and Attic art could not have boasted a
legion of first-rate sculptors of whom Alcamenes, Agoracritus
and Paeonius are only the chief names. (See also Greek Art.)

Of Pericles' personal characteristics we have a peculiarly full

and interesting record. He was commonly compared to
Olympian Zeus, partly because of his serene and dignified
bearing, partly by reason of the majestic roll of the thundering
eloquence, with its bold poetical imagery, with which he held
friend and foe spellbound. The same dignity appeared in the
grave beauty of his features, though the abnormal height of
his cranium afforded an opportunity for ridicule of which the
comedians made full use. In spite of an unusually large crop
of scandals about him we cannot but believe that he bore an
honourable character, and his integrity is vouched for by
Thucydides in such strong terms as to exclude all further
doubt on the question.

Ancient Authorities. — Our chief source must always remain
Thucydides (i. and ii. 1-65), whose insight into the character and
ideals of Pericles places him far above all other authorities. The
speeches which he puts into his mouth are of special value in dis-
closing to us Pericles' inmost thoughts and aspirations (i. 140-144;
ii- 35 - 46; ii. 60-64). Thucydides alone shows sympathy with
Pericles, though, as J. B. Bury points out (Ancient Greek Historians,
1909, pp. 133 seq.), he was by no means a blind admirer. Of
other 5th-century sources, Aristophanes is obviously a caricaturist,
pseudo-Xenophon (de republica Atheniensium) a mere party pam-
phleteer. Plato, while admiring Pericles' intellect, accuses him of
pandering to the mob; Aristotle in his Politics and especially in
the Constitution of Athens, which is valuable in that it gives the
dates of Pericles' enactments as derived from an official document,
accepts the same view. Plutarch (Pericles) gives many interesting
details as to Pericles' personal bearing, home life, and patronage
of art, literature and philosophy, derived in part from the old
comic poets, Aristophanes, Cratinus, Eupolis, Hermippus, Plato
and Teleclides; in part from the contemporary memoirs of Stesim-
brotus and Ion of Chios. At the same time he reproduces their
scandalous anecdotes in a quite uncritical spirit, and accepts un-
questioningly the 4th-century tradition. He quotes Aristotle,
Heraclides Ponticus, Aeschines Socraticus, Idomeneus of Lampsacus
and Duris of Samos, and is also indebted through some Alexandrine
intermediary to Ephorus and Theopompus. Diodorus (xi. and
xii.), who copied Ephorus, contains nothing of value.

Modern Works. — Historians are agreed that Pericles was one of
the most powerful personalities of ancient times, and generally
allow him to have been a man of probity. J. Beloch, Griech. Gesch.
vols. i. and ii. (Strassburg and Bonn, 1893-1896), and Die attische
Politik seit Perikles (Leipzig, 1884) takes the most disparaging view ;
E. Abbott, GreekHist., vol. ii. (London, 1892), and M. Duncker, Gese/t.
d. Altertums, vols, viii., ix. (Leipzig, 1884-1886), are on the whole un-
favourable; Adolf Schmidt, Das Perikleische Zeitalter (Jena, 1877),
V. Duruy, History of Greece (Eng. trans., London, 1892), G. Busolt,
Griech. Gesch., vol. iii. (Gotha, 1897, 1904), and E. Meyer, Gesch. d.
Altertums, vols. iii. and iv. (Stuttgart, l<)Oi),Forschungen,vo\.n. (Halle,
1899; London, 1902), apportion praise and blame more equally;
J. B. Bury and E. Curtius, Hist, of Greece (Eng. trans., vols. ii. and iii.,
London, 1869, 1870), A. Holm, Hist, of Greece (Eng. trans., vol. ii.,
London, 1895), W. Lloyd, The Age of Pericles (London, 1875), and
especially G. Grote, Hist, of Greece, vols. iv. and v. (see also additional
notes in the edition by J. M. Mitchell and M. Caspari, 1907) take
a favourable view. For Pericles' buildings, see C. Wachsmuth,
Gesch. d. Stadt Athen, i. 516-560 (Leipzig, 1874); E. A. Gardner,
Ancient Athens (London, 1902), for his strategy, H. Delbriick,
Die Strateg. d. Perikles (Berlin, 1890). See Athens: History;
Greece: Ancient History; and Greek Art. (M. O. B. C.)

PERIDOT, sometimes written peridote, a name applied by
jewelers to " noble olivine," or that kind of olivine which can
be used as a gem-stone (see Olivine). The word peridot is
an old trade-term, of unknown origin, used by French jewelers
and introduced into science by J. R. Hauy. Peridot is practi-
cally the same stone as chrysolite (q.v.), though it is convenient
to restrict that term to transparent olivine of pale yellowish
green colour, and to apply the term peridot to those kinds which
are darker and decidedly green: the colour, which is due to
the presence of ferrous iron, is never vivid, like that of emerald,
but is usually some shade of olive-, pistachio- or leek-green.
Although the stone is sometimes cut en cabochon, and in rose-
form, the cutting best adapted to display the colour is that of a
table or a step-cut stone. Unfortunately the hardness of peri-
dot is only about 6-5, or but little above that of glass, so
that the polished stone readily suffers abrasion by wear. In
polishing peridot the final touch is given on a copper wheel
moistened with sulphuric acid.

Although olivine has a fairly wide distribution in nature, the
varieties used as gem-stones are of very limited occurrence.
Much myitery for a long time surrounded the locality which

i 4 8

PERIDOTITE— PERIER

yields most of the peridot of commerce but it is now identified
with the island of St John, or Isle Zeboiget, in the Red Sea,
where it occurs, as shown by M. J. Couyat, in an altered dunite,
or olivine rock {Bull soc. JranQ. min., 1908). This is probably
the Topaz Isle, roTrdfios vrjcos, of the ancients. It is generally
held that the mineral now called topaz was unknown to ancient
and mediaeval writers, and that their Towa^tov was our peridot.
Such was probably the Hebrew pitdah, translated" topaz in the
Old Testament. Dr G. F. Kunz has suggested that the peridots
of modern trade are largely derived from old jewelry. The
famous shrine of the Three Kings in Cologne Cathedral contains
a large peridot, which has commonly been regarded as an emerald.
It is notable that pebbles of transparent olivine, fit for cutting,
are found in the United States in Montana, Arizona and New
Mexico; in consequence of their shape and curiously pitted
surface they are known as " Job's tears." (F. W. R.*)

PERIDOTITE, a plutonic holo-crystalline rock composed in
large part of olivine, and almost or entirely free from feldspar.
The rocks are the most basic, or least siliceous plutonic rocks,
and contain much iron oxide and magnesia. Hence they have
dark colours and a high specific gravity (3-0 and over). They
weather readily and are changed to serpentine, in which process
water is absorbed and enters into chemical combination with
the silicates of magnesia and iron. In some peridotites, such
as the dunites, olivine greatly preponderates over all other
minerals. It is always in small, rather rounded crystals without
good crystalline form, and pale green in colour. Most of the
rocks of this group, however, contain other silicates such as
augite, hornblende, biotite or rhombic pyroxene, and often
two or three of these are present. By the various mineral
combinations different species are produced, e.g. mica-peridotjte,
hornblende-peridotite, enstatite-peridotite. Of the accessory
minerals the commonest are iron oxides and chromite or picotite.
In some peridotites these form segregations or irregular masses
which are of importance as sources of the ores of chromium.
Corundum occurs in small crystals in many North American
peridotites and platinum and the nickel-iron compound awaruite
are found in rocks of this class in New Zealand. Red garnet
(pyrope) characterizes the peridotites of Bohemia. The diamond
mines of South Africa are situated in pipes or volcanic necks
occupied by a peridotite breccia which has been called kimber-
lite. In this rock in addition to diamond the following minerals
are found, hypersthene, garnet, biotite, pyroxene (chrome-
diopside), ilmenite, zircon, &c.

Some peridotites have a granular structure, e.g. the dunites,
all the crystal grains being of rounded shape and nearly equal
size; a few are porphyritic with large individuals of diallage,
augite or hypersthene. Some are banded with parallel bands
of dissimilar composition, the result probably of fluxion in a
magma which was not quite homogeneous. The great majority
of the rocks of this group are poikilitic, that is to say, they
contain olivine in small rounded crystals embedded in large
irregular masses of pyroxene or hornblende. The structure
is not unlike that known as ophitic in the dolerites, and arises
from the olivine having first separated out of the liquid magma
while the pyroxene or amphibole succeeded it and caught up
its crystals. In hand specimens of the rocks the smooth and
shining cleavage surfaces of hornblende and augite are dotted
over with dull blackish green spots of olivine; to this appearance
the name " lustre-mottling " has been given.

Mica-peridotites are not of frequent occurrence. A well-known
rock from Kaltes Thai, Harzburg, contains much biotite, deep
brown in thin section. Other examples are found in India and in
Arkansas. Poikilitic structure is rarely well developed in this
group. The " blue-ground " of Kimberley which contains the
diamonds is a brecciform biotite-hypersthene-peridotite with augite.
In the north of Scotland, in several places in Sutherland and Ross,
there are peridotites with silvery yellow green biotite and large
plates of pale green hornblende: these have been called scyelites.
In the hornblende-peridotites lustre-mottling is often very striking.
The amphibole may be colourless tremolite in small prisms, as in
some varieties of serpentine from the Lizard (Cornwall) ; or pale
green hornblende as in scyelite. In both these cases there is some

actinolite are very frequent. Other rocks contain dark brown
hornblende, with much olivine; there may also be augite which is
often intergrown perthitically with the hornblende. Examples
of this type occur in North Wales, Anglesey, Cornwall, Cortland,
New York, and many other localities. A well-known peridotite from
SchriesheimerTal in the Odenwald has pale brownish green amphibole
in large crystals filled with small grains of olivine which are mostly
serpentinized. Very often primary brown hornblende in rocks of
this type is surrounded by fringes and outgrowths of colourless
tremolite which has formed as a secondary mineral after olivine.
Complete pseudomorphs after olivine composed of a matrix of scaly
talc and chlorite crossed by a network of tremolite needles, are
also very common in some peridotites, especially those which have
undergone pressure or shearing: these aggregates are known as
pilite.

The peridotites which contain monoclinic pyroxene may be
divided into two classes, those rich in diallage and those in which
there is much augite. The diallage-peridotites have been called
wehrlites; often they show excellent lustre-mottling. Brown or
green hornblende may surround the diallage, and hypersthene
may occur also in lamellar intergrowth with it. Some of these
rocks contain biotite, while a little feldspar (often saussuritic) may
often be seen in the sections. Rocks of this kind are known in
Hungary, in the Odenwald and in Silesia. In Skye the pyroxene-
bearing peridotites usually contain green chrome-diopside (a variety
of augite distinguished by its pale colour and the presence of a
small amount of chromium). The augite-peridotites are grouped
by German petrographers under the picrites, but this term has a
slightly different signification in the English nomenclature (see
Picrite).

The enstatite-peridotites are an important group represented
in many parts of the world. Their rhombic pyroxene is often very
pale coloured but may then be filled with platy enclosures which
give it a metallic or bronzy lustre. These rocks have been called
saxonites or harzburgites. When weathered the enstatite passes
into platy masses of bastite. Picotite and chromite are common
accessory minerals and diallage or hornblende may also be present.
Many of the serpentine rocks of the Lizard (Cornwall) Ayrshire
and north-western Scotland are of this type. Examples are known
also from Baste near Harzburg, New York and Maryland, Norway,
Finland, New Zealand, &c. Often the enstatite crystals are of
large size and are very conspicuous in the hand specimens. They
may be porphyritic, or may form a coarsely crystalline matrix
enclosing innumerable olivine grains, and then lustre-mottling is
as a rule very well shown.

The lherzolites are rocks, first described from Lherz in the
Pyrenees, consisting of olivine, chrome-diopside and enstatite, and
accessory picotite or chromite. They are fine-grained, bright
green in colour, often very fresh, and may be somewhat granulitic.
The dunites are peridotites, similar to the rock of Dun Mountain,
New Zealand, composed essentially of olivine in a finely granular
condition. Many examples of this type are known in different
parts of the world, usually as local facies of other kinds of peridotite.
In olivine-basalts of Tertiary age in the Rhine district small nodules
of green olivine occur frequently. They are of rounded shapes
and may be a foot in diameter. The structure is granular and
in addition to olivine they may contain chromite, spinel and
magnetite, enstatite and chrome-diopside. Some geologists believe
these to be fragments of dunite detached from masses of that rock
not exposed at the surface; others consider that they are aggre-
gations of the early minerals of the basalt magma, which were already
crystallized before the liquid rock was emitted.

The great majority of stony or lithoidal meteorites (aerolites)
are rich in olivine and present many analogies to the terrestrial
peridotites. Among their minerals are hypersthene (enstatite) augite
and chrome-diopside, chromite, pyrite and troilite, nickeliferous
iron and basic plagioclase feldspar. The structure of these meteor-
ites is described as " chondritic " ; their minerals often occur as
small rounded grains arranged in radiate clusters; this has very
rarely been observed in ordinary peridotites.

Although many peridotites are known in which the constituent
minerals are excellently preserved, the majority show more or
less advanced decomposition. The olivine is especially unstable
and is altered to serpentine, while augite, hornblende and biotite
are in large measure fresh. In other cases the whole rock is changed
to an aggregate of secondary products. Most serpentines (q.v.)
arise in this way. (J- S. K)

PERIER, CASIMIR PIERRE (1777-1832), French statesman,
was born at Grenoble on the nth of October 1777, the fourth
son of a rich banker and manufacturer, Claude Perier (1742-
1801), in whose house the estates of Dauphiny met in 1788.
Claude Perier was one of the first directors of the Bank of France;
of his eight sons, Augustin (1773-1833), Antoine Scipion (1776-
1821), Casimir Pierre and Camille (1781-1844^, all distinguished
themselves in industry and in politics. The family removed
to Paris after the revolution of Thermidor, and Casimir joined

fro^Sne'or ^^ t ?TlL^1SK^ P SS5«S. 1, SS ' the army of Italy in i 79 8. On his father's death he left the

PERIGEE— PERIGUEUX

149

arm} and with his brother 'Scipion founded a bank in Paris,
the speculations of which he directed while Scipion occupied
himself with its administration. He opposed the ruinous
methods by which the due de Richelieu sought to raise the war
indemnity demanded by the Allies, in a pamphlet Reflexions
sur le projet d'emprunt (1817), followed in the same year by
Dernieres reflexions ... in answer to an inspired article in the
Moniteur. In the same year he entered the chamber of deputies
for Paris, taking his seat in the Left Centre with the moderate
opposition, and making his first speech in defence of the freedom
of the press. Re-elected for Paris in 1822 and 1824, and in
1827 for Paris and for Troyes, he elected to represent Troyes,
and sat for that constituency until his death. Perier's violence
in debate was not associated with any disloyalty to the monarchy,
and he held resolutely aloof from the republican conspiracies
and intrigues which prepared the way for the revolution of
1830. Under the Martignac ministry there was some prospect
of a reconciliation with the court, and in January 1829 he was
nominated a candidate for the presidency of the chamber; but
in August with the elevation to power of Polignac the truce
ceased, and on the 15th of March 1830 he was one of the
221 deputies who repudiated the pretensions put forward by
Charles X. Averse by instinct and by interest to popular revolu-
tion he nevertheless sat on the provisory commission of five at
the hotel-de-ville during the days of July, but he refused to sign
the declaration of Charles X.'s dethronement. Perier reluctantly
recognized in the government of Louis Philippe the only alterna-
tive to the continuance of the Revolution ; but he was no favourite
with the new king, whom he scorned for his truckling to the mob.
He became president of the chamber of deputies, and sat for
a few months in the cabinet, though without a portfolio. On
the fall of the weak and discredited ministry of Lafntte, Casimir
Perier, who had drifted more and more to the Right, was
summoned to power (March 13, 1831), and in the short space
of a year he restored civic order in France and re-established
her credit in Europe. Paris was in a constant state of disturb-
ance from March to September, and was only held in check by
the premier's determination; the workmen's revolt at Lyons
was suppressed after hard fighting; and at Grenoble, in face of
the quarrels between the military and the inhabitants, Perier
declined to make any concession to the townsfolk. The minister
refused to be dragged into armed intervention in favour of the
revolutionary government of Warsaw, but his policy of peace
did not exclude energetic demonstrations in support of French
interests. He constituted France the protector of Belgium
by the prompt expedition of the army of the north against the
Dutch in August 183 1; French influence in Italy was asserted
by the audacious occupation of Ancona (Feb. 23, 1832); and
the refusal of compensation for injuries to French residents by
the Portuguese government was followed by a naval demonstra-
tion at Lisbon. Perier had undertaken the premiership with
many forebodings, and overwork and anxiety prepared the way
for disease. In the spring of 1832 during the cholera outbreak
in Paris, he visited the hospitals in company with the duke of
Orleans. He fell ill the next day of a violent fever, and died
six weeks later, on the 16th of May 1832.

His Opinions el discours were edited by A. Lesieur (2 vols., 1838);
C. Nicoullaud published in 1894 the first part {Casimir -Perier,
depute de V opposition, 1817-1830) of a study of his life and policy;
and his ministry is exhaustively treated by Thureau-Dangin in
vols. i. and ii. (1884) of his Histoire de la monarchie dejuillet.

His elder son, Auguste Victor Laurent Casimir Perier
(1811-1876), the father of President Casimir-Perier (see Casimir-
Perier), entered the diplomatic service, being attached suc-
cessively to the London, Brussels and St Petersburg embassies,
and in 1843 became minister plenipotentiary at Hanover
In 1846 he resigned fiom the service to enter the legislature
as deputy for the department of Seine, a constituency which
he exchanged for Aube after the Revolution of 1848. On the
establishment of the Second Empire he retired temporarily
from public life, and devoted himself to economic questions on
which he published a series of works, notably Les Finances e! la

politique (1863), dealing with the interaction of political in-
stitutions and finance. He contested Grenoble unsuccessfully
in 1863 against the imperial candidate, Casimir Royer; and
failed again for Aube in 1869. In 1871 he was returned by three
departments to the National Assembly, and elected to sit for
Aube. He was minister of the interior for a few months in
1871-1872, and his retirement deprived Thiers of one of the
strongest elements in his cabinet. He also joined the short-
lived ministry of May 1873. He consistently opposed all efforts
in the direction of a monarchical restoration, but on the definite
constitution of the republic became a life senator, declining
MacMahon's invitation to form the first cabinet under the new
constitution. He died in Paris on the 6th of June 1876.

For the family in general see E. Choulet, La Famille Casimir-
Perier (Grenoble, 1894).

PERIGEE (Gr. irepi, near, 717, the earth), in astronomy that
point of the moon's orbit or of the sun's apparent orbit at
which the moon or sun approach nearest to the earth. The
sun's perigee and the earth's perihelion are so related that they
differ 180° in longitude, the first being on the line from the earth
toward the sun, and the second from the sun toward the earth.
The longitude of the solar perigee is now 101 , that of the earth's
perihelion 281°.

PERIGORD, one of the old provinces of France, formed part
of the military government of Guienne and Gascony, and was
bounded on the N. by Angoumois, on the E. by Limousin and
Quercy, on the S. by Agenais and Bazadais, and on the W.
by Bordelais and Saintonge. It is now represented by the
departments of Dordogne and part of Lot-et-Garonne. Perigord
was in two divisions: Perigord blanc (cap. Perigueux) and
Perigord noir (cap. Sarlat). In the time of Caesar it formed
the civitas Petrocoriorum, with Vesunna (Perigueux) as its
capital. It became later part of Aquitania secunda and formed
the pagus petragoricus, afterwards the diocese of Perigueux.
Since the 8th century it had its own counts (see the Histoire
genealogique of P. Anselme, tome iii.), who were feudatories of
the dukes of Aquitaine and in the 13th century were the vassals
of the king of England. In the 15th century the county passed
into the hands of the dukes of Orleans, and in the 16th came
to the family of d'Albret, becoming Crown land again on the
accession of Henry IV.

See Dessalles, Histoire du Perigord (1888), the Bulletin of the
Societe historique et archeologique du Perigord (1874 seq.), I ' Inventaire
sommaire de la" Collection de Perigord " in the Bibliotheque nationale
(1874); the Dictionnaire topographique du departement de la Dordogne
by the Vicomte de Gourgues (1873).

PERIGUEUX, a town of south-western France, formerly
capital of the old province of Perigord, now chief town of the
department of Dordogne, 79 m. E.N.E. of Bordeaux, on the
railway between that city and Limoges. Pop. (1906), 28,199.
The town, situated on an eminence on the right bank of the
Isle, is divided into three parts. On the slope of the hill is
the medieval town, bordered south-east by the river and on the
other three sides by esplanades and promenades; to the west
is the modern town, which stretches to the station; to the south
of the modern town is the old Roman town or cite, now traversed
by the railway.

Three bridges connect Perigueux with the left bank of the
Isle, where stood Vesunna, the capital of the Petrocorii. Hardly
a trace of this old Gallic town remains, but not far off, on the
Plateau de la Boissiere, the rampart of the old Roman camp
can still be traced. On the right bank of the Isle, in the Roman
city, there have been discovered some baths of the 1st or 2nd
century, supplied by an aqueduct four miles long, which spanned
the Isle. A circular building, called the " Tower of Vesunna,"
68 ft. in diameter and 89 ft. in height, stands at what was
formerly the centre of the city, where all the chief streets met
It is believed to have been originally the cella or main part oi
a temple, probably dedicated to the tutelary deities of Vesunna.
Of the amphitheatre there still remain huge fragments of wall
and vaulting. The building had a diameter of 131 2 ft., that
of the arena being 870 ft.; and, judging from its construction,

*5°

PERIHELION— PERINO DEL VAGA

must be as old as the 3rd or even the 2nd century. The counts
of Perigueux used it for their chateau, and lived in it from the
1 2th to the end of the 14th century. In 1644 it was given over
by the town to the Order of the Visitation, and the sisters took
from it the stones required for the construction of their nunnery.
The most remarkable, however, of the ruins of the citi is the
Chateau Barriere, an example of the fortified houses formerly
common there. Two of its towers date from the 3rd or 4th
century, and formed part of the fortified enceinte; the highest
tower is of the 10th century; and the part now inhabited is
of the nth or 12th century, and was formerly used as a burial
chapel. The bulk of the chateau is of the 12th, and some of
the windows of the 16th century.

The chief medieval building in the citi is the church of St
Etienne, once the cathedral. It dates from the nth and 12th
centuries, but suffered much injury at the hands of the Pro-
testants in the religious wars when the tower and two of the
three cupolas were destroyed. The choir and its cupola were
skilfully restored in the 17th century. A fine carved wooden
reredos of the 1 7th century and a tomb of a bishop of the
1 2th century are to be seen in the interior. In the medieval
town, known as Le Puy-St-Front, the most remarkable building
is the cathedral of St Front, which, till its restoration, or rather
rebuilding, in the latter half of the 19th century when the old
features were to a great extent lost, was of unique architectural
value. It bears a striking resemblance to the Byzantine
churches and to St Mark's at Venice, and according to one theory
was built from 984 to 1047, contemporaneously with the latter
(977-1085). It consists of five great cupolas, arranged in the
form of a Greek cross, and conspicuous from the outside. The
arms of the cross are 69 ft. in width, and the whole is 184 ft.
long. These cupolas, 89 ft. high from the keystone to the
ground, are supported on a vaulted roof with pointed arches
after the manner characteristic of Byzantine architecture.
The pointed arches imitated from it prepared the way for the
introduction of the Gothic style. Adjoining St Front on the
west are the remains of an old basilica of the 6th century, above
which rises the belfry, the only one in the Byzantine style now
extant. It dates from the nth century, and is composed of
two massive cubes, placed the one above the other in retreat,
with a circular colonnade surmounted by a dome. To the
south-west of St Front, the buildings of an old abbey (nth to
16th century) surround a cloister dating chiefly from the 13th
century. Of the fortifications of Puy St Front, the chief relic
is the Tour Mataguerre (14th century).

Perigueux is seat of a bishop, prefect and court of assizes,
and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber
of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. Its
educational establishments include a lycee for boys, training
colleges for both sexes and a school of drawing. The trade of
the town is in pigs, truffles, flour, brandy, poultry and pies
known as pates de Perigord.

Vesunna was the capital of the Petrocorii, allies of Vercinge-
torix when Caesar invaded Gaul. The country was afterwards
occupied by the Romans, who built a second city of Vesunna
on the right bank of the Isle opposite the site of the Gallic town.
The barbarian invasion brought this prosperity to a close. St
Front preached Christianity here in the 4th century and over
his tomb there was raised a monastery, which became the centre
of the new town called Le Puy St Front. The cite was pillaged
by the Saracens about 731, and in 844 the Normans devastated
both quarters. The new town soon began to rival the old city
in importance, and it was not until 1240 that the attempts
of the counts of Perigord and the bishops to infringe on their
municipal privileges brought about a treaty of union. During
the Hundred Years' War, Perigueux was twice attacked by the
English, who took the cilS in 1356; and the whole town was
ceded to them by the Treaty of Bretigny, but returned to the
French Crown in the reign of Charles V. The county passed
by marriage into the hands of Anthony of Bourbon, father
of Henry IV., and was converted by the latter into royal
domain. During the Huguenot wars Perigueux was frequently

a stronghold of the Calvinists, ' who in 1575 did great
destruction there, and it also suffered during the troubles of
the Fronde.

PERIHELION (Gr. Tte.pl, near, ijXios, sun), in astronomy, the
point of nearest approach of a body to the sun. (See Orbit.)

PERIM, a British island in the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, at
the entrance to the Red Sea, and 96 m. W. by S. of Aden.
Perim is 2 m. from the Arabian shore, is about 3! m. long with
an average breadth of over a mile and covers some 7 sq. m.
There is a good harbour with easy entrance on the south side
with a depth of water from 25 to 30 ft. It is largely used by
mercantile vessels as a coaling-station and for taking in stores,
including fresh water and ice. Perim, the Diodoros island of
the Periplus, was, in consequence of the French occupation
of Egypt, garrisoned from 1799 to 1801 by a British force. In
view of the construction of the Suez Canal and the increasing
importance of the Red Sea route to India the island was annexed
to Great Britain in 1857, fortified and placed under the
charge of the Aden residency. In 1861 a lighthouse was built
at its eastern end. Submarine cables connect the island with
Aden, Egypt and Zanzibar. Population, including a garrison
of 50 sepoys, about 200. • "

PERINO DEL VAGA (1500-1547), a painter of the Roman
school, whose true name was Perino (or Piero) Buonaccorsi.
He was born near Florence on the 28th of June 1500. His
father ruined himself by gambling, and became a soldier in the
invading army of Charles VIII. His mother dying when he
was but two months old, he was suckled by a she-goat; but
shortly afterwards he was taken up by his father's second wife.
Perino was first apprenticed to a druggist, but soon passed into
the hands of a mediocre painter, Andrea da Ceri, and, when
eleven years of age, of Ridolfo Ghirlandajo. Perino rapidly
surpassed his fellow-pupils, applying himself especially to the
study of Michelangelo's great cartoon. Another mediocre
painter, Vaga from Toscanella, undertook to settle the boy in
Rome, but first set him to work in Toscanella. Perino, when
he at last reached Rome, was utterly poor, and with no clear
prospect beyond journey-work for trading decorators. He,
however, studied with great severity and spirit from Michelangelo
and the antique, and was eventually entrusted with some of
the subordinate work undertaken by Raphael in the Vatican.
He assisted Giovanni da Udine in the stucco and arabesque
decorations of the loggie of the Vatican, and executed some of
those small but finely composed scriptural subjects which go
by the name of " Raphael's Bible " — Raphael himself furnishing
the designs. Perino's examples are: " Abraham about to
sacrifice Isaac," " Jacob wrestling with the Angel," " Joseph
and his Brethren," the " Hebrews crossing the Jordan," the
" Fall and Capture of Jericho," " Joshua commanding the Sun
to stand still," the " Birth of Christ," " His Baptism " and
the " Last Supper." Some of these are in bronze-tint, while
others are in full colour. He also painted, after Raphael's
drawings, the figures of the planets in the great hall of the
Appartamenti Borgia. Perino exhibited very uncommon faculty
in these works and was soon regarded as second only to Giulio
Romano among the great painter's assistants. To Raphael
himself he was always exceedingly respectful and attentive,
and the master loved him almost as a son. He executed many
other works about Rome, always displaying a certain mixture
of the Florentine with the Roman style.

After Raphael's death in 1520 a troublous period ensued for
Perino, with a plague which ravaged Rome in 1523, and again
with the sack of that city in 1527. Then he accepted an invita-
tion to Genoa, where he was employed in decorating the Doria
Palace, and rapidly founded a quasi-Roman school of art in the
Ligurian city. He ornamented the palace in a style similar
to that of Giulio Romano in the Mantuan Palazzo del Te, and
frescoed historical and mythological subjects in the apartments,
fanciful and graceful arabesque work, sculptural and architec-
tural details — in short, whatever came to hand. Among the
principal works are: the " War between the Gods and Giants,"
" Horatius Codes defending the Bridge," and the " Fortitude

PERINTHUS— PERIODICALS

151

of Mutius Scaevola." The most important work of all, the
" Shipwreck of Aeneas," is no longer extant. From Genoa
Perino twice visited Pisa, and began some painting in the
cathedral. Finally he returned to Rome, where Paul III.
allowed him a regular salary till the painter's death. He
retouched many of the works of Raphael, and laboured hard
on his own account, undertaking all sorts of jobs, important
or trivial. Working for any price, he made large gains, but fell
into mechanical negligence. Perino was engaged in the general
decoration of the Sala Reale, begun by Paul III., when his health,
undermined by constant work and as constant irregularities,
gave way, and he fell down dead on the 19th of October 1547.
He is buried in the Pantheon.

Perino produced some excellent portraits, and his smaller oil
pictures combine with the manner of Raphael something of that
of Adrea del Sarto. Many of his works were engraved, even in
his own lifetime. Daniele Ricciarelli, Girolamo Siciolante da Ser-
moneta, Luzio Romano and Marcello Venusti (Mantovano) were
among his principal assistants. (W. M. R.)

PERINTHUS (Turk. Eski Eregli, old Heraclea), an ancient
town of Thrace, on thePropontis, 22 m. W. of Selymbria, strongly
situated on a small peninsula on the bay of that name. It is
said to have been a Samian colony, founded about 599 B.C.
According to Tzetzes, its original name was Mygdonia; later
it was called Heraclea (Heraclea Thraciae, Heraclea Perinthus).
It is famous chiefly for its stubborn and successful resistance
to Philip II. of Macedon in 340; at that time it seems to have
been more important than Byzantium itself.

PERIOD (Gr. Teplodos, a going or way round, circuit, irepi,
round, and 656s, way, road), a circuit or course of time, a cycle;
particularly the duration of time in which a planet revolves
round its sun, or a satellite round its primary, a definite or
indefinite recurring interval of time marked by some special
or peculiar character, e.g. in history, literature, art, &c; it is
so used of a division of geological time. Particular uses of the
word are for the various phases through which a disease passes,
the termination or conclusion of any course of events, the pause
at the end of a completed sentence, and the mark (.) used to
signify the same (see Punctuation) .

PERIODICALS, a general term for literary publications
which appear in numbers, or parts at regular intervals of time —
as a rule, weekly, monthly or quarterly. The term strictly
includes "newspapers" (q.v.), but in the narrower sense usually
intended it is distinguished as a convenient expression for
periodical publications which differ from newspapers in not
being primarily for the circulation of news or information of
ephemeral interest, and in being issued at longer intervals. In
modern times the weekly journal has become so much of the
nature of a newspaper that it seldom can be called a periodical
in this sense. The present article chiefly deals with publications
devoted to general literature, literary and critical reviews
and magazines for the supply of miscellaneous reading. In
the article Societies (q.v.) an account is separately given of
the transactions and proceedings of learned and scientific bodies.
Year-books, almanacs, directories and other annuals belong to
a distinct type of publication, and are not referred to here.

British

The first literary periodical in English was the Mercurius librarius,
or a Faithful Account of all Books and Pamphlets (1680), a mere
catalogue, published weekly or fortnightly in London, followed
by Weekly Memorials for the Ingenious (Jan. 16, 1681-1682 to Jan.
15, 1683), which was more of the type of the Journal des Savants
(see under France below), whence it borrowed many contributions.
Of the History of Learning (1691) — another with the same title came
out in 1694 — only a few numbers appeared, as the conductor, De
la Crose, started the monthly Works of the Learned (Aug. 1691 to
April 1692), devoted principally to continental scholarship. The
monthly Compleat Library (1692 to 1694) was a venture of John
Dunton; the monthly Memoirs for the Ingenious (1693), edited by
J. de la Crose, ran for 12 months, and another with the same title
appeared in the following year, only to enjoy a briefer career. The
first periodical of merit and influence was the History of the Works
of the Learned (1699-1712), largely consisting of descriptions of
foreign books. The Memoirs of Literature, the first English review
consisting entirely of original matter, published in London from
1710 to 1714, had for editor Michel de la Roche, a French Protestant

refugee, who also edited at Amsterdam the Bibliotheque angloise
(1717-1719), and subsequently Memoires litleraires de la Grande
Bretagne (1720-1724). Returning to England in 1725, he recom-
menced his New Memoirs of Literature (1725-1728), a monthly, and
in 1730 a Literary Journal. Dr Samuel Jebb started Bibliotheca
literaria (1722-1724), to appear every two months, which dealt
with medals and antiquities as well as with literature, but only ten
numbers appeared. The Present State of the Republick of Letters
was commenced by Andrew Reid in January 1728, and completed
in December 1736. It contained not only excellent reviews of
English books but papers from the works of foreigners. Two
volumes came out each year. It was successful, as also was the
Historia literaria (1730-1734) of Archibald Bower. 1 The Bee, or
Universal Weekly Pamphlet (1733-1735) of the unfortunate Eustace
Budgell, and the Literary Magazine (1735-1736), with which
Ephraim Chambers had much to do, were short-lived. The
last named was continued in 1737 as the History of the Works
of the Learned, and was carried on without intermission until
1743, when its place was taken by A Literary Journal (Dublin,
1 744-1 749), the first review published in Ireland. The Museum
(1746) of R. Dodsley united the character of a review of books with
that of a literary magazine. It came out fortnightly to the 12th
of September 1747. Although England can show nothing like the
Journal des savants, which has flourished almost without a break
for two and a half centuries, a nearly complete series of reviews
of English literature may be made up from 1 681 to the present
day.

After the close of the first quarter of the 1 8th century the literary
periodical began to assume more of the style of the modern review,
and in 1749 the title and the chief features were united in the Monthly
Review, established by Ralph Griffiths, 2 who conducted it until
1803, whence it was edited by his son down to 1825. It came to
an end in 1845. From its commencement the Review dealt with
science and literature, as well as with literary criticism. It was
Whig in politics and Nonconformist in theology. The first series
ran from 1749 to December 1789, 81 vols.; the second from 1790
to 1 81 5, 108 vols. ; the third or new series from 1826 to 1830, 15 vols. ;
and the fourth from 1831 to 1845, 45 vols., when the magazine
stopped. There is a general index (1749-1789) 3 vols., and another
(1790-1816), 2 vols.

The Tory party and the established church were defended in the
Critical Review (1756-1817), founded by Archibald Hamilton and
supported by Smollett, Dr Johnson and Robertson. Johnson
contributed to fifteen numbers of the Literary Magazine (1756-1758).
The reviews rapidly increased in number towards the end of the
century. Among the principal were the London Review (1775-1780),
A New Review (1 782-1 786), the English Review (1 783-1 796), incorpor-
ated in 1797 with the Analytical Review (1788-1799), the Anti-
Jacobin Review and Magazine (1798-1821), and the British Critic
(l793-!843)> the organ of the High Church party, and first edited
by Archdeacon Nares and Beloe.

These periodicals had now become extremely numerous, and
many of the leading London publishers found it convenient to
maintain their own particular organs. It is not a
matter of surprise, therefore, that the authority of Q uarter ' , ' s -
the reviews should have fallen somewhat in public estimation.
The time was ripe for one which should be quite independent
of the booksellers, and which should also aim at a higher
standard of excellence. As far back as 1755 Adam Smith, Blair
and others had produced an Edinburgh Review which only ran to
two numbers, and in 1773 Gilbert Stuart and William Smellie
issued during three years an Edinburgh Magazine and Review.
To Edinburgh is also due the first high-class critical journal,
the Edinburgh Review, established in October 1802 by Jeffrey,
Scott, Horner, Brougham and Sydney Smith. It created a new
era in periodical criticism, and assumed from the commencement
a wider range and more elevated tone than any of its predecessors.
The first editor was Sydney Smith, then Jeffrey for many years,
and later editors were Macvey Napier, William Empson, Sir G. C.
Lewis, Henry Reeve and the Hon. Arthur Elliot. Its buff and blue
coyer was adopted from the colours of the Whig party whose political
principles it advocated. Among its more famous contributors were
Lord Brougham, Sir Walter Scott, Carlyle, Hazlitt and Macaulay.
Scott, being dissatisfied with the new review, persuaded John
Murray, his London publisher, to start its brilliant Tory competitor,
the Quarterly Review (Feb. 1809), first edited by William Gifford,
then by Sir J. T. Coleridge, and subsequently by J. G. Lockhart,
Rev. Whitwell Elwin, W. M. Macpherson, Sir Wm. Smith, Rowland
Prothero and G. W. Prothero. Among the contributors in successive
years were Canning, Scott (who reviewed himself), Robert Southey,

1 Archibald Bower (1686-1766) was educated at Douai, and
became a Jesuit. He subsequently professed himself a convert to
the Anglican Church, and published a number of works, but was
more esteemed for his ability than for his moral character.

2 The biographers of Goldsmith have made us familiar with the
name of Griffiths (1720-1803), the prosperous publisher, with his
diploma of LL.D. granted by an American university, and with the
quarrels between him and the poet.

PERIODICALS

152

Sir John Barrow, J. Wilson Croker, Isaac Disraeli, A. W. Kinglake,
Lord Salisbury and W. E. Gladstone. 1 The Westminster Review
(1824), established by the followers of Jeremy Bentham, advocated
radical reforms in church, state and legislation. In 1836 it was
joined to the London Review (1829), founded by Sir William Moles-
worth, and then bore the name of the London and Westminster
Review till 1 85 1, when it returned to the original title. Other
quarterly reviews worth mentioning are the Eclectic Review (1805-
1868), edited down to 1834 by Josiah Conder (1 789-1 855) and
supported by the Dissenters; the British Review (1811-1825; the
Christian Remembrancer (1819-1868); the Retrospective Review
(1820-1826, 1828, 1 853-1 854), for old books; the Foreign Quarterly
Review (1827-1846), afterwards incorporated with the Westminster;
the Foreign Review (1828-1829) ; the Dublin Review (1836), a Roman
Catholic organ; the Foreign and Colonial Quarterly Review (1843-
1847) ; the Prospective Review (1845-1855), given up to theology and
literature, previously the Christian Teacher (1835-1844); the North
British Review (1844-1871); the British Quarterly Review (1845),
successor to the British and Foreign Review (1835-1844); the New
Quarterly Review (1852-1861), the Scottish Review (1853-1862),
published at Glasgow; the Wesleyan London Quarterly • Review
(i 8 53- ); the National Review (1855-1864); the Diplomatic
Review (1855-1881); the Irish Quarterly Review (1851-1859),
brought out in Dublin; the Home and Foreign Review (1 862-1 864);
the Fine Arts Quarterly Review (1863-1865); the New Quarterly
Magazine (1873-1880); the Catholic Union Review (1863-1874) ;
the Anglican Church Quarterly Review (1875); Mind (1876), dealing
with mental philosophy; the Modern Review (1880-1884); the
Scottish Review (1882) ; the Asiatic Quarterly Review (1886; since 1891
the Imperial and Asiatic Quarterly Review) ; and the Jewish Quarterly
Review.

The monthly reviews include the Christian Observer (1802-1857),
conducted by members of the established church upon evangelical
principles, with Zachary Macaulay as the first editor;
Monthlies. and the Monthly Repository (1800-1837), originally
purely theological, but after coming into the hands of the Rev.
W. J. Fox made entirely literary and political. The Fortnightly
Review (1865), edited successively by G. H. Lewes, John Morley,
T. H. S. Escott, Frank Harris, Oswald Crawfurd and W. L. Courtney,
was intended as a kind of English Revue des deux mondes. Since
1866 it has appeared monthly. The Contemporary Review (1866),
long edited by Sir Percy Bunting, and the Nineteenth Century (1877),
founded and edited by Sir James Knowles (q.v.), and renamed
Nineteenth Century and After in 1900, are similar in character,
consisting of signed articles by men of mark of all opinions upon
questions of the day. The National Review (1883), edited succes-
sively by Alfred Austin, W. Earl Hodgson, and L. J. Maxse, is alone
in taking editorially a pronounced party line in politics as a Conser-
vative organ. Modern Thought (1879-1884), for the free discussion
of political, religious and social subjects, and the Modern Review
( 1 892-1894) may also be mentioned. Other monthlies are the
Indian Magazine (1871); the Irish Monthly (Dublin, 1873); the
Gaelic Journal (Dublin, 1882); the African Review (1892) and the
Empire Review (1900). The Monthly Review (1900-1908), edited till
1904 by Henry Newbolt, was for some years a notable addition to
the high class literary monthlies.

The weekly reviews dealing generally with literature, science and
art are the Literary Gazette (1817-1862), first edited by William
Jerdan; the Athenaeum (1828), founded by James Silk
Weeklies. Buckingham, but successfully established by C. W.
Dilke, and long edited in later years by Norman MacColl (1843-1904),
and afterwards by Mr Vernon Rendall; and the Academy (1869).
Among those which also include political and social topics, and are
more particularly dealt with under Newspapers, may be mentioned,
the Examiner (1808-1881), the Spectator (1828), the Saturday Review
(1855), the Scots or National Observer (1888-1897), Outlook (1898),
Pilot (1900-1903), and Speaker (1890), which became the Nation.

Soon after the introduction of the literary journal in England,
one of a more familiar tone was started by the eccentric John Dunton
in the Athenian Gazette, or Casuistical Mercury, resolving all the most
Nice and Curious Questions (1689-1690 to 1695-1696), afterwards
called The Athenian Mercury, a kind of forerunner of Notes and
Queries, being a penny weekly sheet, with a quarterly critical
supplement. In the last part the publisher announces that it will
be continued " as soon as ever the glut of news is a little over."
Dunton was assisted by Richard Sault and Samuel Wesley. Defoe's
Review (1704-1713) dealt chiefly with politics and commerce, but the
introduction in it of what its editor fittingly termed the "scandalous
club " was another step nearer the papers of Steele and the periodical
essayists, the first attempts to create an organized popular opinion
in matters of taste and manners. These little papers, rapidly thrown
off for a temporary purpose, were destined to form a very important

1 The centenary of the Edinburgh Review was celebrated in an
article in October 1902, and that of the Quarterly Review in two
articles April and July 1909. See also On the Authorship of the First
Hundred Numbers of the Edinburgh Review (1895), by W. A. Copinger,
and The First Edinburgh Reviewers in Literary Studies (1879), vol.
i., by W. Bagehot.

part of the literature of the 18th century, and in some respects its
most marked feature. Although the frequenters of the clubs and
coffee-houses were the persons for whom the essay-papers were
mainly written, a proof of the increasing refinement of the age is
to be found in the fact that now for the first time were women
specially addressed as part of the reading public. The
Tatter. was commenced by Richard Steele in 1709, and Tatter, &c.
issued thrice a week until 171 1. The idea was at once
extremely popular, and a dozen similar papers were started within
the year, at least one half bearing colourable imitations of the title.
Addison contributed to the Tatter, and together with Steele estab-
lished and carried on the Spectator (1710-1714), and subsequently
the Guardian (1713). The newspaper tax enforced in 1712 dealt
a hard blow at these. Before this time the daily issue of the Spectator
had reached 3000 copies; it then fell to 1600; the price was raised
from a penny to twopence, but the paper came to an end in 1714.
Dr Drake (Essays illustr. of the Rambler, &c, ii. 490) drew up an
imperfect list of the essayists, and reckoned that from the Tatler
to Johnson's Rambler, during a period of forty-one years, 106 papers
of this description were published. Dr Drake continued the list
down to 1809, and described altogether 221 which had appeared
within a hundred years. The following is a list of the most consider-
able, with their dates, founders and chief contributors: —

Tatler (April 12, 1709 to Jan. 2, 1710-1711), Steele, Addison,
Swift, Hughes, &c. ; Spectator (March I, 1710-1711 to Dec. 20, 1714),
Addison, Steele, Budgell, Hughes, Grove, Pope, Parnell, Swift, &c. ;
Guardian (March 12, 1713 to Oct. I, 1713), Steele, Addison, Berkeley,
Pope, Tickell, Budgell, &c. ; Rambler (March 20, 1750 to March 14,
!75 2 )> Johnson; Adventurer (Nov. 7, 1752 to March 9, 1754), Hawkes-
worth, Johnson, Bathurst, Warton, Chapone; World (Jan. 4, 1753
to Dec. 30, 1756), E. Moore, earl of Chesterfield, R. O. Cambridge,
earl of Orford, Soame Jenyns, &c. ; Connoisseur (Jan. 31, 1754 to
Sept. 30, 1756), Colman, Thornton, Warton, earl of Cork, &c. ; Idler
(April 15, 1758 to April 5, 1760), Johnson, Sir J. Reynolds and Bennet
Langton; Bee (Oct. 6, 1759 to Nov. 24, 1759), O. Goldsmith; Mirror
(Jan. 23, 1779 to May 27, 1780), Mackenzie, Craig, Abercromby,
Home, Bannatyne, &c. ; Lounger (Feb. 5, 1785 to Jan. 6, 1787),
Mackenzie, Craig, Abercromby, Tytler; Observer (1785 to 1790),
Cumberland ; Looker-on (March 10, 1792 to Feb. I, 1794), W. Roberts,
Beresford, Chalmers.

As from the " pamphlet of news " arose the weekly paper wholly
devoted to the circulation of news, so from the general newspaper
was specialized the weekly or monthly review of litera-
ture, antiquities and science, which, when it included * ™
essay-papers, made up the magazine or miscellaneous agaz s *
repository of matter for information and amusement. Several
monthly publications had come into existence since 1681, but perhaps
the first germ of the magazine is to be found in the Gentleman's
Journal (1691-1694) of Peter Motteux, which, besides the news of
the month, contained miscellaneous prose and poetry. Dr Samuel
Jebb included antiquarian notices as well as literary reviews in
his Bibliotheca literaria (1722-1724), previously mentioned, but the
Gentleman's Magazine, founded in 1731, fully established, through
the tact and energy of the publisher Edward Cave (q.v.), the type
of the magazine, from that time so marked a feature of English
periodical literature. The first idea is due to Motteux, from whom
the title, motto and general plan were borrowed. The chief feature in
the new venture at first consisted of the analysis of the journals,
which Cave undertook personally. Prizes were offered for poetry.
In April 1732 the leading metropolitan publishers, jealous of the
interloper Cave, started the London Magazine, or Gentleman's
Monthly Intelligencer (1 732-1 784), which had a long and prosperous
career. The new magazine closely copied Cave's title, plan and
aspect, and bitter war was long waged between the two. The rivalry
was not without benefit to the literary public, as the conductors
of each used every effort to improve their own review. Cave intro-
duced the practice of giving engravings, maps and portraits, but
his greatest success was the addition of Samuel Johnson . (q.v.) to
the regular staff. This took place in 1738, when the latter wrote
the preface to the volume for that year, observing that the magazine
had " given rise to almost twenty imitations of it, which are either
all dead or very little regarded. ' The plan was also imitated in
Denmark, Sweden and Germany. The Gentleman's Magazine was
continued by Cave's brother-in-law, David Henry, afterwards by
John Nichols and his son. 2 Cave appears to have been the first

2 The first series of the Gentleman's Magazine or Trader's Monthly
Intelligencer, extended from January 1731 to December 1735, 5 vols.;
the Gentleman's Magazine and Historical Chronicle from January
1736 to December 1807, vols. 6-77; new series, January 1808 to
December 1833, vols. 78-103; new series, 1834-1856, 45 vols.;
new (third) series, 1856-1865, 19 vols.; new (fourth) series, 1866-
1868, 5 vols. A general index to the first twenty vols, appeared
in 1753- S. Ayscough brought out an index to the first fifty-six vols.,
1731-1786 (1789), 2 vols., and one by J. Nichols, 1787-1818 (1821),
2 vols. A complete list of the plates and woodcuts (1731-1813) was
published in 1814, and another list (1731-1818), in 1821. The
Gentleman' s Magazine Library, being a classified collection of the chief
contents of the Gentleman's Magazine, from 173 1' to 1868, is now
being edited by Mr G. L. Gomme (1883, &c, vols. 1-17).

PERIODICALS

i53

to use the word magazine in the sense of a periodical of miscellaneous
literature. The specially antiquarian, biographical and historical
features, which make this magazine so valuable a store-house for
information for the period it covers, were dropped in 1868, when
an " entirely new series," a miscellany of light literature was succes-
sively edited by Gowing, Joseph Hatton and Joseph Knight.

Many other magazines-were produced in consequence of the success
of these two. It will be sufficient to mention the following: The
Scots Afagazine (1739-1817) was the first published in Scotland; from
1817 to 1826 it was styled the Edinburgh Magazine. The Universal
Magazine (1747) had a short, if brilliant, career; but the European
Magazine, founded by James Perry in 1782, lasted down to 1826.
Of more importance than these, or than the Royal Magazine (1759-
1771) was the Monthly Magazine (1796-1843), with which Priestley
and Godwin were originally connected. During thirty years the
Monthly was conducted by Sir Richard Phillips, under whom it
became more statistical and- scientific than literary. Class magazines
were represented by the Edinburgh Farmer's Magazine (1800-1825)
and the Philosophical Magazine (1798), established in London by
Alexander Tilloch ; the latter at first consisted chiefly of translations
of scientific articles from the French. The following periodicals, all
of which date from the 18th century, are still published: the Gospel
Magazine (1 766, with which is incorporated the British Protestant), the
Wesleyan Methodist Magazine (1778), Curtis's Botanical Magazine
(1786), Evangelical Magazine (1793; since 1905 'the Evangelical
British Missionary), the Philosophical Magazine (1798), now known
as the London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine.

The increased influence of this class of periodical upon public
opinion was first apparent in Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine,
founded in 1817 by the publisher of that name, and carried to a
high degree of excellence by the contributions of Scott, Lockhart,
Hogg, Maginn, Syme and John Wilson (" Christopher North "),
John Gait and Samuel Warren. It has always remained Liberal
in literature and Conservative in politics. The New Monthly
Magazine is somewhat earlier in date. It was founded in 1814
by the London publisher, Colburn, and was edited in turn by
Campbell, Theodore Hook, Bulwer-Lytton and Ainsworth. Many of
Carlyle's and Thackeray's pieces first appeared in Fraser's Magazine
(1830), long famous for its personalities and its gallery of literary
portraits. The Metropolitan Magazine was started in opposition
to Fraser, and was first edited by Campbell, who had left its rival.
It subsequently came into the hands of Captain Marryatt, who
printed in it many of his sea-tales. The British Magazine (1832-
1849) included religious and ecclesiastical information. From
Ireland came the Dublin University Magazine (1833). The regular
price of these magazines was half a crown; the first of the cheaper
ones was Tait's Edinburgh Magazine (1832-1861) at a shilling. It
was Radical in politics, and had Roebuck as one of its founders.
Bentley's Miscellany (1837-1868) was exclusively devoted to novels,
light literature and travels. Several of Ainsworth's romances,
illustrated by Cruikshank, first saw the light in Bentley. The
Nautical Magazine (1832) was addressed specially to sailors, and
Colburn's United Service Journal (1829) to both services. The
Asiatic Journal (18 16) dealt with Oriental subjects.

From 1 815 to 1820 a number of low-priced and unwholesome
periodicals flourished. The Mirror (1823-1849), a two-penny
Ch Pi h '" ustra ted magazine, begun by John Limbird,* and
"''the Mechanics Magazine (1823) were steps in a better
Hcatlons. direction, -p^e political agitation of 1 83 1 led to a further
popular demand, and a supply of cheap and healthy serials for
the reading multitude commenced with Chambers' s Journal (1832),
the Penny Magazine (1832-1845) of Charles Knight, and the Saturday
Magazine (1 832-1 844), begun by the Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge. The first was published at 1 Jd. and the last two at id.
Knight secured the best authors and artists of the day to write for
and illustrate his magazine, which, though at first a commercial
success, may have had the reason of its subsequent discontinuance
in its literary excellence. At the end of 1832 it had reached a sale
of 200,000 in weekly numbers and monthly parts. It came to an
end in 1845 and was succeeded by Knight's Penny Magazine
(1845), which was stopped after six monthly parts. These periodicals
were followed by a number of penny weeklies of a lower tone, such
as the Family Herald (1843), the London Journal (1845) and Lloyd's
Miscellany. In 1850 the sale of the first of them was placed at
175,000 copies, the second at 170,000, and Lloyd's at 95,000. In
1846 fourteen penny and three half-penny magazines, twelve social
journals, and thirty-seven book-serials were produced every week
in London. A further and permanent improvement in cheap
weeklies for home reading may be traced from the foundation of
Howitt's Journal (1 847-1 849), and more especially Household Words
(1850), conducted by Charles Dickens, All the Year Round (1859),
by the same editor, and afterwards by his son, Once A Week (1859),
and the Leisure Hour (1852). The plan of Notes and Queries (1849),
for the purpose of inter-communication among those interested in
special points of literary and antiquarian character, has led to the

1 John Limbird, to whom even before Chambers or Knight is
due the carrying out the idea of a cheap and good periodical for the
people, died on the 31st of October 1883, without having achieved
the worldly prosperity of his two followers.

adoption of similar departments in a great number of newspapers
and periodicals, and, besides several imitators in England, there
are no* parallel journals in Holland, France, and Italy.

Shilling monthlies began with Macmillan (1859), the Cornhill
(i860), first edited by Thackeray, and Temple Bar (i860). St
James's Magazine (1861), Belgravia (1866), St Paul's (1867-1874),
London Society (1862), and Tinsley's (1867) were devoted chiefly
to novels and light reading. Sixpenny illustrated magazines com-
menced with Good Words (i860) and the Quiver (1861), both religious
in tendency. In 1882 Fraser changed its name to Longman's
Magazine, and was popularized and reduced to sixpence. The
Cornhill followed the same example in 1883, reducing its price to
sixpence and devoting its pages to light reading. The English
Illustrated Magazine (1883) was brought out in competition with
the American Harper's and Century. The Pall Mall Magazine
followed in 1893. Of the artistic periodicals we may signalize the
Art Journal (1849), Portfolio (1870), Magazine of Art (1878-1904),
Studio (1893), Connoisseur (1901), and Burlington (1903). The
Bookman (1886), for a combination of popular and literary qualities,
and the Badminton (1895), for sport, also deserve mention. One
of the most characteristic developments of later journalism was
the establishment in 1890 of the Review of Reviews by W. T. Stead.
Meanwhile the number of cheap periodicals increased enormously,
such as the weekly Tit-bits (1881), and Answers (1888), and profusely
illustrated magazines appeared, like the Strand (1891), Pearson's
(1896), or Windsor (1895). Professions and trades now have not
only their general class-periodicals, but a special review or magazine
for every section. In 1910 the magazines and reviews published in
the United Kingdom numbered 2795. Religious periodicals were
668; 338 were devoted to trade; 361 to sport; 691 represented the
professional classes; 51 agriculture; and 218 were juvenile periodicals.
The London monthlies were 797 and the quarterlies 155.

Indexes to English Periodicals. — A large number of periodicals
do not preserve literary matter of permanent value, but the high-
class reviews and the archaeological, artistic and scientific magazines
contain a great mass of valuable facts, so that general and special
indexes have become necessary to all literary workers. Lists of
the separate indexes to particular series are given in H. B. Wheatley's
What is an Index? (1879), W. P. Courtney's Register of National
Bibliography (1905, 2 vols.), and the List of Books forming the
Reference Library in the reading room of the British Museum (4th ed.
1910, 2 vols).

Authorities. — " Periodicals," in the British Museum catalogue;
Lowndes, Bibliographer's Manual, by Hy. G. Bohn, (1864); Cat. of
Periodicals in the Bodl. Lib., pt. i., " English Periodicals " (1878);
Cat. of the Hope Collection of Early Newspapers and Essayists in the
Bodl. Lib. (1865); Scudder, Cat. of Scientific Serials (1879); Andrews,
Hist, of Brit. Journalism (1859) ; Cucheval Clarigny, Hist, de la Presse
en Angleterre et aux Etats Unis (1857) I Madden, Hist, of Irish Period.
Lit. (1867); J. Grant, The Great Metropolis, ii. 229-327; " Periodical
Essays of the Age of Anne," in N. American Rev. vol. xlvi. ; Drake,
Essays on the " Spectator," " Taller," &c. (1810-1814); Courthope,
Addison ("Engl. Men of Letters," 1884); "Forgotten Periodical
Publications," in Notes and Queries, 3rd series, vol. ix. p. 53;
" Account of Periodical Literary Journals from 1681 to 1749," by
S. Parkes, in Quart. Journ. of Sc, Lit., &c, xiii. 36, 289; see also Notes
and Queries, 1st series, vol. vi. pp. 327, 435; "Last Century
Magazines," in Fraser's Mag. Sept. (1876), p. 325; " Periodicals
during 1712-1732," in Notes and Queries, 3rd series, vol. ix. p. 72,
&c, x. 134; " Catholic Period. Lit.," ib., 5th series, vol. xi. 427. 494;
" Early Roman Catholic Magazines," ib., 6th series, vol. iii. p. 43,
&c, iv. 211; Timperley, Ency. of Lit. Anec. (1842); C. Knight,
The Old Printer and the Modern Press (1854), and Passages of
a Working Life (1 864-1 865); Memoir of Robert Chambers (1872);
the London Cat. of Periodicals, Newspapers, &c. (1844-1910); The
Bookseller (February 1867, June and July 1868, August 1874, July
1879); "On the Unstamped Press," Notes and Queries, 4th series,
vol. x. and xi. (1872-1873), and English Hist. Review (1897), xii.
711-726; " Contributions Towards an Index of Serial Stories," by
W. L. Fletcher, Library Journal (1881), vi. 42, 166; " Byways of
Periodical Literature," Walford's Antiq. Mag. (1887), xi. 177-186,
xii. 65-74; Catalogue of Magazines &c, reed, at the Melbourne Pub.
Lib. (1891); "English Periodical Literature," by W. Robertson
Nicoil, Bookman (1895), vol. i. ; " The Periodical Press, 1&55-1895,"
by T. H. S. Escott, Blackwood (1894), pp. 156, 532; " Bibliography
of Periodical Literature," by F. Campbell, The Library d898), viii.
49; " Bibliography of the British Periodical Press," by I). Williams
in Mitchell's Newspaper Directory (1902), pp. 12-13; " English
Reviews," by A. Waugh, Critic, vol. 40; " Excursus on Periodical
Criticism," Saintsbury, History of Criticism (1904), iii. 408-428.
As regards the treatment of periodicals in libraries see " Helps
for Cataloguers of Serials," by H. C. Bolton in Boston Bull, of Biblio-
graphy (1897); " Co-operative lists of periodicals," Library Journal,
(1899), xxiv. 29-32, " Union List of Periodicals in Chicago Libraries,"
Public Libraries, Chicago (1900), v. 60; " Care of Periodicals
in a Library," by F. R. Jackson, Public Libraries, Chicago (1906) , vol.
xi. Complete lists of current British periodicals are included in
Mitchell's Newspaper Press Directory, Street's Newspaper Directory,
and Willing's Press Guide, and a select list and other information
' are given in the Literary Year Book.

154

PERIODICALS

United States
The two earliest American miscellanies were produced almost
simultaneously. Spurred by the success of the Gentleman's Magazine
in England Benjamin Franklin founded the General Magazine
(1741) at Philadelphia, but it expired after six monthly numbers
had appeared. Franklin's rival, Andrew Bradford, forestalled
him by three days with the American Magazine (1741) edited by
John Webbe, which ran only to two numbers. Further attempts at
Philadelphia in 1757 and 1769 to revive periodicals with the same
name were both fruitless. The other pre-revolutionary magazines
were the Boston American Magazine (1743-1747), in imitation of
the London Magazine; the Boston Weekly Magazine (1743); the
Christian History (1743-1744); the New York Independent Reflector
(1752-1754); the Boston New England Magazine (1758-1760), a
collection of fugitive pieces; the Boston Royal American Magazine
(1774-1775); and the Pennsylvania Magazine (1775-1776), founded
by Robert Aitken, with the help of Thomas Paine. The Columbian
Magazine (1786-1790) was continued as the Universal Asylum
(1790-1792). Matthew Carey brought out the American Museum
in 1787, and it lasted until 1792. Among the other magazines which
ran out a brief existence before the end of the century was the
Philadelphia Political Censor or Monthly Review (1796-1797) edited
by William Cobbett. One of the most successful was the Farmer's
Weekly Museum (1790-1799), supported by perhaps the most
brilliant staff of writers American periodical literature had yet
been able to show, and edited by Joseph Dennie, who in 1801 began
the publication of the Portfolio, carried on to 1827 at Philadelphia.
For five years it was a weekly miscellany in quarto, and afterwards
an octavo monthly; it was the first American serial which could
boast of so long an existence. Charles Brockden Brown established
the New York Monthly Magazine (1799), which, changing its title
to The American Review, was continued to 1802. Brown founded
at Philadelphia the Literary Magazine (1803-1808); he and Dennie
may be considered as having been the first American professional
men of letters. The Anthology Club was established at Boston in
1803 by Phineas Adams for the cultivation of literature and the
discussion of philosophy. Ticknor, Everett and Bigelow were
among the members, and were contributors to the organ of the club,
the monthly Anthology and Boston Review (1803-180), the fore-
runner of the North American Review. In the year 1810 Thomas
(Printing in America, ii. 292) informs us that 27 periodicals were
issued in the United States. The first serious rival of the Portfolio
was the Analectic Magazine (1813-1820), founded at Philadelphia
by Moses Thomas, with the literary assistance of W. Irving (for
some time the editor). Paulding, and the ornithologist Wilson. In
spite of a large subscription list it came to an end on account of
the costly style of its production. The first southern serial was
the Monthly Register (1805) of Charleston. New York possessed
no periodical worthy of the city until 1824, when the Atlantic
Magazine appeared, which changed its name shortly afterwards.
to the New York Monthly Review, and was supported by R. C. Sands
and W. C. Bryant. N. P. Willis was one of the editors of the New
York Mirror (1823-1842). Between 1840 and l8^oGraham's Magazine
was the leading popular miscellany in the country, reaching at
one time a circulation of about 35,000 copies. The first western
periodical was the Illinois Monthly Magazine (1830-1832), published,
owned, edited and almost entirely written by James Hall, who
followed with his Western Monthly Magazine (1833-1836), produced
in a similar manner. In 1833 the novelist C. F. Hoffman founded
at New York the Knickerbocker (1833-1860), which soon passed
under the control of Timothy Flint and became extremely successful,
most of the leading native writers of the next twenty years having
been contributors. Equally popular was Putnam's Monthly Magazine
(1853-1857,1867-1869). It wasrevivedin 1906-1910. The Dial{ 1840-
1844), Boston, the organ of the transcendentalists, was first edited
by Margaret Fuller, and subsequently by R. W. Emerson and G.
Ripley. Other magazines were the American Monthly Magazine
(1833-1838), the Southern Literary Messenger (1834), Richmond, the
Gentleman's Magazine (1837-1840), and the International Magazine
(1850-1852), edited by R. W. Griswold. The Yale Literary Magazine
dated from 1836. The Merchants' Magazine was united in 1871 with
the Commercial and Financial Chronicle. First in order of date
among the current monthly magazines comes the New York Harper's
New Monthly Magazine ( 1 850) , the earliest existing illustrated American
serial, then the Boston Atlantic Monthly (1857), with which was
incorporated the Galaxy (1866) in 1878, famous for its editors Lowell,
Howells and T. B. Aldrich, and its contributors O. W. Holmes,
Longfellow, Whittier and others. Next came Lippincott's Magazine
(1868) frcm Philadelphia, and the Cosmopolitan (1886) and Scribner's
Monthly (1870, known as the Century Illustrated Magazine since
1 881) from New York. These were followed by Scribner's Magazine
(1887), the New England Magazine (1889), the Illustrated Review of
Reviews (1890), McClure's Magazine (1893), the Bookman (1895), the
World's Work (1902), the American Magazine (1906) succeeding
Frank Leslie's Popular Monthly, and Munsey's Magazine (1889).
All are illustrated, and three in particular, the Century, Scribner's
and Harper's, carried the art of wood-engraving to a high standard
of excellence.

The first attempt to carry on an American review was made by
Robert Walsh in 181 1 at Philadelphia with the quarterly American

Review of History and Politics, which lasted only a couple of years.
Still more brief was the existence of the General Repository and
Review (1812), brought out at Cambridge by Andrews Norton with
the help of the professors of the university, but of which only four
numbers appeared. Niles's Weekly Register (1811-1848) was
political, historical and literary. The North American Review, the
oldest and most famous of all the American reviews, dates from 1815,
and was founded by William Tudor, a member of the previously
mentioned Anthology Club. After two years' control Tudor handed
over the review to the club, then styled the North American Club,
whose most active members were E. T. Channing, R. H. Dana and
Jared Sparks. In 1819 E. Everett became the editor; his brother
Alexander acquired the property in 1829. The roll of contributors
numbers almost every American writer of note. Since 1879 it has
been published monthly (except in Sept. 1906-Sept. 1907, whenitap-
peared semi-monthly). The American Quarterly Review (1827-1837),
established at Philadelphia by Robert Walsh, came to an end on
his departure for Europe. The Southern Quarterly^ Review (1828-
1832), conducted by H. Legare, S. Elliot and G. W. Simms in defence
of the politics and finance of the South, enjoyed a shorter career.
It was resuscitated in 1 842, and lived another thirteen years. These
two were followed by the Democratic Review ( 1 838-1 852) , the American
Review (1845-1849), afterwards the American Whig Review (1850-
1852), the Massachusetts Quarterly Review (i847-i8so),and a few more.
The New Englander (1 843-1 892), the Biblical Repertory and Princeton
Review (1825), the National Quarterly Review (i860) and the New
York International Review (1874-1883), may also be mentioned.
The critical weeklies of the past include the .New York Literary
Gazette (1834-1835, 1839), De Bow's Review (1846), the Literary
World (1847-1853), the Criterion (1855-1856), the Round Table
(1863-1864), the Citizen (1864-1873), and Appleton's Journal (1869).
The leading current monthlies include the New York Forum (1886),
Arena (1890), Current Literature (1888), and Bookman, the Chicago
Dial (1880), and the Greenwich, Connecticut, Literary Collector.
Foremost among the weeklies comes the New York Nation (1865).
,* Religious periodicals have been extremely numerous in the United
States. The earliest was the Theological Magazine (1796-1798).
The Christian Examiner dates from 1824 and lasted down to 1870.
The Panoplist (1805) changed its name to the Missionary Herald,
representing the American Board of Missions. The Methodist
Magazine dates from 1818 and the Christian Disciple from 1813.
The American Biblical Respository (1 831-1850), a quarterly, was
united with the Andover Bibliotheca Sacra (1843) and with the
Theological Eclectic (1865). Brownson's Quarterly Review began
as the Boston Quarterly Review in 1838, and did much to introduce
to American readers the works of the modern French philosophical
school. Other serials of this class are the Protestant Episcopal
Quarterly Review (1854), the Presbyterian Magazine (1851-1860),
the Catholic World (1865), the Southern Review (1867), the New
Jerusalem Magazine (1827), American Baptist M agazine (18 17), the
Church Review (1848), the Christian Review (1836), the Universalist
Quarterly (1844). Current religious quarterlies are the Chicago
American Journal of Theology and the Oberlin Bibliotheca Sacra.
The Chicago Biblical World is published monthly.

Among historical periodicals may be numbered the American
Register (1806-1811), Stryker's American Register (1848-1851),
Edwards's American Quarterly Register (1829-1843), the New
England Historical and Genealogical Register (1847), Folsom's
Historical Magazine (1857), the New York Genealogical Record
(1869), and the Magazine of American History (1877). There is also
the Lancaster, Pennsylvania, American Historical Review, issued
quarterly.

Many serial publications have been almost entirely made up of
extracts from English sources. Perhaps the earliest example is
to be found in Select Views of Literature (1811-1812). The Eclectic
Magazine (1844) and Littell's Living Age (1844) may be mentioned.
In 1817 America possessed only one scientific periodical, the
Journal of Mineralogy. Professor Silliman established the journal
known by his name in 1818. Since that time the American Journal
of Science has enjoyed unceasing favour. The special periodicals
of the day are very numerous. Among the most representative
are: the Popular Science Monthly, New York; the monthly Boston
Journal of Education; the quarterly American Journal of Mathe-
matics, Baltimore ; the monthly Cassier's Magazine ( 1 89 1 ) , New York ;
the monthly American Engineer (1893), New York; the monthly
House and Garden, Philadelphia; the monthly Astrophysical Journal,
commenced as Sidereal Messenger (1882), Chicago; the monthly
American Chemical Journal, Baltimore; the monthly American
Naturalist, Boston; the monthly American Journal of the Medical
Sciences, Philadelphia; the monthly Outing, New York; the weekly
American Agriculturist, New York; the quarterly Metaphysical
Magazine (1895) New York; the bi-monthly American Journal of
Sociology, Chicago; the bi-monthly American Law Review, St Louis;
the monthly Banker's Magazine, New York; the quarterly American
Journal of Philology (1880), Baltimore; the monthly Library Journal
(1876), New York; the monthly Public Libraries, Chicago; the
weekly Scientific American, New York; the quarterly American
Journal of Archaeology (1885), New York.

The number of periodicals devoted to light literature and to female
readers has been, and still remains, extremely large. The earliest

PERIODICALS

1 SS

in the latter class was the Lady's Magazine (1792) of Philadelphia.
The Lowell Offering (1841) was written by factory girls of Lowell
{q.v.), Mass. Godey's Lady's Book was long popular, and the Ladies
Home Journal (1883) and the Woman's Home Companion (1893) ar e
now current. Children's magazines originated with the Young
Misses' Magazine (1806) of Brooklyn; the New York St Nicholas
(monthly) and the Boston Youth's Companion (weekly) are promi-
nent juveniles.

The total of American periodicals mentioned in the Guide by H.
0. Severance and C. H. Walsh (1909, Ann Arbor), is 5136 for the
year 1908.

Authorities. — The eighth volume of the Tenth Report of the
United States Census (1884) contains a statistical report on the
newspaper and periodical press of America by S. N. D. North.
See also Cucheval Clarigny, Ilistoire de la presse en Angleterre et
aux Etats Unis (1857); H. Stevens, Catalogue of American Books
in the Library of the British Museum (1866), and American Books
with Tails to 'em (1873); I. Thomas, History of Printing in America
(Albany, 1874) ; J. Nichol, American Literature (1882) ; " Check List
of American Magazines," in Library Journ., xiv. 373; G. P. Rowell
& Co.'s American Newspaper Directory (New York) ; A. R. Spofford,
Book for all Readers (1900); F. W. Faxon's Check list of American
and English Periodicals (Boston, 1908). Many American libraries
co-operate in issuing joint or union lists of periodicals. See list
of these as well as lists of special indexes in A. B. Kroeger's Guide
to Reference Books (2nd ed., Boston, 1908).

Indexes to Periodicals. — The contents of English and American
periodicals of the last 100 years are indexed in the following publica-
tions: W. F. Poole's Index to Periodical Literature (1802-1881,
revised ed., Boston, 1891); 1st supplement, 1882-1887, by W. F.
Poole and W. I. Fletcher, 1888; 2nd supplement, 1887-1892, by
W. I. Fletcher, 1893; 3rd supplement, 1892-1896, by W. I. Fletcher
and F. O. Poole, 1898; 4th supplement, 1897-1902, 1902; 5th supple-
ment, 1902-1907, 1908; Poole's Index, abridged edition, by W. I.
Fletcher and M. Poole (Boston, 1901); 1st supplement, 1900-1904
(Boston, 1905) ; The Co-operative Index to Periodicals (1885-1894, ed.
W. I. Fletcher, 1 886-1 894); The Annual Literary Index, including
Periodicals, ed. by W. I. Fletcher and R. R. Bowker (New York,
10 vols., 1892-1907) ; "Index of Periodicals. for 1890," &c. (Review of
Reviews), by Miss Hetherington (13 vols., 1 891-1902) ; Q. P. Indexes;
Cotgreave's Contents Subject Index to General and Periodical Literature
(1900) ; Cumulative Index to a Selected list of Periodicals, begun in the
Cleveland Public Library in 1896 and 1897 by W. H. Brett, merged
in 1903 with the Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature (8 vols.,
1 901-1908, ed. by A. L. Guthrie, Minneapolis, U.S.) ; Magazine Subject
Index, by F. W. Faxon (Boston, 1908), continued quarterly in Bulletin
of Bibliography, which in 1907 began a magazine subject index;
Eclectic Library Catalogue (Minneapolis, 1908), issued quarterly.

Canada
Canadian periodicals have reached^ a higher standard than in
any other British self-governing colony. Like that of South
Africa, the press is bi-lingual. The first Canadian review, the
Quebec Magazine (1791-1793), was published quarterly in French
and English. It was followed by the British American Register
(Quebec, 1803), L'Abeille canadienne (Montreal, 1818), edited by
H. Mezigre, the Canadian Magazine (Montreal, 1823-1825), the
Canadian Review (Montreal, 1824-1826), La Bibliothique canadienne
(Montreal, 1825-1830), continued as L' Observateur (1830-1831),
and the Magasin du Bas-Canada (Montreal, 1832). The three
latter' were edited by Michel Bibaud. The Literary Garland
(Montreal, 1838-1850), edited by John Gibson, was for some time
the only English magazine published in Canada. Later magazines
were L'Echo du cabinet du lecture paroissial (Montreal, 1859), 15
vols.; Le Foyer canadien (Quebec, 1863-1866), one of the most
interesting French-Canadian reviews; La Revue canadienne, which
was started at Montreal in 1864, and contained the best writings
of contemporary French-Canadian litterateurs ; La Revue de Montreal
(1877-1881), edited by the abbe T. A. Chandonnet; the Canadian
Journal (Toronto), commenced in 1852 under Henry Youle Hind
and continued by Daniel Wilson; L'Abeille (Quebec, 1848-1881),
and the Canadian Monthly (Toronto, 1872-1882). The Bystander
(Toronto, 1 880-1 883), was edited by Galdwin Smith. Le Canada
francais (Quebec, 1888-1891), edited by the staff of the Laval
University, and Canadiana (1889-1890), were important historical
and literary reviews. Contemporary magazines are the Canadian
Magazine (1893), the Westminster, both produced at Toronto,
La Nouvelle- France (Quebec), the Canada Monthly (London, Ontario),
and the University Magazine, edited by Professor Macphail, of the
McGill University.

See H. J. Morgan, Bibliotheca canadensis (1867), " Canadian
Magazines, ' by G. Stewart, Canadian Monthly, vol. xvii.; " Periodi-
cal Literature in Canada," ty J. M. Oxley, North Am. Rev. (1888);
P. Gagnon, Essai de bibliographie canadienne (1895), and S. E.
Dawson, Prose Writers of Canada (1901).
South Africa
The earliest magazine was the South African Journal, issued by
the poet Pringle and John Fairbairn in 1824. It was followed by
the South African Quarterly Journal (1829-1834), the Cape of Good
Hope Literary Gazette (1830-1833), edited by A. J. Jardine, the Cape

of Good Hope Literary Magazine (1847-1848), edited b>' J. L. Fitz-
patrick, and the Eastern Province Monthly Magazine, published at
Grahamstown in 1857-1858. A Dutch periodical called Elpis, alge-
meen tijdschrift voorZuid Afrika (1857-1861) appealed to the farming
community. The Eastern Province Magazine was issued at Port
Elizabeth in 1861-1862, and the South African Magazine appeared
in 1 867-1 868. The Orange Free Stale Magazine, the only English
magazine published at Bloemfontein, was issue'd in 1877-1878;
and the E. P. Magazine was published at Grahamstown in 1892-
1897. The Cape Monthly Magazine, the most important of the
periodicals, was issued from 1857 to 1862, and was again continued
under the editorship of Professor Noble from 1870 to 1881. The
Cape Illustrated Magazine (1 890-1 899) was edited by Professor
J. Gill. In Durban the Present Century was started in 1903, and
the Natal Magazine was issued at Pietermaritzburg in 1877. The
weekly New Era (1904-1905) was succeeded by the South African
Magazine (1906-1907) ; both were edited by C. H. Crane. The
African Monthly (Grahamstown, 1907) and the State of South Africa
(Cape Town, 1909) are monthly reviews, while the South African
Railway Magazine (1907) is of wider interest than its name denotes.
See S. Mendelssohn, South African Bibliography (2 vols., 1910);
and P. E. Lewin, Catalogue of the Port Elizabeth Library (2 vols.,
1906).

Australia and New Zealand
New South Wales. — The Australian Magazine was published
monthly at Sydney in 1821-1822. This was followed by the
South Asian Register (1827), the Australian Quarterly Journal
(1828), edited by the Rev. P. N. Wilton, the New South Wales
Magazine (1833), the New South Wales Literary, Political and
Commercial Advertiser (1835), edited by the eccentric Dr Lhotsky,
Tegg's Monthly Magazine (1836), the Australian Magazine (1838),
the New South Wales Magazine (1843), the Australian Penny Journal
(1848) and many others. The Sydney University Magazine (1855),
again published in 1 878-1 879, and continued as the Sydney Uni-
versity Review, is the first magazine of a high literary standard.
The Sydney Magazine of Science and Art (1857) and the Month
(1857) were short-lived. Of later magazines the Australian (1878-
1881), Aurora australis (1868), and the Sydney Magazine (1878),
were the most noteworthy. Of contemporary magazines Dalgety's
Review is mainly agricultural, the Australian Magazine (1909) and
the Lone Hand (1907) are popular, and the Science of Man is an
anthropological review.

See Australasian Bibliography (Sydney, 1893) ; G. B. Barton,
Literature of N. S. W. (1866); E. A. Petherick, Catalogue of Books
Relating to Australasia (1899).

Victoria. — The Port Phillip Magazine (1843) must be regarded
as the first literary venture in Victoria. This was followed by the
Australia Felix Magazine (1849), and the Australasian Quarterly
Reprint (1850-1851) both published at Geelong, the Illustrated
Australian Magazine (1 850-1 852), the Australian Gold-Digger's
Monthly Magazine (1852-1853), edited by James Bonwick, and the
Melbourne Monthly Magazine (1855-1856). The Journal of Austral-
asia (1856-1858), the Australian Monthly Magazine (1865-1867),
which contained contributions from Marcus Clarke and was con-
tinued as the Colonial Monthly (1867-1869), the Melbourne Review
(1876-1885) and the Victorian Review (1879-1886) may also be
mentioned. The Imperial Review, apparently the work of one pen,
has been published since 1879; the Pastoralists' Review appeals
more especially to the agricultural community. A Library Record
of Australasia was published in 1901-1902. An Australian edition
of the Review of Reviews is published at Melbourne.

See " Some Magazines of Early Victoria," in the Library Record
of Australasia, Nos. 2-4 (1901).

South Australia.— The South Australian Magazine was issued
monthly in 1841-1843, the Adelaide Magazine (1845), the Adelaide
Miscellany (1848-1849), and the Wanderer in 1853. The South
Australian Twopenny Magazine was published at Plymouth,
England, in 1839, and the South Australian Miscellany and New
Zealand Review at London in the same year.

See T. Gill, Bibliography of South Australia (1886).
Tasmania. — The first magazine was Murray's Austral-Asiatic
Review, published at Hobart in 1828. The Hobart Town Magazine
appeared in 1 833-1 834, and the Van Diemen's Land Monthly
Magazine in 1835.

New Zealand. — The New Zealand Magazine, a quarterly, was
published at Wellington in 1850. In 1857 appeared the New
Zealand Quarterly Review, of little local interest, followed by Chap-
man's New Zealand Monthly Magazine (1862), the Southern Monthly
Magazine (1863), the Delphic Oracle (1866-1870), the Stoic (1871),
the Dunedin Review (1885), the Literary Magazine (1885), the four
latter being written by J. G. S. Grant, an eccentric genius, the
Monthly Review (1888-1890), the New Zealand Illustrated Magazine
(1899-1905), chiefly devoted to the light literature of New Zealand
subjects, the Maori Record (1905-1907), and the Red Funnel, pub-
lished since 1905.

See T. M. Hocken, Bibliography of New Zealand (1909).

West Indies and British Crown Colonies
In Jamaica the Columbian Magazine was founded at Kingston
in 1796 and ceased publication in 1800. Two volumes were

i 5 6

PERIODICALS

published of a New Jamaica Magazine which was started about 1798.
The Jamaica Magazine (1812-1813), the Jamaica Monthly Magazine
(1844-1848), and the Victoria Quarterly (1889-1892), which con-
tained many valuable articles on the West Indies, were other
magazines. The West Indian Quarterly was published at George-
town, British Guiana, from 1885 to 1888. At Georgetown was
also published the well-known Timehri (1882-1898) which contained
many important historical articles. In Trinidad the Trinidad
Monthly Magazine was started in 1 87 1, and the Union Magazine
in 1892'.

Malta had a Malta Penny Magazine in 1839-1841, and the Revue
historique et litteraire was founded in Mauritius in 1887. Many
magazines dealing with the colonies have been published in England,
such as the Colonial Magazine (1840-1843).

See F. Cundall, Bibliographia Jamaicensis (1902-1908).

India and Ceylon

Calcutta. — The first Indian periodical was the Asialick Mis-
cellany (Calcutta, 1 785-1 789), probably edited by F. Gladwin.
The Calcutta Monthly Register was published in 1790, and the Cal-
cutta Monthly Journal from 1798 to 1841. Among other early
Calcutta magazines were the Asiatic Observer (1823-1824), the
Quarterly Oriental Magazine (1824-1827), and the Royal Sporting
Magazine (1833-1838). The Calcutta Literary Gazette was published
in 1 830-1 834, and the Calcutta Review, still the most important
serial of the Indian Empire, first appeared in 1846 under the editor-
ship of Sir J. W. Kaye.

Bombay. — The Bombay Magazine was started in 181 1 and lasted
but a short time. The Bombay Quarterly Magazine (1851-1853)
gave place to the Bombay Quarterly Review, issued in 1855.

Madras. — Madras had a Journal of Literature and Science and
the Oriental Magazine and Indian Hurkuru (1819). The Indian
Antiquary was started at Bombay in 1872 and still continues. Of
other contemporary magazines the Hindustan Review (Allahabad),
the Modern Review (Calcutta), the Indian Review (Madras), the
Madras Review, a quarterly first published in 1895, and the Calcutta
University Magazine (1894), are important.

Ceylon. — In Ceylon the Religious and Theological Magazine
was started at Colombo in 1833, the Colombo Magazine in 1839,
the Ceylon Magazine in 1840, and the Investigator at Kandy in 1841.
Of contemporary magazines the Tropical Agriculturist was started
in 1881, the Ceylon Literary Register (1886-1896), afterwards the
Monthly Literary Register and the Ceylon National Review in 1893. In
Burma the quarterly Buddhism appeared in 1904. Singapore
had a Journal of the Indian Archipelago from 1847 to 1859, and the
Chinese Repository (1832-1851) was edited at Carton by Morrison.

See " Periodical Literature in India," in Dark Blue (1872-1873).

France

We owe the literary journal to France, where it soon attained
to a degree of importance unapproached in any other country.
The first idea may be traced in the Bureau d'adresse (1633-1642) of
Theophraste Renaudot, giving the proceedings of his conferences
upon literary and scientific matters. About the year 1663
Mezeray obtained a privilege for a regular literary periodical, which
came to nothing, and it was left to Denis de Sallo. counsellor of
the parliament of Paris and a man of rare merit and learning, to
actually carry the project into effect. The first number of the
Journal des savants appeared on the 5th of January 1665, under
the assumed name of the sieur d'Hedouville. The prospectus
promised to give an account of the chief books published throughout
Europe, obituary notices, a review of the progress of science,
besides legal and ecclesiastical information and other matters of
interest to cultivated persons. The criticisms, however, wounded
alike authors and the clergy, and the journal was suppressed after
a career of three months. Colbert, seeing the public utility of such
a periodical, ordered the abbe Gallois, a contributor of De Sallo's,
to re-establish it, an event which took place on the 4th of January
1666. It lingered nine years under the new editor, who was re-
placed in 1675 by the abbe de la Roque, and the latter in his turn
by the president Cousin, in 1686. From 1 701 commenced a new
era for the Journal, which was then acquired by the chancellor de
Pontchartrain for the state and placed under the direction of a
commission of learned men. Just before the Revolution it de-
veloped fresh activity, but the troubles of 1792 caused it to be
discontinued until 1796, when it again failed to appear after twelve
numbers had been issued. In 1816 it was definitely re-established
and replaced under government patronage, remaining subject
to the chancellor or garde-des-sceaux until 1857, when it was trans-
ferred to the control of the minister of public instruction. Since
1903 the organization of the publication has changed. The state
subsidy having been withdrawn, the Institute voted a yearly
subscription of 10,000 francs and nominated a commission of five
members, one for each section, who managed the Journal. Since
1909, however, the various sections have left to the Academie des
Inscriptions et Belles Lettres the entire direction of the Journal,
while still paying the annual subsidy. It now restricts itself to
publishing contributions relating to antiquities and the middle
ages and Oriental studies.

Louis Augiiste de Bourbon, sovereign prince of Dombes, having
transferred his parliament to Trevoux, set up a printing press, and
was persuaded by two Jesuits, Michel le Tellier and Philippe Lalle-
man, to establish the Memoires pour servir a I'histoire des sciences
et des arts (1701-1767), more familiarly known as the Journal des
Trevoux, long the best -informed and best-written journal in France.
One feature of its career was its constant appeal for the literary
assistance of outsiders. It was continued in a more popular style
as Journal des sciences et des beaux-arts (1768-1775) by the abbe
Aubert and by the brothers Castilhon (i776-i778),and as Journal
de litterature, des sciences, et des arts (1779-1782) by the abbe
Grosier.

The first legal periodical was the Journal du palais (1672) of Claude
Blondeau and Gabriel Gueret, and the first devoted to medicine the
Nouvelles decouvertes dans toutes les parties de la medecine (1679)
of Nicolas de Blegny, frequently spoken^ of as a charlatan, a term
which sometimes means simply a man of many ideas. Religious
periodicals date from 1680, and the Journal ecclisiastique of the abbe
de la Roque, to whom is also due the first medical journal (1683).
The prototype of the historico-literary periodical may be discovered
in La Clef du cabinet des princes de V Europe { 1704- 1706), familiarly
known as Journal de Verdun, and carried on under various titles
down to 1794.

Literary criticism was no more free than political discussion, and
no person was allowed to trespass either upon the domain of the
Journal des savants or that of the Mercure de France (see News-
papers) without the payment of heavy subsidies. This was the
origin of the clandestine press of Holland, and it was that country
which for the next hundred years supplied the ablest periodical
criticism from the pens of French Protestant refugees. During that
period thirty-one journals of the first class proceeded from these
sources. From its commencement the Journal des savants was
pirated in Holland, and for ten years a kind of joint issue made up
with the Journal des Trevoux appeared at Amsterdam. From 1764
to 1775 miscellaneous articles from different French and English
reviews were added to this reprint. Bayle, a born journalist and
the most able critic of the day, conceived the plan of the Nouvelles
de la republique des lettres (1684-1718), which at once became
entirely successful and obtained for him during the three years of
his control the dictatorship of the world of letters. He was succeeded
as editor by La Roque, Barrin, Bernard and Leclerc. Bayle's
method was followed in an equally meritorious periodical, the
Histoire des ouvrages des Savants (1687-1704) of H. Basnage de
Beauval. Another continuator of Bayle was Jean Leclerc, one of
the most learned and acute critics of the 1 8th century, who carried
on three reviews — the Bibliotheque universelle et historique (1686-
ID 93). the Biblioiheque choisie (1703-1713), and the Bibliotheque
ancienne et moderne (1714-1727). They form one series, and,
besides valuable estimates of new books, include original disserta-
tions, articles and biographies like our modern learned magazines.
The Journal litteraire (1713-1722, 1 729-1 736) was founded by a
society of young men, who made it a rule to discuss their con-
tributions in common. Specially devoted to English literature were
the Bibliotheque anglaise (1716-1728), the Memoires litteraires de
la Grande Bretagne (1720-1724), the Bibliotheque britannique
( I 733 _I 734). and the Journal britannique (1750-1757) of Maty, 1
who took for his principle, " pour penser avec liberte il faut penser
seul." One of these Dutch-printed reviews was L'Europe savante
(1718-1720), founded chiefly by Themiseul de Saint-Hyacinthe,
with the intention of placing each separate department under the
care of a specialist. The Bibliotheque germanique (1720-1740)
was established by Jacques Lenfant to do for northern Europe
what the Bibliotheque britannique did for England. It was followed
by the Nouvelle bibliotheque germanique (1746-1759). The Biblio-
theque raisonnee des ouvrages des savants (1728-1758) was supple-
mentary to Leclerc, and was succeeded by the Bibliotheque des
sciences et des beaux-arts (1754-1780). Nearly all of the preceding
were produced either at Amsterdam or Rotterdam, and, although
out of place in a precise geographical arrangement, really belong
to France by the close ties of language and of blood.

Taking up the exact chronological order again, we find the
success of the English essay-papers led to their prompt introduction
to the Continent. An incomplete translation of the Spectator was
published at Amsterdam in 1714, and many volumes of extracts
from the Tatler, Spectator and Guardian were issued in France
early in the 1 8th century. Marivaux brought out a Spectateur
Francais (1722), which was coldly received; it was followed by
fourteen or fifteen others, under the titles of La Spectatrice (1728-
1730), Le Radoteur (1775), Le Babillard (1778-1779), &c. Of a
similar character was Le Pour et le contre (1723-1740) of the abb£
Prevost, which contained anecdotes and criticism, with special
reference to Great Britain. Throughout the 18th century, in France
as in England, a favourite literary method was to write of social
subjects under the assumed character of a foreigner, generally an

1 Matthew Maty, M.D., born in Holland, 1718, died principal
librarian of the British Museum, 1776. He settled in England in
1740, published several books, and wrote the preface to Gibbon''
first work, Etude de la litterature.

PERIODICALS

157

Oriental, with the title of Turkish Spy, Lettres chinoises, &c. These
productions were usually issued in periodical form, and, besides
an immense amount of worthless tittle-tattle, contain some valuable
matter.

During the first half of the century France has little of impor-
tance to show in periodical literature. The Nouvelles ecclesiastiques
(1 728-1803) were first printed and circulated secretly by the Jansen-
ists in opposition to the Constitution unigenitus. The Jesuits
retaliated with the Supplement des nouvelles ecclesiastiques (1734-
1748). The promising title may have had something to do with
the temporary success of the Memoires secrets de la republique des
lettres (1744-1748) of the marquis d'Argens. In the Observations
sur Jes ecrits modernes (1 735-1 743) Desfontaines held the gates of
Philistia for eight years against the Encyclopaedists, and even the
redoubtable Voltaire himself. It was continued by the Jugements
sur quelques outrages nouveaux (1744-1745). The name of Freron,
perhaps the most vigorous enemy Voltaire ever encountered, was
long connected with Lettres sur quelques ecrits de ce temps (1749-
1754), followed by L'Annee litteraire (1754-1790). Among the
contributors of Freron was another manufacturer of criticism, the
abbe de la Porte, who, having quarrelled with his confrere, founded
Observations sur la litterature moderne (1749-1752) and L 'Observateur
litteraire (1758-1761).

A number of special organs came into existence about this period.
The first, treating of agriculture and domestic economy, was the
Journal economique (1751-1772); a Journal de commerce was
founded in 1759; periodical biography may be first seen in the
Necrologe des hommes celebres de France (1764-1782); the political
economists established the Ephemcrides du ciloyen in 1765; the first
Journal a" education was founded in 1768, and the Courrier de la
mode in the same year ; the theatre had its first organ in the Journal
des theatres (1770); in the same year were produced a Journal de
musique and the Encyclopedic militaire; the sister service was
supplied with a Journal de marine in 1778. We have already
noticed several journals specially devoted to one or other foreign
literature. It was left to Freron, Grimm, Prevost and others in
1754 to extend the idea to all foreign productions, and the Journal
etranger (1754-1762) was founded for this purpose. The Gazette
litteraire (1764-1766), which had Voltaire, Diderot and Saint-
Lambert among its editors, was intended to swamp the small fry
by criticism; the Journal des dames (1759-1778) was of a light
magazine class; and the Journal de monsieur (1776-1783) had three
phases of existence, and died after extending to thirty volumes.
The Memoires secrets pour servir a I'histoire de la republique des
lettres (1762-1787), better known as Memoires de Bachaumont, from
the name of their founder, furnish a minute account of the social
and literary history for a period of twenty-six years. Of a similar
character was the Correspondance litteraire secrete (1774-1793), to
which Metra was the chief contributor. L' Esprit des Journaux
(1772-18 1 8) forms an important literary and historical collection,
which is rarely to be found complete.

The movement of ideas at the close of the century may best be
traced in the Annates politiques, civiles, et litteraires (1777-1792)
of Linguet. The Decade philosophique (year V., or 1796/1797),
founded by Ginguene, is the first periodical of the magazine class
which appeared after the storms of the Revolution. It was a kind
of resurrection of good taste; under the empire it formed the sole
refuge of the opposition. By a decree of the 17th of January 1800
the consulate reduced the number of Parisian journals to thirteen,
of which the Decade was one; all the others, with the exception
of those dealing solely with science, art, commerce and advertise-
ments, were suppressed. A report addressed to Bonaparte by
Fievee 1 in the year XI. (1802/1803) furnishes a list of fifty-one of
these periodicals. In the year XIII. (1804/1805) only seven non-
political serials were permitted to appear.

Between 1815 and 1819 there was a constant struggle between
freedom of thought on the one hand and the censure, the police
and the law officers on the other. This oppression led to the
device of " semi-periodical " publications, of which La Minerve
francaise (1818-1820) is an instance. It was the Satire Menippee of
the Restoration, and was brought out four times a year at irregular
intervals. Of the same class was the Bihliotheque historique (1818-
1820), another anti-royalist organ. The censure was re-established
in 1820 and abolished in 1828 with the monopoly. It has always
seemed impossible to carry on successfully in France a review upon
the lines of those which have become so numerous and important
in England. The Revue britannique (1825-1901) had, however, a long
career. The short-lived Revue francaise (1828-1830), founded by
Guizot, Rcmusat, De Broglie, and the doctrinaires, was an attempt in
this direction. The well-known Revue des deux mondes was estab-
lished in 1829 by Segur-Dupeyron and Mauroy, but it ceased to
appear at the end of the year, and its actual existence dates from
its acquisition in 1 83 1 by Francois Buloz, 2 a masterful editor,

1 The novelist and publicist Joseph FieVce (1767-1839), known
for his relations with Napoleon I., has been made the subject for
a study by Sainte-Beuve (Causeries, v. 172).

2 This remarkable man (1804-1877) beean life as a shepherd.
Educated through the charity of M. Naville, he came to Paris as

under whose energetic management it soon achieved a world-wide
reputation. The most distinguished names in French literature
have been among its contributors, for whom it has been styled the
" vestibule of the Academy." It was preceded by a few months
by the Revue de Paris (1829-1845), founded by Veron, who intro-
duced the novel to periodical literature. In 1834 this was pur-
chased by Buloz, and brought out concurrently with his other
Revue. While the former was exclusively literary and artistic, the
latter dealt more with philosophy. The Revue independanle (1841-
1848) was founded by Pierre Leroux, George Sand and Viardot for
the democracy. The times of the consulate and the empire were the
subjects dealt with by the Revue de Vempire (1842-1848). In Le
Correspondant (1843), established by Montalembert and De Falloux,
the Catholics and Legitimists had a valuable supporter. The
Revue contemporaine (1852), founded by the comte de Belval as a
royalist organ, had joined to it in 1856 the Athenaeum francais.
The Revue_ germanique (1858) exchanged' its exclusive name and
character in 1865 to the Revue moderne. The Revue europeenne
(1859) was at first subventioned . like the Revue contemporaine,
from which it soon withdrew government favour. The Revue
nationale (i860) appeared quarterly, and succeeded to the Magazin
de librairie (1858).

The number of French periodicals, reviews and magazines has
enormously increased, not only in Paris but in the provinces. In
Paris the number of periodicals published in 1883 was 1379; at the
end of 1908 there were more than 3500 of all kinds. The chief
current periodicals may be mentioned in the following order. The
list includes a few no longer published.

Archaeology. — Revue archeologique (i860), bi-monthly; Ami
des monuments (1887); Bulletin de numismatique (1891); Revue
biblique (1892) ;_ L'Annee ipigraphique (1880) — a sort of supplement
to the Corpus inscriptionum latinarum; Celtica (1903) — common to
France and England; Gazette numismatique francaise (1897); Revue
semitique d'epigraphie et d'histoire ancienne (1893); Bulletin monu-
mental, bi-monthly ; V Intermediate, weekly, the French " Notes
and Queries," devoted to literary and antiquarian questions.

Astronomy. — Annuaire astronomique et meteor ologique (1901);
Bulletin astronomique (1884), formerly published under the title
Bulletin des sciences mathematiques et astronomiques.

Bibliography. — Annates de bibliographie theologique (1888); Le
bibliographe moderne (1897); Bibliographie anatomique (1893);
Bibliographie scientifique francaise (1902) ; Bulletin des bibliotheques
et des archives (1884) ; Bulletin des livres relatifs a V Amerique (1899) ;
Courrier des bibliotheques (1910); Repertoire methodique de I'histoire
moderne et contemporaine de la France (1898); Repertoire methodique
du moyen Age francais (1894); Revue bibliographique et critique des
langues et litteratures romanes (1889); Revue des bibliotheques (1891);
Polybiblion : revue bibliographique universelle, monthly ; Revue
generate de bibliographie francaise, bi-monthly.

Children's Magazines. — L 'Ami de la jeunesse; Le Jeudi de
la jeunesse, weekly.

Fashions. — La Mode illustree ; Les Modes, monthly.

Fine Arts. — Les Arts (1902); Gazette des beaux-arts (1859),
monthly, with Chronique des arts; Revue de I' art ancien et moderne
(1897) monthly; L 'Art decoratif, monthly, Art et decoration, monthly;
L'Art pour tous, monthly; La Decoration, monthly; L 'Architecture —
journal of the Soc. centrale des Architectes francais, weekly;
L'Art (1875) is no longer published.

Geography and Colonies. — Bulletin de gtographie historique;
Annates de geographie (1891), with useful quarterly bibliography;
Nouvelles geographiques—supp\ement to the Tour du monde 1,1891);
La Vie coloniale (1902); La Geographie, monthly, published by the
Soc. de Geographie (1900); Revue de geographie, monthly; Revue
gkographique Internationale, monthly.

History. — For long the chief organs for history and archaeology
were the Bibliotheque de I'ecole des chartes (1835), appearing every
two months and dealing with the middle ages, and the Cabinet
historique (1855), a monthly devoted to MSS. and unprinted docu-
ments. The Revue historique (1876) appears bi-monthly; there is
also the Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine.

Law and Jurisprudence. — Annates de droit commercial (1877) ;
Revue algerienne et tunisienne de legislation et de jurisprudence
(1885); Revue du droit public et de la science politique (1894); Revue
generate du droit international public (1894).

Literary Reviews. — The Revue des deux mondes and the Corre-
spondant have already been mentioned. One of the first of European
weekly reviews is the Revue critique (1866). The Revue politique
et litteraire, successor to the Revue des cours litte'raires (1863) and
known as the Revue bleue, also appears weekly. Others of interest
are: AnUe, revue mensuelle de litterature (1904) ; L'Art et la vie (1892) ;
Cosmopolis (1896); L'Ermitage (1890); Le Mercure de France, serie
moderne (1890), a magazine greatly valued in literary circles; La
Revue de Paris, fortnightly (1894), and the Nouvelle Revue (1879) —

a compositor, and by translating from the English earned sufficient
to purchase the moribund Revue des deux mondes, which acquired
its subsequent position in spite of the tyrannical editorial behaviour
of the proprietor. Buloz is said to have eventually enjoyed an
income of 365,000 francs from the Revue.

i 5 8

PERIODICALS

both serious rivals of the Revue des deux mondes; Revue francaise
d'Edimbourg (1897); Revue germanique (1905); Le Livre (1880),
dealing with bibliography and literary history, and La Revue latine
(1902), no longer published; La Revue, monthly.

Mathematics. — Intermediate des malhematiciens (1894); Bulletin
des sciences mathematiques (1896); Revue de mathematiques speciales
(1890) ; Journal de mathematiques pures el appliquees, quarterly.

Medicine. — Revue de medecine (1881); Annates de I'Acole de
plein exercise de medicine et de pharmacie de Marseille (1891); La
Chronique medecale (1893); Revue de gynecologie, bi-monthly; La
Semaine medicate, weekly ; Journal d'hygiene, monthly.

Military. — Revue des troupes coloniales, monthly; La Revue
d'infantrie, monthly.

Music. — Musica (1902); Revue d'histoire et de critique musicale
(1901) ; Annates de la musique; Le Menestral, weekly.

Philology. — L'Annee linguistique (1901-1902) ; Bulletin de la societe
des parlers de France (1893); Bulletin des humanites francais (1894);
Bulletin hispanique (1899); Bulletin italien (1901); Lou-Gai-Sabi-
Antoulongio prouvencalo (1905); Le Maitre phonetique (1886); Le
Moyen Age (1888) ; Revue de la renaissance (1901) ; Revue de metrique
et de versification (1894-1895) ; Revue des etudes grecques (1888) ; Revue
des etudes rabelaisiennes (1903); Revue des parlets populaires (1902);
Revue des patois (1887); Revue hispanique (1894); Revue celtique,
quarterly; Revue de philologie frangaise et de litterature.

Philosophy and Psychology. — Revue philosophique (1876),
monthly; Annates des sciences psychiques (1891); L'Annee philo-
sophique (1890), critical and analytical review of all philosophical
works appearing during the year; L'Annee psychologique (1894);
Journal de psychologie normale et pathologie (1904) ; Bulletin de
I'institut general de psychologie (1903); Revue de I'hypnotisme et de
la psychologie physiologique (1900); Revue de mStaphysique et de
morale (1893); Revue de philosophie (1900); Revue de psychiatrie
(i897)-.

Physics and Chemistry. — Bulletin des sciences physiques (1888);
V Eclair age electrique (1894); Le Radium (1904); Revue generate des
sciences pures et appliquees (1890); Revue pratique de I'electricite
(1892).

Popular and Family Reviews. — A trovers le monde (1898);
Femina (1901); Je sais tout (1905); La Lecture moderne (1901); La
Revue hebdomadaire (1892); Les Lectures pour tous (1898); Mon
bonheur (1902); La Vie heureuse (1902).

Science (General). — La Nature, weekly; Revue scientifique (1863),
weekly; La Science frangaise, monthly. — Science (Applied): Les
inventions illustrees, weekly; Revue industrielle, weekly. — Science
(Natural) : Archives de biologie; Journal de botanique (1887) ; L'Annee
biologique (1895); Revue des sciences nalurelles de Vouest (1891);
Revue generale de botanique (1889) ; La Pisciculture pratique (1895). —
Science (Political, Sociological and Statistical): Annates economiques
(founded as La France commerciale in 1885); L'Annee sociologique
(1896-1897); Bulletin de I 'office du travail (1894); Bulletin de V office
international du travail (1902) ; Le Mouvement socialiste— international
bi-monthly (1899); Notices et comptes rendus de V office du travail
(1892); L'Orient et I'abeille du Bosphore (1889); Revue politique et
parlementaire (1894); Revue international de sociologie, monthly.

Sports. — L'Aerophile (1893) ; L'Aeronautique (1902) ; V Aerostation
(1904) ; La Vie au grand air (1898) ; La Vie automobile (1901) ; Revue
de V aeronautique (1888).

Authorities.— The subject of French periodicals has been
exhaustively treated in the valuable works of Eugene Hatin —
Histoire de la presse en France (8 vols., 1859-1861), Les Gazettes de
Hollande et la presse clandestine aux 17' et 18' slides (1865), and
Bibliographie de la presse periodique francaise (1866). Sete also
Catalogue de I'histoire de France (11 vols., 1855-1879), V. Gebe,
Catalogue des journaux, &c, publies a Paris (1879); Brunet, Manuel
du libraire, avec supplement 48 vols., 1860-1880); F. Mege, Les
Journaux et ecrits periodiques de la Basse Auvergne (1869); Bulletin
des sommaires des journaux (1888); D. Jordell, Repertoire biblio-
graphique des principals revues francaises (3 vols., 1897-1899,
1898-1900), indexes about 350 periodicals; Annuaire de la presse
francaise et du monde politique (1909-1910); Le Soudier, Annuaire
des journaux, revues et publications periodiques parus d. Paris jusqu' en
IQOQ (1910). For lists of general indexes consult Stein, Manuel de
bibliographie generale (1897), pp. 637-710.

Germany

The earliest trace of the literary journal in Germany is to be
tound in the Erbauhche Monatsunlerredungen (1663) of the poet
Johann Rist and in the Miscellanea curiosa medico-physica (1670-
1704) of the Academia naturae curiosorum Leopoldina-Carolina,
the first scientific annual, uniting the features of the Journal des
savants and of the Philosophical Transactions. D. G. Morhof,
the author of the well-known Polyhistor, conceived the idea of a
monthly serial to be devoted to the history of modern books and
learning, which came to nothing. While professor of morals at
Leipzig, Otto Mencke planned the Acta eruditorum, with a view
to make known, by means of analyses, extracts and reviews, the
new works produced throughout Europe. In 1680 he travelled in
England and Holland in order to obtain literary assistance, and

the first number appeared in 1682, under the title of Acta erudi-
torum lipsiensium, and, like its successors, was written in Latin.
Among the contributors to subsequent numbers were Leibnitz,
Seckendorf and Cellarius. A volume came out each year, with
supplements. After editing about thirty volumes Mencke died,
leaving the publication to his son, and thereto remained in the
possession of the family down to 1745, when they extended to 117
volumes, which form an extremely valuab'e history of the learning
of the period. A selection of the dissertations and articles was pub-
lished at Venice in 7 vols. 4to (1740). The Acta soon had imitators.
The Ephemerides litterariae (1686) came out at Hamburg in Latin
and French. The Nova litteraria maris Balthici et Septentrionis
(1698- 1 708) was more especially devoted to north Germany and the
universities of Kiel, Rostock and Dorpat. Supplementary to the
preceding was the Nova litteraria Germaniae collecta Hamburgi
( 1 703-1 709), which from 1707 widened its field of view to the whole
of Europe. At Leipzig was produced the Teutsche acta eruditorum
(1712), an excellent periodical, edited by J. G. Rabener and C. G.
Jocher, and continued from 1740 to 1758 as Zuverldssige Nachrichten.
It included portraits.

The brilliant and enterprising Christian Thdmasius brought out
periodically, in dialogue form, his Monatsgesprdche (1688-1690),
written by himself in the vernacular, to defend his novel theories
against the alarmed pedantry of Germany, and, together with
Strahl, Buddeus and others, Observationes selectae ad rem litterariam
spectantes (1700), written in Latin. W. E. Tenzel also published
Monalliche Unterredungen (1689-1698), continued from 1704 as
Curieuse Bibliothek, and treating various subjects in dialogue form.
After the death of Tenzel the Bibliothek was carried on under differ-
ent titles by C. Woltereck, J. G. Krause and others, down to 1721.
Of much greater importance than these was the Monatlicher Auszue
(1701), supported by J. G. Eccard and Leibnitz. Another periodical
on Thomasius's plan was Neue Unterredungen (1702), edited by
N. H. Gundling. The Gundlingiana of the latter person, published
at Halle {1715-171,2), and written partly in Latin and partly in
German by the editor, contained a miscellaneous collection of
juridical, historical and theological observations and dissertations.

Nearly all departments of learning possessed their several special
periodical organs about the close of the 17th or the beginning of
the 1 8th century. The Anni franciscanorum (1680) was edited
by the Jesuit Stiller; and J. S. Adami published, between 1690
and 1713, certain theological repertories under the name of Deliciae.
Historical journalism was first represented by Electa juris publici
( T 7°9)> philology by Neue acerra philologica (1715-1723), philosophy
by the Acta philosophorum (1715-1727), medicine by Der patriotische
Medikus (1725), music by Der musikalische Patriot (1725), and edu-
cation by Die Matrone (1728). Reference has already been made to
the Miscellanea curiosa medico-physica (1670-1704); the Monalliche
Erzdhlungen (1689) was also devoted to natural science.

Down to the early part of the 1 8th century Halle and Leipzig
were the headquarters of literary journalism in Germany. Other
centres began to feel the need of similar organs of opinion. Hamburg
had its Niedersdchsische neue Zeitungen, styled from 1731 Nieder-
sachsische Nachrichten, which came to an end in 1736, and Mecklen-
burg owned in 1 7 10 its Neuer Vorrath, besides others brought out
at Rostock. Prussia owes the foundation of its literary periodicals
to G. P. Schulze and M. Lilienthal, the former of whom began with
Gelehrtes Preussen (1722), continued under different titles down to
1729; the latter helped with the Erldutertes Preussen (1724), and
was the sole editor of the Acta borussica (1730-1732). Pomerania
and Silesia also had their special periodicals in the first quarter of
the 18th century. Franconia commenced with Nova litteraria,
and Hesse with the Kurze Historie, both in 1725. In south Germany
appeared the Wurttembergische Nebenstunden (1718), and the Par-
nassus boicus, first published at Munich in 1722. The Frankfurter
gelehrte Zeitungen was founded in 1736 by S. T. Hocker, and existed
down to 1790. Austria owned Das merkwiirdige Wien.

In 1715 the Neue Zeitungen von gelehrten Sachen was founded by
J. G. Krause at Leipzig and carried on by various editors down to
I797 : It was the first attempt to apply the form of the weekly
political journal to learned subjects, and was imitated in the Ver-
mischte Bibliothek (1718-1720) and the Bibliotheca novissima (1718-
1721), both founded by J. G. Francke in Halle. Shortly after the
foundation of the university of Gottingen appeared Zeitungen von
gelehrten Sachsen (1739), still famous as the Gbttingische gelehrte
Anzeigen, which during its long and influential career has been
conducted by professors of that university, and among others by
Halier, Heyne and Eichhorn.

Influenced by a close study of English writers, the two Swiss,
Bodmer and Breitinger, established Die Discurse der Maler (1721),
and by paying more attention to the matter of works reviewed than
to their manner, commenced a critical method new to Germany.
The system was attacked by Gottsched, who, educated in the French
school, erred in the opposite direction. The struggle between
the two parties gave fresh life to the literature of the country
but German criticism of the higher sort can only be said really to
begin with Lessing. The Berlin publisher Nicolai founded the
Bibliothek der schonen Wissenschaften, and afterwards handed it
oyer to C. F. Weisse in order to give his whole energy to the Briefe,
die neueste Literatur betreffend (1759-1765), carried on by the help

PERIODICALS

of Lessing Mendelssohn and Abbt. To Nicolai Ls also due the
Allgemeine deutsche Bibliothek ( 1 765-1 806), which embraced a much
wider field and soon became extremely influential. Herder founded
the Kritische Walder in 1766. Der deutsche Merkur (1771-1780
revived 1790-1810) of Wieland was the solitary representative of
the trench school of criticism. A new era in German periodical
literature began when Bertuch brought out at Jena in 1785 the
AUgemeine Literaturzeitung, to which the leading writers of the
country were contributors. On being transferred to Halle in 1804
it was replaced by the Jenaische allgemeine Literaturzeitung, founded
by bichstadt. Both reviews enjoyed a prosperous career down to
the year 1848.

At the beginning of the 19th century we find the Erlanger Literatur-
zeitung (1799-1810), which had replaced a Gelehrte Zeitung (1746) •
1 -i. » h ei f Zlg 7 literaturzeitung (1800-1834); the Heidelbergische
Jahrbucher der Liter atur (1 808-1 872); and the Wiener Literatur-
zeitung (1813-1816), followed by the Wiener Jahrbucher der Literatur
U8I8-1848), both of which received government support and
resembled the English Quarterly Review in their conservative
politics and high literary tone. Hermes, founded at Leipzig in
1819 by W. T. Krug, was distinguished for its erudition, and came
out down to 1 83 1 One of the most remarkable periodicals of this
class was the Jahrbucher fur wissenschaftiiche Kritik (1827-1846)
first published by Cotta. The Hallische Jahrbucher (1 838-1 842)
was lounded by Ruge and Echtermeyer, and supported by the
government. The Repertorium der gesammten deutschen Literatur
established by Gersdorf in 1834, and known after 1843 as the
Leipziger Repertorium der deutschen und ausldndischen Literatur
existed to i860. Buchner founded the Literarische Zeitung at Berlin
in 1834. It was continued by Brandes down to 1849. The political
troubles of 1848 and 1849 were most disastrous to the welfare of
the literary and miscellaneous periodicals. Gersdorf's Repertorium
the Gelehrte Anzeigen of Gottingen and of Munich, -and the Heidel-
bergische Jahrbucher were the sole survivors. The Allgemeine
Monatschrift fur Literatur (1850), conducted after 1851 by Droysen
Nitzfch and others, continued only down to 1854; the Literarisches
Centralblatl (1850) is still published. The Blatter filr literarische
Unternaltung sprang out of the Literarisches Wochenblatt (1818)
founded by Kotzebue; after 1865 it was edited by R. Gottschall
with considerable success. Many of the literary journals did not
disdain to occupy themselves with the fashions, but the first
periodical of any merit specially devoted to the subject was the
Dazar (1855). The first to popularize science was Natur (1852).
I he Hausblatter (1855), a bi-monthly magazine, was extremely
successful. The Salon (1868) f ollowed more closely the type of the
knghsh magazine. About this period arose a great number of
weekly serials for popular reading, known as " Sonntagsblatter "
of which the Gartenlaube (1858) and Daheim (1864) are surviving
examples. "

In course of time a large number of similar publications were
issued, some illustrated, for instance: Illustrierte Zeitung (Leipzig
1843), Berliner Illustrierte Zeitung (1892), Die Woche (1899)
the last the most widely circulated of the kind, 500,000 beinsr
printed. s

At a somewhat earlier date commenced a long series of weekly and
monthly periodicals of a more solid character, of which the following
list indicates the more important in chronological order: Die
Lrrenzbolen (1862), weekly; the Deutsches Museum (1851-1857) of

»J UtZ , W? To en if 1; Ber H ner R ™™ (1855-1873); Westerma'nns
Monatshefte (1856), monthly; Unsere Zeit (1857-1891), beginning
as a kind of supplement to Brockhaus's Conversationslexikon ;
Preussische Jahrbucher (1858), monthly; Deutsches Magazin (1861-
1863); Die Gegenwart (1873), weekly; Konservative Monatsschrift
r ! 7 A P£ ece ded by the Volksblatt fiir Stadt und Land (1843);
Deutsche Rundschau (1874), fortnightly, conducted upon the method
oi the Revue des deux mondes; Deutsche Revue (1876), monthly
Nord und Sud (1877), monthly; Das Echo (1882), weekly; Die
Zukunft (1882) weekly; Die neue Zeit (1883), weekly; Reclams
Unwersum (1884), weekly; Velhagen und Klasings Monatshefte
V,,, 9 ',' . m ? nthl y; D ie deutsche Rundschau (1890), monthly; Die
Wahrheit (1893-1897); Kritik (1894-1902); Die Umschau (1897),
weekly; Das literarische Echo (1898), fortnightly; Kynast (1898-
1899), known later as Deutsche Zeitschrift (1899-1903) and Iduna
(1903-1906) ; Der Turmer (1898), monthly; Die Warte (1900), weekly
Deutschland (1902-1907); Deutsche Monatsschrift (1902-1907)-'
Hochland (1903), monthly; Charon (1904), monthly; Suddeutsche
Monatshefte (1904) ; Der Deutsche (1905-1908); Deutsche Kultur
y9°5~i9o8); Arena (1906), monthly; Das Blaubuch (1906), weekly;
Eckart (1006), monthly; Die Standarte (1906), weekly; Mdrz (1907)
fortnightly; Morgen (1907), weekly; Neue Revue (1907), weekly
Internationale Wochenschrift fur Wissenschaft, Kunst, und Technik
U907), weekly supplement to the Miinchener allgemeine Zeitung-
Wissen (1907). weekly; Unsere Zeit (1907), monthly; Hyperion
(190b), bi-monthly; Xenien (1908), monthly; Das neue Jahrhundert
(1909), rnonthly; Die Tat (1909), monthly.

Fenodicals have been specialized in Germany to an extent
perhaps unequalled in any other country. No subject of human
interest is now without one or indeed several organs. Full details
oi these serials are supplied by a special class of periodical with
which every department of science, art and literature in German-

*59

speaking countries is equipped, the Jahresberichte and Bibliographien
which give each year a full account of the literature of the subject
with which they are concerned. The chief of these are :—
„ Bibliography and Librarianship : Bibliographic des Buch- und
Biblwthekswesens (1905); Chemistry: Jahresbericht uber die Fort-
schritte der Chemie (1847); Classical Archaeology and Philology
Jahresbericht uber die Fortschritte der klassischen Altertumswissen-
schaft (1873); Education: Jahrbuch der padagogischen Literatur
(1901); Geography: Geographisches Jahrbuch (1874); Bibliotheca
geographica (1891); History: Jahresberichte der Geschichtswissen-
schaft (1878); Fine Arts: Internationale Bibliographic der Kunsl-
wissenschaft (1902); Law and Political Economy: Uebersicht der
gesamten staats- und rechtswissenschafllichen Literatur (1868) ■
Junsprudentia Germaniae (1905); Bibliographic des burgerlichen
Rechts (1888); Bibhographie der Sozialwissenschaften (1905); Biblio-
graphic fur Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte (1903); Bibliographie
fur Volkswirtschaftslehre und Rechtswissenschaft (1906); Literature
and Languages: Bibliographie der vergleichenden Liter atur geschichte
(1903); Jahresberichte fiir neuere deutsche Literaturgeschichte (1890)-
Jahresbericht uber die Erscheinungen auf dem Gebiete der germanischen
Philologie (1879); Uebersicht uber die auf dem Gebiete der englischen
Philologie erschienenen Bilcher, Schnften, und Aufsdtze (1878) •
Krihscher Jahresbericht uber die Fortschritte der romanischen Philo-
logie (1875); Bibliographie fiir romanische Philologie— Supl. zur
toiosJ' l oman - Philologie (1875); Orientalische Bibliographie
(1888); Mathematics: Jahrbuch uber die Fortschritte der Mathematik
(1869) ; Medicine and Surgery: Jahresbericht uber die Leistungen und
Fortschritte der gesamten Medizin (1866); Jahresbericht uber die
Leistungen auf dem Gebiete der Veterindrmedizin ' (1881); Military
Jahresbericht uber Verdnderungen und Fortschritte im Militarwesen
(1874); Jahresbericht uber die Leistungen und Fortschritte auf dem
Gebiete des Mihtdrsanitatswesens (1873); Natural Science: Naturae
noyitates (1879), fortnightly; Bibliographie der deutschen natur-
wissenschafthchen Literatur (1901); Bibliographia zoologica (1896) •
Zoologischer Jahresbericht (1879); Justs botanischer Jahresbericht
(1873) ;Dte Fortschritte der Physik (1847) ; Technicology : Repertorium
der technischen Journalliteratur (1874); Theology: Theologischer
Jahresbericht (1881) ; Bibliographie der Kirchengeschichtlichen Literatur
( l8 77)-

Austria
, The most notable periodicals of a general character have been
the Wiener Jahrbucher der Literatur (1818-1848) and the Oester-
reichische Revue (1863-1867). Among current examples the follow-
ing may be mentioned : Heimgarten (1877), monthly; Oesterreichisch-
Ungarische Revue (1886), monthly; Allgemeines Literaturblatt (1892)
fortnightly; Die Kultur (1899), quarterly; Deutsche Arbeit (1900)'
monthly; Oesterreichische Rundschau (1904), fortnightly Die
Karpathen (1907) ; fortnightly. '

There were in Austria 22 literary and 41 special periodicals in
1848, and no literary and 413 special periodicals in 1873 (see the
statistical inquiry of Dr Johann Winckler, D-'e period. Presse Oester-
reichs, 1875). In 1905 the total number had increased to 806, of
which 564 were published in Vienna.

According to the Deutscher Zeitschriften-Katalog (1874), 2219
periodicals were published in Austria, Germany and Switzerland
in 1874 in the German language. In 1905 the number of periodicals
in German-speaking countries was 5066, of which 4019 appeared in
Germany (in Berlin alone 1107) 806 in Austria and 218 in Switzer-
land (Bbrsenblattfur den deutschen Buchhandel, 1909, No. 124).

Authorities.— C. Juncker, Schediasma de ephemeridibus ' erudi-
torum (Leipzig 1692) ; H. Kurz, Geschichte der deutschen Literatur
(Leipzig, 1852); R. Prutz, Geschichte des deutschen Journalismus
(1845) vol. 1., — unfortunately it does not go beyond 1713) ; H. Wuttke
Die deutschen Zeitschriften (1875); P. E. Richter, Verzeichnis der
Periodica im Besitze der k. off. Bibl. zu Dresden (1880) ; Generalkatalog
der laufenden periodischen Druckschriften an den oesterr. Univer-
sitdts- und Studienbibliotheken hrsg. von F. Grassauer (Vienna
1898) ; Konigliche Bibliothek zu Berlin, Alphabetisches Verzeichnis der
laufenden Zeitschriften (1908); Systematisches Verzeichnis der laufen-
den Zeitschriften (1908); Alphabetisches Verzeichnis der laufenden
Zeitschriften, welche von der K. Hof- und Staatsbibliothek Miinchen
und einer Anzahl anderer Bibliotheken Bay em gehalten werden
(Munchen, 1909); Kurschner, Jahrbuch der Presse (1902); Sperlings
Zeitschriften Adressbuch (Stuttgart, 1910) ; Bibliographisches Reper-
torium, Berlin: Walzel-Houben, Zeitschriften der Romantik (1904)-
Houben, Zeitschriften des jungen Deutschlands (1906) ; Luck Die
deutsche Fachpresse (Tubingen, 1908). The Bibliographie der
deutschen Zeitschriftenliteratur, edited by F. Dieterich, which has
appeared annually since 1896, describes about 1300 periodicals
(mostly scientific) by subjects and titles; from 1900 it has been
supplemented by Bibliographie der deutschen Recensionen, which
indexes notices and reviews in over 1000 serials each year, chiefly
scientific and technical.

Switzerland
The NovaJitteraria helvetica (1703-1715) of Zurich is the earliest
literary periodical which Switzerland can show. From 1728 to
1/^4 a Bibliotheque italique, and towards the end of the century the
Bibhotheque britannique (1796-1815), dealing with agriculture,
literature, and science, in three separate series, were published
at Geneva. The latter was followed by the leading periodical

i6o

PERIODICALS

of French-speaking Switzerland, the Bibliotheque universelle (1816),
which has also had a scientific and a literary series. The Revue
Suisse (1838) was produced at Neuchatel. These two have been
amalgamated and appear as the Bibliotheque universelle et revue
Suisse. La Suisse romande (1885) only lasted twelve months.
Theologie et philosophie (1868-1872), an account of foreign literature
on those subjects, was continued as Revue de theologie et de philoso-
phie (1873) at Lausanne. Among current serials may be mentioned
Archives de psychologie de la Suisse romande (1901) edited by Flournoy
and Claparede; Jahresverzeichnis der schweizerischen Universitats-
schriften (1897-1898); Untersuchungen zur neueren Sprach- und
Literaturgeschichte (1903); Zwingliana: Mitteilungen zur Geschichte
Zwingli und der Reformation (1897).

Italy

Prompted by M. A. Ricci, Francesco Nazzari, the future cardinal,
established in 1668 the Giornale de' letter ali upon the plan of the
French Journal des savants. His collaborateurs each agreed to
undertake the criticism of a separate literature while Nazzari re-
tained the general editorship and the analysis of the French books.
The journal was continued to 1675, and another series was carried
on to 1769. Bacchini brought out at Parma (1688-1690) and at
Modena (1692-1697) a periodical with a similar title. A much better
known Giornale was that of Apostolo Zeno, founded with the help
of Maffei and Muratori (1710), continued after 1718 by Pietro Zeno,
and after 1728 by Mastraca and Paitoni. Another Giornale, to
which Fabroni contributed, was published at Pisa from 1771 onwards.
The Galleria di Minerva was first published at Venice in 1696. One
of the many merits of the antiquary Lami was his connexion with
the Novelle letterarie (1740-1770), founded by him, and after the
first two years almost entirely written by him. Its learning and
impartiality gave it much authority. The Frusta letter aria (1763-
!765) was brought out at Venice by Giuseppe Baretti under the
pseudonym of Aristarco Scannabue. The next that deserve mention
are the Giornale enciclopedico (1806) of Naples, followed by the
Progresso delle scienze (1833-1848) and the Museo di scienze e
letteratura of the same city, and the Giornale arcadico (18 19) of
Rome. Among the contributors to the Poligrafo (181 1) of Milan
were Monti, Perticari, and some of the first names in Italian litera-
ture. The Biblioleca italiana (1816-1840) was founded at Milan
by the favour of the Austrian government, and the editorship was
offered to and declined by Ugo Foscolo. It rendered service to
Italian literature by its opposition to the Della-Cruscan tyranny.
Another Milanese serial was the Conciliatore (1818-1820), which
although it only lived two years, will be remembered for the en-
deavours made by Silvio Pellico, Camillo Ugoni and its other con-
tributors to introduce a more dignified and courageous method of
criticism. After its suppression and the falling off in interest of
the Biblioteca italiana the next of any merit to appear was the
Antologia, a monthly periodical brought out at Florence in 1820
by Gino Capponi and Giampetro Vieusseux, but suppressed in
1833 on account of an epigram of Tommaseo, a principal writer.
Some striking papers were contributed by Giuseppe Mazzini.
Naples had in 1832 II Progresso of Carlo Troya, helped by Tommaseo
and Centofanti, and Palermo owned the Giornale di statistica (1834),
suppressed eight years later. The Archivio storico, consisting of
reprints of documents with historical dissertations, dates from 1842,
and was founded by Vieusseux and Gino Capponi. The Civilta
cattolica (1850), fortnightly, is still the organ of the Jesuits. The
Rivista contemporanea (1852) was founded at Turin in emulation
of the French Revue des deux mondes, which has been the type
followed by so many continental periodicals. The Politecnico
(1839) of Milan was suppressed in 1844 and revived in 1859. The
Nuova antologia (1866) soon acquired a well-deserved reputation
as a high-class review and magazine; its rival, the Rivista europea,
being the special organ of the Florentine men of letters. The
Rassegna settimanale was a weekly political and literary review,
which after eight years of existence gave place to a daily newspaper,
the Rassegna. The Archivio trentino (1882) was the organ of
" Italia Irredenta." The Rassegna nazionale, conducted by the
marchese Manfredo di Passano, a chief of the moderate clerical
party, the Nuova rivista of Turin, the Fanfulla della Domenica, and
the Gazzetta letteraria may also be mentioned.

Some of the following are still published: Annali di matematica
(1867); Annuario di giurisprudenza (1883); Archivio di statistica
(1876); Archivio storico lombardo (1874); Archivio veneto (187.1);
Archivio per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari; Archivio per la
zoologia; II Bibliofilo; II Filangieri (1876); La Natura (1884);
Nuovo giornale botanico (1869) ; Giornale degli eruditi (1883) ; Giornale
di filologia romanza; Nuova rivista Internazionale (1879) ; La Rassegna
italiana (1881); Revue internationale (1883). In more recent years
a great expansion has been witnessed. Local reviews have largely
increased, as well as those devoted to history, science and university
undertakings. Among representative serials are the following —
Archaeology: Museo italiano di antichita classica (1885) with atlas
in folio; Oriens christianus (1901); Nuovo bollettino di archeologia
cristiana, quarterly at Rome (1895). Bibliography: Rivista delle
biblioteche e degli archivi (1888), published monthly at Rome and
Florence, the official organ of librarians and archivists; Giornale

della libreria della tipografia (1888), supplement to the Bibliografia
italiana ; Bollettino di bibliografia e storia delle scienze matematiche
(1898); La Bibliofilia (1899), Florence, monthly; Raccolta Vinciana
(1904). Philology: Bollettino di filologia classica (1894); Giornale
italiano di filologia e linguistica classica (1886); Studi di filologia
romanza (1885) ; Studi italiani di fdologia classica (1893) ; Bessarione,
bi-monthly. No class has developed more usefully than the his-
torical, among them being: Bollettino dell' instituto storico italiano
(1886) ; Nuovo archivio veneto (1890) ; Rivista di storia antica e scienze
affini (1895); Rivista storica italiana (1884). New literary and
scientific reviews are: L'Alighieri, rivista di cose dantesche (1889);
Giornale dantesco (1894); Giornale storico della letteratura italiana
(1883); Studi di letteratura italiana (1899); Studi medievali (1904);
V Arcadia, periodico mensile di scienze, lettere, ed arti (1889);
Periodica di matematica per I ' insegnamento secondario (1885);
Rivista di matematica (1891); Rivista philosofica (1899); Rivista
d' Italia, monthly at Rome. Fine Arts: L'Arte, monthly; Arte
italiana, monthly; Rassegna d' arte, monthly.

Authorities. — See G. Ottino, La Stampa periodica in Italia
(Milan, 1875); Raccolta dei periodica presentata all' esposizione in
Milano (1881); A. Roux, La Litter ature contemporaine en Italic
(1871-1883), Paris, 1883.

Belgium
The Journal encyclopedique (1 756-1 793) founded by P. Rousseau,
made Liege a propagandist centre for the philosophical party.
In the same city was also first established L'Esprit des journaux
(1772-18 1 8), styled by Sainte-Beuve " cette considerable et ex-
cellente collection," but " journal voleur et compilateur." The
Journal hislorique el litteraire (1788-1790) was founded at Luxem-
burg by the Jesuit De Feller; having been suppressed there, it was
transferred to Liege, and subsequently to Maestricht. It is one of
the most curious of the Belgian periodicals of the 18th century,
and contains most precious materials for the national history. A
complete set is very rare and much sought after. The Revue beige
( : 835-1 843) , in spite of the support of the best writers of the kingdom,
as well as its successor the Revue de Liege (1844-1847), the Tresor
national (1842-1843), published at Brussels, and the Revue de Belgique
(1846-1851) were all short-lived. The Revue de Bruxelles (1837-1848),
supported by the nobility and the clergy, had a longer career.
The Revue nationale was the champion of Liberalism, and came
to an end in 1847. The Messager des sciences historiques (1833),
at Ghent, was in repute on account of its historical and antiquarian
character. The Revue catholique, the organ of the professors of
the university of Louvain, began in 1846 a controversy with the
Journal historique et litteraire of Kersten (1834) upon the origin
of human knowledge, which lasted for many years and excited
great attention. The Annates des \travaux publics (1843), the
Bulletin de I'industrie (1842), the Journal des beaux-arts (1858),
and the Catholic Precis historiques (1852), the Protestant Chretien
beige (1850), are other examples. The Revue trimestrielle was
founded at Brussels by Van Bemmel in 1854. The Athenaeum
beige (1868) did not last long.

Among current periodicals in French are the following — Biblio-
graphy: Bulletin bibliographique et pedagogique du musee beige
(1897); La Revue des bibliotheques et archives de Belgique (1903);
Le Glaneur litteraire, musical et bibliographie (1901); Archives des
arts et de la bibliographie de Belgique (Tables 1833-1853 and 1875-
1894). Philosophy and ecclesiastical history: Revue neo-schola-
stique publiee par la societe philosophique de Louvain (1894); Revue
d'histoire ecclesiastique (1900), the organ of the Catholic university of
Louvain; Revue benidicline (1884); Analectes pour servir ct I'histoire
ecclesiastique de la Belgique, 2 e serie (1881-1904) and 3 e serie
l 90$); with an Annexe for Cartularies. Science: Archives inter-
nationales de physiologie (1902), published by Leon Fredericq; La
Cellule, recueil de cytologic et d' histologic generate (1884); Le Museon
(1882); Le Mouvement geographique (1884); Le Musee beige (1897);
Revue chirurgicale beige et du nord de la France (1901). Annates des
mines belgiques appears quarterly, and L 'Art moderne weekly at
Brussels.

Among Flemish serials may be mentioned the Nederduitsche
Letteroefeningen (1834) I the Belgisch Museum (1836-1846), edited by
Willems; the Broederhand, which did not appear after 1846; the
Taalverbund of Antwerp; the Kunst- en Letterblad (1840-1843); and
the Vlaemsche Rederyker (1844). Current Flemish periodicals in-
clude: Onze kunst ge'illustreed maandschrift voor beeldenie kunst
(1900); Averbode's weekblad Godsdienst huisgezin moedertaal (1907);
De Raadselbode talk van den vlamschen raadselliefhebber (1901);
Rechtskundig tijdschrift voor vlamsch Belgie (1901).

It has been calculated that in i860 there were 51 periodicals
published in Belgium. In 1884 the number had increased to 412,
and in 1908 to 1701.

See U. Capitaine, Recherches sur les journaux et les ecrits periodiques
liegeois (1850); Releve de tous les ecrits periodiques qui se publient
dans le royaume de Belgique (1875); Catalogue des journaux, revues,
et publications periodiques de la Belgique (19 10); Revue bibliogra-
phique beige.

Holland
The first serial written in Dutch was the Boekzaal van Europa
(1692-1708, and 1715-1748), which had several changes of name

PERIODICALS

161

during its long life. The next of any note was the Republijk der
Geleerden (1710-1748). The English Spectator was imitated by
J. van Effen in his Misanthrope (1711-1712), written in French,
and in the Hollandsche Spectator (1731-1735), in Dutch. An im-
portant serial was the long-lived Vaderlandsche Letter oefeningen
(1761). The Algemeene Kunst en Letterbode (1788) was long the
leading review of Holland; in i860 it was joined to the Nederlandsch
Spectator (1855). Of those founded in the 19th century may be
mentioned the Rccensent (1803), and Nieuwe Recensent; the Neder-
landsch Museum (1835); the Tijdstroom (1857); the Tijdspiegel, a
literary journal of Protestant tendency ; the Theologisch Tijdschrift
(1867), the organ of the Leiden school of theology; and the Dietsche
Warande, a Roman Catholic review devoted to the national anti-
quities. Colonial interests have been cared for by the Tijdschrift
voor nederlandsch Indie (1848). Current periodicals are Hollandsche
revue, monthly; De Gids (1837), monthly; De nieuvie Gids (1886),
monthly; De Architect, bi-monthly; Caecilia (for music); Tijdschrift
voor Strafrecht; Museum, for philology (1893), monthly; Tijdschrift
voor nederlandsche taal en letterkunde ; Nederlandsch Archievenblad;
De Paleograaf; Elsevier s geillustreerd Maandschrift, monthly; Groot
Nederland, monthly.

Denmark

Early in the 18th century Denmark had the Nye Tidender (1720),
continued down to 1836 under the name of Danskliteraturtidende.
The Minerva (1785) of Rahbek was carried on to 1819, and the
Skandinavisk Museum (1798-1803) was revived by the Liiteratur-
Selskabs Skrifter (1805). These were followed by the Laerde Efter-
rctninger (1799-1810), afterwards styled Litter -atur-Tidende (181 1-
1836), the Athene (1813-1817), and Historisk Tidsskrift (1840).
In more modern times appeared Tidsskrift for Lilteratur og Krilik
(1832-1842, 1843); Maanedsskrift for Lilteratur (1829-1838); Nord
og Syd (1 848-1 849) of Goldschmidt, succeeded by Ude og Hjemme,
and the Dansk Maanedsskrift (1858) of Steenstrup, with signed
historical and literary articles. One of the most noteworthy
Scandinavian periodicals has been the Nordisk Vniversitets Tids-
skrift ( 1 854-1 864), a bond of union between the universities of
Christiania, Upsala, Lund and Copenhagen. Current periodicals
are: Studier fra Sprog- og Oldtidsforskning (1891), quarterly; Danske
Magazin, yearly; Nyt Tidsskrift for Mathematih, monthly; Theologisk
Tidsskrift, monthly; Nationalokonomisk Tidsskrift, bi-monthly;
Dansk bogforlegnelse, bi-monthly for bibliography; Athenaeum finsk;
Tilskueren, monthly; Aarboger for Nordisk Oldhyndighed (archae-
ology) quarterly.

Iceland has had the Islenzk Sagnablod (1817-1826), Ny Fjelagsril
(1841-1873), and Gefn (1870-1873). Skirnir (1831), which absorbed
in 1905 Timarit hins islenska Bokmentafelags (1880-1904), is still
published.

Norway

The first trace of the serial form of publication to be found in
Norway is in the Ugentlige korte Afhandlinger (1760-1761), " Weekly
Short Treatises," of Bishop Fr. Nannestad, consisting of moral and
theological essays. The Maanedlige Afhandlinger (1762), " Monthly
Treatises," was supported by several writers and devoted chiefly to
rural economy. These two were followed by Politik og Historie
(1807-1810); Saga (1816-1820), a quarterly review edited by J. S.
Munch; Den norske Tilskuer (1817-1821), a miscellany brought out
at Bergen; Hermoder ( 1 82 1-1 827), a weekly aesthetic journal; Iduna,
(1822-1823), of the same kind but of less value; Vidar (1832-1834), a
weekly scientific and literary review; Nor (1840-1846), of the same
type; Norsk Tidsskrift for Videnskab og Lilteratur (1 847-1 855);
lllustreret Nyhedsblad (1851-1866). "Illustrated News"; Norsk
Maanedsskrift (1 856-1 860), " Monthly Review for Norway," devoted
to history and philology; and Norden (1866), a literary and scientific
review. Popular serials date from the Skilling Magazin (1835),
which first introduced wood-engraving. Representative current
periodicals are; Samtidcn, monthly; Elektroteknisk tidsskrift; nordisk
musik-revue, fortnightly; Naluren; Norsk havetidende, monthly;
Urd; Noroegia.

Sweden

The Swenska Argus (1 733—1 734) of Olof Dalin is the first contri-
bution of Sweden to periodical literature. The next were the Tid-
ningar om den Ldrdas Arbeten (1742) and the Ldrda Tidningar. The
patriotic journalist C. C. Gjorwell established about twenty literary
periodicals of which the most important was the Swenska Mercurius
(1755—1789). Atterbom and some fellow-students founded about
1810 a society for the deliverance of the country from French
pedantry, which with this end carried on a periodical entitled
Phosphoro: (1810-1813), to propagate the opinions of Schlegel and
Schelling. The Svensk Liter atur-Tidning (1813-1825) of Palmblad
and the Polyfem (1810-1812) had the same objects. Among later
periodicals we. may mention Skandia (1 833-1 837) ; Liter aiurbladet
(1838-1840); Stallningar och Forhallanden (1838) of Crusenstolpe,
a monthly review of Scandinavian history; Tidskrift for Lilteratur
(1850) ; Norsk Tidsskrift (1852), weekly, Fbrr och Nu; and the Revue
suedoise (1858) of Kramer, written in French. Among the monthlies
which now appear are the following: Social Tidskrift, Nordisk
Tidskrijt and Ord och Bild

xxi. 6

Spain
Spain owes her intellectual emancipation to the monk Benito
Feyjoo, who in 1726 produced a volume of dissertations somewhat
after the fashion of the Spectator, but on graver subjects, entitled
Teatro critico, which was continued down to 1739. His Cartas
eruditas (1742-1760) were also issued periodically. The earliest
critical serial, the Diario de los literatos (1737-1742), kept up at
the expense of Philip V., did not long survive court favour. Other
periodicals which appeared in the 18th century were Mafier's Mercurio
(1738); the Diario noticioso (1758-1781); El Pensador (1762-1767)
of Joseph Clavijo y Fajardo; El Belianis literario (1765), satirical
in character; the Semanario erudito (1778-1791), a clumsy collection
of documents; El Correo literario de la Europa (1781-1782); El
Censor (1781); the valuable Memorial literario (1784-1808); El
Correo literario (1786-1791), devoted to literature and science;
and the special organs El Correo mercantil (1 792-1 798) and El
Semanario de agricultura (1797-1805). In the 19th century were
Variedades de ciencias, literatura, y artes (1803-1805), among whose
contributors have been the distinguished names of Quintana, Moratin
and Antillon; Misceldnea de comercio (1819); and Diario general
de las ciencias medicas. The Spanish refugees in London published
Ocios de espanoles refugiados (1 823-1 826) and Misceldnea hispano-
americana (1 824-1 828), and at Paris Misceldnea escojida americana
(1826). The Cronica cientifica y literaria (1817-1820) was afterwards
transformed into a daily newspaper. Subsequently to the extinc-
tion of El Censor (1820-1823) there was nothing of any value until
the Cartas espanolas (1832), since known as the Revista espanola
(1832-1836) and as the Revista de Madrid (1838). Upon the death
of Ferdinand VII. periodicals had a new opening; in 1836 there were
published sixteen journals devoted to science and art. The fashion
of illustrated serials was introduced in the Semanario pintoresco
espanol (1836-1857), noticeable for its biographies and descriptions
of Spanish monuments. El Panorama (1839-1841) was another
literary periodical with engravings. Of later date have been the
Revista iberica (1861-1863), conducted by Sanz del Rio; La America
(1857-1870), specially devoted to American subjects and edited
by the brothers Asquerino; Revista de Cataluna, published at
Barcelona; Revista de Espana; Revista contempordnea; Espana
moderna (1889), and Revista critica (1895). Current special perio-
dicals are: Euskal-erria, revista bascongada (1880, San Sebastian);
Monumenla historica societatis Jesu (1 894) ; El Progreso matematico,
afterwards Revista de matematicas puras y aplicadas (1891); Revista
de bibliografia Catalano (Catalunya, Baleares, Rosselo, Valencia,
1901); La Naturaleza, fortnightly; La Energia electrica, fortnightly;
Revista minera, weekly; Revista de medicina, weekly; Bibliografia
espanola, fortnightly; La Lectura; Espana y America, monthly.

See E. Hartzenbusch, Periodicos de Madrid (1876); Lapeyre,
Catalogo-tarifa de los periodicos, revistas, y ilustraciones en Espana
(1882) ; Georges le Gentil, Les Revues litteraires de I'Espagne pendant
la premiere moitie du XIX' siecle (Paris, 1909).

Portugal

Portugal could long boast of only one review, the Jornal enci-
clopedico (1779-1806), which had many interruptions; then came
the Jornal de Coimbra (1812-1820); the Panorama (1836-1857),
founded by Herculano; the Revista universal lisbonense (1841-1853),
established by Castilho; the Instituto (1853) of Coimbra; the Archivo
pittoresco (1857) of Lisbon; and the Jornal do sociedade dos amigos
das letter as. In 1868 a review called Vox femenina, and con-
ducted by women, was established at Lisbon. Current periodicals
include: Archeologo portugues (1895); Jornal de sciencias mathe-
maticas et astronomicas (1877); Revista lusitana, Archivo de estudos
philologicos e ethnologicos relatives a Portugal (1887); Ta-ssi-Yang-
Kuo, Archivos e annaes de extremo oriente portuguez (1899); Portugal
artistico, fortnightly; Revista militar; Arte musical, fortnightly;
Boletim do agricultor, monthly; Archivo historico portuguez, monthly.

Greece

The periodical literature of modern Greece commences with
'O Aoyios 'Epixijs, brought out at Vienna in 18 11 by Anthimos Gazi
and continued to 1821. In Aegina the Aiyivaia. appeared in 1831,
edited by Mustoxidis; and at Corfu, in Greek, Italian and English,
the 'Aj-SoXoYta (1834). After the return of King Otho in 1833 a
literary review called T Ipu was commenced. Le Spectateur de
I'Orient, in French, pleaded the national cause before Europe for
three years from 1853. A military journal was published at Athens
in 1855, and two years later the archaeological periodical con-
ducted by Pittakis and Rangabes. For many years Havddipa
(1850-1872), edited by Rangabes and Paparrigopoulos, was the
leading serial. <j>£><ns dealt with natural science, the TtwiroviK& with
agriculture, and 'lepopvrinup with theology. '¥J)vikov TravenaTrip.i.ov
(1831) and #1X0X0711:65 o-iiXXo-yos Ti.apva.oabs (1863) appear annually,
and 'ASrivS. (1899) quarterly.

See A. R. Rangabe, Hist, litteraire de la Grece moderne (Paris,
1879) ; R. Nicolai, Geschichte der neugriechischen Literalur (1876).

Russia

The historian Gerhard Friedrich Miiller made the first attempt
to establish periodical literature in Russia in his Yejem' yes vatchniya

l62

PERIOECI— PERIPATETICS

Sotchineniya (1755-1764), or " Monthly Works." In 1759 Sumara-
kov founded the Trudolyubivaya Ptcheld, or " Industrious Bee,"
giving translations from the Spectator, and, for the first time, critical
essays. Karamsin brought out in 1802 the V'yestnik Evropi, an
important review with Liberal tendencies. The Conservative
Russkoi V'yestnik (1808) was revived at Moscow in 1856 by Kattkov.
The two last named are still published each month. The romantic
school was supported by Sin Otetcheslva (1812), " Son of the Father-
land," united in 1825 to the Severnoi Arkhiv (1822), which dwindled
and came to an end soon after 1839. One of the most successful
Russian reviews has been the Biblioteka dl'ya Tchtenia (1834) or
" Library of Reading." The Russkaya Missl, " Russian Thought,"
published in Moscow, represented the Slavophil party. The
following are some representative periodicals of the day: Zurnal
ministersva narodnago prosvescenija, monthly ; Baltische Monatsschrift
(i860), monthly; V'yestnik vospitania (for education) ; Mir iskusstra
(for fine art) ; Russkoie bogatstvo (for literature) ; Russki arkhiv
(archives) ; Mir Boji, monthly ; Istorichesky v'yestnik (history) ;
Russkaia starina (archaeology). In Finland Suomi (1841), written
in Swedish, is still published.

Other Countries
Bohemia has the Casopis musea krdlovstvi leskiho (1827), quarterly,
founded by Palacky; Nase doba, monthly; Cechische Revue (1907)
quarterly. Hungary can show the Ungarisches Magazin (1781-1787,
I79 1 ). published at Pressburg, and the Magyar Muzeum (1788).
The Tudomdnyos gyujetemeny (1817-1841). and the Figyelmezb
('837-1843) deserve mention. Uj Magyar Muzeum was a scientific
magazine, and the Budapesti Szemle (1857) °f a more general
character. Among current Hungarian periodicals are: Magyar
Kbnyvszemle (1876), and Magyar Nyomddszat. Before the revolution
of 1830 Poland had the Pamietnik Warszawski of Lach Szyrma.
Among other Polish reviews may be mentioned the Dziennik Liter-
acki of Lemberg; the Biblioteka Warszawska (1841), monthly;
Przeglad Polski (1866), monthly; Przewodnik naukowy i literacki
(1873), monthly; Przewodnik bibliograficzny (1878), monthly;
Przeglad powzechny (1884), monthly. Rumania commenced with
the Magasinal istorica pentru Dacia (1845), containing valuable
historical documents; and Moldavia with Dacia Literaria (1840)
and Archiva Romanesca (1841). Rumania now has the Convorbiri
literare (1868), monthly, and Romanul, revistd literara illustrata
sepiemdnala. The best literary review Servia has had was the
WUa, edited by Novakovic.

Japan now possesses native periodicals of the European type,
of which the following are representative examples: Fudzoku-Gaho
(native customs) ; The Kokka (art) ; Toyo-Gakugei-Zasshi (science) ;
Jogaku-Zasshi (domestic economy) ; Tetsugaku-Zasshi (philosophy) ;
Keizai-Zasshi (political economy); Taiyo (literature).

General Indexes to Periodicals. — The most complete collec-
tion of periodicals in all languages ever brought together is that
preserved in the British Museum, and the excerpt from the printed
catalogue of the library, entitled Periodical Publications (London,
1 899-1900, 2nd ed. 6 parts folio, with index), includes journals,
reviews, magazines and other works issued periodically, with the
exception of transactions and proceedings of learned societies and
of British and Colonial newspapers later than 1700. The titles
of these periodicals, which number about 23,000, are arranged under
the town or place of their publication.

The Edinburgh and Quarterly Reviews, the Revue des deux mondes,
the Revue historique, Deutsche Rundschau and others issue from
time to time general indexes of their contents, while the periodical
literature of special departments of study and research are noted
in the various Jahresberichte published in Germany, and indexed
monthly in such English and American magazines as the Engineering
Magazine, the Geographical Journal, English Historical Review,
A merican Historical Review, Economic Journal (for political economy) ,
Library Journal and Library Association Record (for bibliography)
and the Educational Review. The Cat. of Scientific Papers (1800-
1900) of the Royal Society (1867-1908), and the Repertorium der
techn. Journ. Literatur (1879-1899) of the German Patent Office,
are specimens of indexes of special periodicals. There are also
annual indexes such as those in the Zoological Record and Annates
de giographie. Complete lists are given by A. B. Kroeger {Guide
to Reference Books, 1908) and Stein (Manuel de bibliographie generale,
1897). See also Bibliography of Books reviewed in American
Periodicals, by G. F. Danforth (1902-1903); Book Review Digest
(1906), &c; H. C. Bolton's Cat. of Scientific and Technical Periodi-
cals 1665-1895, Smithsonian Inst. (2nd ed., 1897); Harrison's Int.
Cat. of Scientific Lit. (1903-1904) ; -S. H. Scudder's Cat. of Scientific
Serials, 1633-1876 (Camb. [Harvard Univ.] 1876) ; Cat. of Periodicals
(English and Foreign) in Bod. Lib., 1878-1880; Bibliotheque Na-
tional^, Liste des piriodiques Strangers (1896). A useful select list,
including all languages, is J. D. Brown's Classified List of Current
Periodicals (1904). (H. R. T.)

PERIOECI (xepiouftx, those who dwell around, in the neigh-
bourhood), in ancient Laconia the class intermediate between
the Spartan citizens and the serfs or helots (q.v.). Ephorus
says (Strabo viii. 364 seq.) that they were the original Achaean
inhabitants of the country, that for the first generation after

the Dorian invasion they shared in the franchise of the hv
vaders, but that this was afterwards taken from them and
they were reduced to a subject condition and forced to pay
tribute. The term, however, came to denote not a nationality
but a political status, and though the main body of the perioeci
may have been Achaean in origin, yet they afterwards included
Arcadians on the northern frontier of Laconia, Dorians, especially
in Cythera and in Messenia, and Ionians in Cynuria. They
inhabited a large number of settlements, varying in size from
important towns like Gythium to insignificant hamlets (Iso-
crates xii. 179); the names of these, so far as they are known,
have been collected by Clinton (Fasti hellenici, 2nd ed. i. 401 sqq.).
They possessed personal freedom and some measure of communal
independence, but were apparently under the immediate super-
vision of Spartan harmosts (governors) and subject to the
general control of the ephors, though Isocrates is probably
going too far in saying (xii. 181) that the ephors might put to
death without trial as many of the perioeci as they pleased.
Certain it is that they were excluded not merely from all Spartan
offices of state, but even from the assembly, that they were
absolutely subject to Spartan orders, and that, owing to the
absence of any legal right of marriage (enryajuia.) the gulf between
the two classes was impassable. They were also obliged to
pay the "royal tribute," perhaps a rent for domain-land which
they occupied, and to render military service. This last burden
grew heavier as time went on; 5000 Spartiates and 5000 perioec
hoplites fought at Plataea in 479 B.C., but the steady decrease
in the number of the Spartiates necessitated the increasing
employment of the perioeci. Perioeci might serve as petty
officers or even rise to divisional commands, especially in the
fleet, but seemingly they were never set over Spartiates. Yet
except at the beginning of the 4th century the perioeci were,
so far as we can judge, fairly contented, and only two of their
cities joined the insurgent helots in 464 B.C. (Thuc. i. 101).
The reason of this was that, though the land which they cultivated
was very unproductive, yet the prohibition which shut out every
Spartiate from manufacture and commerce left the industry
and trade of Laconia entirely in the hands of the perioeci.
Unlike the Spartiates they might, and did, possess gold and silver
and the iron and steel wares from the mines on Mt Taygetus,
the shoes and woollen stuffs of Amyclae, and the import and
export trade of Laconia and Messenia probably enabled some
at least of them to live in an ease and comfort unknown to their
Spartan lords.

See G. Grote, History of Greece, pt. ii., ch. 6 ; C. O. Miiller, Dorians
(Eng. trans.), bk. iii., ch. 2 ; A. H. J. Greenidge, Greek Constitutional
History, p. 78 sqq. ; G. Gilbert, Greek Constitutional Antiquities (Eng.
trans.) p. 35 sqq. ; G. F. Schomann, Antiquities of Greece (Eng. trans.)
p. 201 sqq.; G. Busolt, Die griech. Staats- und Rechtsaltertilmer , § 84;
Griech. Geschichte, i. 528 seq. (2nd ed.) ; V. Thumser, Lehrbuch der
griech. Staatsaltertiimer (6th ed.), § 19; B. Niese, Nachrichten von
der wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft zu Gottingen, Phil. -Hist. Klasse
(1906), 101 sqq. (M. N. T.)

PERIPATETICS (from Gr. TrepnrareLV, to walk about), the
name given in antiquity to the followers of Aristotle (5.11.), either
from his habit of walking up and down as he lectured to his
pupils, or from the irepiiraTos (covered walk) of the Lyceum.

Aristotle's immediate successors, 1 Theophrastus and Eudemus
of Rhodes, were diligent scholars rather than original thinkers.
They made no innovations upon the main doctrines of their
master, and their industry is chiefly directed to supplementing
his works in minor particulars. Thus they amplified Theo-
the Aristotelian logic by the theory of the hypo- pbrastas.
thetical and disjunctive syllogism, and added to the first figure
of the categorical syllogism the five moods out of which the
fourth figure was afterwards constructed. The impulse towards
natural science and the systematizing of empirical details which
distinguished Aristotle from Plato was shared by ^Theophrastus
(q.v.). The same turn for detail is observable In his ethics,
where, to judge from the imperfect evidence of the Characters,
he elaborated still farther Aristotle's portraiture of the virtues

1 See Gellius, Noct. Att. xiii. 5, for the story of how Aristotle
chose Theophrastus as his surc^ssor.

PERIPATUS

163

and their relative vices. In his doctrine of virtue the distinctive
Peripatetic position regarding the importance of external goods
was defended by him with emphasis against the assaults of
the Stoics. He appears to have laid even more stress on this
point than Aristotle himself, being doubtless led to do so,
partly by the heat of controversy and partly by the importance
which leisure and freedom from harassing cares naturally
assumed to a man of his studious temperament. The meta-
physical airoplaL of Theophrastus which have come down to
us show that he was fully alive to the difficulties that beset
many of the Aristotelian definitions. But we are ignorant how
he proposed to meet his own criticisms; and they do not appear
to have suggested to him an actual departure from his master's
doctrine, much less any radical transformation of it. In the
difficulties which he raises we may perhaps detect a leaning
towards a naturalistic interpretation. The tendency of Eudemus,
on the other hand, is more towards the theological
of Rhodes. or Platonic side of Aristotle's philosophy. The
Eudemian Ethics (which, with the possible exception of
the three books common to this treatise and the Nicomachean
Ethics, there need be no hesitation in ascribing to Eudemus)
expressly identify Aristotle's ultimate ethical ideal of Becapla
with the knowledge and contemplation of God. And this
supplies Eudemus with a standard for the determination of
the mean by reason, which Aristotle demanded, but himself
left vague. Whatever furthers us in our progress towards a
knowledge of God is good; every hindrance is evil. The same
spirit may be traced in the author of the chapters which appear
as an appendix to book i. of Aristotle's Metaphysics. They
have been attributed to Pasicles, the nephew of Eudemus.
For the rest, Eudemus shows even less philosophical indepen-
dence than Theophrastus. Among the Peripatetics of the first
generation who had been personal disciples of Aristotle, the
other chief names are those of Aristoxenus (q.v.) of Tarentum
and Dicaearchus (q.v.) of Messene. Aristoxenus, who had
formerly belonged to the Pythagorean school, maintained the
position, already combated by Plato in the Phaedo, that the
soul is to be regarded as nothing more than the harmony of the
body. Dicaearchus agreed with his friend in this naturalistic
rendering of the Aristotelian entelechy, and is recorded to have
argued formally against the immortality of the soul.

The naturalistic tendency of the school reached its full
expression in Strato of Lampsacus, the most independent, and
probably the ablest, of the earlier Peripatetics. His
Lampsaais. system is based upon the formal denial of a trans-
cendent deity. Cicero attributes to him the saying
that he did not require the aid of the gods in the construction
of the universe; in other words, he reduced the formation of
the world to the operation of natural forces. We have evidence
that he did not substitute an immanent world-soul for Aristotle's
extra-mundane deity; he recognized nothing beyond natural
necessity. He was at issue, however, with the atomistic
materialism of Democritus in regard to its twin assumptions of
absolute atoms and infinite space. His own speculations led
him rather to lay stress on the qualitative aspect of the world.
The true explanation of things was to be found, according to
Strato, in the forces which produced their attributes, and he
followed Aristotle in deducing all phenomena from the funda-
mental attributes or elements of heat and cold. His psycho-
logical doctrine explained all the functions of the soul as modes
of motion, and denied any separation of the reason from the
faculties of sense-perception. He appealed in this connexion
to the statement of Aristotle that we are unable to think without
a sense-image.

The successors of Strato in the headship of the Lyceum were
Lyco, Aristo of Ceos, Critolaus (q.v.), Diodorus of Tyre, and
Erymneus, who brings the philosophic succession down to about
100 B.C. Other Peripatetics belonging to this period are Hiero-
nymus of Rhodes, Prytanis and Phormio of Ephesus, the
delirus senex who attempted to instruct Hannibal in the art
of war (Cic. De orat. ii. 18). Sotion, Hermippus and Satyrus
were historians rather than philosophers. Heraclides Lembus.

Agatharchides and Antisthenes of Rhodes are names to us and
nothing more. The fact is that, after Strato, the Peripatetic
school has no thinker of any note for about 200 years.

Early in the 1st century B.C. all the philosophic schools began
to be invaded by a spirit of eclecticism. This was partly
due to the influence of the practical Roman spirit. This in-
fluence is illustrated by the proconsul Lucius Gellius Publicola
(about 70 B.C.), who proposed to the representatives of the schools
in Athens that he should help them to settle their differences
(Cic. De leg. 1. 20). This atmosphere of indifference imper-
ceptibly influenced the attitude of the contending schools to one
another, and we find various movements towards unity in the
views of Boethus the Stoic, Panaetius and Antiochus of Ascalon,
founder of the so-called " Fifth Academy." Meanwhile the
Peripatetic school may be said to have taken a new departure
and a new lease of life. The impulse was due to Andronicus
of Rhodes. His critical edition of Aristotle indicated to the
later Peripatetics the direction in which they could Aal{roll i cas
profitably work, and the school devoted itself hence-
forth almost exclusively to the writing of commentaries on
Aristotle, e.g. those of Boethus of Sidon, Aristo of Alexandria,
Staseas, Cratippus, and Nicolaus of Damascus. The most
interesting Peripatetic work of the period is the treatise De
mundo, which is a good example within the Peripatetic
school of the eclectic tendency which was then in the air. The
admixture of Stoic elements is so great that some critics have
attributed the work to a. Stoic author; but the writer's
Peripateticism seems to be the more fundamental constituent
of his doctrine.

Our knowledge of the Peripatetic school during the first
two centuries of the Christian era is very fragmentary; but
those of its representatives of whom anything is known con-
fined themselves entirely to commenting upon the different
treatises of Aristotle. Thus Alexander of Aegae, the teacher
of Nero, commented on the Categories and the De caelo.
In the 2nd century Aspasius (q.v.) and Adrastus of Aphro-
disias wrote numerous commentaries. The latter also treated
of the order of the Aristotelian writings in a separate
work. Somewhat later, Herminus, Achaicus and Sosigenes
commented on the logical treatises. Aristocles of Messene,
the teacher of Alexander of Aphrodisias, was the author of a
complete critical history of Greek philosophy. This second
phase of the activity of the school closes with the comprehensive
labours of Alexander of Aphrodisias (Scholarch, c. 200), the
exegete par excellence, called sometimes the second Aristotle.
Alexander's interpretation proceeds throughout upon the natur-
alistic lines which have already become familiar to
us. Aristotle had maintained that the individual Aphrodisias.
alone is real, and had nevertheless asserted that the
universal is the proper object of knowledge. Alexander seeks
consistency by holding to the first position alone. The individual
is prior to the universal, he says, not only " for us," but also
in itself, and universals are abstractions which have merely a
subjective existence in the intelligence which abstracts them.
Even the deity must be brought under the conception of
individual substance. Such an interpretation enables us to
understand how it was possible, at a later date, for Aristotle
to be regarded as the father of Nominalism. Form, Alexander
proceeds, is everywhere indivisible from matter. Hence the soul
is inseparable from the body whose soul or form it is. Reason
or intellect is bound up with the other faculties. Alexander's
commentaries formed the foundation of the Arabian and
Scholastic study of Aristotle. Soon after Alexander's death
the Peripatetic school was merged, like all others, in Neo-
platonism (q.v.).

PERIPATUS, a genus of animals belonging to the air-breathing
division of the phylum Arthropoda. It differs, however, from
all other Arthropoda in such important respects that a special
class, equivalent in rank to the old-established Arthropod classes,
had been created for its sole occupancy. This class has been
named the Prototracheata or Onychophora (see Arthropoda),
and may be most appropriately placed in the system in the

164.

PERIPATUS

neighbourhood of the Myriapoda, though it must not be forgotten
that it differs from the Myriapoda more than the Myriapoda
differ from other Arthropoda, and that in some respects it
presents features which recall the segmented worms (Annelida).
The genus has a wide distribution (see below) , but it has not
been found in Europe or in North America. There is but little
variety of structure in the genus, and the species are limited in
number. They live beneath the bark of trees, in the crevices of
rock and of rotten stumps of trees, and beneath stones. They
require a moist atmosphere, and are exceedingly susceptible to
drought. They avoid light, and are therefore rarely seen. They
move slowly, picking their course by means of their antennae.
When irritated they eject with considerable force the contents
of their slime reservoirs by means of the sudden contraction of
the muscular body-wall. The slime, which appears to be harm-
less, is extremely sticky, but it easily comes away from the skin
of the animal itself. Locomotion is effected by means of the
legs, with the body fully extended. Hutton describes his
specimens as sucking the juices of flies, which they had stuck
down with their slime, and they have been observed in captivity
to devour the entrails which have been removed from their
fellows, and to eat raw sheep's liver. They move their mouths in
a suctorial manner, tearing the food with their jaws. They have
the power of extruding their jaws from the mouth, and of working
them alternately backwards and forwards. They are viviparous;
the young are fully formed at birth, and differ from the adult
only in size and colour. The mothar does not appear to pay any
special attention to her offspring, which wander away and get
their own living. It has lately been stated that some of the
Australian species are normally oviparous, but this has not
been fully proved. Sexual differences are not strongly marked,
and are sometimes absent. There does not appear to be
any true copulation. In some species the male deposits
small oval spermatophores indiscriminately on any part of
the body of the female. It seems probable that in such
cases the spermatozoa make their way from the adherent
spermatophore through the body-wall into the body, and
so by traversing the tissues reach the ovary. In other
species which possess reccptacula seminis it is probable that
fertilization is effected once only in early life before any ova
pass into the uterus.

External Features. — The anterior part of the body may be called
the head, though it is not sharply marked off from the rest of the
body (fig. 1). The head carries three pairs of appendages, a pair
of simple eyes, and a ventrally placed mouth. The body is elon-
gated and vermiform; it bears a number of paired appendages,
each terminating in a pair of claws, and all very much alike. The
number varies in the different species. The anus is always at the

called the buccal cavity, and is surrounded by an annular tumid
lip, raised into papilliform ridges and bearing a few spines (fig. 2).
Within the buccal cavity are the two jaws. They are short, stump-
like, muscular structures, armed at their free extremities by a pair
of cutting blades or claws, and are placed one on each side of the
mouth. In the median line of the buccal cavity in front is placed
a thick muscular protuberance, which may be called the tongue,
though attached to the dorsal instead of to the ventral wall of the
mouth (fig. 2). The tongue
bears a row of small, chiti-
nous teeth. The jaw-claws
(figs. 3 and 4) , which resemble
in all essential points the
claws borne by the feet, and,
like these, are thickenings of
the cuticle, are sickle-shaped.
They have their convex edge
directed forwards, and their
concave, or cutting edge,
turned backwards. The inner
cutting plate (fig. 3) usually
bears a number of cutting
teeth. The oral papillae are
placed at the sides of the
head (fig. 2). The ducts of
the slime-glands open at
their free end. They possess
two main rings of projecting
tissue, and their extremities
bear papillae irregularly
arranged. The ambulatory
appendages vary in number.
There are seventeen pairs in
P. capensis and eighteen in P.
balfouri, while in P. jamai-
censis the number varies
from twenty-nine to forty-three. They consist of two main divisions,
which we may call the leg and the foot (fig. 5). The leg (/) has the
form of a truncated cone, the broad end of which is attached to

(After Sedgwick.)

Fig. 2. — Ventral view of the head of

P. capensis.
ant, Antennae; or.p, Oral papillae;
F.i, First leg; T, Tongue.

(After Sedgwick.)
Fig. 1

-Peripatus capensis, drawn from life. Life size.

posterior end of the body, and the generative opening is on the
ventral surface, just in front of the anus; it may be between the
legs of the penultimate pair, or between the legs of the" last pair,
or it may be subterminal. The colour varies considerably in the
different species, and even in different individuals of the same
species. The skin has a velvety appearance, and is thrown into
a number of transverse ridges, along which wart-like papillae are
placed. These papillae, which arc found everywhere, are the
primary papillae; they are covered with small, scale-like projections
called secondary papillae, and are specially developed on the dorsal
surface, less so on the ventral. Each papilla carries at its extremity
a well-marked spine. Among the primary papillae smaller accessory
papillae are sometimes present.

The appendages of the head are the antennae, the jaws and the
oral papillae. The mouth is at the hinder end of a depression

(After Balfour.) (After Balfour.)

Fig. 3. — Inner jaw-claw of Fig. 4. — Outer jaw-claw of

P. capensis. * P. capensis.

the ventro-lateral wall of the body, of which it is a prolongation.
It is marked by a number of rings of papillae placed transversely
to its long axis, the dorsal of which are pigmented like thfe dorsal
surface of the body, and the ventral like the ventral surface. At the
narrow distal end of the leg there are on the ventral surface three or

four (rarely five) spiniferous

pads, each of which is con-
tinued dorsally into a row of

papillae. The foot is attached

to the distal end of the leg.

It is slightly narrower at its

attached extremity than at

its free end. It bears two

sickle-shaped claws, and at

its distal end three (rarely

four) papillae. The part of

the foot which carries the

claws is especially retractile,

and is generally found more

or less telescoped into the

proximal part. The legs of
the fourth and fifth pairs differ
from the others in the fact that
the third pad (counting from the
distal end of the leg) carries the ,,, _ , . , ,
opening of the enlarged nephridia (A£ter Sed S™ k ->
of these segments. In some species Fig. 5. — Ventral view of last
certain of the legs bear on their leg of a male P. capensis.
ventral sides furrows with tumid lips f < Foot; /, leg; p, spinifer-
and lined by smooth non-tuberculate us' pads. ' The white papilla
epithelium; they are called coxal { the proximal part of this
organs, and it appears that they can l eg is characteristic of the
be everted. The males are generally ma l e of this species,
rather smaller and less numerous

than the females. In those species in which the number of legs
varies the male has a smaller number of legs than the female.

PERIPATUS

165

Breeding. — As already stated, Peripatus is viviparous. The
Australasian species come nearest to laying eggs, inasmuch as the
eggs are large, full of yolk, and enclosed in a shell; but development
normally takes place in the uterus, though abnormally, incompletely
developed eggs are extruded. The uterus always contains several
young, which are usually at different stages of development and
are born^at different times of the year. In most of the African
species, however, the embryos of the uterus are almost of the same
age and are born at a definite season. The young of P. capensis
are born in April and May. They are almost colourless at birth,
excepting the antennae, which are green, and their length is 10 to
15 mm. A large female will produce thirty to forty young in one
year. The period of gestation is thirteen months, that is to say,
the ova pass into the oviducts about one month before the young
of the preceding year are born.

Anatomy. — The alimentary canal (fig. 6). The buccal cavity,
as explained above, is a secondary formation around the true

mouth, which is at its dorsal
posterior end. It contains the
tongue and the jaws, which have
already been described, and into
the hind end 01 it there open
ventrally by a median opening
the salivary glands. The mouth
leads into a muscular pharynx,
which is connected by a short
oesophagus with the stomach The
stomach forms by far the largest
part of the alimentary canal. It
is a dilated soft-walled tube, and
leads behind into the short narrow
rectum, which opens at the anus.
There are no glands opening into
the alimentary canal. The central
nervous system, the anterior part
of which is shown in fig. 7, is of the
" rope-ladder " type, and the ven-
tral cords meet over the rectum.
The cuticle is a thin layer, of
which the spines, jaws and claws
are special developments. Its
surface is not, however, smooth,
but is everywhere, with the ex-
ception of the perioral region,
raised into minute secondary

L-aln

(After Balfour.)

Fig. 6. — Peripatus capensis dis-
sected so as to show the ali-
mentary canal, slime glands and
salivary glands. The dissection
is viewed from the ventral side,
and the lips (L) have been cut
through in the middle line behind
and pulled outwards so as to
expose the jaws (7), which have
been turned outwards, and the
tongue {T) bearing a median
row of chitinous teeth, which
branches behind into two. The
muscular pharynx, extending back
into the space between the first
and second pairs of legs, is
followed by a short tubular oeso-
phagus. The latter opens into
the large stomach with plicated
walls, extending almost to the hind
end of the animal. The stomach
at its point of junction with the
rectum presents an S-shaped ven-
tro-dorsal curve.

A, Anus; at, antenna; F.i, F.2,
first and second feet; j, jaws;
L, lips; oe, oesophagus; or.p,
oral papilla; ph, pharynx; R,
rectum; s.d, salivary duct;
s.g, salivary gland; sl.d, slime
reservoir; sl.g, portion of tub-
ules of slime gland ; st, stomach ;
T, tongue in roof of mouth.

papillae, which in most instances bear at their free extremity a
somewhat prominent spine. The epidermis, placed immediately
within the cuticle, is composed of a single row of cells. The
pigment which gives the characteristic colour to the skin is
deposited in the protoplasm of the outer ends of the cells in the
form of small granules. Beneath the epidermis is a thin cutis,
which is followed by the muscular layers (external circular and
internal longitudinal). The muscular fibres of the jaws are
transversely striated, the other muscles are unstriated.

The apertures of the tracheal system are placed in the depressions
between the papillae or ridges of the skin. Each of them leads
into a tube, which may be called the tracheal pit (fig. 8) ; the walls

-tr.o.

(After Balfour.)

FlG. 8. — Section through a tracheal pit and diverging bundles

of tracheal tubes taken transversely to the long axis of the body.

tr. Tracheae, showing rudimentary spiral fibre ; tr.c, Cells resembling

those lining the tracheal pits, which occur at intervals along the

course of the tracheae; tr.o, Tracheal stigma; tr.p, Tracheal pit.

of this are formed of epithelial cells, bounded towards the lumen of

the pit by a very delicate cuticular membrane continuous with

the cuticle covering the surface of the body. Internally it expands

in the transverse plane, and from the expanded portion the tracheal

tubes arise in diverging bundles. The tracheae are minute tubes

exhibiting a faint transverse striation which is probably the indication

of a spiral fibre. They appear to branch, but only exceptionally.

The tracheal apertures are diffused over the surface of the body,

but are especially developed in certain regions.

The vascular system consists of a dorsal tubular heart with
paired ostia leading into it from the pericardium, of the peri-
cardium, and the various other divisions of the perivisceral cavity
(fig. 12, D). As in all Arthropoda, the perivisceral ' cavity is a
haemocoele, i.e. contains blood, and forms part of the vascular
system. It is divided by septa into chambers (fig. 12, D), of which
the most important are the central chamber containing the ali-
mentary canal and the dorsal chamber or pericardium. Nephridia
are present in all the legs. In all of them (except the first three)
the following parts may be recognized (fig. 9) : (1) a vesicular portion

CO

(After Balfour.)

Fig. 7. — Brain and anterior
part of the ventral nerve-cords
of Peripatus capensis enlarged
and viewed from the ventral
surface.

atn, Antennary nerves; co,
commissures between ventral
cords; d, ventral appendages
of brain; E, eye; en, nerves
passing outwards from ventral
cord; F.g.i, ganglionic en-
largements from which nerves
to feet pass off; jn, nerves to
jaws; org, ganglionic enlarge-
ment from which nerves to
oral papillae pass off; orn,
nerves to oral papillae; pc,
posterior lobe of brain; pn,
nerves to feet; sy, sym-
pathetic nerves.

Fig. 9. — Nephridium from the ninth pair of legs of P. capensis.

o.s. External opening of segmen-
tal organ.

p.f, Internal opening of nephrid-
ium into the body cavity
(lateral compartment).

s, Vesicle of segmental organ.

s.c.i, s.c.2, s.c.3, s.c.4, Successive
regions of coiled portion of
nephridium.

s.o.t, Third portion of nephridium
broken off at p.f from the in-
ternal vesicle, which is not
shown.

(s) opening to the exterior on the ventral surface of the legs by a
narrow passage (s.d) ; (2) a coiled portion, which is again subdivided
into several sections (s.c) ; (3) a section with closely-packed nuclei
ending by a somewhat enlarged opening (p.f) ; (4) the terminal
portion, which consists of a thin-walled vesicle. The nephridia
of the first three pairs of legs are smaller than the rest, consisting
only of a vesicle and 4, uct - The fourth and fifth pairs are larger
than those behind, and are in other respects peculiar; for instance,
they open on the third pad (counting from the distal end of the

1 66

PERIPATUS

leg) , and the external vesicular portion is not dilated. The external
opening of the other nephridia is placed at the outer end of a trans-
verse groove at the base of the legs. The salivary glands are the
modified nephridia of the segment of the oral papillae.

The male generative organs (fig. 10) consist of a pair of testes
(te), a pair of seminal vesicles (v), vasa deferentia (v.d.), and acces-
sory glandular tubules (/). All the above parts lie in the central

(After Balfour.)
FlG. io. — Male Generative Organs of Peripatus capensis. Dorsal view.

p, Common duct into which vasa

a.g, Enlarged crural glands of last

pair of legs.
F. 16, 17, Last pair of legs.
/, Small accessory glandular

tubes.

deferentia open.
te, Testes, v, Seminal vesicles.
v.c, Nerve-cord.
v.d, Vas deferens.

compartment of the body cavity. The ovaries consist of a pair of
tubes closely applied together, and continued posteriorly into the
oviducts. Each oviduct, after a short course, becomes dilated
into the uterus. The two uteri join behind and open to the exterior
by a median opening. The ovaries always contain spermatozoa,
some of which project through the ovarian wall into the body
cavity. Spermatozoa are not found in the uterus and ovi-
ducts, and it appears probable, as we have said, that they
reach the ovary directly by boring through the skin and
traversing the body cavity. In all the species except the
African species there is a globular receptaculum seminis
opening by two short ducts close together into the oviduct,
and in the neotropical species there is in addition a small
receptaculum ovorum, with extremely thin walls, opening
into the oviduct by a short duct just in front of the recep-
taculum seminis. The epithelium of the latter structure is
clothed with actively moving cilia. There appear to be
present in most, if not all, of the legs some accessory
glandular structures opening just externally to the nephridia.
They are called the crural glands.

The development has been worked out in P. capensis, to which
species the following description refers. The segmentation is
peculiar, and leads to the formation of a solid gastrula, consisting
of a cortex of ectoderm nuclei surrounding a central endodermal
mass, which is exposed at one point — the blastopore. The enteron
arises as a space in the endoderm, and an opacity — the primitive
streak — appears at the hind end of the blastopore (fig. II, B).
The elongation of the embryo is accompanied by an elongation of
the blastopore, which soon becomes dumb-bell shaped (fig. 11, C).
At the same time the mesoblastic somites (embryonic segments
of mesoderm) make their appearance in pairs at the hind end, and
gradually travel forwards on each side of the blastopore to the
front end, where the somites of the anterior pair soon meet in
front of the blastopore (fig. 11, D). Meanwhile the narrow middle
part of the blastopore has closed by a fusion of its lips, so that the
blastopore is represented by two openings, the future mouth and
anus. A primitive groove makes its appearance behind the blasto-
pore (fig. II, D). At this stage the hind end of the body becomes
curved ventrally into a spiral (fig. 11, E), and at the same time
the appendages appear as hollow processes of the body-wall, a
mesoblastic somite being prolonged into each of them. The first
to appear are the antennae, into whieh the praeoral somites are
prolonged. The remainder appear from before backwards in regular
order, viz. jaw, oral papillae, legs 1-17. The full number of somites
and their appendages is not, however, completed until a later stage.
The nervous system is formed as an annular thickening of ectoderm
passing in front of the mouth and behind the anus, and lying on
each side of the blastopore along the lines of the somites. The
praeoral part of this thickening, which gives rise to the cerebral
ganglia, becomes pitted inwards on each side (fig. 11, F, e.g.).
These pits are eventually closed, and form the hollow ventral
appendages of the suprapharyngeal ganglia of the adult (fig. 7, d).
The lips are formed as folds of the side wall of the body, extending
from the praeoral lobes to just behind the jaw (fig. II, F, L).
They enclose the jaws (j), mouth (M), and opening of the salivary
glands (o.s), and so give rise to the buccal cavity. The embryo has
now lost its spiral curvature, and becomes completely doubled
upon itself, the hind end being in contact with the mouth (fig.
11, G). It remains in this position until birth. The just-born
young are from 10 to 15 mm. in length, and have green antennae,
but the rest of the body is either quite white or of a reddish colour.
This red colour differs from the colour of the adult in being soluble
in spirit. The mesoblastic somites are paired sacs formed from the
anterior lateral portions of the primitive streak (fig. 11, C). As
they are formed they become placed in pairs on each side of the

orj)

D

Development. — Peripatus is found in Africa, in Austral-
asia, in South America and the West Indies, in New
Britain, and in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. The
species found in these various localities are closely similar
in their anatomical characters, the principal differences
relating to the structure of the female generative organs
and to the number of the legs. They, however, differ in
the most striking manner in the structure of the ovum
and the early development. In all the Australasian
species the egg is large and heavily charged with food-
yolk, and is surrounded by a tough membrane. In the
Cape species the eggs are smaller, though still of con-
siderable size; the yolk is much less developed, and the
egg membrane is thinner though dense. In the New Britain
species the egg is still smaller (-i mm-), and there is a
large trophic vesicle. In the neotropical species the egg is
minute, and almost entirely devoid of yolk. The unsegmented
uterine ovum of P. novae zealandiae measures 1-5 mm. in length
by -8 mm. in breadth; that of P. capensis is -56 mm. in length:
and that of P. trinidadensis -04 mm. in diameter. In corre-
spondence with these differences in the ovum there are differences
in the early development, though the later stages are closely
isimilar.

(After Sedgwick.)

Fig. 11. — A Series of Embryos of P. capensis. The hind end of
embryos B, C, D is uppermost in the figures, the primitive streak is the
white patch behind the blastopore.

A, Gastrula stage, ventral view,
showing blastopore.

B, Older gastrula stage, ventral
view, showing elongated blasto-
pore and primitive streak.

C, Ventral view of embryo with
three pairs of mesoblastic
somites, dumb-bell shaped blas-
topore and primitive streak.

Ventral view of embryo, in
which the blastopore has com-
pletely closed in its middle
portion. The anterior pair

of somites have moved to the
front end of the body.

E, side view of later embryo.

At, Antenna; d, dorsal pro-
jection; p.s., praeoral somite.

F, Ventral view of head of embryo,

intermediate between E and
G. At, Antennae; eg, cerebral
groove; j, jaws; j.s. swelling at
base of jaws; L, lips; M, mouth;
or.p, oral papillae ; o.s, opening
of salivary gland.

G, side view of older embryo.

blastopore,
position

The somites of
entirely in front

the first pair eventually obtain
of the blastopore (Fig. II, D).
They form the somites of the praeoral lobes. The full comple-
ment of somites is acquired at about the stage of fig. II, E.
The relations of the mesoblastic somites are shown in fig. 12, A,
which represents a transverse section taken between the mouth
and anus of an embryo of the stage of fig. 11, D. The his-
tory of these somites is an exceedingly interesting one, and
may be described shortly as follows: They divide into two
parts — a ventral part which extends into the appendage, and
a dorsal part (fig. 12, B). Each of the ventral parts acquires
an opening to the exterior, just outside the nerve-cord,

PERIPATUS

167

and becomes entirely transformed into a nephridium (fig. 12,
D, 2'). The dorsal part shifts dorsalwards and diminishes rela-
tively in size (fig. 12, C). Its fate differs in the different parts
of the body. In the anterior somites it dwindles and disappears,
but in the posterior part it unites with the dorsal divisions of con-
tiguous somites of the same side, and forms a tube — the generative
tube (fig. 12, D, 2). The last section of this tube retains its con-
nexion with the ventral portion of the somite, and so acquires an
external opening, which is at first lateral, but soon shifts to the
middle line, and fuses with its fellow, to form the single generative
opening. The praeoral somite develops the rudiment of a nephri-
dium, but eventually entirely disappears. The jaw somite also
disappears; the oral papilla somite forms ventrally the salivary
glands, which are thus serially homologous with nephridia. The
various divisions of the perivisceral cavity develop as a series of

though not characteristic of all the classes of the Arthropoda,
are found nowhere outside that group, and constitute a very
important additional reason for uniting Peripatus with it. Peri-
patus, though indubitably an Arthropod, differs in such impor-
tant respects from all the old-established Arthropod classes,
that a special class, equivalent in rank to the others, and called
Prototracheata or Onychophora, has had, as we have seen, to
be created for its sole occupancy. This unlikeness to other
Arthropoda is mainly due to the Annelidan affinities which it
presents, but in part to the presence of the following peculiar
features: (1) the number and diffusion of the tracheal apertures;
(2) the restriction of the jaws to a single pair; (3) the dis-
position of the generative organs; (4) the texture of the
skin; and (5) the simplicity and similarity of all the
segments of the body behind the head. The Annelidan
affinities are superficially indicated in so marked a
manner by the thinness of the cuticle, the dermo-
muscular body-wall, the hollow appendages, that, as
already stated, many of the earlier zoologists who
examined Peripatus placed it among the segmented
worms; and the discovery that there is some solid
morphological basis for this determination constitutes
one of the most interesting points of the recent work
on the genus. The Annelidan features are: (1) the
paired nephridia in every segment of the body behind
the first two (Saenger, Balfour); (2) the presence of
cilia in the generative tracts (Gaffron). It is true
that neither of these features is absolutely distinctive
of the Annelida, but when taken in conjunction with
the Annelidan disposition of the chief systems of
organs, viz. the central nervous system, and the main
vascular trunk or heart, they may be considered as
indicating affinities in that direction.

(After Sedgwick.) ssm^^sa^^ ~***£i&gg2&t

Fig. 12. — A series of diagrams of transverse sections through Peripatus embryos Synopsis of Species.

to show the relations of the coelom at successive stages. Peripatus (Guildmg).— Soft-bodied vermiform animals,

A, Early stage; no trace of the vascular space; endoderm and ectoderm in ™\? "PJS" ° f •TJ nged a " tennae - ? ne P air ° f jaws, one
contact P papillae, and a varying number of claw-

B, Endoderm has separated from the dorsal and ventral ectoderm. The ¥%?„ ^l^thfn dorsal surface arched and more
somite is represented as having divided on the left side into a dorsal and SlT?^J J u + u ventral v f r fac ?" . f Skln
ventral portion transversely ridged and beset by wart-like spiniferous

CThe haemocoele (3) has become divided up into a number of spaces, the P-?" 1 ^- ^outh anterior ventral; anus posterior, terminal,
arrangement of which is unimportant. The dorsal part of the somite has n"™W n ( P? \ S S1 " g ' n ^"l' ventral and posterior.
travelled dorsalwards, and now constitutes a small space (triangular in ° n ,f P alr o of sl , mP Y ♦ i™ lar g e '. , w ! th ^° Y entral
section) just dorsal to the gut. The ventral portion (2) has assumed a ^!° w t a RP*. ndag es = ventral cords widely divancated,
tubular character, and has acquired an external opening. The internal without distinct ganglia. Alimentary canal simple, un-
vesicle is alreadv indicated, and is shown in the diagram by the thinner ?? 1 ' ed - Segmentally arranged paired nephridia are present
black line: I, gut; 2, somite; 2', nephridial part of coelom; 3, haemocoele; ? odv cavltv ls continuous with the vascular system and
3', part of haemocoele which will form the heart-the part of th e does not communicate with the paired nephridia. Heart
haemocoele on each side of this will form the pericardium; 4, nerve-cord ; ™ ar ' wl ^. P aired ostia v Respiration by means of
4 slime glands tracheae. Dioecious; males smaller and generally less

D represents the conditions at the time of birth. The coelom is represented n. uraerous than females . Generative glands tubular, con-
surrounded by a thick black line, except in the part which forms the l^LT n- ? t^ Yj v ? pa ?r- UB - ^? U " § nwV" 1 ^
:ernal vesicle of the nenhridmm. * developed. Distnbution :Afnca (Cape Colony, Natal, and

the Gaboon), New Zealand, Australia and Tasmania, New

internal vesicle of the nephridium.

spaces between the ectoderm and endoderm, and later in the meso-
derm. The mesoderm seems to be formed entirely from the
proliferation of the cells of the mesoblastic somites. It thus appears
that in Peripatus the coelom does not develop a perivisceral portion,
but gives rise only to the renal and reproductive organs.

The genus Peripatus was established in 1826 by L. Guilding,
who first obtained specimens of it from St Vincent in the
Antilles. He regarded it as a mollusc, being no doubt deceived
by the slug-like appearance given by the antennae. Specimens
were subsequently obtained from other parts of the neotropical
region, and from South Africa and Australia, and the animal
was variously assigned by the zoologists of the day to the Anne-
lida and Myriapoda. Its true place in the system, as a primitive
member of the group Arthropoda, was first established in 1874
by H. N. Moseley, who discovered the tracheae. Peripatus
is an Arthropod, as shown by (1) the presence of appendages
modified as jaws; (2) the presence of paired lateral ostia per-
forating the wall of heart and putting its cavity in communication
with the pericardium; (3) the presence of a vascular body cavity
and pericardium (haemocoelic body cavity); (4) absence of a
perivisceral section of the coelom. Finally, the tracheae,

Britain, South and Central America and the West Indies, the
Malay Peninsula [and in Sumatra ?].

The genus Peripatus, so far as adult conformation is concerned,
is a very homogeneous one. It is true, as was pointed out by
Sedgwick, that the species from the same part of the world re-
semble one another more closely than they do species from other
regions, but recent researches have shown that the line between
them cannot be so sharply drawn as was at first supposed, and
it is certainly not desirable in the present state of our knowledge
to divide them into generic or subgeneric groups, as has been
done by some zoologists. (The following genera have been pro-
posed: Peripatus for the neotropical species, Peripatoides for the
Australasian, Peripatopsis and Opisthopatus for the African,
Paraperipatus for the New Britain, Eoperipatus for the Malayan
species, _ and Ooperipatus for the supposed oviparous species of
Australia and New Zealand.) The colour is highly variable in
species from all regions; it is perhaps more constant in the species
from the neotropical region than in those from elsewhere. The
number of legs tends to be variable whenever it exceeds 19
praegenital pairs: when the number is less than that it is usually,
though not always, constant. More constant points of difference
are the form of the jaws, the position of the generative orifice,
the presence of a receptaculum seminis and a receptaculum ovorum,
the arrangement of the primary papillae on the distal end of the
feet, and above all the early development.

South African Species. — With three spinous pads on the legs,

i68

PERIPATUS

and feet with two primary papillae on the anterior side and one
on the posterior side; outer jaw with one minor tooth at the base
of the main tooth, inner jaw with no interval between the large
tooth and the series of small ones; last fully developed leg of the
male with enlarged crural gland opening on a large papilla placed
on its ventral surface; coxal organs absent; the nephridial open-
ings of the 4th and 5th pairs of legs are placed in the proximal
spinous pad. Genital opening subterminal, behind the last pair
of fully developed legs; oviduct without receptacula seminis or
receptacula ovorum ; the terminal unpaired portion of vas deferens
short. Ova of considerable size, but with only a small quantity
of yolk. The embryos in the uterus are all nearly of the same
age, except for a month or two before birth, when two broods
overlap.

The following species are aberrant in respect of these characters :
Peripatus {Opisthopatus) cinctipes, Purcell (Cape Colony and Natal),
presents a few Australasian features ; there is a small receptaculum
seminis on each oviduct, some of the legs are provided with well-
developed coxal organs, the feet have one anterior, one posterior
and one dorsal papilla, and the successive difference in the ages of
the embryos in the uterus, though nothing like that found in the
neotropical species, is slightly greater than that found in othe
investigated African species. Several pairs of legs in the middle
region of the body are provided with enlarged crural glands which
open on a large papilla. Male with four accessory glands, opening
on each side of and behind the genital aperture. P. tholloni, Bouvier,
(Equatorial West Africa [Gaboon]), shows some neotropical features;
there are 24 to 25 pairs of legs, the genital opening is between the
penultimate legs, and though there are only three spinous pads
the nephridial openings of the 4th and 5th legs are proximal to the
3rd pad, coxal organs are present, and the jaws are of the neo-
tropical type ; the oviducts have receptacula seminis. The following
South African species may be mentioned: P. capensis (Grube),
with 17 (rarely 18) pairs of claw-bearing legs; P. balfouri (Sedgw.)
with 18 (rarely 19) pairs; P. moseleyi (Wood-M.), with 20 to 24
pairs.

Australasian Species. — With 14, 15 or 16 pairs of claw-bearing
ambulatory legs, with three spinous pads on the legs, and nephridial
opening of the 4th and 5th legs on the proximal pad ; feet with one
anterior, one posterior and one dorsal primary papilla; inner jaw
without diastema, outer with or without a minor tooth. Last leg
of the male with or without a large white papilla on its ventral
surface for the opening of a gland, and marked papillae for the
crural glands are sometimes present on other legs of the male;
well-developed coxal glands absent. Genital opening between the
legs of the last pair; oviducts with receptacula seminis, without
receptacula ovorum; the terminal portion of the vas deferens long
and complicated ; the accessory male glands open between the genital
aperture and the anus, near the latter. Ova large and heavily
charged with yolk, and provided with a stoutish shell. The uterus
appears to contain embryos of different ages. Specimens are
recorded from West Australia, Queensland, New South Wales,
Victoria and New Zealand. The Australasian species are in some
confusion. The number of claw-bearing legs varies from 14 to
16 pairs, but the number most often found is 15. Whether the
number varies in the same species is not clear. There appears to
be evidence that some species are occasionally or normally oviparous,
and in the supposed oviparous species the oviduct opens at the end
of a papilla called from its supposed function an ovipositor, but
the oviparity has not yet been certainly proved as a normal occur-
rence. Among the species described may be mentioned P. leuckarti
(Saenger), P. insignis (Dendy), P. oviparus (Dendy), P. viridimacu-
lalus (Dendy), P. novae zealandiae (Hutton), but it is by no means
certain that future research will maintain these. Mr J. J.Fletcher,
indeed, is of opinion that the Australian forms are all varieties of
one species, P. leuckarti.

Neotropical Species. — With three to five spinous pads on the legs,
nephridial opening of the 4th and 5th legs usually proximal to
the 3rd pad, and feet either with two primary papillae on the
anterior side and one on the posterior, or with two on the anterior
and two on the posterior; outer jaw with small minor tooth or
teeth at the base of the main tooth, inner jaw with diastema. A
variable number of posterior legs of the males anterior to the
genital opening with one or two large papillae carrying the open-
ings of the crural glands; well-developed coxal organs present
on most of the legs. The primary papillae usually divided into
two portions. Genital opening between the legs of the penultimate
pair; oviduct provided with receptacula seminis and ovorum;
unpaired part of vas deferens long and complicated ; accessory
organs of male opening at the sides of the anus. Ova minute,
with little food-yolk; embryos in the uterus at very different stages
of development. The number of legs usually if not always variable
in the same species; the usual number is 28 to 32 pairs, but in some
species 40 to 43 pairs are found. The neotropical species appear
to fall into two groups: (1) the so-called Andean species, viz. those
which inhabit the high plateaus or Pacific slope of the Andes; in
these there are 4 (sometimes 5) pedal papillae, and the nephridial
openings of the 4th and 5th legs are on the third pad; and (2) the
Caribbean species, viz. the remaining neotropical species, in which
there are 3 papillae on the foot and the nephridial openings of the

4th and 5th legs are between the 3rd and 4th pads. The Andean
species are P. eisenii (Wh.), P. tuberculatus (Bouv.), P. lankesteri
(Bouv.), P. quitensis (Schm.), P. corradi (Cam.), P. cameranoi
(Bouv.) and P. balzani (Cam.). Of the remaining species, which
are the majority, may be mentioned P. edwardsii (Blanch), P.
jamaicensis (Gr. and Cock.), P. Irinidadensis (Sedgw.), P. torquatus
(Ken.), P. im thurmi (Scl.).

New Britain Peripatus. — With 22 to 24 pairs of claw-bearing
legs, with three spinous pads on the legs, and nephridial openings of
legs 4 and 5 (sometimes of 6 also) on the proximal pad; feet with
one primary papilla on the anterior, one on the posterior side,
and one on the dorsal side (median or submedian) ; outer jaw with
a minor tooth, inner jaw without diastema; crural glands absent;
well-developed coxal organs absent. Genital opening subterminal
behind the last pair of legs; oviduct with receptaculum seminis,
without receptaculum ovorum; unpaired part of vas deferens very
short ; accessory glands two, opening medianly and dorsally. Ova
small, -I mm. in diameter, with little yolk, and the embryos pro-
vided with large trophic vesicles (Willey). Embryos in the uterus
of very different ages, and probably born all the year round. One
species only known, P. novae britanniae (Willey).

Sumatran Peripatus.— Peripatus with 24 pairs of ambulatory
legs, and four spinous pads on the legs. The primary papillae of
the neotropical character with conical bases. Generative opening
between the legs of the penultimate pair. Feet with only two
papillae. Single species. P. sumatranus (Sedgw.). The existence
of this species is doubtful.

Peripatus from the Malay Peninsula. — With 23 to 25 pairs of
claw-bearing legs, four spinous pads on the legs, and nephridial open-
ings of legs 4 and 5 in the middle of the proximal pad or on its
proximal side; feet with two primary papillae, one anterior and
one posterior; outer jaw with two, inner jaw with two or three minor
teeth at the base of the main tooth, separated by a diastema from
the row of small teeth ; crural glands present in the male only, in the
two pairs of legs preceding the generative opening; coxal glands
present. Genital opening between the penultimate legs; oviduct
with receptacula seminis and ovorum ; unpaired part of vas deferens
long; male accessory glands two, opening medianly between the
legs of the last pair. Ova large, with much yolk and thick mem-
brane, like those of Australasian species ; embryos with slit-like
blastopore and of very different ages in the same uterus, probably
born all the year round. The species are P. weldoni (Evans),
P. horsti (Evans) and P. butleri (Evans). It will thus be seen
that the Malay species, while resembling the neotropical species
in the generative organs, differ from these in many features of the
legs and feet, in the important characters furnished by the size and
structure of the ovum, and by their early development.

Authorities. — F. M. Balfour, " The Anatomy and Development
of P. capensis" posthumous memoir, edited by H. N. Moseley
and A. Sedgwick, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. vol. xxiii. (1883) ; E. L.
Bouvier, " Sur l'organisation du Peripatus tholloni, Bouv.," Comptes
rendus, cxxvi. 1358-1361 (1898); "Contributions a l'histoire des
Peripates Americains," Ann. de la societe entomologique de France,
lxviii. 385-450 (1899); " Quelques observations sur les onycho-
phores du musee britannique," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xliii.
367 (1900) ; A. Dendy, " On the Oviparous Species of Onycho-
phorea," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xlv. 362 (1902); R. Evans, "On
Onychophora from the Siamese Malay States," Quart. Journ. Mic.
S.ci. xliv. 473 (1901), and " On the Development of Ooperipatus,"
ibid. xlv. 1 (1901); J. J. Fletcher, "On the Specific Identity
of the Australian Peripatus, usually supposed to be P. leuckarti,
Saenger," Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, x. 172 (1895); E.
Gaffron, " Beitrage z. Anat. u. Physiol, v. Peripatus," Th. I
and 2, Zool. Beitrage (Schneider), i. 33, 145; L. Guilding, " Mol-
lusca caribbaeana: an -account of a new genus of Mollusca,"
Zool. Journ. ii. 443/ pi. 14 (1826); reprinted in I sis, xxi. 158,
pi. ii. (1828); H. N. Moseley, "On the Structure and Develop-
ment of Peripatus capensis," Phil. Trans. (1874); R- !• Pocock,
" Contributions to our Knowledge of the Arthropod Fauna of the
West Indies," pt. 2, Malacopoda, &c, Journ. Linn. Soc. xxiv.
518; W. F. Purcell, " On the South African Species of Peripatus,"
Sue.,' Annals of the South African Museum, i. 331 (1898-1899);
and " Anatomy of Opisthopatus cinctipes," ibid. vol. ii. (1900) ;
W. L. Sclater, " On the Early Stages of the Development of a
South American Species of Peripatus," Quart. Journ. of Mic. Sci.
xxviii. 343-361 (1888); A. Sedgwick, "A Monograph of the De-
velopment of Peripatus capensis " (originally published in various
papers in the Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci., 1 885-1 888); Studies from the
Morphological Lab. of the University of Cambridge, iv. 1-146 (1889);
" A Monograph of the Species and Distribution of the Genus
Peripatus, Guilding," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xxviii. 431-494
(1888); L. Sheldon, "On the Development of Peripatus novae
zealandiae" pts. 1 and 2, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xxviii. and xxix.
(1888 and 1889). The memoirs quoted by Sclater, Sedgwick and
Sheldon are all reprinted in vol. iv. of the Studies from the Mor-
phological Lab. of the University of Cambridge, vol. iv. (Cambridge
University Press, 1889). T. Steel, " Observations on Peripatus,"
Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, p. 94 (1896) ; A. Willey, " The
Anatomy and Development of P. novae britanniae," Zoological
Results, pt. 1, pp. 1-52 (Cambridge, 1898). (A. Sfi.*j

PERIPTERAL— PERISSODACTYLA

169

PERIPTERAL (Gr. 7repi, round, and Trep6v, a wing), in
architecture, the term applied to a temple or other structure
where the columns of the front portico are returned along its
sides as wings at the distance of one or two intercolumniations
from the walls of the naos or cella. Almost all the Greek temples
were peripteral, whether Doric, Ionic, or Corinthian (see
Temple).

PERISSODACTYLA (i.e. odd-toed), the name proposed by
Sir R. Owen for that division of ungulate mammals in which
the toe corresponding to the middle (third) digit of the human
hand and foot is symmetrical in itself, and larger than those
on either side (when such are present). The Perissodactyla
have been brigaded with the Artiodactyla (q.v.) to form the
typical group of the ungulates, under the name of Diplarthra,
or Ungulata Vera, and the features distinguishing the combined
group from the less specialized members of the order Ungulata
will be found under the heading of that order.

The following are the leading characteristics by means of
which the sub-order Perissodactyla is distinguished from the
\rtiodactyla. The cheek-teeth (premolars and molars) form a

Fig. 1. — Bones of Right Fore-Foot of existing Perissodactyla.

A, Tapir (Tapir us indicus).

B, Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sumatrensis) .

C, Horse (Equus caballus).

U, ulrta; R, radius; c, cuneiform; /.lunar; s, scaphoid; u, unciform;
m, magnum; Id, trapezoid; tm, trapezium.

continuous series, with massive, quadrate, transversely ridged
or complex crowns — the posterior premolars usually resembling
the molars in structure. Crown of the last lower molar commonly
bilobed. Dorso-lumbar vertebrae never fewer than twenty-
two, usually twenty-three in the existing species. Nasal bones
expanded posteriorly. An alisphenoid canal. Femur with a
third trochanter. The middle or third digit on both fore and hind
feet larger than any of the others, and symmetrical in itself,
the free border of the terminal phalanx being evenly rounded
(see fig. 1). This may be the only functional toe, or the second
and fourth may be subequally developed on each side. In
the tapirs and many extinct forms the fifth toe also remains
on the fore-limb, but its presence does not interfere with the
symmetrical arrangement of the remainder of the foot on each
side of the median line of the third or middle digit. The astraga-
lus has a pulley-like surface above for articulation into the tibia,
but its lower surface is flattened and unites to a much greater
extent with the navicular than with the cuboid, which bone is of
comparatively less importance than in the Artiodactyles. In
existing forms the calcaneum does not articulate with the
lower end of the fibula. The stomach is simple, the caecum
large and capacious, the placenta diffused, and the teats inguinal.
The Perissodactyla may be divided into the four following
sections, namely the extinct Titanotheroidea, the Hippoidea,
represented by the horse tribe and their ancestors, the Tapiroidea,

typified by the tapirs, and the Rhinocerotoidea, which includes
the modern rhinoceroses and their forerunners.

1. Titanotheres. — In the Titanotheroidea the dentition may be
expressed by the formula i-frfS, c i> Pz-s> m l- There is usually
a short gap between the canine and first premolar; the upper
molars are short-crowned and transitional between the bunodont
(tubercular) and selenodont (crescentic) types, with two outer
concave tubercles and two inner conical ones; while the lower
molars are crescentic, with three lobes in the last of the series.
The skull is elongated, with the orbit not separated from the tem-
poral fossa and the nasals, which may or may not carry horns,
reaching at least as far forwards as the union of the premaxillae.
The post-glenoid, post-tympanic and paroccipital processes of the
skull are large, and there is an alisphenoid canal. There are four
functional toes in front and three behind; while the calcaneum,
unlike that of the other three groups, articulates with the fibula.
The group is represented by the families Palaeosyopidae and Titano-
theriidae in the Tertiary deposits of North America. Both families
are described under the heading TitanothERHBAE.

2. Horse Group. — In the Hippoidea there is generally the full
series of 44 teeth, but the first premolar, which is always small, is
often deciduous or even absent in the lower or in both jaws.
The incisors are chisel-shaped, and the canines tend to become
isolated, so as in the more specialized forms to occupy a more or
less midway position in a longer or shorter gap between the incisors
and premolars. In the upper molars the two outer columns or
tubercles of the primitive tubercular molar coalesce to form an
outer wall, from which proceed two crescentic transverse crests,
the connexion between the crests and the wall being slight or im-
perfect, and the crests themselves sometimes tubercular. Each
of the lower molars carries two crescentic ridges. In the earlier
forms the cheek-teeth are low-crowned, but in the higher types
they become high-crowned. The number of front toes range?
from four to one, and of hind ones from three to one. The post-
glenoid, post-tympanic and paroccipital processes of the skull
are large; the second of these being always distinct. Nasals long,
normally without traces of horns.

The section is divisible into the families Equidae and Palaeo-
theriidae, of which the latter is extinct.

In the Equidae the premolars are generally j or jj. In the earlier
short-crowned forms these teeth are unlike the molars, and the
first of the series is separated by a gap from the second. In the
high-crowned types, as well as in some of the intermediate ones,
they become molar-like, and roots are not developed in the whole
cheek-series till late. Orbit in higher forms closed by bone; and
ridges of lower cheek-teeth terminating in large loops. Front
toes 4, 3 or 1, hind; 3 or 1. (See Equidae and Horse.)

In the Palaeolheriidae the premolars may be | or |, and are
generally molar-like, while the first (when present) is always close
to the second; all the cheek-teeth short-crowned and rooted, with
or without cement. Outer walls of upper cheek-teeth W-shaped,
and transverse crests oblique. Orbit open behind ; and ridges of
lower cheek-teeth generally terminating in small loops. Feet
always 3-toed. (See Pai.aeotherium.)

3. Tapir Group. — In the Tapiroidea the dentition may be either
the full 44, or lack the first premolar in the lower or in both jaws.
The incisors are chisel-shaped ; and (unlike the early Hippoidea)
there is no gap between the first premolar, when present, and the
second. The upper cheek-teeth are short-crowned and without
cement, and show distinct traces of the primitive tubercles; the two
outer columns form a more or less complete external wall, connected
with the inner ones by a pair of nearly straight transverse crests;
and the premolars are originally simpler than the molars. Lower
cheek-teeth with two straight transverse ridges. Nasals long in
early, but shorter in later forms, hornless; orbit open behind.
Front toes, 4; hind toes, 3.

This group is also divided into two families, the Tapiridae and
Lophiodontidae , the latter extinct.

In the Tapiridae the dentition may be reduced below the typical
44 by the loss of the first lower premolar. Hinder premolars
either simple or molar-like. Outer columns of upper molars similar,
the hinder ones not flattened ; ridges of lower molars oblique or
directly transverse, a third ridge to the last molar in the earlier
forms. The Lophiodontidae, which date from the Eocene, come
very close to Hyracotherium in the horse-line; and it is solely on
the authority of American palaeontologists that the division of
these early forms into equoids and tapiroids is attempted. In North
America the earliest representative of the group- is Systemodon of
the Lower Eocene, in which all the upper premolars are quite
simple ; while the molars are of a type which would readily develop
into that of the modern tapirs, both outer columns being conical
and of equal size. The absence of a gap between the lower canine
and first premolar and between the latter and the following tooth
is regarded as an essentially tapir-like feature. Lophiodochoerus
apparently represents this stage in the European Lower Eocene;
1 ' sectolophus , of the American Middle Eocene, represents a distinct
advance, the last upper premolar becoming molar-like, while a
second species from the Upper Eocene is still more advanced; the
third lobe is, however, retained in the last lower molar. In the

170

PERISSODACTYLA

Oligocene of both hemispheres appears Protapirus, which ranges
well into the Miocene, and is essentially a tapir, having lost the third
lobe of the last lower molar, and being in process of acquiring
molar-like upper premolars, although none of these teeth have two
complete inner columns. Finally, Tapirus itself, in which the last
three upper premolars, makes its appearance in the Upper Miocene,
and continues till the present day. The characters of the genus
may be expressed as follows in a more detailed manner.

The dentition is i f , c \, pi,m\, total 42. Of the upper incisors
the first and second are nearly equal, with short, broad crowns,
the third is large and conical, considerably larger than the canine,
which is separated from it by an interval. Lower incisors diminish-
ing in size from the first to the third; the canine, which is in contact
with the third incisor, large and conical, working against (and
behind) the canine-like thira upper incisor. In both jaws there is
a long space between the canines and the commencement of the
teeth of the cheek-series, which are all in contact. First upper
premolar with a triangular crown narrow in front owing to the
absence of the anterior inner column. The other upper premolars
and molars all forrped on the same plan and of nearly the same
size, with four roots and quadrate crowns, rather wider transversely
than from before backwards, each having four columns, connected
by a pair of transverse ridges, anterior, and posterior. The first
lower premolar compressed in front ; the others composed of a single
pair of transverse crests, with a small anterior and posterior basal
ridge. Skull elevated and compressed ; with the orbit and temporal
fossa widely continuous, there being no true post-orbital process
from the frontal bone. Nasal apertures very large, and extending
high on the face between the orbits; nasal bones short, elevated,
triangular and pointed in front. Vertebrae: cervical, 7; dorsal, 18;
lumbar, 5; sacral, 6; caudal about 12. Limbs short and stout.
Fore-feet with four toes, having distinct hoofs: the first toe being
absent, the third the longest, the second and fourth nearly equal, and
the fifth the shortest and scarcely reaching the ground in the
ordinary standing position. Hind-feet with the typical perisso-
dactyle arrangement of three toes — the middle one being the
largest, the two others nearly equal. Nose and upper lip
elongated into a flexible, mobile snout or short proboscis, near
the end of which the nostrils are situated. Eyes rather small.
Ears of moderate size, ovate, erect. Tail very short. Skin
thick and but scantily covered with hair. Tapirs are common
to the Malay countries and tropical America; two species from
the latter area differ from the rest in having a vertical bony
partition to the nasal septum, and are hence subgenerically or

fenerically separated as Tapirella (Elasmognathus) (see Tapir).
learly related is the extinct family Lophiodontidae (inclusive of
the American Helaletidae) , in which both the upper and lower
first premolar may be absent, while the upper molars present a
more rhinoceros-like form, owing to the lateral compression and
consequent lengthening of the outer columns, of which the hinder
is bent somewhat inwards and is more or less concave externally,
thus forming a more complete outer wall. In America the family
is represented by Heptodon, of the Middle Eocene, which differs
from the early members of the tapir-stock in having a long gap
between the lower canine and first premolar; the dentition is com-
plete, and the upper premolars are simple. The next stage is
Helaletes, also of Middle Eocene age, in which the first lower pre-
molar has disappeared, and the last two upper premolars have
become molar-like. Finally, in the Oligocene Colodon the last
three upper premolars are like the molars, and the first pair of
lower incisors is lost. In Europe the group is represented by the
long-known and typical genus Lophiodon with three premolars
in each jaw, of which the upper are simpler than the molars. The
genus is especially characteristic of the Middle and Upper Eocene,
and some of the species attained the size of a rhinoceros.

4. Rhinoceros Group. — The last section of the Perissodactyla is
that of the Rhinocerotoidea, represented by the modern rhinoce-
roses and their extinct allies. In this group the incisors and canines
are very variable in number and form; the lower canine being
separated by only a short gap from the outer incisor (when present),
but by a long one from the first premolar, which is in contact with
the second. The second and third premolars, which are always
present, are large and molar-like; the whole of these teeth being
essentially of the lophodont type of Lophiodon, but the last upper
molars assume a more or less triangular form, with an oblique outer
wall, and there are certain complications in the structure of all
these teeth in the more specialized types (fig. 2). The lower cheek-
teeth have, unlike those of the Tapiroidea, crescentic ridges, which
have not the loops at their extremities characteristic of the advanced
Hippoidea; the last lower molar has no third lobe. The facial
portion of the skull is generally shorter than the cranial ; the orbit is
freely open behind; and the premaxillae tend to be reduced and
fused with the nasals. Front toes, 3 or 4; hind toes, 3.

The most primitive group is that of the American Hyracodontidae,
represented in the Oligocene by Hyrachyus, Hyracodon and Triplo-
pus. With the exception of the first lower premolar, the dentition
is complete; the incisors being normal, but the canine rudimen-
tary, and the last upper molar distinctly triangular. The upper
molars have a crista and a crochet (fig. 2). The skull is high,
with the facial and cranial portions approximately equal. There

are only three front toes, and the limbs are long and adapted for
running.

In the Amynodontidae, represented by the North American
Middle Eocene Amynodon and Metamynodon, the premolars may
be either f or f , making the total number of teeth either 44 or 40.
The incisors tend to become latera 1 , the canines are enlarged, and
the last upper molar is sub-quadrangular. The upper molars
have a crista but no crochet (fig. 2). As in the last family, the
post-glenoid process of the skull is broad; the whole skull being
depressed with a shortened facial portion. The fore-foot is five-
toed and spreading; indicating that the members of the family
were swamp-dwelling animals.

Finally, we have the family Rhinocerotidae, which includes the
existing representatives of the group. In this family the dentition
has undergone considerable reduction, and may be represented
inclusive of all the variations, by the formula i f-^j c Jfjf£
p 4 ° r r 2 m |. The first upper incisor, when present, has an
antero-posteriorly elongated crown, but the second is small; when
fully developed, the lower canine is a large forwardly directed
tusk-like tooth with sharp cutting-edges, and biting against the
first upper incisor. The third upper molar is triangular, and most
of the teeth of the upper cheek-series may have both crochet and
crista (fig. 2). The post-glenoid process is small, and the facial
and cranial portions of the skull are approximately of equal length.
Usually there are three, but occasionally four front toes; and the
limb-bones are short.

A large number of representatives of the group are known from
both the Old and the New World; specialization displaying itself
in the later ones in the development of dermal horns over the nasal
bones, either in laterally placed pairs as in some of the early forms,
or in the median line, either single or double. In North America
rhinoceroses became extinct before the close of the Pliocene
period; but in the Old World, although their geographical distri-
bution has become greatly restricted, at least five well-marked
species survive. The group is unknown in South America.

As regards the dentition of the existing species, the cheek-series
consists of the four premolars and three molars above and below,
all in contact and closely resembling each other, except the first,
which is much smaller than the rest and often deciduous; the

a B

2 e 2

Fig. 2. — Grinding Surface of moderately worn Right Upper
Second Molars of Rhinoceros.

A, Rhinoceros unicornis.

1 , Anterior surface.

2, Posterior surface.

3, Internal surface.

4, External surface (wall or

dorsum).

5, Antero-internal pillar or

column.

B, Rhinoceros sondaicus.

6, Postero-internal pillar

column.

7, Anterior valley.

8, Median valley.

9, Posterior valley.

10, Accessory valley.

11, Crista.

12, Crochet.

others gradually increasing in size up to the penultimate. The
upper molars present a characteristic pattern of crown, having
a much-developed flat or more or less sinuous outer wall, and two
transverse ridges running obliquely inwards and backwards from
it, terminating internally in conical eminences or columns, and
enclosing a deep valley between. The posterior valley is formed
behind the posterior transverse ridge, and is bounded externally
by a backward continuation of the outer wall and behind by the
cingulum. The anterior valley is formed in the same manner, but
is much smaller. The middle valley is often intersected by vertical
" crista " and " crochet " plates projecting into it from the anterior
surface of the posterior transverse ridge or from the wall, the
development of which is a useful guide in discriminating species,
especially those known only by teeth and bones. The depressions
between the ridges are not filled up with cement. As stated above,
the lower molars have the crown formed by a pair of crescents;
the last having no third lobe.

The head is large, and the skull elongated, and elevated posteriorly
into a transverse occipital crest. No post-orbital processes or
any separation between orbits and temporal fossae. Nasal
bones large and stout, co-ossified, and standing out freely above
the premaxillae, from which they are separated by a deep and
wide fissure; the latter small, generally not meeting in the middle
line in front, often rudimentary. Tympanies small, not forming
a bulla. Brain-cavity small for the size of the skull. Vertebrae:
cervical, 7; dorsal 19-20; lumbar, 3; sacral, 4; caudal, about 22.

PERISTYLE— PERITONITIS

J 7 1

Limbs stout, and of moderate length. Three completely developed
toes, with distinct broad rounded hoofs on each foot. Teats two,
inguinal. Eyes small. Ears of moderate size, oval, erect, promi-
nent, placed near the occiput. Skin very thick, in many species
thrown into massive folds. Hairy covering scanty. One or two
median horns on the face. When one is present it is situated
over the conjoined nasal bones; when two, the hinder one is
over the frontals. These horns, which are of a more or less conical
form and usually recurved, and often grow to a great length
(three or even four feet), are composed of a solid mass of hardened
epidermic cells growing from a cluster of long dermal papillae.
The cells formed on each papilla constitute a distinct horny fibre,
like a thick hair, and the whole is cemented together by an inter-
mediate mass of cells which grow up from the interspaces between
the papillae. It results from this that the horn has the appearance
of a mass of agglutinated hairs, which, in the newly growing part
at the base, readily fray out on destruction of the softer intermediate
substance ; but the fibres differ from true hairs in growing from a
free papilla of the derm, and not within a follicular involution of
the same. Considerable difference of opinion exists with regard
to the best classification of the family, some authorities including
most of the species in the typical genus Rhinoceros, while others
recognize quite a number of sub-families and still more genera.
Here the family is divided into two groups Rhinocerotinae and
Elasmotheriinae, the latter including only Elasmotherium, and the
former all the rest. In the Lower Oligocene of Europe we have
Ronzolherium and in that of America Leptaceratherium (Trigonias),
which were primitive species with persistent upper canines and
three-toed fore-feet. Possibly they belonged to the Amynodontidae,
but they may have been related to the Upper Oligocene Dicera-
therium, in which the nasal bones formed a transverse pair; this
genus being common to Europe and North America. Caenopus
is an allied American type. Hornless rhinoceroses, with five front-
toes, ranging from the Oligocene to the Lower Pliocene in Europe,
represent the genus Aceratherium, which may also occur in America,
as it certainly does in India. With the short-skulled, short-footed,
three-toed and generally horned rhinoceroses ranging in Europe
and America from the Lower Miocene to the Lower Pliocene, typified
by the European R. goldfursi and if. brachypus, we may consider
the genus Rhinoceros to commence; these species constituting the
subgenus Teleoceras. The living R. (Dicerorhinus) sumatrensis of
south-eastern Asia indicates another subgenus, represented in the
European Miocene by R. sansaniensis and in the Indian Pliocene
by R. platyrhinus, in which two horns are combined with the
presence of upper incisors and lower canines. Next we have the
living African species, representing the subgenus Diceros, in which
there are two horns but no front teeth. Tc this group belongs the
extinct European and Asiatic woolly rhinoceros, Rhinoceros {Dicero's)
antiquilatis, of Pleistocene age, of which the frozen bodies are
sometimes found in Siberia, and R. (D.) pachygnathus of the
Lower Pliocene of Greece. Finally the Great Indian rhinoceros
R. unicornis, the Javan R. sondaicus, and the Lower Pliocene Indian
R. sivalensis and R. palaeindicus, represent Rhinoceros proper,
in which front teeth are present, but there is only one horn. (See
Rhinoceros.)

The subfamily Elasmotheriinae is represented only by the huge
E. sibircum of the Siberian Pleistocene, in which the premolars
were reduced to j while front-teeth were probably wanting, and
the cheek teeth developed tall crowns, without roots, but with
cement in the valleys, and the enamel of the central parts curiously
crimped. A hump on the forehead probably indicates the existence
of a large frontal horn.

Literature. — J. L. Wortman and C. Earle, " Ancestors of the
Tapir from the Lower Miocene of Dakota," Bull. Amer. Mus. vol. v.
art. II. (1893); H. F. Osborn, " Phylogeny of the Rhinoceroses of
Europe," op. cit. vol. xiii. art. 19 (1900); O. Thomas, " Notes on
the Type Specimen of Rhinoceros lasiotis, with Remarks on the
Generic Position of the Living Species of Rhinoceros," Proc.
Zool. Soc. (London, 1901). (R. L.*)

PERISTYLE (Gr. irepi, round, and otv\os, column), in archi-
tecture, a range of columns (whether rectangular or circular on
plan) in one or two rows, enclosing the sanctuary of a temple;
the term is also applied to the same feature when built round
the court in which the temple is situated and in Roman houses
to the court in the rear, round which the private rooms of the
family were arranged, which were entered from the covered
colonnade round the court.

PERITONITIS, inflammation of the peritoneum — the serous
membrane which lines the abdominal and pelvic cavities and
gives a covering to their viscera. It may exist in an acute or
a chronic form, and may be either localized or diffused.

Acute peritonitis may be brought on, like other inflammations,
by exposure to wet or cold, or in connexion with injury to, or
disease of, some abdominal organ, or with general feebleness
of health. It is an occasional result of hernia and of obstruction

of the bowels, of wounds penetrating the abdomen, of the perfora-
tion of viscera, as in ulcer of the stomach, and of the intestine
in typhoid fever, of the bursting of abscesses or cysts into the
abdominal cavity, and also of the extensions of inflammatory
action from some abdominal or pelvic organ, such as the appendix,
the uterus, or bladder. At first localized, it may afterwards
become general. The changes effected in the peritoneum are
similar to those undergone by other serous membranes when
inflamed. Thus, there are congestion; exudation of lymph in
greater or less abundance, at first greyish and soft, thereafter
yellow, becoming tough and causing the folds of the intestine
to adhere together; effusion of fluid, either clear, turbid, bloody
or purulent. The tough, plastic lymph connecting adjacent
folds of intestine is sometimes drawn out like spun-glass by the
movements of the intestines, forming bands and loops through
or beneath which a piece of bowel may become fatally snared.

The symptoms of acute peritonitis usually begin by a shivering
fit or rigor, together with vomiting, and with pain in the
abdomen of a peculiarly severe and sickening character, accom-
panied with extreme tenderness, so that pressure, even of the
bed-clothes, causes aggravation of suffering. The patient lies
on the back with the knees drawn up so as to relax the abdominal
muscles; the breathing becomes rapid and shallow, and is
performed by movements of the chest only, the abdominal
muscles remaining quiescent — unlike what takes place in
healthy respiration. The abdomen becomes swollen by flatulent
distension of the intestines, which increases the distress. There
is usually constipation. The skin is hot, although there may be
perspiration; the pulse is small, hard and wiry; the urine is
scanty and high coloured, and is passed with pain. The face is
pinched and anxious. These symptoms may pass off in a day
or two; if they do not the case is apt to go on to a fatal termina-
tion. In such event the abdomen becomes more distended;
hiccough, and the vomiting of brown or blood-coloured matter
occur; the temperature falls, the face becomes cold and clammy;
the pulse is exceedingly rapid and feeble, and death takes place
from collapse, the mental faculties remaining clear till the close.
When the peritonitis is due to perforation — as may happen in the
case of gastric ulcer or of ulcers of typhoid fever, or in the giving
way of a loop of strangulated bowel — the above-mentioned
symptoms and the fatal collapse may all take place in from
twelve to twenty-four hours. The puerperal form of this disease,
which comes on within a day or two after childbirth, is often
rapidly fatal. The actual cause of death is the absorption of
the poisonous inflammatory products which have been poured
out into the peritoneal cavity, as well as of the toxic fluids which
have remained stagnant in the paralysed bowel.

Perhaps the commonest cause of septic peritonitis is the
escape of . micro-organisms (bacillus coli) from the ulcerated,
mortified or inflamed appendix (see Appendicitis). A genera-
tion or so ago deaths from this cause were generally placed under
the single heading of " peritonitis," but at the present time the
primary disease is shown upon the certificate which too often
runs thus: appendicitis five days, acute peritonitis two days^
Chronic peritonitis may occur as a result of the acute attack,
or as a tuberculous disease. In the former case, the gravest
symptoms having subsided, some abdominal pain continues,
and there is considerable swelling of the abdomen, corresponding
to a thickening of the peritoneum, and to the presence of fluid
in the peritoneal cavity. This kind of peritonitis may also
develop slowly without there having been any preceding acute
attack. There is a gradual loss of strength and flesh. The
disease is essentially a chronic one; it is not usually fatal.

Tuberculous peritonitis occurs either alone or in association
with tuberculous disease of a joint or of the lungs. The chief
symptoms are abdominal discomfort, or pain, and distension of
the bowels. The patient may suffer from either constipation or
diarrhoea, or each alternately. Along with these local mani-
festations there may exist the usual phenomena of tuberculous
disease, viz. high fever, with rapid emaciation and loss of
strength. But some cases of tuberculous peritonitis present
symptoms which are not only obscure, but actually misleading.

172

PERIZONIUS— PERJURY

There may be no abdominal distension, and no pain or tender-
ness. The patient may lie quietly in bed, flat on his back,
with the legs down straight, and he may have no marked
elevation of temperature. There may be no vomiting and no
constipation or diarrhoea. In some cases, the neighbouring
coils of intestine having been glued together, a collection of
serous fluid takes its place in the midst of the mass, and, being
walled in by the adhesions, forms a rounded tumour, dull on
percussion, but not tender or painful. Such cases, especially
when occurring in women, are apt to be mistaken for cystic disease
of the ovary.

As regards the treatment of acute peritonitis, the first thing that
the surgeon has to do is to assure himself that the disease is not
due to some cause which itself should be dealt with, to a septic
disease of appendix or Fallopian tube, for instance, or to a toxic
condition of the uterus, the result, perhaps, of a criminal or innocent
abortion, or to a perforated ulcer of stomach or intestine. In many
obscure cases the safest treatment is likely to be afforded by an
exploratory abdominal section. If the medical attendant has
made up his mind that the question of exploration is not to be
entertained — a decision which should be arrived at only after most
deliberate consultation — the best thing will be to apply fomenta-
tions to the abdomen, and to administer small and repeated doses
of morphia by the skin — | or j grain — repeated every hour or
so until the physiological effect is produced. As regards other
drugs, it may be a question as to whether calomel or Epsom salts
should be given. As regards food, the only thing that can be
safely recommended is a little hot water taken in sips. A bed-
cradle should be placed over the patient in order to keep the
weight of the bed-clothes from the abdomen. (E. O.*)

PERIZONIUS (or Accinctus), the name of Jakob Voorbroek
(1651-1715), Dutch classical scholar, who was born at Appin-
gedam in Groningen on the 26th of October 1651. He was the
son of Anton Perizonius (1626-1672),' the author of a once well-
known treatise, De ratione studii theologici. Having studied
at the university of Utrecht, he was appointed in 1682 to the
chair of eloquence and history at Franeker through the influence
of J. G. Graevius and Nicolas Heinsius. In 1693 he was pro-
moted to the corresponding chair at Leiden, where he died on
the 6th of April 17 15. The numerous works of Perizonius
entitle him to a very high place among the scholars of his age.
Special interest attaches to his edition of the Minerva of Francisco
Sanchez or Sanctiusof Salamanca (1st ed., 1587; ed. C. L. Bauer,
1703-1801), one of the last developments of the study of Latin
grammar in its pre-scientific stage, when the phenomena of
language were still regarded as for the most part disconnected,
conventional or fortuitous. Mention should also be made of
his Animadversiones historicae (r685), which may be said to
have laid the foundations of historical criticism, and of his
treatises on the Roman republic, alluded to by Niebuhr as
marking the beginning of that new era of historical study with
which his own name is so closely associated.

The article on Perizonius in Van der Aa's Biographisch Woorden-
boek der Nederlanden contains full biographical and bibliographical
particulars; see also F. A. Eckstein in Ersch and Gruber's Allge-
meine Encyklopddie.

PERJURY (through the Anglo-Fr. perjurie, modern parjure,
Lat. perjurium, a false oath, perjurare, to swear falsely), an
assertion upon an oath duly administered in a judicial pro-
ceeding before a competent court of the truth of some matter of
fact, material to the question depending in that proceeding,
which assertion the assertor does not believe to be true when he
makes it, or on which he knows himself to be ignorant (Stephen,
Digest of the Criminal Law, art. 135). In the early stages of
legal history perjury seems to have been regarded rather as a
sin than as a crime, and so subject only to supernatural penalties.
The injury caused by a false oath was supposed to be done not
so much to society as to the Divine Being in whose name the
oath was taken (see Oath). In Roman law, even in the time of
the empire, the perjurer fell simply under divine reprobation,
and was not dealt with as a criminal, except where he had been
bribed to withhold true or give false evidence, or where the oath
was by the genius of the emperor. In the latter case punishment
was no doubt inflicted more for the insult to the emperor than for
the perjury. False testimony leading to the conviction of a

person for a crime punishable with death constituted the offence
of homicide rather than of perjury. In England, perjury, as
being a sin, was originally a matter of ecclesiastical cognisance.
At a later period, when it had become a crime, the jurisdiction of
the spiritual courts became gradually confined to such perjury as
was committed in ecclesiastical proceedings, and did not extend
to perjury committed in a temporal court. The only perjury
which was for a long time noticed at common law was the perjury
of jurors. Attaint of jurors (see Attaint, Writ of) who were
originally rather in the position of witnesses than of judges of
fact, incidentally subjected them to punishment for perjury.
Criminal jurisdiction over perjury by persons other than jurors
seems to have been first assumed by the Star Chamber, acting
under the powers supposed to have been conferred by an act
of Henry VII. (1487). After the abolition of the Star Chamber
by the Long Parliament in 1641 and the gradual diminution of
the authority of the spiritual courts, perjury (whether in the
strict sense of the word or the taking of a false oath in non-judicial
proceedings) practically fell entirely within the jurisdiction of
the ordinary criminal tribunals. At common law only a false
oath in judicial proceedings is perjury. But by statute the
penalties of perjury have been extended to extra-judicial matters
e.g. false declarations made for the purpose of procuring marriage
(The Marriage and Registration Act 1856), and false affidavits
under the Bills of Sale Act 1878. False affirmation by a person
permitted by law to affirm is perjury (The Evidence Further
Amendment Act 1869; The Evidence Amendment Act 1870).

In order to support an indictment for perjury the prosecution
must prove the authority to administer the oath, the occasion
of administering it, the taking of the oath, the substance of the
oath, the materiality of the matter sworn, the falsity of the
matter sworn, and the corrupt intention of the defendant.
The indictment must allege that the perjury was wilful and
corrupt, and must set out the false statement or statements
on which perjury is assigned, subject to the provisions of the
Prosecutions for Perjury Act 1749 (which also applies to subor-
nation of perjury). By that act it is sufficient to set out the
substance of the offence, without setting forth the bill, answer,
&c, or any part of the record and without setting forth the
commission or authority of the court before whom the perjury
was committed. The matter sworn to must be one of fact and
not of mere belief or opinion. It is not homicide, as in Roman
law, to procure the death of another by false evidence, but the
Criminal Code, ss. 118, 164, proposed to make such an offence
a substantive crime of greater gravity than ordinary perjury,
and punishable by penal servitude for life. It is a rule of evi-
dence, founded upon obvious reasons, that the testimony of
a single witness is insufficient to convict on a charge of perjury.
There must be corroboration of his evidence in some material
particular. Perjury is a common law misdemeanour, not triable
at quarter-sessions. Most persons in a judicial position have
the right of directing the prosecution of any witness, if it appears
to them that he has been guilty of perjury (The Criminal Pro-
cedure Act 1 851). The provisions of the Vexatious Indictments
Act 1859 extend to perjury and subornation of perjury. By that
Act no indictment for either of such offences can be preferred
unless the prosecutor or accused is bound by recognisance, or
the accused is in custody, or the consent of a judge is obtained,
or (in the case of perjury) a prosecution is directed under the
act of 1851.

Subornation of perjury is procuring a person to commit a per-
jury which he actually commits in consequence of such procure-
ment. If the person attempted to be suborned do not take the
oath, the person inciting him, though not guilty of subornation,
is liable to fine and corporal punishment. Perjury and suborna-
tion of perjury are punishable at common law with fine and
imprisonment. By the combined operation of the Perjury
Act 1728 and later statutes, the punishment at present appears
to be penal servitude for any term, or imprisonment with or
without hard labour for a term not exceeding seven years
(see Stephen, Digest, art. 148). The punishment at common law
was whipping, imprisonment, fine and pillory.

PERKIN— PERLEBERG

J 73

Perjury or prevarication committed before a committee of
either House of Parliament may be dealt with as a contempt
or breach of privilege as well as by prosecution. As to
false oaths not perjury, it is a misdemeanor at common
law, punishable by fine and imprisonment, to swear falsely
before any person authorized to administer an oath upon a
matter of common concern, under such circumstances that the
false swearing, if committed in judicial proceedings, would have
amounted to perjury. There are some cases of making false
declarations which are punishable on summary conviction,
e.g. certain declarations under the Registration of Births and
Deaths Act 1874, and the Customs Consolidation Act 1876.

In Scotland the law, as a general rule, agrees with that of England.
Perjury may be committed by a party on reference to oath as
well as by a witness. A witness making a false affirmation is
guilty of perjury (The Affirmation [Scotland] Act, 1865). The a/:ts
of 1851 and 1859 do not extend to Scotland. The trial, though
usually by the court of justiciary, may be by the court of session
if the perjury is committed in the course of an action before that
court. The punishment is penal servitude or imprisonment at the
discretion of the court. Formerly a person convicted of perjury
was disabled from giving evidence in future; this disability was
abolished by the Evidence (Scotland) Act 1852.

In the United States the common law has been extended by most
states to embrace false affirmations and false evidence in proceedings
not judicial. Perjury in a United States court is dealt with by an
act of Congress of the 3rd of March 1825, by which the maximum
punishment for perjury or subornation of perjury is a fine of_ $2000
or imprisonment for not more than five years. Jurisdiction to
punish perjury committed in the state courts belongs to the states,
as the Federal Constitution did not give it to the Federal gov-
ernment. Statutory provisions founded upon the English act of
1749, have been adopted in some states. In the states which have
not adopted such provisions, the indictment must set out the offence
with the particularity necessary at common law.

On the continent of Europe perjury is also regarded as an offence
of gravity punishable by imprisonment for varying periods. In
Germany, as in England, it was at one time a matter for the spiritual
courts. In Austria it is treated as a form of fraud, and the punish-
ment is proportioned to the estimated amount of damage done to
the party aggrieved. In France the term perjury (parjure) is
specifically applied only to the making of false oaths by parties
in a civil suit.

PERKIN, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1838-1907), English
chemist, was born in London on the 12th of March 1838. From
an early age he determined to adopt chemistry as his profession,
although his father, who was a builder, would have preferred
him to be an architect. Attending the City of London School
he devoted all his spare time to chemistry, and on leaving,
in 1853, entered the Royal College of Chemistry, then under the
direction of A. W. Hofmann, in whose own research laboratory
he was in the course of a year or two promoted to be an assistant.
Devoting his evenings to private investigations in a rough
laboratory fitted up at his home, Perkin was fired by some remarks
of Hofmann's to undertake the artificial production of quinine.
In this attempt he was unsuccessful, but the observations he
made in the course of his experiments induced him, early in
1856, to try the effect of treating aniline sulphate with bichro-
mate of potash. The result was a precipitate, aniline black,
from which he obtained the colouring matter subsequently known
as aniline blue or mauve. He lost no time in bringing this
substance before the managers of Pullar's dye-works, Perth,
and they expressed a favourable opinion of it, if only it should
not prove too expensive in use. Thus encouraged, he took out
a patent for his process, and leaving the College of Chemistry,
a boy of eighteen, he proceeded, with the aid of his father and
brother, to erect works at Greenford Green, near Harrow, for
the manufacture of the newly discovered colouring matter, and
by the end of 1857 the works were in operation. That date
may therefore be reckoned as that of the foundation of the coal-
tar colour industry, which has since attained such important
dimensions — in Germany, however, rather than in England,
the country where it originated. Perkin also had a large share
in the introduction of artificial alizarin (q.u.), the red dye of the
madder root. C. Graebe and C. T. Liebermann in 1868 pre-
pared that substance synthetically from anthracene, but their
process was not practicable on a large scale, and it was left to
him to patent a method that was commercially valuable. This

he did in 1869, thus securing for the Greenford Green works a
monopoly of alizarin manufacture for several years. About
the same time he also carried out a series of investigations into
kindred substances, such as anthrapurpurin. About 1874 he
abandoned the manufacture of coal-tar colours and devoted
himself exclusively to research in pure chemistry, and among
the discoveries he made in this field was that of the reaction
known-by his name, depending on the condensation of aldehydes
with fatty acids (see Cinnamic Acid). Later still he engaged
in the study of the relations between chemical constitution and
rotation of the plane of polarization in a magnetic field, and
enunciated a law expressing the variation of such rotation
in bodies belonging to homologous series. For this work he
was in 1889 awarded a Davy medal by the Royal Society,
which ten years previously had bestowed upon him a Royal
medal in recognition of his investigations in the coal-tar colours.
The Chemical Society, of which he became secretary in 1869
and president in 1883, presented him with its Longstaff medal
in 1889, and in 1890 he received the Albert medal of the Society
of Arts. In 1906 an international celebration of the fiftieth
anniversary of his invention of mauve was held in London,
and in the same year he was made a knight. He died near
Harrow on the 14th of July 1907.

His eldest son, William Henry Perkin, who was born at
Sudbury, near Harrow, on the 17th of June i860, and was
educated at the City of London School, the Royal College of
Science, and ..the universities of Wiirzburg and Munich, became
professor of chemistry at the Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh,
in 1887, and professor of organic chemistry at Owens College,
Manchester, in 1892. His chief researches deal with the poly-
methylene compounds, the alkaloids, in particular hydrastine
and berberine, and the camphors and terpenes (q.v.). He
received the Davy medal from the Royal Society in 1904.

PERKINS, CHARLES CALLAHAN (1823-1886), American
artist and author, was born in Boston and educated at Harvard,
subsequently studying art in Rome and Paris. Returning
to Boston, he helped to found the Museum of Fine Arts, of
which he was honorary director, and for many years he played
a leading part in artistic circles as a cultured critic and writer.
His chief publications were Tuscan Sculptors (1864) and Italian
Sculptors (1868) — replaced in 1883 by The Historical Handbook
of Italian Sculptors — Art in Education (1870), and Sepulchral
Monuments in Italy (1885).

PERKINS, JACOB (1766-1849), American inventor and
physicist, was born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in 1766, and
was apprenticed to a goldsmith. He soon made himself known
by a variety of useful mechanical inventions, and in 1818 came
over to England with a plan for engraving bank-notes on steel,
which ultimately proved a signal success, and was carried out
by Perkins in partnership with the English engraver Heath.
His chief contribution to physics lay in the experiments by
which he proved the compressibility of water and measured
it by a piezometer of his own invention (see Phil. Trans., 1820,
1826). He retired in 1834, and died in London on the 30th of
July 1849.

His second sen, Angler March Perkins (i799?-i88i), also
born at Newburyport, went to England in 1827, and was the
author of a system of warming buildings by means of high-
pressure steam. His grandson, Loftus Perkins (1834-1891),
most of whose life was spent in England, experimented with the
application to steam engines of steam at very high pressures,
constructing in 1880 a yacht, the " Anthracite," whose engines
worked with a pressure of 500 lb to the sq. in.

PERLEBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Brandenburg, on the Stepenitz, 6 m. N.E. from Wittenberge
by the railway to Neustrelitz. Pop. (1905), 9502. It contains
a fine Gothic Evangelical church, a Roman Catholic church,
a synagogue and several schools, and has a town-hall, dating
from the 15th century, and a Roland column. Its chief manu-
factures are machinery, soap, blacking and clogs.

See Hopfner, Perleberger Reimchronik. Perleberg von 1200 bii
1700 (Perleberg, 1876).

*74

PERLES— PERM

PERI.ES, JOSEPH (1835-1894), Jewish rabbi, was born in
Hungary in 1835, and died at Munich in 1894. He was one
of the first rabbis trained at the new type of seminary (Breslau).
Perles' most important essays were on folk-lore and custom.
There is much that is striking and original in his history of
marriage (Die jiidische Hochzeit in nachbiblischer Zeit, i860), and
of mourning customs (Die Leichenfeierlichkeiten im nachbiblischen
Judenthum, 1861), his contributions to the sources of the Arabian
Nights (Zur rabbinischen Sprach-und Sagenkunde, 1873), and his
notes on rabbinic antiquities (Beitrage zur rabbinischen Sprach-
und Altertumskundc, 1893). Perles' essays are rich in suggestive-
ness, and have been the starting-point of much fruitful research.
He also wrote an essay on Nachmanides, and a biography and
critical appreciation of Rashba (1863). (I. A.)

PERLITE, or Pearlstone, a glassy volcanic rock which, when
struck with a hammer, breaks up into small rounded masses
that often have a pearly lustre. The reason for this peculiarity
is obvious in microscopic sections of the rock, for many small
cracks may be seen traversing the glassy substance. These
mostly take a circular course, and often occur in groups, one
within another. The circular cracks bound the little spheres
into which the rock fa'ls when it is struck, and the concentric
fissures, are the cause of the pearly lustre, by the reflection of
light from enclosed films of air. Longer straight cracks run
across the sections separating areas in which the circular fissures
preponderate. By decomposition the fissures may be occupied
by deposits of limonite, which make them more obvious, or by
other secondary minerals. The glass itself often undergoes
change along the cracks by becoming finely crystalline or
devitrified, dull in appearance and slightly opaque in section.
In polarized light the perlitic glass is usually quite isotropic,
but sometimes the internal part of some of the spheres has a
slight double refraction which is apparently due to strain. The
glass found on the waste-heaps of glass-furnaces is sometimes
" very coarsely perlitic.

Perlitic structure is not confined to glass, but may be seen
also in that variety of opal which is called hyalite. This forms
small transparent rounded masses like drops of gum, and in
microscopic section exhibits concentric systems of cracks.
Hyalite, like perlitic obsidian, is amorphous or non-crystalline.
It is easy to imitate perlitic structure by taking a little Canada
balsam and heating it on a slip of glass till most of the volatile
matters are driven out; then drop it in a basin of cold water
and typical perlitic structure will be produced. The reason is
apparently the sudden contraction when the mass is chilled.
In the glaze on tiles and china rounded or polygonal systems
of cracks may often be seen which somewhat resemble perlitic
structure but are less perfect and regular. Many rocks which
are cryptocrystalline or felsitic, and not glassy, have perfect
perlitic structure, and it seems probable that these were originally
vitreous obsidians or pitchstones and have in process of time
been changed to a finely crystalline state by devitrification.
Occasionally in olivine and quartz rounded cracks not unlike
perlitic structure may be observed.

Many perlitic rocks contain well-developed crystals of quartz,
feldspar, augite or magnetite, &c, usually more or less corroded
or rounded, and in the fine glassy base minute crystallites often
abound. Some of the rocks have the resinous lustre and the
high percentages of combined water which distinguish the
pitchstones; others are bright and fresh obsidians, and nearly
all the older examples are dull, cryptocrystalline felsites.
According to their chemical compositions they range from very
acid rhyolites to trachytes and andesites, and the dark basaltic
glasses or tachylytes are sometimes highly perlitic. It is prob-
able that most perlites are of intrusive origin, and the general
absence of steam cavities in these rocks would support this
conclusion, but some perlitic Hungarian rhyolites are believed
to be lavas.

Very well known rocks of this kind are found in Meissen, Saxony,

as dikes of greenish and brownish pitchstone. Other examples

are furnished by the Tertiary igneous rocks of Hungary (Tokai, &c),

the Euganean Hills (Italy) and Ponza Island (in the Mediterranean).

In mineralogical collections rounded nodules of brown glass

varying from the size of a pea to that of an orange may often be
seen labelled Marekanite. They have long been known to geologists
and are found at Ockotsk, Siberia, in association with a large mass
of perlitic obsidian. These globular bodies are, in fact, the more
coherent portions of a perlite; the rest of the rock falls down in a
fine powder, setting free the glassy spheres. They are subject
to considerable internal strain, as is shown by the fact that when
struck with a hammer or sliced with a lapidary's saw they often
burst into fragments. Their behaviour in this respect closely
resembles the balls of rapidly cooled, unannealed glass which are
called Prince Rupert's drops. In their natural condition the
marekanite spheres are doubly refracting, but when they have
been heated and very slowly cooled they lose this property and
no longer exhibit any tendency to sudden disintegration.

In Great Britain Tertiary vitreous rocks are not common, but
the pitchstone which forms the Scuir of Eigg is a dark andesitic
porphyry with perlitic structure in its glassy matrix. A better
example, however, is provided by a perlitic dacitic pitchstone
porphyry that occurs near the Tay Bridge in Fifeshire. The
tachylytic basalt dikes of Mull are occasionally highly perlitic. At
Sandy Braes in Antrim a perlitic obsidian has been found, and the Lea
Rock, near Wellington in Shropshire, is a devitrified obsidian which
shows perlitic cracks and the remains of spherulites. (J. S. F.)

PERM, a government of east Russia, bounded S. by the
governments of Orenburg and Ufa, W. by Vyatka, N.W. by
Vologda, and E. by Tobolsk (Siberia). It has an area of 128,173
sq. m. Though administratively it belongs entirely to Russia in
Europe, its eastern part (about 57,000 sq. m.) is situated in
Siberia, in the basin of the Ob. The government is traversed
from north to south by the Ural Mountains, 30 to 45 m. in width,
thickly clothed with forests, and deeply excavated by rivers.
The highest summits do not rise above 3600 ft. in the northern
section of the range (the Vogulian Ural); in the central portion,
between 59° and 6o° 30' N., they once or twice exceed 5000 ft.
(Denezhkin, 5360 ft.) ; but the chain soon sinks towards the south,
where it barely attains an elevation of 3000 ft. Where the great
Siberian road crosses it the highest point is 1400 ft.

The government is very well drained by rivers belonging to the
Pechora, Tobol (affluent of the Ob) and Kama systems. The
Pechora itself rises in the northern corner of the government, and
its tributary the Volosnitsa is separated by a distance of less than
3 m. from the navigable Vogulka, a tributary of the Kama, a
circumstance of some commercial importance. The chief river
of Perm, is however, the Kama, whose navigable tributaries the
Chusovaya, Sylva and Kolva are important channels for the
export of heavy iron goods to Russia. The government is
dotted with a great number of lakes of comparatively trifling size,
their total area being 730 sq. m., and with marshes, which are
extensive in the hilly tracts of the north. Granites, diorites,
porphyries, serpentines and Laurentian gneisses and limestones,
containing iron, copper and zinc ores, constitute the main axis
of the Ural chain; their western slope is covered by a narrow strip
of Huronian crystalline slates, which disappear in the east under
the Post-Tertiary deposits of the Siberian lowlands, while on the
west narrow strips of Silurian limestones, quartzites and slates,
and separate islands of Devonian deposits, appear on the surface.
These in their turn are overlain with Carboniferous clays and
sandstones, containing Coal Measures in several isolated basins.
The Permian deposits extend as a regular strip, parallel to the
main ridge, over these last, and are covered with the so-called
" variegated marls," which are considered as Triassic, and appear
only in the western corner of the territory.

Perm is the chief mining region of Russia, owing to its wealth
in iron, silver, platinum, copper, nickel, lead, chrome ore,
manganese and auriferous alluvial deposits. Many rare metals,
such as iridium, osmium, rhodium and ruthenium, are found
along with the above, as also a great variety of precious stones,
such as diamonds, sapphires, jaspers, tourmalines, beryls,
phenacites, chrysoberyls, emeralds, aquamarines, topazes,
amethysts, jades, malachite. Salt-springs occur in the west;
and the mineral waters, though still little known, are worthy
of mention. No less than 70 % of the total area is occupied with
forest; but the forests are distributed very unequally, covering
05% of the area in the north and only 25% in the south-east.
Firs, the pine, cedar, larch, birch, alder and lime are the most.
common; the oak appears only in the south-west. The flora of

PERM— PERMEABILITY, MAGNETIC

J 75

Perm presents a mixture of Siberian and Russian species, several
of which have their north-eastern or south-western limits within
the government. The climate is severe, the average temperature
at different places being as follows: —

Lat. N.

Altitude.

Yearly
Average.

January
Average.

July
Average.

Bogoslovsk
Usolye (Kama)
Nizhniy-Tagilsk
Ekaterinburg .

59° 45'
59° 25'
57° 55'
56 48'

Ft.
630
300

59°

890

F.
29-3°
34-o
33-i°
32-9

F.

3-°:

4-5 o

2-0°

2-5°

F.
62-6°
63-8°
64-9°
63-5°

The estimated population in 1906 was 3,487,100, and consists
chiefly of Great Russians, besides Bashkirs (including Meshcher-
yaks and Teptyars), Permyaks or Permians, Tatars, Cheremisses,
Syryenians, Votyaks and Voguls. Agriculture is the general occu-
pation; rye, oats, barley and hemp are raised in all parts, and
wheat, millet, buckwheat, potatoes and flax in the south. Cattle-
breeding is specially developed in the south-east among the
Bashkirs, who have large numbers of horses. Mining is develop-
ing steadily though slowly. The ironworks employ nearly
200,000 hands (12,000 being in the Imperial ironworks), and their
aggregate output reaches an estimated value of £6,000,000
annually. The annual production of gold is valued at nearly
half a million sterling, and of platinum at approximately a quarter
of a million, the output of platinum being equal to 95% of the
world's total output. Coal and coke to the extent of 300,000
to 500,000 tons, salt to 300,000 tons, asbestos and other minerals
are also obtained. The first place among the manufacturing
industries is taken by flour-mills. The cutting of precious stones
is extensively carried on throughout the villages on the eastern
slope of the Ural Mountains, the chief market for them being at
Ekaterinburg. An active trade, greatly favoured by the easy
communication of the chief centres of the mining industry with
the market of Nizhniy Novgorod on the one side and with the
network of Siberian rivers on the other, is carried on in metals
and metal wares, minerals, timber and wooden wares, tallow,
skins, cattle, furs, corn and linseed. Large caravans descend the
affluents of the Kama every spring, and reach the fairs of Laishev
and Nizhniy Novgorod, or descend the Volga to Samara and
Astrakhan; while Ekaterinburg is an important centre for the
trade with Siberia. The fairs at Irbit, second in importance only
to that of Nizhniy Novgorod, and Ivanov (in the district of
Shadrinsk) are centres for supplying Siberia with groceries and
manufactured wares, as also for the purchase of tea, of furs for
Russia, and of corn and cattle for the mining districts. The chief
commercial centres are Ekaterinburg, Irbit, Perm, Kamyshlov,
Shadrinsk and Cherdyn.

Perm is more largely provided with educational institutions
and primary schools than most of the governments of central
Russia. Besides the ecclesiastical seminary at Perm there is a
mining school at Ekaterinburg. The Perm zemstvo or provincial
council is one of the most active in Russia in promoting the spread
of education and agricultural knowledge among the peasants.

The government is intersected by a railway from Perm east-
wards across the Urals, and thence southwards along their
eastern slope to Ekaterinburg, Chelyabinsk (main Siberian
trunk line) and Tyumen; also by a railway from Perm to Kotlas,
at the head of the Northern Dvina.

History. — Remains of palaeolithic man, everywhere very scarce
in Russia, have not yet been discovered in the upper basins of the
Kama and Ob, with the exception, perhaps, of a single human
skull found in a cavern on the Chanva (basin of Kama), together
with a skull of Ursus spelaeus. Neolithic remains are met with in
immense quantities on both Ural slopes. Still larger quantities
of implements belonging to an early Finnish, or rather Ugrian,
civilization are found everywhere in the basin of the Kama.
Herodotus speaks of the richness of this country inhabited by
the Ugrians, who kept up a brisk traffic with the Greek colony
of Olbia near the mouth of the Dnieper, and with the Bosporus
by way of the Sea of Azov and the Volga. The precise period
at which the Ugrians left the district for the southern steppes

of Russia (the Lebedia of Constantine Porphyrogenitus) is not
known. In the 9th century, if not earlier, the Norsemen were
acquainted with the country as Bjarmeland, and Byzantine
annalists knew it as Permia. Nestor describes it as a territory
of the Perm or Permians, a Finnish people.

The Russians penetrated into this region at an early date. In
the nth century Novgorod levied tribute from the Finnish
inhabitants, and undertook the colonization of the country,
which in the treaties of the 13th century is dealt with as a
separate territory of Novgorod. In 147 1 the Novgorod colonies
in Perm were annexed to Moscow, which in the following year
erected a fort to protect the Russian settlers and tradesmen
against the Voguls, Ostiaks and Samoyedes. The mineral
wealth of the country attracted the attention of the Moscow
princes, and in the end of the 15th century Ivan III. sent two
Germans to search for ores; these they succeeded in finding south
of the upper Pechora. The Stroganovs in the 16th century
founded the first salt- and ironworks, built forts, and colonized
the Ural region. The rapidly-growing trade with Siberia gave
a new impulse to the development of the country. This trade
had its centres at Perm and Solikamsk, and later at Irbit.

(P. A. K.; J.T. Be.)

PERM, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the
same name, stands on the left bank of the Kama, on the great
highway to Siberia, 1130 m. by rail and river N.E. from Moscow.
Pop. (1879), 32,350; (1897), 45,403. During summer it has
regular steam communication with Kazan, 605 m. distant, and
it is connected by rail (311 m.) with Ekaterinburg on the east
side of the Urals. The town is mostly built of wood, with
broad streets and wide squares, and has a somewhat poor aspect,
especially when compared with Ekaterinburg. It is the seat of a'
bishop of the Orthodox Greek Church, and has an ecclesiastical
seminary and a military school, besides several scientific
institutions (the Ural society of natural sciences, archives
committee, technical society), and a scientific museum. Its
industries develop but slowly, the chief works being ship-building
yards, tanneries, chemical works, saw-mills, brickfields, copper
foundries, machinery works, soap and candle factories and rope-
works. The government has a manufactory of steel guns and
munitions of war in the immediate neighbourhood of the town.

The present site of Perm was occupied, as early as 1568, by a
settlement named Brukhanovo, founded by one of the
Stroganovs; this settlement seems to have received the name
of Perm in the 17th century. A copperworks was founded in
the immediate neighbourhood in 1723, and in 1781 it received
officially the name of Perm, and became an administrative centre
both for the country and for the mining region.

PERMEABILITY, MAGNETIC, the ratio of the magnetic
induction or flux-density in any medium to the inducing magnetic
force. In the C.G.S. electromagnetic system of units the
permeability is regarded as a pure number, and its value in
empty space is taken as unity. The permeability of a metal
belonging to the ferromagnetic class — iron, nickel, cobalt and
some of their alloys — is a function of the magnetic force, and
also depends upon the previous magnetic history of the specimen.
As the force increases from zero the permeability of a given
specimen rises to a maximum, which may amount to several
thousands, and then gradually falls off, tending to become unity
when the force is increased without limit. Every other sub-
stance has a constant permeability, which differs from unity only
by a very small fraction; if the substance is paramagnetic, its
permeability is a little greater than 1 ; if diamagnetic, a little less.
The conception of permeability (Lat. per, through, and meare, to
wander), is due to Faraday, who spoke of it as " conducting
power for magnetism " (Experimental Researches, xxvi.), and the
term now in use was introduced by W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin),
in 1872, having been suggested by a hydrokinetic analogy
(Reprint of Papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism, xxxi., xlii.).
It is generally of importance that the iron employed in the
construction of electrical machinery should possess high
permeability under the magnetic force to which it is to be
subjected. (See Electromagnetism and Magnetism.)

176

PERMEAMETER— PERMIAN

PERMEAMETER, an instrument for rapidly measuring the
permeability of a sample of iron or steel with sufficient accuracy
for many commercial purposes. The name was first applied
by S. P. Thompson to an apparatus devised by himself in 1890,
which indicates the mechanical force required to detach one end
of the sample, arranged as the core of a straight electromagnet,
from an iron yoke of special form; when this force is known, the
permeability can be easily calculated. (See Magnetism.)

PERMIAN, in geology, the youngest and uppermost system of
strata of the Palaeozoic series, situated above the Carboniferous
and below the Trias. The term " Permian " (derived from the

t U|<p4>(lil bjr i-*ru*t»ii-u i>t Mum

Russian province of Perm, where the rocks are extensively
developed) was introduced in 1841 by Sir R. I. Murchison. In
England the series of red sandstones, conglomerates, breccias
and marls which overlie the Coal Measures were at one time
grouped together in one great formation as the " New Red
Sandstone," in contradistinction to the Old Red Sandstone
below the Carboniferous: they were likewise known as the
Poikilitic series (from Gr. -koikiKos, mottled) from their mottled
or variegated colour. They are now divided into two systems
or groups of formations; the lower portion being included in the
Palaeozoic series under the name Permian, the upper portion
being relegated to the Mesozoic series and termed Trias. In
Germany the name Dyas was proposed by J. Marcou for the rocks
of this age on account of the twofold nature of the series in
Thuringia, Saxony, &c. The intimate stratigraphical relation-
ship that exists in many quarters between the Permian rocks
and the Carboniferous beds, and the practical difficulties in the
way of drawing a satisfactory base-line to the system, have led
to the adoption of the term Permo-carboniferous in South
Africa, southern Asia, America, Australia and Russia, for strata
upon this horizon: C. W. von Gumbel used " Post-carbon " in
this sense. In a similar manner Permo-triassic has been
employed in cases where a stratigraphical passage from rocks with
Permian fossils to others bearing a Triassic fauna is apparent.

The Permian system in England consists of the following sub-
divisions : —

W. of England. E. of England.
Red sandstones, clays, and
gypsum

Upper ... j

600 ft. 50-100 ft.

600

100-250

2. Middle .. 5 Magnesian limestone . . )

1 Marl slate ) ™~3V

Red and variegated sandstone "
Reddish-brown and purple
I. Lower ...^ sandstones and marls, with ,

calcareous conglomerates 1 J
and breccias of volcanic
rocks

From the thicknesses here given it is evident that the Permian
rocks have a very different development on the two sides of England.
On the east side, from the coast of Northumberland southwards
to the plains of the Trent, they consist chiefly of a great central
mass of limestone. But on the west side of the Pennine Chain,
and extending southwards into the central counties, the calcareous

zone disappears, and we have a great accumulation of red, arenaceous
and gravelly rocks.

The lower subdivision attains its greatest development in the
vale of the Eden, where it consists of brick-red sandstones, the
Penrith sandstone series, with some beds of calcareous conglomerate
or breccia, locally known as " brockram," derived from the waste
of the Carboniferous Limestone. These red rocks extend across
the Solway into the valleys of the Nith and Annan, in the south
of Scotland, where they lie unconformably on the Lower Silurian
rocks. Their breccias consist of fragments of the adjacent Silurian
greywackes and shales, but near Dumfries some calcareous breccias
or " brockrams " occur. These breccia ted masses have evidently
accumulated in small lakes or narrow fiords. Much farther south,
in Staffordshire, and in the districts of the Clent and Abberley
Hills, the brecciated conglomerates in the Permian series attain a
thickness of 400 ft. They have been shown by Sir A. C. Ramsay
to consist in large measure of volcanic rocks, grits, slates and lime-
stones, which can be identified with rocks on the borders of Wales.
Some of the stones are 3 ft. in diameter and show distinct striation.
The same writer pointed out that these Permian drift-beds cannot be
distinguished by any essential character from modern glacial drifts;
on the other hand, W. W. King and others have opposed this view.
The middle subdivision is the chief repository of fossils in the
Permian system. Its strata are not red, but consist of a lower
zone of hard brown shale with occasional thin limestone bands
(Marl Slate) and an upper thick mass of dolomite (Magnesian
Limestone). The latter is the chief feature in the Permian develop-
ment of the east of England. It corresponds with the Zechstein
of Germany, as the Marl Slate does with the Kupfer-schiefer. It
is a very variable rock in its lithological characters, being sometimes
dull, earthy, fine-grained and fossiliferous, in other places quite
crystalline, and composed of globular, reniform, botryoidal, or
other irregular concretions of crystalline and frequently internally
radiated dolomite. Though the Magnesian Limestone runs as a
thick persistent zone down the east of England, it is represented
on the Lancashire and Cheshire side by bright red and variegated
sandstone covered by a thin group of red marls, with numerous
thin courses of limestone, containing Schizodus, Bakevellia and
other characteristic fossils of the Magnesian Limestone.

Concerning the rocks classed as Permian in the central counties
of England there exists some doubt, for recent work tends to show
that the lower parts are clearly related to the Carboniferous rocks
by their fossils ; while there is little evidence to warrant the exclusion
of the higher beds from the Trias. Similarly in south Devon,
where red sandstones and coarse breccias are well exposed, it has
been found difficult to say whether the series should be regarded
as Triassic or Permian, though the prevailing tendency is to retain
them in the latter system.

The " Dyas " type of the system is found in enormous masses
of strata flanking the Harz Mountains, and also in the Rhine
provinces, Saxony, Thuringia, Bavaria and Bohemia. In general
terms it may be said that in this region there is a lower sandy and
conglomeratic subdivision with an upper one more calcareous;
the former is known as the Rothliegende, the latter as the Zechstein
group. On the south side of the Harz Mountains the following
subdivisions are recognized : —

Anhydrite, gypsum, rock-salt, dolomite, marl, fetid
shale and limestone. The amorphous gypsum is the
chief member of this group; the limestone is some-
times full of bitumen.

Dolomite (Haupt-dolomit) , crystalline granular
(Rauchwacke) , and fine powdery (Asche) with gypsum
at bottom.

Zechstein-limcstone, an argillaceous, thin-bedded
compact limestone 15 to 90 ft. thick.

Kupfer-schiefer, a black bituminous copper-bearing
shale, not more than 2 ft. thick, often much less,
but very constant.

Zechstein-conglomerate and calcareous sandstone.
I" Red sandstones (Kreuznach beds), red shales
J (Monsig beds) with sheets of melaphyre tuff, and
I quartz-porphyry-conglomerate (Wadern, Oberhof,
I Sbtern and Tambach beds).

Sandstones and glomerates (Tholayer beds) on
black shales with poor coal seams and clay iron-
stones (Lebach and Goldlauter beds).

Sandstones and shales with seams of coal on red
and grey sandstones and shales with impure
limestones (Cusel beds, including Manebach beds,
upper, and Gehren beds, lower).
The name Rothliegende or Rothtodtliegende (red-dead-layer) was
given by the miners because their ores disappeared in the red
rocks below the copper-bearing Kupfer-schiefer. The Kupfer-
schiefer, although so thin, has been worked in the Mansfeld district
for a long period ; it contains abundant rsmains of fish (Palaeoniscus,
Platysomus) and plants (Ullmannia) . The beds of rock-salt in the
German Zechstein are of the greatest importance; at Sperenberg
near Berlin it has been penetrated to a depth of 4000 ft.
Associated with the salt, gypsum and anhydrite are numerous

a

Upper -

3

i_

O

a

Middle \

T) 1

w

^3

O

N

Lower .,

-

o

Upper

Lower

PERMIAN

177

potassium and magnesium salts, including carnallite, kieserite
and polyhalite, which ate exploited at Stassfurt and are the only
important potassium deposits known. Permian rocks of the
Rothliegende type are scattered over a wide area in France,
where the lower beds are usually conformable with the Coal Measures.
In the upper beds occur the bituminous or " Boghead " shale of
Autun. In Russia strata of this age cover an enormous area, in
the Ural region, in the governments of Perm, Kasan, Kostroma,
and in Armenia. The Russian Permian shows no sharp division
into two series; the two types of deposit tend to be more mixed
and include in addition some deposits of the more open sea. The
general sequence begins with the Artinsk beds, sandy and marly or
conglomeratic beds in close connexion with the Carboniferous,
overlain by the Kungur limestones and dolomites ; these are followed
by red fresh-water sandstones, over which comes an important
series of copper-bearing sandstones and conglomerates. Above
this, in Kostroma, Vyatka and Kasan there is a calcareous and
dolomitic series, the so-called " Russian Zechstein " with marine
fossils; the uppermost beds are red marls, with few fresh-water
fossils, the Tartarian beds.

The character of the fossils in the Permian of the Mediterranean
and south-east Europe — well exemplified in the deposits of Sicily —
together with their more generally calcareous nature, indicate
a more open sea and more stable marine conditions than obtained
farther north. This sea is traceable across south-east Russia
into the middle of Asia, through Turkestan and Persia, into the
Salt Range of India, where the Productus limestone may be taken
as representative of the normal marine plan of Permian times.
Southwards, however, of the Nerbudda River another and quite
distinct continental assemblage of deposits holds the ground,
viz. the lower portion of the great fresh-water Gondwana system.
The coarse Talchir conglomerates at the base are succeeded by the
sandstones and shales of the Karharbari group, with numerous
coal seams, and these in turn are followed by the Damuda series
(upwards of 10,000 ft.) of similar rocks, with ironstones and very
valuable coal seams. All these strata are characterized by the
presence of the Glossopteris flora. A similar succession of beds has
been recorded in north-west Afghanistan. In close relationship
with the lower members of the Indian Gondwana series, both as
regards fossil contents and lithological characters, are the lower
Karoo beds of South Africa (Dwyka conglomerate, Ecca shales and
mudstones, Beaufort beds and Kimberley shales), also the coal-
bearing beds of the Transvaal; the Permo-carboniferous rocks of
Australia (including the rich coal measures of Newcastle, the Greta
coal measures and marine beds, upper and lower, of New South
Wales; those of Tasmania, the Bowen River beds of Queensland,
and the Bacchus Marsh glacial beds of Victoria), and similar rocks
in New Zealand (Maitai formation, south island ; Dun Mountain lime-
stone and Rimutaka beds of the north island) and South America.
In North America Permian rocks occur in the east in Pennsylvania,
West Virginia, Maryland and Ohio (" Upper Barren Measures "),
and in Prince Edward Island, New Brunswick, where they succeed
the Carboniferous rocks very regularly. West of the Mississippi,
in Texas (7000 ft., including the Wichita beds, Clear Fork and
Double Mountain beds), Kansas and Nebraska, the Permian is
more extensive and on the whole is more readily separable from the
Carboniferous. Here the lower beds are marine and contain many
limestones and dolomites; the higher beds are mainly red sand-

stones and marls with gypsum; in Texas it is of interest to note
the occurrence of copper-stained strata. These upper " Red Beds "
are" often not clearly distinguishable from the Trias.

Life of the Permian Period. — The records of the plants and animals
of this period are comparatively meagre. The plants show that
a gradual change from the Carboniferous types was in progress.
Two floral regions are clearly indicated, a northern and a southern.
In the latter, which may be regarded as conterminous with the
continent of Gondwana, the Lepidodendrons, Sigillarias, Calamites,
&c, of the Coal Measures gave place to a distinct flora, named from
the prevalence of Glossopteris, the Glossopteris (tongue-fern) flora.
Traces of this southern flora have been found in northern Russia.
Gangamopteris, Callipteris, Taeniopteris, Schizopteris, Walchia,
Voltzia, Ullmannia, Saportea, Baiera are characteristic Permian
genera. Among the larger animals amphibians occupied a promi-
nent position, their footprints being very common in the sandstones ;
they include numerous Labyrinthodonts, Archegosaurus, Stereo-
rachis, Branchiosaurus. At this time the true reptiles began to
leave their remains in the rocks; many highly interesting forms are
known — Palaeohatteria, Proterosaurus, Stereosternum ; others having
certain mammalian characteristics include Pareiosaurus, Cynognathus,
Dicynodon. Among the fishes may be mentioned Platysomus,
Palaeoniscus, Amblypterus, Pleuracanthus. Turning to the inverte-
brates, undoubtedly the most interesting feature is gradual intro-
duction into the Cephalopoda of the ammonite-like forms such
as Medlicottia, Waagenoceras, Popanoceras, in place of the more
simple lobed goniatites of the Carboniferous. Brachiopods
(Productus horridus, Bakevellia tumida), Bryozoa and corals were
by no means scarce in the more open Permian seas. Schizodus
Schlotheimii, Strophalosia Goldfussi, Myophoria, Leimyalind, Bellero-
phon are characteristic Permian molluscs. The last of the trilobites
appears in the Permian of North America.

The evidence so far obtained indicates that in Permian times
much of the land in the northern hemisphere was near the general
sea-level, and that conditions of considerable aridity prevailed
which involved the repeated isolation and evaporation of marine
lagoons and land-locked seas. South of this region in Europe and
Asia there extended an open " Mediterranean " sea, the " Tethys "
of E. Suess; while over an enormous area in the southern hemisphere
a great' land area was spread, " Gondwana land," the land of the
Glossopteris flora. At many points in this vast tract, as we have
seen, coarse conglomeratic, deposits, Talchir, Dwyka, Bacchus
Marsh, &c, indicate profound glacial conditions, which some have
thought were present also in Britain, Germany and elsewhere
in the north. Moderate earth movements were taking place in
North America, where the Appalachian and Ouachita mountains
were in course of elevation, and in Europe this was a time of great
volcanic activity. In the Saal region volcanic rocks in the lower
Rothliegende have been penetrated for 1100 ft. without reaching
the bottom, and elsewhere in central Europe great sheets of con-
temporaneous quartz porphyry, granite porphyry, melaphyre and
porphyrite are abundant with their corresponding tuffs. Melaphyres
and tuffs appear in the Vosges, which in the south of France are
enormous masses of melaphyre and quartz porphyry. Basic lavas
and tuffs — diabase, pierite, olivine basalt and andesite tuffs — were
erupted from many small vents in Ayrshire and the Nith basin,
and basic lavas occur also in Devonshire. Volcanic rocks occur
also in New Zealand, Sumatra and the Transvaal.

Table of Permian Strata, showing approximate correlations.

Stages.

Britain.

Saxony,
Thuringia,
Bohemia.

Basin of the
Saar.

Alps.

Russia.

India.

North America.

Thuringian

Marls and
gypsum.

Magnesian
limestone.

Marl slate.

Salt beds of
Stassfurt.
Zechstein lime-
stones.
Kupfer-schiefer.

p

'S
M

J3

cj
cu
N

Upper red

sandstones,

breccias and

conglomerates.

Bellerophon
limestone.
Dolomites
and shales

of Neumarkt.
Sandstones
of Groden.

Tartarian

Marls.
Cephalopod
beds of
Armenia.
Copper-
bearing
sandstones
in Ural
region.
Limestones
and dolo-
mites of
Kostroma
(Russian
Zechstein).
Kungur and

Artinsk

sandstones.

Beds of

Novaya

Zemblya and

Spitzbergen.

Talchir beds. Kaharbari group. Damuda group.
(?) Pancjiet group. Productus limestones. Dan-
dote group of Salt Range. Productus limestones.
Limestone of Chitichan.

J3

3
O

in .

nj

p.H

•-« u

CU

g<

.>=;
3

OV5

ccj P
P efl

'C3 n*

en

> ..

a

-4-»

u
tti

P-.

en

.Si

<L>
UJ

C
O
U

l_

s.

u

en"
•O

cu
J2

cu
Pi

CD

CU

"C

cu
en

cu
3 •

s

be
5

P >

"3 • °

Kansas. ,§£.2~
Kiger S^ g

stage. .2 „ > .
Salt Fork ■%•% 5T7$

stage. oJ$ ||

Ong
^ en t.

L . h cu

Wellington O c 8
beds. %w

Marion S
beds. 5 ^m

Chase '£~° v
stage. .Sl£ §;

Punjabian

or
Saxonian

Red sandstones, conglomerates,
breccias and marls doubtfully
assigned to this period.

Volcanic rocks in Scotland and
Devonshire.

en

M

D

O
t-i

V

>

a
3
t_

CU
en
3
O
CU
P

rt
u

a

s

cu

p

u

Weissliegendes.

Tambach beds.

Oberhof beds

Goldlauter

beds.

en

0>

■v
a

i>
be
t v

15
4- 1

Red sandstones
with eruptive

rocks.

The beds of

Kreuznach,

Wadern,

Sotern,

Tholey.

6
p
<s

CJ

3
u

u

e/S

c

■*-J

CO

CD

&

a
a

"3

CO
3
fct.

Artinskian
(marine)

or

Autunian

(continental)

-~

Manebach

beds.

Brandschiefer

beds of Wessig.

Gehren beds.

Braunau beds

of Bohemia.

en

cu
■O
c

V

be
cu

j5

+j

C4

Lebach beds.
Cusel beds.

6

p

cu

3
U

i-> ■
CU
>

178

PERNAMBUCO— PERNE

References. — The literature dealing with the Permian and
Permo-Carboniferous is very extensive; H. B. Geinitz, J. Marcou,
Sir R. I. Murchison, Sir A. C. Ramsay, H. Potonie, R. Zeiller,
O. Feistmantel, E. A. Newell, Arber, A. C. Seward, F. Bischoff,
C. Ochsensius, E. Mojsisovics, V. Amalitzky, F. Noetling, C. Diener,
A. Tschneryschew, A. Karpinsky, W. Waagen, H. F. and W. T.
Blanford, G. H. Girty and very many others have made important
contributions to the subject. Numerous references will be found
in Sir A. Geikie, Textbook of Geology, 4th ed., and in the annual
Geological Literature of the Geological Society of London. See
also an interesting summary by C. Schuchert, " The Russian
Carboniferous and Permian compared with those of India and
America," Amer. Journ. Set. (1906), 4th series, vol. xxii. pp. 29 seq.
and a general account of the system in Lethaea geognoshca, Th. I.
Bd. II., F. Freeh and others (Stuttgart 1897-1902). H, Everding,
" Zur GeologiederdeutschenZechsteinsalze," .Kg/, geolog. Landesanst.
(Berlin, 1907) gives a full account of the salt and potassium-bearing
beds. (J. A. H.)

PERNAMBUCO, a north-eastern state of Brazil, bounded N.
by Ceara and Parahyba, E. by the Atlantic, S. by Alagoas and
Bahia, and W. by Piauhy. Area, 49,573 sq. m.; pop. (1900),
1,178,150. It comprises a comparatively narrow coastal zone,
a high inland plateau, and an intermediate zone formed by the
terraces and slopes between the two. Its surface is much broken
by the remains of the ancient plateau which has been worn down
by erosion, leaving escarpments and ranges of flat-topped
mountains, called chapadas, capped in places by horizontal
layers of sandstone. Ranges of these chapadas form the
boundary lines with three states — the Serras dos Irmaos and
Vermelha with Piauhy, the Serra do Araripe with Ceara, and the
Serra dos Cariris Velhos with Parahyba. The coastal zone is
low, well-wooded and fertile. It has a hot, humid climate,
relieved to some extent by the south-east trade winds. This
region is locally known as the mattas (forests). The middle zone,
called the caatinga or agreste region, has a drier climate and
lighter vegetation. The inland region, called the sertao, is high,
stony, and dry, and frequently devastated by prolonged droughts
(se'ecas). The climate is characterized by hot days and cool
nights, and is considered healthy, though the daily change tends
to provoke bronchial, catarrhal and inflammatory diseases.
There are two clearly defined seasons, a rainy season from March
to June, and a dry season for the remaining months. The rivers
of the state include a number of small plateau streams flowing
southward to the Sao Francisco River, and several large streams
in the eastern part flowing eastward to the Atlantic. The former
are the Moxoto, Ema, Pajehu, Terra Nova, Brigida, B6a Vista
and Pontal, and are dry channels the greater part of the year.
The largest of the coastal rivers are the Goyanna, which is formed
by the confluence of the Tracunhaem and Capibaribe-mirim,
and drains a rich agricultural region in the north-east part of
the state; the Capibaribe, which has its source in the Serra de
Jacarara and flows eastward to the Atlantic at Recife with a
course of nearly 300 m. ; the Ipojuca, which rises in the Serra de
Aldeia Velha and reaches the coast south of Recife; theSerinhaen
and the Una. A large tributary of the last — the Rio Jacuhipe,
forms part of the boundary line with Alagoas.

Pernambuco is chiefly agricultural, the lowlands being devoted
to sugar and fruit, with coffee in some of the more elevated
localities, the agreste region to cotton, tobacco, Indian corn,
beans and stock, and the sertao to grazing and in some localities
to cotton. Sugar, molasses, rum (aguardente or cachaca),
tobacco and fruit are largely exported. Coco-nuts, cacao,
bananas, mangoes and other tropical fruits are produced in
profusion, but the production of foodstuffs (beans, Indian corn,
mandioca, &c.) is not sufficient for local consumption. Manga-
beira rubber is collected to a limited extent, and piassava fibre
is an article of export. Orchids are also collected for export in
the districts of Garanhuns and Timbauba. Cotton-weaving and
cigar-making are the principal manufacturing industries, after
the large engenhos devoted to the manufacture of sugar and rum.
The railways of the state are the Recife and Sao Francisco (77 m.),
Central de Pernambuco (132 m.) andSulde Pernambuco (120 m.)
— all government properties leased to the Great Western of
Brazil Railway Co., Ltd., since 1901. Besides these there are the
line from Recife to Limoeiro and Timbauba (112 m.), with an

extension from Timbauba to Pilar (24 m.).« All these lines
concentrate at the port of Recife. The capital of the state is
Recife, commonly known among foreigners as Pernambuco.
There are a number of large towns in the state, but the census
returns include their populations in those of the municipios
(communes) to which they belong. The most important are:
Bezerros (17,484), Bom Jardim (40,160), Brejo da Madre de
Deus (13,655), atown of thehigher agreste region, Cabo (13,337),
Caruaru (17,844), Escada (9331), Garanhuns (32,788, covering
six towns and villages), Gloria de Goyta, (24,554), Goyanna,
Limoeiro (21,576), Olinda (8080), the old colonial capital and
episcopal see, Rio Formosa (6080), Timbauba (9514) and
Victoria (32,422).

Pernambuco was first settled in 1526 by Christovao Jacques
who founded a settlement on the Rio Iguarassu that was after-
wards abandoned. The first permanent settlement was made
by Duarte Coelho Pereira at Olinda in 1530, and four years later
he was granted a capitania of 50 leagues extending from the mouth
of the Sao Francisco northward to that of the Iguarassu. Adjacent
to this grant on the north was the capitania of Itamaraca,
granted to Pero Lopes de Souza, which covered the remainder
of the present state. The capitania of Pernambuco was ably
governed and took an active part in the expulsion of the French
from the trading posts established along the coast northward to
Maranhao, and in establishing Portuguese colonies in their
places. In 1630 Pernambuco was occupied by the Dutch and
continued under their rule until 1654. Although an active
guerrilla warfare was waged against the Dutch during a large part
of that period, they did much to promote the agricultural and
commercial interests of the colony, especially under the wise
administration of Maurice of Nassau. In 1817 Pernambuco was
the scene of a revolutionary outbreak, which resulted in the
separation of the present states of Alagoas and Rio Grande do
Norte, Ceara and Parahyba having been detached in 1799.
There'was another insurrection in 1822 when the Portuguese
captain-general, Luiz de Rego, and his garrison was expelled, and
in 1824 dissatisfaction with the arbitrary proceedings of Dom
Pedro I. at Rio de Janeiro led to a separatist revolution for the
formation of a new state, to be called the Federacao do Equador.
There was another outbreak in 183 1 and frequent disorders down
to 1848, when they culminated in another unsuccessful revolution.
The population of the Pernambuco sertao has always been noted
for its turbulent, lawless character, due partly to distance from
the coast where the bulk of the population is concentrated,
partly to difficult means of communication, and partly to the
fact that this remote region has long been the refuge of criminals
from the coast towns.

PERNAU (in Russ. Pernov and in Esthonian Pernolin), a
seaport and watering-place of western Russia, in the government
of Livonia, 155 m. N. of Riga, on the left bank of the Pernau or
Pernova, which about half a mile farther down enters the Bay
of Pernau, the northern arm of the Gulf of Riga. Pop., 12,856.
The harbour is usually free from ice from the end of April to the
middle of December.

Founded on the right side of the river in 1255 by one of the
bishops of Oesel, Pernau soon became a flourishing place. In
the 1 6th century it was occupied in succession by the Swedes,
the Poles and the Teutonic Knights. After 1599 the Poles
transferred the town to the left side of the river; and in 1642
the Swedes, who had been in possession since 161 7, strengthened
it with regular fortifications. In 1710 it was taken by the
Russians, and the fortress is now demolished.

PERNE, ANPREW (c. 1519-1589), vice-chancellor of Cam-
bridge University and dean of Ely, born about 1591, was son of
John Perne of East Bilney, Norfolk. He was educated at St
John's college, Cambridge, graduating B.A. in 1539, B.D. in
1,547 and D.D. in 1552. He was elected fellow of Queens' in
1540, and vice-president in 1551, and was five times vice-
chancellor; but he owes his notoriety to his remarkable versatility,
and, like the vicar of Bray, he was always faithful to the national
religion, whatever it might be. In April 1547 he advocated
Catholic doctrines, but recanted two months later, and his

PERONNE— PERPENDICULAR PERIOD

179

Protestant faith was strengthened during Edward VI. 's reign;
he was appointed a royal chaplain and canon of Windsor. Soon
after Mary's accession, however, he perceived the error of his
ways and was made master of Peterhouse in 1554 and dean of
Ely in 1557. He preached the sermon in 1556 when the bodies
of Bucer and Fagius were disinterred and burnt for heresy, and
also in 1 560 when these proceedings were reversed and the dead
heretics were rehabilitated. In Elizabeth's reign he subscribed
the Thirty-nine Articles, denounced the pope and tried to
convert Abbot Feckenham to Protestantism; and in 1584
Whitgift in vain recommended him for a bishopric. He died
on the 26th of April 1589. He was selected as the type of
Anglican prelate by the authors of the Martin Mar-prelate
tracts and other Puritans, who nicknamed him " Old Andrew
Turncoat," " Andrew Ambo," " Old Father Palinode." Cam-
bridge wits, it was said, translated " perno " by " I turn, I rat,
I change often "; and a coat that had often been turned was
said to have been " perned." (A. F. P.)

PERONNE, a town of northern France, capital of an arron-
dissement of the department of Somme, on the right bank of
the Somme at its confluence with the Cologne, 35 m. E. by N.
of Amiens by rail. Pop. (1906), 3698. The church of St Jean
(1509-1525) was greatly damaged during the bombardment of
1870-71, but has since been restored. The castle of Peronne
still retains four large conical-roofed towers dating from the
middle ages, one of which is said to have been the prison of
Louis XL in 1468, when he was forced to agree to the " Treaty
of Peronne." Peronne has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first
instance and a communal college. Its trade and industry are
of little importance.

The Frankish kings had a villa at Peronne, which Clovis II.
gave to Erchinoaldus, mayor of the palace. The latter founded
a monastery here, and raised in honour of St Fursy a collegiate
church, which was a wealthy establishment until the Revolution;
it is the burial-place of Charles the Simple, who died of starvation
in a dungeon in Peronne, into which he had been thrown by the
count of Vermandois (929). After the death of Philip of Alsace,
Peronne, which he had inherited through his wife, escheated to
the French Crown in the reign of Philip Augustus, from whom in
1209 it received a charter. By the treaty of Arras (1435) it
was given to the Burgundians; bought back by Louis XL, it
passed again into the hands of Charles the Bold in 1465. On
the death of Charles, however, in 1477, Louis XL resumed
possession. In 1536 the emperor Charles V. besieged Peronne,
but without success; in its defence a woman called Marie Foure
greatly distinguished herself. A statue of her stands in the town;
and the anniversary of the raising of the siege is still celebrated
annually. It was the first town after Paris at which the League
was proclaimed in 1577. Peronne's greatest misfortunes
occurred during the Franco-German War. It was invested on
the 27th of December 1870, and bombarded from the 28th to
the 9th of the following January, upon which date, on account of
the sufferings of the civil population, among whom small-pox
had broken out, it was compelled to capitulate.

PEROVSKITE, or Perofskite, a mineral consisting of calcium
titanate, CaTi0 3 , usually with a small proportion of the calcium
replaced by iron. The crystals found in schistose rocks have
the form of cubes, which are sometimes modified on the edges
and corners by numerous small planes; on the other hand, the
crystals occurring as an accessory constituent of eruptive rocks
are octahedral in form and microscopic in size. Although
geometrically cubic, the crystals 'are always doubly refracting,
and they sometimes show evidence of complex mimetic twinning;
their structure as shown in polarized light is very similar to
that of the mineral boracite, and they are therefore described as
pseudo-cubic. There are distinct cleavages parallel to the faces
of the cube. The colour varies from pale yellow to blackish-
brown and the lustre is adamantine to metallic; the crystals are
transparent to opaque. The index of refraction is high, the
hardness 55 an d the specific gravity 4-0. The mineral was
discovered at Achmatovsk near Zlatonst in the Urals by G.
Rose in 1839, and named in honour of Count L. A. Perovsky;

at this locality large cubes occur with calcite and magnetite in
a chlorite-schist. Similar crystals are also found in talc-schist
at Zermatt in Switzerland. The microscopic octahedral
crystals are characteristic of melilite basalt and nepheline
basalt; they have also been found in peridotite and serpen-
tine. (L. J. S.)

PEROWNE, JOHN JAMES STEWART (1823-1904), English
bishop, was born, of Huguenot ancestry, at Burdwan, Bengal,
on the 13th of March 1823. He was educated at Norwich and
at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, bcoming a fellow in 1849.
After holding a chair in King's College, London, he was appointed
vice-principal at St David's College, Lampeter (1862-1872).
In 1868 he was Hulsean lecturer, taking as his subject Immor-
tality. He was elected canon of Llandaff in 1869, dean of Peter-
borough r878, and in 1891 succeeded Henry Philpott as bishop
of Worcester. Perowne was a good Hebrew scholar of the old
type and sat on the Old Testament Revision Committee. He
is best remembered as the general editor of the Cambridge
Bible for Schools and Colleges. His chief works were a Com-
mentary on the Book of Psalms (2 vols., 1864-1868) and a life of
Bishop Thirlwall (1877-1878). He resigned his see in 1901, and
died on the 6th of November 1904.

PEROZ (Peirozes, Priscus, fr. 33; Perozes, Procop. Pers. i. 3
and Agath. iv. 27; the modern form of the name is Feroz, Firuz,
cf. Fieuzabad), Sassanid king of Persia, a.d. 457-484, son of
Yazdegerd II. He rebelled against his brother Homizd III.,
and in 459 defeated and killed him with the help of the Ephtha-
lites, or White Huns, who had invaded Bactria. He also killed
most of his other relatives, and persecuted the Christians. But
he favoured the introduction of Nestorianism, in opposition to
the orthodox creed of Byzantium. With the Romans he main-
tained peace, but he tried to keep down the Ephthalites, who
began to conquer eastern Iran. The Romans supported him
with subsidies; but all his wars were disastrous. Once he was
himself taken prisoner and had to give his son Kavadh as hostage
till after two years he was able to pay a heavy ransom. Then
he broke the treaty again and advanced with a large army.
But he lost his way in the eastern desert and perished with
his whole army (484). The Ephthalites invaded and plun-
dered Persia for two years, till at last a noble Persian from
the old family of Karen, Zarmihr (or Sokhra), restored some
degree of order. He raised Balash, a brother of Peroz, to the
throne. (Ed. M.)

PERPENDICULAR PERIOD, the term given by Thomas
Rickman to the third period of Gothic architecture in England,
in consequence of the great predominance of perpendicular lines.
In the later examples of the Decorated period the omission of
the circles in the tracery had led to the employment of curves
of double curvature which developed into flamboyant tracery,
and the introduction of the perpendicular lines was a reaction
in the contrary direction. The mullions of the windows (which
are sometimes of immense size, so as to give greater space for
the stained glass) are carried up into the arch mould of the
windows, and the upper portion is subdivided by additional
mullions. The buttresses and wall surface are likewise divided
up into vertical panels. The doorways are frequently enclosed
within a square head over the arch mouldings, the spandrils
being fitted with quatrefoils or tracery. Inside the church the
triforium disappears, or its place is filled with panelling, and
greater importance is given to the clerestory windows which
constitute the finest features in the churches of this period. The
mouldings are flatter and less effective than those of the earlier
periods, and one of the chief characteristics is the introduction
of large elliptical hollows. The finest features of this period are
the magnificent timber roofs, such as those of Westminster Hall
(1395), Christ Church Hall, Oxford, and Crosby Hall.

The earliest examples of the Perpendicular period, dating
from 1360, are found at Gloucester, where the masons of the
cathedral would seem to have been far in advance of those in
other towns. Among other buildings of note are the choir and
tower of York Cathedral (T389-1407); the nave and western
transepts of Canterbury Cathedral (1378-1411), and the tower

i8o

PERPENT— PERPETUAL MOTION

(towards the end of the 15th century); New College, Oxford
(1380-1386); the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick (1381-1391);
the nave and aisles of Winchester Cathedral (1399-1419); the
transept and tower of Merton College, Oxford (1424-1450);
Manchester Cathedral (1422); the central tower of Gloucester
Cathedral (1454-1457), and that of Magdalen College, Oxford
(1475-1480). To those examples should be added the towers
at Wrexham, Coventry, Evesham, and St Mary's at Taunton,
the first being of exceptional magnificence.

PERPENT, or Parpent Stones, in architecture, bond or
" through stones," the Sloltovoi. of the Greeks and Romans, long
stones going right through walls, and tying them together from
face to face. The O. Fr. parpain, modern parpaing, from which
this word is derived, is obscure in origin. It may be from a
supposed Lat. perpago, perpaginis, formed like compago, a
joint, from the root of pangere, to fasten, and meaning " some-
thing fastened together," or from some popular corruption
of Lat. perpendiculum, plummet or plumb-line (pir or pendere,
to hang), referring to the smooth perpendicular faces of the
stone.

PERPETUAL MOTION, or Perpetuum Mobile, in its usual
significance, not simply a machine which will go on moving for
ever, but a machine which, once set in motion, will go on doing
useful work without drawing on any external source of energy, or a
machine which in every complete cycle of its operation will give
forth more energy than it has absorbed. Briefly, a perpetual
motion usually means a machine which will create energy.

The earlier seekers after the " perpetuum mobile " did not
always appreciate the exact nature of their quest; for we find
among their ideals a clock that would periodically rewind itself,
and thus go without human interference as long as its machinery
would last. The energy created by such a machine would
simply be the work done in overcoming the friction of its parts,
so that its projectors might be held merely to have been ignorant
of the laws of friction and of the dynamic theory of heat. Most
of the perpetual motionists, however, had more practical views,
and explicitly declared the object of their inventions to be the
doing of useful work, such as raising water, grinding corn, and
so on. Like the exact quadrature of the circle, the transmuta-
tion of metals and other famous problems of antiquity, the
perpetual motion has now become a venerable paradox. Still,
like these others, it retains a great historical interest. Just as
some of the most interesting branches of modern pure mathe-
matics sprang from the problem of squaring the circle, as
the researches of the alchemists developed into the science of
modern chemistry, so, as the result of the vain search after the
perpetual motion, there grew up the greatest of all the general-
izations of physical science, the principle of the conservation of
energy.

There was a time when the problem of the perpetual motion
was one worthy of the attention of a philosopher. Before that
analysis of the action of ordinary machines which led to the laws
of dynamics, and the discussion of the dynamical interdependence
of natural phenomena which accompanied the establishment of
the dynamical theory of heat, there was nothing plainly unreason-
able in the idea that work might be done by the mere concatena-
tion of machinery. It had not then been proved that energy is
uncreatable and indestructible in the ordinary course of nature;
even now that proof has only been given by induction from long
observation of facts. There was a time when wise men believed
that a spirit, whose maintenance would cost nothing, could by
magic art be summoned from the deep to do his master's work;
and it was just as reasonable to suppose that a structure of wood,
brass and iron could be found to work under like conditions.
The disproof is in both cases alike. No such spirit has ever
existed, save in the imagination of his describer, and no such
machine has ever been known to act, save in the fancy of its
inventor.

The principle of the conservation of energy, which in one
sense is simply denial ot the possibility of a perpetual motion,
rests on facts drawn from every branch of physical science; and,
although its full establishment only dates from the middle of the

19th century, yet so numerous are the cases in which it has been
tested, so various the deductions from it that have been proved
to accord with experience, that it is now regarded as one of the
best-established laws of nature. Consequently, on any one who
calls it in question is thrown the burden of proving his case. If
any machine were produced whose source of energy could not at
once be traced, a man of science (complete freedom of investi-
gation being supposed) would in the first place try to trace its
power to some hidden source of a kind already known ; or in the
last resort he would seek for a source of energy of a new kind and
give it a new name. Any assertion of creation of energy by
means of a mere machine would have to be authenticated in
many instances, and established by long investigation, before it
could be received in modern science. The case is precisely as
with the law of gravitation; if any apparent exception to this
were observed in the case of some heavenly body, astronomers,
instead of denying the law, would immediately seek to explain
the occurrence by a wider application of it, say by including in
their calculations the effect of some disturbing body hitherto
neglected. If a man likes to indulge the notion that, after all,
an exception to the law of the conservation of energy may be
found, and, provided he submits his idea to the test of experiment
at his own charges without annoying his neighbours, ail that can
be said is that he is engaged in an unpromising enterprise. The
case is otherwise with the projector who comes forward with
some machine which claims by the mere ingenuity of its contri-
vance to multiply the energy supplied to it from some of the
ordinary sources of nature and sets to work to pester scientific
men to examine his supposed discovery, or attempts therewith
to induce the credulous to waste their money. This is by far
the largest class of perpetual-motion-mongers nowadays. The
interest of such cases is that attaching to the morbid anatomy
of the human mind. Perhaps the most striking feature about
them is the woful sameness of the symptoms of their madness.
As a body perpetual-motion seekers are ambitious, lovers of the
short path to wealth and fame, but wholly superficial. Their
inventions are very rarely characterized even by mechanical
ingenuity. Sometimes indeed the inventor has simply bewildered
himself by the complexity of his device; but in most cases the
machines of the perpetual motionist are of child-like simplicity,
remarkable only for the extraordinary assertions of the inventor
concerning them. Wealth of ideas there is none; simply asser-
tions that such and such a machine solves the problem, although
an identical contrivance has been shown to do no such thing by
the brutal test of standing still in the hands of many previous
inventors. Hosts of the seekers for the perpetual motion have
attacked their insoluble problem with less than a schoolboy's
share of the requisite knowledge; and their confidence as a rule
is in proportion to their ignorance. Very often they get no
further than a mere prospectus, on the strength of which they
claim some imaginary reward, or offer their precious discovery
for sale; sometimes they get the length of a model which wants
only the last perfection (already in the inventor's brain) to
solve the great problem; sometimes fraud is made to supply the
motive power which their real or pretended efforts have failed to
discover.

It was no doubt the barefaced fallacy of most of the plans for
perpetual motion that led the majority of scientific men to
conclude at a very early date that the " perpetuum mobile "
was an impossibility. We find the Paris Academy of Sciences
refusing, as early as 1775, to receive schemes for the perpetual
motion, which they class with solutions of the duplication of the
cube, the trisection of an angle and the quadrature of the circle.
Stevinus and Leibnitz seem to have regarded its impossibility as
axiomatic; and Newton at the beginning of his Principia states,
so far as ordinary mechanics are concerned, a principle which
virtually amounts to the same thing.

The famous proof of P. De la Hire simply refers to some of
the more common gravitational perpetual motions. The truth
is, as we have said already, that, if proof is to be given, or
considered necessary, it must proceed by induction from all
physical phenomena.

PERPETUAL MOTION

181

Fig. t.

It would serve no useful purpose here to give an exhaustive
historical account 1 of the vagaries of mankind in pursuit of the
" perpetuum mobile." The reader may refer to Henry Dircks's
Perpeluum Mobile (2 vols., 1861 and 1870), from which, for
the most Dart, we select the following facts.

By far the most numerous class of perpetual motions is that
which seeks to utilize the action of gravity upon rigid solids. We
have not read of any actual proposal of the kind, but the most
obvious thing to imagine in this way would be to procure some
substance which intercepts gravitational attraction. If this could
be had, then, by introducing a plate of it underneath a body while
it was raised, we could elevate the body without doing work;
then, removing the plate, we could allow the body to fall and do
work; eccentrics or other imposing device being added to move
the gravitation intercepter, behold a perpetual motion complete !
The great difficulty is that no one has found the proper material
for an intercepter.

Fig. 1 represents one of the most ancient and oftenest-repeated
of gravitational perpetual motions. The idea is that the balls

rolling in the compartments
between the felloe and the rim
of the wheel will, on the whole,
so comport themselves that the
moment about the centre of
those on the descending side
exceeds the moment of those on
the ascending side. Endless
devices, such as curved spokes,
levers with elbow-joints, eccen-
trics, &c, have been proposed
for effecting this impossibility.
The student of dynamics at
once convinces himself that no
machinery can effect any such
result; because if we give the
wheel a complete turn, so that
each ball returns to its original
position, the whole work done by the ball will, at the most,
equal that done on it. We know that if the laws of motion be
true, in each step the kinetic energy given to the whole system of
wheel and balls is equal to that taken from the potential energy
of the balls less what is dissipated in the form of heat by frictional
forces, or vice versa, if the wheel and balls be losing kinetic
energy — save that the friction in both cases leads to dissipation.
So that, whatever the system may lose, it can, after it is left to itself,
never gain energy during its motion.

The two most famous perpetual motions of history, viz. the
wheels of the marquis of Worcester (d. 1667) and of Councillor
Orffyraeus, were probably of this type. The marquis of Worcester
gives the following account of his machine in his Century of Inventions
(art. 56) :— _

" To provide and make that all the Weights of the descending side
of a Wheel shall be perpetually further from the Centre than those
of the mounting side, and yet equal in number and heft to one side
as the other. A most incredible thing, if not seen but tried before
the late king (of blessed memory) in the Tower, by my directions,
two Extraordinary Embassadors accompanying His Majesty, and
the Duke of Richmond, and Duke Hamilton, with most of the Court,
attending him. The Wheel was 14. Foot over, and 40. Weights of
50. pounds apiece. Sir William Balfore, then Lieutenant of the
Tower, can justify it, with several others. They all saw that no
sooner these great Weights passed the Diameter-line of the lower
side, but they hung a foot further from the Centre, nor no sooner
passed the Diameter-line of the upper side but they hung a foot
nearer. Be pleased to judge the consequence."

1 We may here notice, so far as more recent times are concerned,
the claim of an American enthusiast, who, having worked a Hampson
plant for liquefying air, stated that 3 lb of liquid air sufficed to
liquefy ten, and of these ten seven could be employed as a source
of motive power, whilst the remaining three could be utilized in the
production of another 10 lb of the liquid gas. There was thus
available an inexhaustible supply of energy ! The absurdity of
the proposition is obvious to any one acquainted with the laws
of thermodynamics. Of more interest is the radium clock devised
by the Hon. R. J. Strutt. This consists of a vacuum vessel from
the top of which depends a short tube containing a fragment of a
radioactive substance. At the lower end of this tube there are
two gold leaves as in an electroscope. Fused into the sides of the
vacuum vessel at points where the extended gold leaves touch
the glass are two platinum wires, the outer ends of which are
earthed. The " clock " acts as follows. The radio-active substance
emits a preponderating number of positively electrified particles,
so that the leaves become charged and hence extended. On contact
with the wires fused into the vessel, this charge is conducted away
and the leaves fall together. The process is then repeated, and
will continue until all the energy of the radium has been dissipated.
This period is extremely long, for 1000 years must elapse before
?ven half the radium has disappeared. — [Ed.]

Orffyraeus (whose real name was Johann Ernst Elias Bessler)
(1680-1745) also obtained distinguished patronage for his invention.
His last wheel, for he appears to have constructed more than one,
was 12 ft. in diameter and 1 ft. 2 in. broad; it consisted of a
light framework of wood, covered in with oilcloth so that the
interior was concealed, and was mounted on an axle which had no
visible connexion with any external mover. It was examined
and approved of by the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, in whose castle
at Weissenstein it is said to have gone for eight weeks in a sealed
room. The most remarkable thing about this machine is that it
evidently imposed upon the mathematician W. J. 'sGravesande,
who wrote a letter to Newton giving an account of his examination
of Orffyraeus's wheel undertaken at the request of the landgrave,
wherein he professes himself dissatisfied with the proofs theretofore
given of vhe impossibility of perpetual motion, and indicates his
opinion that the invention of Orffyraeus is worthy of investigation.
He himself, however, was not allowed to examine the interior of
the wheel. The inventor seems to have destroyed it himself. One
story is that he did so on account of difficulties with the landgrave's
government as to a licence for it; another that he was annoyed at
the examination by 'sGravesande, and wrote on the wall of the room
containing the fragments of his model that he had destroyed it
because of the impertinent curiosity of 'sGravesande.

The overbalancing wheel perpetual motion seems to be as old as
the 13th century. Dircks quotes an account of an invention by
Wilars de Honecort, an architect whose sketchbook is still preserved
in the Ecoles des Chartes at Paris. De Honecort says, " Many a
time have skilful workmen tried to contrive a wheel that shall
turn of itself; here is a way to do it by means of an uneven number of
mallets, or by quicksilver." He thereupon gives a rude sketch
of a wheel with mallets jointed to its circumference. It would
appear from some of the manuscripts of Leonardo da Vinci that he
had worked with similar notions.

Another scheme of the perpetual motionist is a water-wheel
which shall feed its own mill-stream. This notion is probably
as old as the first miller who experienced the difficulty of a dry
season. One form is figured in the Mathematical Magic (1648) of
Bishop Wilkins (1614-1672); the essential part of it is the water-
screw of Archimedes, which appears in many of the earlier machines
of this class. Some of the later ones dispense with even the
subtlety of the water-screw, and boldly represent a water-wheel
pumping the water upon its own buckets.

Perpetual motions founded on the hydrostatical paradox are not
uncommon; Denis Papin exposes one of these in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1685. The most naive
of these devices is that illustrated in fig. 2,
the idea of which is that the larger
quantity of water in the wider part of the
vessel weighing more will overbalance the
smaller quantity in the narrower part, so
that the water will run over at C, and so
on continually.

Capillary attraction has also been a
favourite field for the vain quest; for, if
by capillary action fluids can be made to
disobey the law of never rising above
their own level, what so easy as thus to
produce a continual ascent and overflow,
and thus perpetual motion? Various schemes of this kind, in-
volying an endless band which should raise more water by its
capillary action on one side than on the other, have been proposed.
The most celebrated is that of Sir William Congreve (1772-1828).
EFG (fig. 3) is an inclined plane over pulleys ; at the top and bottom
travels an endless band of sponge, abed, and over this again an
endless band of heavy weights jointed together. The whole stands
over the surface of still water. The capillary action raises the
water in ab, whereas the
same thing cannot hap-
pen in the part ad, since
the weights squeeze the
water out. Hence, inch
for inch, ab is heavier
than ad; but we know
that if ab were only just
as heavy inch for inch ,
as ad there would be
equilibrium, if the heavy
chain be also uniform;
therefore the extra
weight of ab will cause
the chain to move round
in the direction of the
arrow, and this will go
on continually.

The more recondite
vehicles of energy, such as electricity and magnetism, are more
seldom drawn upon by perpetual-motion inventors than might
perhaps be expected. William Gilbert, in his treatise De
Magnete, alludes to some of them, and Bishop Wilkins mentions
among others a machine " wherein a loadstone is so disposed

Fig. 2.

182

PERPETUITY— PERPIGNAN

Fig. 4.

that it shall draw unto it~on a reclined plane a bullet of steel,
which, still, as it ascends near to the loadstone, may be contrived
to fall through some hole in the plane and so to return unto
the place whence at first it began to move, and being there,
the loadstone will again attract it upwards, till, coming to this
hole, it will fall down again, and so the motion shall be perpetual."
The fact that screens do exist whereby electrical and magnetic
action can be cut off would seem to open a door for the perpetual-
motion seeker. Unfortunately the bringing up and removing of
these screens involves in all cases just that gain or loss of work which
is demanded by the law of the conservation of energy. A shoemaker
of Linlithgow called Spence pretended that he had found a black
substance which intercepted magnetic attraction and repulsion,
and he produced two machines which were moved, as he asserted,
by the agency of permanent magnets, thanks to the black substance.
The fraud was speedily exposed, but it is worthy of remark that
Sir David Brewster thought the things worth mentioning in a letter
to the Annates de chimie (1818), wherein he states " that Mr Playfair
and Captain Kater have inspected both of these machines and are
satisfied that they resolve the problem of perpetual motion."

The present writer once was sent an elaborate drawing of a
locomotive engine which was to be worked by the agency of per-
manent magnets. He forgets the details, but it was not so simple
as the plan represented in fig. 4, where
M and N are permanent magnets, whose
attraction is " screened " by the wooden
blocks A and B from the upper left and
lower right quadrants of the soft iron
wheel W, which consequently is attracted
round in the same direction by both M
and N, and thus goes on for ever.

One more page from this chapter of the
book of human folly, the author is the
famous Jean Bernoulli the elder. We
N translate his Latin, as far as possible, into
modern phraseology. In the first place
we must premise the following (see fig. 5).
(1) If there be two fluids of different
densities whose densities are in the ratio
of G to L, the height of equiponderating
cylinders on equal bases will be in the inverse ratio of L to G.
(2) Accordingly, if the height AC of one fluid, contained in the vase
AD, be in this ratio to the height EF of the other liquid, which is
in a tube open at both ends, the liquids so placed will remain at
rest. (3) Wherefore, if AC be to EF in a greater ratio than L
to G, the liquid in the tube will ascend; or if the tube be not
sufficiently long the liquid will overflow at the orifice E (this
follows from hydrostatic principles). (4) It is possible to have two
liquids of different density that will mix. (5) It is possible to
have a filter, colander, or other separator, by means of which the
lighter liquid mixed with the heavier may be separated again
therefrom.

Construction. — These things being presupposed (says Bernoulli),
I thus construct a perpetual motion. Let there be taken in any
(if you please, in equal) quantities two
liquids of different densities mixed
together (which may be had by hyp. 4),
and let the ratio of their densities be
first determined, and be the heavier to
the lighter as G to L, then with the
mixture let the vase AD be filled up
to A. This done let the tube EF, open
at both ends, be taken of such a length
that AC: EF> 2L:G+L; let the lower
orifice F of this tube be stopped, or
rather covered with the filter or other
material separating the lighter liquid
from the heavier (which may also be
had by hyp. 5) ; now let the tube thus
prepared be immersed to the bottom of
the vessel CD ; I say that the liquid will
continually ascend through the orifice
F of the tube and overflow by the
■■ orifice E upon the liquid below.

Demonstration. — Because the orifice
F of the tube is covered by the filter
(by constr.) which separates the lighter liquid from the heavier,
it follows that, if the tube be immersed to the bottom of the
vessel, the lighter liquid alone which is mixed with the heavier
ought to rise through the filter into the tube, and that, too, higher
than the surface of the surrounding liquid (by hyp. 2), so that
AC:EF = 2L:G+L; but since by constr. AC:EF>2L:G+L
it necessarily follows (by hyp. 3) that the lighter liquid will flow
over by the orifice E into the vessel below, and there will meet the
heavier and be again mixed with it; and it will then penetrate
the filter, again ascend the tube, and be a second time driven
through the upper orifice. Thus, therefore, will the flow be con-
tinued for ever. — Q.E D.

Bernoulli then proceeds to apply this theory to explain the per-
petual rise of water to the mountains, and its flow in rivers to the

eR

Fig. 5.

sea, which others had falsely attributed to capillary action — his
idea being that it was an effect of the different densities of salt and
fresh water.

One really is at a loss with Bernoulli's wonderful theory, whether
to admire most the conscientious statement of the hypothesis, the
prim logic of the demonstration, so carefully cut according to the
pattern of the ancients, or the weighty superstructure built on so
frail a foundation. Most of our perpetual motions were clearly
the result of too little learning; surely this one was the product
of too much. (G. Ch.)

PERPETUITY (Lat. perpetuus, continuous), the state of being
perpetual or continuing for an indefinite time; in law the tying-up
of an estate for a lengthened period, for the purpose of preventing
or restricting alienation. As being opposed to the interest of
the state and individual effort, the creation of perpetuities has
been considerably curtailed, and the rule against perpetuities in
the United Kingdom now forbids the making of an executory
interest unless beginning within the period of any fixed number of
existing lives and an additional period of twenty-one years (with
a few months added, if necessary, for the period of gestation).
The rule applies to dispositions of personal property (see
Accumulation) as well as of real property. There are certain
exceptions to the rule, as in the case of limitations in mortmain
and to charitable uses, and also in the case of a perpetuity created
by act of parliament (e.g. the estate of Blenheim, settled on
the duke of Marlborough, and Strathfieldsaye on the duke of
Wellington). In the United States the English common-law rule
against perpetuities obtains in many of the states; in others it
has been replaced or reinforced by statutory rules (see Gray on
Alienation, § 42). Charities may be established in perpetuity,
and provision may be made for an accumulation of the funds for a
reasonable time, e.g. for 100 years (Woodruff v. Marsh, 63 Conn.
Rep. 125; 38 Amer. St. Rep. 346). The general tendency of
American legislation is to favour tying up estates to a greater
extent than was formerly approved.

PERPIGNAN, a town of south-western France, capital of the
department of Pyrenees-Orientales, on the right bank of the Tet,
7 m. from the Mediterranean and 42 m. S. by W. of Narbonne
by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 32,683; commune, 38,898. The
north-west quarter of the town is traversed by the Basse, a
tributary of the Tet, while to the south it is overlooked by a
citadel enclosing a castle (13th century) of the kings of Majorca.
The chapel is remarkable as being a mixture of the Romanesque,
Pointed and Moorish styles. The ramparts surrounding the
citadel are the work of Louis XL, Charles V. and Vauban. The
sculptures and caryatides still to be seen on the gateway of the
citadel were placed there by the duke of Alva. The cathedral
of St Jean was begun in 1324 and finished in 1509. The most
noteworthy feature in the building is an immense reredos of
white marble (early r.7th century) by Bartholomew Soler of
Barcelona,

In the north of the town commanding the gateway of Notre-
Dame (1481) there stands a curious machicolated stronghold
known as the Castillet (14th and 15th centuries), now used as a
prison. The buildings of the old university (1 8th century)
contain the library and the museum, the latter possessing the
first photographic proofs executed by Daguerre and a collection
of sculptures and paintings. Statues of Francois Arago, the
astronomer, and Hyacinthe Rigoud, the painter, stand in the
squares named after them.

Perpignan is a fortified place of the first class, and seat of a
prefect, a bishop and a court of assizes, and has tribunals of first
instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a branch of
the Bank of France, a communal college for boys, a school of
music and training colleges for both sexes. The higher tribunal
of Andovic sits at Perpignan. Trade is in wine, iron, wool, oil,
corks and leather.

Perpignan dates at least from the 10th century. In the nth
and 1 2th centuries it was a capital of the counts of Roussillon.
from whom it passed in 1172 to the kings of Aragoii. Philip the
Bold, king of France, died there in 1285, as he was returning from
an unsuccessful expedition into Aragon. At that time it belonged
to the kingdom of Majorca, and its sovereigns resided there
until, in 1344, that small state reverted to the possession of the

PERQUISITE— PERRON, P. C.

183

kings of Aragon, who in 1349 founded a university at Perpignan.
When Louis XI. occupied Roussillon as security for money
advanced by him to the king of Aragon, Perpignan resisted the
French arms for a considerable time, and only yielded through
stress of famine (March 15, 1475). Roussillon was restored to
Aragon by Charles VIII. and Perpignan was again besieged in
1542 under Francis I., but without success. Later on, however,
the inhabitants, angered by the tyranny and cruelty of the
Spanish governor, surrendered the town to Louis XIII. The
citadel held out until the 9th of September 1642, and the place
has ever since belonged to France, to which it was formally ceded
by the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). In 1602 the bishopric of
Elne was transferred to Perpignan.

See P. Vibal, Perpignan depuis les origines jusqu' & nos jours
(Paris, 1898).

PERQUISITE (Lat. perquisitum, that which has been acquired
by careful search ; perquirere, to search diligently) , a term properly
used of the profits which accrue to the holder of an office over and
above the regular emoluments; also, in law, the casual profits,
such as accrue by heriots, fines, reliefs, &c, to a lord of a manor
above the yearly revenue from the copyholds. The word is
used generally of the casual profits allowed by custom to
servants or other employes from superfluous articles which the
employer has enjoyed the use of or which are supposed not to be
needed.

PERRAULT, CHARLES (1628-1703), French author, was
born in Paris on the 12th of January 1628. His father, Pierre
Perrault, was a barrister, all of whose four sons were men of some
distinction: Claude (1613-1688), the second, was by profession
a physician, but became the architect of the Louvre, and trans-
lated Vitruvius (1673). Charles was brought up at the College de
Beauvais, until he chose to quarrel with his masters, after which
he was allowed to follow his own bent in the way of study. He
took his degree of licencii en droit at Orleans in 1651, and was
almost immediately called to the Paris bar, where, however, he
practised for a very short time. In 1654 his brother became
receiver-general of Paris, and made Charles his clerk. After
nearly ten years of this employment he was, in 1663, chosen by
Colbert as his secretary to assist and advise him in matters
relating to the arts and sciences, not forgetting literature. He
was controller-general of the department of public works, member
of the commission that afterwards developed into the Academie
des inscriptions, and in 167 1 he was admitted to the Academie
frangaise. Perrault justified his election in several ways. One
was the orderly arrangement of the business affairs of the
Academy, another was the suggestion of the custom of holding
public seances for the reception of candidates. Colbert's death in
1683 put an end to Perrault's official career, and he then gave
himself up to literature, beginning with Saint Paulin eveque de
Nole, avec une epltre chritienne sur la penitence, et une ode aux
nouveaux convertis. The famous dispute of the ancients and
moderns arose from a poem on the Steele de Louis le Grand (1687),
read before the Academy by Perrault, on which Boileau com-
mented in violent terms. Perrault had ideas and a will of his
own, and he published (4 vols., 1688- 1696) his Par allele des
anciens et des modernes. The controversy that followed in its
train raged hotly in France, passed thence to England, and in
the days of Antoine Houdart de la Motte and Fenelon broke
out again in the country of its origin. As far as Perrault is
concerned he was inferior to his adversaries in learning, but
decidedly superior to them in wit and politeness.

It is not known what drew Perrault to the composition of the
only works of his which are still read, but the taste for fairy
stories and Oriental tales at court is noticed by Mme de Sevigne
in 1676, and at the end of the 17th century gave rise to the fairy
stories of Mile L'Heritier de Villaudon, whose Bigarrures ingeni-
euses appeared in 1696, of Mme d'Aulnoy and others, while
Antoine Galland's translation of the Thousand-and-One Nights
belongs to the early years of the 18th century. The first of
Perrault's contes, Grise'lidis, which is in verse, appeared in 1691,
and was reprinted with Peau d'dne and Les Souhails ridicules,
also in verse, in a Recueil de pieces curieuses — published at the

Hague in 1694. But Perrault was no poet, and the merit of
these pieces is entirely obscured by that of the prose tales, La
Belle au bois dormant, Petit chaperon rouge, La Barbe bleue, Le
Chat botte, Les Fies, Cendrillon, Riquet a la houppe and Le Petit
poucet, which appeared in a volume with 1697 on the title-page,
and with the general title of Histoires ou contes du temps passi
avec des moralitts. The frontispiece contained a placard with
the inscription, Contes de ma mire I'oie. In 1876 Paul Lacroix
attributed the stories to the authorship of Perrault's son, P.
Darmancour, who signed the dedication, and was then, according
to Lacroix, nineteen years old. Andrew Lang has suggested
that the son was a child, not a young man of nineteen, that he
really wrote down the stories as he heard them, and that they
were then edited by his father. This supposition would explain
the mixture of naivete and satire in the text. Perrault's other
works include his MSmoires (in which he was assisted by his
brother Claude), giving much valuable information on Colbert's
ministry; an Eneide travestie written in collaboration with his
two brothers, and Les Hommes illustres qui ont paru en France
pendant ce siecle (2 vols., 1696-1700). He died on the 16th of
May 1703, in Paris. His son, Perrault d'Arma-Court, was the
author of a well-known book, Contes des fees, containing the
story of Cinderella, &c.

Except the tales, Perrault's works have not recently been re-
printed. Of these there are many modern editions, e.g. by Paul
Lacroix (1876), and by A. Lefebvre (" Nouvelle collection Jannet,"
J 875); also Perrault's Popular Tales (Oxford, 1888), which contains
the French text edited by Andrew Lang, with an introduction,
and an examination of the sources of each story. , See also
Hippolyte Rigault, Hist, de la querelle des anciens et des modernes
(1856).

PERRERS (or De Windsor), ALICE (d. 1400), mistress of
the English king Edward III., belonged probably to the Hert-
fordshire family of Perrers, although it is also stated that she
was of more humble birth. Before 1366 she had entered the
service of Edward's queen, Philippa, and she appears later as
the wife of Sir William de Windsor, deputy of Ireland (d. 1384).
Her intimacy with the king began about 1366, and during the
next few years she received from him several grants of land
and gifts of jewels. Not content with the great influence which
she obtained over Edward, Alice interfered in the proceedings
of the courts of law to secure sentences in favour of her friends,
or of those who had purchased her favour; actions which induced
the parliament of 1376 to forbid all women from practising
in the law courts. Alice was banished, but John of Gaunt,
duke of Lancaster, allowed her to return to court after the death
of Edward the Black Prince in June 1376, and the parliament
of 1377 reversed the sentence against her. Again attempting
to pervert the course of justice, she was tried by the peers and
banished after the death of Edward III. in June 1377; but this
sentence was annulled two years later, and Alice regained some
influence at court. Her time, however, was mainly spent in
lawsuits, one being with William of Wykeham, bishop of
Winchester, and another with her dead husband's nephew and
heir, John de Windsor.

PERRON, PIERRE CUILLIER (1755-1834), French military
adventurer in India, whose name was originally Pierre Cuillier,
was born in 1755 at Chateau du Loire in France, the son of a
cloth merchant. In 1780 he went out to India as a sailor on a
French frigate, deserted on the Malabar coast, and made his
way to upper India, where he enlisted in the rana of Gohad's
corps under a Scotsman named Sangster. In 1790 he took'
service under De Boigne, and was appointed to the command
of his second brigade. In 1795 he assisted to win the battle
of Kardla against the nizam of Hyderabad, and on De Boigne's
retirement became commander-in-chief of Sindhia's army.
At the battle of Malpura (1800) he defeated the Rajput forces.
After the defeat of Ujjain (1801) he refused to send his troops
to the aid of Sindhia. His treachery on this occasion shook his
position, and on the outbreak of war between Sindhia and the
British in 1803 Perron was superseded and fled to the British
camp. In the battles of Delhi, Laswari and Assaye, Perron's
battalions were completely destroyed by Lord Lake and

184

PERRON— PERRY, M. C.

Sir Arthur Wellesley. He returned to France with a large I
fortune, and died in 1834.

See H. Compton, European Military Adventurers of Hindustan
(1892).

PERRON (a French word meaning properly a " large stone,"
Ttal. petrone, from Lat. petra, Fr. pierre, stone), in architecture,

I term applied to a raised platform reached by steps in front of
the entrance to a building. The grand flight of external steps
entering the mansions of the medieval nobility or high officials
was considered in itself a mark of jurisdiction, as it is said that
sentence was there pronounced against criminals, who were
afterwards executed at the foot of the steps— as at the Giant's
Stairs of the Doge's palace at Venice.

PERRONE, GIOVANNI (1794-1876), Italian theologian, was
born at Chieri (Piedmont) in 1794. He studied theology at
Turin, and in his twenty-first year went to Rome, where he
joined the Society of Jesus. In 1816 he was sent as professor
of theology to Orvieto, and in 1823 was appointed to a similar
post in the Collegium Romanum. From Ferrara, where he was
rector of the Jesuit College after 1830, he returned to his teaching
work in Rome, being made head of his old college in 1850. He
took a leading part in the discussions which led up to the promul-
gation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception (1854), and
'n 1869 was prominent on the Ultramontane side in the Vatican
Council. His numerous dogmatic works are characteristic
of orthodox modern Roman theology. They include Praelec-
liones theologicae (9 vols., Rome, 1835 sqq.), Praelectiones
theologicae in compendium redactae (4 vols., Rome, 1845),

II Hermesianismo (Rome, 1838), // Proteslantismo e la regola
di fede (3 vols., 1853), De divinitate D. N. Jesu Christi (3 vols.,
Turin, 1870). He died on the 26th of August 1876.:

PERROT, SIR JOHN (c. 1527-1592), lord deputy of Ireland,
was the son of Mary Berkley, who afterwards married Thomas
Perrot, a Pembrokeshire gentleman. He was generally reputed
to be a son of Henry VIII., and was attached to the household
of William Paulet, 1st marquess of Winchester. He was in this
way brought to the notice of Henry VIII., who died, however,
before fulfilling his promises of advancement, but Perrot was
knighted at the coronation of Edward VI. During Mary's
reign he suffered a short imprisonment on the charge of harbour-
ing his uncle, Robert Perrot, and other heretics. In spite of
his Protestantism he received the castle and lordship of Carew
in Pembrokeshire, and at the beginning of Elizabeth's reign
he was entrusted with the naval defence of South Wales. In
1570 Perrot reluctantly accepted the newly created post of lord
president of Munster. He landed at Waterford in February
of the next year, and energetically set about the reduction of
the province. In the course of two years he hunted down James
Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald, whose submission he received in 1572.
Perrot resented the reinstatement of Gerald Fitzgerald, 15th
earl of Desmond, and after vainly seeking his own recall left
Ireland without leave in July 1573, and presenting himself at
court was allowed to resign his office, in which he was succeeded
by Sir William Drury. He returned to his Welsh home, where
he was fully occupied with his duties as vice-admiral of the
Welsh seas and a member of the council of the marches. Al-
though in 1578 he was accused by the deputy-admiral, Richard
Vaughan, of tyranny, subversion of justice and of dealings with
the pirates, he evidently retained the royal confidence, for he was
made commissioner for piracy in Pembrokeshire in 1578, and in
the next year was put in command of a squadron charged to
intercept Spanish ships on the Irish coast.

The recall of Arthur Grey, Lord Grey de Wilton, in 1582, left
vacant the office of lord deputy of Ireland, and Perrot was
appointed to it early in 1584. Sir John Norris became lord
president of Munster and Sir Richard Bingham went to Con-
naught. Perrot's chief instructions concerned the plantation
of Munster, where the confiscated estates, some 600,000 acres
in extent, of the earl of Desmond were to be given to English
landlords at a nominal rent, provided that they brought with
them English farmers and labourers. Before he had had time
to embark on this enterprise he heard that the Highland clans

of Maclean and MacDonnell were raiding Ulster at the invitation
of Sorley Boy MacDonnell, the Scoto-Irish constable of Dunluce
Castle. He marched into Ulster, but Sorley Boy escaped him,
and crossed to Scotland, only to return later with reinforcements.
The lord deputy was roundly abused by Elizabeth for under-
taking " a rash, unadvised journey," but Sorley Boy was
reduced to submission in 1586. In 1585 Perrot succeeded in
completing the " composition of Connaught," a scheme for a
contract between Elizabeth and the landholders of the province
by which the queen should receive a small quitrent. During
his career as lord deputy he had established peace, and had
deserved well of Elizabeth. But a rash and violent temper,
coupled with unsparing criticism, not to say abuse, of his
associates, had made him numerous enemies. A hastily con-
ceived plan for the conversion of the revenues of St Patrick's
Cathedral, Dublin, to provide funds for the erection of two
colleges, led to a violent quarrel with Adam Loftus, archbishop
of Armagh. Perrot had interfered in Bingham's government
of Connaught, and in May 1587 he actually struck Sir Nicholas
Bagenal, the knight marshal, in the council chamber. Elizabeth
decided to supersede him in January 1588, but it was only six
months later that his successor, Sir William Fitzwilliam, arrived
in Dublin. After his return to England his enemies continued
to work for his ruin, and a forged letter purporting to be from
him to Philip II. of Spain gave colour to an accusation of
treasonable correspondence with the queen's enemies, but when
he was tried before a special commission in 1592 the charge of
high treason was chiefly based on his alleged contemptuous
remarks about Elizabeth. He was found guilty, but died in the
Tower in September 1592. Elizabeth was said to have intended
his pardon.

A life of Sir John Perrot from a MS. dating from the end of
Elizabeth's reign was printed in 1728. Sir James Perrot (1571-
1637), writer and politician, was his illegitimate son.

PERRY, MATTHEW CALBRAITH (1794-1858), American
naval officer, was born in South Kingston, Rhode Island, on the
10th of April 1794. He became a midshipman in 1809, and
served successively in the schooner " Revenge " (then com-
manded by his brother, Oliver H. Perry) and the frigate
" President." In 1813 he became a lieutenant, and during the
War of 18 1 2 served in the frigate " United States " (which, when
abandoned by Perry, was blockaded in the harbour of New
London, Connecticut), the " President " and the " Chippewa."
Soon after the war Perry was assigned to the Brooklyn (New
York) navy yard, where he served till 18 19. He became a
commander in 1826, and during 1826-1830 was in the recruiting
service at Boston, where he took a leading part in organizing the
first naval apprentice system of the United States navy. He was
promoted in 1837 to the rank of captain (then the highest actual
rank in the United States navy), and in 1838-1840 commanded
the " Fulton II.," the first American steam war vessel. He also
planned the " Missouri " and the " Mississippi," the first steam
frigates of the United States navy, and was in command of the
Brooklyn navy yard from June 1841 until March 1843, when he
assumed command of a squadron sent to the African coast by
the United States, under the Webster-Ashburton treaty, to aid
in suppressing the slave trade. This command of a squadron
entitled him to the honorary rank of commodore. On the 23rd
of October 1846, during the Mexican War, Perry, in command of
the steam vessels " Vixen " and " McLane," and four schooners,
attacked and captured Frontera, at the mouth of the Tobasco
river, then pushed on up the river and (on the 24th) captured
the town of Tobasco, thereby cutting off Mexico from Yucatan.
He relieved Commodore David Conner at Vera Cruz on the 21st
of March 1847, and after a two days' bombardment by a battery
landed from the ships the city wall was breached sufficiently
to admit the entrance of troops.

Commodore Perry's distinctive achievement, however, was
his negotiation in 1854 of the treaty between the United States
and Japan, which opened Japan to the influences of western
civilization. Perry sailed from Norfolk, Virginia, on the 24th of
November 1852, in the "Mississippi." He reached Hong-Kong

PERRY, O. H.— PERSEPOLIS

185

on the 7th of April and on the 8th of July dropped anchor off
the city of Uraga, on the western shore of the Bay of Yedo with
the " Susquehanna," his flagship, the " Mississippi," and the
sloops-of-war " Saratoga " and " Plymouth." On the 14th of
July, accompanied by his officers and escorted by a body of
armed marines and sailors (in all about 300 men), he went ashore
and presented to commissioners especially appointed by the
shogun to receive them, President Fillmore's letters to the em-
peror, and his own credentials. A few days later the American
fleet sailed for Hong-Kong with the understanding that Perry
would return in the following spring to receive the emperor's
reply. On the nth of February, accordingly, he reappeared in
the Bay of Yedo with his fleet — this time composed of the
" Susquehanna," " Powhatan " and " Mississippi," and the
sailing vessels " Vandalia,"" Lexington "and "Southampton,"
and despite the protests of the Japanese selected an anchorage
about 1 2 m. farther up the bay, nearly opposite the present site
of Yokohama, and within about 10 m. of Yedo (Tokyo). Here,
on the 31st of March 1854, was concluded the first treaty (ratified
at Simoda, on the 21st of February 1855, and proclaimed on the
22nd of June following) between the United States and Japan.
The more important articles of this treaty provided that the port
of Simoda, in the principality of Idzu, and the port of Hakodate,
in the principality of Matsmai, were constituted as ports for
the reception of American ships, where they could buy such
supplies as they needed; that Japanese vessels should assist
American vessels driven ashore on the coasts of Japan, and that
the crews of such vessels should be properly cared for at one of
the two treaty ports; that shipwrecked and other American
citizens in Japan should be as free as in other countries, within
certain prescribed limits; that ships of the United States should
be permitted to trade at the two treaty ports under temporary
regulations prescribed by the Japanese, that American ships
should use only the ports named, except under stress of weather,
and that privileges granted to other nations thereafter must also
be extended to the United States. Commodore Perry died in
New York City on the 4th of March 1858.

A complete and readable account of this expedition, and its
results, scientific as well as political, compiled from the journals
and reports of Commodore Perry and his officers, was published by
the United States government under the title, Narrative of the
Expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan
(3 vols., Washington, 1856). The first volume of this work, con-
taining Commodore Perry's narrative, was also published separately.
A brief biography of Perry is included in Charles Morris's Heroes
of the Navy in America (Philadelphia and London, 1907). See also
William E. Griffis's Matthew Calbraith Perry, a Typical American
Naval Officer (Boston, 1887).

PERRY, OLIVER HAZARD (1785-1819), American naval
officer, was born at South Kingston, Rhode Island, on the
23rd of August 1785. He entered the navy as midshipman
( 1 799) with his father, Christopher Raymond Perry (1761-1818),
a captain in the navy, and saw service against the Barbary
pirates. At the beginning of the War of 181 2 he was in
command of a flotilla at Newport, but was transferred (Feb.
1813) to the Lakes. He served with Commodore Chauncey,
and then was sent from Lake Ontario to Lake Erie, where he
took up the chief command at the end of March 1813. With
the help of a strong detachment of officers and men from the
Atlantic coast he equipped a squadron consisting of one brig,
six fine schooners and one sloop. Other vessels were laid down
at Presque Isle (now Erie), where he concentrated the Lake
Erie fleet in July. When Captain Perry appeared off Amherst-
burg, where Captain Robert Heriot Barclay (d. 1837), the
British commander, was lying with his squadron, he had a
very marked superiority. Captain Barclay, after a hot en-
gagement — the Battle of Lake Erie — in which Captain Perry's
flagship the " Lawrence," a brig, was so severely shattered
that he had to leave her, was completely defeated. Perry com-
manded the " Java " in the Mediterranean expedition of 1815-
1816, and he died at Port of Spain in Trinidad on the 23rd of
August 1819, of yellow fever contracted on the coast of Brazil.

See O. H. Lyman, Commodore 0. H. Perry and the War on the
Lakes (New York, 1905).

PERRY, a city and the county-seat of Noble county, Okla-
homa, U.S.A., 30 m. N. by E. of Guthrie. Pop. (1900), 335r
(399 negroes); (1910) 3133. Perry is served by the Atchison,
Topeka & Santa Fe railway and by the St Louis & San Francisco
system. It is the commercial centre of a large agricultural and
stock-raising region, which produces cotton and grain. Perry
was settled in 1889.

PERRY (from Fr. poire", from poire, a pear), an alcoholic
beverage, obtained by the fermentation of the juice of pears.
The manufacture is in all essentials identical with that of
Cider (q.v.).

PERRYVILLE, a town of Boyle county, Kentucky, U.S.A.,
about 10 m. W. of Danville. Pop. (1910), 407. Here on the
8th of October 1863 General Braxton Bragg, in command of the
Confederate army of the Mississippi of about 16,000 men, with
which he had invaded Kentucky, faced about in his slow retreat
across the state and gave battle to the Union army of the
Ohio of about 40,000 (of whom only about 22,000 were actually
engaged) commanded by Major-General Don Carlos Buell.
Bragg's order to attack was disregarded by Major-General
Leonidas Polk, who preferred adopting the ' ' defensive-offensive ' '
rather than engage all of Buell's force. Bragg himself came on
the field about 10 a.m. and repeated his orders for an attack, but
it was 2 p.m. before there was an actual engagement. Then
after much delay on Polk's part the Confederate army joined
battle with McCook's corps. The Confederate lines were broken
and driven back through Perryville, where caissons, ammunition
wagons and 140 officers and men were captured. Darkness had
now come on, and in the night Bragg withdrew. His losses
were reported as 510 killed, 2635 wounded and 251 missing.
The Union loss was 845 killed, 2851 wounded and 515 captured
or missing. The battle was drawn tactically, but strategically
it was a Union victory and it virtually closed Bragg's unsuc-
cessful Kentucky campaign, which is sometimes called the
Perryville campaign.

PERSEPOLIS, an ancient city oi Persia, situated some 40 m.
N.E. of Shiraz, not far from where the small river Pulwar flows
into the Kur (Kyrus). The site is marked by a large terrace
with its east side leaning on Kuhi Rahmet (" the Mount of
Grace "). The other three sides are formed by a retaining wall,
varying in height with the slope of the ground from 14 to 41 ft'
on the west side a magnificent double stair, of very easy steps,
leads to the top. On this terrace are the ruins of a number of
colossal buildings, all constructed of dark-grey marble from the
adjacent mountain. The stones were laid without mortar, and
many of them are still in situ. Especially striking are the huge
pillars, of which a number still stand erect. Several of the
buildings were never finished. F. Stolze has shown that in
some cases even the mason's rubbish has not been removed. 1
These ruins, for which the name Kizil minare or Chihil menare
(" the forty columns or minarets "), can be traced back to the
13th century, are now known as Takhti Jamshid (" the throne
of Jamshid "). That they represent the Persepolis captured
and partly destroyed by Alexander the Great has been beyond
dispute at least since the time of Pietro della Valle. 2

Behind Takhti Jamshid are three sepulchres hewn out of the
rock in the hillside, the fac. ades, one of which is incomplete,
being richly ornamented with reliefs. About 8 m. N.N.E., on
the opposite side of the Pulwar, rises a perpendicular wall of
rock, in which four similar tombs are cut, at a considerable
height from the bottom of the valley. The modern Persians
call this place Nakshi Rustam (" the picture of Rustam ") from
the Sassanian reliefs beneath the opening, which they take to
be a representation of the mythical hero Rustam. That the

1 Cf. J. Chardin, E. Kaempfer, C. Niebuhr and W. Ouseley.
Niebuhr's drawings, though good, are, for the purposes of the archi-
tectural student, inferior to the great work of C. Texier, and still
more to that of E. Flandin and P. Coste. Good sketches, chiefly
after Flandin, are given by C. Kossowicz, Inscriptiones palaeo-
persicae (St Petersburg, 1872). In addition to these we have
the photographic plates in F. Stolze's Persepolis (2 vols., Berlin,
1882).

2 Letter a XV. (ed. Brighton, 1843), ii. 246 seq.

i86

PERSEPOLIS

occupants of these seven tombs were kings might be inferred from
the sculptures, and one of those at Nakshi Rustam is expressly
declared in its inscription to be the tomb of Darius Hystaspis,
concerning whom Ctesias relates that his grave was in the face of
a rock, and could only be reached by means of an apparatus
of ropes. Ctesias mentions further, with regard to a number of
Persians kings, either that their remains were brought " to the
Persians," or that they died there. 1 Now we know that Cyrus was
buried at Pasargadae (q.v.) and if there is any truth in the
statement that the body of Cambyses was brought home " to the
Persians " his burying-place must be sought somewhere beside
that of his father. In order to identify the graves of Persepolis we
must bear in mind that Ctesias assumes that it was the custom for
a king to prepare his own tomb during his lifetime. Hence the
kings buried at Nakshi Rustam are probably, besides Darius,
Xerxes I., Artaxerxes I. and Darius II. Xerxes II., who reigned
for a very short time, could scarcely have obtained so splendid
a monument, and still less could the usurper Sogdianus (Secy-
dianus). The two completed graves behind Takhti Jamshid
would then belong to Artaxerxes II. and Artaxerxes III. The
unfinished one is perhaps that of Arses, who reigned at the
longest two years, or, if not his, then that of Darius III.
(Codomannus), who is one of those whose bodies are said to have
been brought " to the Persians " 2 (see Architecture, fig. 12).
Another small group of ruins in the same style is found at the
village of Hajjlabad, on the Pulwar, a good hour's walk above
Takhti Jamshid. These formed a single building, which was
still intact 900 years ago, and was used as the mosque of the
then existing city of Istakhr.

Since Cyrus was buried in Pasargadae, which moreover is
mentioned in Ctesias as his own city, 3 and since, to judge from
the inscriptions, the buildings of Persepolis commenced with
Darius I., it was probably under this king, with whom the sceptre
passed to a new branch of the royal house, that Persepolis
became the capital 4 (see Persia: Ancient History, V. 2) of Persia
proper. As a residence, however, for the rulers of the empire,
a remote place in a difficult alpine region was far from con-
venient, and the real capitals were Susa, Babylon and Ecbatana.
This accounts for the fact that the Greeks were not acquainted
with the city until it was taken and plundered by Alexander
the Great. Ctesias must certainly have known of it, and it is
possible that he may have named it simply Ilepcrai, after the
people, as is undoubtedly done by certain writers of a somewhat
later date. 5 But whether the city really bore the name of the
people and the country is another question. And it is extremely
hazardous to assume, with Sir H. Rawlinson and J. Oppert, that
the words ana Pdrsd, " in this Persia," which occur in an inscrip-
tion on the gateway built by Xerxes (D. 1. 14), signify " in this
city of Parsa," and consequently prove that the name of the
city is identical with the name of the country. The form
Persepolis (with a play on irepcris, destruction) appears first
in Cleitarchus, one of the earliest, but unfortunately one of the
most imaginative annalists of the exploits of Alexander.

It has been universally admitted that " the palaces " or "the
palace " (to. (3acrtXeia) burned down by Alexander are those now in
ruins at Takhti Jamshid. From Stolze's investigations it appears
that at least one of these, the castle built by Xerxes, bears evident
traces of having been destroyed by fire. The locality described by
Diodorus after Cleitarchus corresponds in important particulars
with Takhti Jamshid, for example, in being supported by the

1 This statement is not made in Ctesias (or rather in the extracts
of Photius) about Darius II., which is probably accidental; in the
case of Sogdianus, who as a usurper was not deemed worthy of
honourable burial, there is a good reason for the omission.

2 Arrian, iii. 22, 1.

* Cf. also in particular Plutarch, Artax. iii., where Pasargadae
is distinctly looked on as the sacred cradle of the dynasty.

4 The story of Aelian (H. A. i. 59), who makes Cyrus build his
royal palace in Persepolis, deserves no attention.

'So Arrian (iii. 18, 1, 10), or rather his best authority, King
Ptolemy. So, again, the Babylonian Berossus, shortly after
Alexander. See Clemens Alex., Admon. ad gentfs, c. 5, where, with
Georg Hoffmann (Pers. Martyrer, 137), nal is to be inserted before
LUpcraxs, and this to be understood 3-s the name of the metropolis.

mountain on the east. 6 There is, however, one formidable
difficulty. Diodorus says that the rock at the back of the palace
containing the royal sepulchres is so steep that the bodies could
be raised to their last resting-place only by mechanical appliances.
This is not true of the graves' behind Takhti Jamshid, to which, as
F. Stolze expressly observes, one can easily ride up; on the other
hand, it is strictly true of the graves at Nakshi Rustam. Stolze
accordingly started the theory that the royal castle of Persepolis
stood close by Nakshi Rustam, and has sunk in course of time
to shapeless heaps of earth, under which the remains may be
concealed. The vast ruins, however, of Takhti Jamshid, and
the terrace constructed with so much labour, can hardly be
anything else than the ruins of palaces; as for temples, the Per-
sians had no such thing, at least in the time of Darius and
Xerxes. Moreover, Persian tradition at a very remote period
knew of only three architectural wonders in that region, which
it attributed to the fabulous queen Humai (Khumai) — the grave
of Cyrus at Murgab, the building at Hajjlabad, and those on
the great terrace. 7 It is safest therefore to identify these last
with the royal palaces destroyed by Alexander. Cleitarchus,
who can scarcely have visited the place himself, with his usual
recklessness of statement, confounded the tombs behind the
palaces with those of Nakshi Rustam; indeed he appears to
imagine that all the royal sepulchres were at the same place.
In 316 B.C. Persepolis was still the capital of Persis as a
province of the great Macedonian Empire (see Diod. xix, 21 seq.,
46 ; probably after Hieronymus of Cardia, who was living about
316). The city must have gradually declined in the course of
time; but the ruins of the Achaemenidae remained as a witness
to its ancient glory. It is probable that the principal town of the
country, or at least of the district, was always in this neighbour-
hood. About a.d. 200 we find there the city Istakhr (properly
Stakhr) as the seat of the local governors. There the foundations
of the second great Persian Empire were laid, and Istakhr
acquired special importance as the centre of priestly wisdom and
orthodoxy. The Sassanian kings have covered the face of the
rocks in this neighbourhood, and in part even the Achaemenian
ruins, with their sculptures and inscriptions, and must themselves
have built largely here, although never on the same scale of
magnificence as their ancient predecessors. The Romans knew
as little about Istakhr as the Greeks had done about Persepolis
— and this in spite of the fact that for four hundred years the
Sassanians maintained relations, friendly or hostile, with the
empire.

At the time of the Arabian conquest Istakhr offered a desperate
resistance, but the city was still a place of considerable impor-
tance in the 1st century of Islam (see Caliphate), although its
greatness was speedily eclipsed by the new metropolis Shiraz.
In the 10th century Istakhr had become an utterly insignificant
place, as may be seen from the descriptions of Istakhr, a native
(c. 950), and of Mukaddasi (c. 985). During the following cen-
turies Istakhr gradually declines, until, as a city, it ceased to
exist. This fruitful region, however, was covered with villages
till the frightful devastations of the 18th century; and even now
it is, comparatively speaking, well cultivated. The " castle
of Istakhr " played a conspicuous part several times during the
Mahommedan period as a strong fortress. It was the middle-
most and the highest of the three steep crags which rise from the
valley of the Kur, at some distance to the west or north-west
of Nakshi Rustam. We learn from Oriental writers that one
of the Buyid (Buwaihid) sultans in the 10th century of the
Flight constructed the great cisterns, which may yet be seen,
and have been visited, amongst others, by James Morier and
E. Flandin. W. Ouseley points out that this castle was still
used in the 16th century, at least as a state prison. But when
Pietro della Valle was there in 162 1 it was already in ruins.

3 The name of this mountain too, jScunXt/cA* opoj, is identical with
Shdhkuh, which is at least tolerably well established by W. Ouseley
(ii. 417) as a synonym of Kuhi rahmet.

7 See especially Hamza Isp., 38 ;Tabari, i. 690, 816 (cf. T. Noldeke,
Geschichte der Perser . . . aus . . . Tabari, p. 8). The ruins at
Takhti Jamshid are alluded to as the work of Humai, in connexion
with an event which occurred shortly after A.D. 200.

PERSEUS-i-PERSIA

187

Bibliography. — E. Flandin and P. Coste, Voyage en Perse
(1843-1847); F. Stolze, Die Achaemenidischen und Sassanidischen
Denkmalcr und Inschriften von Persepolis, &c. (1882); G. Perrot
and C. Chipiez, Histoire de I'art dans l'antiquite,v. (1890). See also
Darius; Persia: Ancient History; and Caliphate.

(Th. N.;A. H.S.)

PERSEUS, in Greek legend, son of Danae and Zeus. When
Perseus was grown to manhood Polydectes, king of Seriphus,
cast his eye on Danae; and, in order to rid himself of the son,
exacted of him a promise that he would bring him the head
of the Gorgon Medusa. The Gorgons dwelt with their sisters
the Graeae (the grey women) by the great ocean, far away in
the west. Guided by Hermes and Athena, Perseus came to
the Graeae. They were three hags, with but one eye and one
tooth between them. Perseus stole the eye and the tooth, and
would not restore them till the Graeae had guided him to the
Nymphs, from whom he received the winged sandals, a wallet
(/ci(3i<m, resembling a gamekeeper's bag) and the helmet of
Hades, which rendered him invisible. Thus equipped and armed
by Hermes with a sharp sword like a sickle, he came upon the
Gorgons as they slept, and cut off Medusa's head, while with
averted eyes he looked at her reflection which Athena showed
him in the mirror of her shield. Perseus put the Gorgon's head
in his wallet and fled, pursued by Medusa's sisters, to Ethiopia,
where he delivered and married Andromeda (q.v.). With her he
returned to Seriphus in time to rescue his mother and Dictys
from Polydectes, whom he turned to stone with all his court
by showing them the Gorgon's head. The island itself was
turned to stone, and the very frogs of Seriphus (so ran the
proverb) were dumb (Aelian, Nat. anim. iii. 37). Perseus then
gave the head of Medusa to Athena, and, with Danae and Andro-
meda, hastened to Argos to see his grandfather, Acrisius, once
more. But before his arrival Acrisius, fearing the oracle, had
fled to Larissa in Thessaly. Thither Perseus followed him, and
at some funeral games held in honour of the king of that country
unwittingly slew his grandfather by the throw of a quoit, which
struck him on the foot. Ashamed to return to Argos, Perseus
gave his kingdom to Megapenthes (Acrisius's nephew), and
received from him Tiryns in exchange. There he reigned and
founded Mideia and Mycenae, and became the ancestor of the
Persides, amongst whom were Eurystheus and Heracles.

The legend of Perseus was localized in various places. Italy
claimed that the chest containing Danae and Perseus drifted
ashore on the Italian coast (Virgil, Aen. vii. 372, 410). The
Persian kings were said to have been descended from Perses a
son of Perseus, and, according to Pausanias of Damascus, 1 he
taught the Persians to worship fire, and founded the Magian
priesthood. His cult was transferred to the kings of Pontus,
for on coins of Amisus he is represented with the features of
Mithradates Eupator. Like Andromeda, Hesione, the daughter
of Laomedon, king of Troy, was rescued by Heracles from a sea-
monster, and both stories have been interpreted of the sun
slaying the darkness, Andromeda and Hesione being the moon,
which the darkness is about to devour. In one version of the
story of Hesione, Heracles is said to have spent three days, like
Jonah, in the belly of the beast, and it is noteworthy that the
Greek representations of Andromeda's monster were the models
for Jonah's fish in early Christian art. Its bones and Andro-
meda's chains were shown on a rock at Joppa. Perseus appears
on coins of Pontus and Cappadocia, and of Tarsus in Cilicia,
which he was said to have founded. The legend of St George
was influenced by the traditions current regarding Perseus in
Syria and Asia Minor.

For the slaying of the Medusa, see F. H. Knatz, Quomodo Persei
fabulam artifices graeci et romani tractaverint (1893) ; and, on the
whole story, E. S. Hartland, The Legend of Perseus (1894-1896).

PERSEUS, in astronomy, a constellation of the northern
hemisphere, called after the Greek legendary hero, it is mentioned
by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.);

1 Author of a history of Antioch ; he is quoted by John Malalas,
Chronographia, pp. 37-38, ed. Bonn (1831). Nothing further is
known of him (see C. W. Miiller, Fragmenta historicorum graecorum,
W. 467).

Ptolemy and Tycho Brahe catalogued 29 stars, Hevelius 46.
The most important member of this constellation is /3 Persei
or Algol {q.v.), a famous variable star. 6 Persei is a triple star,
composed of one 4th magnitude star and two of the 10th magni-
tude; p Persei is an irregular variable, with a range in magnitude
of 3-4 to 4-1. Nova Persei is a " new " star discovered in 1887
and subsequently recognized on Harvard plates by Mrs Fleming
in 1895; another new star was discovered by Anderson on the
21st of February 1901, which, after increasing in magnitude,
gradually became fainter and ultimately disappeared. There
is a nebula surrounding Nova Persei (1901) which was photo-
graphed at Yerkes observatory in September 1901; a pair of
star clusters, appearing as a bright patch in the Milky Way;
and the meteoric swarm named the Perseids, which appear in
August and have their radiant in Perseus. (See Meteor.)

PERSEUS OF MACEDONIA (b. c. 212 B.C.), the last king of
Macedonia, eldest son of Philip V. He had his brother
Demetrius killed, and thus cleared his way to the throne in 179.
War broke out with Rome in 171 B.C. when P. Licinius Crassus
was sent to attack him. Perseus defeated Crassus at Callinicus
in Thessaly, but in 168 he was annihilated at Pydna by L.
Aemilius Paulus. He was led in triumph through Rome, and
died in captivity at Alba Fucens. (See Macedonia,)

PERSHORE, a market town in the Evesham parliamentary
division of Worcestershire, England, 113 m. W.N.W.of London
and 7 S.E. of Worcester by the Great Western railway. Pop.
(1901), 3348. The station is i\ m. from the town. Market
gardening and fruit-growing (especially plums) are carried on
and agricultural implements are manufactured. The churches
of the two parishes of Holy Cross and St Andrew face one another
across a road. Holy Cross is a remnant of a mitred abbey of
Benedictines, said to have been founded about 970 by King
Edgar, on the site of a Mercian religious settlement. There
remain only the fine Early English choir, with Decorated addi-
tions, the Norman south transept and the majestic Decorated,
tower; while slight fragments of a Norman nave are seen.

PERSIA, a kingdom of western Asia, bounded on the N. by
the Caspian Sea and the Russian Transcaucasian and Trans-
caspian territories, on the E. by Afghanistan and Baluchistan,
on the S. by the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf, and on the
W. by Turkish territory. Long before the Christian era the
satrapies of Darius comprehended roughly an immense range
of territory, from the Mediterranean to the Indus and from the
Caucasian chain and Jaxartes to the Persian Gulf and Arabian
Ocean. In the 17th and 18th centuries a.d. the conquests of
'Abbas and Nadir kept up these boundaries more or less on the
east, but failed to secure them on the west, and were limited to
the Caucasus and Oxus on the north. Persia of the present day
is not only, in the matter of geographical definition, far from the
vast empire of Sacred Writ and remote history, but it is not
even the less extensive dominion of the Safawi kings and Nadir
Shah. It may be said, however, to comprise now quite as much
settled and consolidated territory as at any period of its political
existence of which we can speak with authority.

Boundaries. — The region of Ararat presents a good starting
point for the definition of the western and northern frontiers
of Persia. A line 20 m. in length from a point
on the river Aras, in 39 45' N. and 44 40' E. to Frontier.
Mt Ararat, in the south-westerly direction, divides
Persia from Russia. Southwards from Mt Ararat the Perso-
Turkish frontier extends about 700 m. to the mouth of the
Shatt el Arab in the Persian Gulf in 30° N. and 48 40' E.,
but is undefined with the exception of the western boundary of
the little district of Kotur. A mixed commission was appointed
in 1843 for the settlement of the Perso-Turkish frontier. The
labours of this commission resulted in the Erzerum treaty of
1847, by which both powers abandoned some lands and agreed
to appoint commissioners to define the frontier. The com-
missioners met in 1849, 1850 and 1851 at Bagdad and Muhamrah
without arriving at any result. In 1851 Lord Palmerston
proposed that the general line of frontier should be traced by the
agents of Turkey and Persia at Constantinople, assisted by the

i88

PERSIA

[BOUNDARIES

commissioners, in conformity with the treaty of Erzerum,
leaving doubtful localities to be settled in future. The Russian
government agreed to this proposal, and the work of surveying
the country from Mt Ararat to the Persian Gulf was then
undertaken. When this was done the preparation of a map,
embracing territory 700 m. in length by 20 to 40 m. broad, was

unsettled, and disputes have frequently arisen between the
Turkish and Persian governments with regard to their respective
claims to land (Hertslet, Persian Treaties). In the autumn
of 1907 Turkish troops occupied not only "doubtful localities"
but also adjoining lands which were indisputably Persian
territory. The want of a determined line of demarcation

put in hand, and this work lasted from November 1857 till
March 1865, when the Porte was informed in May of that year
that " in the opinion of the mediating Powers, the future line
of boundary between the respective dominions of the sultan and
the shah was to be found within the limits traced on the map;
that the two Mahommedan governments should themselves
mark out the line; and that in the event of any differences
arising between them in regard to any particular locality, the
points in dispute should be referred to the decision of the govern-
ments of England and Russia." This boundary has remained

between the two countries may have political advantages, but
is inconvenient to the geographer and most unfavourable to
the cause of order and good government.

From the point on the Aras River 20 m. north-east of Mt
Ararat, the river forms the northern boundary down to 48° E.
The frontier line then runs about 35 m. in a south-
easterly direction through the Moghan steppe to plogtier.
Pilsowar on the Bulgharu River and then south with
a bend to the west to the Astara River and the port of Astara in
38° 27' N. and 48° 53' E. From Astara eastwards the boundary

PHYSICAL FEATURES]

PERSIA

189

is formed by the shore of the Caspian until it touches the Bay of
Hassan Kul north of As arabad. East of the Caspian Sea and
beginning at Has an Kuli Bay the river Atrek serves as the
frontier as far as Chat. It then extends east and south-east
to Serrakhs on the Tejen River in 36 40' N. and 6i° 20' E. The
distance from Mt Ararat to Serrakhs in a straight line is
about 930 m. The frontier from Mt Ararat to Astara was
defined by the treaty of Turkmanchai (Feb. 22, 1828), and a
convention of the 8th of July 1893. The frontier east of the
Caspian was defined by the Akhal-Khorasan Boundary Conven-
tion of the 21st of December 1881 and the frontier convention
of the 8th of July 1893.

The eastern frontier extends from Serrakhs to near Gwetter
on the Arabian Sea in 25 N. and 6i° 30' E., a distance of about

800 m. From Serrakhs to near Kuhsan the boundary
Frontier. ' s formed by the Tejen River (called Hari Rud, or

river of Herat, in its upper course); it then runs
almost due south to the border of Seistan in 31 N., and then
through Seistan follows the line fixed by Sir Frederick Gold-
smid's and Sir Henry McMahon's commissions in 1872 and
1903-1905 to Kuh i Malik Siah. From this point to the sea the
frontier separates Persian territory from British Baluchistan
and runs south-east to Kuhak and then south-west to Gwetter.
This last section was determined by Sir Frederick Goldsmid's
commission in 187 1.

The southern boundary is the coast line of the Arabian Sea
and the Persian Gulf from Gwetter to the mouth of the Shatt

el Arab, a distance of about 870 m., comprised
Frontier, between 48° 40' E. and 6i° 30' E. The islands situated

close to the northern shore of the Persian Gulf are
Persian territory; they are, from east to west, Hormuz (Ormus),
Larak, Kishm, Hengam, Furur, Kish (Kais), Hindarabi,
Shaikh-Shu'aib, Jebrin, Kharak, Kharaku (Khorgu).

Physical Geography. — Modern Persia occupies the western and
larger half of the great Iranian plateau which, rising to a height of
from 4000 to 8000 ft. between the valleys of the Indus and Tigris,
covers more than a million square miles. Taking the Kuren Dagh
or Kopet Dagh to form the northern scarp of this plateau east of
the Caspian, we find a prolongation of it in the highlands north of
the political frontier on the Aras, and even in the Caucasus itself.
On the north-west Persia is united by the highlands of Armenia to
the mountains of Asia Minor; on the north-west the Paropamisus
and Hindu Kush connect it with the Himalayas. The lines of
boundary on the western and eastern faces are to be traced amid
high ranges of mountains broken here and there by deserts and
valleys. These ranges lie for the most part north-east and south-
east, as do those in the interior, with a marked exception between
Teheran and Bujnurd, and in Baluchistan, where they lie rather
north-east and south-west, or, in the latter case, sometimes east
and west. The real lowlands are the tracts near the sea-coast
belonging to the forest-clad provinces of the Caspian in the north
and the shores of the Persian Gulf below Basra and elsewhere.
The Persians have no special names for the great ranges. Mountains
and valleys are known only by local names which frequently cover
but a few miles. Even the name Elburz, which European geo-
graphers apply to the chains and ranges that extend for a length
of over 500 m. from Azerbaijan in the west to Khorasan in the east,
stands with the Persians only for the 60 or 70 m. of mountains
north and north-east of Teheran, including the cone of Demavend.
The great central range, which extends, almost unbroken, for nearly
800 m. from Azerbaijan in the north-west to Baluchistan in the
south-east, may aptly be called the Central Range. It has many
peaks 9000 to 10,000 ft. in height, and some of its summits rise to
an elevation of 11,000 ft. and near Kerman of nearly 13,000 ft.
(Kuh-i-Jupar). The valleys and plains west of the Central Range,
as for instance those of Mahallat, Joshekan, Isfahan, Sirjan, have
an elevation of 5000 to 6500 ft.; those within the range, as Jasp,
Ardahal, So, Pariz, are about 1000 ft. higher; arid those east of it
slope from an elevation of 5000 to 6000 ft. down to the depressions of
the central plateau which, east of Kum, are not more than 2600 ft.
and east of Kerman 1500 to 1700 ft. above the sea-level. Some
of the ranges west of the Central Range, which form the highlands
of Kurdistan, Luristan, Bakhtiari and Fars, and are parallel to
it, end near the Persian Gulf ; others follow the Central Range, and
take a direction to the east at some point between Kerman and the
sea on the western frontier of Baluchistan. Some of these western
ranges rise to considerable elevations; those forming the Turko-
Persian frontier west of the lake of Urmia have peaks 11,000 ft.
in height, while the Sahand, east of the lake and south of Tabriz,
has an elevation of 12,000 ft. Farther south, the Takht-i-Bilkis,
in the Afshar district, rises to 11,200 ft., the Elvend (ancient

Orontes), near Hamadan, to 11,600. The Shuturun Kuh, south of
Burujird, is over 11,000 ft. in height, the Shahan Kuh, Kuh-i-
Gerra, Zardeh Kuh and Kuh-i-Karan (by some writers called
Kuh-i-Rang), all in the Bakhtiari country west of Isfahan, are
12,800 to 13,000 ft. in height; and the Kuh-i-Dina (by some writers
wrongly called Kuh-i-Dinar) has an elevation of over 14,000 ft.
Still farther south, towards Kerman, there are several peaks (Bid-
Khan, Lalehzar, Shah-Kuh, Jamal Bariz, &c.) which rise to an eleva-
tion of 13,000 ft. or more, and the Kuh-i-Hazar, south of Kerman,
is 14,700 ft. in height. Beginning near Ardebil in Azerbaijan,
where the cone of Savelan rises to an elevation of 15,792 ft. (Russian
trigonometrical survey), and ending in Khorasan, the great Elburz
range presents on its southern, or inward, face a more or less abrupt
scarp rising above immense gravel slopes, and reaches in some of
its summits a height of nearly 13,000 ft. ; and the peak of Demavend,
north-west of Teheran, has a height of at least 18,000 ft. There
are several important ranges in Khorasan, and one of them, the
Binalud, west of Meshed and north of Nishapur, has several peaks
of 11,000 to 12,000 ft. in height. In south-eastern Persia the Kuh-
i-Basman, a dormant volcano, 11,000 to 12,000 ft. in height, in the
Basman district, and the Kuh-i-Taftan, i.e. the hot or burning
mountain (also called Kuh-i-Nushadar from the " sal ammoniac,"
nushadar, found on its slopes), an active triple-peaked volcano in
the Sarhad district and 12,681 ft. in height (Captain Jennings), are
notable features.

Taking the area of Persia at 628,000 sq. m. the drainage may
thus be distributed: (1) into the Arabian Sea and Persian Gulf,
135,000 sq. m.; (2) into the Caspian, 100,000; (3) into _.
the Seistan depression, 43,000; (4) into the Urmia vera *

Lake, 20,000; (5) into the interior of Persia, 330,000. The first
district comprises most of the south-western provinces and the
whole of the coast region as far east as Gwetter; the second relates
to the tracts west, south and east of the southern part of the Caspian
Sea. The tracts south of the Caspian are not more than 20 to 50 m.
wide; those on the west widen out to a depth of 250 m., meeting
the watershed of the Tigris on the one side and that of the Euphrates
and Lake Van on the other, and embracing between the two the
basin of Lake Urmia. On the east the watershed of the Caspian
gradually increases in breadth, the foot of the scarp extending
considerably to the north of the south-eastern angle of that sea,
three degrees east of which it turns to the south-east, parallel to
the axis of the Kopet Dagh. The third drainage area comprises
Persian Seistan with part of the Helmund (Hilmend) basin and a
considerable tract adjoining it on the west. The fourth is a com-
paratively small area on the western frontier containing the basin
of Lake Urmia, shut off from the rest of the inland drainage, and
the fifth area takes in a part of Baluchistan, most of Kerman,
a part of Fars, all Yezd, Isfahan, Kashan, Kum, Irak, Khamseh,
Kazvin, Teheran, Samnan, Damghan, Shahrud, Khorasan and the
central desert regions.

Four rivers belonging essentially to Persia, in reference to the
Caspian watershed, are the Seafid Rud or Kizil Uzain on the south-
west, the Herhaz on the south and the Gurgan and Atrek at the
south-eastern corner of that inland sea. The Seafid Rud rises
in Persian Kurdistan in about 35° 50' N. and 46° 45' E., a few
miles from Senendij. It has a very tortuous course of nearly
500 m., for the distance from its source to the Caspian, 57 m. east
of Resht, is only 210 m. in a straight line. The Kizil Uzain takes
up some important affluents and is called Seafid Rud from the point
where it breaks through the Elburz to the sea, a distance of 70 m.
It drains 25,000 to 30,000 sq. m. of the country. The Herhaz,
though not important in length of course or drainage, also, like the
Seafid Rud, breaks through the Elburz range from the inner southern
scarp to the north. It rises on the slopes of the Kasil Kuh, a peak
12,000 ft. in height within the Elburz, and about 25 m. north of
Teheran, flows easterly through the Lar plateau, where it is known
as the Lar River, and takes up several affluents; turns to the north-
east at the foot of Demavend, leaving that mountain to the
left, and flows due north past Amol to the Caspian. Its length is
about 120 m. The Gurgan rises on the Armutlu plateau in Khorasan
east of Astarabad, and enters the Caspian in 37 4' N., north-
west of Astarabad, after a course of about 200 m. The Atrek
rises a few miles from Kuchan and enters the Caspian at the Bay
of Hassan Kuli in 37 ° 21' N., after a course of about 300 m.
From the sea to the Russian frontier post of Chat the river forms
the frontier between Persia and the Russian Transcaspian region.

The drainage of the rivers which have no outlet to the sea and
form inland lakes and swamps (kavir) may be estimated at 350,000
sq. m., including the drainage of Lake Urmia; which is about
20,000 sq. m. Fourteen rivers flow into the lake: the Aji Chai,
Safi Chai, Murdi Chai and Jaghatu from the east, the Tatau (Tatava)
from the south, and nine smaller rivers from the west. During
heavy rains and when the snows on the hills melt, thousands of
streams flow from all directions into the innumerable depressions
of inner Persia, or help to swell the perennial rivers which have no
outlet to the sea. These latter are few in number, and some of
them barely suffice for purposes of agricultural irrigation, and in
summer dwindle down to small rills. The perennial streams
which help to form the kavirs (salt swamps) east of Kum and
Kashan are the Hableh-rud, rising east of Demavend, the Jajrud,

igo

PERSIA

[PHYSICAL FEATURES

rising north of Teheran, the Kend and Kerej rivers, rising north-
west of Teheran, the Shureh-rud (also called Abhar-rud), rising
near Sultanieh on the road between Kazvin and Tabriz, and the
Kara-su, which rises near Hamadan and is joined by the Zarin-
rud (also known as Do-ab), the Reza Chai (also called Mazdakan-
rud), the Jehrud River and the Kum-rud. The river of Isfahan,
Zendeh-rud, i.e. " the great river " (from Persian zendeh [Pehlevi,
zendek], great), but now generally known as Zayendeh-rud, i.e.
" the life-giving river," flows into the Gavkhani or Gavkhaneh
swamp, east of Isfahan. In Fars the Kur with its affluents forms
the lake of Bakhtegan (also known as Lake of Niriz), and in its
lower course, is generally called Bandamir (made famous by
Thomas Moore) from the band (dam) constructed by the Amir
(prince) Asad-ed-dowleh in the loth century. (" Note on the
Kur River in Fars," Proc. Royal Geog. Soc, London, 1891.) The
rivers flowing into the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea diminish in
importance from west to east. There are first the Diyala and
Kerkheh flowing into the Tigris from the hills of Kurdistan ; the
Ab i Diz and Karun which unite below Shushter, and reach the Shatt
el Arab at Muhamrah; and the Jarahi and Tab, which with the
Karun form " the delta of Persian Arabistan, the most extensive
and fertile plain in Persia." There are many streams which though
fordable at most seasons (some of them are often quite dry) are
unfordable during the rains. Two of these may be mentioned
here, viz. the Mand and the Minab, which St John Qoc. cit. p. 9)
considered as being " of far more importance than the maps would
lead the observer to suppose." The former, after a run of over
300 m. from its sources in the hills west of Shiraz, debouches at
Khor-i-Ziaret about 60 m. south of Bushire. It is mentioned by
the old Arab and Persian geographers as the Sitakan (in some MSS.
misspelt Sakkan), and is the Sitakos of Atrian and the Sitioganus
of Pliny. In its upper course it is now known as the Kara-aghach
(Wych-elm) River (cf. " Notes on the River Mand in Southern
Persia," Royal Geog. Soc, London, December 1883). The Minab
has two outlets into the Persian Gulf, one the Khor-i-Minab, a
salt-water creek into which the river overflows during the rains,
about 30 m. east of Bander Abbasi, the other the true Minab, at
Khagun, some miles south of the creek. It rises in the hills about
100 m. north of Bander Abbasi, and has a considerable drainage.
Its bed near the town of Minab (15 m. from the coast) is nearly
a mile in width, and during the rains the water covers the whole
bed, rendering it quite unfordable. During ordinary weather,
in March 1884, the water flowing past the town was 100 yds. in
width and 2 ft. deep (Preece, Proc. Royal Geog. Soc, January 1885).
In ordinary seasons very little water of the river runs into its original
bed, being diverted into canals, &c. The creek, the Anamis of
Nearchus, is navigable nearly all through the year as far as
Shahbander, the custom-house, about 7 m. inland, for vessels of
20 tons burden.

" The great desert region of Persia," writes Le Strange {Lands
of the Eastern Caliphate, 1905), " stretches right across the high
_ . plateau of Irftn going from north-west to south-east,

5e " and dividing the fertile provinces of the land into two
groups; for the desert is continuous from the southern base of the
Elburz mountains, that to the north overlook the Caspian, to the
arid ranges of Makran, which border the Persian Gulf. Thus it
measures nearly 800 m. in length, but the breadth varies consider-
ably; for in shape this immense area of drought is somewhat that
of an hour-glass with a narrow neck, measuring only some IOO m.
across, dividing Kerm&n from Seistan, while both north and south
of this the breadth expands and in places reaches to over 200 m.
At the present day the desert, as a whole, is known as the Lflt or
Dasht-i-Lfit ; the saline swamps and the dry salt area being more
particularly known as the Dasht-i-Kavir, the term Kavir being
also occasionally applied to the desert as a whole."

A three-wire telegraph line on .iron posts, completed in March
1907, passes through this region, and it is the unenviable lot of
some Englishmen stationed at Bam and Nusretabad Ispi (Isbidh
of medieval Arab geographers) on the confines of the desert regu-
larly to inspect and test it. Of the northerly Great Kavir Dr
Tietze thought that it was composed of a complex of isolated salt
swamps separated by sand-dunes, low ridges of limestone and
gypsum, perhaps also by volcanic rocks (Jahrbuch k. k. geolog.
Keichsanstalt, Vienna, 1877). Dr Sven Hedin explored the northern
part of the Great Desert in 1906. t (A. H.-S.)

Geology. — Persia consists of a central region covered by
Quaternary deposits and bordered on the north, west and south
by a raised rim composed of older rocks. These older rocks also
form the isolated ranges which rise through the Quaternary deposits
of the central area.

In northern Persia the rocks of the elevated rim are thrown into
folds which form a curve round the southern shore of the Caspian.
The mountain ranges of Khorasan show the western portion of a
second curve of folding which is probably continued into the Hindu
Kush. In the western rim of Persia the folds run from north-west
to south-east, and in the south these foids appear to curve gradually
eastward, following the trend of the coast. The folds in the central
Persian chains run from north-west to south-east, parallel to those
of the western border. It is seldom that the old crystalline rocks,
which form the floor upon which the sedimentary strata were

deposited, are exposed to view. Gneiss, granite and crystalline
schist, however, are found in the Elburz and in some of the central
ranges; and similar rocks form a large part of the Zagros. Some
of these rocks are probably Archean, but some appear to be meta-
morphosed sedimentary deposits of later date. The oldest beds
in which fossils have yet been found belong to the Upper Devonian.
They are well developed in the Elburz range, where they attain
a thickness of some 9000 to 10,000 ft., and they have been found
also in some 01 the central ranges and in the Bakhtiari Mountains.
In the Elburz range the Devonian is succeeded by a series of lime-
stones with Productus. The greater part of the series belongs to
the Carboniferous, but the upper beds are probably of Permian
age. The limestones are followed by sandstones and shales with
occasional seams of coal. The plants which have been found in
these beds indicate a Rhaetic or Liassic age. The Middle and
Upper Jurassic form a considerable portion of the Elburz and have
yielded marine fossils belonging to several different horizons.
The Cretaceous system is very widely spread in Persia. It is one
of the most conspicuous formations in the Zagros and in the central
ranges, and probably forms a large part of the plateau, beneath
the Quaternary deposits. The most prominent member of the
series is a massive limestone containing Hippurites and belonging
to the upper division of the system. The Tertiary deposits include
nummulitic limestone (Eocene) ; a series of limestones, sandstones
and conglomerates, with marine Miocene fossils; and red marls,
clays and sandstones with rock-salt and gypsum, believed to belong
to the Upper Miocene. In the Elburz there is a considerable
deposit of palagonite tuff which appears to be of Oligocene age.
The nummulitic limestone takes part in the formation of the
mountain chains. The Miocene deposits generally lie at the foot
of the chains, or in the valleys; but occasionally they are found at
higher levels. Pliocene deposits cover a considerable area near
the coast. Both in the Elburz range and near the Baluchistan
frontier there are numerous recent volcanoes. Some of these
seem to be extinct, but several continue to emit vapours and
gases. Demavend in the Elburz and Kuh-i-Taftan on the Balu-
chistan frontier are among the best-known. (P. La.)

See W. K. Loftus, " On the Geology of Portions of the Turko-
Persian Frontier, and of the Districts adjoining," Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc. vol. xi. pp. 247-344, pi. ix. (London, 1855) ; W. T. Blanford,
Eastern Persia, vol. ii. (Zoology and Geology) (London, 1876) ; C. L.
Griesbach, Field-notes: No. 5, to accompany a Geological Sketch
Map of Afghanistan and North-Eastern Khorasan, Rec. Geol.
Surv. India, xx. 93-103 (1887), with map; A. F. Stahl, " Zur Geologie
von Persien," Peterm. Mitt., Erganzungsheft 122 (1897); J. de
Morgan, Mission scientifique en Perse, vol. iii. (completed I905, Paris).
A summary by H. Douville of the principal geological results of
de Morgan's expedition will be found in Butt. soc. geol. France,
4th series, vol. iv. pp. 539"553-

Climate. — For the rainfall on the watershed of the Persian Gulf
there are two places of observation, Bushire and Jask; at the first
it is a little in excess of that of inner Persia, while at the second it
is very much less. The rainfall on the Caspian watershed greatly
exceeds that of inner Persia ; at Astarabad and Ashurada, in the
south-eastern corner of the Caspian, it is about 50 % more ; and
at Resht and Lenkoran, in the south-western corner, it is four and
five times that of the adjoining districts across the ridges to the
south. With the exception of the Caspian watershed and that of
the Urmia basin, the country has probably in no part a yearly
rainfall exceeding 13 or 14 in., and throughout the greater part of
central and south-eastern Persia the yearly rainfall probably does
not exceed 6 in. The following mean values of the rainfall at
Teheran have been derived from observations taken by the writer
during 1892-1907:—

Mean . -

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

•April.

May.

-

June.

Total for
Year.

9-86 in.

in.
1-76

in.
1-17

in.
I-8 7

in.
1-41

in.
•5°

in.
•06

July.

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

in.
•05

in.
•05

in.
•06

in.
•32

in.
i-35

in."
1-26

Good harvests depend on the rainfall from October to April,
and on an amount of snow sufficient to cover the crops during
frosts. During normal winters in Teheran and surrounding dis-
tricts the rainfall amounts to 9 or 10 in., with 3 to 4 of snow, but
in the winter 1898-1899 it was only 5§ in., with only 1 in. of snow;
and in 1899-1900 the harvests were in consequence exceptionally
bad, and large quantities of wheat and flour had to be brought
from the provinces and even from Russia at high freights, causing
the price of bread at Teheran to rise 200 %. The first table on p. 191
shows the mean annual rainfall in inches at fifteen stations in and
near Persia.

The prevailing winds throughout Persia and the Persian Gulf
are the north-west and south-east owing partly to the position of
the Black Sea and Mediterranean and of the Arabian Sea, and partly

FAUNA AND FLORA]

PERSIA

191

to the bearing of the axes of the great mountain chains. A dry
and warm wind comes down from the snowy Elburz to Gilan in
December and January, and much resembles the fohn of the Alps
(Dr Tholozan, " Sur les vents du Nord de la Perse et sur le foehn
du Guilan," Comptes renins, Acad. d. Sciences, March 1882).

of
ions.

Station.

Lat. N.

Long.
E.

Alti-
tude.

11

Year.

Authority.

Feet.

Years.

Lenkoran

38° 46'

48° 5i'

5 -60

28J

46-82

Supan. 1

Resht . .

37° 17'

49° 35'

-50

2

56-45

British Consul. 2

Ashurada

36° 54'

53° 55'

-80

19

17-17

Supan. 1

Astarabad

36° 51'

54° 25'

-40

7

16-28

Symons. 3

Meshed .

36° 17'

59° 36'

3180

9

9-33

British Consul. 4

Quetta .

30° 11'

67° 3'

5500

19

10-09

Supan. 1

Kalat . . .

28° 53'

66° 28'

6500

•15

8-98

Maskat .

23° 29'

58° 33'

—

3

6-13

IT

Jask .

25° 39'

57° 46'

—

10

3-24

English Telegraph. 6

Bushire .

28 59'

5o° 49'

—

19

I3-36

Supan. 1

Isfahan .

32 37'

51° 40'

5370

7

5-44

English Telegraph. 6

Teheran

35° 4i'

51° 25'

45° 8^

3810

15

9-86

The writer.

Urmia (Sair).

37° 28'

6225

1

21-51

Symons. 3

Bagdad .

33° 19'

44 26'

— ■

7

io-59

Supan. 1

Merv

37° 35'

6i°5o'

700

1

6-36

Symons. 3

Observations for temperature have been taken for many years
at the stations of the Indo-European Telegraph and for a few years
at the British consulate in Meshed, and the monthly and annual
means shown in the following table have been derived from the
indications of maximum and minimum thermometers in degrees
Fahrenheit.

Frequently when the temperature in the shade at Bushire is not
more than 85 or 90 , and the great humidity of the air causes
much bodily discomfort, life is almost pleasant 12 or 20 m. inland
with a temperature of over ioo°.

Fauna. — Mr W. T. Blanford has described with great care and
minuteness the zoology of Persia. In company with
Major St John, R.E., he made a large collection of
the vertebrate fauna in a journey from Gwetter to
Teheran in 1872. Having added to this a previous
collection made by the same officer with the assist-
ance of a native from Calcutta, he had before him
the principal materials for his work. Before com-
mencing his analysis he adverted to his prede-
cessors in the same field, i.e. Gmelin (whose travels
were published in 1774-1784), Olivier (1807), Pallas
(1811), Menetries (1832), Belanger (1834), Eichwald
(i834-i84i),AucherEloy (1851), Loftus, Count Key-
serling, Kokschy, Chesney, the Hon. C. Murray, De
Filippi (1865), Hume (1873), and Professor Strauch
of St Petersburg. All of these had, more or less,
contributed something to the knowledge of the
subject, whether as writers or as collectors, or in
both capacities, and to all the due meed of credit was
assigned. Blanford divided Persia into five zoological
provinces: (1) the Persian plateau, or from the Kopet
Dagh southwards to nearly 28° N. lat., including all
Khorasan to the Perso- Afghan border, its western
limit being indicated by a long line to the north-
west from near Shiraz, taking in the whole upper
country to the Russian frontier and the Elburz ; (2) the
provinces south and south-west of the Caspian;
a narrow strip of wooded country south-west of the Zagros
range, from the Diyala River in Turkey in Asia to Shiraz; (4)
the Persian side of the Shatt-el-Arab, and Aralictan, east of
the Tigris; and (5) the shores of the Persian Gulf and Baluchistan.
The fauna of the Persian plateau he described as " Palaearctic,
with a great prevalence of desert forms ; or, perhaps more correctly,

(3)

•ft"°

«T3

e s

Station.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

April.

May.

June.

July-

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Year.

en OJ

OS
O

eren
twee
rente

«•§

Diff

be

Ext

Meshed

32

34

49

59

68

76

78

70

67

55

48

40

56-3

91

15

76

Teheran

38

38

48

51

71

81

84

81

73

64

53

43

60-4

in

3

108

Tabriz 6

17

25

39

54

6.3

74

79

81

73

62

48

34

54-1

99

-18

117

I Kasha n 7

35

36

43

60

74

83

90

«5

77

68

53

42

62-2

113

9

104

Isfahan

58-o

106

- 3

109

Abadeh 8

41

41

47

56

68

75

79

75

7i

59

55

46

59-5

96

14

82

Dehbid »

27

30

38

45

57

6.S

69

65

61

52

43

36

49-0

91

-19

no

Shiraz u

48

47

55

6.3

73

80

85

81

76

67

55

49

65-0

"3

21

92

Kazerun u

51

50

52

67

84

93

95

94

87

79

70

56

73-2

no

36

74

Borazjuan u

55

57

66

80

94

97

100

99

92

«3

72

64

8o-o

117

48

69

Bushire

,

5«

60

65

74

82

86

90

90

87

80

71

62

75-4

109

41

68

Very few hygrometrical observations have been taken, and
only those of the British residency at Bushire are more or less
trustworthy, and have been regularly registered for a number of
years. In inner Persia the air is exceptionally dry, and in many
districts polished steel may be exposed in the open during a great
part of the year without becoming tarnished. Along the shores
of the Caspian, particularly in Gilan and Mazandaran, and of the
Persian Gulf from the mouth of the Shatt el Arab down to Bander
Abbasi, the air during a great part of the year contains much
moisture — dry- and wet-bulb thermometers at times indicating the
same temperature — and at nights there are heavy falls of dew. In
Gilan and Mazandaran the air contains much moisture up to con-
siderable elevations and as far as 30 to 40 m. away from the sea;
but along the Persian Gulf, where vegetation is very scanty, stations
only a few miles away from the coast and not more than 20 or
30 ft. above the sea-level have a comparatively dry climate.

1 Dr A. Supan, " Die Vertheilung des Niederschlag's auf der
festen Erdoberflache," Pet. Mitt., Suppl. 124 (1898).

2 Consular report (Gilan, 1897).

3 Symons's Monthly Meteorological Mag. (Dec. 1893).
* 1 899-1907.

6 Observations taken at the telegraph stations, and kindly
communicated by Mr R. C. Barker, C.I.E., director of the Indo-
European Telegraph Department in Persia. Those for Isfahan
are during the years 1900-1907.

6 38° 5' N. ; 46 18' E. ; altitude 4423 ft.

'34" ., ;5i°2 7 '„ ;

3190

8 31 18' „ 152° 38',, ;

6200

9 30° 37' .. ; 53° 10' „ ;

, 8000

10 29° 37' .. ; 52° 32' „ ;

5000

11 29° 37' .. .51° 43'.. ;

, 2800

"29" 15' „ -,5i° 3 '„ ;

, 100

as being of the desert type with Palaearctic species in the more
fertile regions." In the Caspian provinces he found the fauna,
on the whole, Palaearctic also, " most of the animals being identical
with those of south-eastern Europe." But some were essentially
indigenous, and he observed " a singular character given to the
fauna by the presence of certain Eastern forms, unknown in other
parts of Persia, such as the tiger, a remarkable deer of the Indo-
Malayan group, allied to Cervus axis, and a pit viper (Halys)."
Including the oak-forests of Shiraz with the wooded slopes of the
Zagros, he found in his third division that, however little known
was the tract, it appeared to contain, like the second, " a Palaearctic
fauna with a few peculiar species." As to Persian Mesopotamia,
he considered its fauna to belong to the same Palaearctic region
as Syria, but could scarcely speak with confidence on its character-
istic forms. The fifth and last division, Baluchistan and the shores
of the Persian Gulf, presented, however, in the animals common to
the Persian highland " for the most part desert types, whilst the
characteristic Palaearctic species almost entirely disappear, their
place being taken by Indian or Indo-African forms." The Persian
Gulf Arab, though not equal to the pure Arabian, is a very service-
able animal, and has always a value in the Indian market. Among
others the wandering Turkish tribes in Fars have the credit of
possessing good steeds. The Turkoman horse of Khorasan and the
Atak is a large, bony and clumsy-looking quadruped, with marvel-
lous power and endurance. Colonel C. E. Stewart stated that the
Khorasan camel is celebrated for its size and strength, that it has
very long hair, and bears cold and exposure far better than the
ordinary Arabian or Persian camel, and that, while the ordinary
Persian camel only carries a load of some 320 lb and an Indian
camel one of some 400 lb, the Khorasan camel will carry from 600
to 700 lb. The best animals, he notes, are a cross between the
Bactrian or two-humped and the Arabian or one-humped camel.
Sheep, goats, dogs and cats are good of their kind; but not all the
last are the beautiful creatures which, bearing the name of the

192

PERSIA

[POPULATION

country, have arrived at such distinction in Europe. _ Nor are
these to be obtained, as supposed, at Angora in Asia Minor. Van
or Isfahan is a more likely habitat. The cat at the first place,
called by the Turks " Van kedisi," has a certain local reputation.
Among the wild animals are the lion, tiger, leopard, lynx, brown
bear, hyena, hog, badger, porcupine, pole-cat, weasel, marten,
wolf, jackal, fox, hare, wild ass, wild sheep, wild cat, mountain-
goat, gazelle and deer. The tiger is peculiar to the Caspian pro-
vinces. Lovett says they are plentiful in Astrabad; he measured
two specimens, one 10 ft. 8 in., the other 8 ft. 10 in. from the tip
of the nose to the end of the tail. Lynxes and bears were to be
found in the same vicinity, and the wild pig was both numerous
and destructive.

According to Blanford there are about four hundred known
species of birds in Persia. The game birds have admirable repre-
sentatives in the pheasant, " karkavul " (Phasianus colchicus, L.) ;
snowcock or royal partridge, " kebk-i-dari " [Tetraogallus Caspius,
Gmel.); black partridge, " durraj " (Francolinus vulgaris, Steph.);
red-legged partridge, " kebk " (Caccabis chukar, Gray) ; sand-
partridge or seesee, " tihu " (Ammoperdix bonhami, Gray) ; Indian
grey partridge, " jirufti " {Ortygornis ponticerianus , Gmel.); quail,
belderjin " (Coturnix communis, Bonn.); sandgrouse, " siyah-
sineh " (Pterocles arenarius, Pall.); bustard, " hubareh " {Otis
tetrax, L. and O. McQueenii, Gray); woodcock, snipe, pigeon,
many kinds of goose, duck, &c. The flamingo comes up from
the south as far north as the neighbourhood of Teheran ; the stork
abounds. Poultry is good and plentiful. A large kind of fowl
known as " Lari '' (from the province Lar, in southern Persia) is
said to be a descendant of fowls brought to Persia by the Portu-
guese in the 16th century.

The fish principally caught along the southern shore of the
Caspian are the sturgeon, " sagmahi," dogfish (Acipenser ruthenus
and A. huso); sheat-fish or silure, " simm," " summ " (Silurus
glanis); salmon, " azad mahi " (Salmo salar); trout, " maseh "
(Salmo trutla); carp, " kupur " (Cyprinus ballerus and C. carpio);
Dream," subulu " (Abramis brama) ; pike-perch, " mahi safid" (Perca
lucioperca or Lucioperca sandra). There is also a herring which
frequents only the southern half of the Caspian, not passing over
the shallow part of the sea which extends from Baku eastwards.
As it was first observed near the mouth of the river Kur it has been
named Clupea Kurensis. Fish are scarce in inner Persia; salmon
trout and mud-trout are plentiful in some of the mountain streams.
Many underground canals are frequented by carp and roach. The
silure has also been observed in some streams which flow into the
Urmia lake, and in Kurdistan.

Flora. — In the provinces of Gilan, Mazandaran and Astarabad on
the Caspian, from the shore to an altitude of about 3000 ft. on the
northern slopes of the great mountain range which separates those
provinces from the highlands of Persia, the flora is similar to that
of Grisebach's " mediterranean region." At higher altitudes many
forms of a more northern flora appear. As we approach inner
Persia the flora rapidly makes place to " steppe vegetation " in
the plains, while the mediterranean flora predominates in the hills.
The steppe vegetation extends in the south to the outer range of
the hills which separate inner- Persia from the Persian Gulf and the
Indian Ocean. Beyond this outer range and along the shore of
the sea the flora is that of the " Sahara region," which extends
eastwards to Sind.

Generally speaking, everywhere, excepting in the northern
lowlands and in a few favoured spots in the hilly districts, the vege-
tation is scanty. In inner Persia the hills and plains are bare of
trees, and steppe and desert predominate. The date-palm thrives
well as far north as Tabbas in latitude 33° 36' and at an altitude
of 2000 ft. and in the south extensive date-groves, producing ex-
cellent fruit, exist at altitudes of 2000 to 5000 ft. The olive is
cultivated at Rudbar south of Resht in Gilan, and a few isolated
olive-trees have been observed in central and southern Persia.

Of fruits the variety is great, and nearly all the fruits of Europe
are well represented. The common, yet excellent melons, water-
melons, grapes, apricots, cherries, plums, apples, are within the
reach of the poorest. Less common and picked fruits are expensive,
particularly so when cost of transport has to be considered; for
instance, a good orange costs 2d. or 3d. in Teheran, while in Mazan-
daran (only 100 m. distant), whence the oranges are brought, it
costs Jd. Some fruits are famous and vie in excellence with any
that European orchards produce; such are the peaches of Tabriz
and Meshed, the sugar melons of Kashan and Isfahan, the apples
of Demavend, pears of Natanz, figs of Kermanshah, &c. The
strawberry was brought to Persia about 1859, and is much culti-
vated in the gardens of Teheran and neighbourhood ; the raspberry
was introduced at about the same time, but is not much appreci-
ated. Currants and gooseberries are now also grown. The common
vegetables also are plentiful and cheap, but only a few, such as
the broad-bean, egg-plant (Solatium melongena), onion, carrot,
beetroot, black turnip, are appreciated by the natives, who gener-
ally do not take kindly to newly-introduced varieties. The potato,
although successfully cultivated in Persia since about 1780, has not
yet found favour, and the same may be said of the tomato, asparagus,
celery arid others. Flowers are abundant, but it is only since
the beginning of Nasr ed din Shah's reign (1848), when European

gardeners were employed in Persia, that they were rationally
cultivated. Nearly all the European garden flowers, even the
rarer ones, can now be seen not only in the parks and gardens of
the rich and well-to-do but in many unpretentious courtyards
with only a few square yards of surface.

Population. — In 1881 the present writer estimated the popula-
tion of Persia at 7,653,600; 1,963,800 urban, 3,780,000 rural and
1,909,800 wandering (" Bevolkerung der Erde," p. 28; Ency. Brit.
9th ed. p. 628) ; and, allowing for an increase of about 1 %
per annum the population for 1910 may be estimated at 10
millions. No statistics whatever being kept, nothing precise
is known of the movement of the population. During the ninth
decade of the 19th century many Persian subjects emigrated,
and many Persian villages were deserted and fell to ruins ; since
then a small immigration has set in and new villages have been
founded. Persians say that the females exceed the males by
10 to 20%, but wherever the present writer has been able
to obtain trustworthy information he found the excess to be
less than 2%. Of 'the deaths in any place the only check
obtainable is from the public body-washers, but many corpses
are buried without the aid of the public body- washers ; and the
population of the place not being accurately known, the number
of deaths, however correct, is useless for statistical purposes.
Medical men have stated that the number of deaths, in times
when there are no epidemics, amounts to 19 or 20 per thousand,
and the number of births to 25 to 40 per thousand.

The prices of the staple articles of food and all necessaries of
life have risen considerably since 1880, and, particularly in the
large cities, are now very high. As salaries and wages have not
increased at the same rate, many of the upper classes and officials
are not so well off as formerly. By dismissing their servants in
order to reduce expenditure, they have thrown great numbers of
men out of employment, while many labourers and workmen are
living very poorly and often suffer want. Tradesmen are less
affected, because they can sell the articles which they manufacture
at values which are more in proportion with the increased prices
of food. In 1880 a labourer earning 25 krans, or £l sterling a
month, could afford to keep a family; by 1908, in krans, he earned
double what he did in 1880, but his wage, expressed in sterling, was
the same, and wherever the prices of food have risen more than his
wages he could not afford to keep a family. In many districts
and cities the number of births is therefore reduced, while at the
same time the mortality, in consequence of bad and often insufficient
food, is considerably increased.

The description of the Persian character by C. J. Wills, in his
In the Land of the Lion and Sun (1883), is still worth quoting: —

" The character of the Persian is that of an easy-going man with
a wish to make things pleasant generally. He is hospitable,
obliging, and specially well disposed to the foreigner. His home
virtues are many: he is very kind and indulgent to his children
and, as a son, his respect for both parents is excessive, developed
in a greater degree to his father, in whose presence he will rarely
sit, and whom he is in the habit of addressing and speaking of as
' master.' The full stream of his love and reverence is reserved for
his mother; he never leaves her to starve, and her wishes are laws
to. him. The mother is always the most important member of the
household, and the grandmother is treated with veneration. The

fjresence of the mother-in-law is coveted by their sons-in-law, who
00k on them as the guardians of the virtue of their wives. The
paternal uncle is a much nearer tie than with us; while men look
on their first cousins on the father's side as their most natural
wives.

" Black slaves and men-nurses or ' lallahs ' are much respected;
the ' dayah ' or wet nurse is looked on as a second mother and
usually provided for for life. Persians are very kind to their
servants; a master will often be addressed by his servant as his
father, and the servant will protect his master's property as he
would his own. A servant is invariably spoken to as ' bacha '
(child). The servants expect that their master will never allow
them to be wronged. The slaves in Persia have a good time ; well
fed, well clothed, treated as spoiled children, given the lightest
work, and often given in marriage to a favourite son or taken as
' segah ' or concubine by the master himself, slaves have the cer-
tainty of a well-cared-for old age. They are looked on as con-
fidential servants, are entrusted with large sums of money, and the
conduct of the most important affairs; and seldom abuse their
trust. The greatest punishment to an untrustworthy slave is to
give him his liberty and let him earn his living. They vary in
colour and value : the ' Habashi ' or Abyssinian is the most valued ;
the Suhali or Somali, next in blackness, is next in price; the Bom-
bassi, or coal-black negro of the interior, being of much less price,
and usually only used as a cook. The prices of slaves in Shiraz
are, a good Habashi girl of twelve to fourteen £40, a good Somali

COSTUME)

PERSIA

r 93

same age, half as much ; while a Bombassi is to be got for £14, being
chosen merely for physical strength. They are never sold, save on
importation, though at times they are given away. ... I have
never seen a Persian unkind to his own horse or his slave, and when
overtaken by poverty he will first sell his shirt, then his slave.

" In commercial morality, a Persian merchant will compare not
unfavourably with the European generally. ... To the poor,
Persians are unostentatiously generous; most of the rich have
regular pensioners, old servants, or poor relations who live on their
bounty ; and though there are no workhouses, there are in ordinary
times no deaths from starvation; and charity, though not organized,
is general. . . . Procrastination is the attribute of all Persians,
' to-morrow ' being ever the answer to any proposition, and the
' to-morrow ' means indefinite delay. A great dislike is shown
generally to a written contract binding the parties to a fixed date;
and, as a rule, on breaking it the Persian always appeals for and
expects delay and indefinite days of grace. . . .

" Persians are clean in their persons, washing themselves and
their garments frequently. The Persian always makes the best of
his appearance; he is very neat in his dress, and is particular as
to the sit of his hat and the cut of his coat. All Persians are fond
of animals, and do not treat them badly when their own property.
" Cruelty is not a Persian vice; torture and punishments of an
unusual and painful nature being part of their judicial system.
There are no vindictive punishments, such as a solitary confinement,
penal servitude for long terms of years, &c. Seldom, indeed, is
a man imprisoned more than twelve months, the rule being that
there is a general jail delivery at the New Year. Royal clemency
is frequently shown, often, perhaps, with want of judgment."

Costume. — The costume of the Persians may be shortly described
as fitted to their active habits. The men invariably, wear an un-
starched shirt of cotton, sewn with white silk, ofteni particularly
in the south of Persia, elaborately embroidered about the neck.
It fastens in front by a flap, having two small buttons or knots at
the left shoulder, and seldom comes below the hips. It has no
collar, and the sleeves are loose. The lower orders often have it
dyed blue ; but the servant and upper classes always prefer a white
shirt. Silk shirts are now seldom seen on men. Among the very
religious during the mourning month (" Muharram ") the shirt is
at times dyed black. The " zir-jamah," or trousers, 1 are of cloth
among the higher classes, particularly those of the military order,
who affect a garment of a tightness approaching that worn by
Europeans. The ordinary " zir-jamah " are of white, blue or red
cotton, very loose, and are exactly similar to the pyjamas worn
by Europeans in India. They are held up by a thin cord of red or
green silk or cotton round the waist, and the labouring classes,
when engaged in heavy or dirty work, or when running, generally
tuck the end of these garments under the cord, which leaves their
legs bare and free to the middle of the thigh. The amplitude of
this part of his attire enables the Persian to sit without discomfort
on his heels; chairs are only used by the rich, great or Europeanized.
Over the shirt and " zir-jamah " comes the " arkhalik," generally
of quilted chintz or print, a closely-fitting garment, collarless, with
tight sleeves to the elbow, whence, to the wrist, are a number
of little metal buttons, fastened in winter, but not in summer.
Above this is the " kamarchin," a tunic of coloured calico, cloth,
Kashmir or Kerman shawl, silk, satin or velvet (gold embroidered,
or otherwise), according to the time of the year and the purse and
position of the wearer. This, like the " arkhalik," is open in front,
and shows the shirt. It sometimes has a small standing collar,
and is double-breasted. It has a pocket-hole on either side, giving
access to the pockets, which are always in the " arkhalik," where
also is the breast-pocket in which watch, money, jewels, and seals
are kept. The length of the " kamarchin " denotes the class of
the wearer. The military and official classes and the various
servants wear it short, to the knee, while fops and sharpers wear
it even shorter. Priests, merchants, villagers, especially about
Shiraz, townsmen, shopkeepers, doctors and lawyers wear it very
long, often nearly to the heels. Over the " kamarchin " is worn
the " kulijah," or coat. This is, as a rule, cast off in summer, save
on formal occasions, and is often borne by a servant, or carried over
the shoulder by the owner. It is of cloth, shawl or camel-hair
cloth, and is lined with silk or cloth, flannel or fur. It has, like
the Turkish frockcoat, a very loose sleeve, with many plaits behind.
It has lapels, as with us, and is trimmed with gold lace, shawl or
fur, or is worn quite plain. It has a roll collar and false pockets.

Besides these garments there are others: the long " jubba," or
cloth cloak, worn by " mirzas " (secretaries), government employes
of high rank, as ministers, farmers of taxes, courtiers, physicians,
priests; the "abba," or camel-hair cloak of the Arab, worn by
travellers, priests and horsemen; the " pustin," or Afghan skin-
cloak, used by travellers and the sick or aged; the " nimtan," or
common sheepskin jacket, with short sleeves, used by shopkeepers
and the lower class of servants, grooms, &c, in winter; the " ya-
panjah," or woollen Kurdish cloak, a kind of felt, having a shaggy
side, of immense thickness, worn generally by shepherds, who use
it as greatcoat, bed and bedding. There is also the felt coat of the

1 Zir jamah are loose trousers and also drawers worn under the
shaivar, or tight trousers.

xxi. 7

villager, very warm and inexpensive, the cost being from 5 to 15
krans (a kran = iod.). The " kamarband," or girdle, is also charac-
teristic of class. It is made of muslin, shawl or cotton cloth among
the priests, merchants, bazaar people, the secretary class and the
more aged government employes. In it are carried, by literati and
merchants, the pen-case and a roll of paper; its voluminous folds
are used as pockets; by the bazaar people and villagers, porters
and merchants' servants, a small sheath knife is struck in it ; while
by " farrashes," the carpet-spreader class, a large " khanjar," or
curved dagger, with a heavy ivory handle, is carried. The headgear
is very distinctive. The turban worn by priests is generally white,
consisting of many yards of muslin. When the wearers are " saiyid "
of the Prophet, a green 2 turban is worn, also a " kamarband " of
green muslin, or shawl or cotton cloth. Merchants generally wear
a turban of muslin embroidered in colours, or of a yellow pattern
on straw-coloured muslin, or of calico, or shawl. The distinctive
mark of the courtier, military, and upper servant class is the belt,
generally of black varnished leather with a brass clasp; princes and
courtiers often replace this clasp by a huge round ornament of cut
stones. The " kulah," or hat, is of cloth or sheepskin on a frame
of pasteboard. The fashions in hats change yearly. The Isfahan
merchant and the Armenian at times wear the hat very tall. (The
waist of the Persian is generally small, and he is very proud of
his fine figure and broad shoulders.)

The hair is generally shaved at the crown, or the entire head is
shaved, a " kakul," or long thin lock, being sometimes left, often
2 ft. long, from the middle of the crown. This is to enable the
prophet Mahomet to draw up the believer into paradise. The
lower orders generally, have the hair over the temporal bone long,
and brought in two long locks turning backwards behind the ear,
termed "zulf"; the beaux and youths are constantly twisting
and combing these. The rest of the head is shaven. Long hair,
however, is going out of fashion in Persia, and the more civilized
affect the cropped hair worn by Europeans, and even have a parting
in it. The chin is never shaved, save by " beauty men," or
" kashangs," though often clipped, while the moustache is usually
left long. At forty a man generally lets his beard grow its full
length, and cherishes it much ; part of a Persian's religious exercises
is the combing of his beard. Socks, knitted principally at Isfahan,
are worn; they are only about 2 in. long in the leg. The rich,
however, wear them longer. They are of white cotton in summer
and coloured worsted in winter. Villagers only wear socks on state
occasions. Shoes are of many patterns. The " urussi," or Russian
shoe is the most common; next, the " kafsh " or slipper of various
kinds. The heel is folded down and remains so. The priests wear
a peculiar heavy shoe, with an ivory or wooden lining at the heel.
Green shoes of shagreen are common at Isfahan. Blacking is un-
known to Persians generally. Boots are only used by horsemen,
and are then worn much too large for ease. Those worn by couriers
often come up the thigh. With boots are worn " shalwars," or
baggy riding breeches, very loose, and tied by a string at the ankle ;
a sort of kilt is worn by couriers. Pocket-handkerchiefs are seldom
used, save by the rich or the Teheranis. Most Persians wear a
" shab kulah," or night hat, a loose baggy cap of shawl or quilted
material, often embroidered by the ladies.

Arms are usually carried only by tribesmen. The natives of the
south of Persia and servants carry a " kammah," or dirk. The
soldiery, on or off duty, always carry one of these or their side-
arms, sometimes both. They hack but never thrust with them.
On the road the carrying of weapons is necessary.

The costume of the women has undergone considerable change
in the last century. It is now, when carried to the extreme of
fashion, highly indecent and must be very uncomfortable. The
garment doing duty as a chemise is called a " pirahan "; it is, with
the lower orders, of white or blue calico, and comes down to the
middle of the thigh, leaving the leg nude. Among the upper classes
it is frequently of silk. At Shiraz it is often of fine cotton, and
elaborately ornamented with black embroidery. With the rich it is
often of gauze, and much embroidered with gold thread,. pearls, &c.
The head is usually covered with a " char-kadd," or large square
of embroidered silk or cotton, folded so as to display the corners,
and fastened under the chin by a brooch. It is often of consider-
able value, being of Kashmir shawl, embroidered gauze, &c. A
" jika," a jewelled feather-like ornament, is often worn at the side
of the head, while the front hair, cut to a level with the mouth, is
brought up in love-locks on either cheek. Beneath the . " char-
kadd " is generally a small kerchief of dark material, only the edge
of which is visible. The ends of the " char-kadd " cover the
shoulders, but the gauze " pirahan " is quite transparent. A pro-
fusion of jewellery is worn of the most solid description, none hollow ;
silver is worn only by the very poor, coral only by negresses. Neck-
laces and bracelets are much affected, and chains with scent -caskets
attached, while the arms are covered with clanking glass bangles
called " alangu," some twenty even of these being on one arm.
Jewelled " bazubands," containing talismans, are often worn on the
upper arm, while among the lower orders and south Persian or Arab
women nose-rings are not uncommon, and bangles or anklets of beads.

1 Green turbans are now rarely seen; the colour is generally dark
blue, or black.

1 94

PERSIA

[POLITICAL DIVISIONS

The face on important occasions is usually much painted, save
by young ladies in the heyday of beauty. The colour is very freely
applied, the cheeks being as much raddled as a clown's, and the
neck smeared with white, while the eyelashes are marked round
with " kuhl." This is supposed to be beneficial to the eyes, and
almost every woman uses it. The eyebrows are widened and
painted till they appear to meet, while sham moles or stars are
painted on the chin and cheek ; even spangles are stuck at times on
the chin and forehead. Tattooing is common among the poor and
in villages, and is seen among the upper classes. The hair, though
generally hidden by the " char-kadd," is at times exposed and
plaited into innumerable little tails of great length, while a coquettish
little skull-cap of embroidery, or shawl, or coloured silk is worn.
False hair is common. The Persian ladies' hair is very luxuriant
and never cut ; it is nearly always dyed red with henna, or with
indigo to a blue-black tinge; it is naturally a glossy black. Fair
hair is not esteemed. Blue eyes are not uncommon, but brown
ones are the rule. A full-moon face is much admired, and a dark
complexion termed " namak " (salt) is the highest native idea of
beauty. Most Persian women are small, with tiny feet and hands.
The figure is always lost after maternity, and no support of any
kind is worn.

A very short jacket, of gay colour, quite open in front, having
tight sleeves with many metal buttons, is usually worn in summer,
and a lined outer coat in cold weather. In winter a pair of very
short white cotton socks are used, and tiny slippers with a high
heel ; in summer in the house ladies go often barefoot. The rest
of the costume is composed of the " tumbun " or " shalvar," short
skirts of great width, held by a running string — the outer one being
usually of silk, velvet, or Kashmir shawl, often trimmed with gold
lace, or, among the poor, of loud-patterned chintz or print. Beneath
are innumerable other garments of the same shape, varying in
texture from silk and satin to print. The whole is very short,
among the women of fashion extending only to the thigh. In
winter an over-mantle like the " kulijah," or coat of the man, with
short sleeves, lined and trimmed with furs, is worn. Leg-coverings
are now being introduced. In ancient days the Persian ladies
always wore them, as may be seen by the pictures in the South
Kensington Museum. Then the two embroidered legs, now so
fashionable as Persian embroideries (" naksh "), occupied a girl
from childhood to marriage in making; they are all sewing in
elaborate patterns of great beauty, worked on muslin in silk. The
outdoor costume of the Persian women is quite another thing.
Enveloped in a huge blue sheet, with a yard of linen as a veil per-
forated for two inches square with minute holes, the feet thrust
into two huge bags of coloured stuff, a wife is perfectly unrecogniz-
able, even by her husband, when out of doors. The dress of all is
the same ; and, save in quality or costliness, the effect is similar.

As for the children, they are always when infants swaddled;
when they can walk they are dressed as little men and women,
and with the dress they generally ape the manners. It is a strange
custom with the Persian ladies to dress little girls as boys, and
little boys as girls, till they reach the age of seven or eight years;
this is often done for fun, or on account of some vow — oftener to
avert the evil eye.

Towns. — The principal cities of Persia with their populations
as estimated in 1908 are: Teheran (280,000); Tabriz (200,000);
Isfahan (100,000); Meshed (80,000); Kerman, Resht, Shiraz
(60,000); Barfurush, Kazvin, Yezd (50,000); Hamadan, Ker-
manshah (40,000); Kashan, Khoi, Urmia (35,000); Birjend,
Burujird, Bushire, Dizful, Kum, Senendij (Sinna), Zenjan
(25,000 to 30,000); Amol, Ardebil, Ardistan, Astarabad,
Abekuh, Bam, Bander, Abbasi, Bander Lingah, Damghan,
Dilman, Istahbanat, Jahrum, Khunsar, Kumishah, Kuchan,
Marand, Maragha, Nishapur, Sari, Sabzevar, Samnan, Shahrud,
Shushter (10,000 to 20,000).

Political' and Administrative Divisions. — The empire of Persia,
officially known as Mamalik i Mahruseh i Iran, " the protected
kingdoms of Persia," is divided into a number of provinces,
which, when large, and containing important sub-provinces
and districts, are called mamlikat, " kingdom," when smaller,
vilayat and ayalat, and are ruled by governors-general and
governors appointed by and directly responsible to the Crown.
These provinces are further divided into sub-provinces, vilayats,
districts, sub-districts and parishes, buluk, nahiyeh, mdhal, and
towns, cities, parishes and villages, shehr, kassabeh, mahalleh,
dih, which are ruled by lieutenant-governors and other function-
aries appointed by and responsible to the governors. All
governors are called hakim, or hukmran, but those of large
provinces generally have the title of vali, and sometimes firman-
firma. A governor of a small district is a zabit; a deputy-
governor is called naib el hukumeh, or naib el ayaleh ; an adminis-
trative division is a kalamro, or hukumat. Until recently the

principal governorships were conferred upon the shah's sons,
brothers, uncles and other near relatives, but now many of them
are held by men who have little if any connexion with the royal
family. Also, the governors are now, as a rule, resident in their
provinces instead of being absentees at the capital. There are
also some small districts or dependencies generally held in fief,
turyul, by princes or high functionaries who take the revenues
in lieu of salaries, pensions, allowances, &c, and either them-
selves govern or appoint others to do so.

Every town has a mayor, or chief magistrate, called beglerbegi,
" lord of lords," kalantar, " the greater," and sometimes darogha,
" overseer," or chief of police; every ward or parish, mahalleh,
of a town and every village has a head-man called ked khoda,
" house-lord." These officers are responsible to the governor
for the collection of the taxes and the orderly state of their towns,
parishes and villages. In the important provinces and sub-
provinces the governors are assisted by a man of experience, to
whom the accounts and details of the government are entrusted.
This person, called viziar, or paishhar, is often nominated by the
shah, and his functions in the provincial government are similar
to those of the grand vizir in the central government, and com-
prise very extended administrative powers, including at times
the command of the military forces in his province. Among the
nomads a different system of titles prevails, the chiefs who are
responsible for the taxes and the orderly conduct of their
tribes and clans being known as ilkhani, ilbegi (both meaning
" tribe-lord," but the latter being considered an inferior title
to the former), khan,rais, amir, mir, shaikh, tushmal, &c.

The governors and chiefs, excepting those possessing heredi-
tary rights, are frequently changed; appointments are for one
year only and are sometimes renewed, but it does not often
occur that an official holds the same government for longer than
that period, while it happens rarely that a province is governed
by the same person for two or three years. This was not so
formerly, when not infrequently an official, generally a near
relation of the shah, held the same governorship for five, ten
or even more years. The governorship of the province of
Azerbaijan was an exception until the end of 1906, being
always held by the Valiahd, " heir apparent," or crown prince.

The political divisions cf Persia, provinces, sub-provinces, dis-
tricts, &c, ruled by hakims number over 200 (cf. the statement in
Noldeke's Geschichte des Artachsir Pdpakdn, "after Alexander's
death there were in Iran 240 local governors "), but the adminis-
trative divisions, hukumat, or kalamro, with governors appointed
by the Crown and responsible to it for the revenues, have been
under fifty for sixty-five years or more. In 1840 there were twenty-
nine administrative divisions, in 1868 twenty-two, in 1875 twenty-
nine, in 1884 nineteen, in 1890 forty-six, and in 1908 thirty-five,
as follows : —

(a) Provinces: —

1. Arabistan and Bakhtiari. 14. Kamseh.

2. Astarabad and Gurgan. 15. Khar.

3. Azerbaijan. 16. Khorasan.

4. Fars. 17. Kum.

5. Gerrus. 18. Kurdistan.

6. Gilan and Talish. 19. Luristan and Burujird.

7. Hamadan. 20. Mazandaran.

8. Irak, Gulpaigan, Khunsar, 21. Nehavend, Malayir and

Kamereh, Kezzaz, Fera- Tusirkhan.

kan. ■ 22. Savah.

9. Isfahan. 23. Samnan and Damghan.
10^ Kashan. 24. Shahrud and Bostam.

11. Kazvin. 25. Teheran.

12. Kerman and Baluchistan. 26. Zerend and Bagdadi

13. Kermanshah. Shahsevens.
(b) Dependencies, or Fiefs: —

1. Asadabad. 6. Natanz.

2. Demavend. 7. Talikan.

3. Firuzkuh. 8. Tarom Ulia.

4. Josehekan. 9. Kharakan.

5. Kangaver.

Roads. — With the exception of five short roads, having an aggre-
gate length of less than 900 m., all the roads of the country are
mere mule tracks, carriageable in the plains and during the dry
season, but totally unfit for continuous wheeled traffic during all
seasons, and in the hilly districts often so difficult as to cause much
damage to goods and the animals carrying them. There are a
few miles of roads in the immediate neighbourhood of Teheran
leading from the city to royal palaces, but not of any commercial

POSTS AND TELEGRAPHS]

PERSIA

195

importance. The five exceptions are- (1) Resht-Kazvin-Teheran,
227 m.; (2) Julfa-Tabriz, 80 m.; (3) Teheran-Kum-Sultanabad,
160 m.; (4) Meshed-Kuchan-Askabad, 150 m.; 30 of which are on
Russian territory; (5) Isfahan-Ahvaz, 280 m; The first of these
roads consists of two sections: Resht-Kazvin, 135 m., and Kazvin-
Teheran, 92 m. The first section was constructed in 1897-1899
by a Russian company, in virtue of a concession which the Persian
government granted in 1893; and the second section was con-
structed in 1 878-1 879 by the Persian government at a cost of
about £20,000, ceded to the concessionnaire of the first section in
1896, and repaired and partly reconstructed by the Russian company
in 1 898- 1 899. Both sections were officially opened to traffic in
August 1899. The capital of the company is 3,200,000 roubles
(j£34 I .33°), of which 1,700,000 is in shares taken by the public, and
1,500,000 in debentures taken by the Russian government, which
also guarantees 5 % on the shares. About two-thirds of the capital
has been expended on construction. The company's income is
derived from tolls levied on vehicles and animals using the road.
These tolls were at first very high but were reduced by 15% in
1904, and by another 10% in 19O9. If all the trade between Russia
and Teheran were to pass over this road, the tolls would no doubt
pay a fair dividend on the capital, but much of it goes by way of the
Teheran-Meshed-i-Sar route, which is much shorter and has no tolls.
The second road, Julfa-Tabriz, 80 m., was constructed by the
same Russian company in 1903. The third road, Teheran-Kum-
Sultanabad, 160 m., also consists of two sections: the first, Teheran-
Kum, 92 m., the other, Kum-Sultanabad, 68 m. The first section
was constructed by the Persian government in 1883 at a cost of
about £12,000, purchased by the Imperial Bank of Persia in 1890
for £10,000, and reconstructed at a cost of about £45,000. The
second section formed part of the " Ahvaz road concession " which
was obtained by the Imperial Bank of Persia in 1890 with the
object of connecting Teheran with Ahvaz on the Karun by a direct
cart road via Sultanabad, Burujird, Khorremabad (Luristan),
Dizful and Shushter. The concession was ceded to Messrs Lynch,
of London, " The Persian Road and Transport Company," in 1903.
The fourth cart-road, Meshed-Askabad, 120 m. to the Persian
frontier, was constructed by the Persian government in 1889-1892
in accordance with art. v. of the Khorasan Boundary Convention
between Russia and Persia of December 1 881. The Persian section
cost £13,000. The fifth road, Isfahan-Ahvaz, 280 m., is the old
mule track provided with some bridges, and improved by freeing
it of boulders and stones, &c, at a totai cost of £5500. The con-
cession for this road was obtained in 1897 by the Bakhtiari chiefs and
ceded to Messrs Lynch, of London, who advanced the necessary
capital at 6% interest and later formed the Persian Road and
Transport Company. The road was opened for traffic in the
autumn of 1900. The revenue is derived from tolls levied on animals
passing with loads. The tolls collected in 1907 amounted to £3100.
Railways. — Persia possesses only 8 m. of railway and 6| m. of
tramway, both worked by a Belgian company. The railway consists
of a single line, one-metre gauge, from Teheran to Shah-abdul-Azim,
south of Teheran, and of two branch lines which connect the main
line with some limestone quarries in the hills south-east of the city.
The tramway also is a single line of one-metre gauge, and runs
through some of the principal streets of Teheran. The length
of the main railway line is 5§ m., that of the branches 2?. The
main line was opened in 1888, the branches were constructed in
1893, and the tramway started in 1889. The capital now invested
in this enterprise, and largely subscribed for by Russian capitalists,
amounts to £320,000. There are also ordinary shares to the amount
of £200,000 put down in the company's annual balance-sheets as
of no value. The general opinion is that if Russian capitalists had
not been interested in the enterprise the company would have
liquidated long ago. (On railways in Persia, the many concessions
granted by the Persian government, and only one having a result,
ch. xviii. of Lord Curzon's Persia [i. 613-639], and on the Belgian
enterprise, Lorini's La Persia economica [pp. 157-158] may be
consulted.)

Posts. — Down to 1874 the postal system was in the hands of an
official called chaparchi bashi, who was the head farmer of the post,
or chapars, and letters and small parcels were conveyed by him and
his agents at high and arbitrary rates and without any responsibility.
The establishment of a regular post was one of the results of the
shah Nasr-ed-din's first visit to Europe (1873). Two officials of
the Austrian postal department having been engaged in 1874, an
experiment of a post office upon European lines was made in the
following year with a postal delivery in the capital and some of the
neighbouring villages where the European legations have their
summer quarters. In the beginning of 1876 a regular weekly post
was established between Teheran, Tabriz and Julfa (Russo-Persian
frontier) and Resht. Other lines, connecting all the principal
cities with the capital, were opened shortly afterwards, and on the
1st of September 1877 Persia joined the international postal union
with the rates of 2|d. per § oz. for letters, id. for post -cards, id. per
2 oz. for newspapers, &c, between Persia and any union country.
The inland rates were a little less. There are now between Persia
and foreign countries a bi-weekly service via Russia (Resht-Baku,
Tabriz-Tiflis) and a weekly service via India (Bushire-Bombay).
On the inland lines, with the exception of that between Teheran

and Tabriz, the service is weekly. There are reported to be 140
post offices. Statistics as to the number of letters, post-cards,
newspapers, &c, conveyed are kept but not published; and since
1885, when a liberal-minded director communicated those for the
year 1884-1885 to the present writer, no others, although many
times promised, have been obtained. In the year 1884-1885 there
were conveyed 1,368,835 letters, 2050 post-cards, 7455 samples,
and 173,995 parcels, having a value of £304,720; and the receipts
exceeded the expenditure by £466. Since then the traffic has much
increased, and the excess of receipts over expenditure in the year
1898-1899 was reported to have been £10,000, but was probably more
than that, for the minister of posts farmed the department for
£12,000 per annum. The farm system was abolished in 1901 and
in the following year the post office was joined to the customs
department worked by Belgian officials. Under the most favourable
conditions letters from London via Russia are delivered at Tabriz
in 9 days, at Teheran in 10, at Isfahan in 14, and at Shiraz in 18 days;
and via India, at Bushire in 26 days, at Shiraz in 31, at Isfahan in 36,
and at Teheran in 40 days; but during the winter letters between
London and Teheran sometimes take a month. In the interior
the mails are conveyed on horseback, and, being packed in badly-
made soft leather bags, are frequently damaged through careless
packing and wet. The first Persian postage stamps were issued in
1875 and roughly printed in Persia. Since then there have been
numerous issues, many practically bogus ones for collectors.
Authentic specimens of the early ones are much valued by stamp
collectors. (For information on the postal system of Persia, see
G. Riederer, Aus Persien, Vienna, 1882; Fr. Schueller, Die
persische Post und die Postwerthzeichen von Persien, Vienna, 1893.)

Telegraphs. — The first line of telegraphs — from Teheran to
Sultanieh, about 160 m. on the road to Tabriz — was constructed
in 1859. In the following year it was continued to Tabriz, and in
1863 to Julfa on the Russian frontier. With the object of establish-
ing a direct telegraphic communication between England and
India, by connecting the European and Indian systems by a land
line through Persia from Bagdad — then the most easterly Turkish
telegraphic station — to Bushire and by a cable from Bushire east-
wards, a telegraphic convention was concluded in the same year
between the British and Persian governments, and a one-wire
line on wooden posts from the Turkish frontier, near Bagdad,
to Bushire via Kermanshah, Hamadan, Teheran, Isfahan and
Shiraz, was constructed at the cost and under the supervision
of the British government. In 1865 a new convention, providing
for a second wire, was concluded, and for some years messages
between Europe and India were transmitted either via Constanti-
nople, Bagdad, Teheran, Bushire, or via Russia, Tifiis, Tabriz,
Teheran, Bushire. An alternative line between Bagdad and India
was created by the construction of a land line to Fao, at the head
of the Persian Gulf, and the laying of a cable thence to Bushire.
The service was very inefficient, and messages between England and
India took several days and sometimes weeks to reach their desti-
nation. In 1869 Messrs Siemens of Berlin, in virtue of concessions
obtained in the year before and later disposed of to the I ndo-European
Telegraph Company, Ltd. — who also took over Reuter's cable from
Lowestoft to Emden (274 knots) — constructed a two-wire line on
iron posts through Germany and Russia, and in Persia from Julfa
to Teheran. This line was opened on the 31st of January 1870.
The British government then handed the Bagdad-Teheran section,
which had become unnecessary for international through traffic
between Europe and India, over to the Persian government, and
changed its Teheran-Bushire line into one of two wires on iron
posts. In 1873, according to a convention signed December 1872,
a third wire was added to the line, and there was then a three-wire
line on iron posts (439 m. Indo-European Telegraph Company,
675 m. Indian government) from Julfa to Bushire. In August
1901 a convention was concluded between the British and Persian
governments for a three-wire line on iron posts from Kashan (a
station on the Teheran-Bushire line) to Baluchistan via Yezd,
Kerman and Bam (805 m.). The construction of this "Central
Persia line," as it is known officially, was begun in December 1902
and completed in March 1907. The section Kashan-Isfahan of
the old Teheran-Bushire was then taken up and Isafahan was
connected with the Central Persia line by a two-wire line from
Ardistan, 71 m. south-east from Kashan. One of the three wires
between Isfahan and Bushire was also taken up, and there are now
a five-wire line from Teheran to Ardistan (224^ m.), a three-wire
line from Ardistan to the Baluchistan frontier (734 m.) and a two-
wire line from Ardistan to Bushire (497 m.). These lines, as
well as that of the Indo-European Telegraph Company from Julfa
to Teheran, are worked throughout by an English staff and may
be classed among the finest and most efficient in the world. The
central line is continued through Baluchistan to Karachi, and from
Bushire messages go by cable (laid in 1864) to Jask, and thence
either by cable or by land to Karachi, Bombay, &c. The telegraphic
convention between the British and Persian governments has
again been renewed, and is in force until 1925 ; and the concessions
to the company were prolonged to the same year by the Russian
government in March 1900. In addition to these lines, Persia
possesses 4191 m. of single- wire lines on wooden poles belonging
to the Persian government and worked by a Persian staff; the

196

PERSIA

[MANUFACTURES

Teheran-Meshed line (555 m.), however, is looked after by an
English inspector and two English clerks at Meshed, and since
1885 the Indian government has allowed a sum not exceeding
20,000 rupees per annum for its maintenance; and the Meshed-
Seistan line, 523 m., is looked after by twelve Russian inspectors
and clerks. The Persian lines are farmed out for 1,800,000 krans
(about £36,000) per annum and no statistics are published. There
are in all 131 stations. Statistics of the traffic on the Indo-European
line are given in the administration reports of the Indo-European
telegraph department, published by government, and from them
the figures in the following table have been obtained : —

Year.

Traffic over Lines

between London

and Karachi.

Earnings in

thousands of

Pounds.

Net Profits of the
Government Dept.

Number of

Messages

transmitted.

it

O u

0«

2S.U

48

Total
amount.
Rupees.

if

Ma
&

t'S.

0,U

I887-1888
I 892-I 893
I897-I898
I 902- I 903
I 905- I 906
1 906- 1 907

83.031
117,500
146,988
178,250
211,003
259,355

74

84

106

in

113
108

100
116
H5
155
157
149

198,381

437,668
758,172
589.571
774.368
458.559

1-75
3-8o

6-57
4-5°
5-39
3-09

Manufactures, &c. — The handbook on Persian art published by
Colonel Murdoch Smith, R.E., in 1876, with reference to the col-
lection purchased and sent home by him for the Victoria and Albert
Museum, has an instructive account of the more common manu-
factures of the country. They are classified under the respective
heads of " porcelain and earthenware," "tiles," "arms and armour,"
" textile fabrics," " needlework and embroidery," " metal-work,"
" wood carving and mosaic-painting," " manuscripts," " enamel,"
" jewelry " and " musical instruments." Specimens of the greater
number are not only to be procured in England, but are almost
familiar to the ordinary Londoner. It need scarcely be said that
tiles have rather increased in value than deteriorated in the eyes
of the connoisseur, that the ornamentation of metal-work, wood
carving and inlaying, gem and seal engraving, are exquisite of their
kind, and that the carpets manufactured by skilled workmen, when
left to themselves and their native patterns, are to a great extent
unrivalled. Of the above-mentioned articles, carpets, shawls,
woollen and cotton fabrics and silk stuffs are the more important.
Carpets may be divided into three categories: (1) Kali, with a pile,
and cut like plush; (2) gilim, smooth; (3) nimads, felts. Only the
two first are exported. The Kali and its smaller sizes, called
Kalicheh (in Europe, rugs), are chiefly made in Ferahan, Sultanabad
(Irak), Khorasan, Kurdistan, Karadagh, Yezd, Kerman, and among
the nomad tribes of southern Persia. From the two first-mentioned
localities, where a British firm has been established for many
years, great quantities, valued in some years at £100,000, find their
way to European and American markets, while rugs to the value
of £30,000 per annum are exported from the Persian Gulf ports. Of
the second kind, gilim (used in Europe for curtains, hangings, and
chair-covers), considerable quantities are exported from Shushter
and Kurdistan. The value of the carpets exported during the year
1906-1907 was close upon £900,000, Turkey taking £613,300,
Russia £196,700, United States £40,600, Great Britain £20,700,
Egypt £18,500 and India £5400. Shawls are manufactured in
Kerman and Meshed, and form an article of export, principally to
Turkey. Woollen fabrics are manufactured in many districts, but
are not exported in any great quantity. Coarse cotton stuffs,
chiefly of the kind called Kerbaz, used in their natural colour, or
dyed blue with indigo, are manufactured in all districts but not
exported; cottons, called Kalamkar, which are made in Manchester
and block-printed in colours at Isfahan and Kumishah, find their
way to foreign markets, principally Russian. Of silk fabrics
manufactured in Persia, principally in Khorasan, Kashan and
Yezd, about £100,000 worth per annum is exported to Turkey,
Russia and India. In the environs of Kashan and in Fars, chiefly
at Maimand, much rose-water is made, and a considerable quantity
of it is exported by way of Bushire to India and Java. Many
attempts have been made to start manufactures, supported by
foreign capital and conducted by foreigners, but nearly all have
resulted in loss. In 1879 the Persian government was induced to
spend £30,000 on the erection of a gas factory in Teheran, but
work was soon stopped for want of good coal. A few years later
a Persian bought the factory and plant for £10,000, and made them
over in 1891 to the Compagnie generale pour l'eclairage et le hauffage
en Perse, which after bringing out much additional plant, and
wasting much capital in trying for some years in vain to make

food and cheap gas out of bad and dear coal, closed the factory,
n 189 1 another Belgian company, Societe anonyme des verreries
nationales de Perse, opened a glass factory in Teheran, but the
difficulty of obtaining the raw material cheaply and in large quanti-
ties was too great to make it a paying concern, and the factory

had to be closed. A third Belgian company, Societe anonyme
pour la fabrication du sucre en Perse, with a large capital, then
came to Persia, and began making beetroot sugar in the winter of
1895. But, like the gas and glass companies, it found the cost of
the raw material and the incidental expenses too great, and ceased
its operations in 1899. In 1890 a Russian company started a match
factory near Teheran with an initial outlay, it is said, of about
£20,000, but could not successfully compete with Austrian and
Swedish matches and ceased operations very soon. A Persian
gentleman erected a cotton-spinning factory at Teheran in 1894
with expensive machinery; it turned out some excellent yarn but
could not compete in price with imported yarns.

Agricultural Products. — Wheat, barley and rice are grown in all
districts, the two former up to considerable altitudes (8000 ft.), the
last wherever the water supply is abundant, and in inner Persia
generally along rivers; and all three are largely exported. The
most important rice-growing districts which produce more than
they require for local consumption and supply other districts, or
export great quantities, are Astarabad, Mazandaran, Gilan, Veramin,
(near Teheran). Lenjan (near Isfahan), and some localities in Fars
and Azerbaijan. Peas, beans, lentils, gram, maize, millet, are also
universally cultivated, and exported from the Persian Gulf ports
to India and the Arabian coast. The export of rice amounted to
52,200 tons in 1906-1907, and was valued at £472,550. The
Persian fruit is excellent and abundant, and large quantities, princi-
pally dried and called khushkbar (dry fruit), as quinces, peaches,
apricots, plums (of several kinds), raisins, figs, almonds, pistachios,
walnuts and dates (the last only from the south), as well as oranges
(only from the Caspian provinces), are exported. The fruit exported
during 1906-1907 had a value of £1,019,000. Nothing is being
done to improve the vine, and the Persian wines, until recently of
world-wide reputation, are yearly getting thinner and poorer.
The phylloxera has done much damage. The naturalist S. G.
Gmelin, who explored the southern shores of the Caspian in 1 77 1,
observed that the wines of Gilan were made from the wild grape.
Cotton is largely grown, principally in the central districts and
Khorasan, and some qualities are excellent and command high
prices in the European markets; 18,400 tons of raw cotton, valued
a t £ 838,787, were exported to Russia in 1906-1907. Good hemp
grows wild in Mazandaran. Tobacco of two kinds, one the tumbaku
(Nicotiana persica, Lindl.), for water pipes, the other the tutun
(Nicotiana rustica, L.), for ordinary pipes and cigarettes, is much
cultivated. The tumbaku for export is chiefly produced in the
central districts round about Isfahan and near Kashan, while the
tumbaku of Shiraz, Fessa, and Darab in Fars, considered the best
in Persia, is not much appreciated abroad. Tutun is cultivated
in Azerbaijan, near Urmia and other places near the Turkish frontier,
in Kurdistan, and, since 1875, in the district of Resht.in Gilan. About
1885 the quantity of tobacco exported amounted to between 4000
and 5000 tons. In 1906-1907 only 1820 tons, valued at £42,000,
were exported. The cultivation of poppy for opium greatly
increased after 1880, and it was estimated in 1900 that the annual
produce of opium amounted to over 1000 tons, of which about
two-fifths was consumed and smoked in the country. The principal
opium-producing districts are those of Shiraz, Isfahan, Yezd,
Kerman, Khorasan, Burujird and Kermanshah. While the quantity
consumed in the country is now probably the same, the quantity
exported is much less: 239 tons, valued at £237,270 in 1906-1907.
The value of the silk produced in Persia in the 'sixties was
£1,000,000 per annum, and decreased in consequence of silk- worm
disease to £30,000, in 1890. The quantity produced has since
then steadily increased and its yearly value is estimated at half a
million. Cocoons and raw silk valued at £316,140 were exported
in 1906-1907. Of oil-yielding plants the castor-oil plant, sesame,
linseed and olive are cultivated, the last only in a small district
south of and near Resht. Very little oil is exported. The potato,
not yet a staple article of food, tomatoes, celery, cauliflower, arti-
chokes and other vegetables are now much more grown than formerly,
chiefly in consequence of the great influx of Europeans, who are
the principal consumers.

Among the valuable vegetable products forming articles of
export are various gums and dyes, the most important being
gum tragacanth, which exudes from the astragalus plant in the
hilly region from Kurdistan in the north-west to Kerman in the
south-east. Other gums are gum-ammoniac, asafetida, galbanum,
sagapanum, sarcocolla and opoponax. In 1906-1907, 3310 tons of
various gums of a value of £300,000 were exported. Of dye-stuffs
there are produced henna (Lawsonia inermis) principally grown at
Khabis near Kerman, woad and madder; a small quantity of
indigo is grown near Dizful and Shushter. The export of dyes in
I 906-1907 was 985 tons, valued at £32,326.

Horses, mules and donkeys, formerly exported in great numbers,
are at present not very abundant, and their prices have risen
much since 1880. Some nomad tribes who owned many brood
mares, and yearly sold hundreds of horses, now hardly possess suffi-
cient animals for their own requirements. The scarcity of animals,
as well as the dearness of fodder, is one of the causes of the dearness
of transport, and freights have risen on the most frequented roads
from 3d. per ton-mile in 1880 to iod., and even 13d., per ton-mile.
The prices of staple articles of food rose steadily from 1880 and

COMMERCE]

PERSIA

197

reached a maximum in 1900 and 1901, as will be seen from the
following table : —

Average

Price,

April

Price

June

Price

, 1880.

1900.

1908.

s.

d.

i.

d.

s.

d.

Wheat, per kharvar. .

22

6

102

32

(649 lb)

Rice

56

3

64

64

Bread, ordinary, per

mann (6J lb) .

360

9-60

3-84

Meat,mutton(per mann)

1

2-40

2

9-60

1

5-28

Cheese „

1

6

2

4-80

1

Clarified butter ,,

2

3

4

9-60

5

4- 80

Milk

4-5°

9-60

7-68

Eggs, per 100. .

1

6

3

7-20

3

2-40

Forests and Timber.— Timber from the forests of Mazandaran
and Gilan has been a valuable article of export for many years,
and since about 1870 large quantities of boxwood have also been
exported thence; in some years the value of the timber and box-
wood exported has exceeded £50,000. This value represented
about 200,000 box trees and quite as many others. Much timber
is also used for charcoal-burning, and occasionally large parts of
forest are burned by the people in order to obtain clearings for
the cultivation of rice. The destruction of the forests by timber-
cutters and charcoal-burners has been allowed to go on unchecked,
no plantations have been laid out, and nothing has been done
for forest conservation. Indiscriminate cutting has occasionally
been confined within certain bounds, but such restrictions were
generally either of short duration or made for the convenience and
profit of local governors. The oak forests of Kurdistan, Luristan
and the Bakhtiari district are also being rapidly thinned. A small
step in the right direction was made in 1900 by engaging the services
of an official of the Prussian forest department, but unfortunately,
beyond sending him to inspect the Mazandaran forests belonging
to the Crown, and employing him to lay out a small plantation in
the Jajrud valley, east of Teheran, nothing was done. The monopoly
for cutting and exporting the timber of the Mazandaran forests is
leased to European firms, principally for box and oak. Boxwood
has become scarce. There are many kinds of good timber-yielding
trees, the best known being alder (Alnus glutinosa, Wild., A. barbata,
A. cordifolia, Ten.), ash {Fraxinus excelsior, L.), beech (Fagus
sylvatica), elm {Ulmus campestris, U. effusa, U. pedunculata) ,
wych-elm (Ulmus montana), hornbeam (Carpinus betulus, L.),
juniper (Juniperus excelsa, J. communis, J. sabina), maple {Acer
insigne, Boiss., A. campestre, A. pseudo-platanus , L.), oak (Quercus
ballota, Q. castaneaefolia, Q. sessiliflora, Q. pedunculata), walnut,
nettle tree {Celtis australis, L.), Siberian elm (Zelkova crenata,
Spach.), and various kinds of poplar. Pipe-sticks, from the wild
cherry tree, are exported to Turkey.

Fisheries. — Fish is a staple food along the shores of the Persian
Gulf, but the Crown derives no revenue from fisheries there. The
fisheries of the Caspian littoral are leased to a Russian firm (since
1868), and most of the fish goes to Russia (31,120 tons, value
£556,125, in 1906-1907). The fish principally caught are sturgeon,
giving caviare, sheat fish or silure, salmon, carp, bream and perch.
Minerals and Mining. — Persia possesses considerable mineral
riches, but the absence of cheap and easy means of transport, and
the scarcity of fuel and water which prevails almost everywhere,
make any exploitation on a remunerative scale impossible, and the
attempts which have been made to work mines with European
capital and under European superintendence have been financially
unsuccessful. Deposits of rich ores of copper, lead, iron, manganese,
zinc, nickel, cobalt, &c, abound. A few mines are worked by
natives in a primitive, systemless manner, and without any great
outlay of capital. There are turquoise mines near Nishapur (for
description of mines, manner of working, &c, see A. Houtum-
Schindler, Report on the Turquoise Mines in Khorasan, F. 0. Reports,
1884, and " Die Gegend zwischen Sabzwar und Meschhed," Jahrbuch
k. k. geol. R. A . Wien, vol. xxxvi. ; also E. Tielze, Verhandl.
k. k. geol. R. A., 1884, p. 93); several copper mines in Khorasan,
Samnan, Azerbaijan and Kerman; some of lead, two cpnsiderably
argentiferous, in Khorasan, Tudarvar (near Samnan), Anguran,
Afshar (both west of Zenjan), and Kerman; two of iron at Mesula
in Gilan and Nur in Mazandaran; two of orpiment in Afshar and
near Urmia ; one of cobalt at Kamsar (near Kashan) ; one of alum
in Tarom (near Kazvin) ; and a number of coal in the Lar district,
north-east of Teheran, and at Hiv and Abyek, north-west of Teheran.
There are also many quarries of rock-salt, gypsum, lime and some of
marble, alabaster, soapstone, &c. The annual revenue of the
government from the leases, rents and royalties of mines does
not amount to more than £15,000, and about £6000 of this amount
is derived from the turquoise mines near Nishapur. As the rents
and royalties, excepting those on the turquoise mines, amount to
about one-fifth of the net proceeds, it may be estimated that the
value of the annual output does not exceed £50,000, while the
intrinsic value of the ores, particularly those of lead, iron, cobalt
and nickel, which have not yet been touched can be estimated at

millions. There are also some very rich coal seams in eastern
Persia, far away on the fringe of the desert, and under existing
conditions quite valueless. The richest deposits of nickel, cobalt
and antimony ores are also situated in localities where there is little
water and the nearest useful fuel some hundred miles away.
Auriferous alluvial strata have been discovered in various localities,
but everywhere the scarcity of water has been a bar to their being
exploited with profit. A rich naphtha-bearing zone stretches
from the Luristan hills near Kermanshah down to the Persian Gulf.
Competent engineers and specialists have declared that borings
in the Bakhtiari hills, west of Shushter, would give excellent results,
but the difficult hilly country and the total absence of roads, as well
as the antipathy of the inhabitants of the district, would make
the transport and establishment of the necessary plant a most
difficult matter. A British syndicate has been boring at several
places in the zone since 1903.

Commerce. — The principal centres of commerce are Tabriz,
Teheran, Resht, Meshed and Yezd; the principal, ports Bander
Abbasi, Lingah, Bushire and Muhamrah on the Persian Gulf, and
Astara, Enzeli, Meshed i Sar and Bander i Gez on the Caspian.

Until 1899 all the customs were farmed out (1898-1899 for
£300,000), but in March of that year the farm system was abolished
in the two provinces of Azerbaijan and Kermanshah, and, the
experiment there proving successful, in all other provinces in the
following year. At the same time a uniform duty of 5 % ad valorem
was established. In October 1901 a treaty fixing a tariff and re-
serving " the most favoured nation " treatment for the countries
already enjoying it was concluded between Persia and Russia.
It was ratified in December 1902 and came into force on the 14th
of February 1903. The commercial treaty with Great Britain,
concluded in 1857, provided for the " most favoured nation "
treatment, but nevertheless a new treaty under which the duties
levied on British imports would be the same as on Russian
imports was made with Great Britain a few days before the new
tariff came into force and was ratified in May.

For the value of imports and exports previous to 1901 the only
statistics available were the figures given in consular reports, which
were not always correct. In 1897 it was estimated that the value of
the imports from and exports to Great Britain, including India,
amounted to £3,250,000. About a quarter of this trade passed
over the western frontier of Persia, while three-quarters passed
through the Persian Gulf ports. The value of the trade between
Russia and Persia was then about £3,500,000. Since 1901 detailed
statistics have been published by the customs department, and
according to them the values of the imports and exports in thousands
of pounds sterling for the six years 1901-1907 were as follows: —

Imports.

Exports.

Total.

1901-1902

5429

2738

8,167

1902-1903

4970

3388

8,358

1903-1904

7000

4632

11,632

1904-1905

5832

4132

9.964

I 905- I 906

6441

4886

",327

1906-1907

7982

6544

14.526

The imports and exports during the year 1 906-1 907 (total value

£14,526,234) were distributed as

sterling) : —

Russia 8292

Great Britain . . . 3128

Turkey 1335

France 700

Austria 277

Afghanistan . . . 203
Germany ... .182
China 142

follows (values in thousands

U.S. America
Italy ....
Egypt . . .
Netherlands
Belgium
Switzerland
Sweden .
Other countries .

69
65
41
37
24
22
8
I

14.526

While the value of the trade between Great Britain and Persia in
1906-1907 was almost the same as in 1897, that of the trade with
Russia had increased from 3J millions to 8| or 137 %. The
average yearly value of the trade between Great Britain and Persia
during the six years was £2,952,185 (imports £2,435,016, exports
£517,169); between Russia and Persia £6,475,866 (imports £3,350,072,
exports £3,125,794). The average values of the trade with other coun-
tries were: France £666,000, Austria £246,000, Germany £124,000,
Italy £79,ooo,United States of America £52,000, Netherlands £39,000.

The principal imports into Persia in approximate order of value
are cottons, sugar, tea, woollens, cotton yarn, petroleum, stuffs
of wool and cotton mixed, wool, hardware, ironmongery, matches,
iron and steel, dyes, rice, spices and glassware. The principal
exports are fruits (dried and fresh), carpets, cotton, fish, rice, gums,
wool, opium, silk cocoons, skins, live animals, silks, cottons, wheat,
barley, drugs and tobacco.

Shipping and Navigation.— Shipping under the Persian flag is
restricted to vessels belonging to the Persian Gulf ports. Some
of the larger craft, which are called baglah, and vary from 50 to
300 tons, carry merchandise to and from Bombay, the Malabar

ig8

PERSIA

[CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT

coast, Zanzibar, &c. ; while the smaller vessels, called bagarah,
and mostly under 20 tons, are employed in the coasting trade and
the pearl-fisheries on the Arabian coast. It is estimated that the
four principal ports and the many smaller ones (as Mashur, Hindian,
Zaidin, Bander, Dilam, Rig, Kongan, Taheri, Kishm, Hormuz, &c.)
possess at least 100 baglahs and several hundred bagarahs, besides a
large number of small boats. The following figures from the
commercial statistics published by the Persian Customs Department
show the total shipping at the four principal Persian Gulf ports,
Bushire, Bander Lingah, Bander Abbasi and Muhamrah during
the years 1904-1907.

1904-1905.

1905-1906.

1906-1907.

Tons.

Tons.

Tons.

British . . .

671,386

827,539

826,594

Persian .

36,797

25,069

6,425

Russian

24,121

29,182

40,616

Arabian .

22,487

16,749

7-932

Turkish

3.176

3,877

5,005

French

2,901

57o

—

German .

Total . .

—

52,935

760,868

902,986

939,507

The British shipping amounted to 89-2 % of the total shipping
at the four ports during the years 1904-1907. There was no
German shipping in the gulf before 1906, but in the first year of
its appearance (1906-1907), its tonnage at the gulf ports was
almost as much as that of all other nations with the exception of
Great Britain.

The shipping of 1906-1907 was distributed among the four ports
as follows : —

Bushire . . . 354,798 tons.
Bander Lingah 155,720 „

Bander Abbasi
Muhamrah

245,746 tons.
183,243 ,-

Bander Lingah being the port where most of the pearls obtained
on the Arabian coast of the gulf are brought to and exported from,
has more native shipping (all sailing vessels) than the other ports.

All the shipping on the Caspian is under the Russian flag 1 and
no returns of the arrivals and departures of vessels at the Persian
ports were published before 1906. According to the statistics
of the customs department the shipping of the Persian ports
amounted in 1906-1907 to 650,727 tons. The shipping at the
principal Persian ports on the Caspian in the year 1 906-1907 was:
Astara 137,935 tons; Enzeli 292,132 tons; Meshed i Sar 90,799
tons; Bander-i-Gez 56,135 tons. Two or three flat-bottomed sailing
vessels navigate the lake of Urmia in north-western Persia, carrying
merchandise, principally agricultural produce, from the western and
south-western shores to the eastern for the supply of Tabriz. The
navigation is a state monopoly, leased out for £250 per annum.

Coinage, Weights and Measures. — The monetary unit is the kran,
a silver coin, formerly weighing 28 nakhods (88 grains), then reduced
to 26 nakhods (77 grains), and now weighing only 24 nakhods (71
grains) or somewhat less. Before the new coinage came into use
(1877) the proportion of pure silver was from 92 to 95%;
subsequently the proportion was for some time 90%; now it is
about 89! %. In consequence of this depreciation of the coin-
age and the fall in the price of silver, partly also in consequence
of exchange transactions by banks, the value of the kran has
since 1895 rarely been more than 4-8od., or half what it was in
1874, and fell to less than 4d. in 1905. In 1874 the kran was worth
a franc; in June 1908 the exchange for a £1 bill on London was
50 krans which gives the value of I kran as 4|d. Taking this
value of the kran, the values of the various nickel and silver coins
in circulation work out as:—

Nickel Coins.
Shahi = 2 pul . . o-24d.
Two shahis = 4 pul . o-48d.

Silver Coins.
Five shahis = { kran . I -20d.
Ten shahis = J kran . 2-4od.
One kran =20 shahis =

40 pul .... 4-8od.
Two krans .... 9-6od.

In 1899 from 80 to 83 copper shahis (weighing about f lb) were
being given for one silver kran. This was owing to the depreciation
of the copper coinage from 1896 onwards, consequent upon there
being an excess of coinage due to the excessive quantities formerly
put in circulation from the mint. Accordingly the government
in 1900 replaced the copper by a nickel coinage (face value of nickel
coin in circulation end of 1907, 4,000,000 krans). Accounts are

1 By article v. of the Treaty of Gulistan of 1813, confirmed by article
viii. of the Treaty of Turkmanchai of 1828, it was declared that
Russia alone should have the right of maintaining vessels of war
on the Caspian, and that no other Power should fly the military
flag on that sea; and by a decision of the council of the Russian
Empire, published on the 24th of November 1869, the establishment
of companies for the navigation of the Caspian, except by Russian
subjects, and the purchase of shares of such companies by foreigners
were prohibited. (State Papers, vol. lxiii. 925.)

640 misl

cals = 6-49 lb

720

= 7-30 „

1000 ,,

= 10-14 „

1280

= 12-98 „

2560

= 25-96 „

840 „

= 8-52 „

720 ,,

= 116-80 „

kept in dinars, formerly a gold piece, now an imaginary coin yj^j
of a kran. Ten thousand dinars are equal to one toman (a word
meaning ten thousand), or 10 krans silver, and 50 dinars are one
shahi.

Gold coins are: J, J, 1, 2, 5, and 10 toman pieces, but they are
not in circulation as current money because of their ever-varying
value in silver krans, which depends upon the exchange on London.
The unit of weight is the miskal (71 grains), subdivided into
24 nakhods (2-96 grains), a nakhod being further subdivided into
4 gandum (-74 grains). Larger weights, again, are the sir (16 miskals)
and the abbasi, wakkeh, or kervankeh (5 sir). Most articles are
bought and sold by a weight called batman, or man, of which there
are several kinds, the principal being : —

Man-i-Tabriz = 8 abbasis

Man-i-Noh abbasi =9 abbasis

Man-i-Kohneh (the old man)

Man-i-Shah = 2 Tabriz mans

Man-i-Rey = 4 ,, ,,

Man-i-Bander abbasi

Man-i-Hashemi = 16 mans of
Corn, straw, coal, &c, are sold by kharvar = ioo Tabriz mans
= 649 lb.

The unit of measure is the zar or gez, of which, as in the case of
the man, there are several variants. 40-95 in. is the most common
length for the zar, but in Azerbaijan the length is 44-09 in. Long
distances are calculated in farsakhs, a farsakh being equal to 6000
zar. Probably the zar in this measure = 40-95 in., which makes
the farsakh 3-87 m., but the other length of the zar is sometimes
used, when the farsakh becomes 4-17 m. Areas are measured in
jeribs of from 1000 to 1066 square zar of 40-95 in., the surface unit
thus being from 1294 to 1379 sq. yds.

Constitution and Government. — Up to the year 1906 the govern-
ment of Persia was an absolute monarchy, and resembled in its
principal features that of the Ottoman Empire, with the excep-
tion, however, that the monarch was not the religious head
of the community. The powers of the Shah (Shahanshah, 2 or
" king of kings ") over his subjects and their property were
absolute, but only in so far as they were not opposed to the shar',
or " divine law," which consists of the doctrines of the Mahom-
medan religion, as laid down in the Koran, the oral commentaries
and sayings of the Prophet, and the interpretations by his
successors and the high priesthood. In 1905, however, the
people began to demand judicial reforms, and in 1906 cried out
for representative institutions and a constitution. By a rescript
dated the 5th of August Muzaffar-ud-Dln Shah gave his assent
to the formation of a national council {Majlis i shora i milli),
to be composed of the representatives of the various classes:
princes, clergy, members of the Kajar family and tribe — chiefs
and nobles, landowners, agriculturists, merchants and trades-
men. By an ordinance of the 10th of September the number of
members was fixed at 162 (60 for Teheran, 102 for the provinces)
to be raised to 200 if necessary, and elections were held soon
after. Electors must be males and Persian subjects of not less
than 25 years of age and of good repute. Landowners must
possess land of at least 1000 tomans (£200) in value, merchants
and tradesmen must have a fixed and well-known place of
business or shop with an annual value of not less than the
average values in the localities where they are established.
Soldiers and persons convicted of any criminal offence are not
entitled to vote. The qualifications for membership are know-
ledge of the Persian language and ability to read and write it and
good repute in the constituency. No person can be elected who
is an alien, is under the age of 30 years or over the age of 70 years,
is in the employ of the government, is in the active service of
the army or navy, has been convicted of any criminal offence, or
is a bankrupt.

On the 7 th of October the national council, or as many mem-
bers of it as could be got together, was welcomed by the shah
and elected a president. This was considered as the inaugura-
tion and formal opening of parliament. An ordinance signed

2 We see this title in its old Persian form, Khshayathiya Khshaya-
thiy, in the cuneiform inscriptions; as BacnX«os BacriXewv on the
coins of the Arsacides, and as the Pahlavi Malkan Malka on the
coins and in the inscriptions of the Sassanians. With the Mahom-
medan conquest of Persia and the fall of the Sassanians the title
was abolished ; it was in use for a short time during the 10th century,
having been granted to Shah Ismail Samani by the Caliph Motadid
A.D. 900; it appeared again on coins of Nadir Shah, 1736-1747, and
was assumed by the present dynasty, the Kajars, in 1799.

RELIGION]

PERSIA

199

by Muzaffar-ud-Din Shah, Mahommed Ali Mirza (his successor)
and the grand vizir, on the 30th of December 1906, deals with
the rescript of the 5th of August, states the powers and duties
of the national council and makes provision for the regulation
of its general procedure by the council itself. The members
have immunity from prosecution except with the knowledge of
the national council. The publicity of their proceedings except
under conditions accepted by the council is secured. Ministers,
or their delegates may appear and speak in the national council
and are responsible to that body, which also has special control
of financial affairs and internal administration. Its sanction
is required for all territorial changes, for the alienation of state
property, for the granting of concessions, for the contracting
of loans, for the construction of roads and railways, for the
ratification of treaties, &c. There was to be a senate of 60
members of whom 30 were to be appointed to represent the shah
and 30 to be elected on behalf of the national council, 15 of each
class being from Teheran and 15 from the provinces (the senate,
however, was not immediately formed).

By a rescript dated February 2, 1907, Mahommed Ali Shah
confirmed the ordinance of the 30th of December, and on the
8th of October 1907 he signed the final revised constitution, and
took the oath which it prescribes on the 12th of November in
the presence of the national council.

In accordance with the constitution the shah must belong to
the Shlah faith, and his successor must be his eldest son, or next
male in succession, whose mother was a Kajar princess. The
shah's civil list amounts to 500,000 tomans (£100,000).

The executive government is carried on under a cabinet
composed of seven or eight vizirs (ministers), of whom one,
besides holding a portfolio, is vizir azam, prime minister. The
vizirs are the ministers of the interior, foreign affairs, war,
justice, finance, commerce, education, public works.

Until 1906 the shah was assisted in the task of government by
the sadr azam (grand vizir), a number of vizirs, ministers or heads
of departments somewhat on European lines, and a " grand council
of state," composed of some ministers and other members nomin-
ated by the shah himself as occasion required. Many of the
" ministers " would have been considered in Europe merely as
chiefs of departments of a ministry, as, for instance, the minister
for Crown buildings, that for Crown domains, the minister of cere-
monies, those for arsenals, army accounts, &c. ; also an accumulation
of several offices without any connexion between their functions,
in the hands of a single person, was frequently a characteristic
departure from the European model. The ministers were not
responsible to the Crown in a way that ministers of a European
government are; they rarely took any initiative, and generally
referred their affairs to the grand vizir or to the shah for final
decision.

There were twenty-seven vizirs (ministers), but only some of
them were consulted on affairs of state. The departments that
had a vizir at their head were the following: court, ceremonies,
shah's secretarial department, interior, correspondence between
court and governors, revenue accounts and budget, finance, treasury,
outstanding accounts, foreign affairs, war, army accounts, military
stores, arsenals, justice, commerce, mines and industries, agri-
culture and Crown domains, Crown buildings, public works, public
instruction, telegraphs, posts, mint, religious endowments and
pensions, customs, press. In addition to these twenty-seven
vizirs with portfolios, there were some titulary vizirs at court,
like Vizir i Huzur i Humayun (minister of the imperial presence),
Vizir i makhsus (extraordinary minister), &c, and a number in the
provinces assisting the governors in the same way as the grand
vizir assists the shah. Most of these ministers were abolished
tinder the new constitution, and the heads of subsidiary depart-
ments are entitled tnudir or rais, and are placed under the responsible
ministers.

Religion. — About 9,000,000 of the population are Mahom-
medans of the Shiah faith, and 800,000 or 900,000, principally
Kurds in north-western Persia, are said to belong to the other
great branch of Islam, the Sunni, which differs from the former
in religious doctrine and historical belief, and is the state religion
of the Turkish Empire and other Mahommedan countries. Other
religions are represented in Persia by about 80,000 to 90,000
Christians (Armenians, Nestorians, Greek Orthodox and Roman
Catholics, Protestants), 36,000 Jews, and 9000 Zoroastrians.

Society in Persia, being based almost exclusively on religious
law, is much as it was in Biblical times among the Jews, with this

difference, however, that there exists no sacerdotal caste. In
Persia any person capable of reading the Koran and interpreting
its laws may act as a priest {mullah), and as soon as such a priest
becomes known for his just interpretation of the shar' and his
superior knowledge of the traditions and articles of faith, he
becomes a mujtahid, literally meaning " one who strives " (to
acquire knowledge), and is a chief priest. The mullahs are
referred to in questions concerning religious law, hold religious
assemblies, preach in mosques, teach in colleges, and are appointed
by the government as judges, head-preachers, &c. Thus the
dignitaries, whose character seems to us specially a religious one,
are in reality doctors, or expounders and interpreters of the law,
and officiating ministers charged with the ordinary accomplish-
ment of certain ceremonies, which every other Mussulman,
" true believer," has an equal right to fulfil. Formerly there
were only four or five mujtahids in Persia, now there are many,
sometimes several in one city — Teheran, for instance, has ten;
but there are only a few whose decisions are accepted as final
and without appeal. The highest authority of all is vested in
the mujtahid who resides at Kerbela, or Nejef, near Bagdad,
and is considered by many Shi'ites as the vicegerent of the
Prophet and representative of the imam. The shah and the
government have no voice whatever in the matter of appointing
mullahs or mujtahids, but frequently appoint sheikhs-ul-islam
and cadis, and occasionally chief priests of mosques that receive
important subsidies out of government funds. The chief priest
of the principal mosque of a city, the masjid i jami ', is called
imam juma', and he, or a representative appointed by him, reads
the khutba, " Friday oration," and also preaches. The reader
of the khutba is also called khatib. The leader of the prayers
in a mosque is the pishnamaz, and the crier to prayers is the
mu'azzin. Many priests are appointed guardians of shrines
and tombs of members of the Prophet's family (imams and
imamzadehs) and are responsible for the proper administration
of the property and funds with which the establishments are
endowed. The guardian of a shrine -is called mutavali, or, if
the shrine is an important one with much property and many
attendants, mutavali-bashi, and is not necessarily an ecclesiastic,
for instance, the guardianship of the great shrine of Imam Reza
in Meshed is generally given to a high court functionary or
minister as a reward for long services to the state. In the
precincts of a great shrine a malefactor finds a safe refuge
from his pursuers and is lodged and fed, and from the security
of his retreat he can arrange the ransom which is to purchase
his immunity when he comes out.

Formerly all cases, civil and criminal, were referred to the
clergy, and until the 17th century the clergy were subordinate to
a kind of chief pontiff, named sadr-us-sodur, who possessed a
very extended jurisdiction, nominated the judges, and managed
all the religious endowments of the mosques, colleges, shrines, &c.
Shah Safi (1 629-1 642), in order to diminish the influence of the
clergy, appointed two such pontiffs, one for the court and nobility
the other for the people. Nadir Shah (1 736-1 747) abolished
these offices altogether, and seized most of the endowments of the
ecclesiastical establishments in order to pay his troops, and, the
lands appropriated by him not having been restored, the clergy
have never regained the power they once possessed. Many
members of the clergy, particularly those of the higher ranks,
have very liberal ideas and are in favour of progress and reforms
so long as they are not against the shar', or divine law; but,
unfortunately, they form the minority.

The Armenians of Persia, in so far as regards their ecclesiastical
state, are divided into the two dioceses of Azerbaijan and Isfahan,
and, since the late troubles in Turkey, which caused many to
take refuge in Persia, are said to number over 50,000. About
three-fifths of this number belong to the diocese of Azerbaijan,
with a bishop at Tabriz, and reside in the cities of Tabriz, Kho'i,
Selmas, Urmia and Maragha, and in about thirty villages close
to the north-western frontier; the other two-fifths, under the
diocese of Isfahan, with a bishop in Julfa, reside .in Teheran,
Hamadan, Julfa, Shiraz, Bushire, Resht, Enzeli and other towns,
and in some villages in the districts of Chahar Mahal, Feridan,
Barbarud, Kamareh, Kazaz, Kharakan, &c. Many Persian
Armenians are engaged in trade and commerce, and some of

200

PERSIA

[EDUCATION: ARMY

their merchants dispose of much capital, but the bulk live on the
proceeds of agriculture and are poor.

The Nestorians in Persia, all living in cities and villages close to
the Turkish frontier, numbered about 25,000 to 30,000 but many
of them, some say half, together with two or three bishops, recently
went over to the Greek Orthodox (Russian) Church, in consequence
of the unsatisfactory protection afforded them by their patriarch,
who resides in Mosul. These latter are now cared for by an archi-
mandrite of Russian nationality and some Russian priests.

The Greek Orthodox Catholics are represented by Russians, who re-
side in northern Persia; they have a church at the Russian legation
in Teheran, and another at the Russian consulate in Tabriz.

The Roman Catholics in Persia, Europeans and natives (mostly
Armenians), number about three or four thousand, and have
churches in Teheran, Julfa and Azerbaijan, served by members of
the French Lazarist Mission. They also have some orphanages,
schools and medical dispensaries, under the care of sisters of charity
of St Vincent de Paul.

The Protestants, Europeans and natives (converted Armenians
and Nestorians), number about 6500. The religious missions
ministering to their spiritual welfare are: (1) The board of foreign
missions of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America,
which has six establishments in Persia: Urmia since 1835, Teheran
since 1872, Tabriz since 1873, Hamadan since 1880, Resht since
1902 and Kazvin since 1903. The establishments of Tabriz and
Urmia form the Western Persia Mission, those of Teheran, Hamadan,
Resht and Kazvin the Eastern Persia Mission. The former mission
has 24 churches, 118 schools, 2 hospitals and 4 dispensaries ; the latter
has 4 churches, 11 schools, 2 hospitals and 4 dispensaries. (2) The
Church Missionary Society, established in Persia since 1869. In June
1908 it had 4 places of worship (Julfa, Yezd, Kerman, Shiraz),
5 schools (Julfa, Isfahan, Yezd, Kerman and Shiraz). There are
also hospitals and dispensaries for men and women at Julfa, Isfahan,
Yezd and Kerman. The hospitals at Julfa and Isfahan have ac-
commodation for 100 patients each, and are sometimes full to
overflowing; the dispensaries are generally overcrowded. The
establishment of the Church Missionary Society is under the care
of a bishop, who resides at Julfa and is under the bishop of London.
(3) The Anglican mission, which was established by Dr Benson,
archbishop of Canterbury, and has its work among the Nestorians
in Azerbaijan. (4) The London Society for promoting Christianity
among the Jews, which was established at Teheran in 1876, and
at Isfahan and Hamadan in 1889. It has in Teheran a church
and a school, at Isfahan a school and at Hamadan a small school.
(5) The British and Foreign Bible Society has been represented
at Isfahan since 1879.

The Jews in Persia number about 36,000, and are found in nearly
all cities of the country, but communities with synagogues and

§riests exist only in the larger cities like Teheran, Isfahan, Yezd,
hiraz, Hamadan, &c.

The Zoroastrians, commonly called " gabrs," numbering about
9000, reside principally in the cities and villages of Yezd and Ker-
man, and only three or four hundred live in Teheran, Kashan,
Isfahan and Shiraz, some engaged in trade and commerce, but
most of them employed in agricultural work and gardening. Their
interests are attended to by a delegate who is appointed by the
Bombay Parsis and resides at Teheran.

The non-Mussulman Persian subjects, particularly those in the
provinces, were formerly much persecuted, but since 1873, when
Nasru 'd-DIn Shah returned to Persia from his first journey to Europe
they have been treated more liberally. In cities where many non-
Mussulman subjects reside a special official is appointed to protect
them; and the ministry of justice has a special section to look
after them and see that they are protected against fanaticism and
injustice.

Instruction. — Primary schools, maktab (where Persian and a
little Arabic, sufficient for reading the Koran, and sometimes
also a little arithmetic, are taught to boys between the ages
of seven and twelve), are very numerous. These schools are
private establishments, and are under no supervision whatever.
The payment for tuition varies from fourpence or fivepence to
tenpence a month for each child. Colleges, madrasah (where
young men are instructed, fed, and frequently also lodged
gratuitously), exist in nearly every town. Most of them are
attached to mosques, and the teachers are members of the clergy,
and receive fixed salaries out of the college funds. The students
are instructed in Arabic and Persian literature, religion, inter-
pretation of the Koran, Mussulman law, logic, rhetoric, philo-
sophy and other subjects necessary for admittance to the clergy,
for doctors of law, &c, while modern sciences are neglected.
Families who have means and do not desire their children to
become members of the clergy, employ private tutors, and
several have latterly obtained the services of English and French
professors to educate their children, while others send their
boys to school in England, France, Germany and Russia. At

the beginning of Nasru'd-Din Shah's reign, a public school on
the lines of a French lycee was opened in Teheran, principally
with the object of educating officers for the army, but also of
introducing a knowledge of Western science and languages,
and a ministry of public instruction was created at the same
time. Military and civilian teachers were obtained from Europe,
and the state granted a large sum of money for the support of
the establishment. The tuition is gratuitous, and the pupils
are clothed and partly fed at government expense. Some
years later a similar school, but on a much smaller scale, was
opened in Tabriz. After a time the annual grant for the support
of these two schools was reduced, and during the years 1890-1908
amounted to only £5000. The average number of pupils was
about 250, and until the beginning of 1899 these two schools
were the only establishments under the supervision of the
minister of public instruction. Soon after his accession in
1896 Muzaffar-ud-Din Shah expressed a desire that something
more should be done for public instruction, and in the following
year a number of Persian notables formed a committee and
opened some schools in Teheran and other places in the beginning
of 1898. A year later the new schools, until then private estab-
lishments, were placed under the minister of public instruction.
The new schools at Teheran have from 1000 to 1400 pupils.

A German school with an annual grant of £2400 from Persia and
of £1000 from Germany was opened at Teheran in 1907. There
is also established a French school under the auspices of the Alliance
Francaise. Much has been and is being done for education by the
Armenians and the Protestant and Roman Catholic missions in
Persia, and a large percentage of the pupils is composed of Mussul-
mans. The Alliance Israelite has opened a school in Teheran.
In 1907 the American Protestant mission had 129 schools with
3423 pupils, the English Protestant missions had 5 schools with
425 pupils, the Roman Catholic mission (Lazaristes) had 3 schools
with 400 pupils, and the Armenians had 4 schools and 646 pupils.
All these schools are supported by voluntary subscriptions and
donations, and instruct both boys and girls.

Army. — Persia had no regular army until 1807, when some
regiments of regular infantry (sarbaz) were embodied and drilled
by the first French military mission to Persia under General
Gardane. Since then seven other military missions (two British,
two French, two Austrian, and one Russian) have come to Persia
at the request of the Persian government, and many officers
and non-commissioned officers, and even civilians, of various
nationalities, have been engaged as army instructors. The
last serious attempt to reorganize the Persian army was made in
1879, when the second Austrian mission formed the " Austrian
corps " of seven new battalions of 800 men each. These new
battalions were disbanded in 1882. The Russian mission of
1879 has been the most successful, and the so-called " Cossack
brigade" which it formed has always been commanded by
Russian officers. The brigade has a strength of about 1800 men
and costs £50,000 per annum. The total annual expenditure
for the army amounts to about a third of the total revenues of
the government.

According to statistics published for 1905 the Persian army has
an effective force of about 91,000 men, but the number of men
actually serving with the colours does not exceed 35,000: —

Artillery 5309

Irregular cavalry H.957

Infantry, 79 battalions of 400-1000 men each . . 63,865

Cossack brigade, artillery, horse and foot . . . 1800

Road and frontier guards, horse and foot . . . 5493

Total 91,334
Navy. — The Persian government possesses nine steamers.
One is the "Nasru 'd-Dln," an old yacht of about 120 tons,
presented in the 'seventies by the emperor of Russia, and
stationed at Enzeli, the port of Resht. The others, all employed
in the customs service in the Persian Gulf, are the following:
The " Persepolis," built 1884, 600 tons, 450 h.p., with three 7J
cm. and one 85 cm. Krupp. The " Susa," built 1884,
36 tons, with one Krupp. An old Belgian yacht " Sehka,"
purchased 1903 and renamed " Muzafferi," with two Hotchkiss
guns. Five launches built in the Royal Indian Marine Docks,
Bombay, in 1905, at a cost of 60,000 rupees each, of about 80
tons.

JUSTICE: FINANCE]

PERSIA

20I

Justice. — By the theory of a Mahommedan state there should
be no other courts of justice except those established for the ad-
ministration of the shar', the " divine or written law," but in
Persia there is another judicature, which is called 'urf and repre-
sents the " customary " or " known and unwritten law." Justice)
therefore, is administered by the shah and his representatives
according to one law and by the clergy according to another, but
the decisions of the former must not be opposed to the fundamental
doctrines of Islam. The shah's representatives for the adminis-
tration of justice are the governors and other officers already
mentioned. The officials charged with the administration of
justice according to the shar' are judges, called sheikh-ul-islam and
kazi (kadhi, kadt or cadi of Arabs and Turks), members of the clergy
appointed by the government and receiving a fixed salary, but
some cities are without regular appointed judges and the title of
cadi is almost obsolete; decisions according to the shar' axe given
by all members of the clergy, ranging from ignorant mullahs of
little villages and cantons to learned mujtahids of the great cities.
If the parties to the suit are dissatisfied with the judgment, they
may appeal to a priest who stands higher in public estimation, or
one of the parties may induce a higher authority by bribery to
quash the judgment of the first. Unfortunately, many members
of the clergy are corrupt, but the mujtahids, as a rule are honest
and entirely trustworthy. The functions of the representatives of
the shar' are now limited to civil cases, while all criminal cases
are referred to the 'urf, which, however, also takes cognizance of
civil disputes, should the parties desire it.

In criminal cases the dispensation of justice is always summary,
and, when the offence is small, the whole procedure, including the
examination of witnesses and criminal, as well as the decision
and the punishment, a bastinado, is a matter of some minutes.
For commercial cases, not paying a bill in time, bankruptcies, &c,
a kind of jurisdiction is exercised by the minister of commerce,
or a board of merchants, but the decisions of the minister, or those
of the board, are rarely final. In Teheran the board of merchants
is presided over by the malik ut tujjar, " King of Merchants," in
the provincial cities by a person called malik amin, and muin of
merchants.

After his second journey to Europe in 1878 Nasru'd-Din Shah
desired to organize a police for the whole of Persia on the European
system, but only a small body of police, in the capital and its
immediate neighbourhood, was created in 1879. Its strength is
60 mounted policemen and 190 foot, with II superior and 40
subaltern officers.

There is also a " Tribunal of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs,"
presided over at Teheran by an official of the foreign office, and in
the provincial cities by the harguzars, " agents," of that depart-
ment. The functions of this tribunal are to inquire into and judge
differences and suits between Persian subjects and foreigners, and
it is stipulated in the treaty of Turkmanchai, which is the basis
of all existing treaties between Persia and other countries, that
" such differences and suits shall only be examined and judgment
given in the presence of the dragoman of the mission or consulate
(of the foreign subject), and that, once judicially concluded, such
suits shall not give cause to a second inquiry. If, however, cir-
cumstances should be of a nature to require a second inquiry, it
shall not take place without previous notice given to the minister,
or the charge d'affaires, or the consul, and in this case the business
shall only be proceeded with at the supreme chancery of the shah
at Tabriz or Teheran, likewise in the presence of a dragoman of
the mission, or of the consulate." (Article vii.)

A foreign subject implicated in a criminal suit cannot be pursued
or molested in any way unless there exist full proofs of his having
taken part in the crime imputed to him, and should he be duly
convicted of the crime, he is handed over to his legation, which
either sends him back to his own country to undergo the punish-
ment established by law, or, according to more recent usage, punishes
him in Persia by fine, imprisonment, &c. In this respect the
powers of the foreign representatives in Persia, now numbering
ten (Great Britain, Russia, France, Turkey, Austria-Hungary,
Germany, United States of America, Italy, Belgium and the
Netherlands) vary considerably, some having the power of con-
demning a criminal to death, while others cannot do more than
fine and imprison for short periods. Suits, civil and criminal,
between foreign subjects are altogether out of Persian jurisdiction,
and are judged by the representatives of the foreign powers
accredited to Persia.

In 1889, after Nasru 'd-Din Shah's return from his third visit to
Europe, the council of state was instructed to compile a code of
law for the regulation of justice. A beginning was made by order-
ing the translation of the Code Napoleon, the Indian Mahommedan
code, and the Code Napoleon as modified for Algeria; but nothing
further was done.

Finance. — The fixed revenues of Persia are derived from (1)
regular taxation (maliat) composed of taxes on lands, flocks, herds,
shopkeepers, artisans and trade; (2) revenues from Crown lands;
(3) customs ; (4) rents and leases of state monopolies. There is
also a kind of irregular revenue derived from public requisitions,
presents, fines, confiscations, &c, nowadays not producing much.
The land tax, which varies according to localities, is paid in money

and kind, and should amount on an average to about 25% of the
yield of the soil. The taxation on flocks and herds exists either as
a supplementary method of land taxation, or as a contribution of
a certain sum per animal, and the tax on shopkeepers, artisans and
trades sometimes takes the form of a poll-tax, sometimes that of
an impost on the profits of the trades. The revenue from Crown
lands consists of a certain proportion of the produce, and also
varies much according to localities. Until March 1899 all the
customs were farmed out, but since then they have been organized
on European principles, with the help of Belgian officials. By
treaties with Russia and Great Britain, concluded in 1901 and 1903
respectively, the 5% duty fixed by the Turkmanchai treaty was
abolished, and an equitable tariff was established. The revenues
from rents and leases of state monopolies are derived from posts,
telegraphs, mines, mint, forests, banks, fisheries, factories, &c,
and amount to about £110,000 per annum.

The total revenue of Persia, from all sources, amounted in 1876
to 58,700,000 krans, in 1884 to 50,800,000, in-i890 to 60,000,000;
and in 1907-1908 to about 80,000,000 krans. This would seem to
show a steady increase, but when we consider that the value of
the kran in 1876 was nearly 8^ d., and has fallen in consequence
of the great depreciation of silver to only 4! d., the total revenue
really decreased from £1,950,000 in 1876 to £1,600,000 in 1907-
1908. Out of the actual total revenue £500,000 is represented by
customs and £110,000 by rents and leases of state monopolies,
leaving £990,000 for maliat and revenues of Crown lands. In
1876 the two latter items amounted to about £1,600,000, while
the two former were only £350,000 instead of £610,000 in 1907-
1908. While the prices in krans of agricultural produce, and hence
the profits of the landowners and the wages and profits of artisans
and tradesmen, were in 1907-1908 more than double what they
were in 1876, the maliat, the backbone of the revenue, has hardly
increased at all, being 50,000,000 krans (£1,000,000) against
43,200,000 krans (£1,600,000) in 1876, and showing a decrease of
over 37% in sterling money. A new assessment of the maliat,
based upon the present value of the produce of lands and actual
profits of artisans and tradesmen, has frequently been spoken of,
and government, aided by a strong minister of the interior and an
able minister of finance, ought to have no difficulty in raising the
maliat to its proper level and the total revenues of the country
to about two millions sterling.

Until 1888 the yearly expenditure was less than the yearly
income, but subsequently the revenues were not sufficient to cover
the expenditure, and many payments fell in arrear in spite of empty-
ing the treasury of its reserve and contracting numerous loans.

In May 1892 the Persian government concluded a contract with
the Imperial Bank of Persia, established by British royal charter
in 1889, for a loan of £500,000 at 6%, repayable in the course of
forty years, and guaranteed by the customs of Fars and the Persian
Gulf ports. The produce of this loan served for the payment of
an indemnity to the Imperial Tobacco Corporation, which began
in 1890 and had to cease its operations in January 1892. In
January 1900 the Persian government, in order to pay the arrears
and start afresh with a clear balance-sheet, contracted a loan
through the Banque des PrSts de Perse, a Russian institution
connected with the Russian state bank, and established in 1890.
This loan was for 22 j million roubles (£2,400,000) at 5% interest,
guaranteed by all the Persian customs with the exception of those
of Fars and the Persian Gulf ports, and repayable in the course
of seventy-five years. In the contract, which was signed at St
Petersburg at the end of January 1900, the Persian government
"undertook to redeem all its former foreign obligations (the 1892
loan) out of the proceeds of the new loan, and not to contract any
other foreign loan before the redemption of the new loan without
the consent of the Russian bank. The loan was at 86|, less if
for commission and charges, the Persian government thus receiving
85% of the nominal capital, or £2,040,000. The bonds enjoy
the full guarantee of the Russian government. The yearly charge
for interest and amortization, about £124,000, is to be paid in two
half-yearly instalments, and in the event of default the Russian
bank will have the right to exercise effective control of the customs
with a maximum number of twenty-five European employes.
When the contract for the new loan was concluded, the liabilities
of the Persian government for the balance of the 1892 loan (about
£435,000), temporary loans from various banks, arrears of pays
and salaries, and other debts, amounted to over £1,500,000, so
that not much margin was left. The shah's visit to Europe in the
same year cost the exchequer about £180,000. In March 1902 the
Russian bank agreed to grant a further loan of 10 million roubles
on the same conditions as those of the first loan, and the whole
amount was paid by the end of the year, but another visit of the
shah to Europe and reckless expenditure at home made the position
worse than before. After November 1903 the expenditure was
reduced, and the new customs tariff which came into force on the
14th of February 1903 increased the revenue by nearly £200,000
per annum; it was thought that the expenditure would not exceed
the receipts, even if the shah undertook a third voyage in Europe
(which he did in 1905). However, in November 1907, when the
national assembly or council demanded a budget and made inquiries
as to the financial position, it was found that the expenditure for

202

PERSIA

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

some years past had been half a million sterling per annum in excess
of the receipts and that considerable sums were owing to banks
and commercial firms who had lent money. Most of the money
borrowed is at 12 to 15% interest.

Banking. — It was only in 1888 that a European bank (the New
Oriental Bank Corporation, Limited) established itself in Persia
and modern ideas of banking were introduced into the country.
Until then the banking was done by the native money-changers
(sarrafs) and some merchants — foreign and native — who occasion-
ally undertook special outside transactions. In 1889 the shah
granted a concession to Baron Julius de Reuter for the formation
of a state bank with the exclusive right of issuing bank-notes —
not exceeding £800,000 without special assent of the Persian
government — on the basis of the local currency, the silver kran.
With the title of " The Imperial Bank of Persia " the bank was
formed in the autumn of the same year, and incorporated by royal
charter granted by Queen Victoria and dated the 2nd of September
1889. The authorized capital was four millions sterling, but the
bank started with a capital of one million, and began its business
in Persia in October 1889. In April 1890 it took over the'Persian
business of the New Oriental Bank Corporation, soon afterwards
opened branches and agencies at the principal towns, and issued
notes in the same year. During the first two years the bank re-
mitted the greater part of its capital to Persia at the then prevailing
exchange, and received for every pound sterling 32 to 34 krans;
but in consequence of the great fall in silver in 1893 and 1894,
the exchange rose to 50 krans per pound sterling and more, and the
bank's capital employed in Persia being reduced in value by more
than one-third — 100 krans, which at the beginning represented
£3, then being worth only £2 or less — the original capital of one
million sterling was reduced to £650,000 in December 1894. The
bank has made steady progress in spite of innumerable difficulties,
and paid a fair dividend to its shareholders. In his paper on
" Banking in Persia " {Journal of the Institute of Bankers, 1891),
Mr Joseph Rabino pointed out the great difficulties which make
the easy distribution of funds— that is, the providing them when
and where required — -a matter of impossibility in Persia, and gives
this fact as the reason why the Imperial Bank of Persia has local
issues of notes, payable at the issuing branches only, " for, in a
country like Persia, where movements of specie are so costly, slow
and difficult as to become impracticable except on a small scale,
the danger of issuing notes payable at more than one place is
obvious." On the 20th of September 1907 the value of the notes
in circulation was £395,000, and the bank held £550,000 deposits
in Persia.

In 1889 the shah also granted a concession to Jaques de Poliakov
of St Petersburg for the establishment of a " loan bank," or, as
the original concession said, " mont-de-piete," with exclusive
rights of holding public auctions. A company was formed in the
same year and started business at Teheran in 1890 as the " Banque
des Prets de Perse." After confining its operations for some years
to ordinary pawnbroking, without profits, it obtained the aid of
the Russian State Bank, acquired large premises in Teheran,; made
advances to the Persian government (since 1898), and in January
1900 and March 1902 financed the loans of £2,400,000 and £1 ,000,000
to Persia. It has branches at Tabriz, Resht, Mesheol and other
places.

Various Armenian firms, one with branches at many places in
Persia and Russia, also do banking business, while various European
firms at Tabriz, Teheran, Isfahan, Shiraz and Bushire, facilitate
remittances between Europe and Persia.

The chief business of the native sarrafs (money-changers, bankers;
&c.) is to discount bills at high rates, hardly ever less than 12%,
and remit money from place to place in Persia for a commission
amounting to from 1 to 5, or even 6% on each transaction; and
in spite of the European banks giving lower rates of discount and
remitting money at par, the majority of the people and mercantile
classes still deal with the natives. For advances with good security
a native sarraf charges at least 12% interest per annum; as the
security diminishes in value the rate of interest increases, and
transactions at 10% a month, or more than 120% per annum,
are not infrequent. A Persian who obtains an advance of money
at less than 12 % considers that he gets money " for nothing."

(A. H.-S.)

History

A. — Ancient, to the Fall of the Sassanid Dynasty.

I. The Name. — "Persia," in the strict significance of the
word, denotes the country inhabited by the people designated
as Persians, i.e. the district known in antiquity as Persis (q.v.),
the modern Fars. Custom, however, has extended the name to
the whole Iranian plateau; and it is in this sense that the term
Persia is here employed.

II. Ancient Ethnography. — In historical times we find the
major portion of Iran occupied by peoples of Indo-European
origin, terming themselves Aryans (Arya; Zend, Airya) and
their language Aryan — so in the inscriptions of Darius — the

same name, which is used by the consanguineous tribes of
India who were their nearest relations. The whole country
is designated Ariana (Zend, Airyana) — " the land Descent
of the Aryans " — the original of the Middle-Persian of the
Eran and the modern Iran; the Greek geo- Iranians.
graphers Eratosthenes and Strabo were in error when they
limited the name to the eastern districts of Iran. Thus the
name of Iranians is understood to comprehend all these people
of Aryan nationality.

Besides the Iranians, numerous tribes of alien origin were
found in Iran. In Baluchistan, even yet, we find side by side
with the eponymous Iranian inhabitants, who
only penetrated thither a few centuries ago, the^fj r ^ rifies
ethnologically and philologically distinct race of
the Brahui, who are probably connected with the Dravidians
of India. In them we may trace the original population of
these districts; and to the same original population may be
assigned the tribes here settled in antiquity: the Paricanii and
Gedrosii (Gadrosii), and the Myci (Herod, iii. 93, vii. 68; the
Maka of Darius, the modern Mekran), to whom the name
" Aethiopians " is also occasionally applied (Herod, iii. 94, vii.
70). In Media the Greek geographers mention a people of
Anariacae (Strabo xi. 508, 514; Pliny, Nat. Hist. vi. 48; Ptolem.
vi. 25; in Polyb. v. 44. 9, Aviapanai.) , i.e. " Non-Aryans." To
these the Tapuri, Amardi, Caspii, and especially the Cadusii or
Gelae — situated in Ghilan on the Caspian — probably belonged.
Presumably they were also related to the tribes of Armenia and
the Caucasus. In the chains of Zagros we find, in Babylonian
and Assyrian times, no trace of Iranians; but partly Semitic
peoples — the Gutaeans, Lulubaeans, &c. — partly tribes that
we can refer to no known ethnological group, e.g. the Cossaei
(see below), and in Elymais or Susiana the Elymaeans
(Elamites).

That the Iranians must have come from the East to their
later home, is sufficiently proved by their close relationship to
the Indians, in conjunction with whom they pre- Iranians
viously formed a single people, bearing the name and Aryan
Arya. Their residence must have lain chiefly in /mHaDS -
the great steppe which stretches north of the Black Sea and
the Caspian, through South Russia, to Turan (Turkestan)
and the Oxus and Jaxartes. For here we continually discover
traces of Iranian nationality. The names and words of the
Scythians (Scoloti) in South Russia, which Herodotus has
preserved, are for the most part perfectly transparent Iranian
formations, identified by Zeuss and Mullenhoff ; among them are
many proper names in Aria-(kpio-) and aspa (-horse-a ottos;
Zend, aspa). The predatory tribes of Turan (e.g. the Massa-
getae) seem to have belonged to the same stock. These
tribes are distinguished by the Iranian peasants as Daha (Gr.
AAcu), "enemies," "robbers"; by the Persians as Sacae; and
by the Greeks generally as Scythians.

From the region of the steppes the Aryans must have pene-
trated into the cultivable land of Eastern Iran: thence one part
spread over the district of the Indus, then on again to the Ganges;
another moved westward to Zagros and the borders of the
Semitic world.

The date of this migration cannot yet be determined with
certainty. We know only that the Aryans of India* already
occupied the Punjab in the Vedic era, c. 1600 B.C. i* er i $
On the other hand, about the same period a number of the
of names, undoubtedly Iranian, made their appear- Iranian
ance in Western Asia, (cf. Edward Meyer, " Zur /M * ra</oa -
altesten Geschichte der Iranier," in Zeitschrift fiir. vergleichende
Sprachforschung, 1907). In the cuneiform letters from Tell
el-Amarna in Egypt (1400 B.C.), we find among the princelings
of Syria and Palestine names like Artamanya, Arzawiya, Shu-
wardata, a name terminating in -warzana, &c; while the kings
of Mitanni on the Euphrates are Artatama, Shutarna, Arta-
shumara, and Dushratta — names too numerous and too genuinely
Iranian to allow of the hypothesis of coincidence. Later still,
in the Assyrian inscriptions we occasionally meet with Iranian
names borne by North-Syrian princes — e.g. Kundaspi and

HISTORY: ANCIENT]

PERSIA

20'

Kustaspi ( = Hystaspis). Their subjects, on the contrary,
speak absolutely different tongues: for the attempts to explain
the languages of the Cossaeans, Mitannians, and Arzapians as
Indo-European (Iranian) have ended in failure (cf. Blomfield
in the American Journal of Philology, xxv. p. i sqq.).

It appears, then, that towards the middle of the second
millennium before Christ, the Iranians made a great forward
movement to the West, and that certain of their princes — at first,
probably in the role of mercenary leaders — reached Mesopotamia
and Syria and there founded principalities of their own, much as
did the Germans under the Roman Empire, the Normans,
Turks, &c. With this we may probably connect the well-known
fact that it was about this very period (1700 B.C. approximately)
that the horse made its appearance in Babylonia, Egypt and
Greece, where for centuries subsequently its use was confined to
war and the war-chariot. Before this it was as foreign to the
Babylonians, even in the time of Khammurabi, as to the Egyp-
tians under the Xllth Dynasty. On the other hand, it had
been familiar to the Aryans from time immemorial: indeed they
have always been peculiarly a people of riders. Thus it is
quite conceivable that they brought it with them into Western
Asia: and the quarter from which it came is sufficiently indicated
by the fact that the Babylonians write the word " horse " with
a group of signs denoting "ass of the East."

Of the Assyrian kings, Shalmaneser (Salmanassar) II. was
the first to take the field against the Medes in 836 B.C., and from
that period onwards they are frequently mentioned in the
Assyrian annals. Sargon penetrated farthest, receiving in
715 B.C. the tribute of numerous Median town-princes. He gives
a list of their names, twenty-three of which are preserved either
tvholly or in part, and almost all are unmistakably Iranian;
as is also the case with those preserved by Esar-haddon
(Assarhaddon) and elsewhere.

The Medes, then, were an Iranian nation, already occupying
in the 9th century B.C. their later home in the centre of the
Median highland. On the other hand, among their neighbours
in Zagros and the north — corresponding to the Anariacae
(Non-Aryans) of the Greeks — Iranian names are at best isolated
phenomena. With other Iranian tribes the Assyrians never
came in contact: for the oft-repeated assertion, that the Parsua,
so prominent in their annals, were the Persians or the Parthians,
is quite untenable. The Parsua of the Assyrians are located
south of Lake Urmia, and can hardly have been Iranians.

None the less, the Assyrian statements with regard to the
Medes demonstrate that the Iranians must have reached the
west of Iran before 900 B.C. It is probable that at this period
the Persians also were domiciled in their later home, even
though we have no direct evidence to adduce. If this reasoning
is correct, the Iranian immigration must be assigned to the
first half of the second pre-Christian millennium.

The Aryans of Iran are divided into numerous tribes; these,
again, being subdivided into minor tribes and clans. The
Tribes principal, according to the inscriptions of Darius
of the — which closely agree with Herodotus — are the
Iranians, following, several of them being also enumerated
in the Avesta: —

1. The Medes (Mada) in the north-west (see Media).

2. The Persians (Parsa) in the south (see Persis). To these
belong the Carmanians and the Utians (Yutiya), who are mentioned
expressly by Darius as inhabiting a district in Persis (Beh. III. 40).

3. The Hyrcanians (Varkdna in Darius, Zend Vehrkana) on the
eastern corner of the Caspian, in the fertile district of Astarabad.

4. The Parthians (Parthyaei; Pers. Parthava) in Khorasan (see
Parthia).

5. The Arians {'Apeioi, Pers. Haraiva), in the vicinity of the
river Arius {Heri-rud), which derived its name from them. This
name, which survives in the modern Herat, has of course no
connexion with that of the Aryans.

6. The Drangians (Zaranka in Darius, Sarangians in Herod,
iii. 93, 117, vii. 67), situated south of the Arians, in the north-west
of Afghanistan (Arachosia) by the western affluents of Lake Hamun,
and extending to the present Seistan.

7. Arachotians (Pers. Harauvati), in the district of the Helmand
and its tributaries, round Kandahar. They are mentioned in the
lists of Darius, also by the Greeks after Alexander. In Herodotus
their place is taken by the Pactyans, whose name survives to the

present day in the word Pushtu, with which the Afghans denote
their language (Herod, iii. 102, iv. 44, vii. 67, 85). Probably it was
the old tribal name; Arachosia being the local designation. The
Thamanaeans, who appear in Herodotus (iii. 93, 117), must be
classed with them.

8. The Bactrians (Pers. Bakhtri), on the northern declivity of
the Hindu Kush, as far as the Oxus. Their capital was Bactra,
the modern Balkh (see Bactria).

9. The Sogdians (Pers. Sugudu), in the mountainous district
between the Oxus and Jaxartes.

10. The Chorasmians (Khwarizmians, Pers. Uvarazmiya), in
the great oasis of Khiva, which still bears the name Khwarizm.
They stretched far into the midst of the nomadic tribes.

11. The Margians (Pers. Margu), on the river Margus (Murghab);
chiefly inhabiting the oasis of Merv, which has preserved their name.
Darius mentions the district of Margu but, like Herodotus, omits
them from his list of peoples; so that ethnographically they are
perhaps to be assigned to the Arians.

12. The Sagartians (Pers. A sagarta) ; according to Herodotus
(vii. 85), a nomadic tribe of horsemen; speaking, as he expressly
declares, the Persian language. Hence he describes them (i. 125)
as a subordinate nomad clan of the Persians. They, with the
Drangians, Utians and Myci, formed a single satrapy (Herod,
iii. 93). Ptolemy (vi. 2, 6) speaks of Sagartians in the Eastern
Zagros in Media.

13. We have already touched on the nomadic peoples (Dala,
Dahans) of Iranian nationality, who occupied the steppes of
Turkestan as far as the Sarmatians and Scythians of South Russia.
That these were conscious of their Aryan origin is proved by the
names Ariantas and Ariapeithes borne by Scythian (Scolot) kings
(Herod, iv. 76, 87). Still they were never counted as a portion of
Iran or the Iranians. To the settled peasantry, these nomads of
the steppe were always " the enemy " {dana, daha, AAai, Dahae).
Side by side with this name we find " Turan " and " Turanian ";
a designation applied both by the later Persians and by modern
writers to this region. The origin of the word is obscure, derived
perhaps from an obsolete tribal name. It has no connexion what-
ever with the much later " Turks," who penetrated thither in the
6th century after Christ. Though found neither in the inscriptions
of Darius nor in the Greek authors, the name Turan must never-
theless be of great antiquity; for not merely is it repeatedly found
in the Avesta, under the form Tura, but it occurs already in a
hymn, which, without doubt, originates from Zoroaster himself,
and in which " the Turanian Fryana " and his descendants are
commemorated as faithful adherents of the prophet {Yasna, 46, 62).

The dividing line between Iranian and Indian is drawn by
the Hindu Kush and the Soliman mountains of the Indus
district. The valley of the Kabul (Cophen) is already occupied
by Indian tribes, especially the Gandarians; and the Satagydae
(Pers. Thatagu) there resident were presumably also of Indian
stock. The non-Aryan population of Iran itself has been
discussed above. Of its other neighbours, we must here mention
the Sacae, a warlike equestrian people in the mountains of the
pamir plateau and northward; who are probably of Mongol
origin. Herodotus relates that the Persians distinguished " all
the Scythians " — i.e. all the northern nomads — as Sacae; and
this statement is confirmed by the inscriptions of Darius. The
Babylonians employ the name Gimiri {i.e. Cimmerians) in the
same sense.

III. Civilization and Religion of the Iranians. — In the period
when the ancestors of Indian and Iranian alike still formed
a single nation — that of the Aryans— they developed
a very marked character, which can still be distinctly R^ifgioa,
traced, not only in their language, but also in their
religion and in many views common to both peoples. A great
number of gods — Asura, Mithras, the Dragon-slayer Vereth-
raghna (the Indra of the Indians), the Water-shoot Apam napat
(the lightning), &c. — date from this era. So, too, fire-worship,
especially of the sacrificial flame; the preparation of the intoxicat-
ing soma, which fills man with divine strength and uplifts him
to the gods; the injunction to " good thoughts and good works,"
imposed on the pious by Veda and Avesta alike: the belief in
an unwavering order (rta) — a lav/ controlling gods and men and
dominating them all; yet with this, a belief in the power of
magical formulae {mantra), exclamations and prayers, to whose
compulsion not merely demons (the evil spirits of deception —
druh) but even the gods {daeva) must submit; and, lastly, the
institution of a priesthood of fire-kindlers {athravan), who are'
at once the repositories of all sacral traditions and the mediators
in all intercourse between earth and heaven. The transition,
moreover, to settled life and agriculture belongs to the Aryan

204

PERSIA

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

period; and to it may be traced the peculiar sancitity of the
cow in India and Persia. For the cow is the animal which
voluntarily yields nourishment to man and aids him in his
daily labours, and on it depends the industry of the peasant
as contrasted with the wild desert brigand to whom the cow is
unknown.

Very numerous are the legends common to both nations.
These, in part, are rooted in the primeval Indo-European days,
though their ultimate form dates only from the Aryan epoch.
Foremost among them is the myth relating the battle of a sun-
god (Ind. Trita, generally replaced by Indra, Iran. Thraetona)
against a fearful serpent (Ind. Ahi, Iran. Azhi; known moreover
as Vrtra) : also, the legend of Yama, the first man, son of Vivas-
vant, who, after a long and blessed life in the happy years of the
beginning, was seized by death and now rules in the kingdom
of the departed. Then come a host of other tales of old-world
heroes; as the " Glorious One " (Ind. Sushrava, Pers. Husrava,
Chosrau or Chosroes), or the Son who goes on a journey to seek
his father, and, unknown, meets his end at his hands.

These legends have lived and flourished in Iran at every period
of itshistory; and neither the religion of Zoroaster, nor yet Islam,
has availed to suppress them. Zoroastrianism — at
least in that form in which it became the dominant

The Iranian
Saga.

creed of the Iranians — legitimized not only the old
gods, but the old heroes also; and transformed them into pious
helpers and servants of Ahuramazda; while the creator of the
great national epic of Persia, Firdousi (a.d. 935-1020), displayed
astonishing skill in combining the ancient tradition with Islam.
Through his poem, this tradition is perfectly familiar to every
Persian at the present day; and the primitive features of tales,
whose origin must be dated 4000 years ago, are still preserved
with fidelity. This tenacity of the Saga stands in the sharpest
contrast with the fact that the historical memory of the Persian
is extremely defective. Even the glories of the Achaemenid
Empire faded rapidly, and all but completely, from recollection ;
so also the conquest of Alexander, and the Hellenistic and
Parthian eras. In Firdousi, the legendary princes are followed,
almost without a break, by Ardashir, the founder of the Sassanid
dynasty: the intervening episode of Darius and Alexander
is not drawn from native tradition, but borrowed from Greek
literature (the Alexander-romance of the Pseudo-Callisthenes)
in precisely the same way as among the nations of the Christian
East in the middle ages. 1

Needless to say, however, this long period saw the Saga much
recast and expanded. Many new characters — Siyawush, Rus-
tam, &c. — have swelled the original list: among them is King
Gushtasp (Vishtaspa), the patron of Zoroaster, who was known
from the poems of the prophet and is placed at the close of the
legendary age. The old gods and mythical figures reappear
as heroes and kings, and their battles are fought no longer in
heaven but upon earth, where they are localized for the most
part in the east of Iran. In other words, the war of the gods
has degenerated to the war between Iranian civilization and
the Turanians. Only the evil serpent Azhi Dahaka (Azhdahak)
is domiciled by the Avesta in Babylon (Bawri) and depicted
on the model of Babylonian gods and demons: he is a king in
human form with a serpent growing from either shoulder and
feeding on the brains of men. In these traits are engrained
the general conditions of history and culture, under which the
Iranians lived: on the one hand, the contrast between Iranian
and Turanian; on the other, the dominating position of Babylon,
which influenced most strongly the civilization and religion of
Iran. It is idle, however, to read definite historical events into
such traits, or to attempt, with some scholars, to convert them
into history itself. We cannot deduce from them a conquest of
Iran from Babylon: for the Babylonians never set foot in Iran,
and even the Assyrians merely conquered the western portion
of Media. Nor yet can we make the favourite assumption of
a great empire in Bactria. On the contrary, it is historically

1 The fundamental work on the history of the Iranian Saga is
Noldeke., Das iranische Nationalepos 1896 (reprinted from the
Grundriss der iran. Philologie, ii.).

evident that before the Achaemenids there were in Bactria

only small local principalities of which Vishtaspa's was one:

and it is possible that the primeval empire of the Saga is only a

reflection of the Achaemenid and Sassanid empires of reality,

whose existence legend dates back to the beginning of the world,

simply because legend is pervaded by the assumption that the

conditions obtaining in the present are the natural conditions,

and, as such, valid for all time.

Closely connected as are the Mythology and Religion of

Indian and Iranian, no less clearly marked is the fundamental

difference of intellectual and moral standpoint, „,„

1.11111 • • • 1 Difference

which has led the two nations into opposite paths between the

of history and culture. The tendency to religious Iranianand
thought and to a speculative philosophy, compre- (I"? a , a
hending the world as a whole, is shared by both and
is doubtless an inheritance from the Aryan period. But with
the Indians this speculation leads to the complete abolition of
all barriers between God and man, to a mystic pantheism, and to
absorption in the universal Ego, in contrast with which the world
becomes an unsubstantial phantasm and sinks into nothingness.
For the Iranian, on the contrary, practical life, the real world,
and with them the moral commandment, fill the foreground.
The new gods created by Iran are ethical powers; those of India,
abstractions of worship (brahman) or of philosophy {atman).
These fundamental features of Iranian sentiment encounter
us not only in the doctrine of Zoroaster and the confessions of
Darius, but also in that magnificent product of the Persia of
Islam — the Sufi mysticism. This is pantheistic, like the Brahman
philosophy. But the pantheism of the Persian is always positive,
—affirming the world and life, taking joy in them, and seeking
its ideal in union with a creative god: the pantheism of the
Indian is negative — denying world and life, and descrying its
ideal in the cessation of existence.

This contrast in intellectual and religious life must have
developed very early. Probably, in the remote past violent
religious disputes and feuds broke out : for otherwise it is almost
inexplicable that the old Indo-European word, which in India,
also, denotes the gods — deva— should be applied by the Iranians
to the malignant demons or devils (daeva; mod. div); while
they denote the gods by the name bhaga. Conversely the
Asuras, whose name in Iran is the title of the supreme god
(ahura, aura), have in India degenerated to evil spirits. It is
of great importance that among the Slavonic peoples the same
word bogu distinguishes the deity; since this points to ancient
cultural influences on which we have yet no more precise informa-
tion. Otherwise, the name is only found among the Phrygians,
who, according to Hesychius, called the Heaven-god (Zeus)
Bagaeus; there, however, it may have been borrowed from the
Persians. We possess no other evidence for these events; the
only document we possess for the history of Iranian religion is
the sacred writing, containing the doctrines of the prophet who
gave that religion a new form. This is the Avesta, the Bible of
the modern Parsee, which comprises the revelation of Zoroaster.
As to the home and time of Zoroaster, the Parsee tradition
yields us no sort of information which could possibly be of his-
torical service. Its contents, even if they go back _
to lost parts of the Avesta, are merely a late patch-
work, based on the legendary tradition and devoid of historical
foundation. The attempts of West (Pahlavi Texts Translated,
vol. v.) to turn to historical account the statements of the
Bundahish and other Parsee books, which date Zoroaster at
258 years before Alexander, are, in the present writer's opinion,
a complete failure. Jackson {Zoroaster, the Prophet of Ancient
Iran, 1001) sides with West. The Greek theory, which rele-
gates Zoroaster to the mists of antiquity, or even to the period
of the fabulous Ninus and Semiramis, is equally valueless.
Even the statement that he came from the north-west of Media
(the later Atropatene), and his mother from Rai (Rhagae) in
eastern Media, must be considered as problematic in the extreme.
Our only trustworthy information is to be gleaned from his own
testimony and from the history of his religion. And here we
may take it as certain that the scene of his activity was laid in

HISTORY: ANCIENT]

PfiftSI&

205

the east of Iran, in Bactria and its neighbouring regions. The
contrast there existing between peasant and nomad is of vital
consequence for the whole position of his creed. Among the
adherents whom he gained was numbered, as already mentioned,
a Turanian, one Fryana and his household. The west of Iran
is scarcely ever regarded in the Avesta, while the districts and
rivers of the east are often named. The language, even, is
markedly different from the Persian; and the fire-priests are
not styled Magians as in Persia— the word indeed never occurs
in the Avesta, except in a single late passage — but athravan,
identical with the atharvan of India (irvpcuSoi., " fire-kindlers,"
in Strabo xv. 733). Thus it cannot be doubted that the king
Vishtaspa, who received Zoroaster's doctrine and protected
him, must have ruled in eastern Iran: though strangely enough
scholars can still be found to identify him with the homonymous
Persian Hystaspes, the father of Darius. The possibility that
Zoroaster himself was not a native of East Iran, but had immi-
grated thither (from Rhagae?), is of course always to be con-
sidered; and this theory has been used to explain the pheno-
menon that the Gathas, of his own composition, are written in
a different dialect from the rest of the Avesta. On this
hypothesis, the former would be his mother-tongue: the latter
the speech of eastern Iran.

This district is again indicated as the starting-point of Zoro-
astrianism, by the fact that dead bodies are not embalmed and
then interred, as was usual, for instance, in Persia, but cast
out to the dogs and birds (cf. Herod, i. 140), a practice, as is
well known, strictly enjoined in the Avesta, ruthlessly executed
under the Sassanids, and followed to the present day by the
Parsees. The motive of this, indeed, is to be found in the
sanctity of Earth, which must not be polluted by a corpse; but
its origin is evidently to be traced in a barbaric custom of
nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes who leave the dead to lie on the
steppe; and we know from Greek sources that this custom was
widely diffused among the tribes of eastern Iran.

The next clue towards determining the period of Zoroaster
is, that Darius I. and all his successors, as proved by their
inscriptions and by Greek testimony, were zealous adherents of
the pure word of Zoroastrianism; which consequently must
already have been accepted in the west of Iran. That Cyrus
too owned allegiance to the creed, cannot be doubted by an
unprejudiced mind, although in the dearth of contemporary
monuments we possess no proof at first hand. The Assyrian
inscriptions demonstrate, however, that Zoroaster's teaching
was dominant in Media two centuries before Cyrus. For in
the list of Median princes, to which we have already referred,
are two bearing the name of Mazdaka — evidently after the god
Mazda. Now this name was the invention of Zoroaster himself;
and he who names himself after Mazda thereby makes a con-
fession of faith in the religion of Zoroaster whose followers,
as we know, termed themselves Mazdayasna, " worshippers of
Mazda."

Thus, if the doctrine of Zoroaster predominated in Media
in 714 B.C., obviously his appearance in the r&le of prophet
must have been much earlier. A more definite date cannot be
deduced from the evidence at our disposal, but his era may
safely be placed as far back as 1000 B.C.

The religion which Zoroaster preached was the creation of- a
single man, who, having pondered long and deeply the problems
of existence and the world, propounded the solution he found as
a divine revelation. Naturally he starts from the old views, and
is indebted to them for many of his tenets and ideas; but out of
this material he builds a uniform system which bears throughout
the impress of his own intellect. In this world, two groups of
powers confront each other in a truceless war, the powers of Good,
of Light, of creative Strength, of Life and of Truth, and the powers of
Evil, of Darkness, Destruction, Death and Deceit. In the van
of the first stands the Holy Spirit (spenta mainyu) or the " Great
Wisdom " Mazdao. His helpers and vassals are the six powers of
Good Thought (vohu mano, 'Sluavis), of Right Order (asha, Ind.
rto, Pers. aria, " lawfulness "), of the Excellent Kingdom (khshathra
vaifya), of Holy Character (spenta armaiti), of Health (haurvatat) ,
and of Immortality (ameretat). These are comprised under the
general title of "undying holy ones " (amesha spenta, amshaspand) ;
and a host of subordinate angels (yazata) are ranked with them.

The powers of evil are in all points the opposite of the good ; at their
head being the Evil Spirit (angra mainyu, Ahriman). These evil
demons are identical with the old gods of the popular faith— the
devas (div) — while Mazdao bears the name Ahura, above discussed;
whence Ahuramazda (Ormuzd).

From this it will be manifest that the figures of Zoroaster's
religion are purely abstractions; the concrete gods of vulgar belief
being set aside. All those who do not belong to the devils (devas),
might be recognized as inferior servants of Ahuramazda: chief
among them being the Sun-god Mithras (see Mithras) ; the goddess
of vegetation and fertility, especially of the Oxus-stream, Anahita
Ardvisura (Anaitis) ; and the Dragon-slayer Verethraghna (Gr.
Artagnes), with the god of the intoxicating Haoma (the Indian
Soma). In the religion of the people, these divinities always
survived ; and the popularity of Mithras is evinced by the numerous
Aryan proper names thence derived (Mithradates, &c). The
educated community who had embraced the pure doctrine in its
completeness scarcely recognized them, and the inscriptions of
Darius ignore them. Only once he speaks of " the gods of the
clans," and once of " the other gods which there are." Not till
the time of Artaxerxes II. were Mithra and Anaitis received into
the official religion of the Persian kings. But they always played
a leading part in the propaganda of the Persian cults in the West.

Only one element in the old Aryan belief was preserved by Zoro-
aster in all its sanctity: that of Fire — the purest manifestation of
Ahuramazda and the powers of Good. Thus fire-altars were every-
where erected; and, to the prophet also, the Fire-kindlers (athravan)
were the ministers and priests of the true religion and the inter-
mediaries between God and man; at last in the popular mind,
Zoroastrianism was identified with Fire-worship pure and simple,
— inadequate though the term in reality is, as a description of its
essentials.

Midway in this opposition of the powers of Good and Evil, man
is placed. He has to choose on which side he will stand : he is called
to serve the powers of Good: his duty lies in speaking the truth
and combating the lie. And this is fulfilled when he obeys the com-
mands of law and the true order; when he tends his cattle and
fields, in contrast with the lawless and predatory nomad (Dahae) ;
when he wars on all harmful and evil creatures, and on the devil-
worshippers; when he keeps free from pollution the pure creations
of Ahuramazda — fire foremost, but also earth and water; and,
above all, when he practises the Good and True in thought, word
and work. And as his deeds are, so shall be his fate and his future
lot on the Day of Judgment ; when he must cross the Bridge Cinvat,
which, according to his works, will either guide him to the Paradise
of Ahuramazda or precipitate him to the Hell of Ahriman. Obvi-
ously, it was through this preaching of a judgment to come and a
direct moral responsibility of the individual man, that, like Mahomet
among the Arabs, Zoroaster and his disciples gained their adherents
and exercised their greatest influence.

In this creed of Zoroastrianism three important points are
especially to be emphasized : for on them depend its peculiar charac-
teristics and historical significance : —

1. The abstractions which it preaches are not products of meta-
physical speculation, as in India, but rather the ethical forces
which dominate human life. They impose a duty upon man, and
enjoin on him a positive line of action — a definite activity in the
world. And this world he is not to eschew, like the Brahman and
the Buddhist, but to work in it, enjoying existence and life to the
full. Thus a man's birthday is counted the highest festival (Herod,
i. 133) ; and thus the joie de vivre, rich banquets and carousals are
not rejected by the Persian as godless and worldly, but are even
prescribed by his religion. To create offspring and people the world
with servants of Ahuramazda is the duty of every true believer. 1

2. This religion grew up in the midst of a settled peasant popu-
lation, whose mode of life and views it regards as the natural
disposition of things. Consequently, it is at once a product of,
and a main factor in civilization; and is thereby sharply differ-
entiated from the Israelite religion, with whose moral precepts
it otherwise coincides so frequently.

3. The preaching of Zoroaster is directed to each individual
man, and requires of him that he shall choose his position with
regard to the fundamental problems of life and religion. Thus,
even though it arose from national views, in its essence it is not
national (as, for instance, the Israelite creed), but individualistic,
and at the same time universal. From the first, it aims at propa-
ganda ; and the nationality of the convert is a matter of indifference.
So Zoroaster himself converted the Turanian Fryana with his kindred
(see above) ; and the same tendency to proselytize alien peoples sur-
vived in his religion. Zoroastrianism, in fact, is the first creed to
work by missions or to lay claim to universality of acceptance.
It was, however, only natural that its adherents should be won, first
and chiefly, among the countrymen of the prophet, and its further
success in gaining over all the Iranian tribes gave it a national
stamp. So t he Susan translation of Darius' Behistun inscription

1 These ideas are strongly exposed in a polemic against the
Christians contained in an official edict of the Persian creed to the
Armenians by Mihr Narseh, the vizier of Yazdegerd II- (about
A.D. 450), preserved by the Armenian historian, Eliane.

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PERSIA

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

terms Ahuramazda " the god of the Aryans." Thus the creed
became a powerful factor in the development of an united Iranian
nationality.

That a religion, which lays its chief stress upon moral precepts,
may readily develop into casuistry and external formalism, with an
infinity of minute prescriptions, injunctions on purity and the like, is
well known. In the Avesta all these recur ad nauseam, so much so
that the primitive spirit of the religion is stifled beneath them,
as the doctrine of the ancient prophets was stifled in Judaism and
the Talmud. The Sassanid Empire, indeed, is completely dominated
by this formalism and ritualism; but the earlier testimony of Darius
in his inscriptions and the statements in Herodotus enable us still
to recognize the original healthy life of a religion capable of awaken-
ing the enthusiastic devotion of the inner man. Its formal character
naturally germinated in the priesthood (Herod, i. 140; cf. Strabo
xv - 733> &c). The priests diligently practise all the precepts of
their ritual — e.g. the extermination of noxious animals, and the
exposure of corpses to the dogs and birds, that earth may not be
polluted by their presence. They have advice for every contingency
in life, and can say with precision when a man has been defiled, and
how he may be cleansed again; they possess an endless stock of
formulae for prayer, and of sentences which serve for protection
against evil spirits and may be turned to purposes of magic.

How the doctrine overspread the whole of Iran, we do not know.
In the West, among the Medes a.nd Persians, the guardianship
... and ministry of Zoroastrianism is vested in an exclusive

m ri n priesthood — the Magians. Whence this name — unknown
agia s. ag a i rea( jy mentioned, to the Avesta — took its rise, we
have no knowledge. Herodotus (i. 101) includes the Magians in
his list of Median tribes; and it is probable that they and their
teaching reached the Persians from Media. At all events, they
play here not merely the r61e of the " Fire-kindlers " (fithravan)
in the Avesta, but are become an hereditary sacerdotal caste, acting
an important part in the state — advisers and spiritual guides to
the king, and so forth. With them the ritualism and magical
character, above mentioned, are fully developed. In the narrations
of Herodotus, they interpret dreams and predict the future; and in
Greece, from the time of Herodotus and Sophocles (Oed. Tyr. 387)
onward, the word Magian connotes a magician-priest.

See further, Zoroaster and works there quoted.

IV. Beginnings of History. — A connected chain of historical
evidence begins with the time when under Shalmaneser (Sal-
Assyrian manassar II.), the Assyrians in 836 B.C. began for
Conquest the first time to penetrate farther into the moun-
ot Media. t ams f the east; and there, in addition to several
non-Iranian peoples, subdued a few Median tribes. These '
wars were continued under successive kings, till the Assyrian
power in these regions attained its zenith under Sargon
(q.v.), who (715 B.C.) led into exile the Median chief Dayuku
(see Deioces), a vassal of the Minni (Mannaeans), with all
his family, and subjected the princes of Media as far as the
mountain of Bikni (Elburz) and the border of the great desert.
At that time twenty-eight Median "town-lords" paid tribute
to Nineveh; two years later, (713 B.C.) no fewer than forty-six.
Sargon's successors, down to Assur-bani-pal (668-626 B.C.),
maintained and even augmented their suzerainty over Media,
in spite of repeated attempts to throw off the yoke in conjunc-
tion with the Mannaeans, the Saparda, the Cimmerians — who
had penetrated into the Armenian mountains — and others.
Not till the last years of Assur-bani-pal, on which the extant
Assyrian annals are silent, can an independent Median Empire
have arisen.

As to the history of this empire, we have an ancient account
in Herodotus, which, with a large admixture of the legendary,
The still contains numerous historical elements, and a

Median completely fanciful account from Ctesias, preserved
Empire. j n Diodorus (ii. 32 sqq.) and much used by later
writers. In the latter Nineveh is destroyed by the Mede Arbaces
and the Babylonian Belesys about 880 B.C., a period when the
Assyrians were just beginning to lay the foundations of their
power. Arbaces is then followed by a long list of Median kings,
all of them fabulous. On the other hand, according to Herodotus
the Medes revolt from Assyria about 710 B.C., that is to say,
at the exact time when they were subdued by Sargon. Deioces
founds the monarchy; his son Phraortes begins the work of
conquest; and his son Cyaxares is first overwhelmed by the
Scythians, then captures Nineveh, and raises Media 'to a great
power. A little supplementary information may be gleaned
from the inscriptions of King Nabonidus of Babylon (555-539)

and from a few allusions in the Old Testament. Of the Median
Empire itself we do not possess a single monument. Consequently
its history still lies in complete obscurity (cf. Media; Deioces;
Phraortes; Cyaxares).

The beginnings of the Median monarchy can scarcely go farther
back than 640 B.C. To all appearance, the insurrection against
Assyria must have proceeded from the desert tribe of the
Manda, mentioned by Sargon: for Nabonidus invariably de-
scribes the Median kings as " kings of the Manda." According
to the account of Herodotus, the dynasty was derived from
Deioces, the captive of Sargon, whose descendants may have
found refuge in the desert. The first historical king would
seem to have been Phraortes, who probably succeeded in
subduing the small local princes of Media and in rendering
himself independent of Assyria. Further development was
arrested by the Scythian invasion described by Herodotus.
We know from Zephaniah and Jeremiah that these northern
barbarians, in 626 B.C., overran and harried Syria and Palestine
(cf. Cyaxares; Jews). With these inroads of the Cimmerians
and Scythians (see Scythia), we must doubtless connect the
great ethnographical revolution in the north of anterior Asia;
the Indo-European Armenians (Haik), displacing the old Alaro-
dians (Urartu, Ararat), in the country which has since borne
their name; and the entry of the Cappadocians — first mentioned
in the Persian period — into the east of Asia Minor. The Scythian
invasion evidently contributed largely to the enfeeblement of
the Assyrian Empire: for in the same year the Chaldaean Nabo-
polassar founded the New-Babylonian empire; and in 606 B.C.
Cyaxares captured and destroyed Nineveh and the other
Assyrian cities. Syria and the south he abandoned to Nabo-
polassar and his son Nebuchadrezzar; while, on the other hand,
Assyria proper, east of the Tigris, the north of Mesopotamia
with the town of Harran (Carrhae) and the mountains of Armenia
were annexed by the Medes. Cappadocia also fell before
Cyaxares; in a war with the Lydian Empire the decisive battle
was broken off by the celebrated eclipse of the sun on the 28th
of May 585 B.C., foretold by Thales (Herod, i. 74). After this a
peace was arranged by Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon and Syen-
nesis of Cilicia, recognizing the Halys as the borderline. To the
east, the Median Empire extended far over Iran, even the
Persians owning its sway. Ecbatana (q.v.) became the capital.
Of the states which arose out of the shattered Assyrian Empire
(Media, Babylon, Egypt, Cilicia and Lydia), Media was by far
the strongest. In Babylon the kings feared, and the exiled
Jews hoped, an attack from the Medes (cf. Isa. xiii., xiv., xxi.;
Jer. 1., Ii.); and Nebuchadrezzar sought by every means —
great fortifications, canals and so forth — to secure his empire
against the menace from the north. He succeeded in maintain-
ing the status quo practically unimpaired, additional security
being found in intermarriage between the two dynasties. In
this state of equilibrium the great powers of Anterior Asia
remained during the first half of the 6th century.

V. The Persian Empire of the Achaemenids. — The balance,
however, was disturbed in 553 B.C., when the Persian Cyrus,
king of Anshan in Elam (Susiana), revolted against conquests
his suzerain Astyages, the son of Cyaxares, and of Cynis
three years later defeated him at Pasargadae (q.v.). 1 and

Shortly afterwards Astyages was taken prisoner,

Cambyses.

Ecbatana reduced, and the Median Empire replaced by the
Persian. The Persian tribes were welded by Cyrus into a single
nation, and now became the foremost people in the world (see
Persis and Cyrus). At first Nabonidus of Babylon hailed
the fall of the Medes with delight and utilized the opportunity
by occupying Harran (Carrhae). But before long he recognized
the danger threatened from that quarter. Cyrus and his
Persians paid little heed to the treaties which the Median king
had concluded with the other powers; and the result was a
great coalition against him, embracing Nabonidus of Babylon,
Amasis of Egypt, Croesus of Lydia, and the Spartans, whose
highly efficient army seemed to the Oriental states of great value.
In the spiing of 546 B.C., Croesus opened the attack. Cyrus
1 See further, Babylonia and Assyria: § v. History.

HISTORY: ANCIENT]

PERSIA

207

flung himself upon him, beat him at Pteria in Cappadocia and
pursued him to Lydia. A second victory followed on the
banks of the Pactolus; by the autumn of 546 Sardis had already
fallen and the Persian power advanced at a bound to the Medi-
terranean. In the course of the next few years the Greek
littoral towns were reduced, as also the Carians and Lycians.
The king of Cilicia (Syennesis) voluntarily acknowledged the
Persian suzerainty. In 539 Nabonidus was defeated and Baby-
lon occupied, while, with the Chaldean Empire, Syria and Pales-
tine also became Persian (see Jews). The east of Iran was
further subdued, and, after Cyrus met his end (528 B.C.) in a
war against the eastern Nomads (Dahae, Massagetae), his son
Cambyses conquered Egypt (525 B.C.). Cyprus and the Greek
islands on the coast of Asia Minor also submitted, Samos being
taken by Darius. On the other hand, an expedition by Cam-
byses against the Ethiopian kingdom of Napata and Meroe
came to grief in Nubia. The usurpation of Smerdis (522-521
B.C.) and his death at the hands of Darius was the signal for
numerous insurrections in Babylon, Susiana, Persis, Media,
Armenia and many of the Eastern provinces. But, within
two years (521-519), they were all crushed by Darius and his
generals.

The causes of this astonishing success, which, in the brief space
of a single generation, raised a previously obscure and secluded
tribe to the mastery of the whole Orient, can only be
Arms ana p ar tially discerned from the evidence at our disposal.
Armour. tj.^ e decisive factor was of course their military superi-
ority. The chief weapon of the Persians, as of all Iranians, was the
bow, which accordingly the king himself holds in his portraits,
e.g. on the Behistun rock and the coins (darics). In addition
to the bow, the Persians carried short lances and short daggers.
But it was not by these weapons, nor by hand to hand fighting,
that the Persian victories were won. They overwhelmed their
enemy under a hail of arrows, and never allowed him to come to
close quarters. While the infantry kneeled to shoot, the cavalry
swarmed round the hostile squadrons, threw their lines into con-
fusion, and completed their discomfiture by a vigorous pursuit.
In a charge the infantry also might employ lance and dagger;
but the essential point was that the archers should be mobile and
their use of the bow unhampered.

Consequently, only a few distinguished warriors wore shirts of
mail. For purposes of defence the rank and file merely carried
a light hide-covered shield ; which the infantry, in shooting, planted
before them as a sort of barrier against the enemy's missiles. Thus
the Persian army was lost, if heavy-armed hoplites succeeded in
gaining their lines. In spite of all their bravery, they succumbed
to the Greek phalanx, when once the generalship of a Miltiades
or a Pausanias had brought matters to a hand to hand conflict ;
and it was with justice that the Greeks— Aeschylus, for instance —
viewed their battles against the Persian as a contest between
spear and bow. None the less, till Marathon the Persians were
successful in discomfiting every enemy before he could close, whether
that enemy consisted of similarly accoutred bowmen (as the Medes),
of cavalry armed with the lance (as the Lydians), or of heavily
armoured warriors (as the Babylonians, Egyptians and Greeks).

To all this should be added the superiority of their leaders;
Cyrus especially must have been an exceedingly able general.
Obviously, also, he must have understood the art of organizing his
people and arousing the feeling of nationality and the courage of
self-sacrifice. In his time the Persians were a strong manly
peasantry, domiciled in a healthy climate and habituated to all
hardships — a point repeatedly emphasized, in the tales preserved
by Herodotus, as the cause of their successes (e.g. Herod, ix. 122).
Herodotus, however, also records (i. 135) that the Persians were
" of all mankind the readiest to adopt foreign customs, good or
bad," a sentence which is equally applicable to the Romans, and
which in the case of both nations goes far to explain, not merely
their successes, but also the character of their empires.

The fundamental features of the imperial organization must
have been due to Cyrus himself. Darius followed in his steps
Orgaaiza- and completed the vast structure. His role, indeed,
tloa at was peculiarly that of supplementing and perfecting
Darius - the work of his great predecessor. The organization
of the empire is planned throughout on broad, free lines; there
is nothing mean and timorous in it. The great god Ahuramazda,
whom king and people alike acknowledge, has given them domi-
nion "over this earth afar, over many peoples and tongues;"
and the consciousness is strong in them that they are masters
of the world. Thus their sovereign styles himself " the king of
kings " and " the king of the lands " — that is to say, of the

whole civilized world. For the provinces remaining unsubdued
on the extreme frontiers to the west, the north and the east are
in their view almost negligible quantities. And far removed
as the Persians are from disavowing their proud sense of nation-
ality (" a Persian, the son of a Persian, an Aryan of Aryan
stock " says Darius of himself in the inscription on his tomb) —
yet equally vivid is the feeling that they rule the whole civilized
world, that their task is to reduce it to unity, and that by the
will of Ahuramazda they are pledged to govern it aright.

This is most clearly seen in the treatment of the subject
races. In contrast with the Assyrians and the Romans the
Persians invariably conducted their wars with great
humanity. The vanquished kings were honourably Nations.
dealt with, the enemy's towns were spared, except
when grave offences and insurrections, as at Miletus and
Athens, rendered punishment imperative; and their inhabitants
were treated with mildness. Like Cyrus, all his successors
welcomed members of the conquered nationalities to their
service, employed them as administrators or generals and made
them grants of land: and this not only in the case of Medes,
but also of Armenians, Lydians, Jews and Greeks. The whole
population of the empire was alike bound to military service.
The subject-contingents stood side by side with the native
Persian troops; and the garrisons— in Egypt, for instance —
were composed of the most varied nationalities.

Among the subject races the Medes particularly stood high
in favour. Darius in his inscriptions always names them imme-
diately after the Persians. They were the predecessors of the
Persians in the empire and the more civilized people. Their
institutions, court ceremonial and dress were all adopted by
the Achaemenids. Thus the tribal distinctions began to recede,
and the ground was prepared for that amalgamation of the
Iranians into a single, uniform nation, which under the Sassanids
was completely perfected — at least for west of Iran.

The lion's share, indeed, falls to the dominant race itself.
The inhabitants of Persis proper — from which the eastern tribes
of Carmanians, Utians, &c, were excluded and
formed into a separate satrapy — -pay no taxes. Persians.
Instead, they bring the best of their possessions
(e.g. a particularly fine fruit) as a gift to their king
on festival days; peasants meeting him on his excursions
do the same (Plut. Artax. 4. 5; Dinon ap. Aelian. var.
hist. i. 31; Xen. Cyr. viii. 5, 21. 7, 1). In recompense for this,
he distributes on his return rich presents to every Persian
man and woman — the women of Pasargadae, who are members
of Cyrus's tribe, each receiving a piece of gold (Nic. Dam. fr.
66. Plut. Alex. 69). In relation to his Persians, he is always the
people's king. At his accession he is consecrated in the temple
of a warrior-goddess (Anaitis ?) at Pasargadae, and partakes
of the simple meal of the old peasant days — a mess of figs, tere-
binths and sour milk (Plut. Artax. 3). The Persians swear
allegiance to him and pray to Ahuramazda for his life and the
welfare of the people, while he vows to protect them against
every attack, and to judge and govern them as did his fathers
before him (Herod, i. 132; Xen. Cyr. xviii. 5, 25, 27). For helpers
he has at his side the " law-bearers " (databara Dan. iii. 2, and in
Babyl. documents; cf. Herod, iii. 31, v. 25, vii. 194; Esther
i. 13, &c). These — the Persian judges — are nominated by the
king for life, and generally bequeath their office to their sons.
The royal decision is based on consultation with the great ones
of his people: and such is the case with his officials and governors
everywhere (cf. the Book of Ezra).

Every Persian able to bear arms is bound to serve the king
— the great landowners on horseback, the commonalty on foot.
The noble and well-to-do, who need not till their fields in person,
are pledged to appear at court as frequently as possible. Their
children are brought up in company with the princes " at the
gates of the king," instructed in the handling of arms, in riding
and hunting, and introduced to the service of the state and the
knowledge of the law, as well as the commandments of religion.
Then such as prove their worth are called to high office and
rewarded, generally with grants of land.

2o8

PERSIA

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

The highest rank was held by the descendants of the six great
families, whose heads stood by Darius at the killing of the
Magian. The Greeks class them and the king together, under
the name of " the seven Persians." These enjoyed the right of
entering the presence unannounced, and possessed princely
estates in the provinces. Besides these, however, numbers of
other Persians were despatched to the provinces, settled there,
and endowed with lands. There existed, in fact, under the
Achaemenids a strong colonizing movement, diffused through
the whole empire; traces of this policy occur more especially in
Armenia, Cappadocia and Lycia, but also in the rest of Asia
Minor, and not rarely in Syria and Egypt. These colonists
formed the nucleus of the provincial military levy, and were a
tower of strength to the Persian dominion. They composed,
moreover, the Persian council, and vice-regal household of the
Satraps, exactly as the Persians of the home-country composed
*hat of the king.

Though the world-empire of Persia was thus deeply impressed
by a national character, care was nevertheless exercised that
the general duties and interests of the subject races should
receive due consideration. We find their representatives,
side by side with the Persians, occupying every sort of position
in the regal and vice-regal courts. They take their part in the
councils of the satraps, precisely as they do in military service
(cf. the evidence of Ezra); and they, too, are rewarded by
bounties and estates. To wield a peaceful authority over all
the subjects of the empire, to reward merit, and to punish
transgression — such is the highest task of king and officials.

On his native soil Gyrus built himself a town, with a palace
and a tomb, in the district of Pasargadae (now the ruins of
Murghab). This Darius replaced by a new capital,
r° Wences deeper in the centre of the country, which bore the
name " Persian " (Pdrsa), the Persepolis (q.v.) of
the later Greeks. But the district of Persis was too remote to
be the administrative centre of a world-empire. The natural
centre lay, rather, in the ancient fertile tract on the lower Tigris
and Euphrates. The actual capital of the empire was therefore
Susa, where Darius I. and Artaxerxes II. erected their magnifi-
cent palaces. The winter months the kings chiefly spent in
Babylon: the hot summer, in the cooler situation of Ecbatana,
where Darius and Xerxes built a residence on Mt Elvend, south
of the city. From a palace of Artaxerxes II. in Ecbatana itself,
the fragments of a few inscribed columns (now in the possession
of Mr Lindo Myers and published by Evetts in the Zeitschr. f.
Assyr. V.) have been preserved. To Persis and Persepolis the
kings paid only occasional visits especially at their coronations.
Within the empire, the two great civilized states incorporated
by Cyrus and Cambyses, Babylon and Egypt, occupied a position
of their own. After his defeat of Nabonidus, Cyrus
*^' t proclaimed himself " King of Babel "; and the same
title was born by Cambyses, Smerdis and Darius.
So, in Egypt, Cambyses adopted in full the titles of the Pharaohs.
In this we may trace a desire to conciliate the native population,
with the object of maintaining the fiction that the old state still
continued. Darius went still farther. He encouraged the
efforts of the Egyptian priesthood in every way, built temples,
and enacted new laws in continuance of the old order. In
Babylon his procedure was presumably similar, though here
we possess no local evidence. But he lived to see that his policy
had missed its goal. In 486 B.C. Egypt revolted and was only
reduced by Xerxes in 484. It was this, probably, that induced
him in 484 to renounce his title of " king of Babel," and to
remove from its temple the golden statue of Bel-Marduk (Mero-
dach), whose hands the king was bound to clasp on the first day
of each year. This proceeding led to two insurrections in
Babylon (probably in 484 and 479 B.C.), which were speedily
repressed. After that the " kingship of Babel " was definitely
abolished. In Egypt the Persian kings still retained the style
of the Pharaohs; but we hear no more of concessions to the
priesthood or to the old institutions, and, apart from the great
o»&is of el-Kharga, no more temples were erected (see Egypt:
History).

At the head of the court and the imperial administration
stands the commandant of the body-guard — the ten thousand
" Immortals," often depicted in the sculptures of The vizier
Persepolis with lances surmounted by golden apples, and other
This grandee, whom the Greeks termed " Chiliarch," Oftkl&is.
corresponds to the modern vizier. In addition to him, we
find seven councillors (Ezra vii. 14; cf. Esther i. 14). Among
the other officials, the " Eye of the King " is frequently
mentioned. To him was entrusted the control of the whole
empire and the superintendence of all officials.

The orders of the court were issued in a very simple form of the
cuneiform script, probably invented by the Medes. This comprised
36 signs, almost all of which denote single sounds. In nff .,
the royal inscriptions, a translation into Susan (Elam- Ottkia!
itic) and Babylonian was always appended to the l ' an S>' a K es '
Persian text. In Egypt one in hieroglyphics was added, as
in the inscriptions of the Suez canal; in the Grecian provinces,
another in Greek (e.g. the inscription of Darius on the Bos-
porus, Herod, iv. 37, cf. iv. 91). The cuneiform script could
only be written on stone or clay. Thus there has been discovered
in Babylon a copy of the Behistun (q.v.) inscription preserved on
a block of dolerite (Weissbach, Babylonische Miscellen. p. 24).
For administrative purposes, however, it would seem that this
inconvenient material was not employed; its place being taken
by skins (5u£0ep(u, parchment), the use of which was adopted
from the western peoples of the empire. On these were further
written the journals and records kept at the court (cf. Diod. ii.
22, 32; Ezra iv. 15, v. 17, vi. 2; Esther vi. 1, ii. 23). _ With such
materials the cuneiform script could not be used; instead, the
Persian language was written in Aramaic characters, a method
which later led to the so-called Pahlavi, i.e. Parthian script. This
mode of writing was obviously alone employed in the state-services
since Darius I.; and so may be explained the fact that, under the
Achaemenids, the Persian language rapidly declined, and, in the
inscriptions of Artaxerxes III., only appears in an extremely
neglected guise (see Cuneiform Inscriptions, Alphabet).

Side by side with the Persian, the Aramaic, which had long been
widely diffused as t^s «r>eech of commerce, enjoyed currency in
all the western halt of the empire as a second dominant language.
Thus all deeds, enactments and records designed for these provinces
were furnished with an official Aramaic version (Ezra iv. 7). Numer-
ous documents in this tongue, dating from the Persian period,
have been discovered in Egypt (cf. Sayce and Cowley, Arama-L
Papyri discovered at Assuan 1906), and the coins minted by the
satraps and generals usually bear an Aramaic inscription. (So,
also, a lion-weight from Abydos, in the British Museum.) The
Demotic in Egypt was employed in private documents alone.
Only in the Hellenic provinces of the empire Greek replaced
Aramaic (cf. the letter to Pausanias in Thuc. i. 129; an edict to
Gadatas in Magnesia, Cousin et Deschamps, Bulletin de corresp.
hellenique xii. 530, Dittenberger, Sylloge 2; so, also, on coins) — a
clear proof that the Persians had already begun to recognize the
independent and important position of Greek civilization. 1

Darius I. divided the Persian Empire into twenty great pro-
vinces, satrapies, with a " guardian of the country " (khshalhra-
pavan; see Satrap) at the head of each. A list is
preserved in Herodotus (iii. 89 sqq.); but the boun- satrapies.
daries were frequently changed. Each satrapy was
again subdivided into several minor governorships. The satrap
is the head of the whole administration of his province. He
levies the taxes, controls the legal procedure, is responsible for
the security of roads and property, and superintends the subor-
dinate districts. The heads of the great military centres of the
empire and the commandants of the royal fortresses are outside
his jurisdiction: yet the satraps are entitled to a body of troops
of their own, a privilege which they used to the full, especially
in later periods. The satrap is held in his position as a subject
by the controlling machinery of the empire, especially the " Eye
of the King "; by the council of Persians in his province with

1 For the editions of the Persian inscriptions see Behistun.
For the Persian documents, Ed. Meyer Entstehung des Judentums,
p. 19 sqq. The hieroglyphic inscriptions of the Suez Canal are pub-
lished in the Recueil de trav. d'egyptol. et d'assyriol. vols. vii. ix.
xi. xiii; the private documents from Babylonia and Nippur, by
Strassmaier, Babyl. Urkunden, and Hilprecht and Clay, Babyl.
Exped. of Univ. of Pennsylvania, vols. ix. x. Numerous Jewish docu-
ments in Aramaic have been found at Elephantine (Sayce and
Cowley, Aramaic Papyri discovered at Assuan, 1906), among them an
official complaint of the Jewish colony settled at Elephantine,
addressed to the Persian satrap of Judaea, in 408 B.C., which throws
a new light on many passages in Ezra and Nehemiah, published by
Sachan in Abhandlungen der berl. Akademie, 1907.

HISTORY: ANCIENT]

PERSIA

209

whom he is bound to debate all matters of importance; and by
the army: while in the hands of the messengers (Pers. &crri.v8ai.
or byyapoi — a Babylonian word: see Angaria) the government
despatches travel " swifter than the crane " along the great
imperial highways, which are all provided with regular postal
stations (cf. the description of the route from Susa to Sardis in
Herod, v. 52).

Within the satrapies the subject races and communities
occupied a tolerably independent position; for instance, the
Subject Jews, under their elders and priests, who were even
Com muni- able to convene a popular assembly in Jerusalem
ties. ( c f the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah). Obviously

also, they enjoyed, as a rule, the privilege of deciding law-suits
among themselves; their general situation being similar to that
of the Christian nationalities under the Ottomans, or to that of
many tribes in the Russian Empire at the present day. The
pressure of despotism was manifest, not so much in that the
king and his officials consistently interfered in individual cases,
but that they did so on isolated and arbitrary occasions, and
then swept aside the privileges of the subject, who was impotent
to resist.

For the rest, the subject population falls into a number of
distinct groups. In the desert (as among the Arabian and
Turanian nomads), in wild and sequestered mountains (as in
Zagros in north Media, and Mysia, Pisidia, Paphlagonia and
Bithynia in Asia Minor), and also in many Iranian tribes, the
old tribal constitution, with the chieftain as its head, was left
intact even under the imperial suzerainty. The great majority
of the civilized provinces were subdivided into local administra-
tive districts governed by officials of the king and his satraps.
These the Greeks named Wvt), " peoples." Within these,
again, there might lie large town settlements whose internal
affairs were controlled by the elders or the officials of the com-
munity: as, for instance, Babylon, Jerusalem, the Egyptian
cities, Tarsus, Sardis and others. On the same footing were
the spiritual principalities, with their great temple-property;
as Bambyce in Syria, the two Comanas in Cappadocia, and so
forth. Besides these, however, vast districts were either con-
verted into royal domains (irapaSeicrot,) with great' parks and
hunting grounds under royal supervision, or else bestowed by
the king on Persians or deserving members of the subject-races
(the " benefactors") as their personal property. Many of these
estates formed respectable principalities: e.g. those of the
house of Otanes in Cappadocia, of Hydarnes in Armenia,
Pharnabazus in Phrygia, Demaratus in Teuthrania, Themis-
tocles in Magnesia and Lampsacus. They were absolute private
property, handed down from father to son for centuries, and
in the Hellenistic period not rarely became independent king-
doms. These potentates were styled by the Greeks dw6.<xrai
or nbvapxoi.

The last class, quite distinct from all these organizations,
was formed by the city-states (iroXeis) with an independent
constitution — whether a monarchy (as in Phoenicia),
States!* an aristocracy (as inLycia),or a repubtic with council
and popular assembly (as in the Greek towns).
The essential point was that they enjoyed a separate legalized
organization (autonomy). This was only to be seen in the
extreme western provinces of the empire among the Phoeni-
cians, Greeks and Lycians, whose cities were essentially distinct
from those of the east; which, indeed, to Greek eyes, were only
great villages (<ca>/«wr6Xeis). It is readily intelligible that
their character should have proved practically incomprehensible
to the Persians, with whom they came into perpetual collision.
These sought, as a rule, to cope with the difficulty by transferring
the government to individual persons who enjoyed their confi-
dence: the " tyrants " of the Greek towns. Mardonius, alone,
after his suppression of the Ionic revolt — which had originated
with these very tyrants — made an attempt to govern them by
the assistance of the democracy (492 B.C.).

The provinces of the Persian Empire differed as materially in
economy as in organization. In the extreme west, a money currency
in its most highly developed form — that of coinage minted by

the state, or an autonomous community — had developed since the
7th century among the Lydians and Greeks. In the co mmerce
main portion, however, of the Oriental world — Egypt, an< / Finaace.
Svria, Phoenicia and Babylonia — the old mode
of commerce was still in vogue, conducted by means of gold
and silver bars, weighed at each transaction. Indeed, a money
currency only began to make headway in these districts in the
4th century B.C. In the eastern provinces, on the other hand, the
primitive method of exchange by barter still held the field. Only
in the auriferous and civilized frontier districts of India (the
Punjab) did a system of coinage find early acceptance. There
Persian and Attic money was widely distributed, and imitations
of it struck, in the fifth and fourth pre-Christian centuries.

Thus the empire was compelled to grapple with all these varied
conditions and to reconcile them as best it might. At the court,
" natural economy " was still the rule. The officials and Oriental
troops received payment in kind. They were fed " by the table
of the king," from which 15,000 men daily drew their sustenance
(cf. Heraclides of Cyme in Athen.iv. 145 B, &c.)and were rewarded
by gifts and assignments of land. The Greek mercenaries, on the
contrary, had to be paid in currency; nor could the satraps of the
west dispense with hard cash. The king, again, needed the precious
metals, not merely for bounties and rewards, but for important
enterprises in which money payment was imperative. Conse-
quently, the royal revenues and taxes were paid partly in the
precious metals, partly in natural produce — horses and cattle,
grain, clothing and its materials, furniture and all articles of
industry (cf. Theopomp. fr. 124, 125, &c). The satraps, also, in
addition to nioney payments, levied contributions " for their tabie,"
at which the officials ate (Nehem. v. 14).

The precious metals brought in by the tribute were collected in
the great, treasure-houses at Susa, Persepolis, Pasargadae and
Ecbatana, where gigantic masses of silver and, more Money and
especially, ' of gold, were stored in bullion or partially coinage.
wrought into vessels (Herod, iii. 96; Strabo xv. 731,
735; Arrian iii. 16, &c.) ; exactly as is the case to-day in the shah's
treasure-chamber (Curzon, Persia, ii. 484). It is also observable
that the conjunction of payments in kind and money taxes still
exists. The province of Khorasan, for instance, with some half
million inhabitants, paid in 1885 £154,000 in gold, and in addition
natural produce to the value of £43,000 (Curzon, op. cit. i. 181,
ii. 380). When the king required money he minted as much as
was necessary. A reform in the coinage was effected by Darius,
who struck the Daric (Pers. Zariq, i.e. "piece of gold "; the word
has nothing to do with the name of Darius), a gold piece of 130
grains (value about 23s.) ; this being equivalent to 20 silver pieces
(" Median shekels," criyXoi) of 86-5 grains (value according to the
then rate of silver — 13$ silver to I gold— about is. 2d.). The
coining of gold was the exclusive prerogative of the king; silver
could be coined by the satraps, generals, independent communities
and dynasts.

The extent of the Persian Empire was, in essentials, defined
by the great conquests of Cyrus and Cambyses. Darius was
no more a conquistador than Augustus. Rather,
the task he set himself was to round off the empire p£/w.
and secure its borders: and for this purpose in Asia
Minor and Armenia he subdued the mountain-tribes and
advanced the frontier as far as the Caucasus; Colchis alone
remaining an independent kingdom under the imperial
suzerainty. So, too, he annexed the Indus valley and the
auriferous hill-country of Kafiristan and Cashmir (Ka<nrioi or
Kacnretpoi, Herod, iii. 93, vii. 67, 86; Steph. Byz.), as well as
the Dardae in Dardistan on the Indus (Ctesias, Ind. fr. 12.
70, &c). From this point he directed several campaigns
against the Amyrgian Sacae, on the Pamir Plateau and
northwards, whom he enumerates in his list of subject races,
and whose mounted archers formed a main division of the
armies despatched against the Greeks. It was obviously an
attempt to take the nomads of the Turanian steppe in the
rear and to reduce them to quiescence, which led to his
unfortunate expedition against the Scythians of the Russian
steppes (e. 512 b.c; cf. Darius).

Side by side, however, with these wars, we can read, even in
the scanty tradition at our disposal, a consistent effort to further
the great civilizing mission imposed on the empire. In the
district of Herat, Darius established a great water-basin, designed
to facilitate the cultivation of the steppe (Herod, iii. 117). He
had the course of the Indus explored by the Carfan captain
Scylax (q.v.) of Caryanda, who then navigated the Indian Ocean
back to Suez (Herod, iv. 44) and wrote an account of his voyage
in Greek. The desire to create a direct communication between
I the seclusion of Persis and the commerce of the world is evident

2lO

PERSIA

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

in his foundation of several harbours, described by Nearchus,
on the Persian coast. But this design is Still more patent in
his completion of a great canal, already begun by Necho, from
the Nile to Suez, along which several monuments of Darius have
been preserved. Thus it was possible, as says the remnant of an
hieroglyphic inscription there discovered, " for ships to sail
direct from the Nile to Persia, over Saba." In the time of Hero-
dotus the canal was in constant use (ii. 158, iv. 39): afterwards,
when Egypt regained her independence, it decayed, till restored
by the second Ptolemy. Even the circumnavigation of Africa was
attempted under Xerxes (Herod, iv. 43).

It has already been mentioned, that, in his efforts to conciliate
the Egyptians, Darius placed his chief reliance on the priest-
hood: and the same tendency runs throughout the imperial
policy toward the conquered races. Thus Cyrus himself gave
the exiled Jews in Babylon permission to return and rebuild Jeru-
salem. Darius allowed the restoration of the Temple; and
Artaxerxes I., by the protection accorded to Ezra and Nehemiah,
made the foundation of Judaism possible (see Jews: §§ 19 sqq.).
Analogously in an edict, of which a later copy is preserved in an
inscription (see above), Darius commands Gadatas, the governor
of a domain (■Kapa.deiooi) in Magnesia on the Maeander, to
observe scrupulously the privileges of the Apollo-sanctuary.
With all the Greek oracles — even those in the mother-country —
the Persians were on the best of terms. And since these might
reasonably expect an enormous extension of their influence from
the establishment of a Persian dominion, we find them all
zealously medizing during the expedition of Xerxes.

For the development of the Asiatic religions, the Persian Empire
was of prime importance. The definite erection of a single, vast,
„ fj-i oa world-empire cost them their original connexion with
e ^ ' the state, and compelled them in future to address
themselves, not to the community at large, but to individuals, to
promise, not political success nor the independence of the people,
but the welfare of the man. Thus they became at once universal
and capable of extension by propaganda; and, with this, of entering
into keen competition one with the other. These traits are most
clearly marked in Judaism; but, after the Achaemenid period,
they are common to all Oriental creeds, though our information
as to most is scanty in the extreme.

In this competition of religions that of Iran played a most
spirited part. The Persian kings — none more so than Darius,
whose religious convictions are enshrined in his inscriptions—
and, with the kings, their people, were ardent professors of the
pure doctrine of Zoroaster ; and the Persians settled in the provinces
diffused his creed throughout the whole empire. Thus a strong
Persian propagandism arose especially in Armenia and Cappadocia,
where the religion took deep root among the people, but also in
Lydia and Lycia. In the process, however, important modifications
were introduced. In contrast with Judaism, Zoroastrianism did
not enter the lists against all gods save its own, but found no
difficulty in recognizing them as subordinate powers — helpers
and servants of Ahuramazda. Consequently, the foreign creeds
often reacted upon the Persian. In Cappadocia, Aramaic inscriptions
have been discovered (1900), in which the indigenous god, there
termed Bel the king, recognizes the " Mazdayasnian Religion "
(Din Mazdayasnish) — i.e. the religion of Ahuramazda personified
as a woman — as his sister and wife (Lidzbarski, Ephem. j. semit.
Epigr. i. 59 sqq.).

The gorgeous cult of the gods of civilization (especially of Baby-
lon), with their host of temples, images and festivals, exercised a
corresponding influence on the mother-country. Moreover, the
unadulterated doctrine of Zoroaster could no more become a per-
manent popular religion than can Christianity. For the masses
can make little of abstractions and an omnipotent, omnipresent
deity; they need concrete divine powers, standing nearer to them-
selves and their lot. Thus the old figures of the Aryan folk-religion
return to the foreground, there to be amalgamated with the Baby-
lonian divinities. The goddess of springs and streams (of the Oxus
in particular) and of all fertility — Ardvisura Anahita, Anaitis —
is endowed with the form of the Babylonian Ishtar and Belit.
She is now depicted as a beautiful and strong woman, with prominent
breasts, a golden crown of stars and golden raiment. She is wor-
shipped as the goddess of generation and all sexual life (cf. Herod,
i. 131, where the names of Mithras and Anaitis are interchanged);
and religious prostitution is transferred to her service (Strabo xi.
532, xii. 559). At her side stands the sun-god Mithras, who is re-
presented as a young* and victorious hero. Both deities occupy
the very first rank in the popular creed; while to the theologian
they are the most potent of the good powers — Mithras being the
herald and propagator of the service of Light and the mediator
betwixt man and Ahuramazda, who now fades more into the
background. Thus, in the subsequent period, the Persian religion

appears purely as the religion of Mithras. The festival of Mithras
is the chief festival of the empire, at which the king drinks and
is drunken, and dances the national dance (Ctes. jr. 55 ; Duris jr.
13). This development culminated under Artaxerxes II., who,
according to Berossus (jr. 16 ap. Clem. Alex. prot. i. 5, 65), first
erected statues to Anaitis in Persepolis, Ecbatana, Bactria, Susa,
Babylon, Damascus and Sardis. The truth of this account is
proved by the fact that Artaxerxes II. and Artaxerxes III. are the
only Achaemenids who, in' their inscriptions, invoke Anaitis and
Mithra side by side with Ahuramazda. Other gods, who come
into prominence, are the dragon-slayer Verethraghna (Artagnes)
and the Good Thought (Vohumano, Omanos) ; and even the Sacaean
festival is adopted from Babylon (Berossus jr. 3; Ctes.,/r. 16;
Strabo xi. 512, &c). The chief centres of the Persian cults in the
west were the district of Acilisene in Armenia (Strabo xi. 532, &c),
the town of Zela in Cappadocia (Strabo xii. 559), and several cities
in Lydia.

The position of the Persian monarchy as a world-empire is
characteristically emphasized in the buildings of Darius and Xerxes
in Persepolis and Susa. The peculiarly national basis, .^

still recognizable in Cyrus's architecture at Pasargadae,
recedes into insignificance. The royal edifices and sculptures are
dependent, mainly, on Babylonian models, but, at the same time,
we can trace in them the influence of Greece, Egypt and Asia Minor;
the last in the rock-sepulchres. All these elements are combined
into an organic unity, which achieved the greatest creations that
Oriental architecture has found possible. Nevertheless, the result
is not a national art, but the art of a world-empire; and it is obvious
that foreign craftsmen must have been active in the royal services —
among them, the Greek sculptor Telephanes of Phocaea (Pliny
xxxiv. 68). So, with the collapse of the empire, the imperial art
vanishes also: and when, some 500 years later, a new art arose
under the Sassanids, whose achievements stand to those of Achae-
menid art in much the same relation as the achievements of the
two dynasties to each other, we discover only isolated reminiscences
of its predecessor.

For the organization and character of the Persian Empire, see
Barnabas Brisson, De regio Persarum principatu libri iii. (1590);
Heeren, Ideen iiber Politik, Handel und Verkehr der alien Welt, i. ;
G. Rawlinson, History oj Herodotus, ii. 555 sqq. ; Five Eastern Mon-
archies, iii. ; Eduard Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, iii. On the
Satrapies, cf. Krumbholz, De Asiae minoris satrapiis persicis
(1883). See also Mithras.

3. History of the Achaemenian Empire. — The history of the
Persian Empire was often written by the Greeks. The most
ancient work preserved is that of Herodotus (q.v.), who supplies
rich and valuable materials for the period ending in 479 B.C.
These materials are drawn partly from sound tradition, partly
from original knowledge — as in the account of the satrapies
and their distribution, the royal highway, the nations in Xerxes'
army and their equipment. They also contain much that is
admittedly fabulous: for instance, the stories of Cyrus and Croe-
sus, the conquest of Babylon, &c. Forty years later (c. 390 B.C.),
the physician Ctesias of Cnidus, who for 17 years (414-398 B.C.)
remained in the service of the Great King, composed a great
work oh the Persian history, known to us from an extract in
Photius and numerous fragments. Ctesias (q.v.) possesses a
more precise acquaintance with Persian views and institutions
than Herodotus; and, where he deals with matters that came
under his own cognisance, he gives much useful information.
For the early period, on the other hand, he only proves how
rapidly the tradition had degenerated since Herodotus; and here
his narrations can only be utilized in isolated cases, and that
with the greatest caution. Of more value was the great work of
Dinon of Colophon (c. 340), which we know from numerous
excellent fragments; and on the same level may be placed a few
statements from Heraclides of Cyme, which afford specially
important evidence on Persian institutions. To these must be
added the testimony of the other Greek historians (Thucydides,
Ephorus, Theopompus, &c, with the histories of Alexander), and,
before all, that of Xenophon in the Anabasis and Hellenica.
The Cyropaedia is a didactic romance, written with a view to
Greek institutions and rarely preserving genuine information
on the Persian Empire. Of Oriental sources, only the contem-
porary books of Ezra and Nehemiah are of much importance:
also, a few statements in the much later Esther romance. Beros-
sus's history of Babylon contained much valuable and trust-
worthy information, but next to nothing has survived. That
the native tradition almost entirely forgot the Achaemenid
Empire, has been mentioned above. For a more detailed account

HISTORY: ANCIENT]

PERSIA

2 1 1

of these sources see separate articles on Herodotus, &c; Ezra;
and Nehemiah.

Of modern accounts see especially Th. N6ldeke,Aufsatze zur
persischen Geschichte (1887). The works of Marquart, Unter-
suchungen zur Geschichte von Eran (2 pts., 1896-1905), abound in
daring theories and must be used with caution. On the chronology,
cf . Eduard Meyer, Forschungen zur alten Geschichte, ii.

The external history of the empire is treated under the
List of the individual kings (see also history sections of
Kings. articles Greece; Egypt; &c). The order is as
follows:—

Cyrus (558-528); conquered the Medes in 550; king of Babylon
from 538.

Cambyses (528-521).

Smerdis (521).

Darius I. (521-485).

Xerxes I. (485-465).

Artaxerxes I. (465-425).

(Xerxes II. and Secydianus or Sogdianus, 425-424.)

Darius II. Nothus (424-404).

Artaxerxes II. (404-359).

Artaxerxes III. Ochus (359-338).

Arses (338-336).

Darius III. (336-330).

The chronology is exactly verified by the Ptolemaic canon, by
numerous Babylonian and a few Egyptian documents, and by the
evidence of the Greeks. The present article gives only a brief
conspectus of the main events in the history of the empire.

Though, unlike Cyrus and Cambyses, Darius made no new
expeditions of conquest, yet a great empire, which is not bounded
The Wars by another equally great, but touches on many small
against tribes and independent communities, is inevitably
Greece. driven to expansion. We have already seen that the
attempt of Darius to control the predatory nomads in the north
led to his expedition against the Scythians; this, again, led to
the incorporation of Thrace and Macedonia, whose king Perdiccas
submitted. And since a great portion of the Mediterranean
coast-line belonged to the empire, further complications resulted
automatically. In contrast with the Greeks Carthage took the
part of Persia. Darius, indeed, numbers the city — under the
name of Karka — among his dominions: as also the Maxyans
(Maciya) on the Syrtes (Andreas, Verhandl. d. xiii. oriental.
Congresses, Hamburg, 1902, p. 97). But, above all, the Greek
cities with their endless feuds and violent internal factions, were
incessant in their appeals for intervention. Nevertheless,
. Darius left European Greece to itself, till the support accorded
to the Toman and Carian insurgents by Athens and Eretria
(490 B.C.) made war inevitable. But not only the expeditions
of Mardonius (492) and Datis (490), but even the carefully
prepared campaign of Xerxes, in conjunction with Carthage,
completely failed (480-479). On the fields of Marathon and
Plataea, the Persian archers succumbed to the Greek phalanx
of hoplites; but the actual decision was effected by Themistocles,
who had meanwhile created the Athenian fleet which at Salamis
proved its superiority over the Perso-Phoenician armada, and
thus precluded beforehand the success of the land-forces.

The wreck of Xerxes' expedition is the turning-point in the
history of the Persian Empire. The superiority of the Greeks
was so pronounced that the Persians never found courage to
repeat their attack. On the contrary, in 466 B.C. their army
and fleet were again defeated by Cimon on the Eurymedon, the
sequel being that the Greek provinces on the Asiatic coast, with
all the Thracian possessions, were lost. In itself, indeed, this
loss was of no great significance to such a vast empire; and the
attempts of Athens to annex Cyprus and conquer the Nile
valley, in alliance with the revolted Egyptians, ended in failure.
Athens, in fact, had not sufficient strength to undertake a serious
invasion of the empire or an extensive scheme of conquest.
Her struggles with the other Hellenic states constrained her, by
the peace of Callias (448), definitely to renounce the Persian
war; to abandon Cyprus and Egypt to the king; and to content
herself with his promise — not that he would surrender the littoral
towns, but that he would abstain from an armed attack upon
them. The really decisive point was, rather, that the disasters
of Salamis and Plataea definitely shattered the offensive power

of the empire; that the centre of gravity in the world's history
had shifted from Susa and Babylon to the Aegean Sea; and
that the Persians were conscious that in spite of all their courage
they were henceforward in the presence of an enemy, superior
in arms as well as in intellect, whom they could not hope to
subdue by their own strength.

Thus the great empire was reduced to immobility and stagna-
tion — a process which was assisted by the deteriorating influences
of civilization and world-dominion upon the character internal
of the ruling race. True, the Persians continued state of the
to produce brave and honourable men. But the Empire.
influences of the harem, the eunuchs, and similar Rebellions.
court officials, made appalling progress, and men of energy began
to find the temptations of power stronger than their patriotism
and devotion to the king. Thus the satraps aspired to inde-
pendence, not merely owing to unjust treatment, but also to
avarice or favourable conditions. As early as 465 B.C., Xerxes
was assassinated by his powerful vizier (chiliarch) Artabanus,
who attempted to seize the reins of empire in fact, if not in name.
A similar instance may be found in Bagoas (q.v.), after the
murder of Artaxerxes III. (338 B.C.). To these factors must
be added the degeneration of the royal line — a degeneration
inevitable in Oriental states. Kings like Xerxes and more
especially Artaxerxes I. and Artaxerxes II., so far from being
gloomy despots, were good-natured potentates, but weak,
capricious and readily accessible to personal influences. The
only really brutal tyrants were Darius II., who was completely
dominated by his bloodthirsty wife Parysatis, and Artaxerxes
III. who, though he shed rivers of blood and all but exterminated
his whole family, was successful in once more uniting the empire,
which under the feeble sway of his father had been threatened
with dissolution.

The upshot of these conditions was, that the empire never
again undertook an important, enterprise, but neglected more
and more its great civilizing mission. In considering, however,
the subsequent disorders and wars, it must be borne in mind
that they affected only individual portions of the empire, and
only on isolated occasions involved more extensive areas in
long and serious strife. To most of the provinces the Achae-
menid dominion was synonymous with two centuries of peace
and order. Naturally, however, the wild tribes of the mountains
and deserts, who could be curbed only by strict imperial control,
asserted their independence and harassed the neighbouring
provinces. Among the^e tribes were the Carduchians in Zagros,
the Cossaeans and Uxians in the interior of Elam, the Cadusians
and other non-Aryan tribes in northern Media, the Pisidians,
Isaurians and Lycaonians in the Taurus, and the Mysians in
Olympus. All efforts to restore order in these districts were
fruitless; and when the kings removed their court to Ecbatana,
they were actually obliged to purchase a free passage from the
mountain tribes (Strabo xi. 524; Arrian iii. 17, 1). The
kings (e.g. Artaxerxes II.) repeatedly took the field in great force
against the Cadusians, but unsuccessfully. When, in 400 B.C.,
Xenophon marched with the mercenaries of Cyrus from the
Tigris to the Black Sea, the authority of the king was non-
existent north of Armenia, and the tribes of the Pontic moun-
tains, with the Greek cities on the coast, were completely inde-
pendent. In Paphlagonia, the native dynasts founded a power-
ful though short-lived kingdom, and the chieftains of the
Bithynians were absolutely their own masters. The frontier
provinces of India were also lost. Egypt, which had already
revolted under Libyan princes in the years 486-484, and again
with Athenian help in 460-454, finally asserted its independence
in 404. Henceforward the native dynasties repelled every
attack, till they succumbed once more before Artaxerxes III.
and Mentor of Rhodes.

In the other civilized countries, indeed, the old passion for
freedom had been completely obliterated; and after the days
of Darius I. — apart from the Greek, Lycian and Phoenician
towns — not a single people in all these provinces dreamed of
shaking off the foreign dominion. All the more clearly, then,
was the inner weakness of the empire revealed by the revolts

212

PERSIA

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

of the satraps. These were facilitated by the custom — quite
contrary to the original imperial organization' — which entrusted
the provincial military commands to the satraps, who began
to receive great masses of Greek mercenaries into their service.
Under Artaxerxes I. and Darius II., these insurrections were
still rare. But when the revolt of the younger Cyrus against
his brother (401 B.C.) had demonstrated the surprising ease and
rapidity with which a courageous army could penetrate into
the heart of the empire— when the whole force of that empire
had proved powerless, not only to prevent some 12,000 Greek
troops, completely surrounded, cut off from their communica-
tions, and deprived through treachery of their leaders, from
escaping to the coast, but even to make a serious attack on
them— then, indeed, the imperial impotence became manifest.
After that, revolts of the satraps in Asia Minor and Syria were
of everyday occurrence, and the task of suppressing them was
complicated by the foreign wars which the empire had to sustain
against Greece and Egypt.

At this very period, however, the foreign policy of the empire
gained a brilliant success. The collapse of the Athenian power
Later Wars Delore Syracuse (413 B.C.) induced Darius II. to
with the order his satraps Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus,
Greeks. in Asia Minor, to collect the tribute overdue from
Peace of t h e Greek cities. In alliance with Sparta (see
AotakMas. p ELOPO nnesian War), Persia intervened in the
conflict against Athens, and it was Persian gold that made it
possible for Lysander to complete her overthrow (404 B.C.).
True, war with Sparta followed immediately, over the division
of the spoils, and the campaigns of the Spartan generals in Asia
Minor (390-395) were all the more dangerous as they gave
occasion to numerous rebellions. But Persia joined the Greek
league against Sparta, and in 394 Pharnabazus and Conon
annihilated the Lacedaemonian fleet at Cnidus. Thus the
Spartan power of offence was crippled; and the upshot of the
long-protracted war was that Sparta ruefully returned to the
Persian alliance, and by the Peace of Antalcidas (q.v.), concluded
with the king in 387 B.C., not only renounced all claims to the
Asiatic possessions, but officially proclaimed the Persian
suzerainty over Greece. Ninety years after Salamis and
Plataea, the goal for which Xerxes had striven was actually
attained, and the king's will was law in Greece. In the following
decades, no Hellenic state ventured to violate the king's peace,
and all the feuds that followed centred round the efforts of the
combatants — Sparta, Thebes, Athens arid Argos — to draw the
royal powers to their side (see Greece: Ancient History).

But, for these successes, the empire had to thank the internecine
strife of its Greek opponents, rather than its own strength. Its
feebleness, when thrown on its own resources, is evident from
the fact that, during the next years, it failed both to reconquer
Egypt and to suppress completely King Evagoras of Salamis
in Cyprus. The satrap revolts, moreover, assumed more and
more formidable proportions, and the Greek states began once
more to tamper with them. Thus the reign of Artaxerxes II.
ended, in 359 B.C., with a complete dissolution of the imperial
authority in the west. His successor, Artaxerxes Ochus,
succeeded yet again in restoring the empire in its full extent.
In 3S5 B.C., he spoke the fatal word, which, a second — or rather
a third — time, demolished the essentially unsound power of
Athens. In 343 he reduced Egypt, and his generals Mentor
and Memnon, with his vizier Bagoas (q.v.), crushed once and for
all the resistance in Asia Minor. At his death in 338, immedi-
ately before the final catastrophe, the empire to all appearances
was more powerful and more firmly established than it bad been
since the days of Xerxes.

These successes, however; were won only by means of Greek
armies and Greek generals. And simultaneously the Greek
Progress civilization — diffused by mercenaries, traders, artists,
of Greek prostitutes and slaves, — advanced in ever greater
influence. f orce- j n Asia Minor and Phoenicia we Can clearly
trace the progress of Hellenism (q.v.), especially by the coinage.
The stamp is cut by Greek hands and the Greek tongue pre-
dominates more and more in the inscription. We can see that

the victory of Greek civilization had long been prepared on
every side. But the vital point is that the absolute superiority
of the Hellene was recognized as incontestable on both hands.
The Persian sought to protect himself against danger, by employ-
ing Greeks in the national service and turning Greek policy to
the interests of the empire. In the Greek world itself the dis-
grace that a people, called to universal dominion and capable
of wielding it, should be dependent on the mandate of an im-
potent Asiatic monarchy, was keenly felt by all who were not
•yet absorbed in the rivalry of city with city. The spokesman
of this national sentiment was Isocrates; but numerous other
writers gave expression to it, notably, the historian Callisthenes
of Olynthus. Union between Greeks, voluntary or compulsory,
and an offensive war against Persia, was the programme they

propounded. ,'>vr

Nor was the time for its fulfilment far distant. The new power
which now rose to the first rank, created by Philip of Macedon,
had no engrained tendency inimical to the Persian
Empire. Its immediate programme was rather MaceOon.
Macedonian expansion, at the expense of Thrace
and Illyria, and the subjection of the Balkan Peninsula. But,
in its efforts to extend its power over the Greek states, it was
bpund to make use of the tendencies which aimed at the unifica-
tion of Greece for the struggle against Persia: and this ideal
demand it dared not reject.

Thus the conflict became inevitable. In 340, Artaxerxes III.
and his satraps supported the Greek towns in Thrace — Perinthus
and Byzantium — against Macedonian aggression; in 338 he
concluded an alliance with Demosthenes. When Philip, after
the victory of Chaeronea, had founded the league of Corinth
(337) embracing the whole of Greece, he accepted the national
programme, and in 336 despatched his army to Asia Minor.
That he never entertained the thought of conquering the whole
Persian Empire is certain. Presumably, his ambitions would
have been satisfied with the liberation of the Greek cities, and,
perhaps, the subjection of Asia Minor as far as the Taurus.
With this his dominion would have attained much the same
compass as later under Lysimachus; farther than this the
boldest hopes of Isocrates never went.

But Philip's assassination in 336 fundamentally altered the
situation. In the person of his son, the throne was occupied .
by a soldier and statesman of genius, saturated with Greek
culture and Greek thought, and intolerant of every goal but the
highest. To conquer the whole world for Hellenic civilization
by the aid of Macedonian spears, and to reduce the whole earth
to unity, was the task that this heir of Heracles and Achilles
saw before him. This idea of universal conquest was with him
a conception much stronger developed than that which had
inspired the Achaemenid rulers, and he entered on the project
with full consciousness in the strictest sense of the phrase. In
fact, if we are to understand Alexander aright, it is fatal to forget
that he was overtaken by death, not at the end of his career, but
at the beginning, at the age of thirty-three.

VI. The Macedonian Dominion. — How Alexander conquered
Persia, and how he framed his world-empire, 1 cannot be related
here. The essential fact, however, is that after the
victory of Gaugamela (Oct. 1, 33r B.C.) and, still t heareaL
more completely, after the assassination of Darius — ■
avenged according to the Persian laws, on the perpetrators —
Alexander regarded himself as the legitimate head of the Persian
Empire, and therefore adopted the dress and ceremonial of the
Persian kings.

With the capture of the capitals, the Persian war was at an
end, and the atonement for the expedition of Xerxes was com-
plete — a truth symbolically expressed in the burning of the palace
at PersepoliSi Now began the world-conquest. For an universal
empire, however, the forces of Macedonia and Greece were
insufficient; the monarch of a world-empire could not be bound
by the limitations imposed on the tribal king of Macedon or the
general of a league of Hellenic republics. He must stand as

1 See Alexander the Great ; Macedonian Empire ; Hellen-
ism (for later results).

HISTORY: ANCIENT]

PERSIA

213

an autocrat, above them and above the law, realizing the
theoretical doctrines of Plato and Aristotle, as the true king,
who is a god among men, bound no more than Zeus by a law,
because " himself he is the law." Thus the divine kingship of
Alexander derives in direct line, not from the Oriental polities — •
which (Egypt apart) know nothing of royal apotheosis — but
from these Hellenic theories of the state. Henceforward it
becomes the form of every absolute monarchy in a civilized land,
being formally mitigated only in Christian states by the assump-
tion that the king is not God, but king " by the grace of God."
The expedition of 332 B.C. to the shrine of Ammon was a pre-
liminary to this procedure, which, in 324, was sealed by his
official elevation to divine rank in all the republics of Greece.
To this corresponds the fact that, instead of acting on the
doctrines of Aristotle and Callisthenes, ■ and treating the
Macedonians and Greeks as masters, the Asiatics as servants,
Alexander had impartial recourse to the powers of all his subjects
and strove to amalgamate them. In the Persians particularly
he sought a second pillar for his world-empire. Therefore, as
early as 330 B.C., he drafted 30,000 young Persians, educated
them in Greek customs, and trained them to war on the Mace-
donian model. The Indian campaign showed that his Mace-
donian troops were in fact inadequate to the conquest of the
world, and in the summer of 326 they compelled him to turn
back from the banks of the Hyphasis. On his return to Persia,
he consummated at Susa (Feb. 324 B.C.) the union of Persian
and Macedonian by the great marriage-feast, at which all his
superior officers, with some 10,000 more Macedonians, were
wedded to Persian wives. The Macedonian veterans were then
disbanded, and the Persians taken into his army. Simultane-
ously, at the Olympian festival of 324, the command was issued
to all the cities of Greece to recognize him as god and to receive
the exiles home. 1 In 323 B.C. the preparations for the circum-
navigation and subjection of Arabia were complete: the next
enterprise being the conquest of the West, and the battle for
Hellenic culture against Carthage and the Italian tribes. At
that point Alexander died in Babylon on the 13th of June
323 B.C.

Alexander left no heir. Consequently, his death not only
ended the scheme of universal conquest, but led to an immediate
The Macedonian reaction. The army, which was con-

Kiagtfoms sidered as the representative of the people, took
of the over t ne government under the direction of its
3 ^ ' generals. The Persian wives were practically all
discarded and the Persian satraps removed — at least from all
important provinces. But the attempt to maintain the empire
in its unity proved impracticable; and almost immediately
there began the embittered war, waged for several decades by
the generals (diadochi), for the inheritance of the great king. 2
It was soon obvious that the eastern rulers, at all events, could
not dispense with the native element. Peucestas, the governor
of Persis, there played the role of Alexander and won the Persians
completely to his side; for which he was dismissed by Antigonus
in 315 (Diod. xix. 48). A similar position was attained by
Seleucus — the only one of the diadochi, who had not divorced
his Persian wife, Apama — in Babylonia, which he governed
from 319 to 316 and regained in the autumn of 312. While
Antigonus, who, since 315, had striven to win the kingdom of
Alexander for himself — was detained by the war with his rivals
in the west, Seleucus, with Babylon as his headquarters, con-
quered the whole of Iran as far as the Indus. In northern
Media alone, which lay outside the main scene of operations
and had only been partially subject to the later Achaemenids,
the Persian satrap Atropates, appointed by Alexander, main-
tained his independence and bequeathed his province to his
successors. His name is borne by north Media to the present
day — Atropatene, modern Azerbaijan or Adherbeijan (see
Media). So, too, in Armenia the Persian dynasty of the

1 The discussion of these events by Hogarth " The Deification
of Alexander the Great," in the English Historical Review, ii.
(,1887), is quite unsatisfactory.

2 See Ptolemies; Seleucid Dynasty.

Hydarnids held its ground; and to these must be added, in the
east of Asia Minor, the kingdoms of Pontus and Cappadocia,
founded c. 301, by the Persians Mithradates I. and Ariarathes I.
These states were fragments of the Achaemenid Empire, which
had safely transferred themselves to the Hellenistic state-system.
The annexation of Iran by Seleucus Nicator led to a war for
the countries on the Indian frontier; his opponent being Sandra-
cottus or Chandragupta Maurya (q.v.), the founder seleucus 1.
of the great Indian Empire of Maurya (Palimbothra). Nicator, and
The result was that Seleucus abandoned to the ^tiochusi.
Indian king, not merely the Indian provinces, but' even the
frontier districts west of the Indus (Strabo xv. 689-724),
receiving as compensation 500 elephants, with other presents
(Appian, Syr. 55; Justin xv. 4; Plut. Alex. 62; Athen. i. 18 D.).
His next expedition was to the west to assist Lysimachus,
Ptolemy and Cassander in the overthrow of Antigonus.

The battle of Ipsus, in 301, gave him Syria and the east of
Asia Minor; and from then he resided at the Syrian town of
Antiochia on the Orontes. Shortly afterwards he handed over
the provinces east of the Euphrates to his son Antiochus, who,
in the following years, till 282, exercised in the East a very
energetic and beneficial activity, which continued the work of
his father and gave the new empire and the Oriental Hellenistic
civilization their form. In order to protect his conquests
Alexander had founded several cities in Bactria, Sogdiana and
India, in which he settled his veterans. On his death, these
revolted and endeavoured to return to Greece, but were attacked
and cut to pieces by Pithon (Diod. xviii. 7). Of Greek
the other Greek towns in Asia scarcely any were Towns in
founded by Alexander himself, though the plan traB '
adopted by his successors of securing their dominions by building
Greek cities may perhaps be due to him (cf. Polyb. x. 27).
Most of these new cities were based on older settlements; but
the essential point is, that they were peopled by Greek and
Macedonian colonists, and enjoyed civic independence with
laws, officials, councils and assemblies of their own, in other
words, an autonomous communal constitution, under the
suzerainty of the empire. A portion, moreover, of the surround-
ing land was assigned to them. Thus a great number of the
country districts — the Wvr] above mentioned — were transformed
into 'municipal corporations, and thereby withdrawn from the
immediate government of the king and his officials (satraps
or strategi), though still subject to their control, except in the
cases where they received unconditional freedom and so ranked
as " confederates." The native population of these villages
and rural districts, at first, had no civic rights, but were governed
by the foreign settlers. Soon, however, the two elements began
to coalesce; in the Seleucid Empire, the process seems generally
to have been both rapid and complete. Thus the cities became
the main factors in the diffusion of Hellenism, the Greek language
and the Greek civilization over all Asia as far as the Indus.
At the same time they were the centres of commerce and
industrial life: and this, in conjunction with the royal favour,
and the privileges accorded them, continually drew new settlers
(especially Jews), and many of them developed into great and
flourishing towns (see further under Hellenism).

Shortly after his conquest of Babylonia, Seleucus had founded
a new capital, Seleucia (q.v.), on the Tigris: his intention being
at once to displace the ancient Babylon from its former central
position, and to replace it by a Greek city. This was followed
by a series of other foundations in Mesopotamia, Babylonia and
Susiana (Elam). " Media," says Polybius (x. 27), " was en-
circled by a sequence of Greek towns, designed as a barrier
against the barbarians." Among those mentioned are: Rhagae
(Rai), which Seleucus metamorphosed into a Hellenic city,
Europus, Laodicea, Apamea and Heraclea (Strabo xi. 525:
Plin. vi. 43: cf. Media). To these must be added Achaea in
Parthia, and, farther to the east, Alexandria Arion in Aria,
the modern Herat: also Antiochia Margiana (Strabo xi. 514, 516
Plin. 46, 93), now Merv, and many others. Further, Alexandria
in Aradrosia, near Kandahar, and the towns founded by
Alexander on the Hindu JCush and in Sogdiana.

214

PERSIA

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

Thus an active Hellenic life soon arose in the East; and Greek
settlers must have come in numbers and founded new cities,
which afterwards formed the basis of the Graeco-Bactrian
kingdom. Antiochus's general Demodamas crossed the Jaxartes
and set up an altar to the Didymaean Apollo (Plin. vi. 49).
Another general, Patrocles, took up the investigation of the
Caspian, already begun by Alexander. In contrast with the
better knowledge of an older period, he came to the conclusion
that the Caspian was connected with the ocean, and that it was
possible to reach India on ship-board by that route (Strabo
ii. 74, xi. 518; Plin. vi. 38). A project of Seleucus to connect
the Caspian with the Sea of Azov by means of a canal is men-
tioned by Pliny (vi. 31). To Patrocles is due the information
that an active commerce in Indian wares was carried on with
the shores of the Black Sea, via the Caspian (Strabo xi. 509).

While Hellenism was thus gaining a firm footing in all the
East, the native population remained absolutely passive. Apart
The Persian from the rude mountain tribes, ho national resis-
Rellgioa tance was dreamed of for centuries. The Iranians
under quietly accepted the foreign yoke, and the higher

Greek Rule. c ] asses adopted the external forms of the alien
civilization (cf. the dedication of a Bactrian, Hyspasines, son
of Mithroaxes, in the inventory of the temple of Apollo in
Delos, Dittenberger, Sylloge, 588, 1. 109) even though they were
unable to renounce their innate characteristics.' Eratosthenes,
for instance, speaks (ap. Strabo i. 66) in high terms of the
Iranians (Ariani), ranking them (as well as the Indians, Romans
and Carthaginians) on a level with the Greeks, as regards their
capacity for adopting city civilization. The later Parsee
tradition contends that Alexander burned the sacred books
of Zoroaster, the Avesta, and that only a few fragments were
saved and afterwards reconstructed by the Arsacids and
Sassanids. This is absolutely unhistorical. The Persian
religion was never attacked by the Macedonians and Greeks.
Under their dominion, on the contrary, it expanded with great
vigour, not only in the west (Armenia, north Syria and Asia
Minor, where it was the official religion of the kings of Pontus
and Cappadocia), but also in the east, in the countries of the
Indian frontier. That the popular gods — Mithras, Anaitis, &c. —
had come to the forefront has already been mentioned. This
propagandism, however, was void of all national character,
and ran on precisely the same lines as the propagandism of
the Syrian, Jewish and Egyptian cults. Only in Persia itself,
so far as we can judge from a few scanty traces, the national
character of the religion seems to have survived among the
people side by side with the memory of their old imperial
position.

In 282 B.C. Seleucus took the field against Lysimachus, and

annexed his dominions in Asia Minor and Thrace. In 281 he

, . . . was assassinated in crossing to Europe, and his son
Independent . . , , , ,, , , ,

Kingdoms Antiochus I. was left supreme over the whole empire.

in Bactria From that time onward the Seleucid Empire was
a "d never at rest. Its gigantic extent, from the Aegean

Parthla. t0 t jje j n( j USj everywhere offered points of attack
to the enemy. The Lagidae, especially, with their much more
compact and effective empire, employed every means to weaken
their Asiatic rivals; and auxiliaries were found in the minor
states on the frontier — Atropatene, Armenia, Cappadocia, Pontus
and Bithynia, the Galatians, Pergamum, Rhodes and other
Greek states. Moreover, the promotion of Greek civilization
and city life had created numerous local centres, with separate
interests and centrifugal tendencies, struggling to attain com-
plete independence, and perpetually forcing new concessions
from the empire. Thus the Seleucid kings, courageous as many
of them were, were always battling for existence (see Seleucid
Dynasty).

These disturbances severely affected the borders of Iran.
While the Seleucid Empire, under Antiochus II. Theos (264-247),
was being harried by Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, and the king's
attention was wholly engaged in the defence of the western
provinces, the Greeks revolted in Bactria, under their governor
Diodotus (q.v.). Obviously, it was principally the need of

protection against the nomadic tribes which led to the founda-
tion of an independent kingdom; and Diodotus soon attained
considerable power over the provinces north of the Hindu-Kush.
In other provinces, too, insurrection broke out (Strabo xi. 575,
Justin xli. 4); and Arsaces, a chief of the Parni or Aparni — an
Iranian nomad tribe (therefore often called Dahan Scythians),
inhabiting the steppe east of the Caspian — made himself master
of the district of Parthia (q.v.) in 248 B.C. He and his brother
Tiridates (q.v.) were the founders of the Parthian kingdom, which,
however, was confined within very modest limits during the
following decades. Seleucus II. Callinicus (247-226) successfully
encountered Arsaces (or Tiridates), and even expelled him
(c. 238) ; but new risings recalled Seleucus to Syria, and Arsaces
was enabled to return to Parthia.

Greater success attended Antiochus III., the Great (222-187).
At the beginning of his reign (220) he subdued, with the help
of his minister Hermias, an insurrection of the Antiochus
satrap Molon of Media, who had assumed the royal in., the
title and was supported by his brother Alexander, Great.
satrap of Persis (Polyb. v. 40 sqq.). He further seized the
opportunity of extorting an advantageous peace from King
Artabazanes of Atropatene, who had considerably extended his
power (Polyb. v. 55). After waging an unsuccessful war with
Ptolemy IV. for the conquest of Coele-Syria, but suppressing
the revolt of Achaeus in Asia Minor, and recovering the former
provinces of the empire in that quarter, Antiochus led a great
expedition into the East, designing to restore the imperial
authority in its full extent. He first removed (211) the Armenian
king Xerxes by treachery (Polyb. viii. 25; John of Antioch,
fr. 53), and appointed two governors, Artaxias and Zariadris,
in his place (Strabo xi. 531). During the next year he reduced
the affairs of Media to order (Polyb. x. 27) ; he then conducted
a successful campaign against Arsaces of Parthia (209), and
against Euthydemus (q.v.) of Bactria (208-206), who had over-
thrown the dynasty of Diodotus (Polyb. x. 28 sqq., 48 sqq.,
xi. 34; Justin xli. 5). In spite of his successes he concluded
peace with both kingdoms, rightly considering that it would
be impossible to retain these remote frontier provinces per-
manently. He next renewed his old friendship with the Indian
king Sophagasenus (Subhagasena), and received from him 150
elephants (206 B.C.). Through Arachosia and Drangiane, in the
valley of the Etymander (Helmand), he marched to Carmania
and Persis (Polyb. xi. 34). Both here and in Babylonia he
re-established the imperial authority, and in 205 undertook a
voyage from the mouth of the Tigris, through the Arabian gulf
to the flourishing mercantile town of Gerrha in Arabia (now
Bahrein) (Polyb. xiii. 9).

Shortly afterwards, however, his successful campaign against
Ptolemy V. Epiphanes led to a war with Rome in which the
power of the Seleucid Empire was shattered (190 B.C.), Decay otthe
Asia Minor lost, and the king compelled to pay a Seleucid
heavy contribution to Rome for a long term of years. Empire.
In order to raise money he plundered a wealthy temple of Bel in
Elam, but was killed by the inhabitants, 187 B.C. (Diod. xxviii. 3,
xxix. 15; Strabo xvi. 744; Justin xxxii. 2; S. Jerome (Hierony-
mus) on Dan. xi. 19; Euseb. Chron. i. 253). The consequence of
this enfeeblement of the empire was that the governors of Armenia
asserted their independence. Artaxias founded the kingdom
of Great Armenia; Zariadris, that of Sophene on the Euphrates
and the sources of the Tigris (Strabo xi. 531). In other districts,
also, rebellions occurred; and in the east, Euthydemus and his
successors (Demetrius, Eucratidas, &c.) began the conquest of
the Indus region and the Iranian borderland (Arachosia, Aria).
(See Bactria; Euthydemus; Eucratidas; Demetrius;
Menander.)

But the energetic Seleucids fought desperately against their
fate. Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (176-163) restored once more the
Eastern dominion, defeated Artaxias of Armenia (Appian, Syr.
45; Diod. xxxi. 17a; S. Jerome on Dan. xi. 40), restored several
towns in Babylonia and subdued the Elymaeans. His attempt,
however, to plunder the sanctuary of Anaitis failed (Polyb. xxxi.
11; cf. Maccab. i. 6, ii. 1, 13; App. Syr. 66). Persis, also, and

HISTORY: ANCIENT]

PERSIA

215

Media were still subject to him. But after his death at Tabae
in Persis (163 B.C.; cf. Polyb. xxxi. 11; Maccab. i. 6, ii. 9; Jos.
Ant. Jud. xii. 9, 1), the Romans took advantage of the dynastic
broils to destroy the Seleucid Empire. They reduced its army
and fleet, and favoured every rebellion: among others, that of
the Jews. In spite of all, Demetrius I. Soter (161-150) succeeded
in suppressing (159) a revolt of Timarchus of Miletus, governor
of Babylon, who had occupied Media, assumed the title of
" great king," and had been recognized by the Romans (Appian,
Syr. 45-47; Trogus, Prol. 34; Diod. xxxi. 27 A: cf. the coins of
Timarchus). 1

VII. The Parthian Empire of the Arsacids. — Meanwhile, in
the east, the Arsacids had begun their expansion. Phraates I.
(c. 175-170) subdued the Mardians in Elburz. His brother
Mithradates I. (c. 170-138) had to sustain a difficult war with
Eucratides of Bactria, but eventually succeeded in wresting
MHhra- from him a few districts on the Turanian frontier.
dates I. and Indeed, he penetrated as far as, and farther than, the
Phraates ii. j n( j us (Diod. xxxiii. 18; Oros. v. 4, 16). In the west
he conquered Media, and thence subdued Babylonia. He further
reduced the Elymaeans, sacked their temple in the mountains,
and captured the Greek city of Seleucia on the Hedyphon (Strabo
xvi. 744; Justin xli. 6). The Seleucids, meanwhile, were harassed
by aggravated disorders and insurrections. Nevertheless, in
140, Demetrius II. Nicator took the field in order to save the
east, but was defeated and captured. Shortly afterwards
Mithradates I. died. His son Phraates II. (c. 138-127) was
attacked in 130 by Antiochus VII. Sidetes, the brother of
Demetrius II., on which the Parthian king released the latter.
Antiochus pressed successfully on, and once more recovered
Babylonia, but in 129 was defeated in Media and fell in a
desperate struggle. With this battle the Seleucid dominion over
the countries east of the Euphrates was definitely lost. The
Babylonian towns, especially Seleucia {q.v.), were handed over
by Phraates to his favourite, the Hyrcanian Himerus, who
punished them severely for their resistance.

During these wars great changes had taken place in eastern
Iran. In 159 Mongolian tribes, whom the Chinese call Yue-chi
Mithra- an( ^ ^ e Creeks Scythians, forced their way into
dates 11. and Sogdiana, and, in 139, conquered Bactria (Strabo
his Sue- xi. 571; Justin xlii. 1; Trog. Prol. 41; see Bactria).
ccssors. From Bactria they tried to advance farther into
Iran and India. Entering into an alliance with Antiochus
VII., they assailed the Parthian Empire. Phraates II.
marched to encounter him, but was himself defeated and
slain, and his country ravaged far and wide. His successor
Artabanus I. (c. 127-124), the uncle of Phraates, also fell
in battle against the Tocharians, the principal Scythian
tribe (Justin xlii. 1, 2; Jos. Ant. jr. 66); but his son Mith-
radates II., surnamed "The Great" (c. 124-88), defeated the
Scythians and restored for a while the power of the Arsacids.
He also defeated Artavasdes, the king of Great Armenia; his
son Tigranes, a hostage in the hands of the Parthians, was only
redeemed by the cession of 70 valleys (Strabo xi. 532). When
Tigranes attempted to seize Cappadocia, and the Roman praetor
P. Cornelius Sulla advanced against him, Mithradates in 92 B.C.
concluded the first treaty between Parthia and Rome (Plut.
Sidla, v.; Liv. epit. 70). The dynastic troubles of the Seleucids
in Syria gave him an opportunity for successful intervention
(Jos. Ant. Jud. xiii. 13, 4; 14, 3). Shortly afterwards he died;
and, with his death, the Arsacid power collapsed for the second
time. The possession of the western provinces and the dominant
position in western Asia passed to the Armenian Tigranes {q.v.),
who wrested from the Parthians Mesopotamia and the suzerainty
of Atropatene, Gordyene, Adiabene, Osroene. Simultaneously
began a new and severe conflict with the Scythians. Parthian
coins, probably dating from this period (Wroth, Catal. of the
Coins of Parthia, 1903, p. xxx. and p. 40), mention victorious
campaigns of Parthian kings and a conquest of the provinces of
Aria, Margiane and (?) Traxiane (cf. Strabo xi. 505). But how

1 For the whole of this period see further Antigonus; Antiochus
I.-IV. ; Seleucid Dynasty; Hellenism.

confused the situation was is shown by the fact that in 76 B.C.
the octogenarian king Sanatruces was seated on the Parthiarj
throne by the Scythian tribe of the Sacaraucians (cf. Strabo xi.
511; Trog. Prol. 42). The names of his predecessors are not
known to us. Obviously this period was marked by continual
dynastic feuds (cf. Trog. Prol. 42: " ut varia complurium regum
in Parthia successione imperium accepit Orodes qui Crassum
delevit" ). Not till Sanatruces' successor Phraates III. (70-57)
do we find the kingdom again in a settled state.

A fact of decisive significance was that the Romans now began
to advance against Tigranes. In vain Mithradates of Pontus
and Tigranes turned to the Parthian king, the latter Conflicts
even proffering restitution of the conquered frontier with the
provinces. Phraates, though rightly distrusting Romans.
Rome, nevertheless concluded a treaty with Lucullus (69 B.C.)
and with Pompey, and even supported the latter in his campaign
against Tigranes in 66. But after the victory it was manifest
that the Roman general did not consider himself bound by
the Parthian treaty. When Tigranes had submitted, Pompey
received him into favour and extended the Roman supremacy
over the vassal states of Gordyene and Osroene; though he had
allured the Parthian king with the prospect of the recovery of his
old possessions as far as the Euphrates. Phraates complained,
and simultaneously attacked Tigranes, now a Roman vassal
(64 B.C.). But when Pompey refused reparation Phraates recog-
nized that he was too weak to begin the struggle with Rome,
and contented himself with forming an alliance with Tigranes,
in hopes that the future would bring an opportunity for his
revenge (Dio Cass, xxxvi. 3, 5; xxxvii. 5 sqq.; Plut. Luc. 20;
Pomp. 33, 38; cf. Sallust's letter of Mithradates to Arsaces).

Although Phraates III. had not succeeded in regaining the full
power of his predecessors, he felt justified, in again assuming the
title " king of kings" — which Pompey declined to acknowledge^-
and even in proclaiming himself as "god" (Phlegon, fr. 12 ap.
Phot. cod. 97; and on part of his coins), but in 57 B.C. the " god "
was assassinated by his sons Orodes and Mithradates.

The Parthian Empire, as founded by the conquests of Mithra-
dates I. and restored, once by Mithradates II. and again by
Phraates III., was, to all exterior appearance, a con-
tinuation of the Achaemenid dominion. Thus the
Arsacids now began to assume the old title " king of
kings " (the shahanshah of modern Persia) , though previously their
coins, as a rule, had borne only the legend " great king." The
official version, preserved by Arrian in his Parthica {ap. Phot.
cod. 58: see Parthia), derives the line of these chieftains of the
Parnian nomads from Artaxerxes II. In reality, however, the
Parthian Empire was totally different from its predecessor, both
externally and internally. It was anything rather than a world-
empire. The countries west of the Euphrates never owned its
dominion, and even of Iran itself not one half was subject to the
Arsacids. There were indeed vassal states on every hand, but
the actual possessions of the kings — the provinces governed by
their satraps — consisted of a rather narrow strip of land, stretch-
ing from the Euphrates and north Babylonia through southern
Media and Parthia as far as Arachosia (north-west Afghanistan),
and following the course of the great trade-route which from time
immemorial had carried the traffic between the west of Asia and
India. We still possess a description of this route by Isidore
of Charax, probably dating from the Augustan period (in C.
Miiller, Geographi graeci minores, vol. i.), in which is contained
a list of the 18 imperial provinces, known also to Pliny (vi. 112;
cf. 41). Isidore, indeed, enumerates nineteen; but, of these,
Sacastene formed no part of the Parthian Empire, as has been
shown by von Gutschmid.

The lower provinces {i.e. the districts west of Parthia) are:
(1) Mesopotamia, with northern Babylonia, from the Euphrates bridge
at Zeugma to Seleucia on the Tigris; (2) Apolloniatis, the iwy/^cej
plain east of the Tigris, with Artemita; (3) Chalonitis,
the hill-country of Zagros; (4) Western Media; (5) Cambadene, with
Bagistana (Behistun) — the mountainous portions of Media; (6)
Upper Media, with Ecbatana; (7) Rhagiane or Eastern Media.
Then with the Caspian Gates — the pass between Elburz and the
central desert, through which lay the route from west Iran to
east Iran — the upper provinces begin; (8) Choarene and (9)

Organiza-
tion,

2l6

PERSIA

Comisene, the districts on the verge of the desert; (10) Hyrcania; (u)
Astabene, with the royal town Asaac on the Attruck (see Parthia) •
(12) Parthyene with Parthaunisa, where the sepulchres of the kings
were laid; (13) Apavarcticene (now Abiward, with the capital
Kelat); (14) Margiane (Merv); (15) Aria (Herat); (16) Anauon,
the southern portion of Aria; (17) Zarangiane, the country of
the Drangians, on the lake of Hamun; (18) Arachosia, on the
Etymander (Helmand), called by the Parthians " White India "
extending as far as Alexandropolis (Kandahar), the frontier city
of the Parthian Empire.

On the lower Etymander, the Sacae had established themselves
—obviously on the inroad of the Scythian tribes— and after them
the country was named Sacastene (now Sejistan, Seistan). Through
it lay the route to Kandahar; and for this reason the district is
described by Isidore, though it formed no part of the Parthian
Empire.

Round these provinces lay a ring of numerous minor states,
which as a rule were dependent on the Arsacids. They might
Vassal however, partially transfer their allegiance on the rise
States. ?' a ? ew P°™ er ( e -«- Tigranes in Armenia) or a Roman
invasion. Thus it is not without justice that the
Arsacid period is described, in the later Persian and Arabian
tradition as the period of " the kings of the part-kingdoms "—
among which the Ashkanians (i.e. the Arsacids, from Ashak, the
later pronunciation of the name Arshak=* Arsaces) had won the
iirst place. This tradition, however, is nebulous in the extreme;
the whole list of kings, which it gives, is totally unhistorical ; only
the names of one Balash ( = Vologaeses) and of the last Ardewan
(-Artabanus) having been preserved. The period, from the
death of Alexander to the Sassanid Ardashir I., is put by the Persian
tradition at 266 years; which was afterwards corrected, after
Syro-Grecian evidence, to 523 years. The actual number is 548
years {i.e. 323 bc. to a.d. 226). The statements of the Armenian
historians as to this period are also absolutely worthless.

The ten most important of the vassal states were : —
■ l i Z j kln S dom of Osroene (q.v.) in the north-east of Mesopotamia,
with Edessa as capital, founded about 130 B.C. by the chieftain of
an Arabian tribe, the Orrhoei, which established itself there.
»l 2 '*T° raust be added the numerous Arabian tribes of

ai u j° P -° tamian dtft ert, under their chiefs, among whom one
Alchaudomus comes into prominence in the period of Tigranes
and Crassus. Their settlement in Mesopotamia was encouraged by
rigranes, according to Plutarch (Luc. 21) and Pliny (vi. 142) In
later times the Arabic town Atra in an oasis on the west of the
1 lgns, governed by its own kings, gained special importance.

3 and 4. To the east of the Tigris lay two kingdoms: Gordyene
(or Cordyene), the country of the Carduchians (now Bohtan), a wild
mountainous district south of Armenia; and Adiabene (Hadyab)
the ancient Assyria, on either side of the Zab (Lvcus).

5. On the farther side of Zagros, adjoining Adiabene on the east,

wa f j h L kl ," gd , om of A tropatene in north Media, now often simply
called Media (q.v.).

While the power of Armenia was at its height under Tigranes
(86-69 B.C.) all these states owned his rule. After the victories
ot r/ompey, however, the Romans claimed the suzerainty, so that
during the next decades and the expeditions of Crassus and Antony
they oscillated between Rome and Parthia, though their inclination
was generally to the latter. For they were all Orientals and
consciously or unconsciously, representatives of a reaction against
that Hellenism which had become the heritage of Rome. At the
same time the loose organization of the Parthian Empire, afforded
them a greater measure of independence than they could hope to
enjoy under Roman suzerainty.

6. In the south of Babylonia, in the district of Mesene (the
modern Maisan), after the fall of Antiochus Sidetes (129 B.C.),
an Arabian prince, Hyspaosines or Spasines (in a cuneiform in-
scription of 127, on a clay tablet dated after this year, he is called
Aspasine) founded a kingdom which existed till the rise of the
Sassaman Empire. Its capital was a city (mod. Mohammerah),
hrst founded by Alexander on an artificial hill by the junction of
the Eulaeus (Karun) with the Tigris, and peopled by his veterans.
The town, which was originally named Alexandria and then
rebuilt by Antiochus I. as Antiochia, was now'refortified with dikes
by Spasines, and christened Spasinu Charax (" the wall of Spasines ")
or simply Charax (Plin. vi. 138 seq.). In the following centuries
it was the main mercantile centre on the Tigris estuary.

The kingdom of Mesene, also called Characene, is known to us
i?? 1 °c9 aslonal references in various authors, especially Lucian
(Macrobii, 16) , as well as from numerous coins, dated by the Seleucian
era, which allow us to frame a fairly complete list of the kings. 1
I he Arabian dynasty speedily assimilated itself to the native
population; and most of the kings bear Babylonian— in a few
cases Parthian— names. The official language was Greek, till
on the destruction of Seleucia (a.d. 164), it was replaced on the
coinage by Aramaic. Another Babylonian dynast must have

1 See Saint-Martin, Recherches sur la Mesene et la Characene
(1838); Reinaud, Membires sur le royaume de la Mesene (1861);
E. Babelon, " Numism. et chronol. des dynastes de la Characene,"
in Journ. internat. d'archM. numism. vol. i. (1898).

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

been Hadadnadinaches (c. 100 B.C.), who built in Tello the fortified
palace which has been excavated by de Sarzec.

7. East of the Tigris lay the kingdom of Elymais (Elam), to
which belonged Susa and its modern representative Ahwaz, farther
down on the Eulaeus. The Elymaeans, who had already offered
a repeated resistance to the Seleucids, were subdued by Mithra-
dates I., as we have mentioned above; but they remained a separate
state, which often rebelled against the Arsacids (Strabo xvi. 744- cf.
Plut. Pomp. 36; Tac. Ann. vi. 50). Of the kings who apparently
belonged to a Parthian dynasty, several bearing the name Cammas-
cires are known to us from coins dated 81 and 71 B.C. One of
these _ is designated by Lucian (Macrobii, 16) " king of the
Parthians "; while the coinage of another, Orodes, displays Aramaic
script (Allotte de la Fuye, Rev. num., 4me serie, t. vi. p. 92 sqq.,
1902). The kingdom, which is seldom mentioned, survived till
Ardashir I In its neighbourhood Strabo mentions " the minor
dynasties of the Sagapenians and Silacenians " (xvi. 745). The
Uxians, moreover, with the Cossaeans and other mountain tribes,
maintained their independence exactly as under the later Achae-
menids (Strabo xvi. 744; Plin. vi. 133).

8. The district of Persis, also, became independent soon after
the time of Antiochus IV., and was ruled by its own kings, who
perpetuated the Achaemenian traditions, and on their coins — which
bear the Persian language in Aramaic characters, i.e. the so-called
Pahlavi — appear as zealous adherents of Zoroastrianism and the
Fire-cult (see Persis). They were forced, however, to acknowledge
the suzerainty of Parthia, to which they stood in the same position
as the Persians of Cyrus and his forefathers to the Median Empire
(cf Strabo xv. 728, 733, 736; Lucian, Macrob. 15). In later times,
before the foundation of the Sassanid dominion, Persis was dis-
integrated into numerous small local states. Even in Carmania
we find independent kings, one of whom gave his name to a town
Vologesocerta (Balashkert) .

0. The east of Iran— Bactria with Sogdiana, Eastern Arachosia
and Gedrosia — was never subject to the Arsacids. Here the
Graeco-Bactrian and Graeco-Indian kingdoms held their own,
till, in 139 B.C., they succumbed before the invading Mongolian
and Scythian tribes (see Bactria and works quoted there). But
'" li I . ndus dis t"ct the Greek kings held their ground for an appre-
ciably longer period and, for a while, widely extended their power
(see Menander of India). Among the kings then following, only
known to us from their coins, there appears a dynasty with Iranian
and sometimes peculiarly Parthian names which seems to have
reigned in the Punjab and Arachosia. Its best-known representa-
tive, Gondophares or Hyndopherres, to whom legend makes the
apostle Thomas write, reigned over Arachosia and the Indus dis-
trict about A.D. 20. Further, about a.d. 70, the Periplus of the
Erythraean Sea mentions that the great commercial town of
Minnagar in the Indus Delta was under Parthian kings, " who
spent their time in expelling one another." Here, then, it would
seem there existed a Parthian dynasty, which probably went back
to the conquests of Mithradates I. (cf. Vincent A. Smith, "The
Indo-Parthian Dynasties from about 120 B.C. to a.d. 100," in the
Zeitschr. der deutschen morgenl. Gesellsch. 60, 1906). Naturally,
such a dynasty would not long have recognized the suzerainty of
the Arsacids. It succumbed to the Indo-Scythian Empire of the
Kushana, who had obtained the sovereignty of Bactria as early as
about a.d. 50, and thence pressed onward into India. In the
period of the Periplus (c. a.d. 70) the Scythians were already
settled in the Indus valley (pp. 38, 41, 48), their dominion reaching
its zenith under Kanishka (c. a.d. 123-153).

This empire of the Kushana merits special mention here, on
account of its peculiar religious attitude, which we may gather
from the coins of its kings, particularly those of Kanishka and his
successor Huvishka, on which an alphabet adapted from the Greek
is employed (cf. Aurel Stein, " Zoroastrian Deities on Indo-Scythian
Coins, in The Babylonian and Oriental Record, vol. i., 1887).
Kanishka, as is well known, had embraced Buddhism, and many of his
coins bear the image and name of Buddha. Iranian divinities, how-
ever, predominate on his currency : Mithras (Mihro or Helios) ■ the
Moon Mah (also Selene) ; Athro, the Fire; Orthragno (Verethragna) •
Ptoro = Farna (hvarena), " the majesty of kingship "; Teiro = Tir
(Tistrya the archer "); Nana (Nanaia) ; and others. Here, then,
we have a perfect example of syncretism ; as in the Mithras cult in
Armenia, Asia Minor, and still further in the Roman Empire.
Buddhism and Zoroastrianism have been wedded in the state re-
ligion, and, in characteristic Indian fashion, are on the best of terms
with one another, precisely as, in the Chinese Empire at the present
day, we find the most varied religions, side by side, and on an equal
footing.

10. Originally a part of the Turanian steppe belonged to the
Arsacids; it was the starting-point of their power. Soon, however,
the nomads (Dahae) gained their independence, and, as we have
seen, repeatedly attacked and devastated the Parthian Empire in
conjunction with the Tocharians and other tribes of Sacae and
Scythians. In the subsequent period, again, we shall frequently
meet them. }

It may appear surprising that the Arsacids made no
attempt to incorporate the minor states in the empire and

HISTORY: ANCIENT]

PERSIA

217

create a great and united dominion, such as existed under the
Achaemenids and was afterwards restored by the Sassanids.
This fact is the clearest symptom of the inner weakness of
Character of their empire and of the small power wielded by the
the Parthian " king of kings." In contrast alike with its prede-
Bmplre. cessors and its successors, the Arsacid dominion was
peculiarly a chance formation — a state which had come into
existence through fortuitous external circumstances, and had
no firm foundation within itself, or any intrinsic raison d'Ure.

Three elements, of widely different kinds, contributed . to its
origin and defined its character. It was sprung from a predatory
nomad tribe (the Parnian Dahae, Scythians) which had established
itself in Khorasan (Parthia), on the borders of civilization, and thence
gradually annexed further districts as the political situation or the
weakness of its neighbours allowed. Consequently, these nomads
were the main pillar of the empire, and from them were obviously
derived the great magnates, with their huge estates and hosts of
serfs, who composed the imperial council, led the armies, governed
the provinces and made and unmade the kings (Strabo xi. 515;
Justin xli. 2; the former terming them ovyyevtis, "kinsmen"
of the king, the latter, probuli). Of these great families that of
Surenas held the privilege of setting the diadem on the head of the
new king (Plut. Crass. 21 ; Tac. Ann. vi. 42).

The military organization, moreover, was wholly nomadic in
character. The nucleus of the army was formed of armoured horse-
men, excellently practised for long-distance fighting with bow and
javelin, but totally unable to venture on a hand-to-hand conflict,
their tactics being rather to swarm round the enemy's squadrons
and overwhelm them under a hail of missiles. When attacked
they broke up, as it seemed, in hasty and complete flight, and
having thus led the hostile army to break its formation, they them-
selves rapidly reformed and renewed the assault. How difficult
it was for infantry to hold their own against these mounted squadrons
was demonstrated by the Roman campaigns, especially in broad
plains like those of Mesopotamia. In winter, however, the Parthians
were powerless to wage war, as the moisture of the atmosphere
relaxed their bows. The infantry, in contrast with its earlier
status under the Persians, was wholly neglected. On the other
hand, every magnate put into the field as many mounted warriors
as possible, chiefly servants and bought slaves, who, like the Janis-
saries and Mamelukes, were trained exclusively for war. Thus
Surenas, in 53 B.C., is said to have put at the king's disposal 1000
mailed horsemen and, in all, 10,000 men, including the train, which
also comprised his attendants and harem (Plut. Crass. 21; descrip-
tion of the military organization; Dio Cass. 40, 15; Justin xli. 2).
In the army of 50,000 mounted men which took the field against
Mark Antony there were, says Justin, only 400 freemen.

How vital was the nomadic element in the Parthian Empire is
obvious from the fact that, in civil wars, the deposed kings con-
The Iranian sls tently took refuge among the Dahae or Scythians
Pooulation anc ' were restored by them. But, in Parthia, these
nomads were amalgamated with the native peasantry,
and, with their religion, had adopted their dress and manners.
Even the kings, after the first two or three, wear their hair
and beard long, in the Iranian fashion, whereas their predecessors
are beardless. Although the Arsacids are strangers to any deep
religious interest (in contrast to the Achaemenids and Sassanids),
they acknowledge the Persian gods and the leading tenets of
Zoroastrianism. They erect fire-altars, and even obey the command
to abandon all corpses to the dogs and fowls (Justin xli. 3). The
union, moreover, recommended by that creed, between brother and
sister — and even son and mother — occurs among them. Conse-
quently, beside the council of the nobility, there is a second council
of " Magians and wise men " (Strabo xi. 515).

Again, they perpetuate the traditions of the Achaemenid Empire.
The Arsacids assume the title " king of kings " and derive their
line from Artaxerxes II. Further, the royal apotheosis, so common
among them and recurring under the Sassanids, is probably not so
much of Greek origin as a development of Iranian views. For at
the side of the great god Ahuramazda there stands a host of sub-
ordinate divine beings who execute his will — among these the
deified heroes of legend, to whose circle the king is now admitted,
since on him Ahuramazda has bestowed victory and might.

This gradual Iranianization of the Parthian Empire is shown
by the fact that the subsequent Iranian traditions, and Firdousi
in particular, apply the name of the " Parthian " magnates
(Pahlavan) to the glorious heroes of the legendary epoch. Con-
sequently, also, the language and writing of the Parthian period,
which are retained under the Sassanids, received the name Pahlavi,
i.e. " Parthian." The script was derived from the Aramaic.

But to these Oriental elements must be added that of Hellenism,
the dominant world-culture which had penetrated into Parthia
Relation anc ^ Media. It was indispensable to every state which
towards hoped to play some part in the world and was not so
Hellenism, utterly secluded as Persis and Atropatene; and the
Arsacids entertained the less thought of opposition as
they were destitute of an independent national basis. All their

external institutions were borrowed from the Seleucid Empire:
their coinage with its Greek inscriptions and nomenclature; their
Attic standard of currency; and, doubtless, a great part of their
administration also. In the towns Greek merchants were every-
where settled: Mithradates I. even followed the precedent of the
Seleucids in building a new city, Arsacia, which replaced the ancient
Rhagae (Rai, Europus) in Media. The further the Arsacids ex-
panded the deeper they penetrated into the province of Hellenism;
the first Mithradates himself assumed, after his great conquests,
the title of Philhellen, "the protector of Hellenism," which was
retained by almost ali his successors. Then follow the surnames
Epiphanes " the revealed god," Dicaeus " the just," Euergetes
" the benefactor," all of them essentially Greek in their reference,
and also regularly borne by all the kings. After the conquest of
the Euphrates and Tigris provinces it was imperative that the
royal residence should be fixed there. But as no one ventured to
transfer the royal household and the army, with its hordes of wild
horsemen, to the Greek town of Seleucia, and thus disorganize its
commerce, the Arsacids set up their abode in the great village of
Ctesiphon, on the left bank of the Tigris, opposite to Seleucia,
which accordingly retained its free Hellenic constitution (see
Ctesiphon and Seleucia). So, also, Orodes I. spoke good Greek,
and Greek tragedies were staged at his court (Plut. Crass. 33).

In spite of this, however, the rise of the Arsacid Empire marks
the beginning of a reaction against Hellenism — not, indeed, a
conscious or official reaction, but a reaction which was p eac tj oa
all the more effective because it depended on the impetus j,„a/ ns f
of circumstances working with all the power of a natural Hellenism.
force. The essential point is that the East is completely
divorced from the Mediterranean and the Hellenic world, that it
can derive no fresh powers from that quarter, and that, consequently,
the influence of the Oriental elements must steadily increase. This
process can be most clearly traced on the coins — almost the sole;
memorials that the Parthian Empire has left. From reign to reign
the portraits grow poorer and more stereotyped, and the inscriptions
more neglected, till it becomes obvious that the engraver himself
no longer understood Greek but copied mechanically the signs
before his eyes, as is the case with the contemporary Indo-Scythian
coinage, and aiso in Mesene. Indeed, after Vologaeses I. (51-77),
the Aramaic script is occasionally employed. The political opposi-
tion to the western empires, the Seleucids first, then the Romans,
precipitated this development. Naturally enough the Greek cities
beheld a liberator in every army that marched from the West,
and were ever ready to cast in their lot with such — a disposition
for which the subsequent penalty was not lacking. The Parthian
magnates, on the other hand, with the army, would have little
to do with Greek culture and Greek modes of life, which they con-
temptuously regarded as effeminate and unmanly. Moreover,
they required of their rulers that they should live in the fashion of
their country, practise arms and the chase, and appear as Oriental
sultans, not as Grecian kings.

These tendencies taken together explain the radical weakness
of the Parthian Empire. It was easy enough to collect a great
army and achieve a great victory; it was absolutely impossible to
hold the army together for any longer period, or to conduct a regular
campaign. The Parthians proved incapable of creating a firm,
united organization, such as the Achaemenids before them, and the
Sassanids after them gave to their empire. The kings themselves
were toys in the hands of the magnates and the army who, tenaci-
ously as they clung to the anointed dynasty of the Arsacids, were
utterly indifferent to the person of the individual Arsacid. Every
moment they were ready to overthrow the reigning monarch and
to seat another on his throne. The kings, for their part, sought
protection in craft, treachery and cruelty, and only succeeded in
aggravating the situation. More especially they saw an enemy in
every prince, and the worst of enemies in their own sons. Sanguin-
ary crimes were thus of everyday occurrence in the royal house-
hold; and frequently it was merely a matter of chance whether
the father anticipated the son, or the son the father. The conditions
were the same as obtained subsequently under the Mahommedan
Caliphate (q.v.) and the empire of the Ottomans. The internal
history of the Parthian dominion is an unbroken sequence of civil
war and dynastic strife.

For the literature dealing with the Parthian Empire and
numismatics, see Parthia, under which heading will be found
a complete list of the kings, so far as we are able to reconstitute
them.

These conditions elucidate the fact that the Parthian Empire,
though founded on annexation and perpetually menaced by
hostile arms in both the East and the West, yet Later His-
never took a strong offensive after the days of toryottbe
Mithradates II. It was bound to protect itself ^rsacU
against Scythian aggression in the East and Bmp,re -
Roman aggression in the West. To maintain, or regain, the
suzerainty over Mesopotamia and the vassal states of that region,
as also over Atropatene and Armenia, was its most imperative
task. Yet it always remained on the defensive and even so was

2l8

PERSIA

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

lacking in energy. Whenever it made an effort to enforce its
claims, it retreated so soon as it was confronted by a resolute
foe.

Thus the wars between Parthia and Rome proceeded, not
from the Parthians — deeply injured though they were by the
Wars with encroachments of Pompey— but from Rome herself.
Crassas and Rome had been obliged, reluctantly enough, to enter
Antonlus. U p on the inheritance of Alexander the Great; and,
since the time of Pompey, had definitely subjected to her
dominion the Hellenistic countries as far as the Euphrates.
Thus the task now faced them of annexing the remainder of the
Macedonian Empire, the whole East from the Euphrates to the
Indus, and of thereby saving Greek civilization (cf. Plut. Comp.
Nic. et Crass. 4). The aristocratic republic quailed before such
an enterprise, though Lucullus, at the height of his successes,
entertained the thought (Plut. Luc. 30). But the ambitious men,
whose goal was to erect their own sovereignty on the ruins of the
republic, took up the project. With this objective M. Licinius
Crassus, the triumvir, in 54 B.C., took the aggressive against
Parthia, the occasion being favourable owing to the dynastic
troubles between Orodes I., the son of Phraates, III., and his
brother Mithradates III. Crassus fell on the field of Carrhae
(June 9, 53 B.C.). With this Mesopotamia was regained by the
Parthians, and King Artavasdes of Armenia now entered their
alliance. But, apart from the ravaging of Syria (51 B.C.) by
Pacorus the son of Orodes, the threatened attack on the Roman
Empire was carried into effect neither then nor during the civil
wars of Caesar and Pompey. At the time of his assassination
Caesar was intent on resuming the expedition of Crassus. The
Parthians formed a league with Brutus and Cassius, as previously
with Pompey, but gave them no support, until in 40 B.C. a
Parthian army, led by Pacorus and the republican general
Labienus, harried Syria and Asia Minor. But it was easily
repulsed by Ventidius Bassus, the lieutenant of Mark Antony.
Pacorus himself fell on the 9th of June 38 B.C. at Gindarus in
northern Syria. Antony then attacked the Parthians in 36 B.C.,
and penetrated through Armenia into Atropatene, but was
defeated by Phraates IV. — who in 37 B.C. had murdered his
father Orodes I. — and compelled to retreat with heavy losses.
The continuation of the war was frustrated by the conflict
with Octavian. Armenia alone was again subdued in 34 B.C.
by Antony, who treacherously captured and executed King
Artavasdes.

Roman opinion universally expected that Augustus would
take up the work of his predecessors, annihilate the Parthian
dominion, and subdue the East as far as the
Augustus. Indians, Scythians and Seres (cf . Horace and the other
Augustan poets). [But Augustus disappointed these
expectations. His whole policy and the needs of the newly
organized Roman Empire demanded peace. His efforts were
devoted to reaching a modus vivendi, by which the authority
of Rome and her most,vital claims might be peacefully vindicated.
This the weakness of Parthia enabled him to effect without
much difficulty. His endeavours were seconded by the revolt
of Tiridates II., before whom Phraates IV. was compelled to
flee (32 B.C.), till restored by the Scythians. Augustus lent no
support to Tiridates in his second march on Ctesiphon (26 B.C.),
but Phraates was all the more inclined on that account to
stand on good terms with him. Consequently in 20 B.C., he
restored the standards captured in the victories over Crassus
and Antony, and recognized the Roman suzerainty over Osroene
and Armenia. In return, the Parthian dominion in Babylonia
and the other vassal states was left undisputed.

Thus it was due not to the successes and strength of the Par-
thians but entirely to the principles of Roman policy as defined by
Augustus that their empire appears as a second great independent
power, side by side with Rome. The precedence of the Caesars,
indeed, was always admitted by the Arsacids; and- Phraates IV.
soon entered into a state of dependency on Rome by sending
(9 B.C.) four of his sons as hostages to Augustus — a convenient
method of obviating the danger threatened in their person,
without the necessity of killing them. In 4 B.C., however,

Phraates was assassinated by his favourite wife Musa and her
son Phraates V. In the subsequent broils a Parthian faction
obtained the release of one of the princes interned in Rome
as Vonones I. (a.d. 8). He failed, however, to maintain his
position for long. He was a stranger to the Parthian customs,
and the feeling of shame at dependency on the foreigner was
too strong. So the rival faction brought out another .Arsacid,
resident among the Scythian nomads, Artabanus II., who
easily expelled Vonones — only to create a host of enemies by
his brutal cruelty, and to call forth fresh disorders.

Similar proceedings were frequently repeated in the period
following. In the intervals the Parthians made several attempts
to reassert their dominion over Armenia and there
install an Arsacid prince ; but on each occasion vologaeses I.
they retreated without giving battle so soon as the
Romans prepared for war. Only the dynasty of Atropatene
was finally deposed and the country placed under an Arsacid
ruler. Actual war with Rome broke out under Vologaeses I.
(51-77)1 who made his brother Tiridates king of Armenia.
After protracted hostilities, in which the Roman army was
commanded by Cn. Domitius Corbulo, a peace was concluded
in a.d. 63, confirming the Roman suzerainty over Armenia but
recognizing Tiridates as king (see Corbulo). Tiridates himself
visited Rome and was there invested with the diadem by
Nero (a.d. 66). After that Armenia continued under the rule
of an Arsacid dynasty.

These successes of Vologaeses were counterbalanced by
serious losses in the East. He was hampered in an energetic
campaign against Rome by attacks of the Dahae and Sacae.
Hyrcania, also, revolted and asserted its independence under
a separate line of kings. A little later, the Alans, a great Iranian
tribe in the south of Russia — the ancestors of the present-day
Ossets — broke for the first time through the Caucasian passes,
and ravaged Media and Armenia — an incursion which they often
repeated in the following centuries.

On the other side, the reign of Vologaeses I. is characterized
by a great advance in the Oriental reaction against Hellenism.
The line of Arsacids which came to the throne in the person of
Artabanus II. (a.d. 10) stands in open opposition to the old
kings with their leanings to Rome and, at least external, tinge
of Hellenism. The new regime obviously laid much more stress
on the Oriental character of their state, though Philostratus,
in his life of Apollonius of Tyana( who visited the Parthian court),
states that Vardanes I. (a.d. 40-45), the rival king to the brutal
Gotarzes (a.d. 40-51), was a cultivated man (Vit. Ap. i. 22, 28,
31 sqq.); and Vologaeses I. is distinguished by the excellent
relations which subsisted all his life between himself and his
brothers Pacorus and Tiridates, the kings of Media and Armenia.
But the coins of Vologaeses I. are quite barbarous, and for the
first time on some of them appear the initials of the name of
the king in Aramaic letters by the side of the Greek legend.
The Hellenism of Seleucia was now attacked with greater deter-
mination. For seven years (a.d. 37-43) the city maintained
itself in open rebellion (Tac. Ann. xi. 8 seq.), till at last it
surrendered to Vardanes, who in consequence enlarged Ctesiphon,
which was afterwards fortified by Pacorus (a.d. 78-105:
v. Ammian. 23, 6, 23). In the neighbourhood of the same town
Vologaeses I. founded a city Vologesocerta (Balashkert), to
which he attempted to transplant the population to Seleucia
(Plin. vi. 122: cf. Th. Noldeke in Zeitschr. d. deutsch. morgenl.
Gesellschaft, xxviii., 100). Another of his foundations was
Vologesias (the Arabian Ullaish), situated near Hira on the
Euphrates, south of Babylon, which did appreciable damage to
the commerce of Seleucia and is often mentioned in inscrip-
tions as the destination of the Palmyrene caravans.

After Vologaeses I. follows a period of great disturbances.
The literary tradition, indeed, deserts us almost entirely, but
the coins, and isolated literary references prove that during the
years a.d. 77 to 147, two kings, and sometimes three or more,
were often reigning concurrently (Vologaeses II. 77-79, and
111-147; Pacorus 78-c. 105; Osroes 106-129; Mithradates V.
129-147: also Artabanus III. 80-81; Mithradates IV. and his

HISTORY: ANCIENT]

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219

son Sanatruces II. 115; and Parthamaspates n 6-1 17). Ob-
viously the empire can never have been at peace during these
years, a fact which materially assisted the aggressive campaigns
Wars with of Trajan (113-117). Trajan resuscitated the
Trajan and old project of Crassus and Caesar, by which the
Marcus empire of Alexander as far as India was to be won
urems. ^ oT w estern civilization. In pursuance of this plan
he reduced Armenia, Mesopotamia and Babylonia to the posi-
tion of imperial provinces. On his death, however, Hadrian
immediately reverted to the Augustan policy and restored the
conquests. Simultaneously there arose in the East the powerful
Indo-Scythian empire of the Kushana, which doubtless limited
still further the Parthian possessions in eastern Iran.

An era of quiet seems to have returned with Vologaeses III.
(147-101), and we hear no more of rival kings. With the Roman
Empire a profound peace had reigned since Hadrian (117),
which was first disturbed by the attack of Marcus Aurelius and
Aelius Verus in 162. This war, which broke out on the question
of Armenia and Osroene, proved of decisive significance for the
future development of the East, for, in its course, Seleucia was
destroyed by the Romans under Avidius Cassius (164). The
downfall of the great Greek city sealed the fate of Hellenism
in the countries east of the Euphrates. Henceforward Greek
culture practically vanishes and gives place to Aramaic; it is
significant that in future the kings of Mesene stamped their
coinage with Aramaic legends. This Aramaic victory was
powerfully aided by the ever-increasing progress of Christianity,
which soon created, as is well known, an Aramaic literature
Christianity. °^ wmcn the language was the dialect of Edessa, a city
in which the last king of Osroene, Abgar IX. (170-
214), had been converted to the faith. After that Greek
culture and Greek literature were only accessible to the Orientals
in an Aramaic dress. Vologaeses III. is probably also the
king Valgash, who, according to a native tradition, preserved
in the Dinhart, began a collection of the sacred writings of
Zoroaster — the origin of the Avesta which has come down to us.
This would show how the national Iranian element in the
Parthian Empire was continually gathering strength.

The Roman war was closed in 165 by a peace which ceded
north-west Mesopotamia to Rome. Similar conflicts took place
in 195-202 between Vologaeses IV. (191-209) and Septimius
Severus, and again in 216-217 between Artabanus IV. (200-226)
and Caracalla. They failed, however, to affect materially the
position of the two empires.

VIII. The Sassanian Empire. — That the Arsacid Empire
should have endured some 350 years after its foundation by
Ardashir 1. Mithradates I. and Phraates II., was a result, not
of internal strength, but of chance working in its
external development. It might equally well have so existed
for centuries more. But under Artabanus IV. the catastrophe
came. In his days there arose in Persis — precisely as Cyrus
had arisen under Astyages the Mede — a great personality.
Ardashir (Artaxerxes) I., son of Papak (Babek), the descendant
of Sasan, was the sovereign of one of the small states into which
Persis had gradually fallen. His father Papak had taken
possession of the district of Istakhr, which had replaced the old
Persepolis, long a mass of ruins. Thence Ardashir I., who
reigned from about a.d. 2r2, subdued the neighbouring poten-
tates — disposing of his own brothers among the rest. This
proceeding quickly led to war with his suzerain Artabanus IV.
The conflict was protracted through several years, and the
Parthians were worsted in three battles. The last of these
witnessed the fall of Artabanus (a.d. 226), though a Parthian
king, Artavasdes — perhaps a son of Artabanus IV. — who is
only known to us from his own coins, appears to have retained
a portion of the empire for some time longer. The members
of the Arsacid line who fell into the hands of the victor were put
to death; a number of the princes found refuge in Armenia,
where the Arsacid dynasty maintained itself till a.d. 429.
The remainder of the vassal states — Carmania, Susiana, Mesene
— were ended by Ardashir; and the autonomous desert fortress
of Hatra in Mesopotamia was destroyed by his son Shapur

(Sapor) I., according to the Persian and Arabian traditions,
which, in this point, are deserving of credence. The victorious
Ardashir then took possession of the palace of Ctesiphon and
assumed the title " King of the kings of the Iranians " (/3a<nXeus
fitxaCkkuv 'kpiavGiv).

The new empire founded by Ardashir I. — the Sassanian,
or Neo-Persian Empire — is essentially different from that of
his Arsacid predecessors. It is, rather, a continua- Sassanian
tion of the Achaemenid traditions which were still Wars with
alive on their native soil. Consequently the national Rom ?'
impetus — already clearly revealed in the title of the new
sovereign — again becomes strikingly manifest. The Sassanian
Empire, in fact, is once more a national Persian or Iranian
Empire. The religious element is, of course, inseparable
from the national, and Ardashir, like all the dynasts of Persis,
was an ardent devotee of the Zoroastrian doctrine, and closely
connected with the priesthood. In his royal style he assumed
the designation " Mazdayasnian " (MacSaorvai), and the fire-
cult was everywhere vigorously disseminated. Simultaneously
the old claims to world dominion made their reappearance.
After the defeat of Artabanus, Ardashir, as heir of the Achae-
menids, formulated his pretensions to the dominion of western
Asia (Dio. Cass. 80, 3; Herodian vi. 2, 4; Zonar. xii. 15; similarly
under Shapur II.: Ammian. Marc. xvii. 5, 5). He attacked
Armenia, though without permanent success (cf . von Gutschmid
in Zeitschr. d. d. morgenl. Ges. xxxi. 47, on the fabulous Armenian
account of these wars), and despatched his armies against
Roman Mesopotamia. They strayed as far as Syria and
Cappadocia. The inner decay of the Roman Empire, and the
widespread tendency of its troops to mutiny and usurpation,
favoured his enterprise. Nevertheless, the armies of Alexander
Severus, supported by the king of Armenia, succeeded in repelling
the Persians, though the Romans sustained severe losses (231-
233). Towards the end of his reign Ardashir resumed the attack;
while his son Shapur I. (241-272) reduced Nisibis and Carrhae
and penetrated into Syria, but was defeated by shaparl.
Gordian III. at Resaena (243). Soon afterwards,
however, the Roman Empire seemed to collapse utterly. The
Goths defeated Decius (251) and harried the Balkan Peninsula
and Asia Minor, while insurrections broke out everywhere and
the legions created one Caesar after the other. Then Shapur
resumed the war, subdued Armenia and plundered Antioch.
The emperor Valerian, who marched to encounter him, was
overthrown at Edessa and taken prisoner (260). The Persian
armies advanced into Cappadocia; but here Ballista or Balista
(d. c. 264) beat them back, and Odenathus (Odainath), prince of
Palmyra (q.v.), rose in their rear, defeated Shapur, captured
his harem, and twice forced his way to Ctesiphon (263-265).
Shapur was in no position to repair the defeat, or even to hold
Armenia; so that the Sassanid power failed to pass the bounds
of the Arsacid Empire. Nevertheless Shapur I., in contrast
to his father, assumed the title " King of the kings of the Iranians
and non-Iranians" (/3acuXei;s fiaaCKkwv 'Apiav&v ical 'Avapiapwv;
shah an shah Iran we Aniran), thus emphasizing his claim to
world dominion. His successors retained the designation,
little as it corresponded to the facts, for the single non-Iranian
land governed by the Sassanids was, as under the Parthians,
the district of the Tigris and Euphrates as far as the Mesopo-
tamian desert; western and northern Mesopotamia remained
Roman.

The Sassanid ruler is the representative of the " Kingly Majesty,"
derived from Ormuzd, which appears in the Avesta as the angel
Kavaem Hvareno, " the royal glory," and, according to
legend, once beamed in the Iranian kings, unattainable to Organiza-
all but those of royal blood. A picture, which frequently °"'
recurs in the rock-reliefs of Ardashir I. and Shapur I., represents
the king and the god Ormuzd both on horseback, the latter in the
act of handing to his companion the ring of sovereignty. Thus it
is explicable that all the Sassanids, as many of the Arsacids before
them, include the designation of " god " in their formal style.
From this developed (as already under the Arsacids) that strict
principle of legitimacy which is still vigorous in Firdousi. It
applies, however, to the whole royal house, precisely as in the
Ottoman Empire of to-day. The person of the individual ruler

220

PERSIA

[HISTORY: ANCIENT

is, on the other hand, a matter of indifference. He can readily be
removed and replaced by another; but no usurper who was not
of the legitimate blood can hope to become the genuine king.
Therefore the native tradition carries the Sassanid line back to the
Achaemenids and, still further, to the kings of the legendary period.
Officially the king is all-powerful, and his will, which is guided
by God and bound up in His law, unfettered. Thus, externally,
he is surrounded by all the splendour of sovereignty; on his head
he wears a great and resplendent crown, with a high circular centre-
piece; he is clothed in gold and jewels; round him is a brilliant
court, composed of his submissive servants. He sits in dazzling
state on his throne in Ctesiphon. All who approach fling them-
selves to the ground, life and death depend on his nod. Among
his people he is accounted the fairest, strongest and wisest man
of the empire; and from him is required the practice of all piety
and virtue, as well as skill in the chase and in arms — especially
the bow. Ardashir I., moreover, and his successors endeavoured
to establish the validity of the royal will by absorbing the vassal
states and instituting a firmer organization. Nevertheless they
failed to attain the complete independence and power of the Achae-
menids. Not strong enough to break up the nobility, with its
great estates, they were forced to utilize its services and still further
to promote its interests; while their dependence on its good-will
and assistance led inevitably to incessant gifts of money, lands
and men. This state of affairs had also prevailed under the later
Achaemenids, and had materially contributed to the disintegration
of the empire and the numerous insurrections of the satraps. But
the older Achaemenids held an entirely different position; and
hardly a single Sassanid enjoyed even that degree of power which
was still retained by the later Achaemenids. It was of fundamental
importance that the Sassanian Empire could not make good its
claim to world dominion; and, in spite of the title of its kings, it
always remained essentially the kingdom of Iran — or rather west
Iran, together with the districts on the Tigris and Euphrates.
This fact, again, is most closely connected with its military and
administrative organization. The external and internal conditions
of the empire are in mutual reaction upon one another. The
empire, which in extent did not exceed that of the Arsacids with
its vassal states, was protected on the east and west by the great
„.„, deserts of central Iran and Mesopotamia. For the

a hi 3 ' defence of these provinces the mounted archers, who
?T e " formed the basis of the army, possessed adequate
men ' strength; and though the Scythian nomads from the
east, or the Romans from the west, might occasionally penetrate deep
into the country, they never succeeded in maintaining their position.
But the power of the neo-Persian Empire was not great enough
for further conquests, though its army was capable and animated
by a far stronger national feeling than that of the Parthians. It
still consisted, however, of levies from the retinue of the magnates
led by their territorial lords; and, although these troops would
stream in at the beginning of a war, they could not be kept per-
manently together. For, on the one hand, they were actuated
by the most varied personal interests and antipathies, not all of
which the king could satisfy; on the other hand he Could not,
owing to the natural character and organization of his dominions,
maintain and pay a large army for any length of time. Thus the
great hosts soon melted away, and a war, begun successfully,
ended ingloriously, and often disastrously. Under such circum-
stances an elaborate tactical organization employing different
species of arms, or the execution of a comprehensive plan of cam-
paign, was out of the question. The successes of the Sassanids in
the east were gained in the later period of their dominion; and the
Roman armies, in spite of decay in discipline and military spirit,
still remained their tactical and strategical superiors. A great
victory might be won — even an emperor might be captured, like
Valerian — but immediately afterwards successes, such as those
gained against Shapur I. "(who was certainly an able general) by
Ballista and Odenathus of Palmyra, or the later victories of Carus,
Julian and others, demonstrated how far the Persians were from
being on an equality with the Romans. That Babylonia perma-
nently remained a Sassanian province was due merely to the
geographical conditions and to the political situation of the Roman
Empire, not to the strength of the Persians.

Among the magnates six great houses — seven, if we include the
royal house — were still regarded as the foremost, precisely as
under the Achaemenids, and from these were drawn
v hii« t ^ e generals, crown officials and governors (cf. Procqp.
Nobility. p ers _ ;_ 6, 13 S qq.). In the last of these positions we
frequently find princes of the blood, who then bear the royal title
(shah). Some of these houses — whose origin the legends derive from
King Gushtasp {i.e. Vishtaspa), the protector of Zoroaster (Marquart,
Zeitschr. d. d. morgenl. Ges. xlix. 635 sqq.), already existed under
the Arsacids, e.g. the Suren (Surenas, vide supra, p. 798) and Karen
(Carenes, Tac. Ann. xii. 12 sqq.), who had obviously embraced the
cause of the victorious dynasty at the correct moment and so re-
tained their position. The name Pahlavan, moreover, which denoted
the Parthian magnates, passed over into the new empire. Below
these there was an inferior nobility, the dikhans (" village-lords ")
and the "knights" (aswar) ; who, as among the Parthians, took
the field in heavy scale-armour. To an even greater extent than

under the Arsacids the empire was subdivided into a host of small
provinces, at the head of each being a Marzban (" boundary-lord,''
" lord of the marches "). These were again comprised in four
great districts. With each of these local potentates the king could
deal with as scant consideration as he pleased, always provided
that he had the power or understood the art of making himself
feared. But to break through the system or replace it by another
was impossible. In fact he was compelled to proceed with great
caution whenever he wished to elevate a favourite of humbler
origin to an office which custom reserved for the nobility. Thus
it is all the more worthy of recognition that the Sassanian Empire
was a fairly orderly empire, with an excellent legal administration,
and that the later sovereigns did their utmost to repress the
encroachments of the nobility, to protect the commonalty, and,
above all, to carry out a just system of taxation.

Side by side with the nobles ranked the spiritual chiefs, now
a far more powerful body than under the Arsacids. Every larger
district had its upper Magian {Magupat, mobed, i.e.
" Lord of the Magians "). At their head was the « eC i!™'«
supreme Mobed, resident in Rhagae (Rai), who was re- Ueve °P m
garded as the successor of Zoroaster. In the new empire, mea '
of which the king and people were alike zealous professors of the true
faith, their influence was extraordinarily strong (cf. Agathias ii.
26) — comparable to the influence of the priesthood in later Egypt,
and especially in Byzantium and medieval Christendom. As has
already been indicated, it was in their religious attitudes that the
essential difference lay between the Sassanid Empire and the older
Iranian states. But, in details, the fluctuations were so manifold
that it is necessary at this point to enter more fully into the history
of Persian religion (cf. especially H. Gelzer, " Eznik u. d. Entwickel.
des pers. Religions-systems," in the Zeitschr. f. armen. Philol.
i. 149 sqq.).

The Persian religion, as we have seen, spread more and more
widely after the Achaemenian period. In the Indo-Scythian
Empire the Persian gods were zealously worshipped ; in Armenia the
old national religion was almost entirely banished by the Persian
cults (Gelzer, " Zur armen. Gotterlehre," in Ber. d. sacks. Gesch.
d. Wissensch., 1895); in Cappadocia, North Syria and the west of
Asia Minor, the Persian gods were everywhere adored side by
side with the native deities. It was in the third century that the
cult of Mithras, with its mysteries and a theology evolved from
Zoroastrianism, attained the widest diffusion in all Latin-speaking
provinces of the Roman dominion; and it even seemed for a while
as though the Sol invictus Mithras, highly favoured by the Caesars,
would become the official deity-in-chief of the empire. But in all
these cults the Persian gods are perfectly tolerant of other native
or foreign divinities; vigorous as was their propagandism, it was yet
equally far removed from an attack on other creeds. Thus this
Parseeism always bears a syncretic character; and the supreme
god of Zoroastrian theory, Ahuramazda {i.e. Zeus or Jupiter), in
practice yields place to his attendant deities, who work in the world
and are able to lead the believer, who has been initiated and keeps
the commandments of purity, to salvation.

But, meanwhile, in its Iranian home and especially in Persis,
the religion of Zoroaster lived a quiet life, undisturbed by the pro-
ceedings of the outside world. Here the poems of the prophet and
fragments of ancient religious literature survived, understood by
the Magians and rendered accessible to the faithful laity by versions
in the modern dialect (Pahlavi). Here the opposition between the
good spirit of light and the demons of evil — between Ormuzd and
Ahriman — still remained the principal dogma of the creed; while
all other gods and angels, however estimable their aid, were but
subordinate servants of Ormuzd, whose highest manifestation on
earth was not the sun-god Mithras, but the holy fire guarded by his
priests. Here all the prescriptions of purity — partly connected
with national customs, and impossible of execution abroad —
were diligently observed; and even the injunction not to pollute
earth with corpses, but to cast out the dead to vulture and
dog, was obeyed in its full force. At the same time Ahuramazda
preserved his character as a national god, who bestowed on his
worshippers victory and world dominion. In the sculptures of
the Sassanids, as also in Armenian traditions, he appears on horse-
back as a war-god. Here, again, the theology was further developed,
and an attempt made to annul the old dualism by envisaging both
Ormuzd and Ahriman as emanations of an original principle of
infinite time (Zervan), a doctrine which long enjoyed official validity
under the Sassanids till, in the reign of Chosroes I., " the sect
of Zervanites " was pronounced heretical. 1 But, above all, the
ritual and the doctrine of purity were elaborated and expanded,
and there was evolved a complete and detailed system of casuistry,
dealing with all things allowed and forbidden, the forms of pollution
and the expiation for each, &c, which, in its arid and spiritless
monotony vividly recalls the similar prescriptions in the Pentateuch.
The consequences of this development were that orthodoxy and
literal obedience to all priestly injunctions now assumed an impor-
tance far greater than previously ; henceforward, the great command-
ment of Zoroastrianism, as of Judaism, is to combat the heresies

1 It may be observed that this innovation was also known to
the Mithras-cult of the West, where Zervan appears as aXitv.

HISTORY: ANCIENT]

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221

of the heathen, a movement which had already had an energetic
representative in the prophet himself. Heathenish cults and for-
bidden manners and customs are a pollution to the land and a deep
insult to the true God. Therefore the duty of the believer is to
combat and destroy the unbeliever and the heretic. In short, the
tolerance of the Achaemenids and the indifference of the Arsacids
are now replaced by intolerance and religious persecution.

Such were the views in which Ardashir I. grew up, and in their
energetic prosecution he found a potent instrument for the building
up of his empire. It has previously been mentioned that Volo-
gaeses III. had already begun a collection of the holy writings;
and the task was resumed under Ardashir. At his order the
orthodox doctrines and texts were compiled by the high priest
Jansar; all divergent theories were prohibited and their adherents
proscribed. Thus arose the Avesta, the sacred book of the Parsees.
Above all, the sacred book of laws, the Vendidad, breathes through-
out the spirit of the Sassanian period, in its intolerance, its casuistry
degenerating into absurdity, and its soulless monotony. Sub-
scription to the restored orthodox doctrine was to the Iranian a
matter of course. The schismatics Ardashir imprisoned for a year ;
if, at its expiration, they still refused to listen to reason, and remained
stiff-necked, they were executed. It is even related that, in his
zeal for uniformity of creed, Ardashir wished to extinguish the
holy fires in the great cities of the empire and the Parthian vassal
states, with the exception of that which burned in the residence
of the dynasty. This plan he was unable to execute. In Armenia,
also, Ardashir and Shapur, during the period of their occupation,
sought to introduce the orthodox religion, destroyed the heathen
images — even those of the Iranian gods which were here considered
heathen, — and turned the shrines into fire-altars (Gelzer, Ber.
sacks. Ges. p. 135, 1895). Shapur I., who appears to have had a
broader outlook, added to the religious writings a collection of
scientific treatises on medicine, astronomy, mathematics, philo-
sophy, zoology, &c, partly from Indian and Greek sources.

This religious development was most strongly influenced by the
fact that, meanwhile, a powerful opponent of Zoroastrianism had
arisen with an equally zealous propagandism and an
tChHstl- e< l ua l exclusiveness and intolerance. More especially
salt ' n tne countr ' es °' tne Tigris and Euphrates, now alto-

•''■ gether Aramaic, Christianity had everywhere gained a

firm footing. 1 But its missionary enterprise stretched over the whole
of Iran, and even farther. The time was come when, in the western
and eastern worlds alike, the religious question was for large masses
of people the most important question in life, and the diffusion
of their own creed and the suppression of all others the highest
and holiest of tasks. The man who thinks thus knows no com-
promise, and so Zoroastrianism and Christianity confronted each
other as mortal enemies. Still the old idea that every religion
contained a portion of the truth, and that it was possible to borrow
something from one and amalgamate it with another, had not yet
lost all its power. From such a conception arose the teaching of
Mani or Manes. For Manichaeism (q.v.) is an attempt to weld the
doctrine of the Gospel and the doctrine of Zoroaster
Maaicbae- ; nto a un ;f ornl S y S tem, though naturally not without
""' an admixture of other elements, principally Babylonian

and Gnostic. Mani, perhaps a Persian from Babylonia, is said to
have made his first appearance as a teacher on the coronation
day of Shapur I. At all events he found numerous adherents,
both at court and among the magnates of the empire. The king
even inclined to him, till in a great disputation the Magians
gained the predominance. None the less Mani found means
to diffuse his creed far and wide over the whole empire. Even
the heir to the throne, Hormizd I. (reigned 272-273), was
favourably disposed to him; but Shapur's younger son, Bahram I.
(273-276), yielded to sacerdotal pressure, and Mani was executed.
After that Manichaeism was persecuted and extirpated in Iran.
Yet it maintained itself not merely in the west, where its head
resided at Babylon — propagating thence far into the Roman
Empire — but also in the east, in Khorasan and beyond the
bounds of the Sassanian dominion. There the seat of its pon-
tiff was at Samarkand; thence it penetrated into Central Asia,
where, buried in the desert sands which entomb the cities of
eastern Turkestan, numerous fragments of the works of Mani
and his disciples, in the Persian language (Pahlavi) and Syrian
script, and in an East Iranian dialect, called Sogdian, which was
used by the Manichaeans of Central Asia, have been discovered
(K. Muller, " Handschriftenreste in Estrangelo-schrift aus Turfan,
in Chinesisch-Turkestan," in Abh. d. berl. Akad., 1904) ; among them
translations of texts of the New Testament (K. Muller, Berichte
der Berl., 1907, p. 260 seq.). In these texts God the Father
is identified with the Zervan of Zarathustrism, the devil with
Ahriman. The further religious development of the Sassanid
Empire will be touched upon later.

1 For the propagation and history of the Christians in the Sassanid
Empire, cf. Labourt, Le Ckristianisme dans Vempire perse sous la
dynastie sassanide (1904); Harnack, Die Mission und Ausbreitung
des Chrisienthums in den ersten drei Jahrhunderlen, 2. Aufl. (1906),
Bd. II. p. 121 seq. ; Chabot, Synodicon orientale (1902) (a collection of
the acts of the Nestorian synods held under the rule of theSassanids).

Like the Arsacids the kings resided in Ctesiphon, where, out of
the vast palace built by Chosroes I., a portion at least of the great
hall is still erect. On the ruins of Seleucia, on the
opposite bank of the Tigris, Ardashir I. built the city "t' ™" re
of Veh-Ardashir ("good is Ardashir"), to which the later an < IArts -
kings added new towns, or rather new quarters. In Susiana
Shapur I. built the great city of Gondev-Shapur, which succeeded
the ancient capital of the Persian Empire. At the same time the
mother-country again gained importance; especially the capital
of Persis, Istakhr, which had replaced the former Persepolis (now
the ruins of Hajji-abad). Farther in the south-east, Ardashir I.
built Gur (now Firuzabad), under the name of Ardashir-khurre
(" the glory of Ardashir "). At these places and in Sarwistan,
near Shiraz and elsewhere, lie ruins of the Sassanid palaces, which
in their design go back to the Achaemenid architecture, blending
with it, however, Graeco-Syrian elements and serving in their turn
as models for the structures of the Caliphs (see Architecture :
§ Sassanian). After its long quiescence under the Arsacids native
art underwent a general renaissance, which, though not aspiring
to the Achaemenian creations, was still of no small importance.
Of the Sassanian rock-sculptures some have already been mentioned ;
besides these, numerous engraved signet-stones have been preserved.
The metal-work, carpets and fabrics of this period enjoyed a high
reputation; they were widely distributed and even influenced
western art.

In the intellectual life and literature of the Sassanid era the
main characteristic is the complete disappearance of Hellenism and
the Greek language. Ardashir I. and Shapur I. still
appended Greek translations to some of their inscrip- Literature.
tions; but all of later date are drawn up in Pahlavi alone. The
coins invariably bear a Pahlavi legend — on the obverse the king's
head with his name and title; on the reverse, a fire-altar (generally
with the ascription " fire of Ardashir, Shapur, &c," -i.e. the fire of
the royal palace), and the name of the place of coinage, usually
abbreviated. The real missionaries of culture in the empire were
the Aramaeans (Syrians), who were connected with the West by their
Christianity, and in their translations diffused Greek literature
through the Orient. But there also developed a rather extensive
Pahlavi literature, not limited to religious subjects, but containing
works in belles lettres, modernizations of the old Iranian sagas and
native traditions, e.g. the surviving fabulous history of Ardashir I.,
ethical tales, &c, with translations of foreign literature, principally
Indian, — one instance being the celebrated book of tales Kalilah
and Dimnah (see Syriac Literature), dating from Chosroes I.,
in whose reign chess also was introduced from India.

. Authorities. — Side by side with the accounts of Roman and
Greek authors stands the indigenous tradition Which, especially
for the later years of the empire, is generally trustworthy. It
goes back to a native work, the Khudai nama (" book of lords "),
compiled under Chosroes I. and continued to Yazdegerd III. Its
narrations are principally preserved in Tabari, though there com-
bined with numerous Arabian traditions ; also in the poetical
adaptation of Firdousi. To these may be added Syrian accounts,
particularly in the martyrologies, which have been excellently
treated by G. Hoffmann, Ausziige aus syrischen Akten persischer
Mdrlyrer (1880); also the statements of the Armenian historians.

The fundamental work on Sassanian history is Theodor Noldeke's
Gesch. der Perser u. Araber zur Zeit der Sassaniden, aus der arabischen
Chronik des Tabari (1879, trans, with notes and excursuses chiefly
on the chronology and organization of the empire). On this is
based Noldeke's Aufsatze zur pers. Gesch. (1887 ; containing a history
of the Sassanian Empire, pp. 86 sqq.). The only other works re-
quiring mention are: G. Rawlinson, The Seventh Great Oriental
Monarchy (1876), and F. Justi's sketch in the Grundriss der iranischen
Philologie, vol. ii. (1904). For the geography and numerous details of
administration: J. Marquart, " Eranshahr " {Abh. d. gotting. Ges. d.
Wissensch., 1901). For the numismatology the works of A. D.
Mordtmann are of prime importance, especially his articles in the
Zeitschr. d. d. morgenl. Ges. (1879), xxxiii. 113 sqq, and xxxiv.
I sqq. (1880), where the inscriptions of the individual kings are
also enumerated. Also Noldeke, ibid. xxxi. 147 sqq. (1877). For
facsimiles of coins the principal work is J . de Bartholomaei, Collection
de monnaies sassanides (2nd ed., St Petersburg, 1875); For the
inscriptions: Edward Thomas, "Early Sassanian Inscriptions,"
Journ. R. A. Soc. vol. ii. (1868) ; West, Pahlavi Literature " in the
Grundriss d. iran. Philol. vol. ii. For the monuments : Flandin and
Coste, Voyage en Perse (1851); Stolze, Persepolis (1882); Fr. Sarre,
Iran. Felsreliefs a. d. Z. der Achaemeniden und Sassaniden (1908).

In foreign policy the problems under the Sassanid kings 2

2 List of kings (after Noldeke, Tabari, p. 4.35).
Ardashir I., 226-241. Ardashir II., 379-383.

Shapur I., 241-272. Shapur III., 383-388.

Hormizd I., 272-273. Bahram IV., 388-399.

Bahram I., 273-276. Yazdegerd I., 399-420.

Bahram II., 276-293. Bahram V., Gor. 420-438.

Bahram III., 293. Yazdegerd II., 438-457.

Narseh (Narses), 293-302. Hormizd III., 457-459.

Hormizd II., 302-310. Peroz, 457-484.

Shapur II., 310-379. Balash, 484-488.

222

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[HISTORY: ANCIENT

remained as of old, the defence and, when possible, the expansion
of the eastern and western frontiers. In the first two centuries
History °f tne Sassanid Empire we hear practically nothing
of the of its relations with the East. Only occasional
Sassaaiaa notices show that the inroads of the Oriental nomads
mp ' had not ceased, and that the extent of the empire
had by no means exceeded the bounds of the Parthian dominion
— Sacastene (Seistan) and western Afghanistan. Far to the east,
on both sides of the Indus, the Kushana Empire was still in exis-
tence, though it was already hastening to decay, and about
a.d. 320 was displaced from its position in India by the Gupta
dynasty. In the west the old conflict for Osroene and northern
Mesopotamia (now Roman provinces), with the fortresses of
Edessa, Carrhae and Nisibis, still smouldered. Armenia the
Sassanids were all the more eager to regain, since there the
Arsacid dynasty still survived and turned for protection to
Rome, with whom, in consequence, new wars perpetually broke
out. In the reign of Bahram II. (276-293), the emperor Cams,
burning to avenge the disaster of Valerian, penetrated into
Mesopotamia without meeting opposition, and reduced Coche
(near Seleucia) and Ctesiphon; but his sudden death, in
December of 283, precluded further success, and the Roman army
returned home. Bahram, however, was unable to effect any-
thing, as his brother Hormizd was in arms, supported by the
Sacae and other tribes. (Mamertin, Parxgyr. Maximin. 7. 10;
GetieM. Maximin. 5, 17.) He chose, consequently, to buy
peace with Diocletian by means of presents. Some years later
his uncle and successor, Narses, after subduing his rival Bahram
III., occupied Armenia and defeated the emperor Galerius
at Callinicum (206). But in the following year he sustained a
severe reverse in Armenia, in which he lost his war-chest and
harem. He then concluded a peace, by the terms of which
Armenia remained under Roman suzerainty, and the steppes
of northern Mesopotamia, with Singara and the hill-country
on the left bank of the Tigris as far as Gordyene, were ceded
to the victor (Ammian. Marc. xxv. 7, 9; Petr. Patr. jr. 13, 14;
Rufus brev. 25). In return Narses regained his household.
This peace, ratified in 297 and completely expelling the Sassanids
from the disputed districts, lasted for forty years.

For the rest, practically nothing is known of the history
of the first six successors of Shapur I. After the death of
Hormizd II. (302-310), the son of Narses, the magnates
imprisoned or put to death his adult sons, one of whom,
Hormisdas, later escaped to the Romans, who used him as a
pretender in their wars. Shapur II., a posthumous child of the
late king, was then raised to the throne, a proof that the great
magnates held the sovereignty in their own hands and attempted
to order matters at their own pleasure. Shapur, however,
when he came to manhood proved himself an independent and
energetic ruler.

Meanwhile the Roman Empire had become Christian, the
sequel of which was that the Syro-Christian population of
Shapur u. Mesopotamia and Babylonia — even more than the
Persecution Hellenic cities in former times — gravitated to the
of the W est and looked to Rome for deliverance from the

Christians. j nn( ]el yoke. On similar grounds Christianity, as
opposed to the Mazdaism enforced officially by the Sassanids,
became predominant in Armenia. Between these two great
creeds the old Armenian religion was unable to hold its own;
as early as a.d. 294 King Tiridates was converted by Gregory
the Illuminator and adopted the Christian faith. For this very
reason the Sassanid Empire was the more constrained to champion
Zoroastrianism. It was under Shapur II. that the compilation
of the Avesta was completed and the state orthodoxy perfected
by the chief mobed, Aturpad. All heresy was proscribed by the

Kavadh I., 488-531. (Bahram VI., Cobin, Bistam 590-

(Djamasp, 496-498). 596.)

Chosroes (Khosrau) I., Anushir- Kavadh II., Sheroe, 628.

van, 531-579. Ardashir III., 628-630.

Hormizd IV., 579~590. (Shahrbaraz, 630.)

Chosroes II., Parvez, 590-628. (Boran and others, 630-632.)

Yazdegerd III., 632-651.

On most of these kings there are separate articles.

state, defection from the true faith pronounced a capital crime,
and the persecution of the heterodox — particularly the Chris-
tians — began (cf. Sachall, " Die rechtlichen Verhaltnisse der
Christen in Sassanidenreich," in Mitteilungen des Seminars
fiir orientalische Sprachen jiir Berlin, Bd. X., Abt. 2, 1907).
Thus the duel between the two great empires now becomes
simultaneously a duel between the two religions.

In such a position of affairs a fresh war with Rome was inevit-
able. 1 It was begun by Shapur in a.d. 337, the year that saw
the death of Constantine the Great. The conflict centred round
the Mesopotamian fortresses; Shapur thrice besieged Nisibis
without success, but reduced several others, as Amida
(359) and Singara (360), and transplanted great masses of
inhabitants into Susiana. The emperor Constantius conducted
the war feebly and was consistently beaten in the field. But,
in spite of all, Shapur found it impossible to penetrate deeper
into the Roman territory. He was hampered by the attack
of nomadic tribes in the east, among whom the Chionites now
begin to be mentioned. Year after year he took the field against
them (353-358), till finally he compelled them to support him
with auxiliaries (Ammian. Marc. 14, 3; 16, 9; 17, 5; 18, 4, 6).
With this war is evidently connected the foundation of the
great town New-Shapur (Nishapur) in Khorasan.

By the resolution of Julian (363) to begin an energetic attack
on the Persian Empire, the conflict, after the lapse of a quarter
of a century, assumed a new phase. Julian pressed forward
to Ctesiphon but succumbed to a wound; and his successor Jovian
soon found himself in such straits, that he could only extricate
himself and his army by a disgraceful peace at the close of 363,
which ceded the possessions on the Tigris and the great fortress
of Nisibis, and pledged Rome to abandon Armenia and her
Arsacid protege, Arsaces III., to the Persian.

Shapur endeavoured to occupy Armenia and introduce the
Zoroastrian orthodoxy. He captured Arsaces III. by treachery
and compelled him to commit suicide; but the Armenian
magnates proved refractory, placed Arsaces' son Pap on the
throne, and found secret support among the Romans. This
all but led to a new war; but in 374 Valens sacrificed Pap and
had him killed in Tarsus. The subsequent invasions of the
Goths, in battle with whom Valens fell at Adrianople (375),
definitely precluded Roman intervention; and the end of the
Armenian troubles was that (c. 390) Bahram IV. and Theodosius
the Great concluded a treaty which abandoned the extreme
west of Armenia to the Romans and confirmed the remainder in
the Persian possession. Thus peace and friendship could at
last exist with Rome; and in 408 Yazdegerd I. contracted an
alliance with Theodosius II. In Armenia the Persians
immediately removed the last kings of the house of ^^en/a. °
Arsaces (430), and thenceforward the main portion
of the country remained a Persian province under the control
of a marzban, though the Armenian nobles still made repeated
attempts at insurrection. The introduction of Zoroastrianism
was abandoned; Christianity was already far too deeply rooted.
But the sequel to the Roman sacrifice of Armenian interests was
that the Armenian Christians now seceded from the orthodoxy
of Rome and Constantinople, and organized themselves into
an independent national church. This church was due, before
all, to the efforts of the Catholicos Sahak (390-439), whose
colleague Mesrob, by his translation of the Bible, laid the
foundations of an Armenian literature (see Armenian Church).

In the interior of the Sassanian Empire the old troubles broke
out anew on the death of Shapur II. (379). At first the magnates
raised his aged brother Ardashir II. to the throne, then in 383
deposed him and enthroned Shapur's son as
Shapur III. In 388, however, he was assassinated, Yazdegerd 1.
as was also his brother, Bahram IV., in 399. But the
son of the latter, Yazdegerd I. (399-420), was an energetic and
intelligent sovereign, who held the magnates within bounds
and severely chastised their attempts at encroachment. He
even sought to emancipate himself from the Magian Church,

1 For the succeeding events see also under Rome: Ancient History;
and articles on the Roman emperors and Persian kings.

HISTORY: ANCIENT]

PERSIA

223

put an end to the persecutions, and allowed the Persian Christians
an individual organization. In the Persian tradition he is
consequently known as " the sinner." In the end he was
probably assassinated. So great was the bitterness against
him that the magnates would admit none of his sons to the
throne. One of them, however, Bahram V., found an auxiliary in
the Arab chief Mondhir, who had founded a principality in Hira,

west of the lower Euphrates; and, as he pledged him-
Qor _ '' self to govern otherwise than his father, he received

general recognition. This pledge he redeemed, and

he is, in consequence, the darling of Persian tradition, which

bestows on him the title of Gor (" the wild ass "), and is eloquent

on his adventures in the chase and in love. This reversal of

policy led to a Christian persecution and a new war with Rome.

Bahram, however, was worsted; and in the peace of 422 Persia

agreed to allow the Christians free exercise of their religion in

the empire, while the same privilege was accorded to Zoroastrian-

ism by Rome. Under his son, Yazdegerd II. (438-457), who once

more revived the persecutions of the Christians and the Jews,

a short conflict with Rome again ensued (441): while at the same

time war prevailed in the east against the remnants of the

Kushan Empire and the tribe of Kidarites, also named Huns.

Here a new foe soon arose in the shape of the Ephthalites

(Haitab), also known as the " White Huns," a barbaric tribe

TbeBphtha- which shortly after a.d. 450 raided Bactria and ter-

iltesor minated the Kushana dominion (Procop. Pers. i. 3).

White Huns. These Ephthalite attacks harassed and weakened

the Sassanids, exactly as the Tocharians had harassed and

weakened the Arsacids after Phraates II. Peroz (457-484) fell

in battle against them; his treasures and family were captured

and the country devastated far and near. His brother Balash

(484-488), being unable to repel them, was deposed and blinded,

and the crown was bestowed on Kavadh I. (488-531), the son

of Peroz. As the external and internal distress still continued

he was dethroned and imprisoned, but took refuge among the

Ephthalites and was restored in 499 by their assistance — like

„ JU , so many Arsacids by the arms of the Dahae and
Kavadh I. J J

bacae. To these struggles obviously must be
attributed mainly the fact that in the whole of this period no
Roman war broke out. But, at the same time, the religious
duel had lost in intensity, since, among the Persian Christians,
the Nestorian doctrine was now dominant. Peroz had already
favoured the diffusion of Nestorianism, and in 483 it was officially
adopted by a synod, after which it remained the Christian
Church of the Persian Empire, its head being the patriarch of
Seleucia — Ctesiphon.

Kavadh proved himself a vigorous ruler. On his return
he restored order in the interior. In 502 he attacked the

Romans and captured and destroyed Amida (mod.
kite Sect. 'Diarbekr), but was compelled to ratify a peace

owing to an inroad of the Huns. Toward the close
of his reign (527) he resumed the war, defeating Belisarius at
Callinicum (531), with the zealous support of the wild Arab
Mondhir II. of Hira. On his death his son Chosroes I. concluded
a peace with Justinian (532), pledging the Romans to an annual
subsidy for the maintenance of the Caucasus fortresses. In
his home policy Kavadh is reminiscent of Yazdegerd I. Like
him he had little inclination to the orthodox church, and favoured
Mazdak, the founder of a communistic sect which had made
headway among the people and might be used as a weapon
against the nobles, of whom Mazdak demanded that they should
cut down their luxury and distribute their superfluous wealth.
Another feature of his programme was the community of wives.
The crown-prince, Chosroes, was, on the other hand, wholly
orthodox; and, towards the close of his father's reign, in con-
junction with the chief Magian, he carried through a sacrifice
of the Mazdakites, who were butchered in a great massacre
(528). Chosroes I. (531-579), surnamed Anushirvan ("the
blessed "), then restored the orthodox doctrine in
Aauthirvan. f u ^> publishing his decision in a religious edict.
At the same time he produced the official exposition
of the Avesla, an exegetical translation in the popular tongue

(Pahlavi), and declared its contents binding. Defection from
Zoroastrianism was punished with death, and therefore also
the proselytizing of the Christians, though the Syrian martyr-
ologies prove that the kings frequently ignored these proceedings
so long as it was at all possible to do so.

Chosroes I. was one of the most illustrious sovereigns of the
Sassanian Empire. From him dates a new and equitable adjust-
ment of the imperial taxation, which was later adopted by the
Arabs. His reputation as an enlightened ruler stood so high
that when Justinian, in 529, closed the school of Athens, the
last Neoplatonists bent their steps to him in hopes of finding in
him the true philosopher-king. Their disillusionment, indeed,
was speedy and complete, and their gratitude was great, when,
by the conditions of the armistice of 549, he allowed their return.
From 540 onward he conducted a great war against Justinian
(527-565), which, though interrupted by several armistices,
lasted till the fifty years' peace of 562. The net result, indeed,
was merely to restore the status quo; but during the campaign
Chosroes sacked Antioch and transplanted the population to
a new quarter of Ctesiphon (540). He also extended his power
to the Black Sea and the Caucasus; on the other hand, a siege of
Edessa failed (544). A second war broke out in 577, chiefly
on the question of Armenia and the Caucasus territory. In
this Chosroes ravaged Cappadocia in 575; but the campaign in
Mesopotamia was unsuccessful. In the interval between these
two struggles (570) he despatched assistance to the Arabs of
Yemen, who had been assailed and subdued by the Abyssinian
Christians; after which period Yemen remained nominally under
Persian suzerainty till its fate was sealed by the conquests of
Mahomet and Islam.

Meanwhile, about a.d. 560, a new nation had sprung up in
the East, the Turks. Chosroes concluded an alliance with
them against the Ephthalites and so conquered
Bactria south of the Oxus, with its capital Balkh. pe ^. an ce a t
Thus this province, which, since the insurrection the Turks,
of Diodotus in 250 B.C., had undergone entirely Sassanid
different vicissitudes from the rest of Iran, was fl^.""' '
once more united to an Iranian Empire, and the
Sassanid dominions, for the first time, passed the frontiers of
the Arsacids. This, however, was the limit of their expansion.
Neither the territories north of the Oxus, nor eastern Afghanistan
and the Indus provinces, were ever subject to them. That the
alliance with the Turks should soon change to hostility .and
mutual attack was inevitable from the nature of the case; in the
second Roman war the Turkish Khan was leagued with Rome.
Chosroes bequeathed this war to his son Hormizd IV. (570-
590), who, in spite of repeated negotiations, failed to re-establish
peace. Hormizd had not the ability to retain the authority
of his father, and he further affronted the Magian priesthood
by declining to proceed against the Christians and by requiring
that, in his empire, both religions should dwell together in
peace. Eventually he succumbed to a conspiracy of his
magnates, at whose head stood the general Bahram Cobin,
who had defeated the Turks, but afterwards was beaten
by the Romans. Hormizd's son, Chosroes II., was set
up against his father and forced to acquiesce in his execu-
tion. But immediately new risings broke out, in which
Bahram Cobin — though not of the royal line — attempted to
secure the crown, while simultaneously a Prince _. ..

Bistam entered the lists. Chosroes fled to the
Romans and the emperor Maurice undertook his restoration at
the head of a great army. The people flocked to his standard;
Bahram Cobin was routed (591) and fled to the Turks, who slew
him, and Chosroes once more ascended the throne of Ctesiphon;
Bistam held out in Media till 596. Maurice made no attempt
to turn the opportunity to Roman advantage, and in the peace
then concluded he even abandoned Nisibis to the Persians.
Chosroes II. (590-628) is distinguished by the surname of
Parvez (" the conqueror "), though, in point of fact, he was
immeasurably inferior to a powerful sovereign like his grand-
father, or even to a competent general. He lived, however, to
witness unparalleled vicissitudes of fortune. The assassination

224

PERSIA

[TRANSITION PERIOD

of Maurice in 602 impelled him to a war of revenge against
Rome, in the course of which his armies — in 608 and, again, in
615 and 626— penetrated as far as Chalcedon opposite Constanti-
nople, ravaged Syria, reduced Antioch (611), Damascus (613),
and Jerusalem (614), and carried off the holy cross to Ctesiphon;
in 619 Egypt was occupied. Meanwhile, the Roman Empire
was at the lowest ebb. The great emperor Hefaelius, who
assumed the crown in 610, took years to create the nucleus
of a new military power. This done, however, he took the field
in 623, anrf repaid the Persians with interest. Their armies
were everywhere defeated. In 624 he penetrated into Atropa-
tene (Azerbaijan), and there destroyed the great fire-temple;
in 627 he advanced into the Tigris provinces. Chosroes at-
tempted no resistance, but fled from his residence at Dastagerd
to Ctesiphon. These proceedings, in conjunction with the avarice
and licence of the king, led to revolution. Chosroes was deposed
and slain by his son Kavadh II. (628); but the parricide died
in a few months and absolute chaos resulted. A whole list of
kings and pretenders — among ; them the General Shahrbaraz
and Boran, a daughter of Chosroes— followed rapidly on one
another-, till finally the magnates united and, in 632, elevated
a child to the throne, Yazdegerd III., grandson of Chosroes. In
the interval — presumably during the reign of Queen Boran —
peace was concluded with Heraclius, the old frontier being
apparently restored. The cross had already been given back
to the emperor.

Thus the hundred years' struggle between Rome and Persia,
which had begun in 527 with the a*tack of the first Kavadh
on Justinian, had run its fruitless course, utterly
Conquest, enfeebling both empires and consuming their powers.
So it was that room was given to a new enemy who
now arose between either state and either religion^— the Arabs
and Islam. In the same year that saw the coronation
of Yazdegerd III.— the beginning of 633— the first Arab'
squadrons made their entry into Persian territory. After
several encounters there ensued (637) the battle of Kadisiya
(Qadisiya, Cadesia), fought on one of the Euphrates canals,
where the fate of the Sassanian Empire was decided. A little
previously, in the August of 636, Syria had fallen in a battle
on the Yarmuk (Hieromax), and in 639 the Arabs penetrated
into Egypt. The field of Kadisiya laid Ctesiphon, with all its
treasures, at the mercy of the victor. The king fled to Media,
where his generals attempted to organize the resistance; but
the battle of Nehavend ( ? 64 1 ) decided matters there. Yazdegerd
sought refuge in one province after the other, till, at last, in
651, he was assassinated in Merv (see Caliphate: § A, § 1).

Thus ended the empire of the Sassanids, no less precipitately
and ingloriously than that of the Achaemenids. By 650 the
Arabs had occupied every province to Balkh and the Oxus.
Only in the secluded districts of northern Media (Tabaristan) ,
the " generals " of the house of Karen (Spahpat, Ispehbed)
maintained themselves for a century as vassals of the caliphs —
exactly as Atropates and his dynasty had done before them.

The fall of the empire sealed the fate of its religion. The
Moslems officially tolerated the Zoroastrian creed, though occa-
sional persecutions were not lacking. But little by little it vanished
from Iran, with the exception of a few remnants (chiefly in the
oasis of Yezd), the faithful finding a refuge in India at Bombay.
These Parsees have preserved but a small part of the sacred
writings; but to-day they still number their years by the era
which begins on the 16th of June a.d. 632, with the accession of
Yazdegerd III., the last king of their faith and the last lawful
sovereign of Iran, on whom rested the god-given Royal Glory of
Ormuzd.

Authorities. — Besides the works on special periods-quoted above,
the following general works should be consulted : Spiegel, Eranische
Altertumskunde (3 vols., 1876 sqq.); W. Geiger and Ernst Kuhn,
Grundriss der iranischen Philologie herausg., vol. ii. (Literature,
History and Civilization, 1896 sqq.); G. Rawlinson, .The Five Great
Monarchies, The Sixth Monarchy, The Seventh Monarchy. Further
the mutually supplementary work of Th. Noldeke, Aufsatze zur
persischen tieschichte (1887, Medes, Persians and Sassanids), and
A. v. Gutschmid, Geschichte Irans von Alexander d. Gr. bis zum
Untergang der Arsaciden (1888). A valuable work of reference is
F. Justi, Iranisches Namenbuch (1895).

The most important works oh the monuments are: Flandin et
Costs, Voyage en Perse (6 vols., 1840 sqq.) ; Texier, L'Arm&nie, la
Perse, ep la Mesopotamie (2 vols., 1842); Stolze, Persepolis (2 vols.,
1882); Sarre, Iranische Felsreliefs (1908).

For works on the external history of Persia see those quoted
under articles on Persian kings; also Rome; Greece; Egypt;
Syria; &c. (Ed. M.)

B. — Transition Period: from the Fall of the Sassanid Dynasty
to the Death of Timur (1405).

With the final defeat of the Sassanids under Yazdegerd III.
at the battles of Kadisiya (Kadessia) (637) and Nehavend (641)..
Persia ceased to exist as a single political unit. The
country passed under a succession of alien rulers Rulers.
who Cared nothing for its ancient institutions or
its religion. For about 150 years it was governed, first from
Medina and afterwards from Bagdad, by officers of the Mahom-
medan caliphs whose principal aim it was to destroy the old
nationality by the suppression of its religion. The success
of this policy was, however, only apparent, especially in Iran,
the inhabitants of which adopted Islam only in the most super-
ficial manner, and it was from Persia that the blow fell which*
destroyed the Omayyad caliphate and set up the Abbasids in
its place (see Caliphate). Even before this event adventurers
and dissatisfied Moslem officers had utilized the slumbering
hostility of the Persian peoples to aid them in attacks on
the caliphs (e.g. Ziyad, son of Abu Sofia n, in the reign of
Moawiya I.), and the policy of eastern expansion brought the
Arab armies perpetually into the Persian provinces.

In the reign of Merwan I. the Persians (who were mostly
Shi'ites) under a Moslem officer named Mokhtar (Mukhtar),
whom they regarded as their mahdi, vainly attempted to assert,
their independence in Kufa, but were soon defeated. This
rising was followed by many more (see Caliphate: §■ B) in
which the caliphs were generally successful, and Abdaimalik
(d. 705) considerably strengthened the Moslem power by insti-
tuting a thorough system of Moslem coins and enforcing Arabic
as the official language throughout the empire. In the succeed-
ing reign Persia was further subdued by the great conqueror
Qoteiba (Qotaiba) b. Moslim, the Arabic governor of Khorasan.
Omar II., however, extended to non-Arabic Moslems immunity
from all taxes except the zakat (poor-rate) , with the result that a
large number of Persians, who still smarted under their defeat
under Mokhtar, embraced Islam and drifted into the towns to
form a nucleus of sedition under the Shi'ite preachers. In the
reign of Yazid II. (720-724) serious risings took place in Khora-
san, and in spite of the wise administration of his successor
Hisham (d. 743), the disorder continued to spread, fanned by the
Abbasids and the Shi'ite preachers. Ultimately in the reign of
Merwan II. the non- Arabic Moslems found a leader in AbuMoslim, ;
a maula (client) of Persian origin and a henchman of Ibrahim
b. Mahommed b. Ali,the Shi'ite imam, who raised a great army,
drove the caliph's general Nasr b. Sayyar into headlong flight,
and finally expelled Merwan. Thus the Abbasids became
masters of Persia and also of the Arab Empire. They had gained
their success largely by the aid of the Persians, who began
thenceforward to recover their lost sense of nationality ; according
to the Spanish author Ibn Hazm the Abbasids were a Persian
dynasty which destroyed the old tribal system of the Arabs
and ruled despotically as Chosroes had done. At the same'
time the Khorasanians had fought for the old Alid family, not
for the Abbasids, and with the murder of Abu Moslim discontent
again began to grow among the Shi'ites (q.v.). In the reign of
Harun al-Rashid disturbances broke out in Khorasan which
were temporarily appeased by a visit from Harun himself.
Immediately afterwards Rafi'b. Laith, grandson of the Omayyad
general Nasr b. Sayyar, revolted in Samarkand, and Harun on
his way to attack him died at Tus (809). Harun's sons Amin and
Mamun quarrelled over the succession; Amin became caliph,
but Mamun by the aid of Tahir b. Hosain Dhu '1-Yamirjain
(" the man with two right hands ") and others succeeded in
deposing and killing him. Tahir ultimately (820) received the
governorship of Khorasan. where he succeeded in establishing

TRANSITION PERIOD]

PERSIA

225

a practically independent Moslem dynasty (the Tahirids) 1 which
ruled until about 873 in nominal obedience to Bagdad. From
825 to about 898 a similar dynasty, the Dulafids 2 or Dolafids
reigned nominally as governors under the caliphs till they were
put down by Motadid. In the reign of the caliph Motasim a
serious revolt of Persian Mazdakite sectaries (the Khorrami)
in alliance with Byzantium was with difficulty suppressed, as
also a rising of Tabaristan under an hereditary chief Maziyar
who was secretly supported by the Turkish mercenaries (e.g.,
Afshin) whom the caliph had invited to his court. To another
Turk, Itakh, the caliph Wathiq gave a titular authority over
all the eastern provinces. In the reign of the tenth caliph
Motawakkil the Tahirids fell before Yakub b. Laith al-Saffar,
who with the approbation of the caliph founded a dynasty, the
Saffarid (q.v.), in Seistan.

It is convenient at this point to mention several other minor
dynasties founded by nominal governors in various parts of
Persia and its borderland. From 879 to about 930
Dynasties. tne Sajids ruled in Azerbaijan, while in Tabaristan
an Alid dynasty (the Zaidites) was independent
from 864 to 928, when it fell before the Samanids. Subsequently
descendants of this house ruled in Dailam and Gilan. Through-
out this period the caliphate was falling completely under the
power of the Turkish officers. Mohtadi, the fourteenth Abbasid
caliph, endeavoured vainly to replace them by Persians (the
Abna). His successor Motamid was attacked by the Saffarid
Yakub who however was compelled to flee (see Caliphate: § C,
§15). Yakub's brother Amr (reigned 878-900) received the vacant
position, but was taken prisoner by Isma'il b. Ahmad, the
Samanid, and the Saffarids were henceforward a merely nomi-
Sam aids na * dynasty under the Samanids (900-1229). The
Samanids (q.v.) were the first really important non-
Arabic Persian dynasty since the fall of Yazdegerd III. They
held sway over most of Persia and Transoxiana, and under
their rule scholarship and the arts flourished exceedingly in
spite of numerous civil wars. Ultimately they fell before the
Ghaznevid dynasty of Sabuktagin.

In the reign of Motadid (Caliphate: § C, § 16) who, as we have
seen, put down the Dolafids, and also checked the Sajids of
Azerbaijan in their designs on Syria and Egypt, the Kharijites
of Mesopotamia were put down by the aid of the Hamdanites
of Mosul, who were to become an important dynasty (see below).
Subsequently the caliphate, which had temporarily recovered
some of its authority, resumed its downward course, and the
great families of Persia once again asserted themselves. In
the reign of Qahir (d. 934), a new dynasty arose in Persia, that
of the Buyids (Buwayhids). This family was
descended from one Abu Shaja Buya, who claimed
to be of the old Sassanian house and had become a chieftain
in Dailam. He had successively fought for the Samanids
and the Ziyarids, 3 a dynasty of Jorjan, and his son Imad
addaula (ed-dowleh, originally Abu '1 Hasan Ali) received from
Mardawij of the latter house the governorship of Karaj; his
second son Rokn addaula (Abu Ali Hasan) subsequently held
Rai and Isfahan, while the third, Moizz addaula (Abu '1 Hosain
Ahmad) secured Kerman, Ahvaz and even Bagdad.

The reign of the caliph Mottaqi (Caliphate: § C, §21) was a
period of perpetual strife between the Dailamites, the Turks
and the Hamdanid Nasir addaula of Mosul. In the next reign
Moizz addaula took Bagdad (945) and was recognized by the
caliph Mostakfi as sultan 4 and amir al-Omara. It was at this

1 Tahir died 822 or 824; Talha d. 828; Abdallah, 828-844; Tahir
II., 844-862; Mahommed, 862-873.

* Abu Dolaf Qasim b. Idris-'Ijli (825); 'Abdalaziz (842); Dolaf
(873) ; Ahmad (878) ; Omar 893-898).

* The Ziyarid dynasty was founded by Mardawij b. Ziyar (928-
935). His successors were Zahir addaula (ud-daula, ed-dowleh)
Abu Mansur Washmagir (935-967), Bistun (967-976), Shams al
Ma'ali Qabus (976-1012), Falak al Ma'ali Manushahr (1012-1029),
Anushirwan (1029-1042). They were Alyite in religion. They
were of progressively less importance under the Samanids, and were
ultimately expelled by the Ghaznevids.

* This is denied by S. Lane Poole, who points out that they did
not use the title on their coins.

XXI. 8

Buyids.

Ghaznevids.

time that the three brothers took the titles Imad, Rukn (Rokn),
and Moizz addaula. The authority of the family was absolute,
though they paid outward respect to the caliphs. Moizz addaula
repelled an attack of the Hamdanids of Mosul. The Buyids,
and especially Adod addaula (Azud-ed-Dowleh, and similar
forms), ruled Bagdad wisely and improved the city by great
public works such as the great dike, still known as the Bend
Amir on the Kur (Cyrus) near Persepolis. Their sway extended
from the Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea (Caliphate: § C, § 24).
Ultimately, however, the Buyid dynasty grew weaker under
the quarrels of its members and fell an easy prey to the Ghaz-
nevids. In the meantime (999) the Samanids fell before the
Ilek-Khans of Turkestan, to the great advantage of the Ghaznevid
princes.

For these and other minor dynasties such as the Hasanwayhids
of Kurdistan (c. 959-1015) and the Kakwayhids of Kurdistan
(1007-1051), see Stockvis, Manuel d'histoire, 1. 113 sqq. (Leiden,

1888).

The centre of force in Persian politics now changes from west
to east. Hitherto the ultimate power, at least nominally, had
resided in the caliphate at Bagdad, and all the dynasties which
have been noticed derived their authority formally from that
source. With the rise of the Ghaznevids and later (
the Seljuks, the Abbasid caliphate ceased to count
as an independent power. As we have seen, the Ghaznevid
armies in a brief space destroyed most of the native dynasties
of Persia. The first of the house was Alptagin, a Turkish slave
of the Samanid Mansur I., who, having quarrelled with his master,
took refuge in Afghanistan and founded a semi-independent
authority. After his death three unimportant governors of
his house held sway, but in 977 the power fell to another former
slave, Sabuktagin, who was recognized by the Samanid Nuh II.
His son and successor Mahmud (q.v.) was attacked by a brother,
Isma'il, and retired from Khorasan (of which he had been
governor). The Samanids then fell under the power of the
Tatar Ilkhans, but Mahmud returned, triumphed over both
the Samanids and the Tatars, and assumed the independent
title of sultan with authority over Khorasan, Transoxiana and
parts of north-west India. Mahmud was a great conqueror, •
and wherever he went he replaced the existing religion by
Mahommedanism. He is described as the patron (if a somewhat
ungenerous one) of literature; it was under his auspices that
Firdousi collected the ancient myths of Persia and produced
the great epic Shahnama (Book of the Kings). His descendants
held a nominal rule till 1187, but in 1152 they lost all their
extra-Indian territories to the Ghorids, and during the last
thirty-five years reigned in diminished splendour at Lahore.
Even before this time, however, the supremacy which they
enjoyed under Mahmud in Persia had fallen into the hands of
the Seljuks who, in the reign of Mas'ud I., son selhtks
of Mahmud, conquered Khorasan. In 1037 Seljuk
princes were recognized in Merv and Nishapur, and in the ensuing
eighteen years the Seljuks conquered Balkh, Jorjan, Tabaristan,
Kh'warizm, Hamadan, Rai, Isfahan, and finally Bagdad (1055).
The Abbasid caliphs, who still enjoyed a precarious and shadowy
authority at the pleasure of Turkish viziers, gladly surrendered
themselves to the protection of the Mahommedan Seljuks, who
paid them all outward respect.

Thus for the first time since the Arab conquest of the Sassanian
realm Persia was ruled by a single authority, which extended
its conquests westward into Asia Minor, where it checked the
rulers of Byzantium, and eastward to India and Central Asia.
The history of this period is treated at length in the articles
Caliphate: § C, §§ 26 sqq.; and Seljuks. A bare outline
only is required here.

The first three Seljuk rulers were Toghrul Beg, Alp Arslan
and Malik Shah. On the death of the last the empire was
distracted by civil war between his sons Barkiyaroq, Mahommed
and Sinjar, with the result that, although the Seljuks of the
direct line maintained nominal supremacy till the death of
Sinjar (1157), other branches of the family established themselves
in various parts of the empire — Syria, Rum (Asia Minor),

226

PERSIA

[TRANSITION PERIOD

Kerman, and Irak with Kurdistan. Sinjar himself lost all his
dominions except Khorasan in wars with the Karakitai. The
sultans of Kerman were rarely independent in the full sense,
but they enjoyed comparative peace and prosperity till the
death of Toghrul Shah (1170), after which their power fell
before the Ghuzz tribes; Kerman was finally captured in 1195
by the Khwarizm shahs. Meanwhile an independent dynasty
was formed about 1136 in Azerbaijan by the governors (atabegs)
appointed by the Seljuks; this dynasty was overthrown by the
Khwarizm shahs in 1225. Similar dynasties existed in Laristan
and Fars.

The empire of the Seljuks was essentially military. Their
authority over their own officers was so precarious that they
preferred to entrust the command to Turkish slaves. These
officers, however, were far from loyal to their lords. In every
part of the empire they gradually superseded the Seljuk princes,
and the minor dynasties above mentioned all owed their existence
to the ambition of the Turkish regents or atabegs. The last
important dynasty in Persia prior to the Mongol invasion was
that of the Salgharids in Fars, founded by the descendants of
a Turkish general Salaghar, who had formerly been a Turkoman
leader and ultimately became chamberlain to Toghrul Beg.
The first ruler was Sonkor b. Modud, who made himself inde-
pendent in Fars in 1148. The fourth, Sa'd, became tributary
to the Khwarizm shahs in 1105, and the fifth acknowledged
allegiance to the Mongol Ogotai and received the title Kutbegh
Khan. His successors were vassals of the Mongols, and the last,
the Princess 'Abish (d. 1287), was the wife of Hulagu's son
Mangu Timur.

Before passing on to the Mongol conquerors of Persia it is
necessary briefly to notice the shahs of Khwarizm, who have
K . frequently been mentioned as overthrowing the minor
' dynasties which arose with the decay of the
Seljuks. These rulers were descended from Anushtajin, a
Turkish slave of Ghazni, who became cupbearer to the Seljuk
Malik Shah, and afterwards governor of Khwarizm (Khiva)
in 1077. In 1 138 the third of the line, Atsiz, revolted but was
defeated and expelled by Sinjar. Shortly afterwards he returned,
firmly established his power, and extended the Khwarizm
Empire as far as Jand on the Sihun. The brief reigns of Il-Arslan
and Sultan Shah Mahmud were succeeded by that of Tukush
(1172-1109) and Ala ed-din Mahommed 1 (1199-1220). The
former of these subdued Khorasan, Rai and Isfahan, while the
latter brought practically all Persia under his sway, conquered
Bokhara, Samarkand and Otrar, capital of the Karakitai, and
had even made himself master of Ghazni when his career was
stopped by the hordes of the Mongol Jenghiz Khan. In 1231
the last of his house, Jelal ud-din (Jalaluddin) Mangbarti, or
Mango-berti, was banished, and thus the empire of the Khwarizm
shahs, which for a brief period had included practically all the
lands conquered by the Seljuks, passed away.

Thus from the fall of the Samanidsto the invasion of the Mongols
five or at most six important dynasties held sway over Persia,
while some forty small dynasties enjoyed a measure of local
autonomy. During the whole of this period the Abbasid caliphs
had been nominally reigning throughout the Mahommedan world
with their capital at Bagdad. But with hardly any exceptions
they had been the merest puppets, now in the hands of Turkish
ministers, now under the protection of practically independent
dynasts. The real rulers of Persia during the years 874-1231 were,
as we have seen, the Samanids, the Buyids, the Ghaznevids, the
Seljuks, the Salgharids and the Khwarizm shahs. We now come
to a new period in Persian history, when the numerous petty
dynasties which succeeded the Seljuks were all swallowed up in
the great Mongol invasion.

In the later years of the 12th century the] Mongols began
their westward march and, after the conquest of the ancient
kingdom of the Kajakitai, reached the borders of
the territory of the Khwarizm shahs, which was at
once overwhelmed. Jenghiz Khan died in 1272, and the Mongol

1 It was this prince who destroyed the Ghorid dynasty, which
claimed descent from the legendary Persian monarch Zohak.
Except for a brief period of submission to the Ghaznevids (1009-
1099) they ruled at Ghor until 12 15, when they were conquered
after a fierce struggle.

Mongols.

Empire stretching from the Caspian to the Yellow Sea was
divided up among his sons. Persia itself fell partly in the
domain of Jagatai and partly in that of the Golden Horde.
The actual governor of Persia was Tului or Tule, whose son
Hulagu or Hulaku is the first who can be rightly regarded as
the sovereign of Persia. His accession occurred in 1256, and
henceforward Persia becomes after 600 years of spasmodic
government a national unit. Hulagu at once proceeded to
destroy a number of nascent dynasties which endeavoured to
establish themselves on the ruins of the Khwarizm Empire;
about 1255 he destroyed the dynasty of the Assassins 2 by the
capture of their stronghold of Alamut (Eagle's Nest), and finally
in 1258 captured Bagdad. The thirty-eighth and last Abbasid
caliph, Mostasim, was brutally murdered, and thus the Mahom-
medan caliphate ceased to exist even as an emasculated pontifi-
cate. The Persian Empire under Hulagu and his descendants
extended from the dominions of Jagatai on the north to that
of the Egyptian dynasts on the south, and from the Byzantine
Empire on the west to the confines of China. Its rulers paid a
nominal homage to the Khakhan (Great Khan) in China,
and officially recognized this dependence in their title of Ilkhan,
i.e. provincial or dependent khan. From 1258 to 1335 the
Ilkhans were not seriously challenged. Hulagu fixed his capital
at Maragha (Meragha) in Azerbaijan, where he erected an observa-
tory for Nasir ud-din Tusi, who at his request prepared the
astronomical tables known as the Zidj-i-llkhani. He died in
1265 and was succeeded by his son Abagha or Abaka, who
married the daughter of Michael Palaeologus, the Byzantine
ruler. Abagha was a peaceful ruler and endeavoured by wise
administration to give order and prosperity to a country torn
asunder by a long period of intestine war and the Mongol
invasion. He succeeded in repelling two attacks by other
Mongolian princes of the house of Jenghiz Khan; otherwise
his reign was uneventful. His brother Nikudar (originally
Nicolas) Ahmad Khan succeeded him in 1281. This prince was
converted to Islam, an event of great moment both to the
internal peace and to the external relations of Persia. His
persecution of the Christians led them into alliance with the
Mongols, who detested Islam; the combined forces were too
strong for Nikudar, who was murdered in 1284. The external
results were of more importance. The Ilkhans, who had failed
in their attempt to wrest Syria from the Mameluke rulers of
Egypt, had subsequently endeavoured to effect their object by
inducing the European Powers to make a new crusade. The
conversion of Nikudar put an end to this policy and Egypt was
for some time free from Persian attack (see Egypt: History).
The Mongol leaders put on the throne a son of Abagha, by name
Arghun. His reign was troubled. His first minister Shams
ud-din was suspected of having poisoned Abagha, and was soon
put to death. His successor, the amir Bogha, conspired against
Arghun and was executed. Under the third minister (1289-
1291), a Jewish doctor named Sa'd addaula (ed-Dowleh), religious
troubles arose owing to his persecution of the Mahommedans
and his favouring the Christians. The financial administratiDn
of Sa'd was prudent and successful, if somewhat severe, and the
revenue benefited considerably under his care. But he com-
mitted the tactical error of appointing a disproportionate
number of Jews and Christians as revenue officials, and thus
made many enemies among the Mongol nobles, who had him
assassinated in 1291 when Arghun was lying fatally ill. It is
possible that it was Sa'd's diplomacy which led Pope Nicholas, IV.
to send a mission to Arghun with a view to a new crusade.
The reign of Arghun was also disturbed by a rebellion of a
grandson of Hulagu, Baidu Khan. Arghun died soon after
the murder of Sa'd, and was succeeded by his brother Kaikhatu,
or Gaykhatu, who was taken prisoner by Baidu Khan and
killed (1295). Baidu's reign was cut short in the same year
by Arghun's son Ghazan Mahmud, whose reign (1295-1304)
was a period of prosperity in war and administration. Ghazan

2 The dynasty of the Assassins or Isma'ilites was founded in
1090 and extended its rule over much of western Persia and Syria
(for the rulers see Stockvis, op. cit. i. 131, and article AssassH*).

1405-1736]

PERSIA

was a man of great ability. He established a permanent staff
to deal with legal, financial and military affairs, put on a firm
basis the monetary system and the system of weights and
measures, and perfected the mounted postal service. Ghazan
fought with success against Egypt (which country had already
from 1293 to December 1294 been ruled by a Mongol usurper
Kitboga), and even held Damascus for a few months. In 1303,
however, his troops were defeated at Merj al-Saffar, and Mongol
claims on Syria were definitely abandoned. It was even
suggested that the titular Abbasid caliphs (who retained an
empty title in Cairo under Mameluke protection) should be
reinstated at Bagdad, but this proposal was not carried into
effect. Ghazan is historically important, however, mainly as
the first Mongol ruler who definitely adopted Islam with a
large number of his subjects. He died in 1304, traditionally
of anger at the Syrian fiasco, and was succeeded by his brother
Uljaitu (Oeljeitu). The chief events of his reign were a success-
ful war against Tatar invaders and the substitution of the new
city of Sultania as capital for Tabriz, which had been Ghazan's
headquarters. Uljaitu was a Shi'ite and even stamped his
coins with the names of the twelve Shi'ite imams. He died
in 1316, and was succeeded by Abu Sa'id,his son. The prince,
under whom a definite peace was made with Malik al-Nasir,
the Mameluke ruler of Egypt, had great trouble with powerful
viziers and generals which he accentuated by his passion for
Bagdad-Khatun, wife of the amir Hosain and daughter of the
amir Chupan. This lady he eventually married, with the result
that Chupan headed a revolt of his tribe, the Selduz. Abu Sa'id
died of fever in 1335, and with him the first Mongol or Ilkhan
dynasty of Persia practically came to an end. The real power
was divided between Chupan and Hosain the Jelair (or Jalair),
or the Ilkhanian, and their sons, known respectively as the
Little Hasan (Hasan Kuchuk) and the great Hasan (Hasan
Buzurg). Two puppet kings, Arpa Khan, a descendant of
Hulagu's brother Arikbuhga, and Musa Khan, a descendant of
Baidu, nominally reigned for a few months each. Then Hasan
Kuchuk set up one Sati-beg, Abu Sa'id's daughter, and wife
successively of Chupan, Arfa Khan and one Suleiman, the last
of whom was khan from 1339 to 1343; in the same time Hasan
Buzurg set up successively Mahommed, Tugha-Timur and Jahan-
Timur. A sixth nonentity, Nushirwan, was a Chupani nominee
in 1344, after which time Hasan Buzurg definitely installed
himself as the first khan of the Jelairid or Ilkhanian-Jelairid
dynasty.

Practically from the reign of Abu Sa'id Persia was divided

under five minor dynasties, (1) the Jelairids, (2) the Mozaffarids,

Minor (3) the Sarbadarids (Serbedarians), (4) the Beni

Dynasties. Kurt, and (5) the Jubanians, all of which ultimately

fell before the armies of Timur.

1. The Jelairid rulers were Hasan Buzurg (1336, strictly 1344-
1356), Owais (135671374). Hosain (1374-1382), Sultan Ahmad
(1382-1410), Shah Walad (1410-1411). Their capital was Bagdad,
and their dominion was increased under Hasan. Owais added
Azerbaijan, Tabriz, and even Mosul and Diarbekr. Hosain fought
with the Mozaffarids of Shiraz and the Black Sheep Turkomans
(Kara Kuyunli) of Armenia, with the latter of whom he ultimately
entered into alliance. On his death Azerbaijan and Irak fell to
his brother, Sultan Ahmad, while another brother Bayezid ruled
u a o feW m ° nths in P art of Kurdistan. It was about this time
that Timur (q.v.) began his great career of conquest, under which
the power of the various Persian dynasties collapsed. By 1393 he
had conquered northern Persia and Armenia, Bagdad, Mesopo-
tamia, Diarbekr and Van, and Ahmad fled to Egypt, where he was
received by Barkuk (Barquq) the Mameluke sultan. Barkuk
who had already excited the enmity of Timur by slaying one of his
envoys, espoused Ahmad's cause, and restored him to Bagdad after
Timur s return to his normal capital Samarkand. Timur retaliated
and until his death Ahmad ruled only from time to time. In 1406
Ahmad was finally restored, but almost immediately entered upon
a quarrel with Kara Yusuf, leader of the Black Sheep Turkomans
iu u a ,iV U , y j nh) ' who defeated and k'Hed him in 1410. His nephew
Shah Walad reigned for a few months only and the throne was
occupied by his widow Tandu, formerly wife of Barkuk, who ruled
over Basra, Wasit and Shuster till 1416, paying allegiance to Shah
Kukh, the second Timund ruler. Walad's sons Mahmud. Owais and
Mahommed, and Hosain, grandson of Sultan Ahmad, successively
occupied the throne. The last of these was killed by the Kara

227

Kuyunli, who had established a dynasty in western Persia after
Kara Yusuf's victory in 1410.

2. The Mozaffarids, who ruled roughly from 1313 to 1300 in
Fars, Kerman and Kurdistan, were descended from the Amir
Mozaffar, or Muzaffar, who held a post as governor under the
Ilkhan ruler. His son Mobariz ud-din Mahommed, who followed
him in 1313, became governor in Fars under Abu Sa'id, in Ker-
man in 1340, and subsequently made himself independent at
Fars and Shiraz (1353) and in Isfahan (1356). In 1357 he was
deposed and blinded, and though restored was exiled again and died
cl l 3 ct • , ls , descendan <- s > except for Jelal ed-din (Jalaluddin)
■ Shah Shuja , the patron of the poet Hafiz, were unimportant, and
the dynasty was wiped out by Timur about 1392.

3 'u The Sarbadarids (so called from their motto Sar-ba-dar, " Head
to the Gibbet ), descendants of Abd al-Razzak, who rebelled in
Khorasan about 1337, enjoyed some measure of independence
unQ er twelve rulers tlU the Y also wer e destroyed by Timur (c. 1380)

4. The Bern Kurt (or Kart), who had governed in Khorasan from
l l*l' be?*™: independent in the early 14th century; they were
abolished by Timur (c. 1383).

5. The Jubanians had some power in Azerbaijan from 1337 to
1355. when they were dethroned by the Kipchaks of the house of
Jenghiz Khan.

The authority of Timur, which, as we have seen, was dominant
throughout Persia from at least as early as 1395 till his death
in 1405, was never unchallenged. He passed from one victory
to another, but the conquered districts were never really settled
under his administration. Fresh risings of the defeated
dynasties followed each new enterprise, and he had also to deal
with the Mongol hordes whose territory marched with northern
Persia. His descendants were for a brief period the overlords
of Persia, but after Shah Rukh (reigned 1409-1446) and Ala
addaula (1447), the so-called Timurid dynasty ceased to have
any authority over Persia. There were Timurid governors
of Fars under Shah Rukh, Pir Mahommed (1405-1409), Iskendar
(1409-1414), Ibrahim (1415-1434) and Abdallah (1434); in
other parts of Persia many of the Timurid family held governor-
ships of greater or less importance.

Authorities.— The works relating to Persia will be found under
articles on the maindynasties (Caliphate; Seljuks; Mongols) and
the great rulers (Jenghiz Khan; Mahmud of Ghazni- Timur)
tor general information and chronology see S. Lane Poole
Mohammedan Dynasties (London, 1894); Stockvis, Manuel d'his-

fe? 8w\ (Lelden, l888); Sir H - Howorth . History of the Mongols
(1876-1888). (j_ M> M «y

C.—From the. Death of Timur to the Fall of the Safawid Dynasty,
1403-1736.

Timur died in 1405, when in the seventieth year of his age
and about to invade China. Besides exercising sovereignty
over Transoxiana and those vast regions more or Tae Tlm
less absorbed in Asiatic Russia of the 19th century, rides and*"
inclusive of the Caucasus, Astrakhan and the Turkomans,
lower Volga, and overrunning Mesopotamia, Syria, 140S -' 499 '
Asia Minor, Afghanistan and India, he had at this time left
his indelible mark upon the chief cities and provinces of
Persia. Khorasan and Mazandaran had submitted to him
m 1381, Azerbaijan had shortly after followed their example
and Isfahan was seized in 1387. From Isfahan he passed on
to Shiraz, and thence returned in triumph to his own capital
of Samarkand. Five years later he subdued Mazandaran, and
later still he was again at Shiraz, having effected the subjugation
of Luristan and other provinces in the west. It may be said
that from north to south, or from Astarabad to Hormuz, the
whole country had been brought within his dominion.

The third son of Timur, Miran Shah, had ruled over part of
Persia in his father's lifetime; but he was said to be insane, and
his incapacity for government had caused the loss of Bagdad
and revolt in other provinces. His claim to succession had been
put aside by Timur in favour of Pir Mahommed, the son of a
deceased son, but Khalil Shah, a son of the discarded prince, won
the day. His waste of time and treasure upon a fascinating
mistress named Shadu '1-Mulk, the " delight of the kingdom,"
soon brought about his deposition, and in 1408 he gave way to
Shah Rukh, who, with the exception of Miran Shah, was the
only surviving son of Timur. In fact the uncle and nephew
changed places— the one quitting his government of Khorasan

228

PERSIA

11405-1736

to take possession of the Central-Asian throne, the other con^
senting to become governor of the vacated Persian province
and abandon the cares of the empire at Samarkand. In 1409
Rhalil Shah died; and the story goes that Shadu '1-Mulk stabbed
herself and was buried with her royal lover at Rai, one of the
towns which his grandfather had partly destroyed.

Shah Rukh, the fourth son of Timur, reigned for thirty-eight
years, and appears to have been a brave, generous, and enlight-
ened monarch. He removed his capital from Samarkand to
Herat, of which place he rebuilt the citadel, restoring and im-
proving the town. Merv also profited from his attention to its
material interests. Sir John Malcolm speaks of the splendour
of his court and of his encouragement of science and learning.
He sent an embassy to China; and an English version of the
travels to India of one of his emissaries, Abd ur-Razzak, is to
be found in R. H. Major's India in the Fifteenth Century (London,
Hakluyt Society, 1857). As regards his Persian possessions,
he had some trouble in the north-west, where the Turkomans of
Asia Minor, known as the Kara Kuyun, 1 or " Black Sheep," led
by Kara Yusuf 2 and his sons Iskandar and Jahan Shah, had
advanced upon Tabriz, the capital of Azerbaijan. On the death
of the Shah Rukh in 1446 he was succeeded by his son Ulugh
Bey, whose scientific tastes are demonstrated in the •astro-
nomical tables bearing his name, quoted by European writers
when determining the latitude of places in Persia. He was,
moreover, himself a poet and patron of literature, and built
a college as well as an observatory at Samarkand. There is
no evidence to show that he did much to consolidate his grand-
father's conquests south of the Caspian. Ulugh Bey was put
to death by his son Abd ul-Latif, who, six months later, was
slain by his own soldiers. Babar — not the illustrious founder
of the Mughal dynasty in India, but an elder member of the
same house — next obtained possession of the sovereign power,
and established himself in the government of Khorasan and the
neighbouring countries. He died after a short rule, from
habitual intemperance. After him Abu Sa'id, grandson of
Miran Shah, and once governor of Fars, became a candidate for
empire, and allied himself with the Uzbeg Tatars, seized Bokhara,
entered Khorasan, and waged war upon the Turkoman tribe
aforesaid, which, since the invasion of Azerbaijan, had, under
Jahan Shah, overrun Irak, Fars and Kerman, and pillaged
Herat. But he was eventually taken prisoner by Uzun Hasan,
and killed in 1468.

It is difficult to assign dates to a few events recorded in Persian
history for the eighteen years following the death of Abd ul-
Latif; and, were it not for chance European missions, the
same difficulty would be felt in dealing with the period after the
death of Abu Sa'id up to the accession of Isma'il Sufi in 1499.
Sultan Ahmad, eldest son of Abu Sa'id, reigned in Bokhara;
his brother, Omar Sheikh, in Ferghana; but the son of the
latter, the great Babar, was driven by the Uzbegs to Kabul
and India. More to the purpose is it that Sultan rjosain Mirza,
great-grandson of Omar Sheikh, son of Timur, reigned
Mirza * n Herat from 1487 to 1506. He was a patron of
learned men, among others of the historians Mirk-
hond and Khwadamir, and the poets Jami and Hatifi. But
at no time could his control have extended over central and
western Persia. The nearest approach to a sovereignty in those
parts on the death of Abu Sa'id is that of Uzun Hasan, the
leader of the Ak Kuyun, or " White Sheep " Turkomans, and
conqueror of the " Black Sheep," whose chief, Jahan Shah, he
defeated and slew. Between the two tribes there had long been
! a deadly feud. Both were composed of settlers in Asia
'Minor, the " Black Sheep " having consolidated
their power at Van, the " White " at Diarbekr.

Sir John Malcolm states that at the death of Abu Sa'id,
Sultan Hosain Mirza " made himself master of the empire,"
1 They were commonly called Kara Kuyun-lu and the " White
Sheep " Turkomans Ak Kuyun-lu, the affix " lu '\ signifying
possession, i.e. possession of a standard bearing the image of a
black or white sheep.

' According to Erskine, this chief killed Miran Shah, whose
dwelling-place was Tabriz.

Utun Hasan.

and, a little later, that " Uzun Hasan, after he had made himself
master of Persia, turned his arms in the direction of Turkey ";
but the reader is left to infer for himself what the real " empire "
of Hosain Mirza, and what the limit of the " Persia " of Uzun
Hasan. The second could not well be included in the first,
because the Turkomans were in possession of the greater part
of the Persian plateau, while the "sultan" was in Herat, to
which Khorasan belonged. It may be assumed that an empire
like that acquired by Timur could not long be maintained by
his descendants in its integrity.

The Turkish adjective uzun, Oils' " l° n g>" applied to Hasan,
the Turkoman monarch of Persia (called also by the Arabs
Hasanu 't-Tawil), is precisely the qualifying Persian word Jlj3
used in the compound designation of Artaxerxes Longimanus;
and Malcolm quotes the statement of a Venetian envoy in
evidence that Uzun Hasan was "a tall thin man, of a very open
and engaging countenance." This reference, and a further
notice in Markham's history, supply the clue to a store of
valuable information made available by the publications of the
Hakluyt Society. The narratives of Caterino Zeno, Barbara
and Contarini, envoys from Venice to the court of Uzun Hasan,
are in this respect especially interesting. Zeno was sent in
147 1 to incite this warlike ruler against the Ottoman sultan,
and succeeded in his mission. That the result was disastrous
to the shah is not surprising, but the war seems to hold a
comparatively unimportant place in the annals of Turkey.

Uzun Hasan had married Despina (Gr. Akcnroiva), daughter
of the emperor of Trebizond, Calo Johannes of the house of the
Comneni; and Zeno's wife was niece to this Christian princess.
The relationship naturally strengthened the envoy's position
at the court, and he was permitted to visit the queen in the name
of the republic which he represented. Barbara and Contarini
met at Isfahan in 1474, and there paid their respects to the
shah together. Kum and Tauris or Tabriz (then the capital)
were also visited by the Italian envoys following in the royal
suite; and the incidental notice of these cities, added to Con-
tarini's formal statement that " the extensive country of Ussun-
cassan [sic] is bounded by the Ottoman Empire and by Cara-
mania," and that Siras (Shiraz) is comprehended in it, proves
that at least Azerbaijan, Irak, and the main part of the provinces
to the south; inclusive of Fars, were within the dominions of
the reigning monarch.

There is good reason to suppose that Jahan Shah, the Black
Sheep Turkoman, before his defeat by Uzun Hasan, had set up
the standard of royalty; and Zeno, at the outset of his travels,
calls him " king of Persia " s in 1450. Chardin alludes to him
in the same sense; but Hasan the Long is a far more prominent
figure, and has hardly received justice at the hands of the
historian. Indeed, his identity seems to have been lost in the
various modes of spelling his name adopted by the older
chroniclers, who call him indiscriminately 4 Alymbeius, Asem-
beius, Asembec, Assimbeo, or Ussan Cassano. He is said to
have earned the character of a wise and valiant monarch, to have
reigned eleven years, to have lived to the age of seventy, and,
on his death in 1477 or (according to Krusinski and Zeno) 1478,
to have been succeeded on the throne of Persia by his son Ya'qub.
This prince, who had slain an elder brother, died by poison
(1485), after a reign of seven years. The dose was offered to
him by his wife, who had been unfaithful to him and sought to
set her paramour on his throne.

Writers differ as to the succession to Ya'qub. Zeno's account
is that a son named Allamur (called also, Alamut, Alvante,
El-wand and Alwung Bey) was the next king, who,
besides Persia, possessed Diarbekr and part of
greater Armenia near the Euphrates. On the other hand,
Krusinski states that, Ya'qub dying childless, his relative
Julaver, one of the grandees of the kingdom, seized the throne,
and held possession of it for three years. Baisingar, it is added,
succeeded him in 1488 and reigned till 1490, when a young noble-
man named Rustan (Rustam?) obtained the sovereign power
and exercised it for seven years. This account is confirmed by
* See also Ramusio's preface. * Knolles, Purchas, Zeno.

1405-1736]

PERSIA

229

Angiolello, a traveller who followed his countrymen Barbaro
and Contarini to Persia; and from the two authorities combined
may be gathered the further narration of the murder of Rustam
and usurpation of the throne by a certain Ahmad, whose death,
under torture, six months afterwards, made way for Alamut,
the young son of Hasan. These discrepancies can be reconciled
on reference to yet another record bound up with the narratives
of the four Italians aforesaid, and of much the same period. In
the Travels of a Merchant in Persia the story of Ya'qub's death
is supplemented by the statement that " the great lords, hearing
of their king's decease, had quarrels among themselves, so that
for five or six years all Persia was in a state of civil war, first
one and then another of the nobles becoming sultans. At last
a youth named Alamut, aged fourteen years, was raised to the
throne, which he held till the succession of Sheikh Isma'il." Who
this young man was is not specified; but other writers call
Alamut and his brother Murad the sons of Ya'qub, as though
the relationship were unquestionable.

Now little is known, save incidentally, of Julaver or Rustam;
but Baisingar is the name of a nephew of Omar Sheikh, king
of Ferghana and contemporary of Uzun Hasan. There was
no doubt much anarchy and confusion in the interval between the
death of Ya'qub and the restoration, for two years, of the
dynasty of the White Sheep. But the tender age of Alamut
would, even in civilized countries, have necessitated a regency;
and it may be assumed that he was the next legitimate and
more generally recognized sovereign. Markham, in designating
this prince the last of his house, states that he was dethroned
by the renowned founder of the Safawi dynasty. This event
brings us to one of the most interesting periods of Persian history,
any account of which must be defective without a prefatory
sketch of Isma'il Sufi.

The Sufi or Safaivid (Safawi) Dynasty (1499-1736).— Sheikh
Saif u 'd-Din Izhak l — lineally descended from Musa, the seventh
imam — was a resident at Ardebil (Ardabil) south-
Saitu'd-Dia. vest °* the Caspian, some time during the 14th
century. It is said that his reputation for sanctity
attracted the attention of Timur, who sought him out in his
abode, and was so charmed by the visit that he released, at the
holy man's request, a number of captives of Turkish origin, or
Georgians, taken in the wars with Bayezid. The act ensured to
the Sheikh the constant devotion and gratitude of these men —
a feeling which was loyally maintained by their descendants
for the members of his family in successive generations.

His son Sadru'd-Din and grandson Kwaja 'Ali (who visited
Mecca and died at Jerusalem) retained the high reputation of
their pious predecessor. Junaid, a grandson of the last, married
a sister of Uzun Hasan, and by her had a son named Sheikh
Haidar, who married his cousin Martha, daughter
Haidar. °^ Uzun Hasan and Queen Despina. Three sons
were the issue of this marriage, Sultan 'Ali, Ibrahim
Mirza, and the youngest, Isma'il, the date of whose birth is
put down as 1480 for reasons which will appear hereafter.
So great was the influence of Sheikh Haidar, and so earnestly
did he carry out the principles of conduct which had character-
ized his family for five generations, that his name has become,
as it were, inseparable from the dynasty of his son Isma'il; and
the term " Haidari " (leonine) is applied by many persons to
indicate generally the Safawids of Persia. The outcome of his
teaching was a division of Mahommedanism vitally momentous
to the world of Islam. The Persian mind was peculiarly adapted
to receive the form of religion prepared for it by the philosophers
of Ardebil. The doctrines presented were dreamy and mystic;
they rejected the infallibility of human wisdom, and threw
suspicion on the order and arrangement of human orthodoxy.
There was free scope given for the indulgence of that political
imagination which revels in revolution and chafes at prescriptive
bondage. As Malcolm remarks, " the very essence of Sufi-ism
is poetry."

1 According to Langles, the annotator of Chardin, his real designa-
tion was Abu '1-Fath Izhak, the Sheikh Saifu '1-Hakk wu 'd-Din or
" pure one of truth and religion."

Those authorities who maintain that Ya'qub Shah left no
son to succeed him consider valid the claim to the vacant throne
of Sheikh Haidar Sufi. Purchas says that Ya'qub himself,
" jealous of the multitude of Aidar's disciples and the greatness
of his fame, caused him to be secretly murthered "; but Krusinski
attributes the act to Rustam a few years later. Zeno, the anony-
mous merchant and Angiolello affirm that the devotee was
defeated and killed in battle — the first making his conqueror
to be Alamut, the second a general of Alamut's, and the third
an officer sent by Rustam named Suleiman Bey. Malcolm,
following the Zubdatu 't-tawarikh, relates that Sheikh Haidar
was vanquished and slain by the governor of Shirvan. The
subsequent statement that his son, Sultan 'Ali, was seized, in
company with two younger brothers, by Ya'qub, " one of the
descendants of their grandfather Uzun Hasan, who, jealous of
the numerous disciples that resorted to Ardebil, confined them
to the hill fort of Istakhr in Fars," seems to indicate a second
interpretation of the passage just extracted from Purchas,
and that there is confusion of persons and incident somewhere.
One of the sons here alluded to was Isma'il, whom Malcolm
makes to have been only seven years of age when he fled to
Gilan in 1492. Zeno states that he was then thirteen, which is
much more probable, 2 and the several data available for reference
are in favour of this supposition.

The life of the young Sufi from this period to his assumption
of royalty in 1499 was full of stirring adventure; and his career
as Isma'il I. was a brilliant one. According to i sma ,ni
Zeno, who seems to have carefully recorded the
events of the time, he left his temporary home on an island of
Lake Van before he was eighteen, and, passing into Karabakh, 3
between the Aras and Kur, turned in a south-easterly direction
into Gilan. Here he was enabled, through the assistance of a
friend of his father, to raise a small force with which to take
possession of Baku on the Caspian, and thence to march upon
Shemakha in Shirvan, a town abandoned to him without a
struggle. Hearing, however, that Alamut was advancing to
meet him, he was compelled to seek new levies from among the
Jengian Christians and others. At the head of 16,000 men, he
thoroughly routed his opponents, and, having cleared the way
before him, marched straight upon Tabriz, which at once sur-
rendered. He was soon after proclaimed shah of Persia (1499),
under the designation which marked the family school of
thought.

Alamut had taken refuge at Diarbekr; but his brother Murad,
at the head of an army strengthened by Turkish auxiliaries,
was still in the field with the object of contesting the paternal
crown. Isma'il lost no time in moving against him, and won
a new victory on the plains of Tabriz. Murad fled with a small
remnant of his soldiers to Diarbekr, the rallying-point of the
White Sheep Turkomans. Zeno states that in the following
year Isma'il entered upon a new campaign in Kurdistan and
Asia Minor, but that he returned to Tabriz without accomplishing
his object, having been harassed by the tactics of Ala ud-Daula,
a beylerbey, or governor in Armenia and parts of Syria. Another
writer says that he marched against Murad Khan in Irak-i-
Ajami and Shiraz. This last account is extremely probable,
and would show that the young Turkoman had wished to make
one grand effort to save Isfahan and Shiraz (with Kazvin and
the neighbouring country), these being, after the capital Tabriz,
the most important cities of Uzun r^asans Persia. His men,
however, apparently dismayed at the growing prestige of the
enemy, did not support him, and he was defeated and probably
slain. There is similar evidence of the death of Alamut, who,
it is alleged, was treacherously handed over to be killed by the.
shah's own hands.

Isma'il returned again to Tabriz (1501) "and caused great
rejoicings to be made on account of his victory." In 1503
he had added to his conquests Bagdad, Mosul and Jezira on
the Tigris. The next year he was called to the province of

2 So thinks the editor and annotator of the Italian Travels in
Persia, Charles Grey.

5 Possibly Kara-dagh, as being the more direct road.

230

PERSIA

[1405-1736

Gilan to chastise a refractory ruler. Having accomplished his
end, he came back to his capital and remained there in
rf comparative quiet till 1507. 1 Malcolm's dates are
Shaibani. somewhat at variance with the above, for he infers
that Bagdad was subdued in that particular year;
but the facts remain. All writers seem to agree that in 1508
the king's attention was drawn to an invasion of Khorasan by
Shaibani, or Shahi Beg, the Uzbeg, a descendant of Jenghiz and
the most formidable opponent of Babar, from whom he had,
seven years before, wrested the city of Samarkand, and whom
he had driven from Turkestan to Kabul. Since these exploits
he had obtained great successes in Tashkent, Ferghana, Hissar,
Kunduz, and Khwarizm (Kharezm), and, at the time referred to,
had left Samarkand intent upon mischief south and west of the
Oxus, had passed the Murghab, and had reached Sarakhs (Ser-
rakhs). Isma'il encamped on this occasion at Isfahan, and there
concentrated the bulk of his army — strengthening his northern
(and probably north-eastern) frontier with large bodies of cavalry,
but maintaining an attitude of simple watchfulness. In 1510,
when Shaibani had invaded Khorasan the second time, and had
ravaged the Persian province of Kerman, Shah Isma'il asked
for redress, referring to the land encroached on as " hereditary ";
and Shaibani replied that he did not understand on what was
founded the claim " to inherit." Eventually the Persian troops
were put in movement, and the Uzbegs, having been divided
into small detachments scattered over the country, fell back
and retreated to Herat. Their leader repaired to Merv, but
Isma'il quickly followed him and enticed him out to battle
by taunt and reproach. Shaibani was defeated and fled, but
was overtaken in his flight, and put to the sword, together with
numerous relatives and companions.

The next remarkable event inlsma'il's reign is his war with
Sultan Selim I. Its origin may be traced to the Ottoman
emperor's hatred and persecution of all heretical
Moslems in his dominions, and the shah's anger at
the fanaticism which had urged him to the slaughter
of 40,000 Turks suspected to have thrown off the orthodox
Sunnite doctrines. The sultan's army advanced into Azer-
baijan and western Persia through Tokat and Erzingan. Isma'il
had at this time the greater number of his soldiers employed
in his newly-conquered province of Khorasan and was driven
to raise new levies in Kurdistan to obtain a sufficient force to
resist the invasion. It is asserted by some that his frontier then
extended westward to Sivas, a city situated in a large high plain
watered by the Kizil Irmak, and that hence to Khoi, 90 m. west
of Tabriz, he followed the approved and often successful tactics
of ravaging and retreating, so as to deprive his advancing
enemy of supplies. There is good evidence to show that the
Turkish janissaries were within an ace of open revolt, and that
but for extraordinary firmness in dealing with them they would
have abandoned their leader in his intended march upon Tabriz.
In fine, at or near Khoi, the frontier-town of Azerbaijan, the
battle (1514) was fought between the two rival monarchs, ending
in the defeat of the Persians and the triumphant entry of Selim
into their capital.

There are stirring accounts of that action and of the gallant
deeds performed by Selim and Isma'il, both personally engaged
in it, as well as by their generals. 2 Others maintain that Isma'il
was not present at all. 3 It is tolerably certain that the Turks
won the day by better organization, superiority of numbers,
and more especially the use of artillery. On the side of the
Persians the force consisted of little more than cavalry.

WarwHb
Selim.

1 Angiolello.

1 Knolles, Malcolm, Creasy, Markham, &c.

3 Zeno. Angiolello says that " the Sophi monarch had left for
Tauris [Tabriz] in order to assemble more troops." Krusinski infers
much to the same effect, for he notes that " Selim came in person
and took Tauris from Ismail, but at the noise of his approach was
obliged to retreat with precipitation." The battle must thus have
been fought and the victory gained when the shah was himself ab§ent.
Yet Markham quotes a journal which thus records his feats of
prowess: " It was in vain that the brave Shah, with a blow of his
sabre, severed a chain with which the Turkish guns were fastened
together to resist the shock of the Persian cavalry."

Selim remained at Tabriz no more than eight days. Levying
a contribution at that city of a large number of its skilled artisans
whom he sent off to Constantinople, he marched thence towards
Karabagh with intent to fix his winter quarters in those parts
and newly invade Persia in the spring, but the insubordination
of his troops rendered necessary his speedy return to Turkey.
His expedition, if not very glorious, had not been unproductive
of visible fruits. Besides humbling the power of an arrogant
enemy, he had conquered and annexed to his dominions the
provinces of Diarbekr and Kurdistan. 4

From 1 514 to 1524, although the hostile feeling between
the two countries was very strong, there was no serious nor open
warfare. Selim's attention was diverted from Persia to Egypt;
Isma'il took advantage of the sultan's death in 1510 to overrun
and subdue unfortunate Georgia, as Jahan Shah of the " Black
Sheep" had done before him; but Suleiman, who succeeded
Selim, was too strong to admit of retaliatory invasion being
carried out with impunity at the cost of Turkey.

In 1524 Isma'il died 6 at Ardebil when on a pilgrimage to the
tomb of his father. " The Persians dwell with rapture on his
character," writes Sir John Malcolm, for they deem
him " not only the founder of a great dynasty, but character.
the person to whom that faith in which they glory
owes its establishment as a national religion." And he quotes
a note handed down by Purchas from a contemporary European
traveller which reports of him thus: " His subjects deemed him a
saint, and made use of his name in their prayers. Many disdained
to wear armour when they fought under Isma'il; and so enthu-
siastic were his soldiers in their new faith that they used to bare
their breasts to their enemies and court death, exclaiming
' Shiah! Shiah! ' to mark the holy cause for which they fought."
Shah Tahniasp, 6 the eldest of the four sons of Isma'il, succeeded
to the throne on the death of his father. 7 The principal occur-
rences in his reign, placed as nearly as possible in
chronological order, were a renewal of war with rahmasp.
the Uzbegs, who had again invaded Khorasan, and "
the overthrow of their army (1527); the recovery of Bagdad
from a Kurdish usurper (1528); the settlement of an internal
feud between Kizil-bash tribes (Shamlu and Tukulu), contending
for the custody of the royal person, by the slaughter of the more
unruly of the disputants (1529); the rescue of Khorasan from a
fresh irruption, and of Herat from a besieging army of Uzbegs
(1530); a new invasion of the Ottomans, from which Persia was
saved rather by the severity of her climate than by the prowess
of her warriors (1533); the wresting of Bagdad from Persia by
the sultan Suleiman ( 1 534) ; the king's youngest brother's rebellion

4 It was about this time that Persia again entered into direct
relations with one of the states of western Europe. In 15:0 and
15 14 Alphonso d' Albuquerque, the governor of Portuguese India,
sent envoys to Isma'il, seeking an alliance. In 1515, after occupying
Hormuz, he despatched a third embassy under Fernao Gomes de
Lemos. His object was to utilize the Shi'ite armies in conjunction
with the Portuguese fleet for an attack upon the Sunnite powers —
Egypt and Turkey — which were then at war with Portugal in the
East. See, for further details and authorities, K. G. Jayne, Vasco
da Gama and his Successors, pp. 108-110 and App. A. (London,
1910). — Ed.

6 Malcolm says 1523, Krusinski 1525; Angiolello heard of his
death at Cairo in August 1524. Krusinski adds that he was forty-
five years of age.

6 Angiolello calls him " Shiacthemes." As an instance of the
absurd transliterating current in France as in England the word
" Ach-tacon " may be mentioned. It is explained in Chardin's
text to mean " les h6pitaux a Tauris: c'est-a-dire lieux oH Von fait
profusion de vivres." Chardin's editor remarks, " La derniere

Partie de ce mot est meconnaissable, et je ne puis deviner quel mot
ersan signifiant profusion a pu donner naissance a la corruption
qu'on voit ici." In other words, the first syllable " ach " (Anglice
ash) was understood in its common acceptance for "food' or
" victuals " ; but " tacon " was naturally a puzzler. The solution of
the whole difficulty is, however, to be found in the Turco-Persian
dJUk *~ & khastah khanah, pronounced by Turks hasta hona, or
more vulgarly asta khon and even to a French ear ash-tacon, a
hospital, literally a sick-house. This word is undoubtedly current
at Tabriz and throughout northern Persia.

7 The other brothers were Ilkhas, Bahrain and Sam Mirza, each
having had his particular appanage assigned him.

1405-1736]

PERSIA

231

and the actual seizure of Herat, necessitating the recovery of
that city and a march to Kandahar (1536 ); the temporary loss
of Kandahar in the following year (1537), when the governor
ceded it to Prince Kamran, son of Babar; the hospitable reception
accorded to the Indian emperor Humayun (1543); the rebellion
of the shah's brother next in age, Ilkhas, who, by his alliance
with the sultan, brought on a war with Turkey (1548); 1 and
finally a fresh expedition to Georgia, followed by a revengeful
incursion which resulted in the enforced bondage of thousands
of the inhabitants (1552).

Bayezid, a son of the Turkish emperor, rebelled, and his
army was beaten in 1559 by the imperial troops at Konia
in Asia Minor. He fled to Persia and took refuge
Turkey. w i tn Shah Tahmasp, who pledged himself to give
him a permanent asylum. Suleiman's demand,
however, for extradition or execution was too peremptory for
refusal, and the prince was delivered up to the messengers sent
to take him. Whatever the motive, the act itself was highly
appreciated by Suleiman, and became the means of cementing a
recently concluded peace between the two monarchs. Perhaps
the domestic affliction of the emperor and the anarchy which
in his later years had spread in his dominions had, however,
more to do with the maintenance of tranquillity than any mere
personal feeling. At this time not only was there religious
fanaticism at work to stir up the mutual hatred ever existing
between Sunni and Shi'ah, but the intrigue of European courts
was probably directed towards the maintenance of an hostility
which deterred the sultan from aggressive operations north and
west of Constantinople. " 'Tis only the Persian stands between
us and ruin " is the reported saying of Busbecq, ambassador
at Suleiman's court on the part of Ferdinand of Austria; " the
Turk would fain be upon us, but he keeps him back."

In 1 56 1 Anthony Jenkinson arrived in Persia with a letter
from Queen Elizabeth to the shah. He was to treat with his
majesty of " Trafique and Commerce for our English Mar-
chants," 2 but his reception was not encouraging, and led to
no result of importance.

Tahmasp died in 1576, after a reign of about fifty-two
years. He must have been some sixty-six years of age, having
f come to the throne at fourteen. Writers describe
Dea^y ' ki m as a robust man, of middle stature, wide-lipped,
and of tawny complexion. He was not wanting
in soldierly qualities; but his virtues were rather negative than
decided. The deceased shah had a numerous progeny, and on
his death his fifth son, Haidar Mirza, proclaimed himself king,
supported in his pretensions by the Kizil-bash tribe of Ustujulu.
Another tribe, the Afshar, insisted on the succession of the
fourth son, Isma'il. Had it not been that there were two
candidates in the field, the contention would have resembled
that which arose shortly after Tahmasp's accession. Finally
Isma'il, profiting from his brother's weak character and the
intrigues set on foot against him, obtained his object, and was
brought from a prison to receive the crown.

The reign of Isma'il II. lasted less than two years. He was
found dead in the house of a confectioner in Kazvin, having
left the world either drunk, drugged or poisoned.
No steps were taken to verify the circumstances, for
the event itself was a cause of general relief and joy. He was
succeeded by his eldest brother, Mahommed Mirza, otherwise
Mahommed called Mahommed Khudabanda, whose claim to
Khuda- sovereignty had been originally put aside on the
banda - ground of physical infirmity. He had the good
sense to trust his state affairs almost wholly to an able
minister; but he was cowardly enough to deliver up that
minister into the hands of his enemies. His kingdom was
distracted by intestine divisions and rebellion, and the foe

1 Creasy says that " Suliman led his armies against the Persians
in several campaigns (i533> 1534. 1535. 1548. 1553. 1554). during
which the Turks often suffered severely through the difficult nature
of the countries traversed, as well as through the bravery and
activity of the enemy." All the years given were in the reign of
Tahmasp I.

* Purchas.

Isma'il II.

appeared also from without. On the east his youngest son.
'Abbas, held possession of Khorasan; on the west the sultan's
troops again entered Azerbaijan and took Tabriz. His
eldest son, Hamza Mirza, upheld his fortunes to the utmost
of his power, reduced the rebel chieftains, and forced the Turks
to make peace and retire; but he was stabbed to death by
an assassin. On the news of his death reaching Khorasan,
Murshid Kuli Khan, leader of the Ustujulu Kizil-bash, who had
made good in fight his claims to the guardianship of 'Abbas,
at once conducted the young prince from that province to
Kazvin, and occupied the royal city. The object was evident,
and in accordance with the popular feeling. 'Abbas, who had
been proclaimed king by the nobles at Nishapur some two or
three years before this occurrence, may be said to have now
undertaken in earnest the cares of sovereignty. His ill-starred
father, at no time more than a nominal ruler, was at Shiraz,
apparently deserted by soldiers and people. Malcolm infers
that he died a natural death, but when 3 or where is not stated.

Shah 'Abbas the Great commenced his long and glorious
reign (1586) by retracing his steps towards Khorasan, which
had been reinvaded by the Uzbegs almost imme- t
diately after his departure thence with the Kizil-bash Qreat%
chief. They had besieged and taken Herat, killed the
governor, plundered the town, and laid waste the surrounding
country. 'Abbas advanced to Meshed, but owing to internal
troubles he was compelled to return to Kazvin without going
farther east. In his absence 'Abd-ul-Munim Khan, the Uzbeg
commander, attacked the sacred city, obtained possession of it
while the shah lay helplessly ill at Teheran, and allowed his savage
soldiers full licence to kill and plunder. The whole kingdom
was perplexed, and 'Abbas had much work to restore confidence
and tranquillity. But circumstances rendered impossible his
immediate renewal of the Khorasan warfare. He was summoned
to Shiraz to put down rebellion in Fars; and before he could
drive out the Uzbegs, he had to secure himself against Turkish
inroads threatening from the west. He had been engaged in a
war with Murad III. in Georgia. Peace was concluded between
the two sovereigns in 1590; but the terms were unfavourable
to Persia, who lost thereby Tabriz and one or more of the Caspian
ports. A stipulation was included in the treaty to the effect
that Persians were not to curse any longer the first three caliphs,
— a sort of privilege previously enjoyed by Shi'ites as part and
parcel of their religious faith.

In 1597 'Abbas renewed operations against the Uzbegs, and
succeeded in recovering from them Herat and Khorasan. East-
ward he extended his dominions to Balkh, and in the south his
generals made the conquest of Bahrain (Bahrein), on the Arabian
side of the Persian Gulf, and the territory and islands of the
Persian seaboard, inclusive of the mountainous province of
Lar. He strengthened his position in Khorasan by planting
colonies of Kurdish horsemen on the frontier, or along what is
called the " atak " or skirt of the Turkoman mountains north of
Persia. In 1601 the war with the Ottoman Empire, which had
been partially renewed prior to the death of Sultan Murad in
1595, with little success on the Turkish side, was now entered
upon by 'Abbas with more vigour. Taking advantage of the
weakness of his ancient enemy in the days of the poor volup-
tuary Mahommed III., he began rapidly to recover the provinces
which Persia had lost in preceding reigns, and continued to
reap his advantages in succeeding campaigns under Ahmed I.,
until under Othman II. a peace was signed restoring to Persia
the boundaries which she had obtained under the first Isma'il.
On the other side Kandahar, which Tahmasp's lieutenant had
yielded to the Great Mogul, was recovered from that potentate
in 1609.

At the age of seventy, after a reign of forty-two years, 'Abbas
died at his favourite palace of Farahabad, on the coast of
Mazandaran, on the night of the 27th of January 1628. Perhaps
the most distinguished of ail Persian kings, his fame was not
merely local but world-wide. At his court were ambassadors
from England, Russia, Spain, Portugal, Holland and India.
3 Krusinski says in 1585.

232

PERSIA

[1405-173*

To his Christian subjects he was a kind and tolerant ruler.
The establishment of internal tranquillity, the expulsion of
interlopers and marauders like Turks and Uzbegs, the intro-
duction of salutary laws and the promotion of public works oi
utility — these alone would render remarkable his two-score
years of enlightened government. With a fine face, " of which
the most remarkable features were a high nose and a keen and
piercing eye," 1 he is said to have been belov/ the middle height,
robust, active, a sportsman, and capable of much endurance.
It is, however, to be regretted that this monarch's memory is
tarnished by more than one dark deed. The murder of his
eldest son, Sufi Mirza, and the cruel treatment of the two
younger brothers, were stains which could not be obliterated by
an after-repentance. All that can be now said or done in the
matter is to repeat the testimony of historians that his grief for
the loss of Sufi Mirza was profound, and that, on his death-
bed, he nominated that prince's son (his own grandson) his
successor.

Sam Mirza was seventeen years of age when the nobles, in
fulfilment of the charge c >mmitted to them, proclaimed him

c. .. o *, king under the title of Shah Sufi. He reigned
Sban sun. . .... . £

fourteen years, and his reign was a succession 01

barbarities, which can only be attributed to an evil disposition
acted upon by an education void of all civilizing influences. When
left to his own devices he became a drunkard and a murderer,
and is accused of the death of his mother, sister and favourite
queen. Among many other sufferers Imam Kuli Khan, con-
queror of Lar and Hormuz, the son of one of 'Abbas's most
famous generals, founder of a college at Shiraz, and otherwise
a public benefactor, fell a victim to his savage cruelty. During
his reign the Uzbegs were driven back from Khorasan, and a
rebellion was suppressed in Gilan; but Kandahar was again
handed over to the Moguls of Delhi, and Bagdad retaken from
Persia by Sultan Murad— both serious national losses. Taver-
nicr, without charging the shah with injustice to Christians,
mentions the circumstance that " the first and only European
ever publicly executed in Persia was in his reign." He was
a watchmaker named Rodolph Stadler, who had slain a Persian
on suspicion of intrigue with his wife. Offered his life if he
became a Moslem, he resolutely declined the proposal, and was
decapitated. His tomb is to be recognized at Isfahan by the
words " Cy git Rodolphe " on a long wide slab. Shah Sufi died
(1641) at Kashan and was buried at Kum.

His son, 'Abbas II., succeeded him. Beyond regaining
Kandahar, an operation which he is said to have directed in
'Abbas 11 P erson w hen barely sixteen, there is not much to
mark his life to the outer world. As to foreign
relations, he received embassies from Europe and a deputation
from the French East India Company; he sought to conciliate
the Uzbegs by treating their refugee chiefs with unusual honour
and sumptuous hospitality; he kept on good terms with Turkey;
he forgave the hostility of a Georgian prince when brought to
him a captive; and he was tolerant to all religions — always
regarding Christians with especial favour. But he was a drunk-
ard and a debauchee, and chroniclers are divided in opinion
as to whether he died from the effects of drink or licentious
living. That he changed the system of blinding his relatives
from passing a hot metal over the open eye to an extraction
of the whole pupil is indicative of gross brutality. 'Abbas II.
died (1668) at the age of thirty-eight, after a reign of twenty-
seven years, and was buried at Kum in the same mosque as his
father.

'Abbas was succeeded by his son, Shah Sufi II., crowned a
second time under the name of Shah Suleiman. Though weak,
-^ . dissolute and cruel, Suleiman is not without his

panegyrists. Chardin, whose testimony is all the
more valuable from the fact that he was contemporary with
him, relates many stories characteristic of his temper and habits.
He kept up a court at Isfahan which surprised and delighted
his foreign visitors, among whom were ambassadors from
European states; and one learned writer, Kaempfer, credits
1 Malcolm.

him with wisdom and good policy. During his reign Khorasan
was invaded by the ever-encroaching Uzbegs, the Kipchak
Tatars plundered the shores of the Caspian, and the island of
Kishm was taken by the Dutch; but the kingdom suffered
otherwise no material loss. He died in 1694, in the forty-ninth
year of his age and twenty-sixth of his reign.

About a year before his death, he is described by Sanson, 2 a
missionary from the French king Louis XIV., as tall, strong and
active, " a fine prince — a little too effeminate for a monarch,"
with " a Roman nose very well proportioned to other parts,"
very large blue eyes, and " a midling mouth, a beard painted
black, shav'd round, and well turn'd, even to his ears." The
same writer greatly praises him for his kindness to Christian
•missionaries.

Krusinski's memoir is full of particulars regarding Shah
Hosain, the successor of Suleiman. He had an elder and a
younger brother, sons of the same mother, but the H 0S ain
eldest had been put to death by his father's orders,
and the youngest secreted by maternal precaution lest a similar
fate should overtake him. There was, however, a second
candidate for power in the person of a half-brother, 'Abbas.
The latter prince was the worthier of the throne, but the other
better suited the policy of the eunuchs and those noblemen who
had the right of election. Indeed Suleiman himself is reported
to have told the grandees around him, in his last days, that
" if they were for a martial king that would always keep his
foot in the stirrup they ought to choose Mirza 'Abbas, but that
if they wished for a peaceable reign and a pacific king they
ought to fix their eyes upon Hosain." But he himself made no
definite choice.

Hosain was selected, as might have been anticipated. On
his accession (1694) he displayed his attachment to religious
observances by prohibiting the use of wine — causing all wine-
vessels to be brought out of the royal cellars and destroyed, and
forbidding the Armenians to sell any more of their stock in
Isfahan. The shah's grandmother, by feigning herself sick and
dependent upon wine only for cure, obtained reversal of the
edict. For the following account of Shah H osa i n an d his
successors to the accession of Nadir Shah, Sir Clements
Markham's account has been mainly utilized.

The new king soon fell under the influence of mullahs, and was led
so far to forget his own origin as to persecute the Sufis. Though
good-hearted he was weak and licentious; and once out of the
hands of the fanatical party he became Ensnared by women and
entangled in harem intrigues. For twenty years a profound peace
prevailed throughout the , empire, but it was the precursor of a
terrible storm destined to destroy the Safawid dynasty and scatter
calamity broadcast over Persia. In the mountainous districts of
Kandahar and Kabul the hardy tribes of Afghans had for centuries
led a wild and almost independent life. They were divided into
two great branches — the Ghilzais of Cihazni and Kabul and the
Saduzais of Kandahar and Herat. In 1702 a newly-appointed
governor, one Shah Nawaz, called Gurji Khan from having been
" wali " or ruler of Georgia, arrived at Kandahar with a tolerably
large force. He was a clever and energetic man, and had been
instructed to take severe measures with the Afghans, some of whom
were suspected of intriguing to restore the city to the Delhi emperor.
At this time Kandahar had been for sixty years uninterruptedly in
the shah's possession. The governor appears to have given great
offence by the harshness of his proceedings, and a Ghilzai chief
named Mir Wa'iz, who had complained of his tyranny, was sent a
prisoner to Isfahan. This person had much ability and no little
cunning. He was permitted to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca, and
on his return in 1708 he so gained upon the confidence of the
Persian court that he was allowed to go back to his country. At
Kandahar he planned a conspiracy against the government, slew
Gurji Khan and his retinue, seized the city, defeated two Persian
armies sent against him, and died a natural death in 1715. His
brother, Mir 'Abdallah, succeeded him in the government of the
Afghans ; but after a few months, Mahmud, a son of Mir Wa'iz, a very
young man, murdered his uncle and assumed the title of a sovereign
prince.

In the meanwhile the Saduzai tribe revolted at Herat, and declared
itself independent in 1717; the Kurds overran the country round
Hamadan; the Uzbegs desolated Khorasan; and the Arabs of Muscat
seized the island of Bahrein and threatened Bander Abbasi. Thus
surrounded by dangers on all sides the wretched shah was bewildered.
He made one vain attempt to regain his possessions in the Persian

2 Present State of Persia (London, 1695).

1405-1736]

PERSIA

233

Gulf ; but the Portuguese fleet which had promised to transport his
troops to Bahrein was defeated by the imam of Muscat and forced
to retreat to Goa.

The court of Isfahan had no sooner received tidings of this
disaster than Mahmud, with a large army of Afghans, invaded
. . . Persia in the year 1721, seized Kerman, and in the

Invasion f° uow i n g vear advanced to within four days' march of
the city of Isfahan. The shah offered him a sum of
money to return to Kandahar, but the Afghan answered by advanc-
ing to a place called Gulnabad, within 9 m. of the capital. The
ill-disciplined Persian army, hastily collected, advanced to attack
the rebels. Its centre was led by Sheikh 'Ali Khan, covered by
twenty-four field-pieces. The wali of Arabia commanded the
right, and the 'itimadu' d-daulah, or prime minister, the left wing.
The whole force amounted to 50,000 men, while the Afghans could
not count half that number.

On the 8th of March 1722 the richly dressed hosts of Persia
appeared before the little band of Afghans, who were scorched and
disfigured by their long marches. The wali of Arabia commenced
the battle by attacking the left wing of the Afghans with great
fury, routing it, and plundering their camp. The prime minister
immediately afterwards attacked the enemy's right wing, but was
routed, and the Afghans, taking advantage of the confusion, captured
the Persian guns and turned them on the Persian centre, who fled
in confusion without striking a blow. The wali of Arabia escaped
into Isfahan, and Mahmud the Afghan gained a complete victory.
Fifteen thousand Persians remained dead on the field. A panic
now seized on the surrounding inhabitants, and thousands of country
people fled into the city. Isfahan was then one of the most magni-
ficent cities in Asia, containing more than 600,000 inhabitants.
Mahmud seized on the Armenian suburb of Julfa, and invested the
doomed city ; but T an masp, son of the shah, had previously escaped
into the mountains of Mazandaran. Famine soon began to press
hard upon the besieged, and in September Shah Hosain offered to
capitulate. Having been conducted to the Afghan camp, he fixed
M h d' tne ro X a ' plume of feathers on the young rebel's turban
u" r'tion w ' tn n ' s own naIlc U and 4000 Afghans were ordered to
'occupy the palace and gates of the city. 1 Mahmud
entered Isfahan in triumph, with the captive shah on his left hand,
and, seating himself on the throne in the royal palace, he was saluted
as sovereign of Persia by the unfortunate Hosain. When Tahmasp,
the fugitive prince, received tidings of the abdication of his father,
he at once assumed the title of shah at Kazvin.

Turkey and Russia were not slow to take advantage of the calami-
ties of Persia. The Turks seized on Tiflis, Tabriz and Hamadan,
while Peter the Great, whose aid had been sought by the friendless
Tahmasp, fitted out a fleet on the Caspian. 2 The Russians occupied
Shirvan, and the province of Gilan south-west of the Caspian; 3 and
Peter made a treaty with T anmas P II. in July 1722, by which he
agreed to drive the Afghans out of Persia on condition that Darband
(Derbend), Baku, Gilan, Mazandaran and Astarabad were ceded
to Russia in perpetuity. These were all the richest and most
important northern provinces of Persia.

Meanwhile the invader, in 1723, invited 300 of the principal Persian
nobility to a banquet and massacred them. To prevent their
children rising up in vengeance they were all murdered also. Then
he proceeded to slaughter vast numbers of the citizens of Isfahan,
until the place was nearly depopulated. Not content with this,
in February- 1725 he assembled all the captives of the royal family,
except the shah, in the courtyard of the palace, and caused them
all to be murdered, commencing the massacre with his own hand.
The wretched Hosain was himself wounded in endeavouring vainly
to save his infant son, only five years of age. All the males of the
royal family, except Hosain himself, Tahmasp, and two children,
are said to have perished. At length the inhuman miscreant
Mahmud died, at the early age of twenty-seven, on the 22nd of
April 1725. With scarcely any neck, he had round shoulders, a
broad face with a flat nose, a thin beard, and squinting eyes, which
were generally downcast.

Mahmud was succeeded by his first cousin, Ashraf, the son of
Mir 'Abdallah. He was a brave but cruel Afghan. He gave the
dethroned shah a handsome allowance, and strove, by a mild policy,
to acquire popularity. In 1727, after a short war, he signed
a treaty with the Turks, acknowledging the sultan as chief of
the Moslems. But the fortunate star of Tahmasp II. was now be-
binning to rise, and the days of Afghan usurpation were numbered.
He had collected a small army in Mazandaran, and was supported by
Fath 'Ali Khan, the powerful chief of the Kajar tribe. In 1727

1 We have an account of the Afghan invasion and sack of Isfahan
from an eye-witness, Father Krusinski, procurator of the Jesuits at
that place, whose interesting work was translated into English in the
last century.

2 In 1721 Sultan Hosain sent an embassy to the Russians, seeking
aid against the Afghans. In May 1722 a flotilla descended the Volga
commanded by Tsar Peter and on the 19th of July the Russian
flag first waved over the Caspian. Gilan was occupied by 6000 men
under General Matushkin.

8 The Russians remained in Gilan until 1734, when they were
obliged to evacuate it, owing to the unhealthiness of the climate.

the fugitive shah was joined by Nadir Kuli, a robber chief, who
murdered Fath 'Ali, and, having easily appeased the shah, received
the command of the royal army. In 1729 Ashraf became - ..
alarmed, and led an Afghan army into Khorasan, where /JJLi

he was defeated by Nadir at Damghan, and forced to

of Afghans,

retreat. The Persian general followed close in his rear and again
defeated him outside Isfahan in November of the same year.
The Afghans fled through the town; and Ashraf, murdering the poor
old shah H°sain on his way, hurried with the wreck of his army
towards Shiraz. On the 1 6th of November the victorious Nadir
entered Isfahan, and was soon followed by the young shah Tahmasp
II., who burst into tears when he beheld the ruined palace of
his ancestors. His mother, who had escaped the numerous mas-
sacres by disguising herself as a slave and performing the most
degrading offices, now came forth and threw herself into his arms.
Nadir did not give his enemies time to recover from their defeat.
He followed them up, and again utterly routed them in January
1730. Ashraf tried to escape to Kandahar almost alone, but was
murdered by a party of Baluch robbers; and thus, by the genius of
Nadir, his native land was delivered from the terrible Afghan
invaders.

The ambition of Nadir, however, was far greater than his loyalty.
On pretext of incapacity, he dethroned Tahmasp II. in 1732, and
sent him a prisoner into Khorasan, where he was p a n Q f
murdered some years afterwards by Nadir's son while gafawlds.
the conqueror was absent on his Indian expedition.
For a short time the wily usurper placed Tahmasp's son on the
throne, a little child, with the title of 'Abbas III., while he con-
tented himself with the office of regent. Poor little 'Abbas died at
a very convenient time, in the year 1736, and Nadir then thiew off
the mask. He was proclaimed shah of Persia by a vast assemblage
on the plain of Moghan.

By the fall of the Safawid dynasty Persia lost her race of
national monarchs, considered not only in respect of origin and
birthplace but in essence and in spirit. Isma'il, Tahmasp and
'Abbas, whatever their faults and failings, were Persian and
peculiar to Persians. Regarded in a sober English spirit, the
reign of the great 'Abbas is rendered mythical by crime. But
something liberal in the philosophy of their progenitors threw
an attractiveness over the earlier Safawid kings which was
wanting in those who came after them. The fact is that, two
centuries after Shah Isma'il's accession to the throne, the Safawid
race of kings was effete; and it became necessary to make room
for a more vigorous if not a more lasting rule. Nadir was the;
strong man for the hour and occasion. He had been designated
a "robber chief"; but his antecedents, like those of many
others who have filled the position, have redeeming points of
melodramatic interest*

A map attached to Krusinski's volumes illustrates the extent
of Persian territory in 1728, or one year before Ashraf was finally
defeated by Nadir, and some eight years prior to
the date on which Nadir was himself proclaimed king. l72S%
It shows, during the reign of the Safawids, Tiflis,
Erivan, Khoi and Bagdad to have been within the limits of
Persia on the west, and in like manner Balkh and Kandahar
to have been included within the eastern border. There is,:
however, also shown, as a result of the Afghan intrusion and
the impotency of the later Safawid kings, a long broad strip of
country to the west, including Tabriz and Hamadan, marked
" conquests of the Turks," and the whole west shore of the Caspian
from Astrakan to Mazandaran marked " conquests of the czar
of Muscovy "; Makran, written Mecran, is designated " a warlike
independent nation." If further allowance be made for the
district held by the Afghan invaders as part of their own country,
it will be seen how greatly the extent of Persia proper was
reduced, and what a work Nadir had before him to restore the
kingdom to its former proportions.

But the former proportions had been partly reverted to, and
would doubtless have been in some respects exceeded, both in
Afghanistan and the Ottoman dominions and on the shores of
the Caspian, by the action of this indefatigable general, had not
Tahmasp II. been led into a premature treaty with the Turks.
Nadir's anger and indignation had been great at this weak,
proceeding; indeed, he had made it the ostensible cause of the
shah's deposition. He had addressed letters to all the military
chiefs of the country, calling upon them for support; he had sent
an envoy to Constantinople insisting upon the sultan's restora-
tion of the Persian provinces still in his possession — that is,

234

PERSIA

[1736-1884

Georgia and part of Azerbaijan — and he had threatened Bagdad
with assault. As regent, he had failed twice in taking the city
of the caliphs, but on the second occasion he had defeated and
killed its gallant defender, Topal 'Othman, and he had succeeded
in regaining Tiflis, Kars and Erivan. 1

Russia and Turkey, naturally hostile to one another, had
taken occasion of the weakness of Persia to forget their mutual
quarrels and unite to plunder the tottering kingdom of the
Safawid kings. A partition treaty had been signed between
these two powers in 1723, by which the czar was to take Astara-
bad, Mazandaran, Gilan, part of Shirvan and Daghistan, while
the acquisitions of the Porte were to be traced out by a line drawn
from the junction of the Aras and Kur rivers, and passing along
by Ardebil, Tabriz and Hamadan, and thence to Kermanshah.
Tahmasp was to retain the rest of his paternal kingdom on con-
dition of his recognizing the treaty. The ingenious diplomacy
of Russia in this transaction was manifested in the fact that she
had already acquired the greater part of the territory allotted
to her, while Turkey had to obtain her share by further con-
quest. But the combination to despoil a feeble neighbour was
outwitted by the energy of a military commander of a remark-
able type.

D. — From the Accession of Nadir Shah, in 1736, to 1884.

Nadir, it has heen said, was proclaimed shah in the plains
of Moghan in 1736. Mirza Mahdi relates how this event was

brought about by his address to the assembled
Coronation n °kles and officers on the morning of the " Nau-ruz,"

or Persian New- Year's Day, the response to that
appeal being the offer of the crown. The conditions were that
the crown should be hereditary in his family, that the claim of
the Safawids was to be held for ever extinct, and that measures
should be taken to bring the Shi'ites to accept uniformity of
worship with the Sunnites. The mulla bashi (or high priest)
objecting to the last, Nadir ordered him to be strangled, a com-
mand which was carried out on the spot. On the day following,
the agreement having been ratified between sovereign and people,
he was proclaimed emperor of Persia. At Kazvin the ceremony
of inauguration took place. The 'edict expressing the royal
will on the religious question is dated in June, but the date of
coronation is uncertain. From Kazvin Nadir moved to Isfahan,
where he organized an expedition against Kandahar, then in
the possession of a brother of Mahmud, the conqueror of Shah
Hosain. But before setting out for Afghanistan he took
measures to secure the internal quiet of Persia, attacking and
seizing in his stronghold the chief of the marauding Bakhtiaris,
whom he put to death, retaining many of his men for service
as soldiers. With an army of 80,000 men he marched through
Khorasan and Seistan to Kandahar, which city he blockaded
ineffectually for a year; but it finally capitulated on the loss of
the citadel. Balkh fell to Riza Kuli, the king's son, who,
moreover, crossed the Oxus and defeated the Uzbegs in battle.
Besides tracing out the lines of Nadirabad, a town Since merged
in modern Kandahar, Nadir had taken advantage of the time
available and of opportunities presented to enlist a large number
of men from the Abdali and Ghilzai tribes. It is said that as
many as 16,000 were at his disposal. His rejection of the
Shi'ite tenets as a state religion seems to have propitiated the
Sunnite Afghans.

Nadir had sent an ambassador into Hindustan requesting

the Mogul emperor to order the surrender of certain unruly

Afghans who had taken refuge within Indian terri-

India. tory, Dut no satisfactory reply was given, and

obstacles were thrown in the way of the return of the

embassy. The Persian monarch, not sorry perhaps to find a

plausible pretext for encroachment in a quarter so full of promise

to booty-seeking soldiers, pursued some of the fugitives through

Ghazni to Kabul, which city was then under the immediate

control of Nasr Khan, governor of eastern Afghanistan, for

Mahommed Shah of Delhi. This functionary, alarmed at the

near approach of the Persians, fled to Peshawar. Kabul had

1 Malcolm.

long been considered not only an integral part but also one of
the main gates of the Indian Empire; notwithstanding a stout
resistance on the part of its commandant, Shir or Shirzah Khan,
the place was stormed and carried (1738) by Nadir, who moved
on eastward. Mirza Mahdi relates that from the Kabul plain
he addressed a new remonstrance to the Delhi court, but that
his envoy was arrested and killed, and his escort compelled to
return by the governor of Jalalabad. The same authority
notes the occupation of the latter place by Persian troops and
the march thither from Gandamak. It was probably through
the Khaibar (Khyber) Pass that he passed into the Peshawar
plain, for it was there that he first defeated the Imperial forces.
The invasion of India had now fairly commenced, and its
successful progress and consummation were mere questions
of time. The prestige of this Eastern Napoleon was immense.
It had not only reached but had been very keenly felt at Delhi
before the conquering army had arrived. There was no actual
religious war; all sectarian distinction had been disavowed; the
contest was between vigorous Mahommedans and effete Mahom-
medans. Nadir's way had been prepared by circumstances,
and as he progressed from day to day his army increased.
There must have been larger accessions by voluntary recruits
than losses by death or desertion. The victory on the plain of
Karnal, whether accomplished by sheer fighting or the interven-
tion of treachery, was the natural outcome of the previous
situation, and the submission of the emperor followed as a
matter of course.

Delhi must have experienced a sense of relief at the departure
of its conqueror, whose residence there had been rendered
painfully memorable by carnage and riot. The marriage of
his son to the granddaughter of Aurangzeb and the formal
restoration of the crown to the dethroned emperor were doubt-
less politic, but the descendant of Babar could not easily forget
how humiliating a chapter in history would remain to be written
against him. The return march of Nadir to Persia is not
recorded with precision. On the 5th of May 1739 he left the
gardens of Shalamar, and proceeded by way of Lahore and
Peshawar through the passes to Kabul. Thence he seems to
have returned to Kandahar, and in May 1740 — just one year
after his departure from Delhi — he was in Herat displaying the
imperial throne and other costly trophies to the gaze of the
admiring inhabitants. Sind was certainly included in the
cession to him by Mahommed Shah of " all the territories
westward of the river Attok, " but only that portion of it,
such as Thattah (Tatta), situated on the right bank of the
Indus.

From Herat he moved upon Balkh and Bokhara, and received
the submission of Abu'1-Faiz Khan, the Uzbeg ruler, whom he
restored to his throne on condition that the Oxus
should be the acknowledged boundary between the conauests.
two empires. The khan of Khwarizm, who had made
repeated depredations in Persian territory, was taken prisoner
and executed. Nadir then visited the strong fortress of Kelat,
to which he was greatly attached as the scene of his boyish
exploits, and Meshed, which he constituted the capital of his
empire. He had extended his boundary on the east to the
Indus, and to the Oxus on the north.

On the south he was restricted by the Arabian Ocean and
Persian Gulf; but the west remained open to his further
progress. He had in the first place to revenge the
death of his brother Ibrahim Khan, slain by the jy eat
Lesghians; and a campaign against the Turks might
follow in due course. The first movement was unsuccessful,
and indirectly attended with disastrous consequences. Nadir,
when hastening to the support of some Afghan levies who were
doing good service, was fired at and wounded by a stray assailant;
suspecting his son, Riza Kuli, of complicity, he commanded the
unfortunate prince to be seized and deprived of sight. From
that time the heroism of the monarch appeared to die out. He
became morose, tyrannical and suspicious. An easy victory
over the Turks gave him but little additional glory; and he
readily concluded a r>eace with the sultan wniVV, Krm.»v.t k,.*

,736-1884]

PERSIA

235

insignificant gain to Persia. 1 Another battle won from the
Ottoman troops near Diarbekr by Nasr Ullah Mirza, the young
prince who had married a princess of Delhi, left matters much
the same as before.

The last years of Nadir's life were full of internal trouble.
On the part of the sovereign, murders and executions; on that
of his subjects, revolt and conspiracy. Such a state of things
could not last, and certain proscribed persons plotted the
destruction of the half-demented tyrant. He was despatched
by Salah Bey, captain of his guards (1747). He was some sixty
years of age, and had reigned eleven years. About the time of
setting out on his Indian expedition he was described as a most
comely man, upwards of 6 ft., tall, well-proportioned, of robust
make and constitution; inclined to be fat, but prevented by the
fatigue he underwent; with fine, large black eyes and eyebrows;
of sanguine complexion, made more manly by the influence of
sun and weather; a loud, strong voice; a moderate wine-drinker;
fond of simple diet, such as pilaos and plain dishes, but often
neglectful of meals altogether, and satisfied, if occasion required,
with parched peas and water, always to be procured. 2

During the reign of Nadir an attempt was made to establish
a British Caspian trade with Persia. The names of Jonas
Hanway and John Elton were honourably connected with this
undertaking; and the former has left most valuable records of
the time and country.

From Nadir Shah to the Kajar Dynasty. — After the death of
Nadir Shah something like anarchy prevailed for thirteen years
in the greater part of Persia as it existed under
Shah "Abbas. No sooner had the crime become

Period 0/
Anarchy.

known than Ahmad Khan, chief of the Abdali
Afghans, took possession of Kandahar and a certain amount
of treasure. By the action of Ahmad Abdali, Afghanistan was
at once lost to the Persian crown, for this leader was strong
enough to found an independent kingdom. The chief of the
Bakhtiaris, Rashid, also with treasure, fled to the mountains,
and the conspirators invited 'Ali, a nephew of the deceased
monarch, to ascend the vacant throne. The Bakhtiari encour-
aged his brother, 'Ali Mardan, to compete for the succession
to Nadir. The prince was welcomed by his subjects; he told
them that the murder of his uncle was due to his own instigation,
and, in order to conciliate them, remitted the revenues of the
current year and all extraordinary taxes for the two years
following.

Taking the title of 'Adil Shah, or the " just " king, he
commenced his reign by putting to death the two princes Riza
Kuli and Nasr Ullah, as well as all relatives whom he considered
his competitors, with the exception of Shah Rukh, son of Riza
Kuli, whom he spared in case a lineal descendant of Nadir
should at any time be required. But he had not removed all
dangerous members of the royal house, nor had he gauged the
temper of the times or people. 'Adil Shah was soon dethroned
by his own brother, Ibrahim, and he in his turn was defeated
by the adherents of Shah Rukh, who made their leader king.

This young prince had a better and more legitimate title
than that of the grandson of Nadir, for he was also grandson,
...... on the mother's side, of the Safawid Shah Husain.

'Amiable, generous and liberal-minded, and of pre-
possessing exterior, he proved to be a popular prince. But
he was neither of an age nor character to rule over a people led
by turbulent and disaffected chiefs, ever divided by the con-
flicting interests of personal ambition. Sa'id Mahommed, son
of Mirza Daud, a chief mullah at Meshed, whose mother was
the reputed daughter of Suleiman, declared himself king, and
imprisoned and blinded Shah Rukh. Yusuf 'Ali, the general
commanding the royal troops, defeated and slew Suleiman, and
replaced his master on the throne, reserving to himself the
protectorship or regency. A new combination of chiefs, of
which Ji'afir the Kurd and Mir 'Alam the Arabian are the

1 Creasy says the war broke out in 1743, but was terminated
in 1746 by a treaty which made little change in the old arrange-
ments fixed under Murad IV.

2 Fraser's History of Nadir Shah (1742).

principal names handed down, brought about the death of
Yusuf 'Ali and the second imprisonment of Shah Rukh. These
events were followed by a quarrel terminating in the supremacy
of the Arab. At this juncture Ahmad Shah Abdali reappeared
in Persian Khorasan from Herat; he attacked and took posses-
sion of Meshed, slew Mir 'Alam, and, pledging the local chiefs
to support the blinded prince in retaining the kingdom of his
grandfather, returned to Afghanistan. But thenceforward this
unfortunate young man was a mere shadow of royalty, and
his purely local power and prestige had no further influence
whatever on Persia as a country.

The land was partitioned among several distinguished persons,
who had of old been biding their opportunities, or were born of
the occasion. Foremost among these was Mahom-
med Hasan Khan, hereditary chief of those Kajars confusion.
who were established in the south-east corner of
the Caspian. His father, Fath 'Ali Khan, after sheltering Shah
Tahmasp II. at his home in Astarabad, and long acting as
one of his most loyal supporters, had been put to death by
Nadir, who had appointed a successor to his chiefdom from the
" Yukari " or " upper " Kajars, instead of from his own, the
" Ashagha," or "lower." 3 Mahommed, with his brother, had
fled to the Turkomans, by whose aid he had attempted the
recovery of Astarabad, but had not succeeded in regaining a
permanent footing there until Nadir had been removed. On the
murder of the tyrant he had raised the standard of independence,
successfully resisted Ahmad Shah and his Afghans, who sought
to check his progress in the interests of Shah Rukh, and even-
tually brought under his own sway the valuable provinces of
Gilan, Mazandaran and Astarabad 4 — quite a little kingdom in
itself. In the large important province of Azerbaijan, Azad
Khan, one of Nadir's generals, had established a separate
government; and 'Ali Mardan, brother of the Bakhtiari chief,
took forcible possession of Isfahan, enfpowering Shah Rukh's
governor, Abu'1-Fath Khan, to act for the new master instead
of the old.

Had 'Ali Mardan declared himself an independent ruler he
would have been by far the most important of the three persons
named. But such usurpation at the old Safawid capital would
have been too flagrant an act for general assent; so he put
forward Isma'il, a nephew of Shah Husain, as the representative
of sovereignty, and himself as one of his two ministers — the
other being Karim Khan, a chief of the Zend Kurds. Shah
Isma'il, it need scarcely be said, possessed no real authority;
but the ministers were strong men in their way, and the Zend
especially had many high and excellent qualities. After a time
'Ali Mardan was assassinated, and Karim Khan became the
sole living power at Isfahan. The story of the period is thus told
by R. G. Watson: —

" The three rivals, Karim, Azad and Muhammad Hasan, pro-
ceeded to settle, by means of the sword, the question as to which
of them was to be the sole master of Persia. A three- „
sided war then ensued, in the course of which each of L* r "l?
the combatants in turn seemed at one time sure to be ..' . ne
the final conqueror. Karim, when he had arranged v s '
matters at Ispahan, marched to the borders of Mazandaran,
where the governor of that province was ready to meet him.
After a closely contested battle victory remained with Muhammad
Hasan; who, however, was unable to follow up the foe, as he
had to return in order to encounter Azad. That leader had in-
vaded Gilan, but, on the news reaching him of the victory which
the governor of Mazandaran had gained, he thought it prudent
to retrace his steps to Sultaniyah. Karim reunited his shattered
forces at Tehran, and retired to Ispahan to prepare for a second
campaign. When he again took the field it was not to measure
himself once more with the Kajar chief, but to put down the pre-
tensions of Azad. The wary Afghan, however, shut himself up in
Kazvin, a position from which he was enabled to inflict much in-
jury on the army of Karim, while his own troops remained unharmed,
behind the walls of the town. Karim retired a second time to

3 There were three branches of the Kajar tribe, i.e. the Suldus,
Tungkut and Jalaiyar. The last, according to Watson, became
settled in Iran and Turan, and seem at first to have given their
name to all the tribe.

4 Watson. Malcolm says that Gilan was under one of its own
chiefs, Hidaiyat Khan.

236

PERSIA

[1 736-1884

Ispahan, and in the following spring advanced again to meet Azad.
A pitched battle took place between them, in which the army of
Karim was defeated. He retreated to the capital, closely pressed
by the foe. Thence he continued his way to Shiraz, but Azad was
still upon his traces. He then threw himself upon the mercy of
the Arabs of the Garmsir or hot country, near the Persian Gulf, to
whom the name of the Afghans was hateful, and who rose in a body
to turn upon Azad. Karim, by their aid, once more repaired his
losses and advanced on Ispahan, while Muhammad Hasan with
fifty thousand men was coming from the opposite direction, ready
to encounter either the Afghan or the Zend. The Afghan did not
await his coming, but retired to his government of Tabriz.

" The Zend issued from Ispahan, and was a second time defeated
in a pitched battle by the Kajar. Karim took refuge behind the
walls of Shiraz, and all the efforts of the enemy to dislodge him
were ineffectual. Muhammad Hasan Khan in the following year
turned his attention to Adarbaijan. Azad was no longer in a posi-
tion to oppose him in the field, and he in turn became master of
every place of importance in the province, while Azad had to seek
assistance in vain — first from the pasha of Baghdad, and then from
his former enemy, the tsar of Georgia. Next year the conquering
Kajar returned to Shiraz to make an end of the only rival who now
stood in his way. On his side were 80,000 men, commanded by a

General who had twice defeated the Zend chief on an equal field.
Carim was stilt obliged to take shelter in Shiraz, and to employ
artifice in order to supply the place of the force in which he was
deficient. Nor were his efforts in this respect unattended with
success: seduced by his gold, many of the troops of the Kajar
began to desert their banners. In the meantime the neighbour-
hood of Shiraz was laid waste, so as to destroy the source from
which Muhammad Hasan drew his provisions; by degrees his army
vanished, and he had finally to retreat with rapidity to Ispahan
with the few men that remained to him. Finding his position
there to be untenable, he retreated still farther to the country
of his own tribe, while his rival advanced to Ispahan, where he
received the submission of nearly all the chief cities of Persia. The
ablest of Karim's officers, Shaikh 'Ali, was sent in pursuit of the
Kajar chief. The fidelity of the commander to whom that chief-
tain had confided the care of the pass leading into Mazandaran,
was corrupted ; and, as no further retreat was open to him, he found
himself under the necessity of fighting. The combat which ensued
resulted in his complete defeat, although he presented to his followers
an example of the most determined valour. While attempting to
effect his escape he was recognized by the chief of the other branch
of the Kajar tribe, who had deserted his cause, and who had a
blood-feud with him, in pursuance of which he now put him to
death.

" For nineteen years after this event Karim Khan ruled with the
title of wakil, or regent, over the whole of Persia, excepting the
Karim Khan P rovmce °f Khurasan. He made Shiraz the seat of
' his government, and by means of his brothers put
down every attempt which was made to subvert his authority.
The rule of the great Zend chief was just and mild, and he is on the
whole, considering his education and the circumstances under
which he was placed, one of the most faultless characters to be met
with in Persian history."

Karim Khan died at his capital in 1779 in the twentieth year
of his reign, and, it is said, in the eightieth of his age. He built
the great bazaar of Shiraz, had a tomb constructed over the
remains of Hafiz, and repaired the " turbat " at the grave of
Sa'di, outside the walls. He encouraged commerce and agricul-
ture, gave much attention to the shores of the Persian Gulf,
and carefully studied the welfare of the Armenian community
settled in his dominions. In his time the British factory was
removed from Bander Abbasi to Bushire.

On Karim's death a new period of anarchy supervened. His
brother, Zaki, a cruel and vindictive chief who, when governor
of Isfahan, had revolted against Karim, assumed
the government. At the same time he proclaimed
Abu '1-Fath Khan, second son of the deceased monarch, and his
brother Mahommed 'Ali, joint-successors to the throne. The
seizure of the citadel at Shiraz by the adherents of the former,
among whom were the more influential of the Zends, may have
induced him to adopt this measure as one of prudent conciliation.
But the garrison held out, and, to avoid a protracted siege, he
had recourse to treachery. The suspicious nobles were solemnly
adjured to trust themselves to his keeping, under promise of
forgiveness. They believed his professions, tendered their
submission, and were cruelly butchered. Zaki did not long
enjoy the fruits of his perfidious dealing. The death of Karim
Khan had raised two formidable adversaries to mar his peace.

Aga Mahommed, son of Mahommed Hasan, the Kajar chief
of Astarabad, a prisoner at large in Shiraz, was in the environs

Tekl.

of that city awaiting intelligence of the old king's decease, and,
hearing it, instantly escaped to Mazandaran, there to gather his
tribesmen together and compete for the crown of Persia. Taken
prisoner by Nadir and barbarously mutilated by 'Adil Shah, he
had afterwards found means to rejoin his people, but had
surrendered himself to Karim Khan when his father was killed
in battle. On the other hand, Sadik, brother to Zaki, who had
won considerable and deserved repute by the capture of Basra
from the Turkish governor, abandoned his hold of the conquered
town on hearing of the death of Karim, and appeared with his
army before Shiraz. To provide against the intended action
of the first, Zaki detached his nephew, 'Ali Murad, at the head
of his best troops to proceed with all speed to the north; and, as
to the second, the seizure of such families of Sadik's followers
as were then within the walls of the town, and other violent
measures, struck such dismay into the hearts of the besieging
soldiers that they dispersed and abandoned their leader to his
fate. From Kerman, however, where he found an asylum, the
latter addressed an urgent appeal for assistance to 'Ali Murad.
This chief, encamped at Teheran when the communication
reached him, submitted the matter to his men, who decided
against Zaki, but put forward their own captain as the only
master they would acknowledge. 'Ali Murad, leaving the pur-
suit of Aga Mahcmmed, then returned to Isfahan, where he was
received with satisfaction, on the declaration that his one
object was to restore to his lawful inheritance the eldest son of
Karim Khan, whom Zaki had set aside in favour of a younger
brother. The sequel is full of dramatic interest. Zaki, enraged
at his nephew's desertion, marched out of Shiraz towards
Isfahan. On his way he came to the town of Yezdikhast, where
he demanded a sum of money from the inhabitants, claiming
it as part of secreted revenue; the demand was refused, and
eighteen of the head men were thrown down the precipice beneath
his window; a " saiyid," or holy man, was the next victim, and
his wife and daughter were to be given over to the soldiery, when
a suddenly-formed conspiracy took effect, and Zaki's own life
was taken in retribution for his guilt (1779).

When intelligence of these events reached Kerman, Sadik
Khan hastened to Shiraz, proclaimed himself king in place

of Abu 1-Fatb. Khan, whom he declared incompe- .„ „

4. 4. 4. • j i 4. 4.1. r 4.1. 'All Murad.

tent, to reign, and put out the eyes of the young

prince. He despatched his son Ji'afir to assume the govern-
ment of Isfahan, and watch the movements of 'Ali Murad,
who appears to have been then absent from that city; and he
gave a younger son, 'Ali Naki, command of an army in the field.
The campaign ended in the capture of Shiraz and assumption
of sovereignty by 'Ali Murad, who caused Sadik Khan to be
put to death.

From this period up to the accession of Aga Mahommed Khan
the summarized history of Markham will supply the principal
facts required.

'Ali Murad reigned over Persia until 1785, and carried on a
successful war with Aga Mahommed in Mazandaran, defeating
him in several engagements, and occupying Teheran a/id Sari. He
died on his way from the former place to Isfahan, and was suc-
ceeded by Ji'afir, son of Sadik, 1 who reigned at Shiraz, assisted in
the government by an able but unprincipled " kalantar," or head
magistrate, named Hajji Ibrahim. This ruler was poisoned by the
agency of conspirators, one of whom, Saiyid Murad, succeeded to
the throne. Hajji Ibrahim, however, contriving to maintain the
loyalty of the citizens towards the Zend reigning family, the usurper
was killed, and Lutf 'Ali Khan, son of Ji'afir, proclaimed Lutl'AU
king. He had hastened to Shiraz on hearing of his ku.„
father's death and received a warm welcome from the
inhabitants. Hajji Ibrahim became his chief adviser, and a new
minister was found for him in Mirza Hosain Shirazi. At the time
of his accession Lutf 'Ali Khan was only in his twentieth year,
very handsome, tall, graceful, and an excellent horseman. While
differing widely in character, he was a worthy successor of Karim
Khan, the great founder of the Zend dynasty. Lutf 'AH Khan had
not been many months on the throne when Aga Mahommed, ad-
vanced to attack him, and invested the city of Shiraz, but retreated
soon afterwards to Teheran, which he had made the capital of his
dominions. The young king then enjoyed a short period of peace.

1 A five days' usurpation of Bakir Khan, governor of Isfahan, is
not taken into account.

1736-1884]

PERSIA

Afterwards, in 1790, he collected his forces and marched against
the Kajars, in the direction of Isfahan. But Hajji Ibrahim had
been intriguing against his sovereign, to whose family he owed
everything, not only with his officers and soldiers but also with
Aga Mahommed, the chief of the Kajars, and arch-enemy of the
Zends. Lutf 'Ali Khan was suddenly deserted by the whole of his
army, except seventy faithful followers; and when he retreated to
Shiraz he found the gates closed against him by Hajji Ibrahim,
who held the city for the Kajar chief. Thence falling back upon
Bushire, he found that the sheikh of that town had also betrayed
him. Surrounded by treason on every side, he boldly attacked
and routed the chief of Bushire and blockaded Shiraz. His un-
conquerable valour gained him many followers, and he defeated an
army sent against him by the Kajars in 1792.

Aga Mahommed then advanced in person against his rival.
He encamped with an army of 30,000 men on the plain of Mardasht,
near Shiraz. Lutf 'Ali Khan, in the dead of night, suddenly attacked
the camp of his enemy with only a few hundred followers. The
Kajars were completely routed and thrown into confusion; but
Aga Mahommed, with extraordinary presence of mind, remained
in his tent, and at the first appearance of dawn his " muezzin,"
or public crier, was ordered to call the faithful to morning prayer
as usual. Astonished at this, the few Zend cavaliers, thinking
that the wholy army of Kajars had returned, fled with precipitation
leaving the field in possession of Aga Mahommed. The successful
Kajar then entered Shiraz, and promoted the traitor Hajji Ibrahim
to be his vizier. Lutf 'Ali Khan took refuge with the hospitable
chief of Tabbas in the heart of Khorasan, where he succeeded in
collecting a few followers; but advancing into Fars, he was again
defeated, and forced to take refuge at Kandahar.

In 1794, however, the undaunted prince once more crossed the
Persian frontier, determined to make a last effort, and either regain
Capture of ^' s t nrone or die > n the attempt. He occupied the
Kerman c ' tv °^ Kerman, then a flourishing commercial town,
half-way between the Persian Gulf and the province
of Khorasan. Aga Mahommed besieged it with a large army
in 1795, and, after a stout resistance, the gates were opened
through treachery. For three hours the gallant young warrior
fought in the streets with determined valour, but in vain. When
he saw that all hope was gone he, with only three followers, fought
his way through the Kajar host and escaped to Bam-Narmashir,
the most eastern district of the province of Kerman on the borders
of Seistan.

Furious at the escape of his rival, the savage conqueror ordered
a general massacre; 20,000 women and children were sold into
slavery, and 70,000 eyes of the inhabitants of Kerman were brought
to Aga Mahommed on a platter.

Lutf 'Ali Khan took refuge in the town of Bam ; but the governor
of Narmashir, anxious to propitiate the conqueror, basely surrounded
him as he was mounting his faithful horse Kuran to seek a more
secure asylum. The young prince fought bravely; but, being
badly wounded and overpowered by numbers, he was secured and
sent to the camp of the Kajar chief. The spot where he was seized
at Bam, when mounting his horse, was marked by a pyramid,
formed, by order of his revengeful enemy, of the skulls of the most
faithful of his adherents. The most hideous indignities and atrocities
were committed upon his person by the cruel Kajar, and finally
he was sent to Teheran and murdered, when only in his twenty-
sixth year. Every member of his family and every friend was
ordered to be massacred by Aga Mahommed; and the successful
miscreant thus founded the dynasty of the Kajars at the price of
all the best and noblest blood of Iran.

The Zend is said to be a branch of the Lak tribe, dating from
the time of the Kaianian kings, and claims to have been charged
with the care of the Zend-Avesta by Zoroaster himself. 1 The
tree attached to Markham's chapter on the dynasty contains
the names of eight members of the family only, i.e. four brothers,
one of whom had a son, grandson and great-grandson, and one
a son. Four of the eight were murdered, one was blinded,
and one cruelly mutilated. In one case a brother murdered a
brother, in another an uncle blinded his nephew.

Kajar Dynasty. — Aga Mahommed was undoubtedly one of
the most cruel and vindictive despots that ever disgraced a
throne. But he was not without care for the honour of his
empire in the eyes of Europe and the outer world, and his early
career in Mazandaran gave him a deeply-rooted mistrust of
Russia, with the officers of which power he was in constant
contact. The following story, told by Forster, 2 and varied by
a later writer, is characteristic. A party of Russians having
obtained permission to build a " counting-house " at Ashraf,

1 Markham. Morier says of Karim Khan's family, " it was a
low branch of an obscure tribe in Kurdistan."

2 Journey from Bengal to England (1798), ii. 201 ; see also Markham,
pp. 341, 342.

in the bay of that name, erected instead a fort with eighteen

guns. Aga Mahommed, learning the particulars, visited the

spot,- expressed great pleasure at the work done,

invited the officers to dine with him, imprisoned ff* h mmed

them, and only spared their lives when they had

removed the whole of the cannon and razed the fort to the

ground. This occurrence must have taken place about 1782.

Forster was travelling homeward by the southern shores of
the Caspian in January 1784, and from him we gather many
interesting details of the locality and period. He calls Aga
Mahommed chief of Mazandaran, as also of Astarabad and
" some districts situate in Khurasan," and describes his tribe
the Kajar, to be, like the Indian Rajput, usually devoted to the
profession of arms. Whatever hold his father may have had
on Gilan, it is certain that this province was not then in the
son's possession, for his brother, Ji'afir Kuli, governor of Balfrush
(Balfroosh), had made a recent incursion into it and driven
Hidaiyat Khan, its ruler, from Reshtto Enzeli, and Aga Mahom-
med was himself meditating another attack on the same quarter.
The latter's palace was at Sari, then a small and partly fortified
town, thickly inhabited, and with a plentifully-supplied market.
As " the most powerful chief in Persia " since the death of
Karim Khan, the Russians were seeking to put their yoke upon
him.

As Aga Mahommed's power increased, his dislike and jealousy
of the Muscovite assumed a more practical shape. His victory
over Lutf 'Ali was immediately followed by an campaign
expedition into Georgia. After the death of Nadir against
the wali of that country had looked around him Georgia.
for the safest means of shaking off the yoke of Persia; and
in course of time an opportunity had offered of a promising
kind. In 1783, when the strength of the Persian monarchy was
concentrated upon Isfahan and Shiraz, the Georgian tsar
Heraclius entered into an agreement with the empress Catherine
by which all connexion with the shah was disavowed,
and a quasi-vassalage to Russia substituted — the said empire
extending her aegis of protection over her new ally. Aga
Mahommed now demanded that Heraclius should return
to his position of tributary and vassal to Persia, and, as his
demand was rejected, prepared for war. Dividing an army of
60,000 men into three corps, he sent one of these into Daghestan,
another was to attack Erivan, and with the third he himself
laid siege to Shusha in the province of Karabakh. The stubborn
resistance offered at the last-named place caused him to leave
there a small investing force only, and to move on with the
remainder of his soldiers to join the corps d'armte at Erivan.
Here, again, the difficulties presented caused him to repeat the
same process and to effect a junction with his first corps at
Ganja, the modern Elisavetpol. At this place he encountered
the Georgian army under Heraclius, defeated it, and marched
upon Tiflis, which he pillaged, massacring and enslaving 3 the
inhabitants. Then he returned triumphant to Teheran, where
(or at Ardebil on the way) he was publicly crowned shah of
Persia. Erivan surrendered, but Shusha continued to hold
out. These proceedings caused Russia to enter the field.
Derbent was taken possession of by Imhov, Baku and Shumakhy
were occupied and Gilan was threatened. The death of the
empress, however, caused the issue of an order to retire, and
Derbent and Baku remained the only trophies of the campaign.

In the meantime Aga Mahommed's attention had been called
away to the east. Khorasan could hardly be called an integral
part of the shah's kingdom so long as it was under operations
even the nominal rule of the blind grandson of in
Nadir. But the eastern division of the province Korasan.
and its outlying parts were actually in 1 the hands of
the Afghans, and Meshed was not Persian in 1796 in the sense
that Delhi was British at the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny.
Shah Rukh held his position, such as it was, rather under Ahmad

3 Lady Sheil says (1849) ; " I saw a few of these unhappy captives
who all had to embrace Mahommedanism, and many of whom
had risen to the highest stations, just as the Circassian slaves in
Constantinople. ' '

2 3 8

PERSIA

[1736-1884

Shah and his successors in Afghanistan than under any other
sovereign power. Aga Mahommed determined to restore the
whole province to Persia, and, after a brief residence in Teheran
on his return from the Georgian expedition, he set out for
Meshed. It is important to note that on the occasion of his
coronation he had girded on the sabre consecrated at the tomb
of the founder of the Safawid — thus openly pledging himself
to support the Shi'ite faith.

But there had been continual dissatisfaction in the capital
of Khorasan, and constant inroads upon it from without, which
the royal puppet was unable to prevent. His popularity was
real, but never seemed to have effect outside the limited sphere
of personal sympathy and regard. Owing to the frequent
revolutions in the holy city the generals of Timur Shah, king of
the Afghans, had made three expeditions on Shah Rukh's behalf.
Meshed had been taken and retaken as though he were not a
resident in it, much less its dejure king. Moreover, his two sons
Nadir Mirza and Wali Ni'amat had long been fighting, and the
former was in 1796 the actual ruler of the place. Three years
before Timur had died, and his third son, Zaman Shah, by the
intrigues of an influential sirdar, Paiyanda Khan, and been
proclaimed his successor at Kabul.

Aga Mahommed's entry into Meshed was effected without a
struggle on the part of those in possession. The Kajar shah
walked on foot to the tomb of Imam Riza, before which he knelt
and kissed the ground in token of devotion, and was recognized
as a Shi'ite of Shi'ites. Shah Rukh submissively followed in his
train. Then began the last act of the local tragedy. The
blind king's gradual revelation, under horrible torture, of the
place of concealment of his several jewels and treasures, and his
deportation and death (of the injuries thus received, at Damghan,'
en route to Mazandaran), must be classed among the darkest
records of Oriental history.

From Meshed Aga Mahommed sent an envoy to Zaman Shah,
asking for the cession of Balkh, and explaining his invasion of
Khorasan; but the Afghan monarch was too perplexed with the
troubles in his own country and his own insecure position to
do more than send an unmeaning reply. It is not shown what
was the understood boundary between the two countries at
this particular period; but Watson states that on the shah's
departure he had received the submission of the whole of
Khorasan, and left in Meshed a garrison of 12,000 men.

Aga Mahommed had now fairly established his capital at
Teheran. On his return thither in September 1796 he dismissed
Death and ms troops for the winter, directing their reassembly
Character in the following spring. The re-invasion by Russia
of Aga of the provinces and districts he had recently

Mahommed. wre sted from her west of the Caspian had made
great progress, but the circumstance does not seem to have
changed his plans for the army. Although, when the spring
arrived and the shah led his forces to the Aras, the Russians
had, it is true, retreated, yet territory had been regained by
them as far south as the Talysh. Aga Mahommed had now
arrived at the close of his career. He was enabled, with some
difficulty, to get his troops across the river, and take possession
of Shusha, which had given them so much trouble a year or
two before. There, in camp, he was murdered (1797) by his
own personal attendants — men who were under sentence of
death, but allowed to be at large. He was then fifty-seven years
of age, and had ruled over part of Persia for more than eighteen
years— over the kingdom generally for about three years, and
from his coronation for about one year only.

The brutal treatment he had experienced in boyhood under
the orders of ' Adil Shah, and the opprobrious name of " eunuch "
with which he was taunted by his enemies, no doubt contributed
to embitter his nature. His contempt of luxury, his avoidance
of hyperbole and dislike of excessive ceremony, his protection
to commerce and consideration for his soldiers, the reluctance
with which he assumed the crown almost at the close of his
reign — all these would have been praiseworthy in another man;
but on his death the memory of his atrocious tyranny alone
survived. Those who have seen his portrait once will recognize

FatbAtt
Shah.

the face wherever presented. " Beardless and shrivelled, "
writes Sir John Malcolm, " it resembled that of an aged and
wrinkled woman, and the expression of his countenance, at no
time pleasant, was horrible when clouded, as it very often was,
with indignation. He was sensible of this, and could not bear
that any one should look at him."

Aga Mahommed had made up his mind that he should be
succeeded by his nephew Fath 'Ali Shah, son of his full brother,
Hosain Kuli Khan, governor of Fars. There was
a short interval of confusion after the murder. The
remains of the sovereign were exposed to insult, the
army was disturbed, the recently captured fort on the left bank
of the Aras was abandoned; but the wisdom and resolution
of the minister, Hajji Ibrahim, and of Mirza Mahommed Khan
Kajar secured order and acceptance of the duly appointed
heir. The first, proclaiming his own allegiance, put himself at
the head of a large body of troops and marched towards the
capital. The second closed the gates of Teheran to all comers
until Fath 'Ali Shah came himself from Shiraz. Though instantly
proclaimed on arrival, the new monarch was not crowned until
the spring of tlje following year (1798).

The so-called rebellions which followed were many, but not
of any magnitude. Such as belong to local history are three
in number, i.e. that of Sadik Khan Shakaki, the
general whose possession of the crown jewels enabled
him, after the defeat of his army at Kazvin, to secure
his personal safety and obtain a government; of Hosain Kuli
Kha^ the shah's brother, which was compromised by the
mother's intervention; and of Mahommed, son of Zaki Khan,
Zend, who was defeated on more than one occasion in battle,
and fled into Turkish territory. Later, Sadik Khan, having
again incurred the royal displeasure, was seized, confined and
mercilessly bricked up in his dungeon to die of starvation.

Another adversary presented himself in the person of Nadir
Mirza, son of Shah Rukh, who, when Aga Mahommed appeared
before Meshed, had taken refuge with the Afghans. Fath 'Ali
sent to warn him of the consequences, but without the desired
effect. Finally, he advanced into Khorasan with an army
which appears to have met with no opposition save at Nishapur
and Turbet, both of which places were taken, and when it reached
Meshed, Nadir Mirza tendered his submission, which was
accepted. Peace having been further cemented by an alliance
between a Kajar general and the prince's daughter, the shah
returned to Teheran.

Now that the narrative of Persian kings has been brought up to
the period of the consolidation of the Kajar dynasty and commence-
ment of the 19th century, there remains but to summarize the
principal events in the reigns of Fath 'Ali Shah and his immediate
successors, Mahommed Shah and Nasru 'd-Din Shah.

Fath 'Ali Shah came to the throne at about thirty-two years
of age, and died at sixty-eight, after a reign of thirty-six years.
Persia's great aim was to recover in the north-west, as in the north-
east of her empire, the geographical limits obtained for her by the
Safawid kings; and this was no easy matter when she had to con-
tend with a strong European power whose territorial limits touched
her own. Fath 'Ali Shah undertook, at the outset of „, ...
his reign, a contest with Russia on the western side of „ ."'
the Caspian, which became constant and harassing Kuss "'
warfare. Georgia was, clearly, not to revert to a Mahom-
medan suzerain. In 1800 its tsar, George, son and successor
of Heraclius, notwithstanding his former professions of allegiance
to the shah, renounced his crown in favour of the Russian emperor.
His brother Alexander indignantly repudiated the act and resisted
its fulfilment, but he was defeated by General Lazerov on the banks
of the Lora. Persia then re-entered the field. Among the more
notable occurrences which followed were a three days' battle,
fought near Echmiadzin, between the crown prince, 'Abbas Mirza,
and General Zizianov, in which the Persians suffered much from the
enemy's artillery, but would not admit they were defeated; un-
successful attempts on the part of the Russian commander to get
possession of Erivan; and a surprise, in camp, of the shah's forces,
which caused them to disperse, and necessitated the king's own
presence with reinforcements. On the latter occasion the shah is
credited with gallantly swimming his horse across the Aras, and
setting an example of energy and valour. In the following year
'Abbas Mirza advanced upon Shishah, the chief of which place
and of the Karabagh had declared for Russia; much fighting en-
sued, and Erivan was formally taken possession of in the name of

I73&-I884]

PERSIA

239

the shah. The Russians, moreover, made a futile attempt on Gilan
by landing troops at Enzeli, which returned to Baku, where Zizianov
fell a victim to the treachery of the Persian governor. Somewhat
later Ibrahim Khalil of Shusha, repenting of his Russophilism,
determined to deliver up the Muscovite garrison at that place, but
his plans were betrayed, and he and his relatives put to death.
Reprisals and engagements followed with varied success; and the
crown prince of Persia, after a demonstration in Shirvan, returned
to Tabriz. He had practically made no progress; yet Russia, in
securing possession of Derbent, Baku, Shirvan, Sheki, Gania, the
Talysh and Mugan, was probably indebted to gold as well as to
the force of arms. At the same time Persia would not listen to
the overtures of peace made to her by the governor-general who
had succeeded Zizianov.

Relations had now commenced with England and British India.
A certain Mahdi 'Ali Khan had landed at Bushire, entrusted by
_ . the governor of Bombay with a letter to the shah, and

Hh f" ^ e was f°ll° we d shortly by an English envoy from the
T ^ r^ti governor-general, Captain Malcolm of the Madras
Jc army. He had not only to talk about the Afghans

an ranee. j jut a b, out tne p renc h, and the trade of the Persian
Gulf. The results were a political and commercial treaty,
and a return mission to India from Fath 'Ali Shah. To him
France next sent her message. In 1801 an Armenian merchant
from Bagdad had appeared as the bearer of credentials from
Napoleon, but his mission was mistrusted and came to nothing.
Some five years afterwards Jaubert, after detention and imprison-
ment on the road, arrived at Teheran and went back to Europe
with a duly accredited Persian ambassador, who concluded a treaty
with the French emperor at Finkenstein. On the return of the
Persian diplomatist, a mission of many officers under General
Gardane to instruct and drill the local army was sent from France
to Persia. Hence arose the counter-mission of Sir Harford Jones
from the British government, which, on arrival at Bombay in
April 1808, found that it had been anticipated by a previously
sent mission from the governor-general of India, under Malcolm
again, then holding the rank of brigadier-general.

The home mission, however, proceeded to Bushire, a,nd Malcolm's
return thence to India enabled Sir Harford to move on and reach
the capital in February 1809. A few days before his entry General
Gardane had been dismissed, as the peace of Tilsit debarred
France from aiding the shah against Russia. Sir Harford concluded
a treaty with Persia the month after his arrival at the capital; but
the government of India were not content to leave matters in his
hands : notwithstanding the anomaly of a double mission, Malcolm
was in 1810 again despatched as their own particular envoy. He
brought with him Captains Lindsay and Christie to assist the Persians
in the war, and presented the shah with some serviceable field-
pieces ; but there was little occasion for the exercise of his diplomatic
ability save in his non-official intercourse with the people, and here
he availed himself of it to the great advantage of himself and his
country. 1 He was welcomed by the shah in camp at Ujani, and
took leave a month afterwards to return via Bagdad and Basra
to India. The next year Sir Harford Jones was relieved as envoy
by Sir Gore Ouseley.

Meanwhile hostilities had been resumed with Russia, and in
181 2 the British envoy used his good offices for the restoration of
peace, but the endeavour failed. To add to the Persian
Renewal of difficulty, in July of this year a treaty was concluded
Russ an between England and Russia, and this circumstance
' caused the envoy to direct that British officers should

take no further part in Russo-Persian military operations. Christie
and Lindsay, however, resolved to remain at their own risk, and
advanced with the Persian army to the Aras. On the 31st of
October the force was surprised by an attack of the enemy, and
retreated; the next night they were again attacked and routed at
Aslanduz. Christie fell bravely fighting at the head of his brigade ;
Lindsay saved two of his nine guns ; but neither of the two English-
men was responsible for the disaster. Lenkoran was taken by
Persia, but retaken by Russia during the next three months; and
on the 13th of October 1813, through Sir Gore Ouseley's interven-
tion, the Treaty of Gulistan put an end to the war. Persia formally
ceded Georgia and the seven provinces before named, with Karabakh.
On the death of the emperor Alexander in December 1825 Prince
Menshikov was sent to Teheran to settle a dispute which had arisen
between the two governments regarding the prescribed frontier.
But, as the claim of Persia to a particular district then occupied
by Russia could not be admitted, the special envoy was given
his conge, and war was recommenced. The chief of Talysh struck
the first blow, and drove the enemy from Lenkoran. The Persians
then carried all before them ; and the hereditary chiefs of Shirvan,
Sheki and Baku returned from exile to co-operate with the shah's
general in the south. In the course of three weeks the only

'The " wakilu '1-mulk," governor of Kerman, told Colonel
Goldsmid, when his guest in 1866, that " his father had been Sir
John Malcolm's Mihmandar. There never was such a man as
Malcolm Sahib.' Not only was he generous on the part of his
government, but with his own money also." — (Telegraph and Travel,
P- 585O

advanced post held by the governor-general of the Caucasus was
the obstinate little fortress of Shusha. But before long all wa#
again changed. Hearing that a Russian force of some 9000 men
was concentrated at Tiflis, Mahommed Mirza, son of the crown
prince, advanced to meet them on the banks of the Zezam. He
was defeated ; and his father was routed more seriously still at
Ganja. The shah made great efforts to renew the war; but divisions
took place in his son's camp, not conducive to successful operations,
and new proposals of peace were made. But Russia demanded
Erivan and Nakhichevan as well as the cost of the war; and in
1827 the campaign was reopened. Briefly, after successive gains
and losses, not only Erivan was taken from Persia but Tabriz also,
and finally, through the intervention of Sir John Macdonald, the
English envoy, a new treaty was concluded at Turkmanchai, laying
down the boundary between Russia and Persia. Among the hard
conditions for the latter country were the cession in perpetuity of
the khanates of Erivan and Nakhichevan, the inability to have
an armed vessel in the Caspian, and the payment of a war indemnity
of some £3,000,000.

After Russia, the neighbouring state next in importance to the
well-being of Persia was Turkey, with whom she was united on the
west by a common line of frontier. Selim had not w arw ith
scrupled, in 1804 and 1805, to allow the Russians to _. .
make free use of the south-eastern coasts of the Black y '

Sea, to facilitate operations against the shah's troops; and there
had been a passage of arms between the king's eldest son, Mahommed
'Ali Mirza, and Suleiman Pasha, son-in-law of the governor-general
of Bagdad, which is locally credited as a battle won by the former.
But there was no open rupture between the two sovereigns until
1 82 1, when the frontier disputes and complaints of Persian travellers,
merchants and pilgrims culminated in a declaration of war. This
made 'Abbas Mirza at once seize upon the fortified places of Toprak
Kal'ah and Ak Sarai within the limits of the Ottoman Empire, and,
overcoming the insufficient force sent against him, he was further
enabled to extend his inroads to Mush, Bitlis, and other known
localities. The Turkish government retaliated by a counter-
invasion of the Persian frontier on the south. At that time the
Pasha of Bagdad was in command of the troops. He was defeated
by Mahommed "Ali Mirza, then prince-governor of Kermanshah,
who drove his adversary back towards his capital and advanced to
its immediate environs. Being attacked with cholera, however,
the Persian commander recrossed the frontier, but only to succumb
to the disease in the pass of Kirind. In the sequel a kind of
desultory warfare appears to have been prosecuted on the Persian
side of Kurdistan, and the shah himself came down with an army to
Hamadan. Cholera broke out in the royal camp and caused the
troops to disperse.

In the north the progress of 'Abbas Mirza was stopped at Bayazid
by a like deadly visitation; and a suspension of hostilities was
agreed upon for the winter season. At the expiration of four months
the sirdar of Erivan took possession of a Turkish military station
on the road to Erzerum, and the crown prince marched upon that
city at the head of 30,000 men. The Ottoman army which met
him is said to have numbered some 52,000; but victory was
on the side of their opponents. Whether the result was owing to
the defection of 15,000 Kurds or not the evidence adduced is in-
sufficient to decide. In the English records of the period it is stated
that the defeat of the Turks was complete.

Profiting from this victory, 'Abbas Mirza repeated an offer of
peace before made without avail to the pasha of Erzerum; and, in
order to conciliate him more effectually, he retired within the old
limits of the dominions of the shah, his father. But more troubles
arose at Bagdad, and other reasons intervened to protract negotia-
tions for a year and a half. At length, in July 1823, the Treaty of
Erzerum closed the war between Turkey and Persia. It provided
especially against a recurrence of the proved causes of war, such
as extorting taxes from Persian travellers or pilgrims, disrespect
to the ladies of the royal harem and other ladies of rank proceeding
to Mecca or Karbala (Kerbela), irregular levies of custom-duties,
non-punishment of Kurdish depredators transgressing the boundary,
and the like.

With respect to the eastern boundaries of his kingdom, Fath
'Ali Shah was fortunate in having to deal with a less dangerous
neighbour than the Muscovite of persistent policy and The At ban
the Turk of precarious friendship. The Afghan, though _ „*
equal to the Persian in physical force and prowess, was s ° "
his inferior in worldly knowledge and experience. Moreover, the
family divisions among the ruling houses of Afghanistan grew
from day to day more destructive to that patriotism and sense of
nationality which Ahmad Shah had held out to his countrymen as
the sole specifics for becoming a strong people.

The revolt of Nadir Mirza had, as before explained, drawn the
shah's attention to Khorasan in the early part of his reign; but,
although quiet had for the moment been restored at Meshed by
the presence of the royal camp, fresh grounds of complaint were
urged against the rash but powerless prince, and recourse was had
to extreme measures. Charged with the murder of a holy saiyid,
his hands were cut off and his tongue was plucked out, as part of
the horrible punishment inflicted on him. It does not appear that
Nadir Mirza's cause was ever seriously espoused by the Afghans,

240

PERSIA

[1736-1884

nor that Fath 'AH Shah's claim to Meshed, as belonging to the
Persian crown, was actively resisted. But the large Province of
Khorasan, of which Meshed was the capital, had never been other
than a nominal dependency of the crown since the death of Nadir;
and in the autumn of 1830 the shah, under Russian advice, as-
sembled a large force to bring into subjection all turbulent and
refractory chiefs on the east of his kingdom. Yezd and Kerman
were the first points of attack ; Khorasan was afterwards entered
by Samnan, or the main road from Teheran. The expedition, led
by 'Abbas Mirza, involved some hard fighting and much loss of
life; several forts and places were captured, among them Kuchan
and Serrakhs; and it may be concluded that the objects contem-
plated were more or less attained. An English officer, Colonel
Shee, commanded what was called the " British detachment "
which accompanied the prince. Thus far as regards Yezd, Kerman
and Khorasan. It was otherwise with Herat.

Hajji Firuzu'd-Din, son of Timur Shah, reigned undisturbed in
that city from 1800 to 1816. Since Fath 'Ali Shah's accession he
and his brother Mahmud had been, as it were, under Persian pro-
tection. Persia claimed the principality of Herat as part of the
empire of Nadir, but her pretensions had been satisfied by payments
of tribute or evasive replies. Now, however, that she marched her
army against the place, Firuzu 'd-Din called in the aid of his brother
Mahmud Shah of Kabul, who sent to him the famous vizier, Fath
Khan Barakzai. The latter, intriguing on his own account, got
possession of the town and citadel; he then sallied forth, engaged
the Persian forces, and forced them to retire into their own country.
In 1824, on a solicitation from Mustafa Khan, who had got temporary
hold of Herat, more troops were despatched thither, but, by the
use of money or bribes, their departure was purchased. Some
eight or nine years afterwards 'Abbas Mirza, when at the head of
his army in Meshed, invited Yar Mahommed Khan of Herat to
discuss a settlement of differences between the two governments.
The meeting was unproductive of good. Again the Persian troops
advanced to Herat itself under the command of Mahommed Mirza,
son of Abbas; but the news of his father's death caused the com-
mander to break up his camp and return to Meshed.

Sir Gore Ouseley returned to England in 1814, in which year
Mr Ellis, assisted by Mr Morier — whose " Hajji Baba " is the un-
failing proof of his ability and deep knowledge of Persian character
— negotiated on the part of Great Britain the Treaty of Teheran.
England was to provide troops or a subsidy in the event of unpro-
voked invasion, while Persia was to attack the Afghans should
they invade India. Captain Willock succeeded Morier as charg6
d'affaires in 1815, and since that period Great Britain has always
been represented at the Persian court. It was in Fath 'Ali Shah's
reign that Henry Martyn was in Persia, and completed his able
translation of the New Testament into the language of that country.
Little more remains to be here narrated of the days of Fath 'Ali
Shah. Among the remarkable occurrences may be noted the murder
at Teheran in 1828 of M. Grebayadov, the Russian envoy, whose
conduct in forcibly retaining two women of Erivan provoked the
interference of the mullas and people. To repair the evil con-
sequences of this act a conciliatory embassy, consisting of a young
son of the crown prince and some high officers of the state, was
despatched to St Petersburg. Shortly afterwards the alliance
with Russia was strengthened, and that with England slackened
in proportion.

Fath 'Ali Shah had a numerous family. Agreeably to the Persian
custom, asserted by his predecessors, of nominating the heir-apparent
from the sons of the sovereign without restriction to seniority, he
had passed over the eldest, Mahommed 'AH, in favour of a junior,
'Abbas; but, as the nominee died in the lifetime of his father, the
old king had proclaimed Mahommed Mirza, the son of 'Abbas, and
his own grandson, to be his successor. Why a younger son had
been originally selected, to the prejudice of his elder brother, is
differently stated by different writers. The true reason was probably
the superior rank of his mother.

Mahommed Shah was twenty-eight years old when he came to
the throne in 1 834. He died at the age of forty-two, after a reign
M h d °^ aDout thirteen and a half years. His accession was

Stab"""* not P UD '' c ly notified for some months after his grand-
father's death, for it was necessary to clear the way of
all competitors, and there were two on this occasion — one 'Ali
Mirza, governor of Teheran, who actually assumed a royal title,
and one Hasan 'Ali Mirza, governor of Shiraz. Owing to the steps
taken by the British envoy, Sir John Campbell, assisted by Colonel
Bethune, at the head of a considerable force, supplied with artillery,
the opposition of the first was neutralized, and Mahommed Shah,
entering Teheran on the 2nd of January, was proclaimed king on
the 31st cf the same month. It cost more time and trouble to
bring the second to book. Hasan 'AH, " farman-farma," or com-
mander-in-chief, and his brother and abettor, had an army at their
disposal in Fars. Sir Henry Lindsay Bethune marched his soldiers
to Isfahan to be ready to meet them. An engagement which took
place near Kumishah, on the road between Isfahan and Shiraz,
having been successful, the English commander pushed on to the
latter town, where the two rebel princes were seized and imprisoned.
Forwarded under escort to Teheran, they were, according to Watson,
ordered to be sent on thence as state prisoners to Ardebil, but the

farman-farma died on the way, and his brother was blinded before
incarceration. Markham, however, states that both 'AH Mirza
and Hasan 'AH were allowed to retire with a small pension, and that
no atrocities stained the beginning of the reign of Mahommed Shah.
It is presumed that the fate of the prime minister or " kaim-makam,"
who was strangled in prison, was no more than an ordinary execution
of the law. This event, and the prevalence of plague and cholera
at Teheran, marked somewhat gloomily the new monarch's first
year.

The selection of a premier was one of the first weighty questions
for solution. A member of the royal family, the " asafu 'd-daula,"
governor of Khorasan, left his government to urge his candidature
for the post. The king's choice, however, fell on Hajji Mirza
Aghasi, a native of Erivan, who in former years, as tutor to the
sons of 'Abbas Mirza, had gained a certain reputation for learning
and a smattering of the occult sciences, but whose qualifications
for statesmanship were craftiness and suspicion. As might have
been anticipated, the hajji fell into the hands of Russia, represented
by Count Simonich, who urged him to a fresh expedition into
Khorasan and the siege of Herat. There was no doubt
a plausible pretext for both proposals. The chiefs, Bx P^ al « on
reduced to temporary submission by 'Abbas Mirza, had a ^ aln f t
again revolted; and Shah Kamran, supported by his " era •
vizier, Yar Mahommed, had broken those engagements and pledges
on the strength of which Fath 'AH Shah had withdrawn his troops.
In addition to these causes of offence he had appropriated the
province of Seistan, over which Persia had long professed to hold
the rights of suzerainty. But the king's ambition was to go farther
than retaliation or chastisement. He refused to acknowledge any
right to separate government whatever on the part of the Afghans,
and Kandahar and Ghazni were to be recovered, as belonging to
the empire of the Safawid dynasty. The advice of the British
envoy was dissuasive in this respect, and therefore distasteful.

Sir John Campbell, in less than a year after the sovereign's
installation, went home, and was succeeded as British envoy by
Henry Ellis. The change in personnel signified also a transfer of
superintendence of the Persian legation, which passed from the
government in India to the authorities in England. The expedi-
tion was to commence with a campaign against the Turcomans —
Herat being its later destination. Such counter-proposals as Ellis
had suggested for consideration had been politely put aside, and
the case was now more than ever complicated by the action of the
Barakzai chiefs of Kandahar, who had sent a mission to Teheran to
offer assistance against their Saduzai rival at Herat. Fresh provo-
cation had, moreover, been given to the shah's government by the
rash and incapable Kamran.

About the close of the summer the force moved from Teheran.
The royal camp was near Astarabad in November 1836. Food was
scarce : barley sold for ten times the usual price, and wheat was not
procurable for any money. The troops were dissatisfied, and, being
kept without pay and on short rations, took to plundering. There
had been operations on the banks of the Gurgan, and the Turcomans
had been driven from one of their strongholds; but little or no pro-
gress had been made in the subjection of these marauders, and the
Heratis had sent word that all they could do was to pay tribute,
and, if that were insufficient, the shah had better march to Herat.
A military council was held at Shahrud, when it was decided to
return to the capital and set out again in the spring. Accordingly
the troops dispersed, and the sovereign's presence at Teheran was
taken advantage of by the British minister to renew his attempts
in the cause of peace. Although on the present occasion Simonich
ostensibly aided the British charge 1 d'affaires M'Neill, who had
succeeded Ellis in 1836, no argument was of any avail to divert
the monarch from his purpose. He again set out in the summer,
and, invading the Herat territory in November 1837, began the
siege on the 23rd of that month.

Not until September in the following year did the Persian army
withdraw from before the walls of the city; and then the move-
ment only took place on the action of the British govern- „. -
ment. M'Neill, who had joined the Persian camp on H»£f<°
the 6th of April, left it again on the 7th of June. He
had done all in his power to effect a reasonable agreement between
the contending parties; but both in this respect and in the matter of
a commercial treaty with England, then under negotiation, his
efforts had been met with evasion and latent hostility. The
Russian envoy, who had appeared among the tents of the besieging
army almost simultaneously with his English colleague, no sooner
found himself alone in his diplomacy than he resumed his aggressive
counsels, and little more than a fortnight had elapsed since M'Neill's
departure when a vigorous assault, planned, it is asserted, by
Simonich himself, was made upon Herat. The Persians attacked
at five points, at one of which they would in all likelihood have been
successful had not the Afghans been aided by Eldred Pottinger, a
young Englishman, who with the science of an artillery officer
combined a courage and determination which inevitably influenced
his subordinates. Still the garrison was disheartened; but Colonel
Stoddart's arrival on the nth of August to threaten the shah with
British intervention put a stop to further action. Colonel Stoddart's
refusal to allow any but British mediators to decide the pending
dispute won the day; and that officer was able to report that on

1 736- 1 884]

PERSIA

241

the 9th of September Mahommed Shah had " mounted his horse "
and gone from before the walls of the beleaguered city.

The siege of Herat, which lasted for nearly ten months, was the
great event in the reign of Mahommed Shah. The British expedition
in support of Shah Shuj'a, which may be called its natural conse-
quence, involves a question foreign to the present narrative.

The remainder of the king's reign was marked by new difficulties
with the British government; the rebellion of Aga Khan Mahlati
otherwise known as the chief of the Assassins; a new rupture with
Turkey; the banishment of the asafu'd-daula, governor of Khorasan,
followed by the insurrection and defeat of his son; and the rise of
Babiism iq-v.). The first of these only calls for any detailed account.
In the demands of the British Government was included the
cession by Persia of places such as Farah and Sabzewar, which had
been taken during the war from the Afghans, as well
if!" 1 y as reparation for the violence offered to the courier of
p . . the British legation. M'Neill gave a certain time for
hag ana. decision, at the end of which, no satisfactory reply
having reached him, he broke off diplomatic relations, ordered the
British officers lent to the shah to proceed towards Bagdad en route
to India, and retired to Erzerum with the members of his mission.
On the Persian side, charges were made against M'Neill, and a
special envoy was sent to England to support them. An endeavour
was at the same time made to interest the cabinets of Europe in
influencing the British government on behalf of Persia. The
envoy managed to obtain an interview with the minister of foreign
affairs in London, who, in July 1839, supplied him with a statement,
fuller than before, of all English demands upon his country. Con-
siderable delay ensued, but the outcome of the whole proceedings
was not only acceptance but fulfilment of all the engagements
contracted. In the meantime the island of Kharak had been taken
possession of by an expedition from India.

On the nth of October 1841 a new mission arrived at Teheran
from London, under John (afterwards Sir John) M'Neill, to renew
diplomatic relations. It was most cordially received by the shah,
and as one of its immediate results, Kharak was evacuated by the
British-Indian troops.

There had been a long diplomatic correspondence in Europe on
the proceedings of Count Simonich and other Russian officers at
Herat. Among the papers is a very important letter from Count
Nesselrode to Count Pozzo di Borgo in which Russia declares herself
to be the first to counsel the shah to acquiesce in the demand made
upon him, because she found " justice on the side of England " and
" wrong on the side of Persia." She withdrew her agent from
Kandahar and would " not have with the Afghans any relations
but those of commerce, and in no wise any political interests."

Aga Khan's rebellion was fostered by the defection to his cause
of a large portion of the force sent against him; but he yielded at
last to the local authorities of Kerman and fled the province and
country. He afterwards resided many years at Bombay, where,
while maintaining among natives a quasi-spiritual character, he was
better known among Europeans for his doings on the turf.

The quarrel with Turkey was generally about frontier relations.
Eventually the matter was referred to an Anglo-Russian commission,
of which Colonel Williams (afterwards Sir Fenwick Williams of Kars)
was president. A massacre of Persians at Kerbela might have
seriously complicated the dispute, but, after a first burst of indigna-
tion and call for vengeance, an expression of the regret of the
Ottoman government was accepted as a sufficient apology for the
occurrence.

The rebellion of the asafu 'd-daula, maternal uncle of the shah,
was punished by exile, while his son, after giving trouble to his
opponents, and once gaining a victory over them, took shelter with
the Turcomans.

Before closing the reign of Mahommed Shah note should be taken
of a prohibition to import African slaves into Persia, and a com-
mercial treaty with England — recorded by Watson as gratifying
achievements of the period by British diplomatists. The French
missions in which occur the names of MM. de Lavalette and de
Sartiges were notable in their way, but somewhat barren of results.
In the autumn of 1848 the shah was seized with the malady,
or combination of maladies, which caused his death. Gout and
ervsipelas had, it is said, 1 ruined his constitution, and he died at
his palace in Shimran on the 4th of September. He was buried at
Kum, where is situated the shrine of Fatima, daughter of Imam
Riza, by the side of his grandfather, Fath 'AH, and other_ kings
of Persia. In person he is described as short and fat, with an
aquiline nose and agreeable countenance. 2

On the occasion of his father's death, Nasru 'd-Din Mirza, who
had been proclaimed wali 'ahd, or heir apparent, some years before,
was absent at Tabriz, the headquarters of his province of
Azerbaijan. Colonel Farrant, then charge d affaires on
the part of the British government, in the absence of
Colonel Sheil, who had succeeded Sir John M'Neill, had,
in anticipation of the shah's decease and consequent trouble, sent
a messenger to summon him instantly to Teheran. The British
officer, moreover, associated himself with Prince Dolgoruki, the
representative of Russia, to secure the young prince's accession.

Nasru
'd-DIo
Shah.

1 Watson.

2 Markham.

The queen-mother, as president of the council, showed much
judgment and capacity in conciliating adverse parties. But the
six or seven weeks which passed between the death of the one king
and the coronation of the other proved a disturbed interval, and full
of stirring incident. The old minister, Hajji Mirza Aghasi, shut
himself up in the royal palace with 1200 followers, and had to take
refuge in the sanctuary of Shah Abdul-'Azim near Teheran. On
the other hand Mirza Aga Khan, a partisan of the asafu 'd-daula,
and himself an ex-minister of war, whom the hajji had caused to be
banished, was welcomed back to the capital. At Isafahan, Shiraz
and Kerman serious riots took place, which were with difficulty
suppressed. While revolution prevailed in the city, robbery was
rife in the province of Yezd; and from Kazvin the son of 'Ali Mirza
otherwise called the " zillu's-sultan," the prince-governor of Teheran,
who disputed the succession of Mahommed Shah, came forth to
contest the crown with his cousin, the heir-apparent. The last-
named incident soon came to an inglorious termination for its hero.
But a more serious revolt was in full force at Meshed when, on the
20th of October 1848, the young shah entered his capital and was
crowned at midnight king of Persia.

The chief events in the long reign of Nasru 'd-Din, fall under
four heads: (1) the insurrection in Khorasan, (2) the insurrection
of the Babis, (3) the fall of the amiru 'n-nizam, and (4) the war with
England.

It has been stated that the asafu 'd-daula was a competitor
with Hajji Mirza Aghasi for the post of premier in the cabinet of
Mahommed Shah, that he was afterwards, in the same
reign, exiled for rising in rebellion, and that his son, *l sttl * ec '
the salar, took shelter with the Turcomans. Some jchar&san
four months prior to the Mahommed Shah's decease
the latter chief had reappeared in arms against his authority; he
had gained possession of Meshed itself, driving the prince-governor,
Hamza Mirza, into the citadel ; and so firm was his attitude that
Yar Mahommed of Herat, who had come to help the government
officials, had retired after a fruitless co-operation, drawing away
the prince-governor also. The salar now defied Murad Mirza,
Nasru 'd-Din's uncle, who was besieging the city. In April 1850,
after a siege of more than eighteen months, fortune turned against
the bold insurgent, and negotiations were opened for the surrender
of the town and citadel. Treachery may have had to do with the
result, for when the shah's troops entered the holy city the salar
sought refuge in the mosque of Imam Riza, and was forcibly expelled.
He and his brother were seized and put to death, the instrument
used being, according to Watson, " the bowstring of Eastern story."
The conqueror of Meshed, Murad Mirza, became afterwards himself
the prince-governor of Khorasan.

In the article on Babiism, the facts as to the life of the Bab, Mirza
Ali Mahommed of Shiraz, and the progress of the Babiist movement,
are separately noticed. The Bab himself was executed „
in 1850, but only after serious trouble over the new Babiism.
religious propaganda; and his followers kept up the revolutionary
propaganda.

In the summer of 1852 the shah was attacked, while riding in
the vicinity of Teheran, by four Babis, one of whom fired a pistol
and slightly wounded him. The man was killed, and two others
were captured by the royal attendants; the fourth jumped down
a well. The existence of a conspiracy was then discovered in
which some forty persons were implicated ; and ten of the con-
spirators were put to death — some under cruel torture.

Mirza Taki, the amiru 'n-nizam (vulgarly amir nizam), or com-
mander-in-chief, was a good specimen of the self-made man of
Persia. He was the son of a cook of Bahram Mirza, Mahommed
Shah's brother, and he had filled high and important „ ..
offices of state and amassed much wealth when he was J? °
made by the young shah Nasru 'd-Din, on his accession, raa a
both his brother-in-law and his prime-minister. The choice was an
admirable one; he was honest, hard-working, and liberal according
to his lights; and the services of a loyal and capable adviser were
secured for the new regime. Unfortunately, he did not boast the
confidence of the queen-mother; and this circumstance greatly
strengthened the hands of those enemies whom an honest minister
must ever raise around him in a corrupt Oriental state. For a
time the shah closed his eyes to the accusations and insinuations
against him ; but at last he fell under the evil influence of designing
counsellors, and acts which should have redounded to the minister's
credit became the charges on which he lost his office and his life.
He was credited with an intention to grasp in his own hands the
royal power; his influence over the army was cited as a cause of
danger; and on the night of the 13th of November 1851 he was
summoned to the palace and informed that he was no longer premier.
Mirza Aga Khan, the " 'itimadu 'd-daulah," was named to succeed
him, and had been accordingly raised to the dignity of " sadr'azim."
As the hostile faction pressed the necessity of the ex-minister's
removal from the capital ; he was offered the choice of the govern-
ment of Fars, Isfahan or Kum. He declined all; but, through
the mediation of Colonel Sheil, he was afterwards offered and accepted
Kashan. Forty days after his departure an order for his execution
was signed, but he anticipated his fate by committing suicide.

When England was engaged in the Crimean War of 1854-55 her
1 alliance with a Mahommedan power in no way added to her

242

PERSIA

[1884-1901

popularity or strengthened her position in Persia. The Sunnite
Turk was almost a greater enemy to his neighbour the Shi'ite than
the formidable Muscovite, who had curtailed him of
"" p ' ure so large a section of his territory west of the Caspian.
pi a Since Sir John M'Neill's arrival in Teheran in 1841,
England. f orma n y t0 rep air the breach with Mahommed Shah,
there had been little differences, demands and explanations, and these
symptoms had culminated in 1856, the year of the peace with
Russia. As to Afghanistan, the vizier Yar Mahommed had in
1842, when the British troops were perishing in the passes, or
otherwise in the midst of dangers, caused Kamran to be suffocated
in his prison. Since that event he had himself reigned supreme in
Herat, and, dying in 185 1, was succeeded by his son Sa 'id Mahommed.
This chief soon entered upon a series of intrigues in the Persian
interests, and, among other acts offensive to Great Britain, suffered
one Abbas Kuli, who had, under guise of friendship, betrayed the
cause of the salar at Meshed, to occupy the citadel of Herat, and
again place a detachment of the shah's troops in Ghurian. Colonel
Sheil remonstrated, and obtained a new engagement of non-
interference with Herat from the Persian government, as well as
the recall of Abbas Kuli. In September 1855 Mahommed Yusuf
Saduzai seized upon Herat, putting Sa'id Mahommed to death
with some of his followers who were supposed accomplices in the
murder of his uncle Kamran. About this time Kohan Dil Khan,
one of the chiefs of Kandahar, died, and Dost Mahommed of Kabul
annexed the city to his territory. Some relations of the deceased
chief made their escape to Teheran, and the shah, listening to their
complaint, directed the prince-governor of Meshed to march across
to the eastern frontier and occupy Herat, declaring that an invasion
of Persia was imminent. Negotiations were useless, and on the 1st
of November 1856 war against Persia was declared.

In less than three weeks after its issue by proclamation of the
governor-general of India, the Sind division of the field force left
Karachi. On the 13th of January following the Bombay govern-
ment orders notified the formation of a second division under
Lieut. -General Sir James Outram. Before the general arrived
the island of Kharak and port of Bushire had both been occupied,
and the fort of Rishir had been attacked and carried. After
the general's arrival the march upon Borazjan and the engage-
ment at Khushab — two places on the road to Shiraz — and the
operations at Muhamrah and the Karun River decided the cam-
paign in favour of England. On the 5th of April, at Muhamrah,
Sir James Outram received the news that the treaty of peace had
been signed in Paris, where Lord Cowley and Farrukh Khan had
conducted the negotiations. The stipulations regarding Herat were
much as before ; but there were to be apologies made to the mission
for past insolence and rudeness, and the slave trade was to be sup-
pressed in the Persian Gulf. With the exception of a small force
retained at Bushire under General John Jacob for the three months
assigned for execution of the ratifications and giving effect to certain
stipulations of the treaty with regard to Afghanistan, the British
troops returned to India, where their presence was greatly needed,
owing to the outbreak of the Mutiny.

The question of constructing a telegraph in Persia as a link in
the overland line to connect England with India was broached in
Teheran by Colonel Patrick Stewart and Captain
Anglo- Champain, officers of engineers, in 1862, and an agree-
' D< " a f I j ment on the subject concluded by Edward Eastwick,
graph Line. wnen cnar ge d'affaires, at the close of that year. Three
years later a more formal convention, including a second wire, was
signed by the British envoy Charles Alison and the Persian foreign
minister; meantime the work had been actively carried on, and
communication opened on the one side between Bushire and Karachi
and the Makran coast by cable, and on the other between Bushire
and Bagdad via Teheran. The untrustworthy character of the
line through Asiatic Turkey caused a subsequent change of direction ;
and an alternative line — the Indo-European — from London to
Teheran, through Russia and along the eastern shores of the Black
Sea, was constructed, and has worked well since 1872, in conjunction
with the Persian land telegraph system and the Bushire-Karachi
line.

The Seistan mission, under Major-General (afterwards Sir Fred-
eric) Goldsmid, left England in August 1870, and reached Teheran
on the 3rd of October. Thence it proceeded to Isfahan, from which
city it moved to Baluchistan, instead of seeking its original destina-
tion. Difficulties had arisen both in arranging the preliminaries
to arbitration and owing to the disordered state of Afghanistan, and
it was therefore deemed advisable to commence operations by
settling a frontier dispute between Persia and the Kalat state.
Unfortunately, the obstructions thrown in the way of this settle-
ment by the Persian commissioner, the untoward appearance at
Bampur of an unexpected body of Kalatis, and the absence of
definite instructions marred the fulfilment of the programme
sketched out; but a line of boundary was proposed, which was
afterwards accepted by the litigants. In the following year the
same mission, accompanied by the same Persian commissioner,
proceeded to Seistan, where it remained for more than five weeks,
prosecuting its inquiries, until joined by another mission from
India, under Major-General (afterwards Sir Richard) Pollock,
accompanying the Afghan commissioner. Complications then

ensued by the determined refusal of the two native officials to meet
in conference; and the arbitrator had no course available but to
take advantage of the notes already obtained on the spot, and
return with them to Teheran, there to deliver his decision. This
was done on the 19th of August 1872. The contending parties
appealed to the British secretary of state for foreign affairs, as
provided by previous understanding; but the decision held good,
and was eventually accepted on both sides.

Nasru 'd-Din Shah, unlike his predecessors, visited Europe —
in 1873 and in 1879. On the first occasion only he extended his
journey to England, and was then attended by his " sadr "azim,"
or prime minister, Mirza Husain Khan, an able and enlightened
adviser, and a Grand Cross of the Star of India. His second visit
was to Russia, Germany, France and Austria, but he did not cross
the Channel. (F. J. G.;X.)

E. — Persia from 1884 to iqoi.
In 1865 the shah had mooted the idea of a Persian naval
flotilla in the Persian Gulf, to consist of two or three steamers
manned by Arabs and commanded by English naval _. c . .
officers; but the idea was discountenanced by the ofthe
British government, to whom it was known that the Persian
project really concealed aggressive designs upon ° utt
the independence of the islands and pearl fisheries of Bah-
rein (Curzon, Persia, ii. 294). Fifteen or sixteen years later
it was repeatedly pointed out to the authorities that the revenues
from the customs of the Persian Gulf would be much increased
if control were exercised at all the ports, particularly the small
ones where smuggling was being carried on on a large scale,
and in 1883 the shah decided upon the acquisition of four or
five steamers, one to be purchased yearly, and instructed the
late 'Ali Kuli Khan, Mukhber ad-daulah, minister of telegraphs,
to obtain designs and estimates from British and German firms.
The tender of a well-known German firm at Bremerhaven was
finally accepted, and one of the minister's sons then residing in
Berlin made the necessary contracts for the first steamer. Sir
Ronald Thomson, the British representative in Persia, having
at the same time induced the shah to consider the advantages
to Persia of opening the Karun River and connecting it with
Teheran by a carriageable road, a small river steamer for con-
trolling the shipping on the Karun was ordered as well, and the
construction of the road was decided upon. Two steamers, the
" Susa " and the " Persepolis," were completed in January 1885
at a cost of £32,000, and despatched with German officers and
crew to the Persian Gulf. When the steamers were ready to
do the work they had been intended for, the farmer, or farmers,
of the Gulf customs raised difficulties and objected to pay the
cost of maintaining the "Persepolis "; the governor of Muham-
rah would not allow any interference with what he considered
his hereditary rights of the shipping monopoly on the Karun,
and the objects for which the steamers had been brought were
not attained. The " Persepolis " remained idle at Bushire,
and the " Susa " was tied up in the Failieh creek, near Muham-
rah. The scheme of opening the Karun and of constructing a
carriageable road from Ahvaz to Teheran. was also abandoned.

Frequent interruptions occurred on the telegraph line between
Teheran and Meshed in 1885, at the time of the " Panjdeh incident,"
when the Russians were advancing towards Afghanistan and Sir
Peter Lumsden was on the Afghan frontier; and Sir Ronald Thomson
concluded an agreement with the Persian government for the line
to be kept in working order by an English inspector, the Indian
government paying a share not exceeding 20,000 rupees per annum
of the cost of maintenance, and an English signaller being stationed
at Meshed. Shortly afterwards Sir Ronald Thomson left Persia
(he died on the 15th of November 1888), and Arthur (afterwards Sir
Arthur) Nicolson was appointed charge d'affaires. During the
latter's tenure of office an agreement was concluded between the
Persian and British governments regarding the British telegraph
settlement at Jask, and the telegraph conventions of 1868 and 1872
relative to telegraphic communication between Europe and India
through Persia, in force until the 1st of January 1895, were pro-
longed until the 31st of January 1905 by two conventions dated
the 3rd of July 1887. Since then these conventions have been
prolonged to 1925.

Ayub Khan, son of Shir Ali (Shere Ali) of Afghanistan, who had
taken refuge in Persia in October 1881, and was kept interned in
Teheran under an agreement, concluded on the 17th of April 1884,
between Great Britain and Persia, with a pension of £8000 per annum
from the British government escaped on the 14th of August 1887.
After a futile attempt to enter Afghan territory and raise a revolt

1884-1901]

PERSIA

against the Amir Abdur Rahman, he gave himself up to the British
consul-general at Meshed in the beginning of November, and was
sent under escort to the Turkish frontier and thence via Bagdad to
India. Yahya Khan, Mushir-ad-daulah, the Persian minister for
foreign affairs (died 1892), who was supposed to have connived at
Ayub Khan's escape in order to please his Russian friends, was
dismissed from office.

In December 1887 Sir Henry Drummond Wolff was appointed
minister to Persia. The appointment greatly pleased the Persian
court, and the shah lent a willing ear to his advocacy for the
development of trade and commerce, construction of roads, abolition
of various restrictions hampering Persian merchants, &c. The
shah soon afterwards (May 26, 1888) issued a proclamation assuring
freedom of life and property to all his subjects, and (Oct. 30)
declared the Karun river open to international navigation up to
Ahvaz. At about the same time he appointed Amin-es-Sultan,
who had been prime-minister since 1884, Grand Vizier (Sadr "azim)
In the same year (June 25) the first railway in Persia, a small line
ot 5i miles from Teheran to Shah-abdul-Azim, was opened under

qo a "|P lces of a Belgian company. A few months later (Jan. 30,
1889) Baron Julius de Reuter — in consideration of giving up the
rights which he held by his concession obtained in 1873 — became
the owner of a concession for the formation of a Persian State
Bank, with exclusive rights of issuing bank-notes and working the
mines of iron, copper, lead, mercury, coal, petroleum, manganese,
borax, and asbestos in Persia. Russia now insisted upon what she
considered a corresponding advantage; and Prince Dolgoruki, the
Russian minister, obtained in February 1889 a document from the
shah which gave to Russia the refusal of any railway concession
in Persia for a period of five years. The Persian State Bank was
established by British royal charter, dated the 2nd of September
1889, and started business in Persia (Oct. 23) as the " Imperial Bank
ol Persia. The railway agreement with Russia was changed in
November 1890 into one interdicting all railways whatsoever in
Persia.

In April 1889 the shah set out upon his third voyage to Europe.
After a visit to the principal courts, including a stay of a month
Shah's m En g land > where he was accompanied by Sir Henry
VisH to D ™mmond Wolff, he returned to his capital (Oct. 20).
Europe, ^ Henry returned to Persia soon afterwards, and in
1889. March of the following year the Persian government

granted another important concession, that of a tobacco
monopoly to British capitalists. In the autumn bad health obliged
the British minister to leave Persia. It was during his stay in England
that the shah, for two or three days without his grand vizier, who was
mourning for the death of his brother, listened to bad advice and
granted a concession for the monopoly of lotteries in Persia to a
Persian subject. The latter ceded the concession to a British
syndicate for £40,000. Very soon afterwards the shah was made
aware of the evil results of this monopoly, and withdrew the con-
cession, but the syndicate did not get the money paid for it returned.
I his unfortunate affair had the effect of greatly discrediting Persia
on the London Stock Exchange for a long time. The concession
tor the tobacco monopoly was taken up by the Imperial Tobacco
Corporation (1891). The corporation encountered opposition
fostered by the clergy and after a serious riot at Teheran (Jan. 4,
1892) the Persian government withdrew the concession and agreed
to pay an indemnity of £500,000 (April 5, 1892). In order to pay
this amount Persia contracted the 6 % lean of £500,000 through
the Imperial Bank of Persia, which was redeemed in 1900 out of
the proceeds of the Russian 5% loan of that year. (For details
oi the tobacco concession and an account of the events which led to
its withdrawal, see E. Lorini, La Persia economica, Rome 1900
PP- 164-169; and Dr Feuvrier, Trois ans d, la cour de Perse, Paris'
1899, ch. v., the latter ascribing the failure of the tobacco monopoly
to Russian intrigue.)

In November 1889 Malcolm Khan, Nizam-ul-Mulk, who had
been Persian representative to the court of Great Britain since
October 1872, was recalled, and Mirza Mahommed 'Ali Khan, consul-
general at Tifhs, was appointed in his stead, arriving in London
the following March. In 1890 the scheme of a carriageable road
from Teheran to Ahvaz was taken up again ; the Imperial Bank of
Persia obtained a concession, and work of construction was begun
in the same year, and continued until 1893. In this year, too the
mining rights of the Imperial Bank of Persia were ceded to' the
Persian Bank Mining Rights Corporation, and a number of engineers
were sent out to Persia. The total absence of easy means of com-
munication, the high rates of transport, and the scarcity of fuel
and water in the mineral districts made profitable operations
impossible, and the corporation liquidated in 1894, after havine
expended a large sum of money.

Great excitement was caused in the summer of 1891 by the report
that an English girl, Kate Greenfield, had been forcibly carried
Kate a T ay ™ r ? n \ her pother's house at Tabriz by a Kurd.

Greenfield A he ? ntlsh authorities demanded the girl's restitu-
Case. " on , . f ™ m L P e Persian government. The Kurd, a

, c \"™ ,s l su °! ec V e ( us ? d to £ ive U P the g' r l. and took

her to Saujbulagh. The Turkish authorities protected him and
serious complications were imminent; but finally an interview
between the girl and the British agent was arranged, and the matter

243

was promptly settled by her declaring that she had left her mother's
house of her own accord, and was the wife of the Kurd. It also
became known that she was the daughter of a British-protected
Hungarian named Griinfeld, who had died some years since, and
an American lady of Tabriz.

Sir Frank Lascelles, who had been appointed minister to Persia
in July, arrived at Teheran in the late autumn of 1891. In the
following year Persia had a visitation of cholera. In Teheran and
surrounding villages the number of fatal cases exceeded 28,000, or
about 8% of the population. In 1893 the epidemic appeared
again, but in a milder form. In June 1893 Persia ceded to Russia
the small but very fertile and strategically important district of
Firuza and the adjacent lands between Baba Durmaz and Lutfabad
on the northern frontier of Khorasan, and received in exchange
the ^important village of Hissar and a strip of desert ground near
Abbasabad on the frontier of Azerbaijan, which had become Russian
territory in 1828, according to the Treaty of Turkmanchai.

Sir Frank Lascelles left Persia in the early part of 1894, and
was succeeded by Sir Mortimer Durand, who was appointed in
July and arrived in Teheran in November. In the
following year the shah, by a firman dated the 12th of Frei "*
May gave the exclusive right of exploring ancient sites Archae °-
m Persia to the French government, with the stipula- '°8 lca '
tion that one-half of the discovered antiquities, except- CoDCessy oii-
ing those of gold and silver and precious stones, should belong to
the French government, which also had the preferential right
of acquiring by purchase the other half and any of the other anti-
quities which the Persian government might wish to dispose of.
In 1897 M. J. de Morgan, who had been on a scientific mission in
Persia some years before and later in Egypt, was appointed chief
of a mission to Persia, and began work at Susa in December.

On the 1st of May 1896 Nasur 'd-Din Shah was assassinated while
paying his devotions at the holy shrine of Shah-abdul-Azim Five
days later he would have entered the fiftieth (lunar)
year of his reign, and great preparations for duly cele- Assaaslaa-
brating the jubilee had been made throughout the tion of the
country. The assassin was a small tradesman of Shah ' ,S96 -
Kerman named Mirza Reza, who had resided a short time in Con-
stantinople and there acquired revolutionary and anarchist ideas
from Kemalu 'd-Din, the so-called Afghan sheikh, who, after being
very kindly treated by the shah, preached revolution and
anarchy at Teheran, fled. to Europe, visited London, and finally
took up his residence in Constantinople. Kemalu 'd-Din was
a native of Hamadan and a Persian subject, and as the assassin
repeatedly stated that he was the sheikh's emissary and had
acted by his orders, the Persian government demanded the ex-
tradition of Kemal from the Porte; but during the protracted
negotiations which followed he died. Mirza Reza was hanged
on the 1 2th of August 1896. There were few troubles in the
country when the news of the shah's death became known
Serious rioting arose only in Shiraz and Fars, where some persons
lost their lives and a number of caravans were looted. European
firms who had lost goods during these troubles were afterwards
indemnified by the Persian government. The new shah, Muzaffar-
ud-Dm (born March 25, 1853), then governor-general of Azerbaijan,
residing at Tabriz, was enthroned there on the day of his father's
death, and proceeded a few days later, accompanied by the British
and Russian consuls, to Teheran, where he arrived on the 8th of
June.

An excessive copper coinage during the past three or four years
had caused much distress among the poorer classes since the
beginning of the year, and the small trade was almost
paralysed. Immediately after his accession the shah C""*ncy
decreed that the coining of copper money should D,fflcaU ^.
cease and the excess of the copper coinage be withdrawn from
circulation. In order to reduce the price of meat, the meat tax
which had existed since ancient times was abolished. The Imperial
Bank of Persia, which had already advanced a large sum of money
and thereby greatly facilitated the shah's early departure from
labnz and enabled the grand vizier at Teheran to carry on the
government, started buying up the copper coinage at all its branches
and agencies. The nominal value of the copper money was 20
shahis equal to 1 kran, but in some places the copper money cir-
cu ated at the rate of 80 shahis to the kran, less than its intrinsic
value; at other places the rates varied between 70 and 25 shahis ■
and the average circulating value in all Persia was over 40 If
government had been able to buy up the excess at 40 and reissue it
gradually after a time at its nominal value when the people required
it, the loss would have been small. But although the transport of
copper money from place to place had been strictly prohibited
dishonest officials found means to traffic in copper money on their
own account, and by buying it where it was cheap and forwarding it
to cities where it was dear, the bank bought it at high rates, thus
rendering the arrangement for a speedy withdrawal of the excess
at small cose to government futile. It was only in 1899 that the
distress caused by the excessive copper coinage ceased, and then
only at very great loss to government. The well-intentioned
abolition of the tax on meat also had not the desired result, for bv
a system of cornering " the price of meat rose to more than it
was before.

244

PERSIA

[1902-1909

tor British
Loan in
1898.

In the autumn of 1896 the grand vizier (Amin-es-Sultan) en-
countered much hostility from some members of the shah's
. entourage and various high personages. Amin-ad-
Ch S ' daulah was appointed chief administrator (vizier) of
1896^1898 Azerbaijan and sent to Tabriz. Shortly afterwards
the grand vizier found it impossible to carry on his
work, resigned, and retired to Kum (Nov. 24), and the shah formed
a cabinet composed for the greater part of the leading members
of the opposition to the grand vizier. After three months of the
new regime affairs of state fell into arrears, and the most important
department, that of the interior, was completely disorganized.
The shah accordingly recalled Amin-ad-daulah from Tabriz (Feb.
1897), and appointed him minister president (rai's-i-vuzara) and
minister of the interior. In June Amin-ad-daulah was made
prime minister (vizir 'azim) and given more extended powers,
and in August raised to the dignity of grand vizier (sadr 'azim).
Nasru '1-Mulk was appointed minister of finance (Feb. 1898), and
made an attempt to introduce a simple system of accounts, establish
a budget, reorganize the revenue department, made a new assess-
ment of the land-tax, &c. ; but resistance on the part of the officials
rendered it abortive.

In the latter part of 1897 E. Graves, the inspector of the English
telegraph line from Jask eastwards, was brutally murdered by
Baluchis, and the agents of the Persian government sent to seize
the murderers were resisted by the tribes. A considerable district
breaking out into open revolt, troops under the command of the
governor-general of Kerman were despatched into Baluchistan. The
port of Fannoch was taken in March 1898, and order was restored.
One of the murderers was hanged at Jask (May 31).

Various attempts to obtain a foreign loan had been made during
the previous year, but with the sole result of discrediting the
Persian government in Europe. In the beginning of
Abortive jg^g t ^ e s h a h's medical advisers strongly recommended
^^ M a cure of mineral waters in Germany or France, and
as his departure from Persia without paying the arrears
to the army and to thousands of functionaries, or
providing a sufficient sum for carrying on the govern-
ment during his absence, would have created grave discontent,
serious negotiations for a loan were entered upon. It was estimated
that £1,000,000 would be required to pay all debts, including the
balance of the 1892 loan, and leave a surplus sufficient for carrying
on the government until the shah's return. London capitalists
offered to float a loan for £1 ,250,000 at 5 % and on the guarantee
of the customs of Fars and the Persian Gulf ports, and to give
£1,025,000, or 82% to the Persian government. They stipulated
for a kind of control over the custom-houses by placing their own
agents as cashiers in them. This stipulation was agreed to in prin-
ciple by the grand vizier, Amin ad-daulah, who in March, in order
to meet some pressing demands on the treasury borrowed £50,000
on the customs receipts of Kermanshah and Bushire, and agreed
to the lenders, the Imperial Bank of Persia's agents, being placed
as cashiers in the custom-houses of both cities. He encountered,
however, much opposition from the other ministers. Further
negotiations ensued, and the shah's visit to Europe was abandoned.
The assistance of the British government not being forthcoming,
the grand vizier's position became more and more difficult, and
on the 5th of June he had to resign. Muhsin Khan, Mushir-ad-
daulah, minister for foreign affairs, then became president of the
cabinet, and continued the negotiations, but could not bring hem
to a successful issue. Moreover, the Persian government, finding
that the previous estimate of the money required for paying its
debts was about 50 % below the mark, now asked for double the
amount offered by the London capitalists, without, however,
proportionately increasing the guarantee. This disorganized all
previous arrangements, and the negotiations for a London loan came
to an end for a time at the end of July, leaving in the minds of the
Persians the unfortunate impression that the British government
had done nothing to aid them.

On the 9th of July the former grand vizier, Amin-es-Sultan, was
recalled from Kum, where he had resided since November 1896,
arrived at Teheran three days later, and was reinstated as grand
vizier on the 10th of August. His immense popularity, his friendly
relations with the clergy, and some temporary advances from the
banks, tided over difficulties for some time. The reform of
the customs department was now (Sept. 1898) taken up seriously,
and the three Belgian custom-house officials who had been engaged
by Amin-ad-daulah in the beginning of the year were instructed
to collect information and devise a scheme for the reorganization
of the department and the abolition of the farm system. In March
1899 the custom-houses of the provinces of Azerbaijan and Kerman-
shah were given over to the Belgians. The results of this step
were so satisfactory that government was induced to abolish the
farm system and set up the new regime in the other provinces in
March 1900, and a number of other Belgian custom-houses officials
were engaged.

In September, when renewed negotiations for a loan from London
were not appearing to progress favourably, and the long-thought-
of visit to Europe was considered to be absolutely necessary in
the following year, the shah issued a firman authorizing the Russian
Banque des Prets de Perse to float a loan. Shortly after this it wa«

said that the London capitalists were willing to lend £1 ,250,000
without insisting upon the objectionable control clause; but the
proposal came too late, and on the 30th of January „
1900, the Russian government had permitted the issue Loaao"
of a loan for 22j million roubles (£2,400,000) at 5%, 1900.
guaranteed by all the customs receipts of Persia, ex-
cepting those for Fars and the Persian Gulf ports. Only in the
event of any default of paying instalments and interests was the
bank m be given control of the custom-houses. Persia received
85 % of the nominal capital, and the Russian government guar-
anteed the bondholders. Money was immediately remitted to
Teheran, and nearly all the arrears were paid, while the balance
of the 1892 London 6% loan was paid off by direct remittance
to London.

Sir Mortimer Durand left Teheran in the early spring, and pro-
ceeded to Europe on leave. On the 12th of April the shah, accom-
panied by the grand vizier and a numerous suite,
started on his voyage to Europe. The affairs of State Sbah's
during his absence were entrusted to a council of Visits to
ministers, under the presidency of his second son, Europe,
Malik Mansur Mirza,_Shua-es-Sultaneh, who had made l°00, 1902.
a long stay on the Continent the year before.

After a residence of a month at Contrexeville, the shah proceeded
(July 14) to St Petersburg, and thence to Paris (July 29), intending
to go to London on the 8th of August. But on account of the
mourning in which several courts were thrown through the death
of the king of Italy (July 29) and the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
(July 30), the visits to England, Germany and Italy were abandoned.
On the 2nd of August an anarchist made an attempt upon the shah's
life in Paris.

F. — Russo- British Rivalry (igo2-igoy) and the Persian
Revolution (igo6-igog).

In 1902 Muzaffar-ud-Dln Shah revisited the principal European
capitals, and was received by King Edward VII. at Portsmouth
in August. A mission headed by Viscount Downe was after-
wards despatched to Persia, to invest the shah with the order of
the Garter, a ceremony which took place in Teheran on the 2nd
of February 1903. A week later, a new commercial treaty was
concluded between Great Britain and Persia, which instituted
various reforms in the custom's service, secured to both countries
the " most-favoured-nation " treatment, and substituted specific
import and export duties for the charge of 5% ad valorem
provided for in the treaty of 1857. These provisions to some
extent counterbalanced the losses inflicted on British trade by
the Russo-Persian commercial treaty signed in 1903, which had
seriously damaged the Indian tea trade, and had led to a rapid
extension of Russian influence. Between 1899 and 1903 the
Russian Bank had lent Persia £4,000,000, of which fully half
was paid to the shah for his personal requirements. Russian
concessionnaires were given the right to build roads from Tabriz
to Teheran (1902) and from Tabriz to Kazvin (1903); and the
Russian Bank opened new branches in Seistan — an example
followed in 1903 by the Bank of Persia. It was, however, in
the Persian Gulf that the rivalry between Great Britain and
Russia threatened to become dangerous. Great Britain had
almost a monopoly of maritime commerce in the Gulf, and was
alone responsible for buoying, lighting and policing its waters.
The British claim to political supremacy in this region had thus
a solid economic basis; it had been emphasized by the British
action at Kuwet (q.v.) in 1899, and by the declaration made in
the House of Lords by Lord Lansdowne, as secretary of state
for foreign affairs, to the effect that Great Britain would resist
by all means in its power the attempt of any other nation to
establish itself in force on the shores of the Gulf. On the 16th
of November 1903, Lord Curzon, the viceroy of India, sailed
from Karachi for the Persian Gulf. His ship, the " Hardinge,"
was escorted by four cruisers, and the voyage was regarded as a
political demonstration, to be interpreted in connexion with
Lord Lansdowne's declaration. At Bushire, on the 1st of
December, the Persian governor of Fars, Ala ad-daula, com-
mitted a breach of diplomatic etiquette which induced Lord
Curzon to sail away without landing. This incident was con-
sidered by some British observers to have been brought about
by Russian intrigue, and the fact that Ala ad-daula was dis-
missed in 1904, after the Japanese had achieved several initial
successes in the Russo-Japanese war, was held to confirm this
opinion. But Russian financial and commercial influence ip

1902-1909]

PERSIA

245

Persia continued to increase; in December 1904 a special mission
under Mirza Riza Khan was received in audience by the tsar;
and in May 1905 Muzaffar-ud-Din Shah himself left Persia to
visit the courts of Vienna and St Petersburg.

The Seistan Mission of 1902-1905. — A dispute as to the frontier
between Afghanistan and Seistan arose in 1902. The boundary
delimited by the Seistan mission of 1870-1872, and known as
the " Goldsmid line," was drawn along the course of the river
Helmund. "Between 1872 and 1902 the Helmund took a more
westerly direction; no boundary marks had been erected, and a
wide strip of territory remained in dispute. The Persians claimed
that the boundary was the old bed of the river, the Afghans that
it was the new bed; and in accordance with the treaty of 1857
both parties asked the British government to arbitrate. In
January 1903, Colonel Arthur Henry MacMahon, who had
previously delimited the frontier between Afghanistan and
British India, was despatched from Quetta. The Persian
officials were at first hostile, but their opposition, which was
attributed to Russian influence at Teheran, was eventually
overcome, and Colonel MacMahon (who was knighted in 1906)
delivered his final award, sustaining the Persian contention, in
February 1905.

British Commercial Missions. — Owing to the success of the
Maclean mission, which visited and reported upon the markets
and trade-routes of north-western Persia in 1903, under the
direction of the Board of Trade, a similar mission was sent to
southern Persia in 1904, under the auspices of the Upper India
Chamber of Commerce, the Bengal Chamber and the Indian Tea
Cess Company. The report of this mission (by Gleadowe-
Newcomen) was published in 1906. After showing that civilized
government was practically non-existent in the regions visited,
it suggested as the chief remedy the conclusion of a Russo-
British convention, and the division of Persia into " spheres of
influence."

Russo-British Convention of 190J. — The political situation
created by the Russo-Japanese War and by an internal crisis
in Persia itself rendered possible such an agreement between the
two rival powers, and a Russo-British convention was signed
on the 31st of August 1907. Its chief provisions, in regard to
Persia, are as follows: (1) north of a line drawn from Kasr-i-
Shirin, Isfahan, Yezd and Kakh to the junction of the Russian,
Persian and Afghan frontiers Great Britain undertook to seek
no political or commercial concession, and to refrain from
opposing the acquisition of any such concession by Russia or
Russian subjects; (2) Russia gave to Great Britain a like under-
taking in respect of the territory south of a line extending from
the Afghan frontier to Gazik, Birjend, Kerman and Bander
Abbasi; (3) the territory between the lines above-mentioned
was to be regarded as a neutral zone in which either country
might obtain concessions; (4) all existing concessions in any
part of Persia were to be respected; (5) should Persia fail to meet
its liabilities in respect of loans contracted, before the signature
of the convention, with the Persian Banque d'Escompte and de
Prets, or with the Imperial Bank of Persia, Great Britain and
Russia reserved the right to assume control over the Persian
revenues payable within their respective spheres of influence.
With this convention was published a letter from the British
secretary of state for foreign affairs (Sir E. Grey), stating (1)
that the Persian Gulf lay outside the scope of the convention,
(2) that Russia admitted the special interests of Great Britain
in the Gulf, and (3) that these interests were to be maintained
by Great Britain as before.

The Persian Constitution. — The misgovernment and disorder
which were revealed to Europe by the Gleadowe-Newcomen
report, and by such sporadic outbreaks as the massacre of the
Babis in Yezd (1903), had caused widespread discontent in
Persia. In 1905, partly owing to the example shown by the
revolutionary parties in Russia, this discontent took the form of
a demand for representative institutions. On the 5th of August
1906, Muzaffar-ud-Din Shah issued a rescript in which he under-
took to form a national council (Majlis) representing the whole
people (see above, Constitution) . The Majlis was duly elected,

and was opened by the shah in person on the 7th of October
1906. In January 1907 the shah died, and was succeeded by
his eldest son, Mahommed 'Ali Mirza, who on the nth of
February published a message to his people, pledging himself
to adhere to the new constitution.

The Revolution. — On the 12th of November the shah visited
the Majlis, and repeated his pledge, but during December a
riot in Teheran developed into a political crisis, in which the
shah's troops were employed against the civil population. The
Majlis issued a manifesto to the powers, declaring that the shah
intended to overthrow the constitution, and demanding inter-
vention. The Russian and British ministers in Teheran urged
Mahommed 'Ali to maintain the constitution, and he sent a
message to the Majlis, promising compliance with its demands
and agreeing to place the whole army under the control of the
ministry of war. These concessions allayed the prevailing
unrest for a time, but the Royalist and Nationalist parties
continued secretly to intrigue against one another, and in
February 1908, while the shah was driving in Teheran, two
bombs were exploded under his motor-car. Two persons were
killed, but the shah was unhurt, and the Majlis formally con-
gratulated him on his escape. A prolonged ministerial crisis,
in April and May, was attributed by the Nationalists to the
influence of reactionary courtiers, and by the Royalists to the
influence of the Anjumans, or political clubs, which were alleged
to control the Nationalist majority in the Majlis. Early in
June the Majlis urged the shah to dismiss the courtiers under
suspicion. Mahommed 'Ali consented, but withdrew from
Teheran; and on his departure the royal bodyguard of so-called
" Cossacks " — Persian soldiers officered by Russians in the
shah's service — at once came into conflict with the Nation-
alists. The house of parliament was bombarded, and when the
Majlis appointed commissioners to discuss terms, the shah
issued a manifesto dissolving the Majlis, and entrusted the
restoration of order in Teheran to military administrators. He
also proposed to substitute for the elected Majlis a council of
forty members, nominated by himself; but under pressure from
Great Britain and Russia he promised to abandon this scheme
and to order another general election. Meanwhile, civil war
had broken out in the provinces; Kurdish raiders had sacked
many villages near Tabriz; Persian brigands had attacked the
Russian frontier-guards on the borders of Transcaucasia, and
the indemnity demanded by the tsar's government was not paid
until several Persian villages had been burned by Russian
troops. This incident, combined with the employment of the
so-called Cossacks, evoked a protest from the Nationalists, who
asserted that Russia was aiding the Royalists; the accusation
was true only in so far as it referred to the conduct of certain
Russian officials who acted without the consent of the Russian
government. Early in 1909, indeed, a Russian force of 2600
men was sent to watch events near Tabriz, and if necessary to
intervene in favour of the Nationalists who held the town, and
had for some months been besieged by the shah's troops. The
presence of the Russians ultimately induced the Royalists to
abandon the siege. In January of the same year the revolution
spread to Isfahan, where the Bakhtiari chiefs made common
cause with the Nationalists, deposed the Royalist governor and
marched on the capital. In May and June the shah issued
proclamations declaring his fidelity to the constitution, and
promising an amnesty to all political offenders; but he was
powerless to stay the advance of the combined Bakhtiari and
Nationalist troops, who entered Teheran on the 13th of July.
After severe street fighting the Cossacks deserted to the rebels,
and the shah took refuge in the Russian legation (July 15).
This was interpreted as an act of abdication; on the same
day the national council met, and chose Mahommed "Ali's son,
Sultan Ahmad Mirza, aged thirteen, as his successor. Asad
ul-Mulk, head of the Kajar tribe, was appointed regent. On the
9th of September 1909, the ex-shah departed for his place of
exile in the Crimea, escorted by Russian Cossacks and Indian
sowars. On the 15th of November a newly elected Majlis was
formally opened by the shah.

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE]

PERSIA

Sanskrit. Gatha. Later Zend.

abhi (near) aibi aiwi

Iha (work) Izha izha.

I he clearest evidence of the extreme age of the language of the
gathas is its striking resemblance to the oldest Sanskrit, the language
of the Vedic poems. The gatha language (much more than the
later Zend) and the language of the Vedas have a close resemblance
exceeding that of any two Romanic languages; they seem hardly
more than two dialects of one tongue. Whole strophes of the
gathas can be turned into good old Sanskrit by the application of
certain phonetic laws ; for example —

" mat . va o padaish yafrasruta izhayao
pairijasai mazda ustanazasto
at vao asha aredrahyaca nemangha
at vao vangehush manangho hunaretata,"
becomes in Sanskrit —

" mana vah padaih ya pracruta ihayah
parigachai medha uttanahastah
at va rtena radhrasyaca namasa
* at vo vasor manasah sunrtaya." 1

The language of the other parts of the Avesta is more modern
but not all of one date, so that we can follow the gradual decline
of Zend in the Avesta itself. The later the date of a text, the
simpler is the grammar, the more lax the use of the cases. We
have no chronological points by which to fix the date when Zend
ceased to be a living language; no part of the Avesta can well be
put later than the 5th or 4th century B.C. Before Alexander's
time it is said to have been already written out on dressed cowhides
and preserved in the state archives at Persepolis.

The followers of Zoroaster soon ceased to understand Zend. For
this reason all that time had spared of the Avesta was translated
into Middle Persian or Pahlavi (g.o.)'under the Sassanians. This
translation, though still regarded as canonical by the Parsees, shows
a very imperfect knowledge of the original language. Its value
for modern philology has been the subject of much needless contro-
versy amongst European scholars. It is only a secondary means
towards the comprehension of the ancient text, and must be used
W - j j discrimination. A logical system of comparative exegesis,
aided by constant reference to Sanskrit, its nearest ally, and to the
other Iranian dialects, is the best means of recovering the lost
sense of the Zend texts.

The phonetic system of Zend consists of simple signs which
express the different shades of sound in the language with great
precision. In the vowel-system a notable feature is the presence
of the short vowels e and 0, which are not found in Sanskrit and
Old Persian; thus the Sanskrit santi, Old Persian hantiy, becomes
henti in Zend. The use of the vowels is complicated by a tendency
to combinations of vowels and to epenthesis, i.e. the transposition
of weak vowels into the next syllable; e.g. Sanskrit bharati, Zend
baraiti _ (he carries) ; Old Persian margu, Zend' mdurva (Merv) ;
Sanskrit rinaktl, Zend irinakhti. Triphthongs are not uncommon'
e.g. Sanskrit acvebhyas (dative plural of acva, a horse) is in Zend
aspaeibyo ; Sanskrit krnoti (he does), Zend kerenaoiti. Zend has
also a great tendency to insert irrational vowels, especially near
liquids; owing to this the words seem rather inflated; e.g. savya
(on the left) becomes in Zend havaya ; bhrajati (it glitters), Zend
barazaiti; gna (ywri), Zend gena. In the -consonantal system we
are struck by the abundance of sibilants (s and sh, in three forms
of modification, z and zh) and nasals (five in number), and by the
complete absence of /. A characteristic phonetic change is that of
rt into sh; e.g. Zend asha for Sanskrit rta, Old Persian arta (in
Artaxerxes); fravashi for Pahlavi fravardtn, New Persian ferver
(the spirits of the dead). The verb displays a like abundance of
primary forms with Sanskrit, but the conjugation by periphrasis
is only slightly developed. _ The noun has the same eight cases
as in Sanskrit. In the gathas there is a special ablative, limited, as
in Sanskrit, to the " a " stems, whilst in later Zend the ablative is
extended to all the stems indifferently.

We do not know in what character Zend wasi written before the
time of Alexander. From the Sassanian period we find an alpha-
betic and very legible character in use, derived from Sassanian
Pahlavi, and closely resembling the younger Pahlavi found in books.
Ihe oldest known manuscripts are of the 14th century a.d 2

Although the existence of the Zend language was known to the
Oxford scholar Thomas Hyde, the Frenchman Anquetil Duperron
who went to the East Indies in 1755 to visit the Parsee priests, was
the first to draw the attention of the learned world to the subject
Scientific study of Zend texts began with E. Burnouf, and has

247

since then made rapid strides, especially since the Vedas have
opened to us a knowledge of the oldest Sanskrit

2. Old Perstan.— This is the language of the ancient Persian*
properly so-called , » in all probability th! mother-tongue of Sk
Persian of the Pahlavi texts, and of New Persian. We „,' ,
know Old Persian from the rock-inscriptions of the OUP * n " aa -
Achaemenians, now fully deciphered. Most of them, and these
the longest, date from the time of Darius, but we have speci-
mens as late as Artaxerxes Ochus. In the latest inscriptions the
language is already much degraded; but on the whole it is almost
as antique as Zend, with wflich it has many points in common
^instance, if we take a sentence from an inscription of Darius

" Auramazda hya imam bumim ada hya avam asmanam ada hya

Sfch5 yam ,- a , ya Sly u tlm ada mar tiyahy5 hya Darayavaum

khshayathiyam akunaush aivam paruvnam khshayathiyam,"

it would be in Zend —

With verses of my making, which are now heard, and with
prayerful hands, I come before thee, Mazda, and with the sincere
humility of the upright man and with the believer's song of praise "
'Grammars by F. Spiegel (Leipzig, 1867) and A. V. W. Jackson
(Stuttgart, 1892); Dictionary by F. Justi (Leipzig, 1864); editions
of the Avesta by N. L. Westergaard (Copenhagen, 1852) and C. F
Geldner (Stuttgart 1886-1895; also in English); translation into
German by Spiegel (Leipzig, 1852), and into English by Darmesteter
(Oxford, 1880) in Max Muller's Sacred Books of the East.

" AhurS mazdao yo imam bumlm adat yo aom asmanem adat yo
mashim adat yo shaitim adat mashyahe yo darayatvohum khshaetem
akerenaot oyum pourunam khshaetem." 4

The phonetic system in Old Persian is much simpler than in
Zend; we reckon twenty-four letters in all. The short vowels e
are wanting; in their place the old " a " sound still appears as
m Sanskrit, e.g. Zend bagem, Old Persia'n bagam, Sanskrit bhagam;
Old Persian hamarana, Zend hamerena, Sanskrit samarana As
regards consonants, it is noticeable that the older z (soft s) still
preserved m Zend passes into rf-a rule that still holds in New
rersian ; compare —

Sanskrit Zend. Old Persian. New Persian.

hasta (hand) zasta dasta dast

jrayas(sea) zrayo daraya darya

aham (I) azem adam

Also Old Persian has no special I. Final consonants are almost
entirely wanting In this respect Old Persian goes much farther
than the kindred idioms, e.g. Old Persian abara, Sanskrit abharat
Zend abarat, tyepj: nominative baga, root-form baga-s, Sanskrit
bhagas. The differences in declension between Old Persian and
Zend are unimportant.

Old Persian inscriptions are written in the cuneiform character
ot the simplest form, known as the " first class." Most of the
inscriptions have besides two translations into the more compli-
cated kinds of cuneiform character of two other languages of the
Persian Empire. One of these is the Assyrian; the real nature of
the second is still a mystery. The interpretation of the Persian
cuneiform, the character and dialect of which were equallv
unknown, was begun by G. F. Grotefend, who was followed by
E. Burnouf, Sir Henry Rawhnson and J. Oppert. The ancient
Persian inscriptions have been collected in a Latin translation

rnlarle r d m ed ar T a 8 n 8Tf ' tT* £ R Sp - iegd (Leip2ig ' l862; new and
enlarged ed., 1881). The other ancient tongues and dialects of

this family are known only by name; we read of peculiar idioms

in Sogdiana Zabulistan, Herat, &c. It is doubtful whether the

languages of the Scythians, the Lycians and the Lydians, of which

hardly anything remains, were Iranian or not.

After the fall of the Achaemenians there is a period of five
centuries, from which no document of the Persian laneuaee has
come down to us. 6 5

Under the Arsacids Persian nationality rapidly declined ■ all that
remains to us from that period— namely, the inscriptions on coins
—is in the Greek tongue. Only towards the end of the Parthian
dynasty and after the rise of the Sassanians, under whom the national
traditions were again cultivated in Persia, do we recover the lost
traces of the Persian language in the Pahlavi inscriptions and

3- Middle Persian.— The singular phenomena presented bv
Pahlavi writing have been discussed in a separate article (see
Fahlavi). The languages which it disguises rather „ MM
than expresses— Middle Persian, as we may call it— „ ,
presents many changes as compared with the Old Persian ""*""'
of the Achaemenians. The abundant grammatical forms of the
ancient language are much reduced in number; the case-ending
is lost; the noun has only two inflexions, the singular and the plural-
the cases are expressed by prepositions— e.g. ruban (the soul), nom'
and ace. sing., plur. rubanan; dat. vol or avo ruban, abl. min or az
ruban. Even distinctive forms for gender are entirely abandoned
e.g. the pronoun'aw signifies "he," "she," "it." In the verb
compound forms predominate. In this respect Middle Persian
is almost exactly similar to New Persian.

And perhaps of the Medes. Although we have no record of
the Median language we cannot regard it as differing to any great
extent from the Persian. The Medes and Persians were two
closely-connected races. There is nothing to justify us in looking
lor the true Median language either in the cuneiform writings of
the second class or in Zend.

4 " Ormuzd, who created this earth and that heaven, who created
man and man's dwelling-place, who made Darius king, the one and
only king of many."

246

PERSIA

[LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

Bibliography. — I. General: Lord Curzon of Kedleston, Persia
and the Persian Question (London, 1892), contains an account of
European literature relating to Persia (a.d. 900-1901) and numerous
bibliographical notes. See also Lady [M. L.] Shiel, Life and Manners
in Persia (London, 1856); Sir A. H. Layard, Early Adventures in
Persia (London, 1887); S. G. W. Benjamin, Persia and the Persians
(3rd ed., London, 1891); C. E. Yate, Khurasan and Sistan (Edin-
burgh, 1900) ; H. S. Landor, Across Coveted Lands (London, 1902) ;
1 de Morgan, Mission scienlifique (vols, i.-v., 1897-1904); N.
Malcolm, Five Years in a Persian Town ( Yezd) (London, 1905) ;
A. V. W. Jackson, Persia, Past and Present (London, 1906) ; £. C.
Williams, Across Persia (London, 1907). The works of James
Morier (q.v.), especially his Adventures of Hajji Baba of Ispahan,
throw much light on Persian society in the early years of the
19th century.

2. History: Sir J. Malcolm, History of Persia (2nd ed., London,
1829); R. G. Watson, A History of Persia from the Beginning of
the Nineteenth Century (London, 1873) ; Sir C. R. Markham, A General
Sketch of the History of Persia (London, 1874), and Curzon, as quoted
above, are the standard authorities on modern Persian history.
The Travels of Pedro Teixeira (London, 1902) and other publications
of the Hakluyt Society relating to Persia are also of great historical
value. For more recent events see the reports of the Gleadowe-
Newcomen and MacMahon missions: E. G. Browne, The Persian
Revolution of 1905-09 (London, 1910) ; A. Hamilton, Problems of the
Middle East (London, 1909) ; V. Chirol, The Middle Eastern Question
(London, 1904^) ; E. C. Williams, Across Persia (London, 1907).
The commercial convention of 1903 is given in Treaty series,
No. 10 (London, 1903), the Russo-British convention in Treaty
series, No. 34 (London, 1907). Other official publications of his-
torical importance are the annual British F. 0. reports, and the
U.S. Consular Reports.

Language and Literature

I. Persian (Iranian) Languages. — Under the name of Persian
is included the whole of that great family of languages occupying
a field nearly coincident with the modern Iran, of which true
Persian is simply the western division. It is therefore common
and more correct to speak of the Iranian family. The original
native name of the race which spoke these tongues was Aryan.
King Darius is called on an inscription " a Persian, son of a
Persian, an Aryan of Aryan race "; and the followers of the
Zoroastrian religion in their earliest records never give themselves
any other title but Airyavo danghavo, that is to say, " Aryan
races." The province of the Iranian language is bounded on
the west by the Semitic, on the north and north-east by the
Ural-altaic or Turanian, and on the south-east by the kindred
language of India.

The Iranian languages form one of the great branches of the
Indo-European stem, first recognized as such by Sir William
Jones and Friedrich Schlegel. The Indo-European
Languages. or Indo-Germanic languages are divided by Brug-
mann into (1) Aryan, with sub-branches (a) Indian,
(b) Iranian; (2) Armenian; (3) Greek; (4) Albanian; (5) Italic;
(6) Celtic; (7) Germanic, with sub-branches (a) Gothic, (b)
Scandinavian, (c) West Germanic; and (8) Balto-Slavonic.
(See Indo-European.) The Aryan family (called by Professor
Sievers the " Asiatic base-language ") is subdivided into (1)
Iranian (Eranian, or Erano-Aryan) languages, (2) Pisacha, or
non-Sanskritic Indo-Aryan languages, (3) Indo-Aryan, or Sans-
kritic Indo-Aryan languages (for the last two see Indo-Aryan) ;
Iranian being also grouped into Persian and non-Persian.

The common characteristics of all Iranian languages, which
distinguish them especially from Sanskrit, are as follows: —

I. Changes of the original s into the spirant h. Thus —

Sanskrit.
sindhu (Indus)
sarva (all)
sama (whole)
santi (sunt)

Zend.

hindu

haurva

hama

henti

Old Persian.
hindu
haruva
hama
hantiy

2. Change of the original aspirates gh, dh, bh ( = x,
corresponding medials —

Sanskrit. Zend. Old Persian.

bhumi (earth) bumi bumi

dhita (fferos) data data

gharma (heat) garema garma

3. k, t, p before a consonant are changed into the spirants kh,
th, f—

Sanskrit. Zend. Old Persian. New Persian.

prathama (first) fratema fratama fradum (Parsi)

kratu (insight) khratu .... khirad.

New Persian.

hind

har

ham

hend.
9, <j>) into the

New Persian.
bum
dad
garm.

4. The development of soft sibilants —

Sanskrit. Zend. Old Persian. New Persian.

Asuro Medhas 1 Ahuro Mazdao Auramazda Ormuzd
bahu (arm) bazu .... bazu

hima (hiems) zima .... zim.

Our knowledge of the Iranian languages in older periods is too
fragmentary to allow of our giving a complete account of this family
and of its special historical development. It will be sufficient here
to distinguish the main types of the older and the more recent
periods. From antiquity we have sufficient knowledge of two
dialects, the first belonging to eastern Iran, the second to western.
1. Zend or Old Bactrian. — Neither of these two titles is well
chosen. The name Old Bactrian suggests that the language was
limited to the small district of Bactria, or at least that
it was spoken there — which is, at the most, only an Zend.

hypothesis. Zend, again (originally azaintish), is not the name of
a language, as Anquetil Duperron supposed, but means " inter-
pretation " or " explanation," and is specially applied to the
medieval Pahlavi translation of the Avesta. Our " Zend-Avesta "
does not mean the Avesta in the Zend language, but is an incorrect
transcription of the original expression " Avistak va zand," i.e.
" the holy text (Avesta) together with the translation." But,
since we still lack sure data to fix the home of this language with
any certainty, the convenient name of Zend has become generally
established in Europe, and may be provisionally retained. But the
home of the Zend language was certainly in eastern Iran; all
attempts to seek it farther west — e.g. in Media 2 — must be regarded
as failures.

Zend is the language of the so-called Avesta, 3 the holy book of
the Persians, containing the oldest documents of the religion of
Zoroaster. Besides this important monument, which is about
twice as large as the Iliad and Odyssey put together, we only possess
very scanty relics of the Zend language in medieval glosses and
scattered quotations in Pahlavi books. These remains, however,
suffice to give a complete insight into the structure of the language.
Not only amongst Iranian languages, but amongst all the languages
of the Indo-European group, Zend takes one of the very highest
places in importance for the comparative philologist. In age it
almost rivals Sanskrit; in primitiveness it surpasses that language
in many points; it is inferior only in respect of its less extensive
literature, and because it has not been made the subject of system-
atic grammatical treatment. The age of Zend must be examined
in connexion with the age of the Avesta. In its present form the
Avesta is not the work of a single author or of any one age, but
embraces collections produced during a long period. The view
which became current through Anquetil Duperron, that the Avesta
is throughout the work of Zoroaster (in Zend, Zarathushtra) , the
founder of the religion, has long been abandoned as untenable.
But the opposite view, that not a single word in the book can lay
claim to the authorship of Zoroaster, also appears on closer study
too sweeping. In the Avesta two stages of the language are plainly
distinguishable. The older is represented in but a small part of
the whole work, the so-called Gathas or songs. These songs form
the true kernel of the book Yasna ; i they must have been in exist-
ence long before all the other parts of the Avesta, throughout the
whole of which allusions to them occur. These gathas are what
they claim to be, and what they are honoured in the whole Avesta
as being — the actual productions of the prophet himself or of his
time. They bear in themselves irrefutable proofs of their authen-
ticity, bringing us face to face not with the Zoroaster of the legends
but with a real person, announcing a new doctrine and way of
salvation, no supernatural Being assured of victory, but a mere
man, struggling with human conflicts of every sort, in the midst of
a society of fellow-believers yet in its earliest infancy. It is almost
impossible that a much later period could have produced such
unpretentious and almost depreciatory representations of the deeds
and personality of the prophet. If, then, the gathas reach back
to the time of Zoroaster, and he himself, according to the most
probable estimate, lived as early as the 14th century B.C., the oldest
component parts of the Avesta are hardly inferior in age to the
oldest Vedic hymns. The gathas are still extremely rough in style
and expression ; the language is richer in forms than the more recent
Zend; and the vocabulary shows important differences. The pre-
dominance of the long vowels is a marked characteristic, the
constant appearance of a long final vowel contrasting with the
preference for a final short in the later speech.

1 Name of the supreme god of the Persians.

2 Cf. I. Darmesteter, Etudes iraniennes, i. 10 (Paris, 1883).

3 This, and not Zend-Avesta, is the correct title for the original
text of the Persian Bible. The origin of the word is doubtful,
and we cannot point to it before the time of the Sassanians. Perhaps
it means " announcement," " revelation."

4 The Avesta is divided into three parts: (1) Yasna, with an
appendix, Visparad, a collection of prayers and forms for divine
service; (2) Vendidad, containing directions for purification and
the penal code of the ancient Persians; (3) Khordah-Avesta, or the
Small Avesta, containing the Yasht, the contents of which are for the
most part mythological, with shorter prayers for private devotion.

248

PERSIA

[LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

New Persian.
maTg
Feridiin
ab

khod
ruz
az.

koh

gah

cihar

bandah

sipah

diham.

New Persian.
mai
boi
pai
kai.

4. New Persian.— The last step in the development of the
language is New Persian, represented in its oldest form by Firdousi.
v In grammatical forms it is still poorer than Middle

" ew Persian; except English, no Indo-European language

Persian. nag SQ f ew j n fl ex i onS; but this is made up for by the
subtle development of the syntax. The structure of New Persian
has hardly altered at all since the Shdhnama; but the original
purism of Firdousi, who made every effort to keep the language
free from Semitic admixture, could not long be maintained. Arabic
literature and speech exercised so powerful an influence on New
Persian, especially on the written language, that it could not
withstand the admission of an immense number of Semitic words.
There is no Arabic word which would be refused acceptance in
good Persian. But, nevertheless, New Persian has remained a
language of genuine Iranian stock.

Among the changes of the sound system in New Persian, as
contrasted with earlier periods, especially with Old Persian, the
first that claims mention is the change of the tenues k, t,p, c, into
g, d, b, z. Thus we have —

Old Persian or Zend. Pahlavi.

mahrka (death) mark

Thraetaona Fritun

ap (water) ap

hvato (self) kh5t

raucah (day) roj

haca 3.)

A series of consonants often disappear in the spirant ; thus-

Old Persian or Zend. Pahlavi. New Persian

kaufa (mountain) _ kof

gathu (place), Z. gatu gas

cathware (four) ....

bafidaka (slave) bandak

spada (army) ....

dadami (I give) ....

Old d and dh frequently become y —

Old Persian or Zend. Pahlavi.

madhu (wine) ....

baodho (consciousness) bod

padha (foot) ....

kadha (when) ....

Old y often appears as j: Zend yama (glass), New Persian jam;
yavan (a youth), New Persian javan. Two consonants are not
allowed to stand together at the beginning of a word ; hence vowels
are frequently inserted or prefixed, e.g. New Persian sitadan or
istadan (to stand), root sta; biradar (brother), Zend and Pahlavi
bratar. 1

Amongst modern languages and dialects other than Persian which
must be also assigned to the Iranian family may be
Modern mentioned :—

Dialects. t Kurdish, a language nearly akin to New Persian,

with which it has important characteristics in common. It is
chiefly distinguished from it by a marked tendency to shorten
words at all costs, e.g. Kurd, bera (brother) = New Persian biradar;
Kurd, dim (I give) = New Persian diham; Kurd, spl (white) = New
Persian siped.

2. Baluch, the language of Baluchistan, also very closely akin
to New Persian, but especially distinguished from it in that all
the old spirants are changed into explosives, e.g. Baluch vab (sleep)
= Zend hvafna; Baluch kap (slime) = Zend kafa, New Persian kaf;
Baluch hapt (seven) = New Persian haft.

3. Ossetic, true Iranian, in spite of its resemblance in sound to
the Georgian. 2

4. Pushtu (less accurately Afghan), which has certainly been
increasingly influenced by the neighbouring Indian languages in
inflexion, syntax and vocabulary, but is still at bottom a pure
Iranian language, not merely intermediate between Iranian and
Indian.

The position of Armenian remains doubtful. Some scholars
attribute it to the Iranian family; others prefer to regard it as a
separate and independent member of the Indo-European group.
Many words that at first sight seem to prove its Iranian origin are
only adopted from the Persian. 3 (K. G.)

II. Modern Persian Literature. — Persian historians are greatly
at variance about the origin of their national poetry. ,Most of
them go back to the 5th Christian century and ascribe to one
of the Sassanian kings, Bahram V. (420-439), the invention of

1 Grammars of New Persian, by M. Lumsden (Calcutta, 1810),
A. B. Chodzko (Paris, 1852; new ed., 1883), D. Forbes (1869),
J. A. Vullers (Giessen, 1870), A. Wahrmund (Giessen, 1875), C.
Salemann and V. Zhukovski (Leipzig, 1889); J. T. Platts
(pt. i. 1984). For the New Persian dialects see Fr. Muller, in the
Sitzungsber. der wien. Akad., vols, lxxvii., lxxviii.

2 Cf. Hiibschmann, in Kuhn's Zeitschrift, xxiv. 396.

3 Cf . P. de Lagarde, Armenische Studien (Gottingen, 1877);
H. Hiibschmann, Armenische Studien (Leipzig, 1883).

metre and rhyme; others mention as author of the first Persian
poem a certain Abulhafs of Soghd, near Samarkand. In point
of fact, there is no doubt that the later Sassanian rulers fostered
the literary spirit of their nation (see Pahlavi). Pahlavi books,
however, fall outside of the present subject, which is the literature
of the idiom which shaped itself out of the older Persian speech
by slight modifications and a steadily increasing mixture of
Arabic words and phrases in the 9th and 10th centuries of our
era, and which in all essential respects has remained the same
for the last thousand years. The death of Harun al-Rashid in
the beginning of the 9th century, which marks the commence-
ment of the decline of the caliphate, was at the same time the
starting-point of movements for national independence and a
national literature in the Iranian dominion, and the common
cradle of the two was in the province of Khorasan, between the
Oxus and the Jaxartes. In Merv, a Khorasanian town, a certain
'Abbas composed in 809 a.d. (193 a.h ), according to the oldest
biographical writer of Persia, Mahommed 'AufI, the Earliest
first real poem in modern Persian, in honour of the Modem
Abbasid prince Mamun, Harun al-Rashld's son, who Persian
had himself a strong predilection for Persia, his •

mother's native country, and was, moreover, thoroughly imbued
with the freethinking spirit of his age. Soon after this, in 820
(205 a.h.), Tahir, who aided Mamun to wrest the caliphate from
his brother Amln, succeeded in establishing the first semi-
independent Persian dynasty in Khorasan, which was overthrown
in 872 (259 a.h.) by the Saffarids.

The development of Persian poetry under these first native
dynasties was slow. Arabic language and literature had gained
too firm a footing to be supplanted at once by a new literary
idiom still in its infancy; nevertheless the few poets who arose
under the Tahirids and Saffarids show already the germs of the
characteristic tendency of all later Persian literature, which
aims at amalgamating the enforced spirit of Islamism with their
own Aryan feelings, and reconciling the strict deism of the
Mahommedan religion with their inborn loftier and more or less
pantheistic ideas; and we can easily trace in the few fragmentary
verses of men like Hanzala, Hakim Firuz and Abu Sallk those
principal forms of poetry now used in common by Forms of
all Mahommedan nations — the forms of the qasida Eastern
(the encomiastic, elegiac or satirical poem), the p 9 etr y-
ghazal or ode (a love-ditty, wine-song or religious hymn), the
rubai or quatrain (our epigram, for which the Persians invented
a new metre in addition to those adopted from the Arabs), and
the mathnawi or double-rhymed poem (the legitimate form for
epic and didactic poetry) . The first who wrote such a mathnawi
was Abu Shukur of Balkh, the oldest literary representative of
the third dynasty of Khorasan, the Samanids, who had been able
in the course of time to dethrone the Saffarids, and to secure the
government of Persia, nominally still under the supremacy of
the caliphs in Bagdad, but in fact with full sovereignty. The
undisputed reign of this family dates from the accession of Amir
Nasr II. (913-942; 301-331 a.h.), who, more than any of his
predecessors, patronized arts and sciences in his dominions.
The most accomplished minstrels of his time were minstrels
Mahommed FaraladI (or Faralawl); Abu '1-' Abbas of 10th
of Bokhara, a writer of very tender verses; Abu Century.
'1-Muzaffar Nasr of Nlshapur; Abu. 'Abdallah Mahommed of
Junaid, equally renowned for his Arabic and Persian poetry;
Ma'nawl of Bokhara, full of original thoughts and spiritual
subtleties; KhusrawanI, from whom even Firdousi condescended
to borrow quotations; Abu '1-Hasan Shahid of Balkh, the first
who made a diwan ox ^alphabetical collection of his lyrics; and
RudagI (or RudakI), the first classic genius of Persia, who im-
pressed upon every form of lyric and didactic poetry its peculiar
stamp and individual character (see Rudagi). His graceful and
captivating style was imitated by Hakim Khabbaz of Nlshapur,
a great baker, poet and quack; Abu. Shu'aib Salih of Herat, who
left a spirited little song in honour of a young Christian maiden ;
Raunaqi of Bokhara; Abu'1-Fath of Bust, who was also a good
Arabic poet; the amir Abu '1-Hasan 'AH Alagatchl, who handled
the pen as skilfully as the sword; 'Umara of Merv, a famous

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE]

PERSIA

249

Tabari.

Dttkiki.

astronomer; and Kisa'i, a native of the same town, a man of
stern and ascetic manners, who sang in melodious rhythm the
praise of "All and the twelve imams. All these poets flourished
under the patronage of the Samanid princes, who also fostered
the growing desire of their nation for historical and antiquarian
researches, for exegetical and medical studies. Mansur L, the
grandson of Rudagi's patron, ordered (963; 352 a.h.) his vizier
Bal'aml to translate the famous universal history of Tabari
(838-923 a.d.) from Arabic into Persian; and this
Ta'rikh-i-Tabari, the oldest prose work in modern
Persian, is not merely remarkable from a philological point of
view, it is also the classic model of an easy and simple style
(French trans, by L. Dubeux and H. Zotenberg, 1867-1874).
The same prince employed the most learned among the ulema
of Transoxiana for a translation of fabarl's second great
work, the Tafsir, or commentary on the Koran, and accepted
the dedication of the first Persian book on medicine, a pharma-
copoeia by the physician Abu Mansur Muwaffaq b. 'All of
Herat (edited by Seligmann, Vienna, 1859), which forms a kind
of connecting link between Greek and Indian medicine. It was
soon after further developed by the great Avicenna (d. 1037;
428 a.h.), himself a Persian by birth and author of pretty wine-
songs, moral maxims, psychological tracts, and a manual
of philosophic science, the Ddnishndma-i-Ala'i, in his native
tongue.

A still greater impulse was given, both to the patriotic feelings
and the national poetry of the Persians, by Mansur's son and suc-
cessor. Prince Niih II., who ascended the throne in 976 (365
a.h.). Full of enthusiasm for the glorious past of the old
Iranian kingdom, he charged his court poet Daklkl (Daqiqi),
who openly professed in his ghazals the Zoroastrian
creed, to turn the Khodd'lnama, or " Book of Kings,"
into Persian verse. Shortly after commencing this work Dakiki
was murdered in the prime of life; his death was soon followed
by the fall of the Samanid dynasty itself. But Dakiki's great
enterprise was not abandoned; a stronger hand, a higher genius,
was to continue and to complete it, and this genius was found
in FirdousI (040-1020; 328-411 a.h.), with whom we
enter the golden age of the national epopee in Persia
(see FirdousI). In ion, after thirty-five years of unremitting
labour, he accomplished his gigantic task, and wrote the last dis-
tichs of the immortal Shahndma, that " glorious monument of
Eastern genius and learning," as Sir W. Jones calls it, " which, if
ever it should be generally understood in its original language,
will contest the merit of invention with Homer itself." The Shdh-
imitatlons otndma, from the very moment of its appearance,
the "Shah- exercised such an irresistible fascination upon all
aSma. ' minds that there was soon a keen competition
among the younger poets as to who should produce the
most successful imitation of that classic model; and this competi-
tion has gone on under different forms through all the following
centuries, even to the most recent times. First of all, the old
popular traditions, so far as they had not yet been exhausted
by FirdousI, were ransacked for new epic themes, and a regular
cycle of national epopees gathered round the Book of Kings,
drawn almost exclusively from the archives of the princes of
Sejistan, the family of Firdousl's greatest hero, Rustam. The
first and most ambitious of these competitors seems to have
been Asadl's own son, 'All b. Ahmad al-Asadl, the author of
the oldest Persian glossary, who completed in 1066 (458 a.h.),
in upwards of 9000 distichs, the Garshdspndma, or marvellous
story of the warlike feats and love adventures of Garshasp,
one of Rustam's ancestors. The heroic deeds of Rustam's
grandfather were celebrated in the Sdmndma, which almost
equals the Shahndma in length; those of Rustam's two sons, in
the J ahdgairndma and the Fardmurzndma; those of his daughter,
an amazon, in the Brunhild style of the German Nibelunge, in
the Bdnu Gushdspndma;those of his grandson in the Barsundma;
those of his great-grandson in the Shahriydrndma (ascribed
to Mukhtarl and dedicated to Mas'ud Shah, who is probably
identical with Mas'ud b. Ibrahim, Sultan Mahmiid's great-
grandson, 1099-1 114; 492-508 a.h.); and the wonderful exploits

FirdousI.

of a son of Isfandiyar, another hero of the Shahndma, in the
Bahmanndma.

When these old Iranian sources were almost exhausted, the
difficulty was met in various ingenious ways. Where some
slight historical records of the heroic age were still obtainable
poetical imagination seized upon them at once; where no tradi-
tions at all were forthcoming fiction pure and simple asserted its
right; and thus the national epopee gave way to the epic story,
and — substituting prose for verse — -to the novel and the fairy
tale. Models of the former class are the various Iskandarndmas,
or " Books of Alexander the Great," the oldest and most original
of which is that of NizamI of Ganja, the modern Elizavetpol
(completed about 1262; 599 a.h.); the latter begins with the
Kitdb-i-Samak 'Iydr, a novel in three volumes (about n 89;
585 a.h.), and reaches its climax in the Bustdn-i-Khayal,
or " Garden of Imagination," a prose romance of fifteen
large volumes, by Mahommed Taki Khayal, written between
1742 and 1756 (1135 and 1169 a.h.). Some writers, both
in prose and verse, turned from the exhausted fields of the
national glory of Persia, and chose their subjects from the
chivalrous times of their own Bedouin conquerors, or even
from the Jewish legends of the Koran. Of this description are
the Anbiydndnta, or history of the pre-Mahommedan prophets,
by Hasan! Shabistari 'Ayani (before the 8th century of the
Hegira); Ibn Husam's Khdwarndma (1427; 830 a.h.), of the
deeds of 'All; Badhil's TJ.amla-i-J}aidari, which was completed
by Najaf (1723; 1135 A.H.), or the life of Mahommed and the
first four caliphs; K&zim's Farahndma-i-Fdtima, the book of
joy of Fatima, Mahomet's daughter (1737; 1150 a.h.) — all four
in the epic metre of the Shahndma; and the prose stories of Jfdlim
Td'i, the famous model of liberality and generosity in pre-
Islamitic times; of Amir ffamzah, the uncle of Mahomet; and of
the Mu'jizdt-i-Musawi, or the miraculous deeds of Moses, by
Mu'tn-almiskln (died about 1501; 907 a.h.).

Quite a different turn was taken by the ambition of another
class of imitators of FirdousI, especially during the last four
centuries of the Hegira, who tried to create a new
heroic epopee by celebrating in rhythm and rhyme
stirring events of recent date. The gigantic figure of Timur
inspired Hatifi (d. 1521; 927 a.h.) with his Timurndma; the
stormy epoch of the first Safawid rulers, who succeeded at last
in reuniting for some time the various provinces of the old
Persian realm into one great monarchy, furnished KasimI (died
after 1560; 967 a.h.) 1 with the materials of his Shahndma, a
poetical history of Shah Isma'Il and Shah Tahmasp. Another
Shahndma, celebrating Shah 'Abbas the Great, was written by
Kamali of Sabzevar; and even the cruelties of Nadir Shah were
duly chronicled in a pompous epic style in Tshrati's Shdhnama-i-
Nddiri (1749; 1162 a.h.). But all these poems are surpassed
in length by the 33,000 distichs of the Shdhinshdhnama by the
poet-laureate of Fath 'All Shah of Persia (1797-1834), and the
40,000 distichs of the Georgendma, a poetical history of India
from its discovery by the Portuguese to the conquest of PoOna
by the English in 18 17. In India this kind of epic versifica-
tion has flourished since the beginning of Humayun's reign
(i53o-i556);e.g. the Zafarndma-i-Shdhjahdni byKuds! (d. 1646;
1056 a.h.); the Shdhinshdhndma by Talib Kalim (d. 1651;
1061 a.h.), another panegyrist of Shah Jahan; Atashl's 'Adil-
ndma, in honour of Shah Mahommed 'Adil of Bijapur, who
ascended the throne in 1629 (1039 a.h.) or 1627; the Tawdrikh-
i-K.ull Kutbshdh, a metrical history of the Kutb shahs of
Golconda; and many more, down to the Fathndma-i-TipU
Sultan by Ghulam Hasan (1784; 1198 a.h.).

But the national epopee was not the only bequest the great
FirdousI left to his nation. This rich genius gave also the first
impulse to romantic, didactic and mystic poetry; and even his
own age produced powerful co-operators in these three most
conspicuous departments of Persian literature.
Romantic fiction, which achieved its highest triumph Fiction.
in Ni?ami of Ganja's (1141-1203; 535-599 a.h.)
brilliant pictures of the struggles and passions in the human heart
1 After 1572 (979 a.h.) according to H. E. in Grundriss, ii. 237.

Later Epics.

250

PERSIA

[LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

(see Nizami), sent forth its first tender shoots in the numerous
love stories of the Shahndma, the most fascinating of which is that
of Zal and Rtidabeh, and developed almost into full bloom in
Firdousl's second great mathnawi Yusuf u Zalikha, which the
aged poet wrote after his flight from Ghazni, and dedicated to the
reigning caliph of Bagdad, al Qadir billah. It represents the
oldest poetical treatment of the Biblical story of Joseph, which
has proved so attractive to the epic poets of Persia, among others
to 'Am'ak of Bokhara (d. 1149), who was the first after FirdousI to
write a Yusuf u Zalikha to Jam! (d. 1492); Mauji Kasim Khan,
Humayun's amir (d. 1571), Nazim of Herat (d. 1670),
and Shaukat, the governor of Shiraz under Fath 'All Shah.
Perhaps prior in date to Firdousl's Yusuf was his patron 'Unsurl's
romance, Wamik u Adhrd, a popular Iranian legend of great
antiquity, which had been first written in verse under the Tahirid
dynasty. This favourite story was treated again by Fasihl
JurjanI (5th century of the Hegira), and by many modern poets —
as Damlri, who died under the Safawi shah Mahommed (1577-
1586; 985-994 a.h.), Nami, the historiographer of the Zand
dynasty, and Hosain of Shiraz under Fath 'All Shah, the last
two flourishing towards the beginning of the present century.
Another love story of similar antiquity formed the basis of
Fakr-uddin As'ad Jorjani's Wis u Rdmin, which was composed
in Isfahan about 1048 (440 a.h.) — a poem remarkable not only
for its high artistic value but also for its resemblance to Gottfried
von Strassburg's Tristan und Isolt.

The last-named Persian poet was apparently one of the earliest
eulogists of the Seljuks, and it was under this Turkish dynasty
Encomiasts that lyrical romanticism rose to the highest pitch.
and What FirdousI and the court-poets of Sultan Mahmud

Satirists. na£ j commence( j j w h a t Abu '1-Faraj RunI of Lahore
and Mas'ud b. Sa'd b. Salman (under Sultan Ibrahim, 1059-
1099) had successfully continued, reached its perfection in the
famous group of panegyrists who gathered in the first half of the
6th century of the Hegira round the throne of Sultan Sinjar,
and partly also round that of his great antagonist, Atsiz, shah of
Khwarizm. This group included Adlb Sabir, who was drowned
by order of the prince in the Oxus about 1145 (540 a.h.), and his
pupil Jauharl, the goldsmith of Bokhara; Amir Mu'izzl, the king
of poets at Sin jar's court, killed by astray arrow in 1147 (542 a.h.),
Rashld Watwat (the Swallow) who died in 1182 (578 a.h.),
and left, besides his kasidas, a valuable treatise on poetry
(Hadd'ik-essihr) and a metrical translation of the sentences of
'All, 'Abd-alwasi' Jaball, who sang at first, like his contem-
porary Hasan Ghaznawi (d. 1169; 565 a.h.), the praise of the
Ghaznevid shah Bahram, but afterwards bestowed his eulogies
upon Sinjar, the conqueror of Ghazni; and Auljad-uddin Anwari,
the most celebrated kaslda-writer of the whole Persian literature.
Anwari (died between 1189 and 1191; 585 and 587 a.h.), who
in early life had pursued scientific studies in the madrasa of Tus,
and who ranked among the foremost astronomers of his time,
owes his renown as much to the inexhaustible store of poetical
similes and epitheta ornantia which he showered upon Sinjar
and other royal and princely personages, as to his cutting sar-
casms, which he was careful to direct, not against individuals,
but against whole classes of society and the cruel wrong worked
by an inexorable fate — thus disregarding the example of
FirdousI, whose attack upon Sultan Mahmud for having cheated
him out of the reward for his epopee is the oldest and most
finished specimen of personal satire. This legitimate branch of
high art, however, soon degenerated either into the lower forms
of parody and travesty — for which, for instance, a whole
group of Transoxanian writers, Suzanl of Samarkand (d. 11 74;
569 a.h.) and his contemporaries, Abu 'AH ShatranjI of the same
town, Lami' of Bokhara, and others gained a certain literary
reputation — or into mere comic pieces and jocular poems like
the " Pleasantries " (Hazliyydt) and the humorous stories of the
" Mouse and Cat " and the " Stone-cutter " (Sangtarash) by
'Ubaid Zakani (d. 1370; 772 a.h.). Anwari's greatest rival
was KhakanI (d. 1199; 595 a.h.), the son of a carpenter in
ShlrvSn, and panegyrist of the shahs of Shlrvan, usually called
the Pindar of the East. To European taste only the shorter

epigrams and the double-rhymed poem TuhfatuTirakain, in
which KhakanI describes his journey to Mecca and back, give
full satisfaction. Among his numerous contemporaries and
followers may be noticed Mujlr-uddin BailakanI (d. n 98;
594 a.h.); Zahir FaryabI (d. 1202; 598 a.h.) and Athlr
Akhslkati (d. 1211; 608 a.h.) — all three panegyrists of the
atabegs of Azerbaijan, and especially of Sultan Kizil Arslan —
Kamal-uddln Isfaha.nl, tortured to death by the Moguls in 1237
(635 a.h.), who sang, like his father Jamal-uddln, the praise of
the governors of Isfahan, and gained the epithet of the " creator
of fine thoughts " (Khallak-ulma'anl) ; and Saif-uddin Isfarangi
(d. 1267; 666 a.h.), a favourite of the shahs of Khwarizm.

Fruitful as the 6th and 7th centuries of the Hegira were in
panegyrics, they attained an equally high standard in didactic
and mystic poetry. The origin of both can again Didactic ana
be traced to FirdousI and his time. In the ethical Mystic
reflections, wise maxims and moral exhortations Poet O'-
scattered throughout the Shahndma the didactic element is
plainly visible, and equally plain in it are the traces of that
mystical tendency which was soon to pervade almost all the
literary productions of Persian genius. But the most character-
istic passage of the epopee is the mysterious disappearance of
Shah Kaikhosrau, who suddenly, when at the height of earthly
fame and splendour, renounces the world in utter disgust, and,
carried away by his fervent longing for an abode of everlasting
tranquillity, vanishes for ever from the midst of his companions.
The first Persian who employed poetry exclusively for the
illustration of Sufic doctrines was Firdousl's con- „ ff p oets
temporary, the renowned sheikh Abu Sa'Id b. Abu
1-Khair of Mahna in Khorasan (968-1049; 357-440 a.h.), the
founder of that specific form of the ruba'I which gives the most
concise expression to religious and philosophic aphorisms
— a form which was further developed by the great free-
thinker 'Omar b. Khayyam (q.v.), and Afdal-uddln Klash
(d. 1307; 707 A.H.). The year of Abu Sa'Id's death is most
likely that of the first great didactic mathnawi, the Rilshan.
a'indma, or " Book of Enlightenment," by Nasir Khosrau
(q.v.), a poem full of sound moral and ethical maxims with
slightly mystical tendencies. About twenty-five years later the
first theoretical handbook of Suflsm in Persian was composed by
'All b. 'Uthman al-Jullabl al-Hujwirl in the Kashf-ulmahjub, or,
" Revelation of Hidden Things," which treats of the various
schools of Sufis, their teachings and observances. A great saint
of the same period, Sheikh 'Abdallah Ansari of Herat (1006-
1089; 396-481 a.h.), assisted in spreading the pantheistic move-
ment by his Mundjdt or " Invocations to God," by several prose
tracts, and by an important collection of biographies of eminent
Sufis, based on an older Arabic compilation, and serving in its
turn as groundwork for Jami's excellent Nafahdt-aluns (completed
in 1478; 883 a.h.). He thus paved the way for the publication
of one of the earliest textbooks of the whole sect, the Jfadikat-
ulhakikat, or " Garden of Truth " (1130; 525 a.h.), by Hakim
Sana. 'I of Ghazni, to whom all the later Stifle poets refer as their
unrivalled master in spiritual knowledge. As the most uncom-
promising Sufis appear the greatest pantheistic writer of all ages,
Jelal ud-din RumI (1207-1273; 604-672 a.h.; see Rumi), and
his scarcely less renowned predecessor Farid ud-dln 'Attar, who
was slain by the Moguls at the age of 114 lunar years in 1230
(627 a.h.). This prolific writer, having performed the pilgrim-
age to Mecca, devoted himself to a stern ascetic life, and to the
composition of Sufic works, partly in prose, as in his valuable
" Biography of Eminent Mystic Divines," but mostly in the form
of mathnawls (upwards of twenty in number), among which the
Pandndma, or " Book of Counsels," and the Mantik-uttair, or
the "Speeches of Birds," occupy the first rank. In the latter,
an allegorical poem, interspersed with moral tales and pious
contemplations, the final absorption of the Sufi in the deity is
most ingeniously illustrated.

In strong contrast to these advanced Sufis stands the greatest
moral teacher of Persia, Sheikh Sa'dl of Shiraz (died about 1 10
lunar years old in 1292; 691 a.h.; see Sa'di), whose two
best known works are the Bustdn, or " Fruit-garden," and

PERSIA

251

Lyric Poetry.

the Gulistan, or " Rose-garden." However, both have found
comparatively few imitations — the former in the Daslurnama,
Sa>l// or " Book of Exemplars," of Nizari of Kohistan

(d. 1320; 720 A.H.), in the Dah Bab, or
" Ten Letters," of Katibi (d. 1434; 838 a.h.), and in the
Gulzdr, or " Rose-bower," of HairatI (murdered 1554;
961 a.h.); the latter in Mu'In-uddln Juwaini's Nigdristdn, or
" Picture-gallery " (1335; 735 a.h.) and Jami's Bahdrisldn, or
"Spring-garden" (1487; 892 a.h.); whereas an innumerable
host of purely Suflc compositions followed in the wake of
Sana'I's, 'Attar's and Jelal ud-din Ruml's mathnawis. It will
suffice to name a few of the most conspicuous. The
SD/fc Works Lama at, or " Sparks," of 'Iraki (d. between 1287 and
1309; 686 and 709 a.h.), the Zad-ulmusafirin, or
" Store of the Wayfarers," by HusainI (d. 1318; 718 a.h.), the
Gulshan-i-Rdz, or " Rose-bed of Mystery," by Mahmud Shabis-
tari (d. 1320; 720 a.h.), the Jdm-i-Jam, or " Cup of Jamshld,"
by AuhadI (d. 1338; 738 a.h.), the Anis-td 'Arifin, or "Friend
of the Mystics," by Kasim (Qasim)-i-Anwar (d. 1434; 837 a.h.),
and others; 'Assar's Mihr u Mushtari, or " Sun and Jupiter "
^1376; 778 a.h.), 'Ariffs Gili u Chaugdn, or "The Ball and the
Bat " (1438; 842 a.h.), Ifusn u Dil, or " Beauty and Heart,"
by Fattahl of Nlshapur(d. 1448; 852.A.H.), Sham' u Parwdna, or
" The Candle and the Moth," by Ahll of Shlraz (1489; 894 a.h.),
Shah u Gadd, or " King and Dervish," by Hilali (put to death
I 53 2 ! 939 a.h.), Baha-ud-din 'Amill's (d. 1621; 1030 a.h.)
Nan u Halivd, or " Bread and Sweets," Shir u Shakar, or " Milk
and Sugar," and many more.

During all these periods of literary activity, lyric poetry, pure
and simple, had by no means been neglected; almost all the
renowned poets since the time of Rudagi had sung in
endless strains the pleasures of love and wine, the
beauties of nature, and the almighty power of the Creator; but
it was left to the incomparable genius of Hafiz (d. 1389; 791 a.h.;
see Hafiz) to give to the world the most perfect models of lyric
composition; and the lines he had laid down were more or less
strictly followed by all the ghazal-writers of the 9th
and 10th centuries of the Hegira — by Salman of Sawa
(d. about 1377; 779 a.h.), who excelled besides in
kaskla and mathnawl; Kamal Khujandl (d. 1400; 803 a.h.),
Hafiz's friend, and protege of Sultan Hosain (1374-1382 a.d.);
Mahommed Shlrln Maghrib! (d. at Tabriz in 1406; 809 a.h.), an
intimate friend of Kamal; Ni'mat-ullah Wall (d. 1431; 834 a.h.),
the founder of a special religious order; Kasim-i-Anwar (see
above); Amir Shahl (d. 1453; 857 a.h.), of the princely family
of the Sarbadars of Sabzewar; Banna'I (d. 1512; 918 a.h.),
who also wrote a romantic poem, Bahrdm u Bihruz; Baba
Fighani of Shlraz (d. 1519; 925 a.h.), usually called the " Little
Hafiz "; NargisI (d. 1531; 938 a.h.); Lisani (d. 1534; 941 a.h.),
who himself was imitated by Damlr! of Isfahan, Muhtasham
Kashi and Wahshl Bank! (all three died in the last decade of the
10th century of the Hegira); Ahli of Shlraz (d. 1535; 942 a.h.),
author of the Sihr-i-J}aldl, or "Lawful Witchcraft," which, like
Katlbl's (d. 1434; 838 a.h.) Majma'-ulbahrain, of the "Con-
fluence of the Two Seas," can be read in two different metres;
Nau'i (d. 1610; 1019 a.h.), who wrote the charming romance of
a Hindu princess who burned herself in Akbar's reign with her
deceased husband on the funeral pile, called Suz u Guddz, or
" Burning and Melting," &c. Among the immediate predeces-
sors of Hafiz in the 8th century of the Hegira, in which also Ibn
Yamin, the great kit'a-writer, 1 flourished, the highest fame was
gained by the two poets of Delhi, Amir Hasan and Amir Khosrau.
The latter, who died in 1325 (725 a.h.), two years before his
friend Hasan, occupies the foremost place among all the Persian
poets of India by the richness of his imagination, his graphic
style, and the historical interest attached to his writings. Five
extensive dlwans testify to his versatility in all branches of lyric
poetry, and nine large mathnawis to his mastership in the epic
line. Four of the latter are poetical accounts of the reigns of

1 A kk'a or mukatta'a is a poem containing moral reflections, and
differs from the fcasida and ghazal only by the absence of a ma^la'
or initial distich.

Ghazal'
writers.

the emperors of Delhi, 'Ala-uddln Khilji (1296-1316), his pre-
decessor Feroz Shah and his successor Kutb-uddln Mubarek
Shah — the Miftdh-uljutuh, or " Key of Victories," the Kirdn-
ussa'dain, or " The Conjunction of the Two Lucky Planets,"
the Nuh Sipihr, or " Nine Spheres," and the love-story of
Khidrkhdn u Duwalrani. His other five mathnawis formed the
first attempt ever made to imitate Nizami's famous Khamsah,
or five romantic epopees, and this attempt turned out so well that
henceforth almost all epic poets wrote quintuples of a similar
description. Khwaju KirmanI (d. 1352; 753 a.h.) was the next
aspirant to Nizami's fame, with five mathnawis, among which
Humdi u Humayiln is the most popular, but he had to yield the
palm to 'Abd urrahman Jam! (1414-1492; 817-898 a.h.), the
last classic poet of Persia, in whose genius were .
summed up all the best qualities of his great r3rede- £, ater p oe t&,
cessors. Many poets followed in Jami's footsteps,
first of all his nephew Hatifl (see above), and either wrote whole
khamsahs or imitated at least one or other of Nizami's epopees;
thus we have a Laila u Majnun, for instance, by MaktabI (1490),
Hilali (see above), and Ruh-ulamln (d. 1637). But their
efforts could not stop the growing corruption of taste, and it was
only at the court of the Mogul emperors, particularly of the
great Akbar (1556-1605), who revived Sultan Mahmud's " round
table," that Persian literature still enjoyed some kind of " Indian
summer " in poets like Ghazall of Mashhad or Meshed
(d. 1572); 'Urfi of Shlraz (d. 1591), who wrote spirited kasldas,
and, like his contemporaries Wahshl and Kauthari, a mathnawl,
Farhdd u Shirin; and FaidI (d. 1595), the author of the romantic
poem, Nal u Daman, who also imparted new life into the ruba'I.
In Persia proper only Zulall, whose clever romance of " Sultan
Mahmud and his favourite Ayaz " (1592) is widely read in the
East, Sa'ib (d. 1677), who is commonly called the creator of a
new style in lyric poetry, and, among the most modern, Hatif
of Isfahan, the singer of sweet and tasteful odes (died about
1785), deserve a passing notice.

But we cannot conclude our brief survey of the national
literature of Persia without calling attention to the rise of the
drama, which has only sprung up in the beginning of The Drama
the nineteenth century. Like the Greek drama and
the mysteries of the European middle ages, it is the offspring of n
purely religious ceremony, which for centuries has been performed
annually during the first ten days of the month Muharram — the
recital of mournful lamentations in memory of the tragic fate
of the house of the caliph 'All, the hero of the ShI'itic Persians.
Most of these passion-plays deal with the slaughter of 'All's son
Hosain and his family in the battle of Kerbela. But lately this
narrow range of dramatic subjects has been considerably widened,
Biblical stories and even Christian legends have been brought
upon the Persian stage; and there is a fair prospect of a further
development of this most interesting and important movement.
(See further Drama: Persian.)

In the various departments of general Persian literature not
touched upon in the foregoing pages the same wonderful activity
has prevailed as in the realm of poetry and fiction, Historical
since the first books on history and medicine appeared works.
under the Samanids (see above). The most important
section is that of historical works, which, although deficient in
sound criticism and often spoiled by a highly artificial style,
supply us with most valuable materials for our own research.
Quite unique in this respect are the numerous histories of India,
from the first invasion of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni to the English
conquest, and even to the first decades of the present century,
most of which have been described and partly translated in the
eight volumes of Sir H. M. Elliot's History of India (1867-1878).
Persian writers have given us, besides, an immense variety of
universal histories of the world, with many curious and note-
worthy data (see, among others, Mlrkhond's and Khwandamlr's
works under MIrkhond); histories of Mahomet and the first
caliphs, partly translated from Arabic originals, which have been
lost; detailed accounts of all the Persian dynasties, from the
Ghaznevids to the still reigning Kajars, of Jenghiz Khan and
the Moguls (in Juwaini's and Wassaf's elaborate Ta'rlkhs), and

2$2

PERSIGNY— PERSIS

of Tlmur and his successors (see an account of the Zafarndma
under Petis de la Croix) ; histories of sects and creeds, especially
the famous DoMstdn, or " School of Manners " (translated by
Shea and Troyer, Paris 1843); and many local chronicles of Iran
and TurSn. Next in importance to history rank geography,
cosmography, and travels (for instance, the Nuzhat-ulkulub, by
Hamdallah Mustaufi, who died in 1340, and the translations of
Istakhri's and Kazvmi's Arabic works), and the various tadhkiras
or biographies of Sufis and poets, with selections in prose and
verse, from the oldest of 'AufI (about 1220) to the last and largest
of all, the M akhzan-ulghara'ib, or " Treasure of Marvellous
Matters" (completed 1803), which contains biographies and
specimens of more than 3000 poets. We pass over the well-
stocked sections of philosophy, ethics and politics, of theology,
law and Suflsm, of mathematics and astronomy, of medicine
(the oldest thesaurus of which is the " Treasure of the shah of
Khwarizam," 1x10), of Arabic, Persian and Turkish grammar and
lexicography, and only cast a parting glance at the rich collection
of old Indian folk-lore and fables preserved in the Persian version

of Kalllah u Dimnah (see Rudagi), of the Sindbdd-
Fo/AWbre nama, the Tutinama, or " Tales of a Parrot," and

others, and at the translations of standard works
of Sanskrit literature, the epopees of the Rdmdyana and
Mahabharata, the Bhagavad-Gita, the Yoga-Vasishtha, and
numerous Purdnas and Upanishads, for which we are mostly
indebted to the emperor Akbar's indefatigable zeal.

Authorities. — The standard modern discussions of Persian
literature are those of E. G. Browne, Literary History of Persia
(1902, seq.), and Hermann Ethe, in vol. ii. of Geiger and Kuhn's
Grundriss der iranischen Philologie (Strassburg, 1906) ; also
the latter's Hbfische und romantische Poesie der Perser (1887), and
Mystisck9t didaktische und lyrische Poesie und das spatere Schriftthum
der Perser (1888). See also P. Horn, Geschichte der persischen
Litteralur (1901). Concise sketches of Persian poetry are contained
in Sir G. Ouseley's Biographical Notices of Persian Poets (1846);
in G. L. Fliigel's article in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Ency-
klopddie (1842); in N. Bland's papers in the 'Journ. of the Roy.
As. Soc, vii. 345 seq. and ix. 122 seq.; and in C. A. C. Barbier
de Meynard's Poesie en Perse (Paris, 1877). Real mines of informa-
tion are the catalogues of A. Sprenger (Calcutta, 1854); W. H.
Morley (London, 1854); Flugel (3 vols., Vienna, 1865); and C. Rieu
(3 vols., London, 1879-1883). For the first five centuries of the
Hegira compare Ethe's editions and metrical translations of
" Rfldagi's Vorlaufer und Zeitgenossen," in Morgenlandische
Forschungen (Leipzig, 1875); of Kisa'i's songs, Firdousl's lyrics,
and Abu Sa'id b. Abu '1-Khair's ruba'is, in Sitzungsberichte der
bayr. Akademie (1872, p. 275 seq.; 1873, p. 622 seq.; 1874, p. 133 seq.;
1875, p. 145 seq.; and 1878, p. 38 seq.); of Avicenna's Persian
poems, in Gbttinger Nachrichten (1875, p. 555 seq.) ; and of Asadi and
his munazarat, in " Persische Tenzonen," Verhandlungen des $ten
Orientalisten-Congresses (Berlin, 1882, pt. ii., first half, p. 48 seq.);
H. Zotenberg's Chronique de Tabari (Paris, 1867-1874); Jurjani's
Wis u Ramln, ed. in the Bibl. Indica (1864) (trans, into German
by C. H. Graf in Zeitschrift der morgenldndischen Gesellschaft, xxiii.
375 seq-); and A. de B. Kasimirski's Specimen du dvwan de Menout-
chehri (Versailles, 1876). On Khakani, see N. de Khanykoff's
" M6moire," in Journal asiatique, 6th series, vol. iv. p. 137 seq.
and vol. v. p. 296 seq., and C. Salemann's edition of his ruba'is, with
Russian trans. (Petersburg, 1875); on Farid uddin 'Attar, S. de
Sacy's edition of the Pandnama (Paris, 1819), and Garcin de Tassy's
Mantifr-uttair (Paris, 1857); on the Gulshan-i-raz, E. H. Whinfield's
edition (London, 1880); and on Amir Khosrau's mathnawis, the
abstracts given in Elliot's History of India, iii. 524 seq. German
translations of Ibn Yamin were published by O. Schlechta-Wssehrd,
Bruchstucke (Vienna, 1852); of Jaml's minor poems, by V. von
Rosenzweig (Vienna, 1840); by F. Rtickert, in Zeitschrift fur die
Kunde des Morgenlandes, vols. v. and vi., and Zeitschrift der d. morgenl.
Gesellsch., vols, ii., iv., v., vi., xxiv., xxv. and xxix. ; and by M. Wick-
erhauser (Leipzig, 1855, and Vienna, 1858); German translation of
Yusufu Zalikha, by Rosenzweig (Vienna, 1824), English by R. T. H.
Griffith (London, 1881); French translation of Laila u Majnun,
by A. L. de Ch6zy (Paris, 1 805) , German by A. T. Hartmann (Leipzig,
1807); Hilali's " Konig und Derwisch," by Ethe\ in Morgenldnd.
Stud. (Leipzig, 1870, p. 197 seq.). On the Persian drama, compare
J. A. de Gobineau's Religions et philosophies dans I'Asie centrale
(Paris, 1866); A. Chodzko's Thedtre person (new ed., Paris, 1878);
and Ethe\ " Persische Passionspiele," in Morgenldnd. Stud., p. 174 seq.

(H. E.)

PERSIGNY, JEAN GILBERT VICTOR FIALIN, Ducde (1808-
1872), French statesman, was born at Saint-German Lespinasse
(Loire) on the nth of January 1808, the son of a receiver
of taxes. He was educated at Limoges, and entered the cavalry

school at Saumur in 1826, becoming marechal des logis in the
4th Hussars two years later. The share taken by his regiment
in supporting the revolution of 1830 was regarded as insub-
ordination, and next year Fialin was dismissed from the army.
He became a journalist, and in 1833 became a strong Bonapartist,
assuming the title of comte de Persigny, said to be dormant
in his family. He planned the attempt on Strassburg in 1836
and that on Boulogne in 1840. At Boulogne he was arrested and
condemned to twenty years' imprisonment in a fortress, shortly
afterwards commuted into mild detention at Versailles, where
he wrote a book to prove that the Pyramids were built to prevent
the Nile from silting up. This was published in 1845 under the
title, De la Destination et de Vutilitt permanente des Pyramides.
At the revolution of 1848 he was arrested by the provisional
government, and on his release took a prominent part in securing
the election of Louis Napoleon to the presidency. With Morny
and the marshal Saint Arnaud he plotted the restoration of the
empire, and was a devoted servant of Napoleon III. He
succeeded Morny as minister of the interior in January 1852,
and later in the year became senator. He resigned office in
1854, being appointed next year to the London embassy, which
he occupied with a short interval (1858-1859) until i860, when he
resumed the portfolio of the interior. But the growing influence
of his rival Rouher provoked his resignation in 1863, when he
received the title of duke. A more dangerous enemy than
Rouher was the empress Eugenie, whose marriage he had opposed
and whose presence in the council chamber he deprecated in a
memorandum which fell into the empress's hands. He sought
in vain to see Napoleon before he started to take over the
command in 1870, and the breach was further widened when
master and servant were in exile. Persigny returned to France
in 1871, and died at Nice on the nth of January 1872.

See Memoires du due de Persigny (2nd ed., 1896), edited by H.
de Laire d'Espagny, his former secretary; an eulogistic life, Le Due
de Persigny (1865), by Delaroa; and Emile Ollivier's Empire libiral
(1895, &c).

PERSIMMON, the name given to the fruits of Diospyros
virginiana in the United States. The tree which bears them
belongs to the order Ebenaceae, is usually from 30 to 50 ft. in
height, and has oval entire, leaves, and unisexual flowers on short
stalks. In the male flowers, which are numerous, the stamens
are sixteen in number and arranged in pairs; the female flowers
are solitary, with traces of stamens, and a smooth ovary with
one ovule in each of the eight cells — the ovary is surmounted by
four styles, which are hairy at the base. The fruit-stalk is
very short, bearing a subglobose fruit an inch or rather more in
diameter, of an orange-yellow colour, and with a sweetish astrin-
gent pulp. It is surrounded at the base by the persistent calyx-
lobes, which increase in size as the fruit ripens. The astringency
renders the fruit somewhat unpalatable, but after it has been
subjected to the action of frost, or has become partially rotted
or " bletted " like a medlar, its flavour is improved. The fruit
is eaten in great quantities in the southern states of America,
and is also fermented with hops, corn-meal or wheat-bran into
a sort of beer or made into brandy. The wood is heavy, strong
and very close-grained and used in turnery. The tree is very
common in the South Atlantic and Gulf states, and attains its
largest size in the basin of the Mississippi. It was brought to
England before 1629 and is cultivated, but rarely if ever ripens
its fruit. It is easily raised from seed and can also be propagated
from stolons, which are often produced in great quantity.
The Chinese and Japanese cultivate another species, the
Diospyros Kaki, of which there exist numerous ill-defined varieties.
The fruits are larger than those of the American kind, variable
in shape, but have similar properties. An astringent fluid,
known as shibu, rich <in tannin, is expressed from the green
fruit and used in various industries. The tree is hardy in the
south of England and in the Channel Islands.

PERSIS (mod. Fars, q.v.), the south-western part of Iran
(Persia), named from the inhabitants, the Iranian people of the
Parsa (Fars) ; their name was pronounced by the Ionians Persai,
with change from a to e, and this form has become dominant

PERSIS

253

in Greek and in the modern European languages. The natural
features of Persis are described very exactly by Nearchus, the
admiral of Alexander the Great (preserved by Arrian Indie.
40 and Strabo xv. 727). The country is divided into three
parts, of very different character and climate: the coast is sandy
and very hot, without much vegetation except date palms; it
has no good harbours, and the climate is very unwholesome;
the population is scanty. About 50 m. from the coast rise the
chains of the mountains, through which some steep passes lead
into the interior valleys (called KoCkri Hepcris, Strabo xv.
729), which lie about 5000 ft. above the sea. Here the climate
is temperate, the country watered by many rivers and lakes,
the soil fertile, the vegetation rich, the cattle numerous. These
regions, which were thickly populated, form the real Persis of
history. " This land Persis," says Darius, in an inscription
at Persepolis, " which Ahuramazda has given to me, which is
beautiful and rich in horses and men, according to the wilt of
Ahuramazda and myself it trembles before no enemy." The
third part is the north, which belongs to the central plateau, still
much higher, and therefore rough and very cold in the winter.
Towards the north-west it borders on the Median district of
Paraetacene (about Isfahan); towards the north and north-east
it soon passes into the great desert, of which only the oasis
of Yezd (Isatichai in Ptolem. vi. 4, 2) is inhabitable. In the
east, Persis proper is separated by a desert (Laristan) from
the fertile province of Carmania (Kerman), a mountainous
region inhabited by a Persian tribe. To Carmania belonged
also the coast, with the islands and harbours of Hormuz and
Bander Abbasi. In the west Persis borders on the mountains
and plains of Elam or Susiana. For the ancient topography
cf. Tomaschek, " Beitrage zur historischen Topographie von
Persien," in Silzungsber. der Wiener Akademie, phil. CI. cii.
cviii. exxi.

The Persians are not mentioned in history before the time of
Cyrus; the attempt to identify them with, the Parsua, a district
in the Zagros chains south of Lake Urmia, often mentioned by
the Assyrians, is not tenable. The Parsua are perhaps the non-
Arian tribe IIdp<Hot in northern Media, Strabo xi. 508. Herodotus
i. 125, gives a list of Persian tribes: the Pasargadae (at Murghab),
Maraphii, Maspii, Panthialaei (in western Carmania), Derusiaei,
Germanii {i.e. the Carmanians) are husbandmen, the Dahae
(i.e. the " enemies," a general name of the rapacious nomads,
used also for the Turanian tribes), Mardi, Dropici, Sagartii
(called by Darius Asagarla, in the central desert; cf. Herod,
vii. 85) are nomads. The kings of the Pasargadae, from the
clan of the Achaemenidae, had become kings of the Elamitic
district Anshan (probably in 596, cf. Cyrus). When, in 553,
Cyrus, king of Anshan, rebelled against Astyages, the Maraphians
and Maspians joined with the Pasargadae; after his victory over
Astyages all the Persian tribes acknowledged him, and he took
the title of " king of Persia." But from then only the inhabitants
of Persis proper were considered as the rulers of the empire,
and remained therefore in the organization of Darius free from
taxes (Herod, iii. 97). But Carmania, with the Sagartians, the
Lilians (called by Darius Yautiya). and other tribes, formed a
satrapy and paid tribute (Herod, iii. 93); the later authors
therefore always distinguished between Carmania and Persis.
Names of other Persian tribes, partly of very doubtful authority,
are given by Strabo xv. 727, 1 and Ptolem. vi. 4 and 8.

The Persians of Cyrus (see Persia: Ancient History) were
a vigorous race of husbandmen, living in a healthy climate,
accustomed to hardship, brave and upright; many stories in
Herodotus (especially ix. 122) point the contrast between their
simple life and the effeminate nations of the civilized countries
of Asia. They were firmly attached to the pure creed of
Zoroaster (cf. Herod, i. 131 sqq. and the inscriptions of Darius).
When Darius had killed the usurper Smerdis and gained the
crown, a new usurper, Vahyazdata, who likewise pretended to
1 To the Pateiskhoreis belongs the lance-bearer of Darius,
" Gobryas (Gaubaruva) the Patishuvari," mentioned in his tomb-
inscription; they occur also in an inscription of Esarhaddon as
Patush-ara, eastwards of Media, in Choarene at the Caspian gates;
the Kyrtii are the Kurds.

be Smerdis, the son of Cyrus, rose in Yautiya, but was defeated
in two battles by Darius's generals and put to death (Behistun
inscription) . Cyrus had built his capital with his palace and tomb,
in Pasargadae (q.v.). Darius founded a new city about 30 m.
farther south on the left bank of the Pulwar, near its confluence
with the Kur, with a large terrace, on which his magnificent
palace and that of his son Xerxes were built. As Pasargadae was
named after the tribe in whose district it lay, so the new capital
is by the Persians and Greeks simply called " the Persians ";
later authors call it Persepolis (q.v.), " the Persian city."
Another Persian palace lay in Taoke, near the coast (Strabo
xv. 728; Arrian Ind. 39; Dionys. Perieg. 1069); Gabae, which
Strabo mentions besides, is Isfahan in Paraetacene and belonged
already to Media.

Both in Persepolis and Pasargadae large masses of gold and
silver from the tribute of the subject nations were treasured,
as in Susa and Ecbatana. But Persis lies too far off from the
centre of the Asiatic world to be the seat of government. Like
Arabia and similar countries, it could exercise a great momentary
influence in history and produce a sudden change throughout
the world; but afterwards it would sink into local insignificance.
So the Persian kings fixed their residence at Susa, which is always
considered as the capital of the empire (therefore Aeschylus
wrongly considers it as a Persian town and places the tomb of
Darius here). After the reign of Xerxes, Persis and Persepolis
became utterly neglected, in spite of occasional visits, and even
the palaces of Persepolis remained in part unfinished. But the
national feeling of the Persians remained strong. When Alexander
had won the victory of Arbela, and occupied Babylon and Susa,
he met (in the spring of 330) with strong resistance in Persia,
where the satrap Ariobarzanes tried to stop his progress at the
" Persian gates," the pass leading up to Persepolis. Here
he set fire to the cedar roof of the palace of Xerxes as a symbol
that the Greek war of revenge against the Persians had come
to an end. Our best information tells us that he soon had the
fire extinguished (Plut. Alex. 38); the story of Thais is a pure
fiction, and we may well believe that he repented the damage
he had done (Arrian vi. 50, 1).

Alexander had planned to amalgamate the former rulers
of the world with his Macedonians; but his death was followed
by a Macedonian reaction. Peucestas, the new satrap of
Persis, followed the example of Alexander, and thus gained a
strong hold on his subjects (Diod. xix. 48) ; nor did Seleucus, to
whom the dominion of the east ultimately passed (from 311
onwards), disdain the aid of the Persians; he is the only one
. among the Diadochi who retained his Persian wife, Apame,
daughter of Spitamenes. At the same time Seleucus and his
son Antiochus I. Soter tried to introduce Hellenism into Persis.
Of Greek towns which they founded here we know Alexandria
in Carmania (Plin. vi. 107; Ptol. vi. 8, 14; Ammian. Marc. 23,
6, 49), Laodicea in the east of Persis (Plin. 6, 115), Stasis, " a
Persian town on a great rock, which Antiochus, the son of
Seleucus, possessed " (Steph. Byz. s.v.), Antiochia in Persis,
founded apparently by Seleucus I. and peopled by Antiochus I.
with immigrants called together from all Greece, as we learn
from a psephisma passed by " boule and demos " of this town
in 206 in honour of Magnesia on the Maeander (Kern, Inschrijten
von Magnesia am Maeander, No. 6i = Dittenberger, Orientis gr.
inscr. 233, where they are mentioned together with a great
many Seleucid towns in Susiana and Babylonia, and compare
Kern, No. i8 = Dittenberger, No. 231). An insurrection of the
Persians against Seleucus (II.) is mentioned in two stratagems
of Polyaenus (vii. 39. 40). When in 221 Molon, the satrap of
Media, rebelled against Antiochus III., his brother Alexander,
satrap of Persis, joined him, but they were defeated and killed
by the king. Persis remained a part of the Seleucid empire
down to Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, who at the end of his reign
restored once more the authority of the empire in Babylonia,
Susiana and Persis; perhaps a battle, in which the satrap
Numenius of Mesene (southern Babylonia) defeated the Persians
on the shore of Carmania on sea and land (Plin. vi. 152), belongs
to this time. But after the death of Antiochus IV. (164) the

254

PERSIUS

Seleucid Empire began to dissolve. While the central pro-
vinces, Media and northern Babylonia, were conquered by
the Parthians, Mesene, Elymais and Persis made themselves
independent.

Persis never became a part of the empire of the Arsacids,
although her kings recognized their supremacy when they were
strong (Strabo xv. 728, 736). From the periplus of the Ery-
thraean Sea 33-37 we learn that their authority extended over
the shores of Carmania and the opposite coasts of Arabia. A
Persian king, Artaxerxes, who was murdered by his brother
Gosithros at the age of 93 years, is mentioned in a fragment
of Isidore of Charax (Lucian, Macrobii, 15). Other names occur
on their coins, the oldest of which are imitations of Seleucid
coins, and were perhaps struck by local dynasts under their
supremacy; most of the others show the king's head with the
Persian tiara, and on the reverse a fire-altar with the adoring
king before it, a standard (perhaps the famous banner of the
smith Kavi, which became the standard of Iran under the
Sassanids), and occasionally the figure of Ahuramazda; they
were first explained by A. D. Mordtmann in Zeitschrift fur
Numismatik, iii., iv. and vii.; cf. Grundriss der iranischen Philol.
ii. 486 seq. The legends are in Aramaic characters and Persian
(Pahlavi) language; among them occur Artaxerxes, Darius (from
a dynast of this name the town Darabjird, " town of Darius,"
in eastern Persia seems to derive its name), Narses, Tiridates,
Manocihr and others; the name Vahuburz seems to be identical
with Oborzos, mentioned by Polyaenus vii. 40, who put down
a rebellion of 3000 settlers (ko.toi.koi.) in Persis. From the
traditions about Ardashir I. we know that at his time there
were different petty kingdoms and usurpers in Persis; the
principal dynasty is by Tabari called Bazrangi. The coins
demonstrate that Hellenism had become quite extinct in Persis,
while the old historical and mythical traditions and the Zoroas-
trian religion were supreme. There can be no doubt that at this
time the true form of Zoroastrianism and the sacred writings
were preserved only in Persis, whereas everywhere else (in
Parthia, in the Indo-Scythian kingdoms of the east and in the
great propagandist movement in Armenia, Syria and Asia
Minor, where it developed into Mithraism) it degenerated and
was mixed with other cults and ideas. So the revival of
Zoroastrianism came from Persis. When Ardashir I. attempted
to restore the old empire of Cyrus and Darius, and in 212 a.d.
rose against the Parthian king, Artabanus, his aim was religious
as well as political. The new Sassa.nid Empire which he founded
enforced the restored religion of Zoroaster (Zarathustra) on the
whole of Iran.

The new capital of Persis was Istakhr on the Pulwar, about
9 m. above Persepolis, now Hajjiabad, where even the pre-
decessors of Ardashir I. are said to have resided. It was a great
city under the Sassanids, of which some ruins are extant. But
it shared the fate of its predecessor; when the empire was founded
the Sassanids could no longer remain in Persis but transferred
their headquarters to Ctesiphon. (Ed. M.)

PERSIUS, in full Aulus Persius Flaccus (a.d. 34-62),
Roman poet and satirist. According to the Life contained in
the MSS., Persius was a native of Volaterrae, of good stock on
both parents' side. When six years old he lost his father, and
his step-father died in a few years. At the age of twelve Persius
came to Rome, where he was taught by Remmius Palaemon and
the rhetor Verginius Flavus. Four years later began a close
intimacy with the Stoic Cornutus. In this philosopher's pupil
Lucan, Persius found a generous admirer of all he wrote. Still
in early youth he became the friend of the lyric poet Caesius
Bassus, whilst with Thrasea Paetus (whose wife Arria was a
relative) he had a close friendship of ten years' duration and
shared some travels. Seneca he met later, and was not attracted
by his genius. In his boyhood Persius wrote a tragedy dealing
with an episode of Roman history, and a work, the title of which
is rendered uncertain by corruption in our MSS. Pithou's
generally accepted reading makes the subject that of travel;
the excursions with Thrasea however must have taken place after
boyhood. The perusal of Lucilius revealed to Persius his

vocation, and he set to work upon a book of satires. But he
wrote seldom and slowly; a premature death (uitio stomachi)
prevented the completion of his task. He is described as
possessed of a gentle disposition, girlish modesty and personal
beauty, and living a life of exemplary devotion towards his
mother Fulvia Sisenna, his sister and his aunt. To his mother
and sister he left a considerable fortune. Cornutus suppressed
all his work except the book of satires in which he made some
slight alterations and then handed it over to Bassus for editing.
It proved an immediate success.

The scholia add a few details — on what authority is, as generally
with such sources, very doubtful. The Life itself, though not free
from the suspicion of interpolation and undoubtedly corrupt and
disordered in places, is probably trustworthy. The MSS. say it
came from the commentary of Valerius Probus, no doubt a learned
edition of Persius like those of Virgil and Horace by this same famous
" grammarian " of Berytus, the poet's contemporary. The only
case in which it seems to conflict with the Satires themselves is
in its statement as to the death of Persius's father. The declaiming
of a suasoria in his presence (Sat. 3. 4 sqq.) implies a more mature
age than that of six in the performer. But pater might here mean
"step-father," or Persius may have forgotten his own auto-
biography, may be simply reproducing one of his models. The
mere fact that the Life and the Satires agree so closely does not
of course prove the authenticity of the former. One of the points
of harmony is, however, too subtle for us to believe that a forger
evolved it from the works of Persius. It requires indeed a thoughtful
reading of the Life before we realize how distinct is the impression
it gives of a " bookish " youth, who has never strayed far, at least
in spirit, from the domestic hearth and his women-folk. And of
course this is notoriously the picture drawn by the Satires. So much
better does Persius know his books than the world that he draws
the names of his characters from Horace. A keen observer of what
occurs within his narrow horizon, he cannot but discern the seamy
side of life (cf. e.g. such hints as Sat. iii. no); he shows, however,
none of Juvenal's undue stress on unsavoury detail or Horace's
easy-going acceptance of human weaknesses. The sensitive, home-
bred nature of Persius shows itself perhaps also in his frequent
references to ridicule, whether of great men by street gamins or of
the cultured by Philistines.

The chief interest of. Persius's work lies in its relation to Roman
satire, in its interpretation of Roman Stoicism, and in its use of
the Roman tongue. The influence of Horace on Persius can,
in spite of the silence of the Life, hardly have been less than
that of Lucilius. Not only characters, as noted above, but
whole phrases, thoughts and situations come direct from him.
The resemblance Only emphasizes the difference between the
caricaturist of Stoicism and its preacher. Persius strikes the
highest note that Roman satire reached; in earnestness and
moral purpose rising far superior to the political rancour or
good natured persiflage of his predecessors and the rhetorical
indignation of Juvenal, he seems a forerunner of the great
Christian Apologists. From him we learn a lesson Seneca never
taught, how that wonderful philosophy could work on minds
that still preserved the depth and purity of the old Roman
gravilas. When the Life speaks of Seneca's genius as not
attracting Persius, it presumably refers to Seneca the philosopher.
Some of the parallel passages in the works of the two are very
close, and hardly admit of explanation by assuming the use of
a common source. With Seneca, Persius censures the style
of the day, and imitates it. Indeed in some of its worst failings,
straining of expression, excess of detail, exaggeration, he outbids
Seneca, whilst the obscurity, which makes his little book of not
seven hundred lines so difficult to read and is in no way due to
great depth of thought, compares very ill with the terse clear-
ness of the Epistolae morales. A curious contrast to this ten-
dency is presented by his free use of " popular " words. As of
Plato, so of Persius we hear that he emulated Sophron; the
authority is a late one (Lydus, De mag. 1. 41), but we can at
least recognize in the scene that opens Sat. 3. kinship with such
work as Theocritus' Adoniazusae and the Mimes of Herodas.

Persius's satires are composed in hexameters, except for the
scazcns of the short prologue above referred to, in which he half
ironically asserts that he writes to earn his bread, not because he
is inspired. The first satire censures the literary tastes of the day
as a reflection of the decadence of the national morals. The theme
of Seneca's 114th letter is similar. The description of the recitator
and the literary twaddlers after dinner is vividly natural, but an
interesting passage which cites specimens of smooth versification

PERSON— PERSONALITY

255

and the languishing style is greatly spoiled by the difficulty of
appreciating the points involved and indeed of distributing the
dialogue (a not uncommon crux in Persius). The remaining
satires handle in order (2) the question as to what we may justly
ask of the gods (cf. Plato's second Alcibiades), (3) the importance
of having a definite aim in life, (4) the necessity of self-knowledge
for public men (cf. Plato's first Alcibiades), (5) the Stoic doctrine
of liberty (introduced by generous allusions to Cornutus' teaching),
and (6) the proper use of money. The Life tells us that the Satires
were not left complete; some lines were taken (presumably by
Cornutus or Bassus) from the end of the work so that it might be
quasi finitus. This perhaps means that a sentence in which Persius
had left a line imperfect, or a paragraph which he had not com-
pleted, had to be omitted. The same authority says that Cornutus
definitely blacked out an offensive allusion to the emperor's literary
taste, and that we owe to him the reading of the MSS. in Sat. i. 121,
— " auriculas asini quis non [for Mida rex] habet ! " Traces of
lack of revision are, however, still visible; cf. e.g. v. 176 (sudden
transition from ambition to superstition) and vi. 37 (where criticism
of Greek doctores has nothing to do with the context). The parallels
to passages of Horace and Seneca are recorded in the commentaries :
in view of what the Life says about Lucan, the verbal resemblance
of Sat. iii. 3 to Phars. x. 163 is interesting. Examples of bold
language or metaphor: i. 25, rupto iecore exierit caprificus, 60,
linguae quantum sitiat cants; iii. 42, intus palleat, 81, silentia rodunt;
v. 92, ueteres auiae de pulmone reuello. Passages like iii. 87, 100 sqq.
show elaboration carried beyond the rules of good taste. " Popular "
words: baro, cedo, ebullire, gluto, lallare, mamma, muttire, obba,
palpo, stloppus. Fine lines, &c, in i. 116 sqq., ii. 6 sqq., 61 sqq.,
73 sqq., iii. 39 sqq.

Authorities. — The MSS. of Persius fall into two groups, the one
represented by two of the best of them, the other by that of Pithoeus,
so important for the text of Juvenal. Since the publication of
J. Bieger's de Persii cod. pith, rede aestimando (Berlin, 1890) the
tendency has been to prefer the tradition of the latter.

The important editions are: (1) with explanatory notes: Casaubon
(Paris, 1605, enlarged edition by Diibner, Leipzig, 1833); O. Jahn
(with the scholia and valuable prolegomena, Leipzig, 1843); Coning-
ton (with translation; 3rd ed., Oxford, 1893) ; B. L. Gildersleeve (New
York, 1875); G. Nemethy (Buda-Pesth, 1903); (2) with critical
notes: Jahn-BOcheler (3rd ed., Berlin, 1893); S. G. Owen (with
Juvenal, Oxford, 1902). Translations into English by Dryden
(1693) ; Conington (loc. cit.) and Hemphill (Dublin, 1901). Criticism,
&c, in Martha, Les Moralistes sous I'empire romain (5th ed., Paris,
1886); Nisard, Poeles latins de la decadence (Paris, 1834); Hirzel,
Der Dialog (Leipzig, 1895); Saintsbury, History of Criticism, i. 248;
Henderson, Life and Principate of the Emperor Nero (London,
1903) ; and the histories of Roman literature (especially Schanz,
§§ 382 sqq.). A Bibliography of Persius, by M. H. Morgan (Cam-
bridge, U.S.A., 1893). (W. C. Su.)

PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE. This expression is
used in English law to classify crimes involving some form of
assault or personal violence or physical injury, i.e. offences
affecting the life, liberty or safety of an individual: but it is
also extended to certain offences against morality which cannot
technically be described as assaults. The bulk of the offences
thus classified, so far as their definition or punishment depends
upon statute law, are included in the Offences Against the
Person Act 1861 (24 & 25 Vict. c. 100), and in the Criminal
Law Amendment Acts of 188c and 1885, and the Prevention of
Cruelty to Children Act 1904. The classification in these statutes
is not scientific: e.g. bigamy is within the act of 1861 (s. 57),
and certain offences involving assault, e.g. robbery, are to be
found in other statutes. The particular offences dealt with
by the acts above named are discussed under their appropriate
titles, e.g. abortion, assault, bigamy, homicide, rape, &c. In
the Indian penal code most of the offences above referred to
fall under the head " offences against the human body " (ch.
xvi.). In his Digest of the Criminal Law Sir James Stephen
includes most of these offences under the title " offences against
the person, the conjugal and parental rights, and the reputation
of individuals," a classification also to be found in the English
draft code of 1880 and adopted in the Queensland code of 1899.
In working out this classification offences not involving assault
are relegated to another and perhaps more appropriate title,
" offences against morality."

PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's
mask, from personare, 1 to sound through), a term applied in

•So Gabius Bassus in Gell. Noct. Alt. v. 7, 1. Since, however,
it is difficult to explain persona from personare (Skeat suggests
by analogy from irpbjunrov the Greek equivalent ! ), Walde, in

philosophy and also in common speech to the identity or indi-
viduality which makes a being (person) what he is, or marks
him off for all that he is not. The term " person," which is
technically used not only in philosophy but also in law, is applied
in theology (Gr. Tpoo-wirov) to the three hypostases of the
Trinity. It was first introduced by Tertullian, who implied
by it a single individual; the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost
were three personae though of one and the same substance
(unitas subslantiae) . The nature of this unity in difference
exercised the minds of the early Christian theologians, and was
the subject of many councils and official pronouncements, accord-
ing as emphasis was laid on the unity or on the separateness of
the persons. There was perpetual schism between the Unitarians
and Trinitarians (see for example Sabellius). The natural
sense of the word " person " is undoubtedly individuality;
hence those who found a difficulty in the philosophic conception
of the three-in-one naturally tended to lay emphasis on the
distinctions between the members of the Trinity (see Heresy;
Monarchianism; Logos, &c). A further theological question
arises in connexion with the doctrine of immortality (q.v.), and
it is argued that immortality is meaningless unless the soul of
the dead man is self-conscious throughout.

In philosophy the term has an important ethical significance.
The Greek moralists, attaching little importance to individual
citizens as such, found the highest moral perfection in the sub-
ordination of the individual to the state. Man, as itoKltlkov ^Siov,
is good only when he is a good 7roAmjs. Subsequent ethical
systems on the contrary have laid stress on the moral worth
of personality, finding the summum bonum in the highest
realization of the self. This view is specially characteristic
of the Neo-hegelian school (e.g. T. H. Green), but it belongs
also in various degrees to all intuitional and idealistic systems.
Utilitarian universalistic hedonism and evolutionist ethics so
far resemble the Greek theory that they tend to minimize the
importance of personality, by introducing ulterior reasons
(e.g. the perfection of the social organism, of humanity) as the
ultimate sanctions of moral principles, whereas the intuitionists
by making the criterion abstract and absolute limit goodness
to personal obedience to the a priori moral law.

Still more important problems are connected with the
psychological significance of personality. What is the origin
and character of the consciousness of the self? The conscious-
ness of the identity of another person is comparatively simple;
but one's own individuality consists partly in being aware of that
individuality; a man cannot use the word " I " unless he is
conscious of the unity of his " self," and yet there is involved in
the word " I " something more than this consciousness. In
what does the unity of the " self " consist prior to its being
recognized in consciousness; how does the consciousness arise?
The answer to this problem is to be found — in so far as it can
be found — in the subject-object relation, in the distinction
between the external world and the subjective processes of
knowing and willing which that relation involves. I will
something, and afterwards perceive a corresponding change
within the unity of my external world. Hence, we may sup-
pose, arises the consciousness of a permanent self and not-self.
It should be observed that self-consciousness varies according
to the intellectual development, and the term " personality "
is usually connected only with the self-consciousness of an
advanced type, not, for example, with that of an animal. Even
among human beings there is considerable difference. The.
most elementary form of human self-consciousness includes in
the self not only the soul but also the body, while to the developed
self-consciousness the physical self is part of the external or
objective world. Finally it is necessary to refer to the Kantian
distinction of the pure and the empirical ego, the latter (" the
Me known ") being an object of thought to the former (" the
I knowing ").

From the use of the term " person " as distinguishing the

Lateinisches etymologisches Worterbuch (1906), suggests a derivation
from Greek fowij, a zone. In Roman law persona was one who
had civil rights. For the ecclesiastical persona ecclesiae, see Parson.

256

PERSONAL PROPERTY— PERSONATION

self from the not-self arises the phrase " personal equation "
for those peculiar characteristics or idiosyncrasies which have
to be taken into account in estimating the value of an individual
judgment or observation. This phrase, which is commonly
used in any connexion, was first applied to the errors detected
in the astronomical observations of a Greenwich observer named
Kinnebrook in 1795. The recognized fact that the greater or
less inaccuracy is habitual to individual observers has been
investigated, e.g. by Bessel (Abhandlungen, iii. 300) and by
Wundt (Physiol. Psychol.), and machines have been devised
which make allowance for the error caused by the personal
equation (see Micrometer).

For the psychological problem, see Psychology. For the
problems connected with sub-conscious action, &c, see Subliminal
Self; Trance; Hypnotism; Telepathy.

PERSONAL PROPERTY, one branch of the main division
of the English law of property, the other being " real property."
The division of property into real and personal represents in
a great measure the division into immovable and movable
incidentally recognized in Roman law and generally adopted
since. " Things personal," according to Blackstone, " are
goods, money, and all other movables which may attend the
owner's person wherever he thinks proper to go " (Comm. ii. 16).
This identification of things personal with movables, though
logical in theory, does not, as will be seen, perfectly express
the English law, owing to the somewhat anomalous position
of chattels real. In England real property is supposed to be
superior in dignity to personal property, which was originally of
little importance from a legal point of view. This view is the
result of feudal ideas, and had no place in the Roman system, in
which immovables and movables were dealt with as far as pos-
sible in the same manner, and descended according to the same
rules. The main differences between real and personal property
which still exist in England are these. (1) In real property there
can be nothing more than limited ownership; there can be no
estate properly so called in personal property, and it may be held
in complete ownership. There is nothing corresponding to an
estate-tail in personal property; words which in real property
would create an estate-tail will give an absolute interest in
personalty. A life-interest may, however, be given in personalty,
except in articles quae ipso usu consumuntur. Limitations
of personal property, equally with those of real property, fall
within the rule against perpetuities. (2) Personal property is
not subject to various incidents of real property, such as rent,
dower or escheat. (3) On the death of the owner intestate
real property descends to the heir; personal property is divided
according to the Statute of Distributions. (4) Real property as a
general rule must be transferred by deed; personal property does
not need so solemn a mode of transfer. (5) Contracts relating
to real property must be in writing by the Statute of Frauds, 29
Car. II. c. 3, s. 4; contracts relating to personal property need
only be in writing when it is expressly so provided by statute,
as, for instance, in the cases falling under s. 17 of the Statute of
Frauds. (6) A will of lands need not be proved, but a will of
personalty or of personal and real property together must be
proved in order to give a title to those claiming under it. (7)
Devises of real estate fall as a rule within the Mortmain Acts
(see Charity and Charities; Corporation); bequests of
personal property, other than chattels real, are not within
the act. (8) Mortgages of real property need not generally be
registered; mortgages of personal property for the most part
require registration under the Bills of Sale Acts (see Pledge,
and Bill of Sale).

Personal estate is divided in English law into chattels real and
chattels personal; the latter are again divided into choses in
possession and choses in action (see Chattel; Chose).

Interest in personal property may be either absolute or qualified.
The latter case is illustrated by animals ferae naturae, in which
property is only coextensive with detention. Personal property
may be acquired by occupancy (including the accessio, commixtio,
and confusio of Roman law), by invention, as patent and copy-
right, or by transfer, either by the act of the law (as in bankruptcy,

judgment and intestacy), or by the act of the party (as in gift,
contract and will).

There are several cases in which, by statute or otherwise,
property is taken out of the class of real or personal to which
it seems naturally to belong. By the operation of the equitable
doctrine of conversion money directed to be employed in the
purchase of land, or land directed to be turned into money, is
in general regarded as that species of property into which it is
directed to be converted. An example of property prima facie
real which is treated as personal is an estate pur autre vie, which,
since 14 Geo. II. c. 20, s. 9, 1 740-1 741 (now replaced by the
Wills Act 1837, s. 6) is distributable as personal property in the
absence of a special occupant. Examples of property prima facie
personal which is treated as real are fixtures, heirlooms, such
as deeds and family portraits, and shares in some of the older
companies, as the New River Company, which are real estate
by statute. In ordinary cases shares in companies are per-
sonal property, unless the shareholders have individually some
interest in the land as land.

The terms heritable and movable of Scots law to a great extent
correspond with the real and personal of English law. The main
points of difference are these. (1) Leases are heritable as to the
succession to the lessee, unless the destination expressly exclude
heirs, but are movable as to the Ask. (2) Money due on mortgages
and securities on land is personalty in England. At common law
in Scotland debts secured on heritable property are themselves
heritable. But by the Titles to Land Consolidation (Scotland)
Act 1868, s. 117, heritable securities are movable as far as regards
the succession of the creditor, unless executors are expressly ex-
cluded. They still, however, remain heritable quoad fiscum, as
between husband and wife, in computing legitim, and as far as
regards the succession of the debtor. (3) Up to 1868 the heir of
heritage succeeded to certain movable goods called heirship
movables, which bore a strong likeness to the heirlooms of English
law. This right of the heir was abolished by the act of 1868, s. 160.
(4) Annuities, as. having tractum futuri temporis, are heritable, and
an obligation to pay them falls upon the heir of the deceased (Watson,
Law Diet. s.v. " Annuities ").

The law in the United States agrees in most respects with that
of England. Heirlooms are unknown, one reason being, no doubt,
that the importance of title-deeds is much less than it is in England,
owing to the operation of the Registration Acts. Long terms in
some states have annexed to them the properties of freehold estates.
In some states estates pur autre vie descend like real property; in
others an estate pur autre vie is deemed a freehold only during the
life of the grantee; after his death it becomes a chattel real. In
yet other states the heir has a scintilla of interest as special occupant
(Kent, Comm. iv. 27). In some states railway rolling-stock is
considered as purely personal, in others it has been held to be a
fixture, and so to partake of the nature of real property. Shares
in some of the early American corporations were, like New River
shares in England, made real estate by statute, as in the case of
the Cape Sable Company in Maryland (Schouler, Law of Personal
Property, i.). In Louisiana animals employed in husbandry are,
and slaves were, regarded as immovables. Pews in churches are
generally real property, but in some states they are made personal
property by statute. The assignment of choses in action is generally
permitted, and is in most states regulated by statute. (J. W.)

PERSONATION, in English law, a form of fraud consisting
in a false representation by one person (by words or conduct)
that he is another person living or dead. It is not an offence
by the common law unless the representation is made on oath
under circumstances constituting the offence of perjury, or
unless the representation if not made on oath is made under
circumstances amounting to a common law cheat. Personation
has been made an offence by statute in the following cases: (1)
where it amounts to a false pretence by words or conduct, and
is done with intent to defraud, and property is by such false
pretence obtained, 24 & 25 Vict. c. 96 ss. 88-90 (see False
Pretences); (2) in the case of false and deceitful personation
of any person or of the heir, executor, administrator, wife, widow,
next of kin or relative of any person with intent fraudulently
to obtain any land, estate, chattel, money, valuable security or
property (37 & 38 Vict. c. 36 s. 1); (3) in the case of personation
of votes at elections (see Corrupt Practices).

The first of these offences is a misdemeanour only; the second
is a felony punishable by penal servitude for life. The second
offence was created in 1874 in consequence of the Tichbome
case, in which under the law as it then stood it had been necessary

PERSPECTIVE

257-

to prosecute the claimant for perjury. Besides the enactments
above referred to there are also a number of provisions for dealing
with the personation of sailors, soldiers, pensioners and owners
of stock in the public funds or shares in joint-stock companies,
and of persons who falsely acknowledge in the name of another
recognizances, deeds or instruments, before a court or person
authorized to take the acknowledgment.

PERSPECTIVE (Lat. perspicere, to see through), in mathematics
the name given to the art of representing solid objects by a plane
drawing which affects the eye as does the object itself. In the
article Projection it is shown that if all points in a figure be
projected from a fixed centre to a plane, each point on the
projection will be the projection of all points on the projecting
ray. A complete representation by a single projection is there-
fore possible only when there is but one point to be projected
on each ray. This is the case by projecting from one plane to
another, but it is also the case if we project the visible parts of
objects in nature; for every ray of light meeting the eye starts
from that point in which the ray, if we follow its course from the
eye backward, meets for the first time any object. Thus, if we
project from a fixed centre the visible part of objects to a plane
or other surface, then the outlines of the projection would give
the same impression to the eye as the outlines of the things
projected, provided that one eye only be used and that this be
at the centre of projection. If at the same time the light emanat-
ing from the different points in the picture could be made to
be of the same kind — that is, of the same colour and intensity
and of the same kind of polarization — as that coming from the
objects themselves, then the projection would give sensibly
the same impression as the objects themselves. The art of
obtaining this result constitutes a chief part of the technique of
a painter, who includes the rules which guide him under the
name of perspective, distinguishing between linear and aerial
perspective — the former relating to the projection, to the
drawing of the outlines, the latter to the colouring and the
shading off of the colours in order to give the appearance of
distance. Here we deal only with the former, which is in fact a
branch of geometry consisting in the applications of the rules
of projection.

§ I. Our problem is the following: There is given -a figure in
space, tlie plane of a picture, and a point as centre of projection; it is
required to project the figure from the point to the plane.

From what has been stated about projection (q.v.) in general it
follows at once that the projection of a point is a point, that of a
line a line. Further, the projection of a point at infinity in a line
is in general a finite point. Hence parallel lines are projected into
a pencil of lines meeting at some finite point. This point is called
the vanishing point of the direction to which it belongs. To find
it, we project the point at infinity in one of the parallel lines; that
is, we draw through the eye a line in the given direction. This
cuts the picture plane in the point required.

Similarly all points at infinity in a plane are projected to a line
(see Projection: § 6) which is called the vanishing line of the plane
and which is common to all parallel planes.

All lines parallel to a plane have their vanishing points in a line,
viz. in the vanishing line of the plane.

All lines parallel to the picture plane have their vanishing points
at infinity in the picture plane; hence parallel lines which are

parallel to the picture plane
appear in the projection as
parallel lines in their true
direction.

The projection of a line is
determined by the projection of
two points in it, these being
very often its vanishing point
and its trace on the picture
plane. The projection of a
point is determined by the
projection of two lines through
it.

These are the general rules
which we now apply. We
suppose the picture plane to
be vertical.

§ 2. Let (fig. i) S be the

centre of projection, where

the eye is situated, and which

in perspective is called the point of sight, ABKL the picture

plane, ABMN a horizontal plane on which we suppose the objects

XXI. 4

to rest of which a perspective drawing is to be made. The lowest
plane which contains points that are to appear in the picture is
generally selected for this purpose, and is therefore called the
ground plane, or sometimes the geometrical plane. It cuts the
picture plane in a horizontal line AB called the ground line or base
line or fundamental line of the picture. A horizontal line SV,
drawn through the eye , S perpendicular to the picture, cuts the
latter at a point V called the centre of the picture or the centre of
vision. The distance SV of the eye from the picture is often
called the distance simply, and the height ST of the eye above the
ground the height of the eye.

The vanishing line of the ground plane, and hence of every
horizontal plane, is got by drawing the projecting rays from S to
the points at infinity in the plane — in other words, by drawing all
horizontal rays through S. These lie in a horizontal plane which
cuts the picture plane in a horizontal line DD' through the centre
of vision V. This line is called the horizon ' in the picture. It
contains the vanishing points of all horizontal lines, the centre of
vision V being the vanishing point of all lines parallel to SV, that
is perpendicular to the picture plane. To find the vanishing point
of any other line we draw through S the ray projecting the point at
infinity in the line; that is, we draw through S a ray parallel to the
line, and determine the point where this ray cuts the picture plane.
If the line is given by its plan on the ground plane, and its elevation
on the picture plane, then its vanishing point can at once be deter-
mined; it is the vertical trace of a line parallel to it through the
eye (cf. Geometry: § Descriptive, § 6).

§ 3. To have construction in a single plane, we suppose the
picture plane turned down into the ground plane; but before this
is done the ground plane is
pulled forward till, say, the
line MN takes the place of
AB, and then the picture
plane is turned down. By
this we keep the plan of the
figure and the picture itself
separate. In this new posi-
tion the plane of the picture
will be that of the paper
(fig. 2). On it are marked
the base line AB, the centre
of vision V, and the horizon
DD', and also the limits
ABKL of the actual picture.
These, however, need not
necessarily be marked. In
the plan the picture plane
must be supposed to pass
through A1B1, and to be
perpendicular to the ground
plane. If we further sup-
pose that the horizontal
plane through the eye which

cuts the picture plane in the horizon DD' be turned down about
the horizon, then the centre of sight will come to the point S, where,
VS equals the distance of the eye.

To find the vanishing point of any line in a horizontal plane;
we have to draw through S a line in the given direction and see
where it cuts the horizon. For instance to find the vanishing points
of the two horizontal directions which make angles of 45 ° with the
horizon, we draw through S lines SD and SD' making each an angle
of 45 with the line DD . These points can also be found by making
VD and VD' each equal to the distance SV. The two points D, D'
are therefore called the distance points.

§ 4. Let it now be required to find the perspective P of a point
Pi (figs. I and 2) in the ground plane. We draw through Pi two
lines of which the projection can easily be found. The most con-
venient lines are the perpendicular to the base line, and a line
making an angle of 45 ° with the picture plane. These lines in the
ground plane are P1Q1 and P1R1. The first cuts the picture at Qi or
at Q, and has the vanishing point V; hence QV is its perspective.
The other cuts the picture in R lF or rather in R, and has the vanish-
ing point D; its perspective is RD. These two lines meet at P,
which is the point required. It [will be noticed that the line
QR = QiRi = QiPi gives the distance of the point P behind the
picture plane. Hence if we know the point Q where a perpendicular
from a point to the picture plane cuts the latter,' and also the
distance of the point behind the picture plane, we can find its
perspective. We join Q to V, set off QR to the right equal to the
distance of the point behind the picture plane, and join R to the
distance point to the left ; where RD cuts QV is the point P required.
Or we set off QR' to the left equal to the distance and join R' to
the distance point D' to the right.

If the distance of the point from the picture should be very great,
the point R might fall at too great a distance from Q to be on the
drawing. In this case we might set off QW equal to the »th part
of the distance and join it to a point E, so that VE equals the nth
part of VD. Thus if QW = |QR and VE = |VD, then WE will
again pass through P. It is thus possible to find for every point in
the ground plane, or in fact in any horizontal plane, the perspective;

2 5 8

PERSPECTIVE

for the construction will not be altered if the ground plane be
replaced by any other horizontal plane. We can in fact now find
the perspective of every point as soon as we know the foot of the per-
pendicular drawn from it to the picture plane, that is, if we know its
elevation on the picture plane, and its distance behind it. For this
reason it is often convenient to draw in slight outlines the elevation
of the figure on the picture plane.

Instead of drawing the elevation of the figure we may also proceed
as follows. Suppose (fig. 3) Ai to be the projection of the plan
of a point A. Then the point A lies vertically above Ai because
vertical lines appear in the perspective as vertical lines (§1). If
then the line VAi cuts the figure plane at Q, and we erect at Q a
perpendicular in the picture plane to its base and set off on it QA2
equal to the real height of the point A above the ground plane,

,D

V <

D'

z

\ A .f"

MLc"

/ : //

s 1 '

k\ ' \

V

<

3 x Q

y R

t

Fig. 3.

then the point A 2 is the elevation of A and hence the line A 2 V
will pass through the point A. The latter thus is determined by
the intersection of the vertical line through Ai and the line A2V.

This process differs from the one mentioned before in this that
the construction for finding the point is not made in the horizontal
plane in which it lies, but that its plan is constructed in the ground
plane. But this has a great advantage. The perspective of a
horizontal plane from the picture to the line at infinity occupies
in the picture the space between the line where the plane cuts the
picture and the horizon, and this space is the greater the farther the
plane is from the eye, that is, the farther its trace on the picture
plane lies from the horizon. The horizontal plane through the eye
is projected into a line, the horizon; hence no construction can be
performed in it. The ground plane on the other hand is the lowest
horizontal plane used. Hence it offers most space for constructions,
which consequently will allow of greater accuracy.

§ 5. The process is the same if we know the co-ordinates of the
point, viz. we take in the base line a point O as origin, and we take
the base line, the line OV, and the perpendicular OZ as axes of
co-ordinates. If we then know the co-ordinates x, y, 2 measured in
these directions, we make OQ = x, set off on QV a distance QA such
that its real length QR = y, make QA 2 =c, and we find A as before.
This process might be simplified by setting off to begin with along
OQ and OZ scales in their true dimensions and along OV a scale
obtained by projecting the scale on OQ from D to the line OV.

§ 6. The methods explained give the perspective of any point
in space. If lines have to be found, we may determine the perspec-
tive of two points in them and join these, and this is in many cases the
most convenient process. Often, however, it will be advantageous
to determine the projection of a line directly by finding its vanishing
point. This is especially to be recommended when a number of
parallel lines have to be drawn.

The perspective of any curve is in general a curve. The projec-
tion of a conic is a conic, or in special cases a line. The perspec-
tive of a circle may be any conic, not necessarily an ellipse.
Similarly the perspective of the shadow of a circle on a plane is
some conic.

§ 7. A few words must be said about the determination of shadows
in perspective. The theory of their construction is very simple.
We have given, say, a figure and a point L as source of light. We
join the point L to any point of which we want to find the shadow
and produce this line till it cuts the surface on which the shadow
falls. These constructions must in many cases first be performed
in plan and elevation, and then the point in the shadow has to be
found in perspective. The constructions are different according as
we take as the source of light a finite point (say, the flame of a lamp),
or the sun, which we may suppose to be at an infinite distance.

If, for instance, in fig. 3, A is a source of light, EHGF a vertical
wall, and C a point whose shadow has to be determined, then the
shadow must lie on the line joining A to C. To see where this ray
meets the floor we draw through the source of light and the point
C a vertical plane. This will cut the floor in a line which contains
the feet Ai, Ci of the perpendiculars drawn from the points A, C to
the floor, or the plans of these points. At C, where the line A1C1
cuts AC, will be the shadow of C on the floor. If the wall EHGF
prevents the shadow from falling on the floor, we determine the
intersection K of the line A1C1 with the base EF of the wall and
draw a vertical through it, this gives the intersection of the wall
with the vertical plane through A and C. Where it cuts AC is the
shadow C* of C on the wall.

If the shadow of a screen CDD1C1 has to be found we find the
shadow D' of D which falls on the floor; then DiD' is the shadow
of DiD and D'C is the shadow on the floor of the line DC. The
shadow of DiD, however, is intercepted by the wall at L. Here
then the wall takes up the shadow, which must extend to D" as the
shadow of a line on a plane is a line. Thus the shadow of the screen
is found in the shaded part in the figure.

§ 8. If the shadows are due to the sun, we have to find first the
perspective of the sun, that is, the vanishing point of its rays. This
will always be a point in the picture plane; but we have to distin-
guish between the cases where the sun is in the front of the picture,
and so behind the spectator, or behind the picture plane, and so in
front of the spectator. In the second case only does the vanishing
point of the rays of the sun actually represent the sun itself. It
will be a point above the horizon. In the other case the vanishing
point of the rays will lie below the horizon. It is the point where
a ray of the sun through the centre of sight S cuts the picture plane,
or it will be the shadow of the eye on the picture. In either case
the ray of the sun through any point is the line joining the perspec-
tive of that point to the vanishing point of the sun's rays. But
in the one case the shadow falls away from the vanishing point,
in the other it falls towards it. The direction of the sun's rays
may be given by the plan and elevation of one ray.

For the construction of the shadow of points it is convenient
first to draw a perpendicular from the point to the ground and to
find its shadow on the ground. But the shadows of verticals from
a point at infinity will be parallel ; hence they have in perspective
a vanishing point Li in the horizon. To find this point, we draw
that vertical plane through the eye which contains a ray of the
sun. This cuts the horizon in the required point Liand the picture
plane in a vertical line which contains the vanishing point of the
sun's rays themselves. Let then (fig. 4) L be the vanishing point

Fig. 4.
of the sun's rays, Li be that of their projection in a horizontal
plane, and let it be required to find the shadow of the vertical
column AH. . We draw ALi and EL; they meet at E', which is
the shadow of E. Similarly we find the shadows of F, G, H. Then
E'F'G'H' will be the shadow of the quadrilateral EFGH. For
the shadow of the column itself we join E' to A, &c, but only mark
the outlines; F'B, the shadow of BF, does not appear as such in the
figure.

If the shadow E has to be found when falling on any other surface
we use the vertical plane through E, determine its intersection
with the surface, and find the point where this intersection is cut
by the line EL. This will be the required shadow of E.

§ 9. If the picture is not to be drawn on a vertical but on another
plane — say, the ceiling of a room — the rules given have to be slightly
modified. The general principles will remain true. But if the
picture is to be on a curved surface the constructions become
somewhat more complicated. In the most general case conceivable
it would be necessary to have a representation in plan and eleva-
tion of the figure required and of the surface on which the projection
has to be made. A number of points might also be found by
calculation, using co-ordinate geometry. But into this we do not
enter. As an example we take the case of a panorama, where the
surface is a vertical cylinder of revolution, the eye being in the
axis. The ray projecting a point A cuts the cylinder in two points
on opposite sides of the eye, hence geometrically speaking every
point has two projections; of these only the one lying on the half
ray from the eye to the point can be used in the picture. But the
other has sometimes to be used in constructions, as the projection
of a line has to pass through both. Parallel lines have two vanish-
ing points which are found by drawing a line of the given direction
through the eye; it cuts the cylinder in the vanishing points required.
This .operation may be performed by drawing on the ground the
plan of the ray through the foot of the axis, and through the point
where it cuts the cylinder a vertical, on which the point required
must lie. Its height above is easily found by making a drawing of
a vertical section on a reduced scale.

Parallel planes have in the same manner a vanishing curve.
This will be for horizontal planes a horizontal circle of the height
of the eye above the ground. For vertical planes it will be a pair
of generators of the cylinder. For other planes the vanishing
curves will be ellipses having their centre at the eye.

The projections of vertical lines will be vertical lines on the

PERSPIRATION— PERTH

259

cylinder. Of all ether lines they will be ellipses with the centre
at the eye. If the cylinder be developed into a plane, then these
ellipses will be changed into curves of sines. Parallel lines are
thus represented by curves of sines which have two points in
common. There is no difficulty in making all the constructions on
a small scale on the drawing board and then transferring them to
the cylinder.

§ 10. A variety of instruments have been proposed to facilitate
perspective drawings. If the problem is to make a drawing from
nature then a camera obscura or, better, Wollaston's camera lucida
may be used. Other instruments are made for the construction of
perspective drawings. It will often happen that the vanishing
point of some direction which would be very useful in the construc-
tion falls at a great distance off the paper, and various methods
have been proposed of drawing lines through such a point. For
some of these see Stanley's Descriptive Treatise on Mathematical
Drawing Instruments. (O. H.)

PERSPIRATION (Lat. per, through, and spirare, to breathe),
the excretion of sweat from the sweat-glands of the skin.
Sweat is a clear colourless neutral or slightly alkaline fluid
containing 2% of solids. Under pathological conditions, sugar
urea and other substances are found. The secretion of sweat
is constantly going on, the activity of the sweat-glands being
under control of the central nervous system. The only func-
tion of sweat is the regulation of the heat discharge from
the body. The chief morbid conditions of the sweat-glands are
excessive sweating (Hyperidrosis) and foetid sweating {Bromi-
drosis). Excessive sweating is a symptom observed in various
diseases, such as tuberculosis and rheumatic fever, but it may
exist apart from such conditions, and either be general, affecting
the whole body, or confined to a part, such as the axillae, head,
hands, feet, or, as in some rare instances, the one half of the body.
Excessive perspiration may often be prevented by the cold bath,
and by tonics, such as iron, quinine, strychnia, &c. Locally,
the use of astringent lotions of vinegar or a weak solution of
lead will also be of service. Foetid sweating most frequently
affects the feet, specially in those who have much fatigue,
and is apparently due to rapid decomposition in the perspiration
which has saturated the stockings; these should be frequently
changed and the feet washed several times a day, dried carefully,
and dusted with some antiseptic powder.

PERTAB (or Partab) SINGH, Sir, maharaja of Idar
(1844- ), native Indian soldier and statesman, belonging to
the Rah tor Rajputs of the Jodha class, was born in 1844, being
the son of Maharaja Takht Singh, ruler of Marwar (or Jodhpur).
In 1878 and again in 1879 he was chief minister of Jodhpur.
In the following year he accompanied the British mission to
Afghanistan, and on his return he carried out many judicious
reforms and administered Jodhpur with remarkable success. He
visited England to take part in the celebration of the 1887
Jubilee of Queen Victoria's reign. He served on the staffs of
Sir William Lockhart and General Elles in the Tirah and Momand
expeditions in 1897-98, was slightly wounded, was mentioned
in despatches, and promoted to the rank of full colonel. He
won the reputation of being one of the keenest sportsmen
and the best riders that even Rajputana has produced.
When it was decided to send a force from India to China in
1900 to relieve the foreign embassies besieged in Peking, Sir
Pertab Singh at once offered the services of the Jodhpur Lancers,
and himself accompanied them. His father rendered good
services to the British government in the Mutiny, and Pertab
Singh always cherished the memory of the protection given to
Jodhpur by the East India Company in 1818. His services to
the empire in India were universally recognized. From Queen
Victoria he received the honour of knighthood and the Bath
and the Star of India; from King Edward VII. the distinction
of "aide-de-camp"; and the university of Cambridge gave
him the degree of LL.D. From his own state of Jodhpur he
obtained the title of Maharaja-Dhiraj. In 1901 he succeeded
to the rulership of the state of Idar.

PERTH, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Scottish title of
earl of Perth was bestowed upon James, 4th Lord Drummond
(d. 1611) in 1605. His ancestor Sir John Drummond (d. 1519)
had been created Lord Drummond in 1488. The 1st earl's great-
oephew, James, 4th earl and 1st duke of Perth (1648-1716),

was a son of James, the 3rd earl (c. 1615-1675). When John
Maitland, duke of Lauderdale, was virtually the dictator of
Scotland, Perth was among his opponents, and after Lauderdale's
retirement in 1680 he was one of the committee of seven which
managed Scottish affairs. He was made justice-general and extra-
ordinary lord of session in 1682, and was lord chancellor of
Scotland from 1684 to 1688. As a convert to Roman Catholi-
cism after the death of Charles II., he stood high in the favour of
James II. Perth, who is credited with the introduction of the
thumbscrew,was very unpopular with the Scottish people, and dur-
ing the Revolution of 1688 he was imprisoned at Stirling. Released
from captivity in 1693 he joined James II. at St Germains, and
was made duke of Perth, a titular dignity only after the exiled
king's death in 1701. His son James (c. 1675-1720) was with
James II. in Ireland, and led the cavalry at the battle of Sheriff-
muir. He was attainted in 1715, but claimed the dukedom of
Perth after his father's death. His son James (1713-1746),
regarded by friends and dependants as the 3rd duke of Perth,
fought for the Young Pretender at Prestonpans and Culloden.
His brother and heir, John, the 4th duke (c. 1716-1747),
also joined Charles Edward, and fought at Falkirk and Culloden.
The titular dukedom became extinct when the sixth holder,
Edward, another son of the 1st duke, died in 1760.

The earldom was then claimed by Edward's cousin, James
Lundin (1 707-1 781), a grandson of the 1st titular duke of Melfort,
who was a brother of the 1st duke of Perth and took the name
of Drummond. His son James (1744-1800) secured the Drum-
mond estates in 1783, and was created a British peer as Lord
Perth and Baron Drummond in 1797. On his death without
sons in July 1800 his barony became extinct, but the claim to
the earldom of Perth was inherited by his kinsman, the 4th
titular duke of Melfort, and his descendants (see below). The
Drummond estates, however, passed to the baron's daughter
Clementina (d. 1865), afterwards the wife of Peter Robert,
20th Lord Willoughby de Eresby, and thence to her descendant
the earl of Ancaster.

The 1st duke's brother, John (c. 1650-1715), earl of Melfort,
rose to favour under Charles II. about the same time as his
brother; like him, too, he became a Roman Catholic in 1686.
In 1684 he was made secretary of state for Scotland; in 1686 he
was created earl of Melfort by James II., and during his reign
he took a leading part in Scottish affairs. After the Revolution
of 1688 his great influence with James II. and with Mary of
Modena drew upon him the hatred both of the French and of
the Irish. He was with James II. at St Germains, but lost
his former ascendancy, and died in Paris on the 25th of January
1715. In 1694 he was made duke of Melfort, and all his titles
were held under the singular condition that they should descend
to the children of his second wife, Euphemia (d. 1743), daughter
of Sir Thomas Wallace, in preference to his children by his first
wife, Sophia Lundin, who were Protestants. In 1 701 Melfort
was recognized as a French peer, the due de Melfort, by
Louis XIV. In 1695 he had been attainted, but his titles were
claimed by John (1682-1754), his eldest son by his second wife,
who shared in the rising of 1715- In 1800 John's grandson,
James Louis, 4th titular duke of Melfort, claimed the earldom of
Perth. This claim was unsuccessful, but in 1853 George
(1807-1902), nominally 6th duke of Melfort, obtained a reversal
of the various attainders, and his own recognition as earl of
Perth and Melfort. The succeeding earl was his kinsman,
William Huntly Drummond, Viscount Strathallan (1871- ).

See Sir R. Douglas, The Peerage of Scotland ; and Histories of Noble
British Families, vol. ii., edited by H. Drummond (1846).

PERTH, the capital of Western Australia, situated on the
Swan River, 12 m. by rail from the sea at Fremantle, and about
1700 m. W.N.W. of Melbourne. It is the seat of both Anglican
and Roman Catholic bishops, and has two cathedrals. The
fashionable street is St George's Terrace; in it are situated the
public library, the government boys' school, the stock exchange,
the town-hall, the government offices and the parliament build-
ings. Between it and the broad reach of the river known as
Perth Water lie the governor's residence and domain. The

260

PERTH

town-hall, built entirely by convict labour, stands on an emi-
nence in the very heart of the city; opposite to it are the govern-
ment offices, housed in a four-storeyed structure in the style of
the French Renaissance. The mint, opened in 1899, is a massive
freestone building. There are a public library, built as a
memorial of Queen Victoria's Jubilee in 1887, a Scots college,
two good theatres, a mechanics' institute, a museum, and a
fine Wesleyan church-house, known as Queen's Hall. The
Perth Park, containing about 1200 acres, is connected by tram
with the city, and in it is a well-equipped observatory. There
are several smaller parks and squares in the city, while the
esplanade gardens are a feature of the place, being thrown out
like a pier into Perth Water. There is a good cricket ground,
and three race-courses are in easy reach. South Perth, on the
other side of the river, is connected by bridges and steam ferry;
and adjoining the city on the north-west are the suburban
municipalities of Leederville and Subiaco. Outlying suburbs
are Belmont, Victoria Park, Burswood, Claremont, Cottesloe,
Peppermint Grove and Bayswater. The city is lighted by
electricity, and has a good service of electric trams. Perth
has an agreeable climate, the mean temperature is 64-9° F.,
and the average rainfall 33 in. Perth was founded in 1829,
received its municipal charter in 1856, and was created a city
in 1880. Between 1891 and 1901 the growth of the city was
remarkedly rapid; in 1891 the population was only 8447, but
in 1901 it had grown to 27,471 in the city proper, and to 36,199
including the suburbs.

PERTH, a city, and royal, municipal and police burgh, and
county town of Perthshire, Scotland, 32 m. N. by W. of Edin-
burgh direct, and 47! m. by the North British railway, via the
Forth Bridge and Kinross Junction. Pop. (1901), 33,566.
It is situated on the right bank of the Tay, between the meadows
of the North Inch (98 acres) and those of the South Inch (72
acres), both laid out as public parks. The river is crossed by
St John's Bridge of nine arches, completed in 1772 from the
designs of John Smeaton and widened a century later; by Victoria
Bridge, a modern structure connecting South Street with Dundee
Road; and farther south (at the end of Tay Street) by a footway
alongside of the viaduct belonging to the Caledonian railway.
Of earlier bridges one, which crossed at High Street, was swept
away by the flood of 1621, and another, constructed by General
Wade in 17 23-1 733, was apparently the predecessor of Smeaton's
bridge. On the left bank of the river lie the suburb of Bridgend
and Kinnoull Hill (729 ft.). To the south are the wood-clad
heights of Moncrieffe Hill (725 ft.), Magdalenes Hill (596 ft.),
Kirkton Hill (540 ft.) and Craigie Wood (407) ft. In the river
are Friarton or Moncrieffe Island and the Stanners.

Notwithstanding the importance of Perth in former times,
almost the sole relic of the past is the church of St John the
Baptist, a large Decorated cruciform building surmounted by a
massive square central tower 155 ft. high. The original edifice
is believed to have been erected in the time of Columba, but the
transept and nave of the existing structure date from the early
part of the 13th century, the choir from the 15th. The church
was restored in 1891, and' is now divided into the East, Middle
and West churches. The silver-gilt communion cup used in the
Middle Church is said to have been presented by Queen Mary. In
May 1559 John Knox preached in St John's his famous sermon
in denunciation of idolatry. The Dominican or Blackfriars'
monastery, founded by Alexander II. in 1231, occupied a site
near the west end of St John's Bridge; in what is now King
Street stood the Carthusian monastery, founded by James I.
in 1425; the Franciscan or Greyfriars' monastery, founded in
1460 by Laurance, first Lord Oliphant, stood on the present
Greyfriars' cemetery; the Carmelite or Whitefriars' monastery,
founded in 1260, stood west of the town. The tombstone of
James I. and his queen, who were buried in the Charterhouse,
was afterwards removed to St John's East Church. During the
period between the beginning of the 12th century and the
assassination of James I. in 1437, many of the Scottish parlia-
ments were held in Perth. The building in which they met
stood off High Street and was only cleared away in 1818, its

site being occupied by the Freemasons' Hall. The earl of
Gowrie's palace, built in 1520, stood in spacious grounds near
the river and was removed in 1805 to provide room for the
county buildings. The castle of Perth stood on the north of High
Street, not far from St John's. It was probably built about
860 and demolished about 1400. The Spey or Spy tower, the
most important fortress on the city wall, guarded the south gate
close to the river, but it was taken down early in the 19th century.
The market cross, erected in High Street in 1669 to replace
the older cross which Cromwell destroyed, was removed in
1765 as an obstruction. The huge fortress, 466 ft. square, which
Cromwell erected in 1651 on the South Inch, close to the river
and the Greyfriars' burying-ground, was demolished in 1663.
The house of Catherine Glover, the " Fair Maid of Perth," still
stands in Curfew Row. James VI. 's Hospital, founded in 1569,
occupies the site of the Carthusian monastery, the original
structure having been pulled down by Cromwell's orders. The
pensioners now live out and the hospital has been converted
into artisans' dwellings. Among modern public buildings the
principal are St Ninian's Episcopal Cathedral, in the Early
Middle Pointed style, an important example (completed 1890)
of the work of William Butterfield (1814-1900); the municipal
buildings (1881); the city-hall; the Marshall Memorial Hall
(1823), housing the public library and the museum of the
Perth Literary and Antiquarian Society; the Perthshire natural
history museum; the Sandeman public library (1898), founded by
a bequest of Professor Sandeman of Owens College, Manchester.
The general prison for Scotland, south of the South Inch, was
originally erected in 1812 as a depot for French prisoners, but was
remodelled as a convict prison in 1840 and afterwards enlarged.
North-west of the city are the military barracks built in 1793-
1794. Besides the regula'r elementary schools there are the
Perth Academy (1807) with which was subsequently amalgamated
the Burgh Grammar School, an institution supposed to date
from the 12th century; Sharp's institute (i860); the Stewart's
free school, an industrial school for girls, and the Fechney
industrial school. The charitable institutions comprise the
royal infirmary, in the Italian style, considerably enlarged
since its foundation in 1836; the Murray royal lunatic asylum
in Bridgend; the Hillside House in Kinnoull and the small-pox
hospital.

From the south the city is entered by the North British
railway and the Caledonian railway (which also runs west .
to St Fillans, east to Dundee and north-west to Aberdeen);
and from the north by the Highland railway, the three
systems utilizing a general station in the south-west of
the town. During the season there is communication with
Dundee and other river ports by steamer. The navigation
of the stream is considerably obstructed by sandbanks, but
vessels of 200 tons can unload at the quays, which, with the
town and Friarton harbours, lie below the South Inch. The
greatest tidal rise is 13 ft. The chief imports are Baltic timber,
coal, salt and manure; and the exports, manufactured goods,
grain, potatoes and slates. Perth has long been famous for its
dyeing and bleaching, the bleach-fields being mostly situated
outside of the city, in convenient proximity to the Tay and
Almond. The other leading industries include manufactures
of gauge-glasses, ink, muslins, India shawls, jute goods, woollens
and winceys, floorcloth, and boots and shoes. There are iron
foundries, breweries, distilleries, rope and sail works, coach-
building yards, steam joinery works, and brick and tile works.
The salmon fisheries of the Tay yield a substantial revenue.
Perth is under the jurisdiction of a town council, with a lord
provost and bailies, and returns one member to parliament.

History. — During the time that it was occupied by the
Romans, a period estimated at 320 years, the city was called
Victoria; but shortly after their withdrawal it seems to have
borne the Celtic appellation of Aber-tha (" at the mouth of the
Tay "). The transition to the latinized form Bertha and later
to Perth (the Gaelic name being Peart) appears obvious. On
the conversion of the original Pictish inhabitants and the
dedication of the first church to St John the Baptist, the town

PERTH AMBOY— PERTHES, J. G. J.

261

was designated St Johnstoun, and it continued to be known
indifferently by this name and that of Perth down to the 17th
century. Roman remains have often been found in excavations
carried out within the existing boundaries, which suggests
that the Roman settlement was at least twenty feet below the
present surface. The obscurity of the early annals of the
town is explained by the circumstance that Edward I. caused
the records to be removed. Perth is stated to have been a
burgh in 11 06 and was made a royal burgh by William the Lion
in 1 2 10. During the Scottish wars of the Independence its
fortifications were strengthened by Edward I. (1298). Robert
Bruce several times ineffectually attempted to seize it, but in
1311 he succeeded in scaling the walls during a night attack.
This was the fourth and most brilliant of the seven sieges which
the city has sustained. Taken by Edward III. in 1335, it was
recaptured in 1339. In 1396 the combat between the Clan
Chattan and the Clan Quhele, described in Scott's Fair Maid
of Perth, took place on the North Inch in presence of Robert III.
and his queen, Annabella Drummond. The Blackfriars' monas-
tery was the scene of the murder of James I. by Walter, earl
of Atholl, in 1437. In consequence Perth lost its status as
capital, in which it had succeeded to Scone, and the Parliament
Courts were transferred to Edinburgh in 1482. Cowrie Palace
was the scene of the mysterious " Gowrie " conspiracy against
James VI. in 1600. The town was taken by Montrose in
1644, by Cromwell in 1651, and was occupied by Viscount
Dundee in 1689. In 1715 the Old Pretender was proclaimed
king at the Mercat Cross (Sept. 16), and the chevalier
himself appeared in the city in the following January, only
to leave it precipitately on the approach of the earl of Argyll.
Prince Charles Edward spent a few days in Perth from the
3rd of September 1745. In both rebellions the magistrates
took the side of the Crown and were supported by the
townsfolk generally, the Jacobites drawing their strength mainly
from the county noblemen and gentry with their retainers.
Since then the city has devoted itself to the pursuits of
trade and commerce. Perth was visited by plague in 1512,
1585-1587, 1608 and 1645; by cholera in 1832; and the
floods of 1210,1621, 174Q, 1773 and 1814 were exceptionally
severe.

Authorities. — Maidment, The Chronicle of Perth from 1210 to
1668 (1831); Penney , Traditions of Perth (1836) ; Lawson, The Book
of Perth (1847); Peacock, Perth, its Annals and Archives (1849);
Samuel Cowen, The Ancient Capital of Scotland (1904).

PERTH AMBOY, a city and port of entry of Middlesex county,
New Jersey, U.S.A., at the mouth of the Raritan river, on
Ruritan Bay and Staten Island Sound, about 15 m. S. by W.
of Newark. Pop. (1910 census) 32,121. It is served by
the Pennsylvania, Lehigh Valley, Central of New Jersey and
Staten Island Rapid Transit railways, and by boats to New
York City. It is connected by a railway bridge (C.R.R.
of N.J.) and by a foot and wagon bridge with South Amboy,
on the south shore of the Raritan. Perth Amboy has a good
harbour, shipyards and dry-docks. In the city still stands
Franklin Palace (erected in 1764-17 74), the home of William
Franklin (1729-1813), a natural son of Benjamin Franklin and
the last royal governor of New Jersey. In the vicinity is the
Bartow House, in which William Dunlap (1766-1839), the art
historian, made his first drawings. Other buildings of historic
interest are the Parker Castle (c. 1729), a centre of Loyalist
influence at the time of the War of Independence, and the
Kearny Cottage, the home of " Madam Scribblerus," a half-
sister of Captain James Lawrence. The city has various manu-
factures, the factory product in 1905 being valued at $34,800,402.
Clay is obtained in the vicinity, and large shipments of coal are
made. Perth Amboy was founded in 1683. It was at first
called Amboy after the original Indian name; in 1684 the
proprietors named it Perth in honour of James, earl of Perth
(1648-1716), one of their number, and a few years later the two
names were combined. From 1686 until the end of the pro-
prietary government in 1702 Perth Amboy was the capital of
the province of East Jersey, and during the period of royal

government the general assembly and supreme court of New
Jersey met alternately here and at Burlington. Perth Amboy
was incorporated as a city in 17 18, and received a new charter
in 1784, and another in 1844, the last being revised in 1870.
The township of Perth Amboy was incorporated in 1693 and
in 1844 was included in the city.

PERTHES, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (1772-1843), German
publisher, nephew of Johan Georg Perthes (q.v.), was born at
Rudolstadt on the 21st of April 1772. At the age of fifteen
he became an apprentice in the service of Adam Friedrich
Bohme, a bookseller in Leipzig, with whom he remained for
about six years. In Hamburg, where he settled in 1793 as an
assistant to the bookseller B. G. Hoffmann, he started in 1796
a bookselling business of his own, and in 1798 he entered into
partnership with his brother-in-law, Johann Heinrich Besser
(1775-1826). By his marriage in 1797 with a daughter of the
poet, Matthias Claudius, he was brought into intimate relation
with a group of Protestant writers, who exercised a powerful
influence on the growth of his religious opinions. This, however,
did not prevent him from being on friendly terms with a number
of eminent Roman Catholic authors. Perthes was an ardent
patriot; and during the period of Napoleon's supremacy he
distinguished himself by his steady resistance to French preten-
sions. His zeal for the national cause led him, in 1810-1811, to
issue Das deutsche Museum, to which many of the foremost
publicists in Germany contributed. For some time the French
made it impossible for him to live in Hamburg; and when, in 1814,
he returned to that city he found that his business had greatly
diminished. In 1821, his wife having died, he left Hamburg,
transferring his business there to his partner, and went to Gotha,
where he established what ultimately became one of the first
publishing houses in Germany. It was owing to his initiation
that the Borsenverein der deutschen Buchhandler (Union of Ger-
man Booksellers) in Leipzig was founded in 1825. When the
foundation-stone of the fine building of the Union was laid in
1834, Perthes was made an honorary freeman of the city of
Leipzig, and in 1840 the university of Kiel conferred upon him
the degree of doctor of philosophy. Perthes died at Gotha on
the 18th of May 1843. His Life was written by his son, Klemens
Theodor Perthes (1809-1867), professor of law in the university
of Bonn, and author of Das deutsche Staatsleben vor der
Revolution (Hamburg and Gotha, 1845), an d D as Herbergswesen
der Handwerksgesellen (Gotha, 1856, and again 1883), whose
son Hermann Friedrich Perthes (1840-1883) was the founder
of the Fridericianum at Davos Platz. The publishing business
at Gotha was carried on by Perthes's younger son, Andreas,
(1813-1890) and his grandson, Emil (1841- ), until 1889,
when it was handed over to a company.

See also O. Adler, Friedrich and Karoline Perthes (Leipzig, 1900).

PERTHES, JOHAN GEORG JUSTUS (1 749-1816), German
publisher, was born at Rudolstadt on the nth of September
1749. In 1785 he founded at Gotha the business which bears
his name (Justus Perthes). In this he was joined in 1814 by
his son Wilhelm (1793-1853), who had been in the establishment
of Justus' nephew, Friedrich Christoph Perthes, at Hamburg.
On the death of Justus at Gotha on the 2nd of May 1816, Wilhelm
took entire control of the firm. He laid the foundation of the
geographical branch of the business, for which it is chiefly
famous, by publishing the Hand-atlas (181 7-1823) of Adolf Stieler
(1775-1836). Wilhelm Perthes engaged the collaboration of
the most eminent German geographers of the time, including
Heinrich Berghaus, Christian Gottlieb Reichard (1758-1837),
who was associated with Stieler in the compilation of the atlas,
Karl Spruner (1803-1892) and Emil von Sydow (1812-1873).
The business passed to his son Bernard Wilhelm Perthes (182 1-
!8S7)! who was associated with August Petermann (under whose
direction the well-known penodical Petermanns Mitteilungen
was founded) and Bruno Hassenstein (1839-1902); and subse-
quently to his son Bernard (1857- ). In 1863 the firm first
issued the Almanack de Gotha, a statistical, historical and
genealogical annual (in French) of the various countries of the

262

PERTHSHIRE

world; and in 1866 the elaborate Geographisches Jahrbuch was
produced under the editorship of Ernst Behm (1830-1884), on
whose death it was continued under that of Professor Hermann
Wagner.

PERTHSHIRE, an inland county of Scotland, bounded N.
by the shires of Inverness and Aberdeen; E. by Forfarshire;
S.E. by the Firth of Tay and the counties of Fife and Kinross;
S. by the shires of Clackmannan and Stirling; S.W. by the coun-
ties of Stirling and Dumbarton; W. by Argyllshire and N.W. by
Inverness-shire. It is the fourth largest county in Scotland,
having an area of 1,59s, 774 acres, or 2493-4 sq. m., including the
island of Mugdrum in the Firth of Tay. By far the greater
part of the county is mountainous. Including the hills on the
confines of Inverness-shire and Argyllshire, there are at least
fifty mountains exceeding 3000 ft. in height. Of these the most
familiar are Ben Lawers (3984 ft.) near Loch Tay, Ben More
(3843) east of Crianlarich, Ben Lui (3708) on the Argyllshire
border, Schiehallion (3547) south of Loch Rannoch, Ben Vannoch
(3125) west of Loch Lyon, and Ben Chonzie (3048) near the head
of Glen Almond. Of the immense number of hills of lesser
altitude there may be mentioned four that have been popularized
by the Lady of the Lake — Ben Ledi (2875) and Uam Var (2179)
near Callander, and Ben Venue (2393) and Ben A'an (1750),
guardians of the Trossachs. The Ochils divide Perthshire
from the shires of Clackmannan, Kinross and Fife. The chief
stream is the Tay, which rises on the Argyllshire frontier and
discharges into the North Sea off Buddon Ness, after a course of
117m., being thus the longest river in Scotland. Its head-waters
are the Fillan and Dochart, and among its affluents are, on the
right, the Bran, Almond and Earn and, on the left, the Lyon,
Tummel, rising in Argyllshire and receiving the Garry on its
left, and Isla. The Earn flows out of Loch Earn and enters
the Firth of Tay 6| m. below Perth. The Forth, the principal
natural boundary of the shire on the south, properly belongs
to Stirlingshire, in which it rises, but its leading left-hand affluents
are Perthshire rivers, namely, the Teith, the Goodie, issuing
from the lake of Menteith, and the Allan, rising in the Ochils
near Sheriffmuir. All the lakes are narrow , scarcely one
exceeding a mile in width. Loch Ericht, belonging partly to
Inverness-shire, is 14! m. long. Loch Tay (145 m. long),
situated about the centre, is the largest lake in the county.
In the south are the series of lakes which the Lady of the Lake
has rendered famous — Loch Vennachar (4! m. long), Loch
Achray (1 J- m. long), Loch Katrine (about 8 m. long) ; to the west
of Aberfoyle is Loch Ard (3 m. long) and to the east Lake Men-
teith (i| m. long). Nearly all the glens possess striking natural
features, among them, from south to north, being Glens Artney,
Almond, Dochart, Ogle, Lochay, Lyon, Garry, Shee, Bruar and
Tilt; while the Trossachs, Killiecrankie, Birnam and Leny are
the loveliest passes in the Highlands. The low-lying country
is represented mainly by Strathmore, Strath Gartney, Strath-
allan, noted for its annual " gathering " or games, Strathearn,
Strath Bran, Strath Tay and Strath Fillan, but more particularly
by the fertile alluvial belts of the Carse of Gowrie, on the
northern shore of the Firth of Tay, and the Carse of Stirling.
The Moor of Rannoch on the borders of Argyllshire is a sterile
boulder-strewn waste, and Flanders Moss, to the south-east
of Lake Menteith, is a vast boggy tract, which is, however, being
gradually reclaimed and brought under cultivation.

Geology. — The Highland portion of this county is built up of a
great series of schists and metamorphosed rocks grouped as " Dal-
radian " or Eastern schists. The general direction of the strike
of these rocks is W.S.W.-E.N.E. They are cut off from the Old
Red Sandstone, which occupies most of the remainder of the county,
by the great fault which traverses the county somewhat to the
north of Aberfoyle and Crieff. But for some distance north and
e»e. t of Crieff the boundary between these two formations is an
unconformable one. In the neighbourhood of the fault line the
Highland schists are less metamorphosed than they are farther
north ; about Comrie and Callander they consist of shales, greywackes
and igneous rocks with radiolarian cherts'and black shales that are sug-
gestive of the rocks of Arenig age in south Scotland. At Aberfoyle,
Comrie and Dunkeld roofing slates are worked and massive lime-
stones occur in Glen Tilt, Pitlochry, Callander, Blair Atholl, Loch
Rannoch and other places. A gritty series comes on above the

slates and is well seen capping the summit of Ben Vorlich. A
great variety of schists form the bulk of the series; but granite
masses appear in their midst as at Loch Rannoch, Loch Ericht
and Glen Tilt, and there are numerous acid and intermediate dikes
which are themselves traversed by later basaltic dikes. The Old
Red Sandstone consists in the lower portion mainly of coarse
volcanic agglomerates and lava flows followed by conglomerates,
sandstones and marls. The lowest beds are exposed along the
crest of the Ochil Hills which like the Sidlaw Hills are anticlinal in
structure, while between the Ochils and the Highland fault the
rocks are folded into syncline; near the fault they become very
steeply inclined and even inverted, and it is interesting also to note
that the sediments become coarser as the fault is approached.
The Upper Old Red Sandstone is well exposed near the Bridge of
Earn and it extends beneath the marine platform of the Carse of
Gowrie. The rocks are mainly red sandstones and marls, let down
between two parallel east and west faults but between the Bridge
of Earn and Forgandenny, west of the tract, they are seen to rest
unconformably upon the lower division. Small outliers of Car-
boniferous rocks (lower) occur on the north of the Ochils. The
marks of ice action left by the Glacial epoch are abundant and
striking in Perthshire; moraines are common in the Highland glens,
as those at the head of the Glengarry on borders of Loch Katrine;
ice-scratched surfaces are found on the Sidlaw Hills, the Ochils,
Kinnoull Hill and elsewhere; and erratic blocks of stone, such as
" Samson's Putting Stone," a mass of Highland schist resting on
a hill of Old Red Sandstone near Coilantogle, are widely distributed.
Old high level marine beaches form terraces far up several of the
larger streams, and the Carse of Gowrie, as already indicated, is
formed by the beach at the 50-ft. level. The gravel cones poured out
at the mouths of many of the glens which open on the south of the
Ochils on to the 100-ft. or 50-ft. beaches are often the site of villages.

Climate and Agriculture. — The mountainous territory is extremely
wet, the rainfall for the year varying from 93 in. in Glengyle at the
head of the Loch Katrine to 37 in. at Pitlochry and 23 in. at Perth.
Winter and autumn are the rainiest seasons. The temperature
is remarkably constant everywhere, averaging 47 ° F. for the year,
January being the coldest month (36-5° F.) and July the hottest
(59° F.). Only a little more than one-fifth of the total area is
under cultivation, and of this nearly one-third is in permanent
pasture, while in addition there are about 930,000 acres of hill
pasturage. The arable land is chiefly in the drier regions of the
east and south-east, the soil for the most part being fertile. Light
soils prevail in the lower undulating districts; clay and alluvial
land occur in the Carse of Gowrie, the Carse of Stirling and the
lower reach of Strathearn below and above Bridge of Earn. The
best heavy carse land is very rich and productive, but requires to
be thoroughly worked, limed and manured, being well adapted for
wheat. A considerable area is occupied by orchards, the light
quick soil of Tayside and the upper districts of Menteith being
admirably fitted for apples. The number of holdings is slightly
in excess of 5000 and of these the majority are under 50 acres
each, chiefly in the Highland valleys and near the villages and
small towns. Of grain, oats is the predominating crop, but barley
and wheat are also grown. Two-thirds of the area devoted to
green crops is occupied by turnips, the rest by potatoes. Most of
the horses raised, chiefly Clydesdales, are used solely for agricultural
purposes. Although dairy-farming is not an important industry,
a large number of cows, principally Ayrshires, are kept on the
lowland farms, the herds of the straths and mountain pastures
being most usually West Highlands or Kyloes. Perthshire, next
to Argyllshire, still carries the heaviest flocks in Scotland. _ Black-
faced is the principal breed in the Grampians, but there is also a
large number of Cheviots and South Downs, and Leicesters are
common on the lower runs. Only one-seventeenth of the surface
is under wood. This is well up to the proportion of the other
Scottish counties, but compares unfavourably with the conditions
existing in 1812, when 203,880 acres were under wood, of which
61,164 were planted and 142,716 natural. In Breadalbane and
Menteith there are remains of the ancient Caledonian forest.
Perthshire affords exceptional facilities for sport with rod and gun.
The fochs and rivers abound with salmon and trout, while hardly
any of the streams have suffered pollution from industries or
manufactures. The deer forests, exceeding 100,000 acres in area,
are frequented by red deer and roe deer, and on the extensive
moors and in the woods are found grouse, pheasants, partridge,
capercailzie, woodcock, ptarmigan and hares.

Industries. — The shire is famous for its dyeing and bleaching
works, which are situated in Perth and its vicinity ; but, apart from
these, there are flax and jute mills at Rattray and cotton mills at
Stanley, Deanston and Crieff; woollens, linen, jute and tartans are
woven at Dunblane, Alyth, Blairgowrie, Coupar-Angus, Auchter-
arder and Crieff; tanning is carried on at Blackford, Coupar-Angus
and Crieff; there are breweries and distilleries at various places,
as at Auchterarder and Logierait; granite, freestone, limestone
and slate are quarried at different centres; and there are sawmills
and flour-mills.

Communications. — The Caledonian railway main line to Aberdeen
enters the county near Dunblane and runs in a north-easterly

PERTINAX— PERTZ

263

direction via Perth. At Crieff junction it sends off a branch to
Crieff and at Perth branches to Dundee and Lochearnhead. The
Stirling to Oban line of the same company crosses the shire from
Dunblane to Tyndrum. The Highland railway runs northwards
from Perth, and has a branch at Ballinluig to Aberfeldy. Branches of
the North British railway reach Perth from Mawcarse in Kinross-
shire and Ladybank in Fifeshire; part of the branch from Buchlyvie
on the Forth and Clyde line runs to Aberfoyle, and the West
Highland railway skirts the extreme west of the shire. At several
points coaches supplement the rail. In the tourist season steamers
ply on Loch Tay and Loch Katrine, and there is a service on the
Tay between Perth and Dundee.

Population and Administration. — In 1891 the population
amounted to 122,185 and in 1901 to 123,283, or 49 persons to the
sq. m. The rate of increase was the smallest of any Scottish
county for the decade. In 1901 there were 78 persons speaking
Gaelic only and 11,446 Gaelic and English. The chief towns
are Perth (pop. 32,873), Crieff (5208), Blairgowrie (3378),
Dunblane (2516), Auchterarder (2276), Coupar-Angus (2064),
Rattray (2019). Among lesser centres may be mentioned Aber-
feldy (1508), a favourite resort on the Tay, well known for the
falls of Moness, mentioned in Robert Burns's song " The Birks
of Aberfeldy "; Abernethy (623), the seat of an early bishopric,
retaining one of the three ancient round towers in Scotland;
Alyth (1965); Callander (1458); Comrie (1118), a holiday resort
on the Earn; Pitlochry (1541); and Stanley (1035), on the Tay.
Of old the county was divided into hereditary jurisdictions,
which were abolished in 1748, and in 1795 the county was
divided into districts for administrative purposes, a system which
obtained until 1889, when county and district councils were
established. The sheriffdom is divided into an eastern and
western district, the seat of the one being Perth and the other
Dunblane. For parliamentary purposes the county is also
divided into an eastern and a western division, and the city of
Perth returns a member. The shire is under school-board
jurisdiction, and there are secondary schools at Perth and
Crieff, and Trinity College in Glen Almond is a well-known
public school on the English model.

History. — In 83 Agricola explored the lands beyond the Forth
and in the following year penetrated to the Grampians, defeating
the Caledonians under Galgacus with great slaughter. The site
of this battle is conjectured by William Forbes Skene to have
been near Meikleour, south of Blairgowrie, but other writers
have referred it to Dalginross, near Comrie; to Ardoch (where
there are the most perfect remains of a Roman encampment in
the British Isles) ; and even as far north as Raedykes, near Stone-
haven in Kincardineshire. The Romans did not pursue their
victory, and the Picts were left undisturbed for a considerable
period. At this time, according to Ptolemy, the territory now
known as Perthshire was occupied by three tribes — the Dam-
nonii, the Venicones and the Vacomagi. The Damnonii held
Menteith, Strathearn and Fothrif (the western part of modern
Fife and Kinross), with Alauna (Allan), just above Stirling,
Lindum (Ardoch) and Victoria (believed by some authorities
to be Lochore in Fifeshire, and by others to be Perth city), as
their chief towns. The Venicones inhabited north-western Fife
and the adjoining tract of Perthshire, with Orrea (probably
Abernethy) as their chief town and a station at Ardargie. The
Vacomagi dwelt in the Highland region, with stations at Inch-
tuthil (a peninsula in the Tay above Kinclaven) and Banatia
(Buchanty on the Almond). The growing lawlessness of the
southern Picts and their frequent raids in the more settled
country in the south at last compelled the attention of the
emperor Severus. He arrived in Britain in 208, but though he
led a strong army to the shores of the Moray Firth, he was
unable effectually to subdue the tribesmen. The road he
constructed ran from Stirling to Ardoch (where there are notable
remains) and thence by Strageath, near Muthill, where it
branched north-westwards to Dalginross and Buchanty, and
north-eastwards to Perth and so to the Grampians. When the
Romans finally withdrew from Britain, the Picts established
their capital first at Abernethy and then at Forteviot. Aber-
nethy was the centre of the Celtic church after the conversion
of the natives by Ninian, Palladius and other missionaries in the

5th and 6th centuries. On the burning of Forteviot by the
Norsemen in the 8th century, the seat of Pictish government was
removed to Scone. In the latter half of the 9th century Dunkeld
— to which Kenneth Macalpine had brought some of the relics
of Columba from Iona — became the scene of monastic activity,
the abbot succeeding to the position of the abbot of Iona, and
exercising great influence for nearly a hundred years. The
Danes periodically harried the land, but a crushing defeat at
Luncarty in 961 put an end to their inroads in this quarter.
In 1054 Macbeth was defeated at Dunsinane by Siward, earl
of Northumberland, who had invaded Scotland in the interest
of his kinsman, Duncan's son, who, on the death of the usurper
three years later, ascended the throne as Malcolm III., called
Canmore. With Malcolm's accession the Celtic rule of the
monarchy of Scone came to an end. Nevertheless, the Scottish
sovereigns (excepting James II., James III. and Mary) continued
to be crowned at Scone, which also retained the position of
capital until the beginning of the 12th century, when it was
displaced by Perth. From the time of Alexander I. (d. 1124),
therefore, the history of the shire is merged in that of the county
town, with the exception of such isolated incidents as the removal
of the Coronation Stone from Scone to Westminster in 1296,
the defeat of Robert Bruce at Methven in 1306, the battle of
Dupplin in 1332, the victory of Dundee at Killiecrankie in 1689
and the indecisive contest at Sheriffmuir in 1715. Among
archaeological remains may be mentioned the hill-fort on
Dunsinane; the ship-barrow of the vikings at Rattray, weems
(or earth-houses) in the parishes of Monzie, Alyth and Bendochy;
the witch-stone near Cairnbeddie, one of the numerous spots
where Macbeth is alleged to have met the witches, but probably
a sepulchral memorial of some forgotten battle; standing stones
near Pitlochry, and an extraordinary assemblage of sculptured
stones at Meigle.

Bibliography. — Robertson, Comitatus de Atholiae (Edinburgh,
i860) ; P. R. Drummond, Perthshire in Bygone Days (London, 1879) ;
Marshall, Historic Scenes of Perthshire (Perth, 1880); Beveridge,
Perthshire-on- Forth (2 vols., London, 1885); R. B. Cunninghame-
Grahame, Notes on the District of Menteith (London, 1895) ; Hutchison,
The Lake of Menteith (Stirling, 1899).

PERTINAX, PUBLIUS HELVIUS (a.d. 126-193), Roman
emperor, the son of a charcoal-burner, was born at Alba Pompeia in
Liguria. From being a teacher of grammar he rose through many
important offices, both civil and military, to the consulate, which
he held twice. Chosen, at an advanced age and against his
will, on the 1st of January 193, to succeed Commodus, he was
himself assassinated in a mutiny of the soldiers, on the 28th of
March 193.

PERTZ, GEORG HEINRICH (1795-1876), German historian,
was born at Hanover on the 28th of March 1795. From 1813
to 1818 he studied at Gottingen, chiefly under A. H. L. Heeren.
His graduation thesis, published in 1819, on the history of the
Merovingian mayors of the palace, attracted the attention of
Baron Stein, by whom he was engaged in 1820 to edit the Carol-
ingian chroniclers for the newly-founded Historical Society of
Germany. In search of materials for this purpose, Pertz made
a prolonged tour through Germany and Italy, and on his return
in 1823 he received at the instance of Stein the principal charge
of the publication of Monumenta germaniae hislorica, texts
of all the more important historical writers on German affairs
down to the year 1500, as well as of laws, imperial and regal
archives, and other valuable documents, such as letters, falling
within this period. Pertz made frequent journeys of explora-
tion to the leading libraries and public record offices of Europe,
publishing notes on the results of his explorations in the Archiv.
der Gesellsch. f. deutsche Geschichtskunde (1824-1872). In 1823
he had been made secretary of the archives, and in 1827 principal
keeper of the royal library at Hanover; from 1832 to 1837 he
edited the Hannoverische Zeitung, and more than once sat as a
representative in the Hanoverian second chamber. In 1842
he was called as chief librarian to Berlin, where he shortly
afterwards was made a privy councillor and a member of the
Academy of Sciences. He resigned all his appointments in

264

PERU

1874, and on the 7th of October 1876 died at Munich while
attending the sittings of the historical commission.

The Monumenta began to appear in 1826, and at the date of
his resignation 24 volumes folio {Scriptores, Leges, Diplomata)
had appeared. This work for the first time made possible the
existence of the modern school of scientific historians of medieval
Germany. In connexion with the Monumenta Pertz also began
the publication of a selection of sources in octavo form, the
Scriptores rerum germanicarum in usum scholarum ; among his
other literary labours may be mentioned an edition of the Gesam-
melte Werke of Leibnitz, and a life of Stein (Leben des Ministers
Freiherrn vom Stein (6 vols., 1849-1855); also, in an abridged form,
Aus Steins Leben (2 vols., 1856).

PERU

Scale

Reference to
Departments & Provinces

1. Turabez (Province)

2. Piura ,

3. Lambayeque

4. Cajamarca

5. Amazonas

6. Loreto

7. San Martin

8. Libertad

9. Ancachs

10. Huanuco

11. Callao (Province)

12. Lima

13. Junin

14. Huancavefica

15. Ica

16. Ayacucho

17. Apurimac

18. Cuzco

19. Puno

20. Arequipa

21. Moquegna (Province)

PERU (apparently from Biru, a small river on the west coast
of Colombia, where Pizarro landed), a republic of the Pacific
coast of South America, extending in a general N.N.W.-S.S.E.
direction from lat. 3" 21' S. to about 18 S., with a sea-coast of
1240 m. and a width of 300 to 400 m., exclusive of territories
in dispute. Its area in 1906, including Tacna and Arica, and
other disputed territories occupied by neighbouring states, was
officially estimated at 1,732,422 sq. kilometers, or 676,638 sq. m.;
exclusive of these territories, the area of Peru is variously

estimated at 439,°°° to 480,000 sq. m., the Gotha measurements
being 1,137,000 sq. kilometers, or 439,014 sq. m.

With the exception of parts of the Ecuador, Brazil and Bolivia
frontiers, all the boundary lines have been disputed and referred
to arbitration — those with Colombia and Ecuador to the king
of Spain, and that with Bolivia to the president of Argentina,
on which a decision was rendered on the 9th of July 1909.
There have been misunderstandings with Ecuador in regard
to some small areas in the Chira valley, but it may be assumed
that the line is fixed between Santa Rosa (3 21' S.) on the Gulf
of Guayaquil, and the Chinchipe river, a tributary of the

Marafion. At the junction of
the Cauches with that river,
that Ecuadorean line descends
the Chinchipe to the Marafion,
and the Peruvian ascends to a
point where it is intersected by
a line following the eastern
Cordillera northward to the
head-waters of the Caqueta, or
Japura, which forms the
northern boundary down to the
Brazilian frontier. This claim
covers all eastern Ecuador and
a large part of south-eastern
Colombia. In 1903 there were
encounters between small bodies
of Peruvian and Ecuadorean
troops on the disputed frontier.
After arbitration by the king
of Spain had been agreed
upon, the question was con-
sidered by two Spanish com-
missions, and modifications
favouring Peru were recom-
mended. These became known
prematurely, and in May 19 10
war was threatened between
Peru and Ecuador in spite of
an offer of mediation by the
United States, Brazil and
Argentina under the Hague
Convention.

From the Japura southward
to the Amazon, in 4 13' 21" S.,
69° 35' W., and thence up the
Javary, or Yavari, to its source
in 7 8' 4 "_S., 73° 46' 3°" W.,
as determined by a mixed
commission, the line has been
definitely settled. From near
the source of the Javary, or
lat. 7° 1' 17" S., a line running
eastward to the Madeira in
lat. 6° 52' is" S., which is
half the distance between the
mouth of the Mamore and the
mouth of the Madeira, divides
the Spanish and Portuguese
possessions in this part of South
America, according to the pro-
visions of the treaty of San
Ildefonso of 1777. This line has been twice modified by treaties
between Bolivia and Brazil, but without the consent of Peru,
which claimed all the territory eastward to the Madeira between
the above-mentioned line and the Beni-Madidi rivers, the line
of demarcation following the Pablo-bamba, a small tributary
of the Madidi, to its source, and thence in a straight line to the
village of Conima, on Lake Titicaca. The dispute with Brazil
relates to the territory acquired by that republic from Bolivia
in 1 86 7 and 1 903 , and was to be settled, according to an agreement

Emery Walker sc.

PERU

of 1908, by direct negotiation if possible, or, failing this,
by arbitration. The decision of the president of Argentina of
the pth of July 1909, in regard to the remainder of this extensive
territory, was a compromise, and divided it into two nearly
equal parts. The line adopted starts from Lake Suches, the
source of a small river of that name flowing into the north of
Lake Titicaca, crosses the Cordillera by the Palomani to the
Tambopata river, follows that stream to the mouth of the Lanza,
thence crosses to the source of the Heath river, which forms the
dividing line down to its junction with the Madre de Dios,
descends that river to the mouth of the Torosmonas, thence in
a straight line north-westerly to the intersection of the Tahua-
manu river by the 69th meridian, and thence north on that
meridian to the Brazilian frontier. This decision at first gave
offence to the Bolivians, but friendly overtures from Peru led
to its acceptance by both parties with the understanding that
modifications would be made in locating the line wherever actual
settlements had been made by either party on territory awarded
to the other. With Chile the dejure line is that of the Camarones
ravine which separated the old department of Moquegua (includ-
ing the provinces of Tacna and Arica) from that of Tarapaca.
The de facto line is that of the Sama river (usually dry), which
opens on the coast a little south of Sama point, near 18° S., Chile
retaining possession of the two above-mentioned provinces in
violation of the treaty of Ancon, which she forced upon her
defeated antagonist.

Physical Geography— Peru is divided longitudinally into three
well-defined regions, the coast, the sierra and the montafia. The
coast, extending from the base of the Western or Maritime Cor-
dillera to the Pacific Ocean, consists of a sandy desert crossed at
intervals by rivers flowing through narrow, fertile valleys. The
sierra is the region of the Andes, and is about 250 m. in width. It
contains stupendous chains of mountains, elevated plains and
table-lands, warm and fertile valleys and ravines. The montafia
is the region of tropical forests within the valley of the Amazon, and
skirts the eastern slopes of the Andes.

The coast has been upraised from the ocean at no very distant
geological epoch, and is nearly as destitute of vegetation as the
The Coast. Afrlcan Sahara. It is watered, however, by fifty
streams whlcn cross the desert at intervals. Half
ot these have their origin in the summits of the Andes, and run
with a permanent supply of water into the ocean. The others
rising in the outer range, which does not reach the snow-line
and receives less moisture, carry a volume of water to the sea during
the rainy season, but for the rest of the year are nearly dry The
absence of rain here is ascribed to the action of the lofty uplands
u u ,, ndes on the trade-wind, and to the influence of the cold
Humboldt current sweeping northward along the west coast of
the continent. The south-east trade-wind blows obliquely across
the Atlantic Ocean until it reaches Brazil. By this time it is
heavily laden with vapour, which it continues to bear along across the
continent depositing it and supplying the sources of the Amazon
and La Plata. When the wind rises above the snow-capped Andes
the last particle of moisture is wrung from it that a very low
temperature can extract. Passing the summit of that range, it
rushes down as a cool and dry wind on the Pacific slopes beyond.
Meeting with no evaporating surface, and with no temperature
colder than that to which it is subjected on the mountain-tops, this
wind reaches the ocean before it becomes charged with fresh
moisture. The constantly prevailing wind on the Peruvian coast
is from the south, which is a cold wind from the Humboldt current
As it moves north it becomes gradually warmed and takes up
moisture instead of depositing it as rain. From November to
April there are usually constant dryness, a clear sky, and con-
siderable, though by no means oppressive, heat. From June to
September the sky is obscured for weeks together by fog, which
is often accompanied by drizzling rain called garua. At the time
when it is hottest and driest on the coast it is raining heavily
in the Andes, and the rivers are full. When the rivers are
at their lowest, the garua prevails on the coast. The climate
of various parts of the coast, however, is modified by local
circumstances.

The Western Cordillera, overhanging the Peruvian coast, contains
a long line ot volcanic mountains, most of them inactive, but their
presence is probably connected with the frequent and severe
earthquakes, especially in the southern section of the coast. Since
1570 seventy violently destructive earthquakes have been recorded
on the west coast of South America, but the register is incomplete
in its earlier part. The most terrible was that of 1746, which
destroyed Callao, on the 28th of October, and there were 220 shocks
in the following twenty-four hours. The town was overwhelmed
by a vast wave which rose 80 ft.; and the shocks continued until
the following Februarv. On the 13th of August 1868 an earthquake

265

nearly destroyed Arequipa, and great waves rolled in upon the
ports of Arica and Iquique. On the 9th of May 1877 nearly all the
southern ports were overwhelmed.

The deserts between the river-valleys vary in extent, the largest
being more than 70 m. across. On their western margin steep
cliffs generally rise from the sea, above which is the tablazo or
plateau, in some places slightly undulating, in others with ridges
of considerable height rising out of it. The surface is generally
hard, but in many places there are large accumulations of drifting
sea-sand. The sand usually forms isolated hillocks, called medanos,
of a half-moon shape, having their convex sides towards the trade-
wind. They are from 10 to 20 ft. high, with an acute crest, the
inner side perpendicular, the outer with a steep slope. Sometimes,
especially at early dawn, there is a musical noise in the desert, like
the sound of distant drums, which is caused by the eddying of
grains of sand in the heated atmosphere, on the crests of the
medanos.

_ Apparently the deserts are destitute of all vegetation ; yet three
kinds of herbs exist, which bury themselves deep in the earth, and
survive long periods of drought. One is an amar- _
anthaceous plant, whose stems ramify through the Flora.

sandhills; the other two are a Martynia and an Aniseia, which
maintain a subterranean existence during many years, and
only produce leafy stems in those rare seasons when sufficient
moisture penetrates to the roots. In a few hollows which are
reached by moisture the trees of the desert find support, the
algarrobo (Prosopis horrida), a low tree of very scraggy growth,
the vichaya (Capparis crotonoides)., and the zapote del perro (Colico-
dendrum scabridum), mere shrubs. Near the Cordillera and on its
lower slopes a tall branched cactus is met with, and there are
Sahcornias and Salsolas near the coast. But, when the mists set
m, the low hills near the coast bordering the deserts, which are
called lomas, undergo a change as if by magic. A blooming vege-
tation of wild flowers for a short time covers the barren hills. Near
Lima one of the low ranges is brightened by the beautiful yellow
hly called amancaes (Ismene Amancaes). The other flowers of the
lomas are the papita de San Juan (Begonia geranifolia) , with red
petals contrasting with the white inner sides, valerians, the beautiful
Bomarea ovata, several species of Oxalis, Solanum and crucifers.
But this carpet of flowers is very partially distributed and lasts
but a short time.

The valleys form a marvellous contrast to the surrounding
desert. A great mass of pale-green foliage is usually composed
of the algarrobo trees, while the course of the river is marked by
lines or groups of palms, by fine old willows {Salix humboldtiana) ,
fruit-gardens, and fields of cotton, Indian corn, sugar-cane and
alfalfa (lucerne). In some valleys there are expanses of sugar-cane,
in others cotton, whilst in others vineyards and olive-yards pre-
dominate. The woods of algarrobo are used for pasture, cattle and
horses enjoying the pendulous yellow pods.

For purposes of description the coast-region of Peru may be
divided into five sections, beginning from the north: (1) the Piura
region; (2) the Lambayeque and Trujillo section; _ .. .

(3) the Santa valleys; (4) the section from Lima to Nasca ; f"*™" 8 "'
(5) the Arequipa and Tacna section. the Coast '

(1 ) The great desert-region of Piura extends for nearly 200 m. from
the Gulf of Guayaquil to the borders of the Morrope Valley and
is traversed by three rivers— the Tumbes, Chira and Piura' the
two former receiving their waters from the inner Cordillera' and
breaking through the outer range. It is here that the coast of South
America extends farthest to the westward until it reaches Capes
Blanco and Parifia, and then turns southward to the Bay of Paita
The climate of Piura is modified by the lower latitude, and also
by the vicinity of the forests of Guayaquil. Fog and garua are
much less frequent than in the coast-region farther south, while
rain sometimes falls. At intervals of three or four years there are
occasional heavy showers of rain from February to April. (2) The
second section of the coast-region includes the valleys of the Morrope
the Chiclayo, and Lambayeque, the Sana, the Jequetepeque the
Chicama, Moche, Viru and Chao. With the intervening , deserts
this section extends over 200 m. All these valleys, except Morrope
and Chao, are watered by rivers which have their sources far in
the recesses of the mountains, and which furnish an abundant
supply in the season when irrigation is needed. (3) The third
section, also extending for 200 m., contains the valleys of Santa,
Nepena, Casma, Huarmey, Fortaleza, Pativilca, Supe and Huaura
The river Santa, which rises in the lake of Conococha, 12,907 ft
above the sea, and has a length of 180 m., is remarkable for its
long course between the outer and central ranges of the Andes In a
trough known as the " Callejon de Huaylas," 100 m. in length
It then breaks through in a deep gorge, and reaches the sea after
a course of 35 m. over the coast-belt, and after fertilizing a rich
valley. The Santa and Nepena valleys are separated by a desert
8 leagues in width, on the shores of which there is a good anchorage
in the bay of Ferrol, where the port of Chimbote is the terminus of
a railway. The Nepena, Casma, Huarmey, Fortaleza and Sup6
rivers rise on the slope of an outer range called the Cordillera Negra,
and are consequently dry during the great part of the year. Wells
are dug in their beds, and the fertility of the valleys is thus main-
tained. The Pativilca (or Barranca) river and the Huaura break

266

PERU

through the outer range from their distant sources in the snowy
Cordillera, and have a perennial supply of water. There are 9
leagues of desert between the Nepena and Casma, 16 between the
Casma and Huarmey, and 18 between the Huarmey and Fortaleza.
The latter desert, much of which is loose sand, is called the Pampa
de Mata Cavallos, from the number of exhausted animals which die
there. Between the Supe and Pativilca is the desert called the
Pampa del Medio Mundo. (4) The next coast-section extends for
over 300 m., from Chancay to Nasca, and includes the rivers of
Chancay or Lacha, of Carabayllo, Rimac, Lurin, Mala, Canete,
Chincha, Pisco or Chunchanga, lea and Rio Grande. Here the
maritime range approaches the ocean, leaving a narrower strip of
coast, but the fertile valleys are closer and more numerous. Those
of Carabayllo and Rimac are connected, and the view from the Bay
of Callao extends over a vast expanse of fertile plain bounded by
the Andes, with the white towers of Lima in a setting of verdure.
Lurin and Mala are smaller valleys, but the great vale of Canete
is one green sheet of sugar-cane ; and narrow strips of desert separate
it from the fertile plain of Chincha, and Chincha from the famous
vineyards of Pisco. The valleys of lea, Palpa, San Xavier and Nasca
are rich and fertile, though they do not extend to the sea ; but between
Nasca and Acari there is a desert 60 m. in width. (5) The Arequipa
and Tacna section extends over 350 m. and comprises the valleys of
Acari, Atequipa, Atico, Ocofia, Majes or Camana, Quilca, with the
interior valley of Arequipa, Tambo, Ilo or Moquegua, It6 or Locumba,
Sama, Tacna, and Azapa or Arica. Here the Western Cordillera
recedes, and the important valley of Arequipa, though on its western
slope, is 7000 ft. above the sea and 90 m. from the coast. Most
of the rivers here have their sources in the central range, and are
well supplied with water. The coast-valleys through which they
flow, especially those of Majes and Locumba, are famous for their
vineyards, and in the valley of Tambo there are extensive olive
plantations.

The coast of Peru has few protected anchorages, and the headlands
are generally abrupt and lofty. These and the few islands are
Island frequented by sea-birds, whence come the guano-
s ' deposits, the retention of ammonia and other fertilizing
properties being due to the absence of rain. The islets off the
coast are all barren and rocky.

The most northern is Foca, in 5° 13' 30" S., near the coast to the
south of Paita. The islands of Lobos de Tierra and Lobos de Afuera
(2) in 6° 27' 45" S. and 6° 56' 45" S. respectively, are off the desert of
Sechura, and contain deposits of guano. The two Afuera islands
are 60 and 36 m. respectively from the coast at the port of San Jos6.
The islets of Macabi, in 7° 49' 20" S., also have guano deposits, now
practically exhausted. The two islets of Guanape, surrounded by
many rocks, in 8° 34' S., contain rich deposits. Chao rises 450 ft.
above the sea, off the coast, in 8° 46' 30" S. Corcobado is in 8° 57' S.
La Viuda is off the port of Casma, in 9 23' 30" S. ; and Tortuga is
2 m. distant to the north. Santa Islet lies off the bay of Cosca, in
9 1' 40", and the three high rocks of Ferrol in 9° 8' 30" S. Farther
south there is the group of islets and rocks called Huaura, in II°27'S.,
the chief of which are El Pelado, Tambillo, Chiquitana, Bravo,
Quitacalzones and Mazorque. The Hormigas are in 11° 4' S. and
ii° 58', and the Pescadores in 1 1 ° 47' S. The island of San Lorenzo,
in 12 4' S., is a lofty mass, 4! m. long by 1 broad, forming the
Bay of Callao; its highest point is 1050 ft. Off its south-east end
lies a small but lofty islet called Fronton, and to the south-west
are the Palomitas Rocks. Horadada Islet, with a hole through
it, is to the south of Callao Point. Off the valley of Lurin are the
Pachacamac Islands, the most northern and largest being half a
mile long x The next, called San Francisco, is like a sugar-loaf,
perfectly rounded at the top. The others are mere rocks. Asia
Island is farther south, 17 m. north-west of Cerro Azul, and about
a mile in circuit. Pisco Bay contains San Gallan Island, high, with
a bold cliff outline, 2§ m. long by 1 broad, the Ballista Islets, and
farther north the three famous Chincha Islands, whose vast guano
deposits are now exhausted. South of the entrance to Pisco Bay
is Zarate Island, and farther south the white level islet of Santa
Rosa. The Infiernillo rock is quite black, about 50 ft. high, in the
form of a sugar-loaf, a mile west of the point of Santa Maria, which
is near the mouth of the lea river. Alacran is a small islet off the
lofty " morro " of Arica. All these rocks and islets are barren and
uninhabitable. The more common sea-birds are the Sula variegata
or guano-bird, a large gull called the Larus modestus, the Pelecanus
thayus, and the Sterna Ynca, a beautiful tern with curved white
feathers on each side of the head. The rarest of all the gulls is also
found on the Peruvian coast, namely, the Xema furcatum. Sea-lions
(Otaria forsteri) are common on the rocky islands and promontories.
The region of the Cordilleras of the Andes is divided into puna,
or lofty uninhabited wilderness, and sierra, or inhabitable moun-
„, tain slopes and valleys. This great mountain-system,

erra. running south-east to north-west, consists of three
chains or Cordilleras. The two chains, which run parallel and near
each other on the western side, are of identical origin, and have
been separated by the 'action of water during many centuries. On
these chains are the volcanoes and many thermal springs. The
narrow space between them is for the most part, but not always, a
cold and lofty region known as the puna containing alpine lakes —
the sources of the coast-rivers. The great eastern chain, rising from

the basin of the Amazon and forming the inner wall of the system,
is of distinct origin. These three chains are called the Western or
Maritime Cordillera, the Central Cordillera and the Andes. Paz
Soldan and other Peruvian geographers give the name of Andes,
par excellence, to the Eastern Cordillera.

The Maritime Cordillera of Peru has no connexion with the coast
ranges of Chile, but is a continuation of the Cordillera Occidental
of Chile, which under various local names forms the eastern margin
of the coastal desert belt from Atacama northward into Peru.
It contains a regular chain of volcanic peaks overlooking the coast-
region of Tarapaca. Chief among them are the snowy peak of
Lirima (19,128 ft.) over the ravine of Tarapaca, the volcano of
Isluga overhanging Camina, the Bolivian peak of Sajama, and
Tocora (19,741 ft.) near the Bolivian frontier. In rear of Moquegua
there is a group of volcanic peaks, clustering round those of Ubinas
and Huaynaputina. A great eruption of Huaynaputina began on
the 15th of February 1600 and continued until the 28th. But
generally these volcanoes are quiescent. Farther north the Misti
volcano rises over the city of Arequipa in a perfect cone to a height
of over 20,013 ft., and near its base are the hot sulphur and iron
springs of Yura. The peak of Sarasara, in Parinacochas (Ayacucho)
is 19,500 ft. above the sea, and in the mountains above Lima the
passes attain a height of more than 15,000 ft. In latitude io° S.
the maritime chain separates into two branches, which run parallel
to each other for 100 m., enclosing the remarkable ravine of Callejon
de Huaylas — the eastern or main branch being known as the
Cordillera Nevada and the western as the Cordillera Negra. On
the Nevada the peak of Huascan reaches a height of 22,051 ft.
The Huandoy peak, above Carhuaz, rises to 21,088 ft. ; the flualcan
peak, overhanging the town of Yungay, is 19,945 ft. high; and most
of the peaks in this part of the chain reach a height of 19,000 ft.
During the rainy season, from October to May, the sky is generally
clear at dawn, and the magnificent snowy peaks are clearly seen.
But as the day advances the clouds collect. In most parts of the Peru-
vian Andes the line of perpetual snow is at 16,400 ft. ; but on the Cor-
dillera Nevada, above the Callejon de Huaylas, it sinks to 15,400 ft.
This greater cold is caused by the intervention of the Cordillera
Negra, which intercepts the warmth from the coast. As this lower
chain does not reach the snow-line, the streams rising from it are
scanty, while the Santa, Pativilca and other coast-rivers which
break through it from sources in the snowy chain have a greater
volume from the melted snows. At the point where the river
Santa breaks through the Cordillera Negra that range begins to
subside, while the Maritime Cordillera continues as one chain to and
beyond the frontier of Ecuador.

The Central Cordillera is the true water-parting of the system.
No river, except the Maranon, breaks through it either to the east or
west, while more than twenty coast streams rise on its slopes and
force their way through the maritime chain. The Central Cordillera
consists mainly of crystalline and volcanic rocks, on each side of
which are aqueous, in great part Jurassic, strata thrown up almost
vertically. In 14 30' S. the central chain is connected with the
Eastern Andes by the transverse mountain-knot of Vilcafiota, the
peak of that name being 17,651 ft. above the sea. The great inland
basin of Lake Titicaca is thus formed. The central chain continues
to run parallel with the Maritime Cordillera until, at Cerro Pasco,
another transverse knot connects it with the Andes in io° 30' S. lat.
It then continues northward, separating the basins of the Maranon
and Huallaga; and at the northern frontier of Peru it is at length
broken through by the Maranon flowing eastward.

The Eastern Andes is a magnificent range in the southern part of
Peru, of Silurian formation, with talcose and clay slates, manjf
quartz veins and eruptions of granitic rocks. Mr Forbes says that
the peaks of Illampu (21,709 ft.) and Illimani (21,014 ft-) m Bolivia
are Silurian and fossiliferous to their summits. The eastern range
is cut through by six rivers in Peru, namely, the Maranon and Hual-
laga, the Perene, Mantaro, Apurimac, Vilcamayu and Paucartambo,
the last five being tributaries of the Ucayali. The range of the
Andes in south Peru has a high plateau to the west and the vast
plains of the Amazonian basin to the east. The whole range is
highly auriferous, and the thickness of the strata is not less than
10,000 ft. It is nowhere disturbed by volcanic eruptions, except at
the very edge of the formation near Lake Titicaca, and in this respect
it differs essentially from the Maritime Cordillera. To the eastward
numerous spurs extend for varying distances into the great plain
of the Amazons.

The Andes lose their majestic height to the northward; and beyond
Cerro Pasco the eastern chain sinks into a lower range between the
Huallaga and Ucayali. But throughout the length of Peru the three
ranges are clearly defined.

For purposes of description the sierra of Peru may be divided
into four sections, each embracing portions of all three ranges.
The first, from the north, comprises the upper basins s ^. t
of the Maranon and the Huallaga, and is 350 m. long by &£££' .
100 broad. The second extends from the Knot of
Cerro Pasco to Ayacucho, about 200 m., including the Lake of
Chinchay-cocha and the basin of the river Xauxa. The third or
Cuzco section extends 250 m. to the Knot of Vilcafiota with the basins
of the Pampas, Apurimac, Vilcamayu and Paucartambo. The
fourth is the basin of Lake Titicaca.

PERU

267

Lake Junin, or Chinchay-cocha, in the second section, is 36 m.
long by 7 m. broad, and 13,232 ft. above the sea. Its marshy
banks afe overgrown with reeds and inhabited by numerous water-
fowl. From this lake the river Xauxa flows southwards through
a populous valley for 150 m. before entering the forests. Lake
Titicaca (see Bolivia), in the fourth or most southern section, is
divided between Peru and Bolivia. It receives a number of short
streams from the ranges shutting in the upper end of the valley;
the largest is the Ramiz, formed by the two streams of Pucara and
Azangaro, both coming from the Knot of Vilcafiota to the north.
The Suches, which has its source in Lake Suches, falls into Lake
Titicaca on the north-west side, as well as the Yllpa and Ylave.
The principal islands are Titicaca and Coati (at the south end near
the peninsula of Copacabana), Campanaria (9 m. from the east
shore), Soto and Esteves. There are two other lakes in the Collao,
as the elevated region round Titicaca is called. Lake Arapa, a few
miles from the northern shore of Titicaca, is 30 m. in circumference.
Lake Umayo is on higher ground to the westward. The lake in
Peru which is third in size is that of Parinacochas on the coast
watershed, near the foot of the snowy peak of Sarasara. It is 12 m.
long by 6 broad, but has never been visited and' described by any
modern traveller. The smaller alpine lakes, often forming the
sources of rivers, are numerous.

The great rivers of the sierra are the Maranon, rising in the lake
of Lauricocha and flowing northward in a deep gorge between the
Maritime and Central Cordilleras for 350 m., when it forces its way
through the mountains at the famous Pongo de Manseriche and
enters the Amazonian plain. The Huallaga rises north of Cerro
Pasco, and, passing Huanuco, flows northwards on the other side of
the Central Cordillera for 300 m. It breaks through the range at
the Pongo de Chasuta and falls into the Maranon. The other great
rivers are tributaries of the Ucayali. The Pozuzu, flowing east-
ward from the Knot of Cerro Pasco, joins the Pachitea, which is
the most important northern affluent of the Ucayali. The Xauxa,
becoming afterwards the Mantaro, receives the drainage of Xauxa,
Huancavelica and Ayacucho. The southern valleys of this part of
the sierra furnish streams which form the main rivers of Pampas,
Pachachaca and Apurimac. These, uniting with the Mantaro,
form the Ene, and the Ene and Perene (which drains the province
of Tambo) form the Tambo. The Vilcamayu rises on the Knot of
Vilcafiota, flows north through a lovely valley, received the Yanatilde
and Paucartambo on its right bank, and, uniting with the Tambo,
forms the Ucayali. Most of these main streams flow through pro-
found gorges in a tropical climate, while the upper slopes yield
products of the temperate zone, and the plateaus above are cola and
bleak, affording only pasture and the hardiest cereals.

The great variety of elevation within the sierra produces vege-
tation belonging to every zone. There is a tropical flora in the
deep gorges, higher up a sub-tropical, then a temper-
ci rra " w ate ' t ' len a su b- arc tic flora. In ascending from the
Flora ana coas t- V alleys there is first an arid range, where the
fauna. great-branched cacti rear themselves up among
the rocks. ^Pfcrther inland, where the rains are more plentiful,
is the native home of the potato. Here also are other plants
with edible roots — the oca (Oxalis tuber osa), ulluca (Ullucus
tuber osus), ma\ia (Tropoeolwn tuberosum), and learco (Polymnia
sonchifolia) . Among the first wild shrubs and trees that are met
with are the chilca (Baccharis Feuillei), with a pretty yellow flower,
the Mutisia acuminata, with beautiful red and orange flowers,
several species of Senecio, calceolarias, the Schinus molle, with its
graceful branches and bunohes of red berries, and at higher elevations
the lambras (Alnus acuminata), the sauco (Sambucus peruviana),
the quenuar (Buddleia incana), and the Polylepis racemosa. The
Buddleia, locally called oliva silvestre, flourishes at a height of
12,000 ft. round the shores of Lake Titicaca. The most numerously
represented family is the Compositae, the grasses being next in num-
ber. The temperate valleys of the sierra yield fruits of many
kinds. Those indigenous to the countiy are the delicious chin-
tnoyas, paltas or alligator pears, the paccay, a species of Inga, the
lucma, and the granadilla or fruit of the passion-flower. Vineyards
and sugar-cane yield crops in the warmer ravines; the sub-tropical
valleys are famous for splendid crops of maize; wheat and barley
thrive on the mountain slopes; and at heights from 7000 to 13,000 ft.
there are crops of quinua {Chenopodium quinua). In the loftiest
regions the pasture chiefly consists of a coarse grass (Stipa ychu),
of which the llamas eat the upper blades and the sheep browse on the
tender shoots beneath. There are also two kinds of shrubby plants,
a thorny Composita called " ccanlli " and another, called ' tola,"
which is a resinous Baccharis and is used for fuel.

The animals which specially belong to the Peruvian Andes are
the domestic llamas and alpacas and the wild vicunas. There are
deer, called taruco (Cervus antisensis) ; the viscacha, a large rodent ;
a species of fox called atoc ; and the puma (Felis concolor) and ucumari
or black bear with a white muzzle, when driven by hunger, wander
into the loftier regions. The largest bird is the condor, and there is
another bird of the vulture tribe, with a black and white wing
feather formerly used by the Incas in their head-dress, called the
coraquenque or alcamari. The pito is a brown speckled creeper which
flutters about the rocks. There is a little bird, the size of a starling,
with brown back striped with black, and white breast, which the

Indians call yncahualpa; it utters a monotonous sound at each hour
of the night. A partridge called yutu frequents the long grass.
On the lakes there is a very handsome goose, with white body and
dark-green wings shading into violet, called huachua, two kinds
of ibis, a large gull (Larus serranus) frequenting the alpine lakes in
flocks, flamingoes called parihuana, ducks and water-hens. Many
pretty little finches fly about the maize-fields and fruit-gardens,
and a little green parakeet is met with as high as 12,000 ft. above the
sea.

The third division of Peru is the region of the tropical forests,
at the base of the Andes, and within the basin of the Amazon.
It is traversed by great navigable rivers. The Maranon, „ „««,-■«.
having burst through the defile of the Pongo de Man- momaa *'
seriche (575 ft. above sea level), and the Huallaga through that of
Chasuta, enter the forests and unite after separate courses of about
600 and 400 m., the united flood then flowing eastward to the
Brazilian frontier. After 150 m. it is joined by the Ucayali, a great
navigable river with a course of 600 m. The country between
the Huallaga and the Ucayali, traversed by the Eastern Cordillera,
is called the Pampa del Sacramento, and is characterized by exten-
sive grassy plains. The forests drained by the Maranon, Huallaga
and Ucayali form the northern portion of the Peruvian montana.
The southern half of the montana is watered by streams flowing
from the eastern Andes, which go to form the river Madre de
Dios or Amaru -mayu, the principal branch of the river Beni, which
falls into the Madeira. The region of the Peruvian montana, which
is 800 m. long from the Maranon to the Bolivian frontier, is naturally
divided into two sections, the sub-tropical forests in the ravines
and on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and the dense tropical
forests in the Amazonian plain. The sub-tropical section is impor-
tant from the value of its products and interesting from the grandeur
and beauty of its scenery. Long spurs run off from the Andes,
gradually decreasing in elevation, and it is sometimes a distance of
60 or 80 m. before they finally subside into the vast forest-covered
plains of the Amazon basin. Numerous rivers flow through the
valleys between these spurs, which are the native home of the
quinine-yielding cinchona trees. The most valuable species, called
C. Calisaya, is found in the forests of Caravaya in south Peru and in
those of Bolivia. The species between Caravaya and the head-
waters of the Huallaga yield very little of the febrifuge alkaloid.
But the forests of Huanuco and Huamalios abound in species yield-
ing the grey bark of commerce, which is rich in cinchonine, an
alkaloid efficacious as a febrifuge, though inferior to quinine. With
the cinchona trees grow many kinds of melastomaceae, especially
the Lasiandra, with masses of purple flowers, tree-ferns and palms.
In the warm valleys there are large plantations of coca (Erythro-
xylon Coca), the annual produce of which is stated at 15,000,000 lb.
The other products of these warm valleys are excellent coffee, cocoa,
sugar, tropical fruits of all kinds, and gold in abundance. In the
vast untrodden forests farther east there are timber trees of many
kinds, incense trees, a great wealth of rubber trees of the Hevea genus,
numerous varieties of beautiful palms, sarsaparilla, vanilla, ipecac-
uanha and copaiba. The abundant and varied fauna is the same as
that of the Brazilian forests.

Geology^ — The Eastern Cordillera, which, however, is but little
known, appears to consist, as in Bolivia, chiefly of Palaeozoic rocks;
the western ranges of the Andes are formed of Mesozoic beds, together
with recent volcanic lavas and ashes ; and the lower hills near the
coast are composed of granite, syenite and other crystalline rocks,
sometimes accompanied by limestones and sandstones, which are
probably of Lower Cretaceous age, and often covered by marine
Tertiary deposits. Thus the orographical features of the country
correspond broadly with the geological divisions.

The constitution of the Mesozoic band varies. Above 'Lima
the western chain of the Andes is composed of porphyritic tuffs
and massive limestones, while the longitudinal valley of the Oroya
is hollowed in carbonaceous sandstones. From the analogy of the
neighbouring countries it is possible that some of the tuffs may be
Jurassic, but the other deposits probably belong for the most part
to the Cretaceous system. The carbonaceous sandstone contains
Gault fossils. Like the similar sandstone in Bolivia, it includes
seams of coal and is frequently impregnated with cinnabar. It is
in this sandstone that the rich mercury mines of Huancavelica are
worked.

Farther north, in the department of Ancachs, the Mesozoic belt is
composed chiefly of sandstones and shales, and the limestones which
form so prominent a feature above Lima seem to have disappeared.
The Cordillera Negra in this region is in many places cut by numerous
dikes of diorite, and it is near these dikes that silver ores are chiefly

1 See L. Crosnier, " Notice geologique sur les departements de
Huancavelica et d'Ayacucho," Ann. des mines, 5th series, vol. ii.
pp. 1-43, PI. 1 (1852); A. Raimondi, El Departamento de Ancachs y
sus riquezas minerales (Lima, 1873); G. Steinmann, " Ueber Tithon
und Kreide in den peruanischon Anden," Neues Jahrb. (1882), vol. ii.
pp. 130-153, Pis. 6-8; K. Gerhardt, " Beitrag zur Kenntniss der
Kreideformation in Venezuela und Peru," Neues Jahrb., Beil.-Bd.XI.
(1897), pp. 65-117, Pis. 1,2; J.Grzybowski, "DieTertiarablagerungen
des nordlichen Peru und ihre Molluskenfauna," Neues Jahrb., Beil.-
Bd. XII. (1899), pp. 610-664, Pis. 15-20.

268

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found. In the Cordillera Nevada the Mesozoic rocks which form
the chain are often covered by masses of modern volcanic rock.
Similar rocks are also found in the Cordillera Negra, but the volcanic
centres appear to have been in the Sierra Nevada.

Population. — The first trustworthy enumeration of the people
of Peru was made in 1793, when there were 617,700 Indians,
241,225 mestizos (Indian and white inter-mixture), 136,311
Spaniards, 40,337 negro slaves and 41,404 mulattoes, making a
total of 1,076,977, exclusive of the wild Indians of the montana.
Viceroy Toledo's enumeration of the Indians in 1575 gave them
a total of 8,000,000, the greater part of whom had been sacrificed
by Spanish cruelty. Others had withdrawn into the mountains
and forests, and in the native villages under Spanish administra-
tion the birth rate had dropped to a small part of what it had
been because- the great bulk of the male population had been
segregated in the mines and on the estates of the conquerors.
This tells a story of depopulation under Spanish rule, to which
the abandoned terraces (andenes) on the mountain sides, once
highly cultivated, bear testimony. Several diverse totals have
been published as the result of the census taken in 1876, which
is considered imperfect. One estimate places the total at
2,660,881, comprising about 13-8% whites, 57-6% Indians,
1-9% negroes, 1-9% Asiatics, chiefly Chinese, and 24-8%
mixed races. In 1906 estimates were made under official
auspices (see A. Garland, Peru in igo6, Lima, 1907), which
gave the population as 3,547,829, including Tacna (8000). It
is believed, however, that this and other larger estimates are
excessive. There is no considerable immigration.

The population of Peru is mixed, including whites, Indians,
Africans, Asiatics, and their mixtures and sub-mixtures. The
dominant race is of Spanish origin, to a considerable extent
mixed with Indian blood. The Indians are in great part
descendants of the various tribes organized under the rule of
the Incas at the time of the Spanish conquest. There are two
distinct general types — the coast tribes occupying the fertile
river valleys, who are employed on the plantations, in domestic
service in the cities, or in small industries of their own, no longer
numerous; and the sierra tribes, who are agriculturists, miners,
stock-breeders and packers, still comparatively numerous.
In addition to these are the tribes of wild Indians of the montana
region, or eastern forests, who were never under Inca rule and
are still practically independent. Their number is estimated
at 150,000 to 300,000, divided into 112 tribes, and differing
widely in habits, customs and material condition. Some
live in settled communities and roughly cultivate the soil.
Others are hunters and fishermen and are nomadic in habit.
Others are intractable forest tribes, having no relations with the
whites. The sierra or upland Indians, the most numerous
and strongest type, belong largely to the Quichua and Aymara
families, the former inhabiting the regions northward of Cuzo,
and the latter occupying the Titicaca basin and the sierras of
Bolivia. These Indians are generally described as Cholos, a
name sometimes mistakenly applied to the mestizos, while the
tribes of the eastern forests are called Ckunchos, barbaros, or
simply Indians. The Cholos may be roughly estimated at about
1,800,000 and form by far the larger part of the sierra population.
Practically all the industries and occupations of this extensive
region depend upon them for labourers and servants.

The mestizos are of mixed Spanish and Indian blood. There
are two general classes — the costefios or those of the coast, and
the serranos or those of the sierras. The mestizos of the coast
are usually traders, artisans, overseers, petty officers and clerks,
and small politicians. In the sierras they have the same general
occupations, but there are no social bars to their advancement,
and they become lawyers, physicians, priests, merchants, officials
and capitalists. The African and Asiatic elements furnish only
about 2 % each of the population. The Africans were introduced
as slaves soon after the conquest, because the coast Indians were
physically incapable of performing the work required of them
on the sugar estates. All the heavy labour in the coast provinces
was performed by them down to 1855, when African slavery was
abolished. They have since preferred to live in the towns,

although many continue ©n the plantations. The first Chinese
coolies were introduced in 1849 to supply labourers on the sugar
estates, which had begun to feel the effects of the suppression
of the African slave traffic. At first the coolies were treated
with cruelty. The scandals that resulted led to investigations
and severe restrictions, and their employment now has become
a matter of voluntary contract, usually for two years, in which
fair dealing and good treatment are the rule. Many Chinese
are also settled in the coast cities. Commercial relations have
also been opened with Japan, and a small Japanese colony has
been added to the population. The Spanish and African cross
is to be seen in the mulattoes, quadroons and octoroons that
inhabit the warm coast cities. Other race mixtures consist of
the zambos (the African-Indian cross), an Asiatic graft upon these
various crosses, and an extremely confusing intermixture of the
various crosses, for which the Spanish races have descriptive
appellations. The foreign population is chiefly concentrated in
Lima and Callao, though mining and other industries have drawn
small contingents to other places.

Education. — Universities and colleges were founded in Peru soon
after the conquest, and Lima, Cuzco, Arequipa and Chuquisaca
(now the Bolivian town of Sucre) became centres of considerable intel-
lectual activity. Something was done for the education of the sons of
the Indian " nobility," schools being created at Lima and Cuzco. The
university of San Marcos at Lima is the oldest collegiate institution
in the New World, originating in a grant from Charles V. in 1551 to
the Dominicans for the establishment of a college in their monastery
at Lima. Its present name, however, was not adopted until 1574,
two years after its first secular rector had been chosen. The
college of San Carlos was founded in 1770, and the school of medicine
in 1792. At Cuzco the university of San Antonio Abad was
founded in 1598, and the college of San Geronimo at Arequipa in
1616. The instruction given in these institutions was of the
religious-scholastic character of that time, and was wholly under the
supervision of the Church. Independence opened the way for a
larger measure of intellectual and educational progress, especially
for the lower classes. As organized under the law of the 5th of
December 1905, primary instruction is free and nominally obligatory,
and is under the control of the national government. The primary
schools are divided into two grades : a free elementary course of
two years, and a higher course of three years, in a school called the
" scholastic centre," in which learning a trade is included. There
were 1508 elementary schools and 862 scholastic centres in 1906.
There are, besides these, a large number of private schools, which in
1906 carried about 22,000 pupils on their rolls, or three times the num-
ber in the public primary schools. To provide teachers six normal
schools have been established, two of which (one for males and one
for females) are in Lima. For intermediate or secondary instruction
there are 23 national colleges for boys in the various departmental
capitals, and three similar colleges for girls, in Ayacucho, Cuzco
and Trujillo. In these the majority of pupils were under the direc-
tion of Belgian and German instructors. The private schools of
this grade are still more numerous, and there are a number of special
schools that belong to the same category. For higher instruction
there are four universities: the Universidad Mayor de San Marcos
at Lima, and three provincial institutions at Arequipa, Cuzco and
Trujillo. All these have faculties of letters and law, and San Marcos
has in addition faculties of theology, medicine, mathematics and
science, philosophy and administrative and political economy.
The professional schools include a school of civil and mining engineer-
ing at Lima (created 1876), a military school at Chorrillos under
the direction of French instructors, a naval school at Callao, nine
episcopal seminaries (one for each diocese), a national agricultural
school in the vicinity of Lima (created 1902), and a few commercial
schools. There is also a correctional school at Lima devoted to the
education and training of youthful delinquents.

Science and Literature. — Towards the end of the 18th century
scientific studies began to receive attention in Peru. M. Godin, a
member of the French commission for measuring an arc of the
meridian near Quito, became professor of mathematics at San Marcos
in 1750; and the botanical expeditions sent out from Spain gave
further zest to scientific research. Dr Gabriel Moreno (d. 1809),
a native of Huamantanga in the Maritime Cordillera, studied
under Dr Jussieu, and became an eminent botanist. Don Hipolito
Unanue, born at Arica in 1755, wrote an important work on the
climate of Lima and contributed to the Mercurio peruano. This
periodical was started in 1 79 1 at Lima, the contributors forming a
society called " amantes del pais," and it was completed in eleven
volumes*. It contains many valuable articles on history, topography,
botany, mining, commerce and statistics. An ephemeris and guide
to Peru was begun by the learned geographer Dr Cosme Bueno, and
continued by Dr Unanue, who brought out his guides at Lima from
1793 to 1798. In 1794 a nautical school was founded at Lima,
with Andres Baleato as instructor and Pedro Alvarez as teacher of
the use of instruments. Baleato also constructed a map of Pern.

PERU

269

A list of Peruvian authors in viceregal times occupies a long chapter
in the life of St Toribio 1 by Montalvo; and the bibliographical
labours of the Peruvian Leon Pinelo are still invaluable to Spanish
students. The most prolific author of colonial times was Dr Pedro
de Peralta y Barnuevo, who wrote more than sixty works, including
an epic poem entitled Lima fundada.

The topographical labours of Cosme Bueno and Unanue were
ably continued at Lima by Admiral Don Eduardo Carrasco, who
compiled annual guides of Peru from 1826. But the most eminent
Peruvian geographer is Dr Don Mariano Felipe Paz Soldan (1821-
1886), whose Geografia del Peru appeared in 1861. His still more
important work, the Diccionario geografico estadistico del Peru (1877),
is a gazetteer on a most complete scale. In 1868 appeared his first
volume of the Historia del Peru independiente, and two others have
since been published. His Historia de la guerra del Pacifico is the
Peruvian version of that disastrous war. The earlier history of
Peru has been written in three volumes by Sebastian Lorente (d.
1884); Mariano Rivero has discussed its antiquities; and Manuel
Fuentes has edited six volumes of memoirs written by Spanish
viceroys. But the most valuable and important historical work by
a modern Peruvian is General Mendiburu's (1805-1885) Diccionario
historico-biografico del Peru, a monument of patient and conscien-
tious research, combined with critical discernment of a high order.
As laborious historical students, Don Jos6 Toribio Polo, the author
of an ecclesiastical history of Peruvian dioceses, and Don Enrique
Torres Saldamando, the historian of the Jesuits in Peru, have great
merit. Among good local annalists may be mentioned Juan Gilberto
Valdivia, who has written a history of Arequipa, and Pio Benigno
Mesa, the author of the Annals of Cuzco.

The leading Peruvian authors on constitutional and legal subjects
are Dr Jos6 Santistevan, who has published volumes on civil and
criminal law; Luis Felipe Villaran (subsequently rector of the univer-
sity at Lima), author 01 a work on constitutional right ; Dr Francisco
Garcia Calderon (once president of Peru), author of a dictionary of
Peruvian legislation, in two volumes ; Dr Francisco Xavier Mariategui,
one of the fathers of Peruvian independence; and Dr Francisco de
Paula Vigil (1 792-1 875), orator and statesman as well as author, whose
work, Defensa de los gobiernos, is a noble and enlightened statement
of the case for civil governments against the pretensions of the
court of Rome. Manuel A. Fuentes, an able statistician and the
author of the Estadistica de Lima, has also written a manual of
parliamentary practice. Perhaps the most important work on Peru
of modern times is that of the Italian savant Antonio Raimondi
(1825-1890), who spent the greater part of his life in studying the
topography and natural resources of the country. Only four
volumes had been published at the time of his death, but he left a
mass of papers and manuscripts which the government has put in
the hands of the Geographical Society of Lima for publication.
His great work is entitled El Peru: estudios mineralogicos , &c.
(3 vols., Lima, 1890-1902), and one separate volume on the depart-
ment of Ancachs. Peruvian literature since the independence has
also attained high merit in the walks of poetry and romance. The
Guayaquil author, Olmedo, who wrote the famous ode on the victory
of Junin, and the Limenians Felipe Pardo and Manuel Segura
are names well known wherever the Spanish language is spoken.
Both died between i860 and 1870. The comedies of Segura on the
customs of Lima society, entitled Un Paseo a Amancaes and La
Saya y Manto, have no equal in the dramatic literature of Spanish
America and few in that of modern Spain. From 1848 date the first
poetical efforts of Arnaldo Marquez, who is distinguished for his
correct diction and rich imagination, as is Nicolas Corpancho for his
dramas and a volume of poems entitled Brisas, Adolfo Garcia for a
beautiful sonnet to Bolivar, which was published at Havre in 1870,
in his one volume of poems, and Clemente Althaus for his produc-
tivity and style. Pedro Paz Soldan was a classical scholar who
published three volumes of poems. Carlos Augusto Salaverry is
known as one of Peru's best lyrical poets, and Luis Benjamin
Cisneros for his two novels, Julia and Edgardo. Trinidad Fernandez
and Constantino Carrasco were two poets of merit who died young,
the principal work of the latter being his metrical version of the
Quichua drama, OUantay. Jos6 Antonio Lavalte and Narciso
Arestegui are chiefly known as novelists. In his youth Ricardo
Palma published three books of poems, entitled Armonias, Verbos y
Gerundios and Pasionarias, and then, since 1870, devoted his great
literary talents to writing the historical traditions of Peru, of which
six volumes were published. At the outbreak of the war with Chile
he was vice-director of the national library at Lima, which was
wantonly pillaged by the Chilean forces. After the evacuation of
Lima by the Chileans Palma devoted his life to the recovery of his
scattered books and the acquisition of new collections, and he had
the satisfaction before his death of re-opening the library, which had
obtained about 30,000 volumes, or three-fourths of the number
on its shelves before the Chilean invasion.

Of the aboriginal inhabitants of Peru much has been written.
The important work of Mariano Eduardo Rivero, of Arequipa,
1 The city of Lima produced two saints, the archbishop St
Toribio, who flourished from 1578 to 1606, and Santa Rosa, the patron
saint of the city of the kings (1586-1616), whose festival is cele-
brated on the 26th of August.

assisted by J. J. von Tschudi, on the antiquities of Peru (Antigue-
dades peruanas, Vienna, 1841; Eng. trans., New York, 1853) haii
been followed by other investigators into the language, literature,
customs and religion of the Incas. The best known of these are
Jose Sebastian Barranca, the naturalist and antiquary, Jose
Fernandez Nodal, and Gavino Pacheco Zegarra of Cuzco, who
published translations of the Inca drama of OUantay, and Leonardo
Villar, of Cuzco.

Among Peruvian naturalists since the advent of the republic,
the most distinguished have been Mariano Eduardo Rivero, the
geologist, mineralogist and archaeologist, and his friend and colleague
Nicolas de Pierola, authors of Memorial de ciencias naturales.
The Lima Geographical Society (founded in 1888) is perhaps the best
and most active scientific organization in the republic. Its special
work covers national geographical exploration and study, archae-
ology, statistics and climatology, and its quarterly bulletins contain
invaluable information. The society receives a government subsidy,
and its rooms in the national library in Lima are the principal
centre of scientific study in Peru. It had an active membership of
163 in 1906, besides 172 honorary and corresponding members.
The historical institute of Peru, also at Lima, is charged by the
government, from which it receives a liberal subsidy, with the work
of collecting, preparing and publishing documents relating to Peru-
vian history, and of preserving objects of archaeological and historic
character. Its museum, which is of great historical and artistic
value and includes a collection of portraits of the Peruvian viceroys
and presidents, is in the upper floors of the Exposition Palace.
Another subsidized national society is the athenaeum, which was
founded in 1877 as the " literary club," and reorganized in 1887
under its present title. Its purpose is to foster learning and literary
effort, and it is a popular and prominent feature in the intellectual
life of the country.

Religion. — According to the constitution of i860 "the nation
professes the apostolic Roman Catholic religion ; the state protects
it, and does not permit the public exercise of any other." There is
a certain degree of tolerance, however, and the Anglican and some of
the evangelical churches are permitted to establish missions in the
country, but not always without hostile demonstrations from the
Catholic priesthood. There are Anglican churches in Lima and
Cuzco, belonging to the diocese of the Bishop of the Falkland Islands ;
but their existence is illegal and is ignored rather than permitted.
In its ecclesiastical organization Peru is divided into nine dioceses:
Lima, which is an archbishopric, Arequipa, Puno, Cuzco, Ayacucho,
Huanuco, Huaraz, Trujillo and Chachapoyas. These dioceses are
subdivided into 613 curacies, presided over by curas, or curate-
vicars. Each diocese has its seminary for the education of the priest-
hood, that of Arequipa being distinguished for its influence in church
affairs. Arequipa, like Cordoba and Chuquisaca, is a stronghold
of clericalism and exercises a decisive influence in politics as well as
in church matters. There are a number of fine churches in Lima
and in the sees of the various dioceses. Monasteries and nunneries
are numerous, dating back to the l6thand 17th centuries, but their
influence is now less potent than in those days and the monastic
population is not so large. In modern times many of the convents
have been devoted to educational work especially for girls, which is
an obstacle to the successful development of a public school system
in the country.

Political Divisions. -^The empire of the Incas was divided
into four main divisions, Chinchay-suyu to the north of Cuzco,
Anti-suyu to the east, Colla-suyu to the south and Cunti-suyu
to the west, the whole empire being called Ttahuantin-suyu, 01'
the four governments. Each was ruled by a viceroy, under
whom were the " huaranca-camayocs," or officers ruling over
thousands, and inferior officers, in regular order, over 500, iop,
50 and 10 men. All disorders and irregularities were checked
by the periodical visits of the tucuyricocs or inspectors. The
Spanish conquest destroyed this complicated system. In 1569
the governor, Lope Garcia de Castro, divided Peru into corregi-
mientos under officers named corregidors, of whom there were
77, each in direct communication with the government at Lima.
An important administrative reform was made in 1784, when
Peru was divided into 7 intendencias, each under an officer called
an intendente. These intendencias included about 6 of the old
corregimientos, which were called partidos, under officers named
subdelegados. Thus the number of officers reporting direct to
Lima was reduced from 77 to 7, a great improvement. The
republic adopted the same system, calling the intendencias
departments, under a prefect, and the partidos provinces, under
a sub-prefect. Peru is divided into 18 departments, 2 littoral
provinces, and what is called the constitutional province of
Callao. This is exclusive of Tacna and its 3 provinces. The
departments, which contain 98 provinces, with their areas,
capitals and estimated populations of 1906, are as follow: the

270

PERU

list being arranged to show the coast, sierra and montafia
divisions: —

Departments.

Area
sq. m.

Estimated
pop., 1906.

Capital.

Estimated
pop., 1906.

Coast: —

Piura .

14,849

154,080

Piura .

9,100

Lambayeque .

4.615

93,070

Chiclayo .

10,000

Libertad .

10,209

188,200

Trujillo

6,500

Ancachs .

16,567

317.050

Huaraz

13,000

Lima .

I3-3H

250,000

Lima (1903) .

140,000

Ica (or Yea)

8,721

68,220

Ica

6,000

Arequipa .

21,953

I7L750

Arequipa

28,000

Sierra : —

Cajamarca .

12,542

333,310

Cajamarca

9,000

Huanuco.

14,028

108,980

Huanuco .

6,000

Junin.

23,354

305.700

Cerro de Pasco

10,000

Huancavelica

9,254

167,840

Huancavelica

6,000

Ayacucho

18,190

226,850

Ayacucho . .

15,000

Apurimac

8,189

I33.OO0

Abancay .

2,400

Cuzco.

156,317

328,980

Cuzco .

23,000

Puno .

41,211

403,000

Puno .

4.500

Montana: — -

Amazonas ,

13,947

53,ooo

Chachapoyas .

4,500

Loreto

238-493

120,000

Iquitos

6,000

San Martin .

30,745

33,000

Moyobamba

7,500

Littoral

Provinces: —

Tumbez .

1,981

8,000

Tumbez .

2,300

Callao

14-2

33,879

Callao (1905).

31,128

Moquegua .

5.550^

31,920

Moquegua

5,000

Apart from the departmental capitals there are few towns
of size and importance. The so-called coast towns are commonly
at some distance from the seashore, and their shipping ports are
little more than a straggling collection of wretched habitations
in the vicinity of the landing-stage and its offices and ware-
houses. Callao (q.v.) is a noteworthy exception, and Paita
and Pisco are something more than the average coast village.
Near Lima, on the south, there are three bathing resorts,
Chorrillos, Miraflores and Barranco, which have handsome
residences and large populations in the bathing season. North
of Lima is the port and bathing resort of Ancon, in an extremely
arid locality but having a fine beach, a healthy climate and a
considerable population in the season. The towns of the coast
region are usually built on the same general plan, the streets
crossing each other at right angles and enclosing squares, or
quadras. In the sierra there is the same regular plan wherever
the site is level enough. High-pitched red tiled roofs take the
place of the flat roofs of the coast. The upper storey often
recedes, leaving wide corridors under the overhanging eaves,
and in the " plazas " there are frequently covered arcades.
In addition to the capitals of the departments, Tarma (about
4000) and Xauxa, or Jauja (about 3000), are important towns
of this region. In the montafia there are no towns of importance
other than the capitals of the departments and the small river
ports.

Communications. — The problem of easy and cheap transportation
between the coast and the interior has been a vital one for Peru,
for upon it depends the economic development of some of the
richest parts of the republic. The arid character of the coastal
zone, with an average width of about 80 m., permits cultivation
of the soil only where water for irrigation is available. Only in the
sierra and montafia regions is it possible to maintain a large popu-
lation and develop the industries upon which their success as a
nation depends. During colonial times and down to the middle
of the 19th century pack animals were the only means of trans-
portation across the desert and over the rough mountain trails.
Railway construction in Peru began in 1848 with a short line from
Callao to Lima, but the building of railway lines across the desert
to the inland towns of the fertile river valleys and the Andean
foot-hills did not begin until twenty years later. These roads added
much to the productive resources of the country, but their extension
to the sierra districts was still a vital necessity. Under the adminis-
tration (1868-1872) of President Jose Balta the construction of
two transandean and several coastal zone railways was begun,
but their completion became impossible for want of funds. Balta's
plans covered 1281 m. of state railways and 749 m. of private
lines, the estimated cost to be about £37,500,000 — a sum far beyond
the resources of the republic. The two transandean lines were
the famous Oroya railway, running from Callao to Oroya (1893),
which crosses the Western Cordillera at an elevation of 15,645 ft.,

and later on to Cerro de Pasco (1904), the Goillarisquisga coal mines
(1904) and Hauri (1906) ; and the southern line from Mollendo
to Lake Titicaca, which reached Arequipa in 1869, Puno in 1871
and Checcacupe (Cuzco branch) in 1906. Surveys were completed
in 1909 for an extension of the Oroya line from a point on its Cerro
de Pasco branch eastward to the Ucayali, and another transandean
line frequently discussed is projected from Paita across the Andes
to Puerto Limon, on the Maranon — a distance of 410 m.

The most important means of communication in the republic
is that of its river system, comprising, as it does, the navigable
channels of the Maranon, or upper Amazon, and its tributaries.
It is officially estimated that this system comprises no less than
20,000 m. of connected riverways navigable at high water for all
descriptions of boats, or 10,000 m. for steamers of 20 to 2 ft. draught,
which is reduced to 5800 m. at low water. The rivers forming
this system are the Maranon from Puerto Limon to Tabatinga on
the Brazilian frontier (484 m.), the Japura, Putumayo, Javary,
Napo, Tigre, Huallaga, Ucayali, Pachitea, Jurua, Purus, Acre,
Curaray and Aguarico all navigable over parts of their courses
for steamers of 4 to 8 ft. draught in periods of high water. As for the
Maranon, it is claimed that steamers of 20 ft. draught can ascend to
Puerto Limon at all seasons of the year. The inclusion of the
upper waters of the Brazilian rivers Jurua, Puriis and Acre is
pro forma only, as they are wholly under Brazilian jurisdiction.
Practically the whole of the region through which these rivers run —
the montafia of Peru — is undeveloped, and is inhabited by Indians,
wjth a few settlements of whites on the river courses. Its chief
port is Iquitos, on the Maranon, 335 m. above the Brazilian frontier
and 2653 m. from the mouth of the Amazon. It is visited by
ocean-going steamers, and is the centre of the Peruvian river
transportation system. The second port in importance is Yuri-
maguas, on the Huallaga, 143 m. from the mouth of that river
and 528 m. from Iquitos, with which it is in regular communication.
There are small ports, or trading posts, on all the large rivers, and
occasional steamers are sent to them with supplies and to bring
away rubber and other forest products. Of the rivers farther
south, which discharge into the Amazon through the Madeira,
the Madre de Dios alone offers an extended navigable channel,
together with some of its larger tributaries, such as the Heath
and Chandless. Of a widely different character is the navigation
of Lake Titicaca, where steamers ply regularly between Puno and
Guaqui, the latter on the south-east shore in railway connexion
with La Paz, the capital of Bolivia. This is one of the most
remarkable steamer routes in the world, being 12,370 ft. above sea-
level. The lake is 165 m. long and from 70 to 80 m. wide and has
a number of small Indian villages on its shores.

There are two submarine cable lines on the Peruvian coast—
the (American) Central and South American Co. extending from
Panama to Valparaiso, and the (British) West Coast Cable Co.,
subsidiary to the Eastern Telegraph Co., with a cable between
Callao and Valparaiso. The inland telegraph service dates from
1864, when a short line from Callao to Lima was constructed, and
state ownership from 1875, when the government assumed control
of all lines within the republic, some of which were subsequently
handed over to private administration. They connect all the
important cities, towns and ports, but cover only a small part of
the republic. The cost of erecting and maintaining telegraph lines
in the sierra and montafia regions is too great to permit their exten-
sive use, and the government is seeking to substitute wireless
telegraphy. From Puerto Bermudez, on the Pachitea or Pichis
river, the terminus of a government road and telegraph line, a
wireless system connects with Massisea on the Ucayali, and thence
with Iquitos, on the Maranon— a distance of 930 m. by steamer, which
is much shortened by direct communication between the three
radiographic stations. This service was opened to Iquitos on
the 8th of July 1908, the first section between Puerto Bermudez
and Massisea having been pronounced a success. The Peruvian
telegraph system connects with those of Ecuador and Bolivia.
The use of the telephone is general, 5236 m. being in operation in
1906. The postal service is unavoidably limited and defective,
owing to the rugged character of the country, its sparse population,
and the large percentage of illiterates. On the coast, however,
in and near the large cities and towns, it compares well with other
South American countries. Peru belongs to the international
postal union, and had in 1906 a money order and parcels exchange
with seven foreign states. A noteworthy peculiarity in the foreign
mail service is that an extra charge of 2 cents for each letter and
1 cent for each post-card is collected when they are sent across the
isthmus of Panama. No charge is made for the transmission of
newspapers within the republic. The letter rate is 5 cents silver
for 15 grams, or 10 cents to foreign countries in the postal union.

Commerce. — Owing to political disorder, difficulty in land com-
munications, and the inheritance of vicious fiscal methods from
Spanish colonial administration, the commercial development of
Peru has been slow and erratic. There are many ports on the
coast, but only eight of them are rated as first class, viz. Paita,
Eten, Pacasmayo, Salaverry, Callao, Pisco, Mollendo and Ilo,
five of which are ports of call for foreign coasting steamers. The
inland port of Iquitos, on the Maranon, is also rated as first class,
and enjoys special privileges because of its distance from the national

PERU

271

capital. The second-class ports are Tumbez, Talara, Pimentel,
Chimbote, Samanco, Casma, Huacho, Cerro-Azul, Tambo de Mora,
Lomas and Chala, on the coast, Puno on Lake Titicaca, and
Leticia on the Amazon near the western mouth of the Javary.
Callao (q-v.) is the chief port of the republic and monopolizes the
greater part of its foreign trade. Its harbour, one of the best
on the west coast of South America, has been greatly improved
by the port works begun under the administration of President
Balta. Paita and Chimbote have good natural harbours, but the
others, for the most part, are open roadsteads or unsheltered bays.
Mollendo is a shipping port for Bolivian exports sent over the railway
from Puno. There were 12 foreign steamship lines trading at
Peruvian ports in 1908, some of them making regular trips up and
down the coast at frequent intervals and carrying much of its
coastwise traffic. Foreign sailing vessels since 1886 have not been
permitted to engage in this traffic, but permission is given to steam-
ships on application and under certain conditions. The imports
were valued in 1907 at 55,147,870 soles (10 soles = £i stg.) and the
exports at 57,477,320 soles — the former showing a considerable
increase and the latter a small decrease in comparison with 1906.
The exports consist of cotton, sugar, cocaine, hides and skins,
rubber and other forest products, wool, guano and mineral products.
The most important export is sugar, the products of the mines
ranking second. The largest share in-Peru's foreign trade is taken
by Great Britain, Chile ranking second and the United States
third.

Products. — Although her mining industries have been the longest
and most widely known, the principal source of Peru's wealth is
agriculture. This seems incompatible with the arid character of
the country and the peculiar conditions of its civilization, [but
irrigation has been successfully employed in the fertile valleys of
the coast.

Agriculture. — Sugar-cane is cultivated in most of the coast valleys,
and with exceptional success in those of the Canete, Rimac, Chancay,
Huaura, Supe, Santa, Chicama, Pacasmayo and Chiclayo. Some
of the large estates are owned and worked by British subjects.
The industry was nearly ruined by the Chileans in 1880, but its
recovery soon followed the termination of the war and the output
has been steadily increasing. At the outbreak of the war the
production was about 80,000 tons; in 1905 the production of sugar
and molasses amounted to 161,851 metric tons, of which 134,344
were exported. In 1906 the total production reached 169,418
metric tons. Next in importance is cotton, which is grown along
the greater part of the Peruvian coast, but chiefly in the depart-
ments of Piura, Lima and lea. Four kinds are produced: rough
cotton or " vegetable wool," sea island, brown or Mitafifi, and
smooth or American. Production is steadily increasing, the export
having been 8000 metric tons in 1900, 17,386 in 1905 and 20,000
in 1906. Local consumption required about 2500 tons in 1905.
Rice is an important crop in the inundated lands of Lambayeque
and Libertad. It is a universal article of food in Peru, and the
output is consumed in the country. Maize is another important
food product which is generally cultivated along the coast and in
the lower valleys of the sierra. In some places two or three crops
a year are obtained. It is the staple food everywhere, and little is
exported. It is largely used in the manufacture of chicha, a fer-
mented drink popular among the lower classes. Tobacco is grown
in the department of Piura, and in the montana departments of
Loreto, Amazonas and Cajamarca. The local consumption is large
and the export small. Another montana product is coffee, whose suc-
cessful development is prevented|by difficult transport. A superior
quality of bean is produced in the eastern valleys of the Andes,
especially in the Chanchamayo valley. Cacao is another montana
product, although like coffee it is cultivated in the warm valleys
of the sierra, but the export is small. With cheap transport to
the coast the production of coffee and cacao must largely increase.
Coca (Erythroxylon coca) is a product peculiar to the eastern Andean
slopes of Bolivia and Peru, where it has long been cultivated for
its leaves. These are sun-dried, packed in bales, and distributed
throughout the sierra region, where coca is used by the natives
as a stimulant. The Cholos are never without it, and with it are
able to perform incredible tasks with little food. The common
manner of using it is to masticate the dried leaves with a little lime.
Cocaine is also derived from coca leaves, and a considerably quantity
of the drug is exported. The coca shrub is most successfully
cultivated at an elevation of 5000 to 6000 ft. Fruits in great
variety are grown everywhere in Peru, but beyond local market
demands their commercial production is limited to grapes and
olives. Grapes are produced in many of the irrigated valleys of
the coast, such as Chincha, Lunahuana, lea, Vitor, Majes, Andaray,
Moquegua and Locumba, and the fruit is manufactured into wines
and brandies. Excellent clarets and white wines are produced,
and the industry is steadily increasing. Olives were introduced
early in colonial times and are cultivated in several coast valleys,
especially in the provinces of Camana (Arequipa) and Moquegua.
The fruit is commonly used for the manufacture of oil, which is
consumed in the country, and only a small part is exported. Were
large markets available, other fruits such as oranges, lemons, limes
and bananas would undoubtedly be extensively cultivated. In
the sierra region, wheat, barley, oats, quinua (Chenopodium quinoa),

alfalfa ; Indian corn, oca (Oxalis tuberosa) and potatoes are the
principal products. Wheat is widely grown but the output is not
large. Barley and oats are grown for forage, but for this purpose
alfalfa has become the staple, and without it the mountain pack-
trains could not be maintained. Quinua is an indigenous plant,
growing at elevations of 13,500 ft. and more; its grain is an important
food among the upland natives. Potatoes are grown everywhere in
the sierras, and with quinua are the only crops that can be raised
for human food above 13,000 ft. Yuca [Manihot utilissima),
known as cassava in the West Indies and mandioca in Brazil, is also
widely cultivated for food and for the manufacture of starch.

There are good pastures in the sierras, and cattle have been
successfully reared in some of the departments since the early years
of Spanish occupation, chiefly in Ancachs, Cajamarca, Junin,
Ayacucho, Puno, and some parts of Cuzco. The development
of alfalfa cultivation is extending the area of cattle-breeding
somewhat and is improving the quality of the beef
produced. The cattle are commonly small and hardy, yes '
and, like the Mexican cattle, are able to bear unfavourable
conditions. Sheep are reared over a somewhat wider range,
exclusively for their wool. The " natives," or descendants of the
early importations, are small, long-legged animals whose wool is
scanty and poor. Since the end of the 19th century efforts have
been made to improve the stock through the importation of merinos,
with good results. Sheep ranges under the care of Scottish shep-
herds have also been established in the department of Junin, the
stock being imported from southern Patagonia, England and
Australia. Goats are raised in Piura and Lambayeque for their
skins and fat, and swine-breeding for the production of lard has
become important in some of the coast valleys immediately north
of Lima. Horses are reared only to a limited extent, although
there is a demand for them for military purposes. The government
is seeking to promote the industry through the importation of
breeding mares from Argentina. Mules are bred in Piura and
Apurimac, and are highly esteemed for mountain travel. The
chief breeding industry is that of the llama, alpaca and vicuna —
animals of the Auchenia family domesticated by the Indians and
bred, the first as a pack animal, and the other two for their wool,
hides and meat. The llama was the only beast of burden known
to the South American natives before the arrival of the Spaniards
and is highly serviceable on the difficult trails of the Andes. The
alpaca and vicuna are smaller and weaker and have never been
used for this service, but their fine, glossy fleeces were used by the
Indians in the manufacture of clothing and are still an important
commercial asset of the elevated table-lands of Peru and Bolivia.
The export of wool in 1905 exceeded 3,300,000 lb. The rearing
of these animals requires much patience and skill, in which no
one has been able to match the Indian breeders of the Andean
plateaus.

The natural products of Peru include rubber, cabinet woods in
great variety, cinchona or Peruvian bark and other medicinal
products, various fibres, and guano. There are two p a rest
kinds of rubber supplied by the Peruvian montana pftK/ uc <s.
forests : jebe (also written hebe) or seringa, and caucho —
the former being collected from the Hevea guayanensis, or H.
brasiliensis, and the latter from the Castilloa elastica and some
other varieties. The Hevea product is obtained annually by tapping
the trees and coagulating the sap over a smoky fire, but the caucho
is procured by felling the tree and collecting the sap in a hollow in
the ground where it is coagulated by stirring in a mixture of soap
and the juice of a plant called vetilla. As the species from which
Ceara rubber is obtained {Hancorina speciosa) is found in Bolivia,
it is probable that this is also a source of the Peruvian caucho. The
Hevea is found along the water-courses of the lowlands, which
includes the large tributaries of the Maranon, while the caucho
species flourish on higher ground, above 900 ft. elevation. Owing
to the export tax on rubber (8 cents per kilogram on jebe and 5 cents
on caucho) it is probable that the official statistics do not cover the
total production, which was returned as 2539 metric tons in 1905,
valued at £913,989. The export of cinchona, or Peruvian bark,
is not important in itself, being only 64 tons, valued at £1406 in
1905. The best bark Comes from the Carabaya district in south-
eastern Peru, but it is found in many localities on the eastern slopes
of the Andes. The Peruvian supply is practically exhausted through
the destructive methods employed in collecting the bark, and the
world now depends chiefly on Bolivia and Ecuador. The forests
of eastern Peru are rich in fine cabinet woods, but their inaccessi-
bility renders them of no great value. Among the best known
of them are cedar, walnut, ironwood and caoba, a kind of mahogany.
Many of the forest trees of the upper Amazon valley of Brazil
are likewise found in Peru. The palm family is numerous and
includes the species producing vegetable ivory (Phytelephas),
straw for plaiting Panama hats (Carludovica palmata), and the
peach palm (Guilielma speciosa).

From guano an immense revenue was derived during the third
quarter of the 19th century and it is still one of the largest exports.
The guano beds a,e found on the barren islands of the Guano
Pacific coast. They were developed commercially
during the administration (1845-1851) of President Ramon Castilla,
at the same time that the nitrate deposits of Tarapaca became a

272

PERU

commercial asset of the republic. The large revenues derived from
these sources undoubtedly became a cause of weakness and
demoralization and eventually resulted in bankruptcy and the loss
of Tarapaca. The deposits have been partially exhausted by the
large shipments of over a half-century, but the export in 1905 was
73,369 tons, valued at £285,729.

Mining. — Mining was the chief industry of Peru under Spanish
rule. The Inca tribes were an agricultural and pastoral people, but
the abundance of gold and silver in their possession at the time of
the conquest shows that mining must have received considerable
attention. They used these precious metals in decorations and as
ornaments, but apparently attached no great value to them. The
use of bronze also shows that they must have worked, perhaps super-
ficially, some of the great copper deposits. Immediately following
the Spanish invasion the Andean region was thoroughly explored,
and with the assistance of Indian slaves thousands of mines were
opened, many of them failures, some of them becoming famous.
There was a decline in mining enterprise after the revolt of the
colonists against Spanish rule, owing to the unsettled state of the
country, and this decline continued in some measure to the end
of the century. The mining laws of the colonial regime and
political disorder together raised a barrier to the employment of
the large amount of capital needed, while the frequent outbreaks
of civil war made it impossible to work any large enterprise because
of its interference with labour and the free use of ports and roads.
The Peruvians were impoverished, and under such conditions
foreign capital could not be secured. In 1876 new mining laws
were enacted which gave better titles to mining properties and
better regulations for their operation, but the outbreak of the war'
with Chile at the end of the decade and the succeeding years of
disorganization and partisan strife defeated their purpose. Another
new mining code was adopted in 1901, and this, with an improvement
in political and economic conditions, has led to a renewal of mining
enterprise.

Practically the whole Andean region of Peru is mineral-bearing — •
a region 1500 m. long by 200 to 300 m. wide. Within these limits
are to be found most of the minerals known — gold, silver, quick-
silver, copper, lead, zinc, iron, manganese, wolfram, bismuth,
thorium, vanadium, mica, coal, &c. On or near the coast are coal,
salt, sulphur, borax, nitrates and petroleum. Gold is found in
lodes and alluvial deposit ; the former on the Pacific slope at Salpo,
Otuzco, Huaylas, Yungay, Ocros, Chorrillos, Cafiete, lea, Nasca,
Andaray and Arequipa, and on the table-lands and Amazon slope
at Pataz, Huanuco, Chuquitambo, Huancavelica, Cuzco, Cota-
bambas, Aymares, Paucartambo, Santo Domingo and Sandia ;
the latter wholly on the Amazon slope, in the country about the
Pongo de Manseriche and at Chuquibamba, both on the upper
Marafion, in the districts of Pataz, Huanuco, Aymares and Anta-
bamba (Apurimac), Paucartambo and Quippicauchi (Cuzco), and
Sandia and Carabaya (Puno). The last two are most important
and, it is believed, were the sources from which the Incas derived
the greater part of their store. The alluvial deposits are found both
in the beds of the small streams and in the soil of the small plains or
pampas. The Aporoma deposit, in the district of Sandia, is the best
known. Long ditches with stone-paved sluices for washing this
mineral-bearing material have long been used by the Indians, who
also construct stone bars across the beds of the streams to make
riffles and hold the deposited grains of gold. Modern methods of
hydraulic mining have been introduced to work the auriferous banks
of Poto; elsewhere antiquated methods only are employed. The
upper valley of the Marafion has undeveloped gold-bearing lodes.
The number of mines worked is small and there is not much foreign
capital invested in them. The gold ores of Peru are usually found
in ferruginous quartz. The production in 1906 was valued at
£170,355.

Peru has been known chiefly for its silver mines, some of which
have been marvellously productive. The Cerro de Pasco district,
with its 342 mines, is credited with a production, in value, of
£40,000,000 between 1784 and 1889, and is still productive, the
output for 1906 being valued at £972,958. The principal silver-
producing districts, the greater part on the high table-lands and
slopes of the Andes, are those of Salpo, Hualgayoc, Huari,
Huallanca, Huaylas, Huaraz, Recuay, Cajatambo, Yauli, Cerro
de Pasco, Morococha, Huarochiri, Huancavelica, Quespisisa, Castro-
virreyna, Lucanas, Lampa, Caylloma and Puno, but there are
hundreds of others outside their limits. Silver is generally found
as red oxides (locally called rosicler), sulphides and argentiferous
galena. Modern machinery is little used and many _ mines are
practically unworkable for want of pumps. In the vicinity of some
of the deposits of argentiferous galena are large coal beds, but
timber is scarce on the table-lands. The dried dung of the llama
(taquia) is generally used as fuel, as in pre-Spanish times, for roasting
ores, as also a species of grass called ichu (Stipa incana), and a
singular woody fungus, called yareta (Azorella umbellifera) , found
growing on the rocks at elevations exceeding 12,000 ft. The methods
formerly employed in reducing ores were lixiviation and amalga-
mation with quicksilver, but modern methods are gradually coming
into use. Quicksilver is found at Huancavelica, Chonta (Ancachs),
and in the department of Puno. The mine first named has been
worked since 1566 and its total production is estimated at 60,000

tons, the annual product being about 670 tons for a long period.
The metal generally occurs as sulphide of mercury (cinnabar),
but the ores vary greatly in richness — from 2\ to 20%. The
annual production has fallen to a small fraction of the former
output, its value in 19O5 being only £340, and in 1906 £495.

The copper deposits of Peru long remained undeveloped
through want of cheap transport and failure to appreciate their
true value. The principal copper-bearing districts are Chimbote,
Cajamarca, Huancayo, Huaraz, Huallanca, Junin, Huancavelica,
lea, Arequipa, Andahuaylas and Cuzco — chiefly situated in the
high, bleak regions of the Andes. The Junin district is the best
known and includes the Cerro de Pasco, Yauli, Morococha and
Huallay groups of mines, all finding an outlet to the coast over
the Oroya railway. These mines are of recent development, the
Cerro de Pasco mines having been purchased by American
capitalists. A smelting plant was erected in the vicinity of Cerro
de Pasco designed to treat 1000 tons of ore daily, a railway was
built to Oroya to connect with the state line terminating at that
point, and a branch line 62 m. long was built to the coal-mines of
Goillarisquisga. The Cerro de Pasco mines are supposed by some
authorities to be the largest copper deposit in the world. In
addition to the smelting works at Cerro de Pasco there are other
large works at Casapalca, between Oroya and Lima, which belong
to a British company, and smaller plants at Huallanca and Huinae.
The production of copper is steadily increasing, the returns for
1903 being 9497 tons and for 1906 13,474 tons, valued respectively
at £476,824 and £996,055. Of other metals, lead is widely distri-
buted, its chief source being a high grade galena accompanied by
silver. Iron ores are found in Piura, the Huaylas valley, Aya,
and some other places, but the deposits have not been worked
through lack of fuel. Sulphur deposits exist in the Sechura
desert region, on the coast, and extensive borax deposits have been
developed in the department of Arequipa. Coal has been found
in extensive beds near Piura, Salaverry, Chimbote, Huarmey and
Pisco on the coast, and at Goillarisquisga, Huarochiri and other
places in the interior. Both anthracite and bituminous deposits
have been found. Most of the deposits are isolated and have not
been developed for want of transport. Petroleum has been found
at several points on the coast in the department of Piura, and near
Lake Titicaca in the department of Puno. The most productive
of the Piura wells are at Talara and Zorritos, where refineries have
been established. The crude oil is used on some of the Peruvian
railways.

The number of mining claims (pertenencias) registered in 1907 was
12,858, according to official returns, each subject to a tax of 30
soles, or £3, per annum, the payment of which secures complete
ownership of the property. The claims measure 100X200 metres
(about 5 acres) in the case of mineral veins or lodes, and 200X200
metres (about 10 acres) for coal, alluvial gold and other deposits.
The labourers are commonly obtained from the Cholos, or Indian
inhabitants of the sierras, who are accustomed to high altitudes,
and are generally efficient and trustworthy.

Manufactures. — The manufacturing industries of Peru are confined
chiefly to the treatment of agricultural and mineral products —
the manufacture of sugar and rum from sugar cane, textiles from
cotton and wool, wine and spirits from grapes, cigars and cigarettes
from tobacco, chocolate from cacao, kerosene and benzine from
crude petroleum, cocaine from coca, and refined metals from their
ores. Many of the manufacturing industries are carried on with
difficulty and maintained only by protective duties on competing
goods. The Incas had made much progress in weaving, and
specimens of their fabrics, both plain and coloured, are to be found
in many museums. The Spanish introduced their own methods,
and their primitive looms are still to be found among the Indians
of the interior who weave the coarse material from which their
own garments are made. Modern looms for the manufacture of
woollens were introduced in 186 1 and of cotton goods in 1874.
There* are large woollen factories at Cuzco and Lima, the Santa
Catalina factory at the latter place turning out cloth and cashmere
for the army, blankets, counterpanes and underclothing. There
are cotton factories about Lima, at lea and at Arequipa. Besides
the wine industry, an irregular though important industry is the
manufacture of artificial or counterfeit spirits and liqueurs in Callao
and Lima. There are breweries in Arequipa, Callao, Cuzco and
Lima, and the consumption of beer is increasing. There are large
cigarette factories in Lima, and others in Arequipa, Callao, Piura
and Trujillo. The plaiting of Panama hats from the specially
prepared fibre of the " toquilla " palm is a domestic industry
among the Indians at Catacoas (Piura) and Eten (Lambayeque).
Coarser straw hats are made at other places, as well as hammocks,
baskets, &c.

Government.— Peru is a centralized republic, whose supreme
law is the constitution of i860. Like the other states of
South America its constitution provides for popular control of
legislation and the execution of the laws through free elections
and comparatively short terms of office, but in practice these
safeguards are often set aside and dictatorial methods super-
sede all others. Nominally the people are free and exercise

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273

sovereign rights in the choice of their representatives, but the
ignorance of the masses, their apathy, poverty and dependence
upon the great land proprietors and industrial corporations
practically defeat these fundamental constitutional provisions.
Citizenship is accorded to all Peruvians over the age of 21 and
to all married men under that age, and the right of suffrage
to all citizens who can read and write, or possess real estate
or workshops, or pay taxes. In all cases the exercise of
citizenship is regulated by law.

The government is divided into three independent branches,
legislative, executive and judicial, of which through force of
circumstances the executive has become the dominating power.
The executive branch consists of a president and two vice-
presidents elected for terms of four years, a cabinet of six
ministers of state appointed by the president, and various
subordinate officials who are under the direct orders of the
president. The president is chosen by a direct popular election
and cannot be re-elected to succeed himself. He must be not
less than 35 years of age, a Peruvian by birth, in the enjoyment
of all his civil rights, and domiciled in the republic ten years
preceding the election. The immediate supervision and despatch
of public administrative affairs is in the hands of the cabinet
ministers — interior, foreign affairs, war and marine, finance and
commerce, justice and public instruction, and public works and
promotion (Jomento). The execution of the laws in the depart-
ments and provinces, as well as the maintenance of public
order, is entrusted to prefects and sub-prefects, who are appoin-
tees of the president. A vacancy in the office of president is
filled by one of the two vice-presidents elected at the same
time and under the same conditions. Inability of the first
vice-president to assume the office opens the way for the
second vice-president, who becomes acting president until a
successor is chosen. The vice-presidents cannot be candidates
for the presidency during their occupancy of the supreme
executive office, nor can the ministers of state, nor the general-
in-chief of the army, while in the exercise of their official duties.

The legislative power is exercised by a national Congress —
senate and chamber of deputies — meeting annually on the
28th of July in ordinary session for a period of 90 days. Sena-
tors and deputies are inviolable in the exercise of their duties,
and cannot be arrested or imprisoned during a session of Congress,
including the month preceding and following the session, except
in flagrante delicto. Members of Congress are forbidden to
accept any employment or benefit from the executive. Senators
and deputies are elected by direct vote — the former by depart-
ments, and the latter in proportion to the population. With
both are elected an equal number of substitutes, who assume
office in case of vacancy.

Departments with eight and more provinces are entitled to four
senators, those of four to seven provinces three senators, those of
two to three provinces two senators, and those of one province
one senator. The deputies are chosen to represent 15,000 to 30,000
population each, but every province must have at least one
deputy. Both senators and deputies are elected for terms of
six years, and both must be native-born Peruvian citizens in the full
enjoyment of their civil rights. A senator must be 35 years of age,
and have a yearly income of $1000. The age limit of a deputy is
25 years, and his income must be not less than $500. In both
chambers the exercise of some scientific profession is accepted
in lieu of the pecuniary income. No member of the executive
branch of the government (president, cabinet minister, prefect,
sub-prefect, or governor) can be elected to either chamber, nor can
any judge or " fiscal " of the supreme court, nor any member of the
ecclesiastical hierarchy from his diocese, province or parish, nor any
judge or _" fiscal " of superior and first-instance courts from their
judicial districts, nor any military officer from the district where he
holds a military appointment at the time of election. No country
is provided with more and better safeguards against electoral and
official abuses than is Peru, and yet few countries suffered more
from political disorder during the 19th century. The president has
no veto power, but has the right to return a law to Congress with
comments within a period of ten days. Should the act be again
passed without amendments it becomes law; if, however, the
suggested amendments are accepted the act must go over to the
next session. Congress may also sit as a court of impeachment —
the senate hearing and deciding the case, and the chamber acting
as prosecutor. The president, ministers of state and judges of the
supreme court may be brought before this court.

Justice. — The judiciary is composed of a supreme court, superior
courts and courts of first instance, and justices of the peace. The
supreme court is established at the national capital and consists
of II judges and 2 " fiscals " or prosecutors. Ihe judges are
selected by Congress from lists of nominees submitted by the exe-
cutive. The judges of the superior courts are chosen by the presi-
dent from the list of nominees submitted by the supreme court.
Questions of jurisdiction between the superior and supreme courts,
as well as questions of like character between the supreme
court and the executive, are decided by the senate sitting as a
court. The courts of first instance are established in the capitals
of provinces and their judges are chosen by the superior courts of
the districts in which they are located. The independence of the
Peruvian courts has not been scrupulously maintained, and there
has been much criticism of their character and decisions.

The national executive appoints and removes the prefects of
the departments and the sub-prefects of the provinces, and the
prefects appoint the gobiernadores of the districts. The police
officials throughout the republic are also appointees of the presi-
dent and are under his orders.

Army. — After the Chilean War the disorders fomented by the
rival military officers led to a desire to place the administration
of public affairs under civilian control. This led to a material
reduction in the army, which, as reorganized, consists of 4000
officers and men, divided into seven battalions of infantry of 300 men
each, seven squadrons of cavalry of 125 men each, and one regiment
of mountain artillery of 590 men, with six batteries of mountain guns.
The reorganization of the army was carried out by 10 officers and
4 non-coms, of the French army, known as the French military
mission, who are also charged with the direction of the military
school at Chorrillos and all branches of military instruction. There
are a military high school, preparatory school, and " school of
application " in connexion with the training of young officers for
the army. The head of the mission is chief of staff. Formerly the
Indians were forcibly pressed into the service and the whites filled
the positions of officers, in great part untrained. Now military
service is obligatory for all Peruvians between the ages of 19 and
50, who are divided into four classes, first and second reserves (19
to 30, and 30 to 35 years), supernumeraries (those who have
purchased exemption from service in the regular army), and the
national guard (35 to 50 years). The regular force is maintained
by annual drawings from the iists of young men 19 years of age
in the first reserves, who are required to serve four years. The
direction of military affairs is entrusted to a general staff, which
was reorganized in 1904 on the lines adopted by the great
military powers of Europe. The republic is divided into four
military districts with headquarters at Piura, Lima, Arequipa and
Iquitos, and these into eleven circumscriptions. The mounted
police force of the republic is also organized on a military basis.

Navy. — The Peruvian navy was practically annihilated in the
war with Chile, and the poverty of the country prevented for many
years the adoption of any measure for its rebuilding. In 1908 it
consisted of only five vessels. The naval school at Callao is under
the direction of an officer of the French navy. In addition to the
foregoing the government has a few small river boats on the Marafion
and its tributaries, which are commanded by naval officers and used
to maintain the authority of the republic and carry on geographical
and hydrographical work.

Finance. — The financial record of Peru, notwithstanding her
enormous natural resources, has been one of disaster and discredit.
Internal strife at first prevented the development of her resources,
and then when the export of guano and nitrates supplied her treasury
with an abundance of funds the money was squandered on extrava-
gant enterprises and in corrupt practices. This was followed by the
loss of these resources, bankruptcy, and eventually the surrender of
her principal assets to her foreign creditors. The government
then had to readjust expenditures to largely diminished resources;
but the obligation has been met intelligently and courageously,
and since 1 895 there has been an improvement in the financial state
of the country. The public revenues are derived from customs,
taxes, various inland and consumption taxes, state monopolies,
the government wharves, posts and telegraphs, &c. The customs
taxes include import and export duties, surcharges, harbour dues,
warehouse charges, &c. ; the inland taxes comprise consumption taxes
on alcohol, tobacco, sugar and matches, stamps and stamped paper,
capital and mining properties, licences, transfers of property, &c. ;
and the state monopolies cover opium and salt. In 1905 a loan
of £600,000 was floated in Germany for additions to the navy. The
growth of receipts and expenditures is shown in the following table : —

1904.

1906.

1908.

Expenditure

£1,990,568
£1,884,949

£2,527,766
£2,178,252

£2,997.433
£3.043.032

The revenues of 1896 were only £1,128,714.

The foreign debt began with a small loan of £1,200,000 in London
in 1822, and another of £1,500,000 in 1825 of which only £716,516
was placed. At the end of the war, these loans, and sums owing
to Chile and Colombia, raised the foreign debt to £4,000,000. If

274

PERU

1830 the debt and accumulated interest owing in London amounted
to £2,310,767, in addition to which there was a home debt of
I 7> 1 83,397 dollars. In 1848 the two London loans and accumulated
interest were covered by a new loan of £3,736,400, and the home
debt was partially liquidated, the sale of guano giving the treasury
ample resources. Lavish expenditure followed and the government
was soon anticipating its revenues by obtaining advances from
guano consignees, usually on unfavourable terms, and then floating
loans. There was another conversion loan in 1862 in the sum of
£5,500,000 and in 1864 still another loan of this character was issued,
nominally for £10,000,000, of which £7,000,000 only were issued.
Then followed the ambitious schemes of President Balta, which
with the loans of 1870 and 1872 raised the total foreign debt to
£49,000,000, on which the annual interest charge was about
£2,500,000, a sum wholly beyond the resources of the treasury.
In 1876 interest payments on account of this debt were suspended
and in 1 879-1 882 the war with Chile deprived Peru of her principal
sources of income — the guano deposits and the Tarapaca nitrates.
In 1889 the total foreign debt, including arrears of interest, was
£54,000,000, and in the following year a contract was signed with
the Peruvian Corporation, a company in which the bondholders
became shareholders, for the transfer to it for 66 years of the state
railways, the free use of certain ports, the right of navigation on
Lake Titicaca, the exploitation of the remaining guano deposits
up to 3,000,000 tons, and thirty-three annual subsidies of £80,000
each, in consideration of the cancellation of the debt. Some modi-
fications were later made in the contract, owing to the government's
failure to meet the annual subsidies and the corporation's failure
to extend the railways agreed upon. This contract relieved Peru
of its crushing burden of foreign indebtedness, and turned an
apparently heavy loss to the bondholders into a possible profit. In
1910 the foreign debt stood at £3,140,000, composed of (1) Peruvian
Corporation £2,160,000; (2) wharves and docks, £80,000; (3) loan
of 1905, £500,000; (4) loan of 1906, £400,000.

Currency. — The single gold standard has been in force in Peru
since 1897 and 1898, silver and copper being used for subsidiary
coinage. The monetary unit is the Peruvian pound {libra) which is
uniform in weight and fineness with the British pound sterling.
Half and fifth pounds are also coined. The silver coinage consists
of the sol (100 cents), half sol (50 cents), and pieces of 20 {peseta),
10 and 5 cents; and the copper coinage of I and 2 cents. The
single standard has worked well, and has contributed much toward
the recovery of Peruvian commerce and finance. The change from
the double standard was effected without any noticeable disturbance
in commercial affairs, but this was in part due to the precaution of
making the British pound sterling legal tender in the republic and
establishing the legal equivalent between gold and silver at 10 soles
to the pound. The coinage in 1906-1907 was about £150,000
gold and £65,000 silver, and the total circulation in that year was
estimated at £1,400,000 in gold coin and £600,000 in silver coin.
Previous to the adoption of the single gold standard in 1897 the
monetary history of Peru had been unfortunate. The first national
coinage was begun in 1822, and the decimal system was adopted in
1863. Although the double standard was in force, gold was
practically demonetized by the monetary reform of 1872 because of
the failure to fix a legal ratio between the two metals. Experience
with paper currency has been even more disastrous. During the
administration (1 872-1 876) of President Pardo the government
borrowed heavily from the banks to avoid the suspension of work on
the railways and port improvements. These banks enjoyed the
privilege of issuing currency notes' to the amount of three times the
cash in hand without regard to their commercial liabilities. A large
increase in imports, caused by fictitious prosperity and inability
to obtain drafts against guano shipments, led to the exportation of
coin to meet commercial obligations, and this soon reduced the
currency circulation to a paper basis. The government being
unable to repay its loans from the banks compelled the latter to
suspend the conversion of their notes, which began to depreciate
in value. In 1875 the banks were granted a moratorium, to enable
them to obtain coin, but without result. The government in 1 877
contracted a new loan with the banks and assumed responsibility
for their outstanding emissions, which are said to have aggregated
about 100,000,000 soles, and were worth barely 10% of their nominal
value. At last their depreciation reached a point where their
acceptance was generally refused and silver was imported for com-
mercial needs, when the government suspended their legal tender
quality and allowed them to disappear.

Weights and Measures. — The French metric system is the official
standard of weights and measures and is in use in the custom-houses
of the republic and in foreign trade, but the old units are still com-
monly used among the people. These are the ounce, 1-104 oz -
avoirdupois; the libra, 1-014 ft> avoirdupois; the quintal, 101-44 lb
avoirdupois; the arroba, 25-36 lb avoirdupois; ditto of wine,
6-70 imperial gallons; the gallon, -74 of an imperial gallon; the
vara, -927 yard ; and the square vara, -859 square yard. (A. J. L.)

History.— Cyclopean ruins of vast edifices, apparently never
completed, exist at Tiahuanaco near the southern shore of Lake
Titicaca. Remains of a similar character are found at Huaraz

in the north of Peru, and at Cuzco, Ollantay-tambo and Huinaque
between Huaraz and Tiahuanaco. These works appear to hav«
been erected by powerful sovereigns with unlimited command
of labour, possibly with the object of giving employment to
subjugated people, while feeding the vanity or pleasing the taste
of the conqueror. Of their origin nothing is historically known.
It is probable, however, that the settlement of the Cuzco valley
and district by the Incas or " people of the sun " took place
some 300 years before Pizarro landed in Peru. The conquering
tribe or tribes had made their way to the sierra from the plains,
and found themselves a new land sheltered from attack amidst
the lofty mountains that hem in the valley of Cuzco and the
vast lake basin of Titicaca, situated 12,000 ft. above the sea
level. The first historical records show us these people already
possessed of a considerable civilization, and speaking two allied
languages, Aymara and Quichua. The expansion of the Inca
rule and the formation of the Peruvian Empire was of modern
growth at the time of the Spanish conquest, and dated from the
victories of Pachacutic Inca who lived about a century before
Huayna Capac, the Great Inca, whose death took place in 1526,
the year before Pizarro first appeared on the coast. His con-
solidated empire extended from the river Ancasmayu north of
Quito to the river Maule in the south of Chile. The Incas had
an elaborate system of state-worship, with a ritual, and fre-
quently recurring festivals. History and tradition were pre-
served by the bards, and dramas were enacted before the
sovereign and his court. Roads with post-houses at intervals
were made over the wildest mountain-ranges and the bleakest
deserts for hundreds of miles. A well-considered system of
land-tenure and of colonization provided for the wants of all
classes of the people. The administrative details of government
were minutely and carefully organized, and accurate statistics
were kept by means of the " quipus " or system of knots. The
edifices displayed marvellous building skill, and their workman-
ship is unsurpassed. The world has nothing to show, in the way
of stone-cutting and fitting, to equal the skill and accuracy
displayed in the Inca structures of Cuzco. As workers in metals
and as potters they displayed infinite variety of design, while as
cultivators and engineers they excelled their European con-
querors. (For illustrations see America, Plate V.)

The story of the conquest has been told by Prescott and
Helps, who give ample references to original authorities; it will
be sufficient here to enumerate the dates of the
leading events. On the 10th of March 1526 the p/^rof *
contract for the conquest of Peru was signed by
Francisco Pizarro, Diego de Almagro and Hernando de Luque,
Caspar de Espinosa supplying the funds. In 1527 Pizarro,
after enduring fearful hardships, first reached the coast of Peru
at Tumbez. In the following year he went to Spain, and on
the 26th of July 1529 the capitulation with the Crown for the
conquest of Peru was executed. Pizarro sailed from San Lucar
with his brothers in January 1530, and landed at Tumbes in
1531. The civil war between Huascar and Atahualpa, the sons
of Huayna Capac, had been fought out in the meanwhile, and
the victorious Atahualpa was at Cajamarca on his way from
Quito to Cuzco. On the 15th of November 1532 Pizarro with
his little army, made his way to Cajamarca, where he received
a friendly welcome from the Inca, whom he treacherously seized
and made prisoner. He had with him only 183 men. In
February 1533 his colleague Almagro arrived with reinforce-
ments. The murder of the Inca Atahualpa was perpetrated
on the 29th of August 1533, and on the 15th of November
Pizarro entered Cuzco. He allowed the rightful heir to the
empire, Manco, the legitimate son of Huayna Capac, to be
solemnly crowned on the 24th of March 1534. Almagro then
undertook an expedition to Chile, and Pizarro founded the city
of Lima on the 18th of January 1535. In the following year the
Incas made a brave attempt to expel the invaders, and closely
besieged the Spaniards in Cuzco during February and March.
But Almagro, returning from Chile, raised the siege on the 18th
of April 1537. Immediately afterwards a dispute arose between
the brothers, Francisco, Juan and Gonzalo Pizarro and Almagro

PERU

275

as to the limits of their respective jurisdictions. An interview
took place at Mala, on the sea-coast, on the 13th of November
1537, which led to no result, and Almagro was finally defeated
in the battle of Las Salinas near Cuzco on the 26th of April 1 538.
His execution followed. His adherents recognized his young
half-caste son, a gallant and noble youth generally known as
Almagro the Lad, as his successor. Bitterly discontented, they
conspired at Lima and assassinated Francisco Pizarro on the
26th of June 1541. Meanwhile Vaca de Castro had been sent
out as governor of Peru by Charles V., and on hearing of the
murder of Pizarro he assumed the government of the country.
On the 16th of September 1542 he defeated the army of Almagro
the Lad in the battle of Chupas near Guamanga, and the boy
was beheaded at Cuzco.

Charles V. enacted the code known as the " New Laws " in
1542. " Encomiendas," or grants of estates on which the
CMl Wars, inhabitants were bound to pay tribute and give
personal service to the grantee, were to pass to the
Crown on the death of the actual holder; a fixed sum was
to be assessed as tribute; and forced personal service was
forbidden. Blasco Nunez de Vela was sent out, as first viceroy
of Peru, to enforce the " New Laws." Their promulgation
aroused a storm among the conquerors. Gonzalo Pizarro rose
in rebellion, and entered Lima on the 28th of October 1544.
The viceroy fled to Quito, but was followed, defeated and killed
at the battle of Anaquito on the 18th of January 1546. The
" New Laws " were weakly revoked, and Pedro de la Gasca, as
first president of the Audiencia (court of justice) of Peru, was
sent out to restore order. He arrived in 1547, and on the 8th
of April 1548 he routed the followers of Gonzalo Pizarro on the
plain of Sacsahuaman near Cuzco. Gonzalo was executed
on the field. La Gasca made a redistribution of " encomiendas "
to the loyal conquerors, which caused great discontent, and left
Peru before his scheme was made public in January 1550. On
the 23rd of September 1551 Don Antonio de Mendoza arrived as
second viceroy, but he died at Lima in the following July. The
country was then ruled by the judges of the Audiencia, and a
formidable insurrection broke out, headed by Francisco Hernan-
dez Giron, with the object of maintaining the right of the
conquerors to exact forced service from the Indians. In May
1554 Giron defeated the army of the judges at Chuquinga, but
he was hopelessly routed at Pucara on the nth of October
1554, captured, and on the 7th of December executed at Lima.
Don Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, marquis of Canete, entered
Lima as third viceroy of Peru on the 6th of July 1555, and ruled
with an iron hand for six years. All the leaders in former
disturbances were sent to Spain. Corregidors, or governors
of districts, were ordered to try summarily and execute every
turbulent person within their jurisdictions. All unemployed
persons were sent on distant expeditions, and moderate " en-
comiendes " were granted to a few deserving officers. At the
same time the viceroy wisely came to an agreement with Sayri
Tupac, the son and successor of the Inca Manco, and granted
him a pension. He took great care to supply the natives with
priests of good conduct, and promoted measures for the estab-
lishment of schools and the foundation of towns in the different
provinces. The cultivation of wheat, vines and olives, and
European domestic animals were introduced. The next viceroy
was the Conde de Nieva (1 561-1564). His successor, the
licentiate Lope Garcia de Castro, who only had the title of
governor, ruled from 1564 to 1569. From this time there was
a succession of viceroys until 1824. The viceroys were chief
magistrates, but in legal matters they had to consult the Audi-
encia of judges, in finance the Tribunal de Cuentas, in other
branches of administration the Juntas de Gobierno and de
Guerra.

Don Francisco de Toledo, the second son of the count of
Oropesa, entered Lima as viceroy on the 26th of November 1569.
Toledo's Fearing that the little court of the Inca Tupac Amaru
Admlnlstra- (who had succeeded his brother Sayri Tupac) might

"• become a focus of rebellion, he seized the young

prince, and unjustly beheaded the last of the Incas in the square

of Cuzco in the year 1571. After a minute personal inspection
of every province in Peru, he, with the experienced aid of the
learned Polo de Ondegardo and the judge of Matienza, estab-
lished the system under which the native population of Peru
was ruled for the two succeeding centuries. His Libro de
Tasos fixed the tribute to be paid by the Indians, exempting
all men under eighteen and over fifty. He found it necessary,
in order to secure efficient government, to revert in some measure
to the system of the Incas. The people were to be directly
governed by their native chiefs, whose duty was to collect the
tribute and exercise magisterial functions. The chiefs or
" curacas " had subordinate native officials under them called
" pichca-pachacas " over 500 men, and " pachacas " over
100 men. The office of curaca or cacique was made hereditary,
and its possessor enjoyed several privileges. Many curacas
were descended from the imperial family of the Incas, or from
great nobles of the Incarial court. In addition to the tribute,
which was in accordance with native usage, there was the
" mita," or forced labour in mines, farms and manufactories.
Toledo enacted that one-seventh of the male population of a
village should be subject to conscription for this service, but
they were to be paid, and were not to be taken beyond a specified
distance from their homes.

The Spanish kings and viceroys desired to protect the people
from tyranny, but they were unable to prevent the rapacity
and lawlessness of distant officials and the country
was depopulated by the illegal methods of enforcing royalty.
the mita. Toledo was succeeded in 1581 by Don
Martin Henriquez, who died at Lima two years afterwards.
The Spanish colonies suffered from the strict system of monopoly
and protection, which was only slightly relaxed by the later
Bourbon kings, and from the arbitrary proceedings of the
Inquisition. Between 1581 and 1776 as many as fifty-nine
heretics were burned at Lima, and there were twenty-nine
" autos "; but the Inquisition affected Europeans rather than
natives, for the Indians, as catechumens, were exempted from
its terrors. The curacas sorrowfully watched the gradual extinc-
tion of their people by the operation of the mita, protesting from
time to time against the exactions and cruelty of the Spaniards.
At length a descendant of the Incas, who assumed the name of
Tupac Amaru, rose in rebellion in 1780. The insurrection lasted
until July 1783, and cruel executions followed its suppression.
This was the last effort of the Indians to throw off the Spanish
yoke and the rising was by no means general. The army which
overthrew Tupac Amaru consisted chiefly of loyal Indians, and
the rebellion was purely anti-Spanish, and had no support from
the Spanish population. The movement for independence,
which slowly gained force during the opening decade of the 19th
century, did not actually become serious until the conquest of
Spain by the French in 1807-1808. The Creoles (Criallos) or
American-born Spaniards had for long been aggrieved at being
shut out from all important official positions, and at the restric-
tions placed upon their trade, but the bulk of the Creole popula-
tion was not disloyal.

Peru was the centre of Spanish power, and the viceroy had
his military strength concentrated at Lima. Consequently the
insurrections in the more distant provinces, such as
Chile and Buenos Aires, were the first to declare

Peru Inde-
pendent,

themselves independent, in 1816 and 181 7. But
the destruction of the viceroy's power was essential to their
continued independent existence. The conquest of the Peruvian
coast must always depend on the command of the sea. A fleet
of armed ships was fitted out at Valparaiso in Chile, under the
command of Lord Cochrane (afterwards earl of Dundonald) and
officered by Englishmen. It convoyed an army of Argentine
troops, with some Chileans, under the command of the Argentine
general, San Martin, which landed on the coast of Peru in
September 1820. San Martin was enthusiastically received,
and the independence of Peru was proclaimed at Lima after
the viceroy had withdrawn (July 28, 1821). On the 20th of
September 1822 San Martin resigned the protectorate, with
which he had been invested, and on the same day the first

276

PERU

congress of Peru became the sovereign power of the state.
After a short period of government by a committee of three,
the congress elected Don Jose de la Riva Aguero to be first
president of Peru en the 28th of February 1823. He displayed
great energy in facing the difficulties of a turbulent situation,
but was unsuccessful. The aid of the Colombians under Simon
Bolivar was sought, and Aguero was deposed.

Bolivar arrived at Lima on the 1st of September 1823, and
began to organize an army to attack the Spanish viceroy in
the interior. On the 6th of August 1824 the cavalry action of
Junin was fought with the Spanish forces under the command
of a French adventurer, General Canterac, near the shores of
the lake of Chinchay-cocha. It was won by a gallant charge
of the Peruvians under Captain Suarez at the critical moment.
Soon afterwards Bolivar left the army to proceed to the coast,
and the final battle of Ayacucho (Dec. 9, 1824) was fought by
his second in command, General Sucre. The viceroy and all
his officers were taken prisoners, and the Spanish power in Peru
came to an end.

General Bolivar ruled Peru with dictatorial powers for more
than a year, and though there were cabals against him there can
be little doubt of his popularity. He was summoned back to
Colombia when he had been absent for five years and, in spite
of protests left the country on the 3rd 6f September 1826,
followed by all the Colombian troops in March 1827.

General Jose de Lamar, who commanded the Peruvians at
Ayacucho, was elected president of Peru on the 24th of August
1827, but was deposed, after waging a brief but
Presidents, disastrous war with Colombia on the 7th of June
1820. General Agustin Gamarra, who had been
in the Spanish service, and was chief of the staff in the patriot
army at Ayacucho, was elected third president on the 31st of
August 1829.

For fifteen years, from 1829 to 1844, Peru was painfully
feeling her way to a right use of independence. The officers
who fought at Ayacucho, and to whom the country felt natural
gratitude, were all-powerful, and they had not learned to settle
political differences in any other way than by the sword. Three
men, during that period of probation, won a prominent place
in their country's history, Generals Agustin Gamarra, Felipe
Santiago Salaverry, and Andres Santa Cruz. Gamarra, born
at Cuzco in 1785, never accommodated himself to constitutional
usages; but he attached to himself many loyal and devoted
friends, and, with all his faults he loved his country and sought
its welfare according to his lights. Salaverry was a very different
character. Born at Lima in 1806, of pure Basque descent, he
joined the patriot army before he was fifteen and displayed
his audacious valour in many a hard-fought battle. Feeling
strongly the necessity that Peru had for repose, and the guilt
of civil dissension, he wrote patriotic poems which became very
popular. Yet he too seized the supreme power, and perished
by an iniquitous sentence on the 18th of February 1836. 1
Andres Santa Cruz was an Indian statesman. His mother was a
lady of high rank, of the family of the Incas, and he was very
proud of his descent. Unsuccessful as a general in the field, he
nevertheless possessed remarkable administrative ability and for
nearly three years (1836-1839) realized his lifelong dream of a
Peru-Bolivian confederation. 2 But the strong-handed inter-
vention of Chile on the ground of assistance rendered to rebels,
but really through jealousy of the confederation, ended in the
defeat and overthrow of Santa Cruz, and the separation of
Bolivia from Peru. But Peruvian history is not confined to
the hostilities of these military rulers. Three constitutions
were framed— in 1828, 1833 and 1839. Lawyers and orators
are never wanting in Spanish-American states, and revolution
succeeded revolution in one continuous struggle for the spoils

1 The romance of his life has been admirably written by Manuel
Bilbao (isted., Lima, 1 853; 2nd ed., Buenos Aires, 1867).

2 The succession of presidents and supreme chiefs of Peru from
1829 to 1844 was as follows: 1829-1833, Agustin Gamarra;
1834-1835, Luis Jose Orbegoso; 1835-1836, Felipe Santiago Sala-
verry; 1836-1839, Andres Santa Cruz; 1839-1841, Agustin Gamarra;
1841-1844, Manuel Menendez.

of office. An exception must be made of the administration
of General Ramon Castilla, who restored peace to Peru, and
showed himself to be an honest and very capable ruler. He
was elected constitutional president on the 20th of April 1845.
Ten years of peace and increasing prosperity followed. In
1849 the regular payment of the interest of the public debt
was commenced, steam communication was established along
the Pacific coast, and a railroad was made from Lima to Callao.
After a regular term of office of six years of peace and moral
and material progress Castilla resigned, and General Jose
Echenique was elected president. But the proceedings of
Echenique's government in connexion with the consolidation
of the internal debt were disapproved by the nation, and, after
hostilities which lasted for six months, Castilla returned to power
in January 1855. From December 1856 to March 1858 he had
to contend with and subdue a local insurrection headed by
General Agostino Vivanco, but, with these two exceptions,
there was peace in Peru from 1844 to 1879, a period of thirty-five
years. Castilla retired at the end of his term of office in 1862,
and died in 1868. On the 2nd of August 1868 Colonel Juan
Balta was elected president. With the vast sum raised from
guano and nitrate deposits President Balta commenced the
execution of public works, principally railroads on a gigantic
scale. His period of office was signalized by the opening of an
international exhibition at Lima. He was succeeded (Aug.
2, 1872) by Don Manuel Pardo (d. 1878), an honest and
enlightened statesman, who did all in his power to retrieve the
country from the financial difficulty into which it had been
brought by the reckless policy of his predecessor, but the con-
ditions were not capable of solution. He regulated the Chinese
immigration to the coast-valleys, which from i860 to 1872 had
amounted to 58,606. He promoted education, and encouraged
literature. On the 2nd of August 1876 General Mariano-Ignacio
Prado was elected. (C. R. M.;X.)

On the 5th of April 1879 the republic of Chile declared war
upon Peru, the alleged pretext being that Peru had made an
offensive treaty, directed against Chile, with Bolivia, war with
a country with which Chile had a dispute ; but the Chile, 1879-
publication of the text of this treaty made known ,882 '
the fact that it was strictly defensive and contained no just
cause of war. The true object of Chile was the conquest of
the rich Peruvian province of Tarapaca, the appropriation
of its valuable guano and nitrate deposits, and the spoliation
of the rest of the Peruvian coast. The military events of the
war, calamitous for Peru, are dealt with in the article Chile-
Peruvian War. Suffice it here to note that, after the crushing
defeat of the Peruvian forces at Arica (June 7, 1880) Senor
Nicolas de Pierola assumed dictatorial powers, with General
Andres Caceres as commander-in-chief, but the defeats at
Chorrillos (Jan. 13, 1881) and Miraflores (Jan. 15) proved
the Chilean superiority, and put Lima at their mercy though
desultory fighting was maintained by the remnants of the
Peruvian army in the interior, under direction of General
Caceres. An attempt was made to constitute a government
with Senor Calderon as president of the republic and General
Caceres as first vice-president. The negotiations between this
nominal administration and the Chilean authorities for a treaty
of peace proved futile, the Chilean occupation of Lima and the
Peruvian seaboard continuing uninterruptedly until 1883. In
that year Admiral Lynch, who had replaced General Baquedano
in command of the Chilean forces after the taking of Lima, sent
an expedition against the Peruvians under General Caceres,
and defeated the latter in the month of August. , The Chilean
authorities now began preparations for the evacuation of Lima,
and to enable this measure to be effected a Peruvian administra-
tion was organized with the support of the Chileans. General
Iglesias was nominated to the office of president of the republic,
and in October 1883 a treaty of peace, known as the treaty of
Ancon, between Peru and Chile was signed. The Chilean army
of occupation was withdrawn from Lima on the 22nd of October

1883, but a strong force was maintained at Chorrillos until July

1884, when the terms of the treaty were finally approved. The

PERU

277

principal conditions imposed by Chile were the absolute cession
by Peru of the province of Tarapaca, and the occupation for a
period of ten years of the territories of Tacna and Arica, the
ownership of these districts to be decided by a popular vote of
the inhabitants of Tacna and Arica at the expiration of the
period named. A further condition was enacted that an
indemnity of 10,000,000 soles was to be paid by the country
finally remaining in possession — a sum equal to about £1,000,000
to-day. The Peruvians in the interior refused to recognize
President Iglesias, and at once began active operations to over-
throw his authority on the final departure of the Chilean troops.
Affairs continued in this unsettled state until the middle of 1885,
Caceres meanwhile steadily gaining many adherents to his side
of the quarrel. In the latter part of 1885 President Iglesias
abdicated.

Under the guidance of General Caceres a junta was then

formed to carry on the government until an election for the

, presidency should be held and the senate and cham-

Power. ber °^ deputies constituted. In the following year

(1886) General Caceres was elected president of the
republic for the usual term of four years. The task assumed
by the new president was no sinecure. The country had been
thrown into absolute confusion from a political and administra-
tive point of view, but gradually order was restored, and peaceful
conditions were reconstituted throughout the republic. The
four years of office for which General Caceres was elected passed
in uneventful fashion, and in 1890 Senor Morales Bermudez
was nominated to the presidency, with Senor Solar and Senor
Borgofio as first and second vice-presidents. Matters continued
without alteration from the normal course until 1894, and in
that year Bermudez died suddenly a few months before the
expiration of the period for which he had been chosen as presi-
dent. General Caceres secured the nomination of the vice-
president Borgofio as chief of the executive for the unexpired
portion of the term of the late president Bermudez. This
action was unconstitutional, and was bitterly resented by the
vice-president Solar, who by right should have succeeded to the
office. Armed resistance to the authority of Borgofio was
immediately organized in the south of Peru, the movement being
supported by Senores Nicolas de Pierola, Billinghurst, Durand
and a number of influential Peruvians. In the month of August
1894 General Caceres was again elected to fill the office of presi-
dent, but the revolutionary movement rapidly gained ground.
President Caceres adopted energetic measures to suppress the
outbreak: his efforts, however, proved unavailing, the close of
1894 finds the country districts in the power of the rebels and the
authority of the legal government confined to Lima and other
cities held by strong garrisons. Early in March 1895 the insur-
gents encamped near the outskirts of Lima, and on the 17th,
1 8th and 19th of March severe fighting took place, ending in
the defeat of the troops under General Caceres. A suspension
of hostilities was then brought about by the efforts of H.B.M.
consul. The loss on both sides to the struggle during these two
days was 2800 killed and wounded. President Caceres, finding
his cause was lost, left the country, a provisional government
under Senor Candamo assuming the direction of public affairs.

On the 8th of September 1895 Senor Pierola was declared
president of the republic for the following four years. The

Peruvians were now heartily tired of revolutionary
President, disturbances, and an insurrectionary outbreak in

the district of Iquitos met with small sympathy,
and was speedily crushed. In 1896 a reform of the electoral
law was sanctioned. By the provisions of this act an electoral
committee was constituted, composed of nine members, two of
these nominated by the senate, two by the chamber of deputies,
four by the supreme court, and one by the president with the
consent of his ministers. To this committee was entrusted the
task of the examination of all election returns, and of the pro-
clamation • of the names of successful candidates for seats in
congress. Another reform brought about by Pierola was a
measure introduced and sanctioned in 1897 for a modification
of the marriage laws. Under the new act marriages of non-

Catholics solemnized by diplomatic or consular officers or by
ministers of dissenting churches, if properly registered, are
valid, and those solemnized before the passing of this act were
to be valid if registered before the end of 1899. Revolutionary
troubles again disturbed the country in 1899, when the presi-
dency of Senor Pierola was drawing to a close. In consequence
of dissensions amongst the members of the election committee
constituted, by the act of 1896, the president ordered the suppres-
sion of this body. A group of malcontents under the leadership
of one Durand, a man who had been prominent in the revolution
against General Caceres in 1894-95, conspired against the
authorities and raised several armed bands, known- locally as
montaneras. Some skirmishes occurred between these insur-
gents and the government troops, the latter generally obtaining
the advantage in these encounters.

In September 1899 President Pierola vacated the presidency
in favour of Senor Romafia, who had been elected to the office
as a popular condidate and without the exercise
of any undue official influence. President Romafia p°^Jent
was educated at Stonyhurst in England, and was a
civil engineer by profession. The principal political problem
before the government of Peru was the ownership of the terri-
tories of Tacna and Arica. The period of ten years originally
agreed upon for the Chilean occupation of these provinces
expired in 1894. At that date the peace of Peru was so seriously
disturbed by internal troubles that the government was quite
unable to take active steps to bring about any solution of the
matter. After 1894 negotiations between the two governments
were attempted from time to time, but without any satisfactory
results. The question hinged to a great extent on the qualifica-
tion necessary for the inhabitants to vote, in the event of a
plebiscite being called to decide whether Chilean ownership
was to be finally established or the provinces were to revert to
Peruvian sovereignty. Peru proposed that only Peruvian
residents should be entitled to take part in a popular vote;
Chile rejected this proposition, on the ground that all residents in
the territories in question should have a voice in the final decision.
The agreement between Chile and Bolivia, by which the disputed
provinces were to be handed over to the latter country if Chilean
possession was recognized, was also a stumbling-block, a strong
feeling existed among Peruvians against this proceeding. It
was not so much the value of Tacna and Arica that put diffi-
culties in the way of a settlement as the fact that the national
pride of the Peruvians ill brooked the idea of permanently losing
all claim to this section of country. The money, about £1 ,000,000,
could probably have been obtained to indemnify Chile if occasion
for it arose.

The question of the delimitation of the frontier between Peru
and the neighbouring republics of Ecuador, Colombia, and
Brazil also cropped up at intervals. A treaty was signed with
Brazil 1876, by which certain physical features were accepted
by both countries as the basis for the boundary. In the case
of Ecuador and Colombia a dispute arose in 1894 concerning
the ownership of large tracts of uninhabited country in the
vicinity of the headwaters of the Amazon and its tributaries.
An agreement was proposed between Peru and Ecuaaor in
connexion with the limits of the respective republics, but diffi-
culties were created to prevent this proposal from becoming
an accomplished fact by the pretensions put forward by Colom-
bia. The latter state claimed sovereignty over the Napo and
Marafion rivers on the grounds of the ecclesiastical jurisdiction
exercised over this section of territory during the period of
Spanish dominion, the government of Colombia asserting
that these ecclesiastical rights to which Colombia became
entitled after her separation from the Spanish crown carried
also the right of absolute ownership. In a treaty signed by
the three interested states in 1895 a compromise was effected
by which Colombia withdrew a part of the claim advanced,
and it was agreed that any further differences arising out of this
frontier question should be submitted to the arbitration of the
Spanish crown. The later development of the boundary ques-
tion is dealt with at the outset of this article.

278

PERU— PERUGIA

Senor Manuel Candamo succeeded Senor Romana as president
in 1903. In the following year he died, and on the 24th of
September 1904 Senor Jose Pardo was installed in the presiden-
tial chair. In 1908 there were some insurrectionary movements
at Lima and an attempt was made to assassinate President
Pardo, but they were, however, suppressed without a serious
outbreak. Senor Augusto Leguiva became president on the
24th of September 1908. (C. E. A.; G. E.)

Bibliography. — Among the principal publications relating to
Peru are : C. E. Akers, A History of South America (London, 1904) ;
L. E. Albertini, Perou en 1878 (Paris, 1878); C. B. Cisneros and
R. E. Garcia, El Peru en Europa (Lima, 1900); the same authors,
Geografia comercial de la America del Sud (3 vols., ibid. 1898);
E. B. Clark, Twelve Months in Peru (London, 1891) ; Geo. R. Fitzroy
Cole, The Peruvians at Home, (ibid. 1884); A. J. Duffield, Peru in
the Guano Age (ibid. 1877) ; C. R. Enock, The Andes and the Amazon
(ibid. 1907) ; idem, Peru: its Former and Present Civilization, &c.
(ibid. 1908); P. F. Evans, From Peru to the Plate (ibid. 1889);
M. A. Fuentes, Lima, or Sketches of the Capital of Peru (ibid. 1866) ;
Calderon F. Garcia, Le Perou contemporain (Paris, 1907); Garcilasso
de la Vega, Royal commentaries of the Incas, 1609 (Hakluyt Society's
Publications) ; A. Garland, La Industria azucarera en el Peru, 1550-
i8qS (Lima, 1895); idem, Peru in 1906 (official; ibid. I 907); E.
Grandidier, Voyage dans VAmerique du Sud, Perou et Bolivie (Paris,
1863); T. Haenke, Descripcion del Peru (Lima, 1901); E. Higginson,
Mines and Mining in Peru (ibid. 1903).; S. S. Hill, Travels in Peru
and Mexico (2 vols., London, i860); T. J. Hutchinson, Two Years
in Peru (2 vols.; ibid. 1874); R. Laos, A Handbook of Peru for Inves-
tors and Immigrants (Baltimore, 1903) ; C. R. Markham, Cuzco and
Lima (London, 1858); idem, Travels in Peru and India (ibid. 1862);
idem, The War between Peru and Chile (ibid. 1883); idem, History
of Peru (Chicago, 1892) ; V. M. Maurtua, The Question of the Pacific
(Philadelphia, 1901); M. de Mendiburu, Diccionarto historico-
biogrdfico del Peru (8 vols., Callao, 1874-1890); E. W. Middendorf,
Perii: Beobachtungen und Sludien liber das Land und seine Bewohner,
&c. (Berlin, 1893) ; Federico Moreno, Petroleum in Peru (Lima, 1891);
Dr M. Neveu-Lemaire, Les Lacs des hauls plateaux de VAmerique du
Sud (Paris, 1906); M. F. Paz-Soldan, Hisloria del Peru indepen-
diente (3 vols., 1868 et seq.); idem, Diccionario geogrdfico-estadistico
del Peru (Lima, 1879); A. Plane, A travers VAmerique equatoriale
(Paris, 1903) ; W. H. Prescott, History of the Conquest of Peru (3 vols.,
Philadelphia, 1868); A. Raimondi, El Peru: Estudios mineralogicos,
&c. (4 vols., Lima, 1890-1902); M. Ch. Renoz, Le Perou (Bruxelles,
1897): G. Rene-Moreno, Ultimos dias coloniales en el Alto Peru
1807-1808 (Santiago de Chile, 1896-1898); F. Seebee, Travelling
Impressions in and Notes on Peru (2nd ed., London, 1905) ; E. G.
Squicr, Peru: Incidents of Travel and Exploration in the Land of the
Incas (ibid. 1877); Edmond Temple, Travels in Various Parts of
Peru (2 vols., ibid. 1830); J. J. Von Tschudi, Reisen durch Sild-
amerika (5 vols., Leipzig, 1866— 1868) ; idem, Travels in Peru (London,
1847) ; Charles Wiener, Perou et Bolivie (Paris, 1880) ; Frank Vincent,
Around and about South America (New York, 1890) ; Marie Robinson
Wright, The Old and New Peru (Philadelphia, 1909) ; the Consular and
Diplomatic Reports of Great Britain and the United States; Hand-
book of Peru and Bulletins of the Bureau of American Republics;
and the departmental publications of the Peruvian Government.

PERU, a city of La Salle county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the
north-central part of the state, on the N. bank of the Illinois
River, about 100 m. S.W. of Chicago and 1 m. W. of La
Salle, a terminus of the Illinois & Michigan Canal. Pop. (1900),
6863 (2095 foreign - born) ; (1910), 7984. It is served by the
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy and the Chicago, Rock Island &
Pacific railways. The city is built on the face and top of a
series of river bluffs. It is the seat of St Bede College (Roman
Catholic, opened in 1891), conducted by Benedictine fathers.
In a large public park there is a bronze monument in memory of
the soldiers of Peru who died in the Civil War. There are
extensive coal-mines in the vicinity; and the city includes
various manufactures. Peru was first settled about 1827, was
incorporated in 1845, and re-incorporated in 1890.

PERU, a city and the county-seat of Miami county, Indiana,
U.S.A., about 75 m. N. of Indianapolis, on the Wabash River.
Pop. (1910 U.S. census), 10,910. Peru is served by the Chicago
Cincinnati & Louisville, the Lake Erie & Western and the
Wabash railways (each of which maintains shops here), and by
electric lines to Indianapolis, Warsaw and other cities. The
city has a Carnegie library, a railway Young Men's Christian
Association, and a hospital for the employes of the Wabash
railroad. There is a city park on the river, and 9 m. east of the
city is Boyd park, an amusement resort. Peru is an important
grain and produce market, and has various manufactures.

In 1905 the value of the factory products was $1,703,41.7
( 2 7'3% more than in 1900). Petroleum is found in the
vicinity. Peru was settled in 1834 and was chartered as a
city in 1867.

PERUGIA (anc. Perusia), a city and archiepiscopal see of
Italy, the capital of the province of Perugia (which forms the
entire compartimento of Umbria) situated 1444 ft. above sea-
level. Pop. (1906), 22,321 (town); 65,527 (commune). The
town is finely situated upon a group of hills nearly 1000 ft.
above the valley of the Tiber. Its outline is very irregular; from
the centre of the town, at the junction of several ridges, parts
of it extend for a considerable distance along their summits,
being divided from one another by deep valleys. This is the
extent enclosed by the medieval walls ; within them are consider-
able remains of the lofty terrace walls of the Eutruscan period.
The so-called Arco di Augusto is a town gate with a Decorated
superstructure, perhaps of the Etruscan period, bearing the
inscription Augusta Perusia; above this again is a Renaissance
loggia. The superstructure of a similar gate (Porta Marzia),
which was removed in 1540 to make way for the citadel, but is
depicted in a fresco by Benedetto Bonfigli (between 1461 and
1477), was re-erected in the substruction walls of the citadel
itself. It bears the inscription Colonia Vibia Augusta Perusia,
so that the town must have become a colony in the reign of the
emperor C. Vibius Trebonianus Gallus (a.d. 251-253), who was
a native of it. Four other gates of the Etruscan period can still
be traced (F. Noack in Romische Mitteilungen, 1897, 166 sqq).
In the garden of the church of S. Elisabeth was found in 1876
a fine mosaic in black on a white ground representing Orpheus in
the midst of the beasts (JSfotizie degli scavi, 1876, 181; 1877 309).
The citadel was erected by Pope Paul III. in 1 540-1546, after
the plans of Antonio da Sangallo the younger, and demolished
in i860 (see Bacile di Castiglione in L 'Arte, 1903, 347). The
Piazza del Duomo is at the north of the Corso. On one side
stands the cathedral of San Lorenzo, a Gothic structure of the
14th and 15th centuries, in the plan of a Latin cross, with nave
and aisles of equal height ; on the other the Palazzo del Municipio,
presenting two fine Gothic facades, of the 14th century (though
the building was not completed till 1443), with the figures of
the Perugian griffin and the Guelph lion above the outside stair;
and in the centre the marble fountain constructed in 1 277-1 280
by Arnolfo di Cambio, and adorned with statues and statuettes
by Niccolo and Giovanni Pisano. The cathedral contains the
burial-place of Urban IV. and Martin IV. — the remains of Inno-
centlll. were removed to Rome in 1892 and placed in the basilica
of S. Giovanni in Laterano — and the Virgin's wedding -ring; and
at the north-east corner is a sitting statue of Pope Julius III.
by Vincenzo Danti, erected in 1555 by the people of Perugia
in gratitude for the restoration of their civic privileges. On
the decoration of the Sala del Cambio, or old exchange, Perugino
put forth the full force of his genius. Most of the movable
paintings have since 1863 been collected in the Pinacoteca
Vannucci, established in the Palazzo del Municipio; besides a
considerable number of pieces by Perugino, there are specimens
of Niccolo Alunno, Bonfigli, Pinturicchio, &c. A very interest-
ing and important exhibition of Umbrian art was held here in
1907. The pictures, the needlework with some splendid pieces
of embroidery from S. Francesco at Assisi, the vestments of
Pope Benedict XI., and the majolica of Perugia and Deruta,
a village 10 m. south, were especially noteworthy (see U. Gnoli,
L' Arte umbra alia mostra di Perugia, Bergamo, 1908). The
illuminated MSS. of the communal library, the cathedral and
the church of S. Pietro, from the 7th century onwards, were also
exhibited.

The formation of the Pinacoteca Vannucci has impaired the
interest of several churches but in others it remains undiminished.
San Domenico, a Gothic edifice originally designed by Giovanni
Pisano but rebuilt in 16 14, contains the monument of Pope
Benedict XI. (attributed, but probably wrongly, to Giovanni
Pisano by Vasari), and in its east front a Gothic window with
stained glass by Fra Bartolommeo of Perugia (1441). San
Pietro de' Cassinensi (outside the Porta Romana) is a basilica

PERUGINO

279

with nave and aisles, founded in the beginning of the nth
century by San Pietro Vincioli on the site of a building of the
6th century, and remarkable for its conspicuous spire, its ancient
granite and marble columns, its walnut stall- work of 1535 by
Stefano de' Zambelli da Bergamo, and its numerous pictures (by
Perugino, &c). The oratory of S. Bernardino has an early
Renaissance polychrome facade, richly sculptured, of 1457-1461,
by Agostino d'Antonio di Duccio of Florence. S. Severo con-
tains Raphael's first independent fresco (1505), much damaged
by restoration. The circular church of S. Angelo, with sixteen
antique columns in the interior, probably dates from the middle
of the 6th century. The university dates from 1307, and has
faculties of law, science and medicine; it had 318 students in
1902-1903. It contains an important museum of Etruscan and
Roman antiquities. Three miles to the S.S.E. the Etruscan
necropolis of the ancient city was discovered in 1870. The
large tomb of the Volumni (3rd century b. c.) hewn in the rock,
with its carved cinerary urns, is interesting.

The ancient Perusia first appears in history as one of the
twelve confederate cities of Etruria. It is first mentioned in
the account of the war of 310 or 309 B.C. between the Etruscans
and the Romans. It took, however, an important part in the
rebellion of 295, and was reduced, with Vulsinfi and Arretium,
to seek for peace in the following year. In 216 and 205 it
assisted Rome in the Hannibalic war, but afterwards it is not
mentioned until 41-40 B.C., when L. Antonius took refuge there,
and was reduced by Octavian after a long siege. A number of
lead bullets used by slingers have been found in and around the
city (Corpus inscr. lat. xi. 121 2). The city was burnt, we
are told, with the exception of the temples of Vulcan and Juno
— the massive Etruscan terrace-walls, naturally, can hardly
have suffered at all — and the town, with the territory for a mile
round, was allowed to be occupied by whoever chose. It must
have been rebuilt almost at once, for several bases exist, inscribed
Augusta sacr{um) Perusia restituta; but, as we have seen, it
did not become a colony until A.D. 251-253. It is hardly men-
tioned except by the geographers until the middle of the 6th
century, when it was captured by Totila after a long siege. In
the Lombard period it is spoken of as one of the principal cities
of Tuscia. In the 9th century, with the consent of Charles the
Great and Louis the Pious, it passed under the popes; but
for many centuries the city continued to maintain an indepen-
dent life, warring against many of the neighbouring lands
and cities — Foligno, Assisi, Spoleto, Montepulciano, &c. It
remained true for the most part to the Guelphs. On various
occasions the popes found asylum within its walls, and it was
the meeting-place of the conclaves which elected Honorius II.
(1124), Honorius IV. (1285), Celestine V. (1294), and Clement V.
(1305). But Perugia had no mind simply to subserve the papal
interests. At the time of Rienzi's unfortunate enterprise it
sent ten ambassadors to pay him honour; and, when papal
legates sought to coerce it by foreign soldiers, or to exact con-
tributions, they met with vigorous resistance. In the 15th
century power was at last concentrated in the Baglioni family,
who, though they had no legal position, defied all other authority.
Gian Paolo Baglioni was lured to Rome in 1520 and beheaded
by Leo X.; and in 1534 Rodolfo, who had slain a papal legate,
was defeated by Pier Luigi Farnese, and the city, captured
and plundered by his soldiery, was deprived of its privileges.
The citadel was begun six years later " ad coercendam Perusi-
norum audaciam." In 1797 Perugia was occupied by the
French; in 1832, 1838 and 1854 it was visited by earthquakes;
in May 1849 it was seized by the Austrians; and, after a futile
insurrection in 1859, it was finally united, along with the rest of
Umbria, to Piedmont, in i860.

See G. Conestabile, I Monumenti di Perugia etrusca e romana
(Perugia, 1855) ; M. Symonds and L. Duff Gordon, Perugia (" Medi-
eval Towns Series"), (1898); R. A. Gallenga Stuart, Perugia
(Bergamo, 1905; W. Heywood, Hist, of Perugia (1910). (T. As.)

PERUGINO, PIETRO (1446-1524), whose correct family
name was Vannucci, Italian painter, was born in 1446 at Citta
della Pieve in Umbria, and belongs to the Umbrian school of

painting. The name of Perugino came to him from Perugia,
the chief city of the neighbourhood. Pietro was one of several
children born to Cristoforo Vannucci, a member of a respectable
family settled at Citta della Pieve. Though respectable, they
seem to have been poor, or else, for some reason or other, to
have left Pietro uncared for at the opening of his career. Before
he had completed his ninth year the boy was articled to a master,
a painter at Perugia. Who this may have been is very uncertain;
the painter is spoken of as wholly mediocre, but sympathetic
for the great things in his art. Benedetto Bonfigli is generally
surmised; if he is rejected as being above mediocrity, either
Fiorenzo di Lorenzo or Niccolo da Foligno may possibly have
been the man. Pietro painted a little at Arezzo ; thence he went
to the headquarters of art, Florence, and frequented the famous
Brancacci Chapel in the church of the Carmine. It appears
to be sufficiently established that he studied in the atelier of
Andrea del Verrocchio, where Leonardo de Vinci was also a
pupil. He may have learned perspective, in which he par-
ticularly excelled for that period of art, from Piero de' Fran-
ceschi. The date of this first Florentine sojourn is by no means
settled; some authorities incline to make it as early as 1470.
while others, with perhaps better reason, postpone it till 1479.
Pietro at this time was extremely poor; he had no bed, but
slept on a chest for many months, and, bent upon making his
way, resolutely denied himself every creature comfort.

Gradually Perugino rose into notice, and became famous not
only throughout Italy but even beyond. He was one of the
earliest Italian painters to practise oil-painting, in which he
evinced a depth and smoothness of tint, which elicited much
remark; and in perspective he applied the novel rule of two
centres of vision. Some of his early works were extensive
frescoes for the Ingesati fathers in their convent, which was
destroyed not many years afterwards in the course of the siege
of Florence; he produced for them also many cartoons, which
they executed with brilliant effect in stained glass. Though
greedy for gain, his integrity was proof against temptation;
and an amusing anecdote has survived of how the prior of the
Ingesati doled out to him the costly colour of ultramarine, and
how Perugino, constantly washing his brushes, obtained a
surreptitious hoard of the pigment, which he finally restored
to the prior to shame his stingy suspiciousness. A good speci-
men of his early style in tempera is the circular picture in the
Louvre of the " Virgin and Child enthroned between Saints."

Perugino returned from Florence to Perugia, and thence,
towards 1483, he went to Rome. The painting of that part of
the Sixtine Chapel which is now immortalized by Michelangelo's
" Last Judgment " was assigned to him by the pope; he covered
it with frescoes of the "Assumption," the " Nativity," and " Moses
in the Bulrushes." These works were ruthlessly destroyed to
make a space for his successor's more colossal genius, but other
works by Perugino still remain in the Sixtine Chapel; " Moses
and Zipporah " (often attributed to Signorelli), the " Baptism
of Christ," and " Christ giving the Keys to Peter." Pinturicchio
accompanied the greater Umbrian to Rome, and was made his
partner, receiving a third of the profits; he may probably have
done some of the Zipporah subject.

Pietro, now aged forty, must have left Rome after the comple-
tion of the Sixtine paintings in i486, and in the autumn of that
year he was in Florence. Here he figures by no means advan-
tageously in a criminal court. In July 1487 he and another
Perugian painter named Aulista di Angelo were convicted, on
their own confession, of having in December waylaid with staves
some one (the name does not appear) in the street nearS. Pietro
Maggiore. Perugino limited himself, in intention, to assault
and battery, but Aulista had made up his mind for murder.
The minor and more illustrious culprit was fined ten gold florins,
and the major one exiled for life.

Between i486 and 1499 Perugino resided chiefly in Florence,
making one journey to Rome and several to Perugia. He was in
many other parts of Italy from time to time. He had a regular
shop in Florence, received a great number of commissions,
and continued developing his practice as an oil-painter, his

28o

PERUKE

system of superposed layers of colour being essentially the
same as that of the Van Eycks. One of his most celebrated
pictures, the " Pieta " in the Pitti Gallery, belongs to the year
1495. From about 1498 he became increasingly keen after money,
frequently repeating his groups from picture to picture, and
leaving much of his work to journeymen. In 1499 the gild of
the cambio (money-changers or bankers) of Perugia asked him
to undertake the decoration of their audience-hall, and he
accepted the invitation. This extensive scheme of work, which
may have been finished within the year 1500, comprised the
painting of the vault with the seven planets and the signs of
the zodiac (Perugino doing the designs and his pupils most
probably the executive work) and the representation on the walls
of two sacred subjects — the " Nativity " and " Transfiguration "
— the Eternal Father, the four virtues of Justice, Prudence,
Temperance and Fortitude, Cato as the emblem of wisdom,
and (in life size) numerous figures of classic worthies, prophets
and sibyls. On the mid-pilaster of the hall Perugino placed his
own portrait in bust-form. It is probable that Raphael, who
in boyhood, towards 1496, had been placed by his uncles under
the tuition of Perugino, bore a hand in the work of the vaulting.
It may have been about this time (though some accounts date
the event a few years later) that Vannucci married a young and
beautiful wife, the object of his fond affection; he loved to see
her handsomely dressed, and would often deck her out with his
own hands. He was made one of the priors of Perugia in 1501.
While Perugino, though by no means stationary or unpro-
gressive as an executive artist, was working contentedly upon the
old lines and carrying out the ancient conceptions, a mighty
wave of new art flooded Florence with its rush and Italy with
its rumour. Michelangelo, twenty-five years of age in 1500,
following after and distancing Leonardo da Vinci, was opening
men's eyes and minds to possibilities of achievement as yet
unsurmised. Vannucci in Perugia heard Buonarroti bruited
abroad, and was impatient to see with his own eyes what the
stir was all about. In 1504 he allowed his apprentices and
assistants to disperse, and returned to Florence. Though not
openly detracting, he viewed with jealousy and some grudging
the advances made by Michelangelo; and Michelangelo on his
part replied, with the intolerance which pertains to superiority,
to the faint praise or covert dispraise of his senior and junior in
the art. On one occasion, in company, he told Perugino to
his face that he was " a bungler in art " (gojfo nelV arte). Van-
nucci brought, with equal indiscretion and ill success, an action
for defamation of character. Put on his mettle by this mortifying
transaction, he determined to show what he could do, and he
produced the chef-d' ceuvre of the '.' Madonna and Saints " for
the Certosa of Pavia. The constituent parts of this noble
work have now been sundered. The only portion which remains
in the Certosa is a figure of God the Father with cherubim.
An " Annunciation " has disappeared from cognisance; three
compartments — the Virgin adoring the infant Christ, St Michael,
and St Raphael with Tobias — are among the choicer treasures
of the National Gallery, London. The current story that
Raphael bore a hand in the work is not likely to be true. This
was succeeded in 1505 by an " Assumption," in the Cappella dei
Rabatta, in the church of the Servi in Florence. The painting
may have been executed chiefly by a pupil, and was at any rate
a failure: it was much decried; Perugino lost his scholars; and
towards 1506 he once more and finally abandoned Florence,
going to Perugia, and thence in a year or two to Rome.

Pope Julius II. had summoned Perugino to paint the Stanza
in the Vatican, now called that of the Incendio del Borgo; but
he soon preferred a younger competitor, that very Raphael who
had been trained by the aged master of Perugia; and Vannucci,
after painting the ceiling with figures of God the Father in
different glories, in five medallion-subjects, found his occupation
gone; he retired from Rome, and was once more in Perugia from
1 51 2. Among his latest works one of the best is the extensive
altar-piece (painted between 1512 and 1517) of S. Agostino in
Perugia; the component parts of it are now dispersed in various
galleries.

Perugino's last frescoes were painted for the monastery of
S. Agnese in Perugia, and in 1522 for the church of Castello di
Fortignano hard by. Both series have disappeared from their
places, the second being now in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
He was still at Fontignano in 1524 when the plague broke out,
and he died. He was buried in unconsecrated ground in a field,
the precise spot now unknown. The reason for so obscure and
unwonted a mode of burial has been discussed, and religious
scepticism on the painter's own part has been assigned as the
cause; the fact, however, appears to be that, on the sudden
and widespread outbreak of the plague, the panic-struck local
authorities ordained that all victims of the disorder should
be at once interred without any waiting for religious rites. This
leads us to speak of Perugino's opinions on religion. Vasari is
our chief, but not our sole, authority for saying that Vannucci
had very little religion, and was an open and obdurate disbeliever
in the immortality of the soul. For a reader of the present day
it is easier than it was for Vasari to suppose that Perugino may
have been a materialist, and yet just as good and laudable a
man as his orthodox Catholic neighbours or brother-artists;
still there is a strong discrepancy between the quality of his art,
in which all is throughout Christian, Catholic, devotional, and
even pietistic, and the character of an anti-Christian con-
temner of the doctrine of immortality. It is difficult to reconcile
this discrepancy, and certainly not a little difficult also to suppose
that Vasari was totally mistaken in his assertion; he was born
twenty years before Perugino's death, and must have talked with
scores of people to whom the Umbrian painter had been well
known. We have to remark that Perugino in 1494 painted
his own portrait, now in the Uffizi Gallery of Florence, and into
this he introduced a scroll lettered " TimeteDeum." That an
open disbeliever should inscribe himself with " Timete Deum "
seems odd. The portrait in question shows a plump face, with
small dark eyes, a short but well-cut nose, and sensuous lips;
the neck is thick, the hair bushy and frizzled, and the general
air imposing. The later portrait in the Cambio of Perugia
shows the same face with traces of added years. Perugino died
possessed of considerable property, leaving three sons.

Among the very numerous works of Perugino a few not already
named require mention. Towards 1496 he painted the " Cruci-
fixion," in S. Maria Maddalena dei Pazzi, Florence. The attribu-
tion to him of the picture of the marriage of Joseph and the Virgin
Mary (the " Sposalizio ") now in the museum of Caen, which served
indisputably as the original, to a great extent, of the still more
famous " Sposalizio " which was painted by Raphael in 1504, and
which forms a leading attraction of the Brera Gallery in Milan,
is now questioned, and it is assigned to Lo Spagna. A vastly
finer work of Perugino's is the " Ascension of Christ," which, painted
a littler earlier for S. Pietro of Perugia, has for years past been in the
museum of Lyons; the other portions of the same altar-piece are
dispersed in other galleries. In the chapel of the Disciplinati of
Citta della Pieve is an " Adoration of the Magi," a square of 21 ft.
containing about thirty life-sized figures; this was executed, with
scarcely credible celerity, from the 1st to the 25th of March (or
thereabouts) in 1505, and must no doubt be in great part the work
of Vannucci's pupils. In 1507, when the master's work had for years
been in a course of decline and his performances were generally
weak, he produced, nevertheless, one of his best pictures — the
" Virgin between St Jerome and St Francis," how in the Palazzo
Penna. In S. Onofrio of Florence is a much lauded and much-
debated fresco of the " Last Supper," a careful and blandly correct
but not inspired work; it has been ascribed to Perugino by some
connoisseurs, by others to Raphael; it may more probably be by
some different pupil of the Umbrian master.

Authorities. — In addition to Crowe and Cavalcaselle, see Di
Pietro Perugino e degli scolari (1804); Mezzanotte, Vita, &c, di
Pietro Vannucci (1836); Mariotti, Lettere pittoriche Perugine (1788);
Claude Phillips (in The Portfolio) (1893) ; G. C. Williamson, Perugino
(1900 and 1903). (W. M. R.)

PERUKE, an artificial head of hair, a wig. The word is
from Fr. perruque, an adaptation of Ital. perruca or parrucca.
This is usually taken to be from Ital. pelo, hair; Lat. pilus.
Span, peluca, wig, and Sardinian pilucca, lock or tuft of hair,
support this view. In the 17th century the English forms
which the French word took, such as perruck or perug, were
corrupted into perwyke, and thence into perewyk, perewig, and
lastly " periwig," which again was shortened into " wig," the

PERUZZI— PESCADORES

281

common term for all types of artificial heads of hair. Periwig
is sometimes confined to the heavy full-bottomed wigs worn
from the reign of Charles II. to the introduction of the light,
tailed wig of the 18th century.

PERUZZI, BALDASSARE (1481-1536), Italian architect
and painter of the Roman school, was born at Ancajano, in
the diocese of Vol terra, and passed his early life at Siena, where
his father resided. While quite young Peruzzi went to Rome,
and there studied architecture and painting; in the latter he
was at first a follower of Perugino. The choir frescoes in
Sant' Onofrio on the Janiculan Hill, usually attributed to
Pinturicchio, are by his hand. One of the first works which
brought renown to the young architect was the villa on the banks
of the Tiber in Rome now known as the Farnesina, 'originally
built for the Sienese Agcstino Chigi, a wealthy banker. This
villa, like all Peruzzi's works, is remarkable for its graceful
design and the delicacy of its detail. It is best known for the
frescoes painted there by Raphael and his pupils to illustrate
the stories of Psyche and Galatea. One of the loggie has frescoes
by Peruzzi's own hand — the story of Medusa. On account of
his success Peruzzi was appointed by Leo X. in 1520 architect
to St Peter's at a salary of 250 scudi; his design for its comple-
tion was not, however, carried out. During the sack of Rome
in 1527 Peruzzi barely escaped with his life, on condition of his
painting the portrait of Constable de Bourbon, who had been
killed during the siege (see Vasari). From Rome he escaped to
Siena, where he was made city architect, and designed fortifica-
tions for its defence, a great part of which still exist. Soon
afterwards he returned to Rome, where he made designs for a
palace for the Orsini family, and built the palaces Massimi and
Vidoni, as well as others in trie south of Italy. He died in
1536, and was buried by the side of Raphael in the Pantheon.

Peruzzi was an eager student of mathematics and was also
a fair classical scholar. Like many of the great artists of his
time, he was remarkable for the varied extent of his knowledge
and skill. A most able architect, a fair painter, and a scientific
engineer, he also practised minor arts, such as stucco-work in
relief, sgraffito, and the decorative painted arabesques which
the influence of Raphael did so much to bring into use. His
best existing works in fresco are in the Castel di Belcaro and the
church of Fontegiusta in Siena. For Siena Cathedral he also
designed a magnificent wooden organ-case, painted and gilt,
rich with carved arabesques in friezes and pilasters; he also
designed the high altar and the Cappella del Battista.

His chief pupil was the architect Serlio, who, in his work on
architecture, gratefully acknowledges the great debt he owed to
Peruzzi's instruction. The English National Gallery possesses
an interesting drawing by his hand. The subject is the " Adora-
tion of the Magi," and it is of special value, because the heads
of the three kings are portraits of Michelangelo, Raphael, and
Titian. The Uffizi and the library at Siena contain a number
of Peruzzi's designs and drawings, many of which are now of
priceless value, as they show ancient buildings which have
been destroyed since the 16th century.

Authorities. — Vasari, Vita di Baldassare Peruzzi (Milanesi's ed.,
1882), iv. 489; Milizia, Memorie degli architetti (1781, i. 210-215);
Delia Valle, Lellere senesi (1782-1786); Gaye, Carteggio inedito
d' artisti (1839-1840); Lanzi, Storia pittorica (1804); and Platner,
Beschreibung der Stadt Rom (1830-1842).

PERVIGILIUM 1 VENERIS, the Vigil of Venus, a short
Latin poem. The author, date, and place of composition are
unknown. The poem probably belongs to the 2nd or 3rd
century a.d. An article signed L. Raquettius in the Classical
Review (May 1905) assigns it to Sidonius Apollinaris (5th cent.)
It was written professedly in early spring on the eve of a
three-nights' festival of Venus (probably April 1-3). It
describes in poetical language the annual awakening of the
vegetable and animal world through the goddess. It consists
of ninety-three verses in trochaic septenarii, and is divided
into strophes of unequal length by the refrain:

" Cras amet qui nunquam amavit; quiquc amavit eras amet."

1 Pervigilium was the term for a nocturnal festival in honour of
some divinity, especially Bona Dea.

Editio princeps (1577); modern editions by F. Bucheler (1859),
A. Riese, in Anthologia latina (1869), E. Bahrens in Unedierte latein-
ische Gedichte (1877); S. G. Owen (with Catullus, 1893). There are
translations into English verse by Thomas Stanley (1651) and
Thomas Parnell, author of The Hermit; on the text see J. W. Mackail
in Journal of Philology (1888), vol. xvii.

PESARO (anc. Pisaurum, q.v.), a city and seaport of the
Marches, Italy, the capital of the province of Pesaro and Urbino,
situated on the coast of the Adriatic 37 m. N.W. of Ancona by
rail, on the right bank of the Foglia, the ancient Pisaurus. The
ground on which it is built is only from 10 to 40 ft. above the
sea, but it is surrounded by hills — on the E. by Monte Ardizio,
on the W. by Monte Accio or San Bartolo, which derives one
of its names from the tradition that the Roman dramatist
L. Attius was born and buried on the spot. Upon this hill stands
the Villa Imperiale, the foundation stone of which was laid by
the emperor Frederick III., built by the Sforza, and decorated
with fine stucco ceilings and wall paintings and pavements
of majolica plaques. A new palace was begun in 1530 by the
Genga for Eleonora Gonzaga, but never finished. The city walls
were in 1830 transformed into a public promenade. Besides
the ancient cathedral of the Annunciation (restored since i860)
with a 12th-century mosaic pavement, there are a number of
smaller churches, several with Gothic portals. One of these,
the church of San Francesco, now used as a cathedral, contains
the " Coronation of the Virgin " by Giovanni Bellini, the largest
and most important of his works outside Venice. The most
conspicuous buildings are the prefecture (a palace originally
erected in 1455-1465 by the Dalmatian architect Luciano da
Laurana for the Sforza, and restored by Francesco Maria della
Rovere in the 16th century, the Rossini theatre (opened in 181 8),
the fortress of Rocca Costanzia (built by Costanzo Sforza in
1474, Laurana being the architect), and the large lunatic asylum.
The composer Gioacchino Rossini, who was a native of Pesaro,
left all his fortune to found a musical lyceum in the city, and his
statue by Marochetti (1864) stands near the railway station.
The Olivieri library (established by the antiquary of that name,
author of Marmora pisaurensia, &c.) contains about 14,000
volumes, MSS. of Tasso, &c, inscriptions and various antiquities,
and a very fine collection of majolica (one of the best in Italy)
from the old Urbino and other manufactories. The Museo
Mosca, left by its owner to the town, contains important collec-
tions of faience, furniture, &c. Among the industries of Pesaro
are the growing, spinning and weaving of silk, tanning, iron-
founding, and the manufacture of glass and pottery. It is also
the centre of a rich agricultural district. The harbour is of no
great importance, but there is a small export trade in wine,
olives, silk and glass. Pop. (1901), 14,768 (town); 24,823
(commune).

Destroyed by Vitiges the Goth, the town was restored and
strengthened by Belisarius, and afterwards along with Ancona,
Fano, Senigallia, and Rimini formed the Pentapolis Maritima.
In the course of the 13th century Pa-saro was sometimes under
the government of the popes, sometimes under that of the
emperors; but the Malatesta family, which first took root in the
city about 1285; gradually became the real masters of the place
In 1445 they sold their rights to Francesco Sforza; and in 1512,
through the influence of Julius II., the Sforza were supplanted
by his nephew Francesco Maria, duke of Urbino. Leo X. took
the city away from Francesco and gave it to Lorenzo de' Medici;
but on Lorenzo's death Francesco was restored and Pesaro
became the ordinary residence of the dukes of Urbino till tne
death of Francesco Maria II. in 163 1, when it reverted to the
States of the Church. It has formed part of the present kingdom
of Italy since i860. Terenzio Mamiani della Rovere, poet and
statesman, was born at Pesaro in 1800.

PESCADORES (i.e. fishers,) a group of islands (called
by the Japanese Hoko to or Hoko Gunto) lying 30 m. west
of Formosa, from which they are separated by the Pescadores
Channel, about the tropic of Cancer. The islands number 48
(21 inhabited), have a coast-line of 98-67 miles, a total area of
85 • 50 sq. m. , and a population of about 5 5,000, principally Chinese.
Flat and with unproductive soil, they are swept during one

282

PESCARA— PESHAWAR

half of the year by violent N.E. winds, and also lie full in the
path of the numerous typhoons that rush up the Strait of
Formosa. Meteorological observations taken by the Japanese
during a period of three years show that the annual average
number of stormy days is 237. The anchorage is at Mako
(Makyu or Makun) on the principal island of Penghu. The
chief industry is fishing (whence the old Spanish name which
has come into general use) and dried fish are exported.

PESCARA, FERNANDO FRANCESCO DAVALOS, Marquis
of (1489-1525), Italian condottiere, was born at Naples, his
family being of Spanish origin. Rodrigo (Ruy) Lopez Davalos,
his great-grandfather, a noble of Toledo, who had taken an
active part in the civil wars of Castile in the reign of John II.
(1407-1454), had been driven into exile, and died at Valencia.
Iiiigo (Ignatius), his son, entered the service of Alphonso of
Aragon and Naples, followed his master to Italy, and there,
making an advantageous marriage with a lady of the family
of Aquino, was created marquis of Pescara. His son Alphonso,
who succeeded him in the marquisate, married a lady of the
Sicilian branch of the Spanish family of Cardona, and when
he was treacherously killed, during a French invasion of Naples,
his only son Fernando, or Ferrante, was a child in arms. At
the age of six the boy was betrothed to Vittoria Colonna (q.v.),
daughter of the general Fabrizio Colonna, and the marriage was
celebrated in 1500. His position as a noble of the Aragonese
party in Naples made it incumbent on him to support Ferdinand
the Catholic in his Italian wars. In 151 2 he commanded a body
of light cavalry at the battle of Ravenna, where he was wounded
and taken prisoner by the French. Thanks to the intervention
of one of the foremost of the French generals, the Italian
J. J. Trivulzio, who was his connexion by marriage, he was
allowed to ransom himself for 6000 ducats. He commanded
the Spanish infantry at the battle of La Morta, or Vicenza,
on the 7th of October 1513. It was on this occasion that he
called his men before the charge to take care to step on him
before the enemy did if he fell. From the battle of Vicenza
in 1 5 13, down to the battle of La Bicocca on the 29th of April
1522, he continued to serve in command of the Spaniards arid
as the colleague rather than the subordinate of Prosper Colonna.
It was only by the accident of his birth at Naples that Pescara
was an Italian. He considered himself a Spaniard, spoke
Spanish at all times, even to his wife, and was always surrounded
by Spanish soldiers and officers. His opinion of the Italians as
fighting men was unfavourable and was openly expressed. After
the battle of La Bicocca Charles V. appointed Prosper Colonna
commander-in-chief. Pescara, who considered himself aggrieved,
made a journey to Valladolid in Spain, where the emperor then
was, to state his own claims. Charles V., with whom he had
long and confidential interviews, persuaded him to submit for
the time to the superiority of Colonna. But in these meetings
he gained the confidence of Charles V. His Spanish descent
and sympathies marked him out as a safer commander of the
imperial troops in Italy than an Italian could have been. When
Francis I. invaded Italy in 1524 Pescara was appointed as lieu-
tenant of the emperor to repel the invasion. The difficulties
of his position were very great, for there was much discontent
in the army, which was very ill paid. The tenacity, patience
and tact of Pescara triumphed over all obstacles. His influence
over the veteran Spanish troops and the German mercenaries
kept them loyal during the long siege of Pavia. On the 24th of
February 1525 he defeated and took prisoner Francis I. by a
brilliant attack. Pescara's plan was remarkable for its
audacity and for the skill he showed in destroying the superior
French heavy cavalry by assailing them in flank with a mixed
force of harquebusiers and light horse. It was believed that
he was dissatisfied with the treatment he had received from the
emperor; and Girolamo Morone, secretary to the duke of Milan,
approached him with a scheme for expelling French, Spaniards
and Germans alike from Italy, and for gaining a throne for
himself. Pescara may have listened to the tempter, but in
act he was loyal. He reported the offer to Charles V. and put
Morone into prison. His health however had begun to give

way under the strain of wounds and exposure; and he died at
Milan on the 4th of November 1525. Pescara had no children;
his title descended to his cousin the marquis del Vasto, also a
distinguished imperial general.

Authorities. — -The life of Pescara was written in Latin by Paolo
Giovio, and is included in the Vitae illustrium virorum, printed at
Basel 1578. Giovio's Latin Life was translated by L. Domenichi,
the translator of his other works, and published at Florence, 1551.
The Spanish Historia del fortissimo y prudentissimo capitan Don
Hernando de Avalos, by El Maestro P. Valles (Antwerp, 1553),
is also a translation of Giovio. See also Mignet, Rivalite de Francois
I cr et de Charles Quint (Paris, 1875), which gives references to all
authorities. (D'H.)

PESCARA, a river of Italy, formed by the confluence of the
Gizio and Aterno, and flowing into the Adriatic at the small town
of Pescara. This town occupies the site of the ancient Aternum,
the terminus of the Via Claudia Valeria, and up to 1867 a fortress
of some importance. The railway from Sulmona follows the
Pescara valley and joins the coast line to Brindisi at Pescara.
In this valley, 22 m. from the sea, was the site of the ancient
Interpromium, a town belonging probably to the Paeligni; and
not far off is the very fine Cistercian abbey church of S. Clemente
di Casauria, founded by the emperor Louis II. in 871. The
present building belongs to the 12th century. The sculptures
of the portals, the pulpit, the Paschal candelabrum, &c, and
the bronze doors of this period are important. The chronicle
of the abbey, of the end of the 12th century, is in the Bibliotheque
nationale at Paris.

See V. Bindi, Monumenti degli A bruzzi (Naples, 1 889) , pp. 405 sqq. ;
P. L. Calore in Archivio storico dell' arte (Rome, 1891), iv. 9 sqq.

PESCHIERA SUL GARDA, a fortress of Venetia, Italy, in
the province of Verona, on an island in the Mincio at its outlet
from the lake of Garda, 77 m. by rail E. of Milan. It was one
of the famous fortresses of the Quadrilateral, the chief bulwark
of the Austrian rule in Italy until 1866 (Mantua, Legnago and
Verona being the other three) and has played a prominent part
in all the campaigns conducted in north Italy, more especially
during the Napoleonic wars. It was taken by the Piedmontese
from the Austrians, after a gallant defence by General Rath
lasting six weeks, on the 30th of May 1848, and since that date
has been in Italian hands.

PESCIA, a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Lucca,
from which it is 15 m. E.N.E. by rail, 203 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1901), 12,400 (town); 18,000 (commune). The cathedral,
restored in 1693, contains the fine chapel of the Turini family,
built for Baldassare Turini (d. 1540) by Giuliano di Baccio of
Florence, with his tomb by Raffaello da Montelupo. The
town also has some buildings by Lazzaro Buggiano, the pupil
and adoptive son of Brunelleschi. It has silk and paper manu-
factures.

PESETA, a silver coin and unit of value, the Spanish equivalent
of the French, Belgian and Swiss franc, the Italian lira and the
Greek drachma in the Latin monetary union. The peso (Lat.
pensum, weight), of which peseta is a diminutive, was a Spanish
coin of gold, peso de oro, or silver, peso de plata, once current in
Spain and her colonies, and now the name of a silver coin of
many South American states. The peso is also the name of
the Mexican dollar.

PESHAWAR, a city of British India, the capital of the
North-West Frontier Province, giving its name to a district.
The city is situated near the left bank of the river Bara, nm. from
Jamrud at the entrance of the Khyber Pass, the railway station
being 1588 m. north-west of Calcutta; pop. (1901), 95,147. Two
miles west of the native city are the cantonments, forming the
principal military station of the North- West Frontier Province.
Peshawar lies within a horseshoe ring of hills on the edge of
the mountain barrier which separates India from Afghanistan,
and through it have passed nearly all the invaders from the north.
The native quarter is a huddle of flat-roofed houses within mud
walls, crowded along narrow, crooked alleys; there is but one fairly
wide street of shops. Here for many centuries the Povindahs,
or Afghan travelling merchants, have brought their caravans
from Kabul, Bokhara and Samarkand every autumn. They

PESHIN— PESSIMISM

283

bring horses, wool, woollen stuffs, silks, dyes, gold-thread,
fruits, precious stones, carpets and poshtins (sheepskin clothing) ,
fighting and buying their way to the British border where,
leaving their arms, they are free to wander at will to Delhi,
Agra and Calcutta. The chief speciality of Peshawar consists
of bright-coloured scarves called lungis; wax-cloth and orna-
mental needle-work are also local products, as well as knives
and small arms.

The district of Peshawar has an area of 2611 sq. m.; pop.
(1001), 788,707, showing an increase of io-8% in the
decade. Except on the south-east, where the Indus flows,
it is encircled by mountains which are inhabited by the
Mohmand, Utman Khel and Afridi tribes. The plain consists
of alluvial deposits of silt and gravel. The district is naturally
fertile and well watered, and is irrigated by the Swat River
Canal. The principal crops are wheat, barley, maize, millets
and oil-seeds, with a little cotton and sugar-cane. Peshawar
also produces a fine variety of rice, known as " Bara rice,"
after the river which irrigates it. The North-Western railway
crosses the district from Attock, and has been extended
from Peshawar city to Jamrud for military purposes. The
district is chiefly inhabited by Pathans; there are some Hindus
engaged in trade as bankers, merchants and shop-keepers.

In early times the district of Peshawar seems to have had an
essentially Indian population, for it was not till the 1 5th century
that its present Pathan inhabitants occupied it. Under the
name of Gandhara it was a centre of Buddhism, and especially
Graeco-Buddhism. Rock-edicts of Asoka still exist at two places;
and a stupa excavated in 1909 was found to contain an inscription
of Kanishka, as well as relics believed to be those of Buddha
himself. The last of the Indian Buddhist kings was conquered
by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1009. The Mogul emperors always
found difficulty in maintaining their authority over the Afghan
border tribes, who finally established their independence during
the reign of Aurangzeb. Peshawar was a favourite residence
of the Afghan dynasty founded by Ahmed Shah Durrani, and
here Mountstuart Elphinstone came as ambassador to Shah
Shujah in 1809. A few years later Ranj>t Singh crossed the
Indus, and after much hard fighting Sikh authority was firmly
established under General Avitabile in 1834.. In 1848 the whole
of the Punjab passed to the British. During the Mutiny,
after the sepoy regiments had been disaimed, Peshawar was a
source of strength rather than of danger, though Sir John
Lawrence did at one time contemplate the necessity of surrender-
ing it to the Afghans, in order to preserve the rest of Northern
India.

PESHIN, or Pishin, a district of Baluchistan. Area 2717
sq.m. Pop. (1901), 50,200. It consists of a large plain surrounded
on three sides by hills, which formerly belonged to Afghan-
istan but was ceded to the British by the treaty of Gandamak
in 1879. This plain is of considerable strategic importance, as
it forms the focus of a great number of routes leading from
Sind and the Punjab frontier districts to Kandahar, and is
intersected by the Sind-Peshin railway. The agricultural
wealth of Peshin, and consequently its revenues, have increased
greatly under British administration.

PESHITTO, or Peshito (i.e. " simple "), the standard version
of the Bible in the Syriac language. It was long supposed to
be the original Syriac version, but is now generally recognized
as representing a revision made by Rabbula, bishop of Edessa,
early in the 5th century, an attempt at standardizing the Syriac
text such as Jerome had made for the Latin in his Vulgate. (See
Bible.)

PESHWA (Persian for "leader," "guide"), the title of the
head of the Mahratta confederacy in India. Originally the
peshwa was only prime minister, but afterwards he supplanted
his master and became chief of the state, founding an hereditary
dynasty, with the capital at Poona. The last peshwa, Baji
Rao, came into collision with the British, and was dethroned
in 1818. His adopted son, Nana Sahib, took a leading part in
the Mutiny of 1857, in revenge for being deprived of what he
considered his rights.

PESSIMISM (from Lat. pessimus, worst), a word of modern
coinage, 1 denoting an attitude of hopelessness towards life, a
vague general opinion that pain and evil predominate in human
affairs. It is the antithesis of " optimism," which denotes the
view that on the whole there is a balance of good and pleasure,
or at least that in the long run good will triumph. Between
optimism and pessimism is the theory of " meliorism," according
to which the world on the whole makes progress in goodness.
The average man is pessimist or optimist not on theoretical
grounds, but owing to the circumstances of his life, his material
prosperity, his bodily health, his general temperament. Perhaps
the most characteristic example of unsystematic pessimism
is the language of Ecclesiastes, who concludes that " all is
vanity."

Pessimism and optimism have, however, been expressed in
systematic philosophical forms, a brief summary only of which
need here be given. Such systems have been elaborated chiefly
by modern thinkers, but the germs of the ideas are found widely
spread in the older Oriental philosophies and in pre-Christian
European thought. Generally speaking, pessimism may be
found in all pantheistic and materialistic systems. It is im-
portant, however, to point out an essential distinction. The
thinker who sees man confronted by the infinite non-moral
forces presumed by natural pantheism inevitably predominating
over the finite powers of men may appear to the modern Christian '
theologian or to the evolutionist as a hopeless pessimist, and yet
may himself have concluded that, though the future holds out
no prospect save that of annihilation, man may yet by prudence
and care enjoy a considerable measure of happiness. Pessimism,
therefore, depends upon the individual point of view, and the
term is frequently used merely in a condemnatory sense by hostile
critics. The attitude of a man who denies the doctrine of
immortality and rejoices in the denial is not strictly pessimistic.
A Christian again may be pessimistic about the present; he
must logically be optimistic about the future — a teleological
view of the universe implies optimism on the whole; the agnostic
may be indifferent to, or pessimistic, regarding the future, while
exceedingly satisfied with life as he finds it.

This complex view of life is exemplified by Plato, whose general
theory of idealism is entirely optimistic. In analysing the world
of phenomena he necessarily takes a pessimistic view because
phenomena are merely imitations more or less removed from
reality, i.e. from the good. Yet the idealistic postulate of a
summum bonum is in result optimistic, and this view predomin-
ated among the Stoics and the Neoplatonists. The Epicureans,
on the other hand, were empirical pessimists. Man is able
to derive a measure of enjoyment from life in spite of the non-
existence of the orthodox gods; yet this enjoyment is on the
whole negative, the avoidance of pain. A similar view is that
of the ancient sceptics.

Oriental pessimism, at least as understood by Europeans,
is best exemplified in Buddhism, which finds in human life
sorrow and pain. But all pain and sorrow are incidental to
the human being in his individual capacity. He who will cast
aside the " Bonds," the " Intoxications," the " Hindrances,"
and tread the Noble Eightfold Path (see Buddhism) which leads
to Nirvana, will attain the ideal, the " Fruit of Arahatship,"
which is described in terms of glowing praise in the Pali hymns.
This, the original doctrine of the Buddha, though not adopted
in the full sense by all his followers, is in fact at least as optimistic
as any optimism of the West. To call it " pessimism " is merely
to apply to it a characteristically Western principle according
to which happiness is impossible without personality. The
true Buddhist on the contrary looks forward with enthusiasm
to this absorption into eternal bliss.

In Europe on the whole the so-called pessimistic attitude
was commoner in the Teutonic north than in the Mediterranean
basin. But even here the hopefulness as regards a future life,
in which the inequalities of the present would be rectified, com-
pensated for the gloomy fatalism with which the present was

1 The earliest example - given in the New English Dictionary is
in S. T. Coleridge's Letters (1794).

28 4

PESSINUS— PESTALOZZI

regarded. The advent of Christianity, with its categorical
assertion of future happiness for the good, to a large extent
did away with pessimism in the true sense. In Leibnitz we
find a philosophic or religious optimism, which saw in the universe
the perfect work of a God who from all possibilities selected the
best. Kant, though pessimistic as regards the actual man, is
optimistic regarding his moral capacity. To Hegel similarly
the world, though evil at any moment, progresses by conflict
and suffering towards the good.

Passing over the Italian Leopardi we may notice two lead-
ing modern pessimists, Schopenhauer and von Hartmann.
Schopenhauer emphasizes the pessimistic side of Hegel's thought.
The universe is merely blind Will, not thought; this Will is
irrational, purposeless and therefore unhappy. The world
being a picture of the Will is therefore similarly unhappy.
Desire is a state of unhappiness, and the satisfaction of desire
is therefore merely the removal of pain. Von Hartmann's doctrine
of the Unconscious is in many respects similar to Schopenhauer's
doctrine of the Will. The Unconscious which combines Will
and Reason is, however, primarily Will. The workings of this
Will are irrational primarily, but, as in its evolution it becomes
more rationalized and understands the whole meaning of the
Weltschmerz, it ultimately reaches the point at which the desire
for existence is gone. This choice of final nothingness differs
from that of Schopenhauer in being collective and not individual.
The pessimism of Schopenhauer and Hartmann does not,
however, exclude a certain ultimate mysticism, which bears
some analogy to that of Buddhism.

Pessimism is naturally connected with materialist, optimism
with idealist, views of life. The theories of the modern evolution-
ist school, however, have introduced into materialistic theory
a new optimistic note in doctrines such as that of the survival
of the fittest. Such doctrines regard the progress of humanity
as on the whole tending to the greater perfection, and are
markedly optimistic in contrast with earlier theories that
progressive differentiation is synonymous with progressive
decay. Similarly the cynical contempt which Nietzsche shows
for morality and the conventional virtues is counterbalanced
by the theory of the Ubermensch, the highest type of manhood
which by struggle has escaped from the ordinary weaknesses
of normal humanity.

See James Sully, Pessimism: A History and a Criticism (1877);
Caro, Le Pessimisme au xix" siecle (1878); Saltus, The Anatomy of
Negation (1886); Tulloch, Modern Theories on Philosophy and
Religion (1884); William James, The Will to Believe; Diihring, Der
Werth des Lebens (1865); Meyer, Weltelend und Weltschmerz (1872);
E. Pfleiderer, Der moderne Pessimismus (1875); Agnes Taubert
(Hartmann), Der Pessimismus und seine Cegner (1873); Gass,
Optimismus und Pessimismus (1876); Rehmke, Die Philos. des
Weltschmerzes (1876); Huber, Der Pessimismus (1876); von Golther,
Der moderne P. (1878); Paulsen, Schopenhauer, Hamlet, Mephisto-
pheles (1900); Kowalewski, Studien zur Psychologie des P. (1904).

PESSINUS (Jleoaivovs, Hcglvovs), an ancient city of Galatia
in Asia Minor, situated on the lowest southern slope of Mt
Dindymus, on the left bank of the river Sangarius, not far from
its source. The ruins, discovered by Texier, lie round the village
of Bala-Hissar, 8 or 9 m. S.E. of Sivri-Hissar. They include
a theatre in partial preservation, but they have been mostly
carried off to Sivri-Hissar, which is largely built out of them.
Originally a Phrygian city, probably on the Persian " Royal
Road," it became the capital of the Gallic tribe Tolistobogii
and the chief commercial city of the district. It contained the
most famous sanctuary of the mother of the gods (Cybele), who
here went by the name of Agdistis, and was associated with
the god Attis, as elsewhere with Sabazius, &c. Her priests
were also princes, who bore rule not only in the city (the coinage
of which, beginning about 100 B.C., was for long issued by them)
but also in the country round, deriving a large revenue from
the temple estates; but in the time of Strabo (a.d. 19-20) their
privileges were much diminished. The high-priest always bore
the god's name Attis. In the crisis of the second Punic War
(205 B.C.), when the Romans lost faith in the efficacy of their
own religion to save the state, the Senate, in compliance with
an oracle in the Sibylline books to the effect that the foreign

foe could be driven from Italy if the Idaean Mother (Cybele)
were brought from Pessinus to Rome, sent ambassadors to
the town, who obtained the sacred stone which was the symbol
of the goddess and brought it to Rome, where the worship of
Cybele was established. But the goddess continued to be
worshipped in her old home; her priests, the Galli, went out to
welcome Manlius on his march in 189 B.C., which shows that the
town was not yet in the hands of the Tolistobogii. Soon after
this a splendid new temple of the goddess was built by the
Pergamenian kings. Some time before 164 B.C. Pessinus fell
into the power of the Gauls, and the membership of the priestly
college was then equally divided between the Gauls and the
old priestly families. Like Ancyra and Tavium, Pessinus was
Romanized first and Hellenized afterwards. Only about a. d.
165 did Hellenic ways and modes of thought begin to be
assumed; before that we find a deep substratum of Celtic feeling
and ways, on which Roman elements had been superimposed
without filtering through a Hellenic medium. Christianity was
introduced late; it cannot be traced before the 4th century.
When Galatia was divided into two provinces (a.d. 386-395)
Pessinus was made the capital of Galatia Secunda or Salutaris,
and it became a metropolitan bishopric. After the 16th century
it disappears from history, being supplanted, from the begin-
ning of the period of Saracen invasion, by the impregnable
fortress Justinianopolis (Sivri-Hissar), which became the capital
and the residence of the bishop, thenceforward called " arch-
bishop of Pessinus or of Justinianopolis." (J. G. C. A.)

PESTALOZZI, JOHANN HEINRICH (1746-1827), Swiss
educational reformer, was born at Zurich on the 12th of January
1746. His father died when he was young, and he was brought
up by his mother. At the university of Zurich he was associated
with Lavater and the party of reform. His earliest years were
spent in schemes for improving the condition of the people.
The death of his friend Bluntschli turned him however from
politics, and induced him to devote himself to education. He
married at twenty-three and bought a piece of waste land at
Neuhof in Aargau, where he attempted the cultivation of madder.
Pestalozzi knew nothing of business, and the plan failed. Before
this he had opened his farm-house as a school; but in
1780 he had to give this up also. His first book published at
this time was The Evening Hours of a Hermit (1780), a series
of aphorisms and reflections. This was followed by his master-
piece, Leonard and Gertrude (1781), an account of the gradual
reformation, first of a household, and then of a whole village, by
the efforts of a good and devoted woman. It was read with
avidity in Germany, and the name of Pestalozzi was rescued from
obscurity. The French invasion of Switzerland in 1798 brought
into relief his truly heroic character. A number of children
were left in Canton Unterwalden on the shores of the Lake of
Lucerne, without parents, home, food or shelter. Pestalozzi
collected a number of them into a deserted convent, and spent
his energies in reclaiming them. During the winter he personally
tended them with the utmost devotion, but in June 1799 the
building was required by the French for a hospital, and his charges
were dispersed. In 1801 Pestalozzi gave an exposition of his
ideas on education in the book How Gertrude teaches her Children.
His method is to proceed from the easier to the more difficult.
To begin with observation, to pass from observation to conscious-
ness, from consciousness to speech. Then come measuring,
drawing, writing, numbers, and so reckoning. In 1799 he had
been enabled to establish a school at Burgdorf, where he remained
till 1804. In 1802, he went as deputy to Paris, and did his
best to interest Napoleon in a scheme of national education;
but the great conqueror said that he could not trouble himself
about the alphabet. In 1805 he removed to Yverdun on the
Lake of Neuchatel, and for twenty years worked steadily at
his task. He was visited by all who took interest in education —
Talleyrand, Capo d'lstria, and Mme de Stael. He was praised
by Wilhelm von Humboldt and by Fichte. His pupils
included Ramsauer, Delbriick, Blochmann, Carl Ritter, Frobel
and Zeller. About 1815 dissensions broke out among the
teachers of the school, and Pestalozzi 's last ten years were

PETALITE— PETER, ST

285

chequered by weariness and sorrow. In 1825 he retired to
Neuhof, the home of his youth; and after writing the adventures
of his life, and his last work, the Swan's Song, he died at Brugg on
the 17th of February 1827. As he said himself, the real work
of his life did not lie in Burgdorf or in Yverdun" It lay in the
principles of education which he practised, the development of
his observation, the training of the whole man, the sympathetic
application of the teacher to the taught, of which he left an
example in his six months' labours at Stanz. He had the deepest
effect on all branches of education, and his influence is far from
being exhausted.

Pestalozzi's complete works were published at Stuttgart in 1819-
1826, and an edition by Seyffarth appeared at Berlin in 1 881.
Volumes on his life and teaching have been written by De Guimps
(1889), Barnard (1862), Kriisi (1875) and Pinloche (1901).

PETALITE, a mineral species consisting of lithium aluminium
silicate, LiAl(Si 2 05)2. The monoclinic crystals approach spodu-
mene (q.v.) in form, which is also a lithium aluminium silicate
with the formula LiAUSiOs^. There is a perfect cleavage parallel
to the basal plane, and the mineral usually occurs in platy
cleavage masses; on this account it was named, from Gr. ireraXov
(a leaf). The hardness is 6-| and the specific gravity 2-4 (that
of spodumene being 3-16). The mineral is colourless or occasion-
ally reddish, varies from transparent to translucent, and has
a vitreous lustre. It was discovered in 1800 as cleavage masses
in an iron mine on the island of Uto in the Stockholm
archipelago, where it is associated with lepidolite, tourmaline
(rubellite and indicolite) and spodumene. A variety known as
" castor " is found as transparent glassy crystals associated with
pollux (q.v.) in cavities in the granite of Elba. (L.J.S.)

PETARD (Fr. petard, peter, to make a slight explosion), a
device formerly used by military engineers for blowing in a
gate or other barrier. It consisted of a small metal or wooden
case, usually of sugar-loaf shape, containing a charge of powder
and fired by a fuse.

PETAU, DENYS (1583-1652), Jesuit scholar, better known
as Dionysius Petavitjs, was born at Orleans on the 21st of
August 1583. Educated at Paris University, he came under the
influence of Isaac Scaliger, who directed his attention towards
the obscurer fathers of the Church. In 1603 he was appointed
to a lectureship at the university of Bourges, but resigned his
place two years later, in order to enter the Society of Jesus.
For many years he was professor of divinity at the College de
Clermont, the chief Jesuit establishment in Paris; there he died
on the i ith of December 1652. He was one of the most brilliant
scholars in a learned age. Carrying on and improving the
chronological labours of Scaliger, he published in 1627 an Opus
de doctrina temporum, which has been often reprinted. An
abridgment of this work, Rationarium temporum, was translated
into French and English, and has been brought down in a modern
reprint to the year 1849. But Petau's eminence chiefly rests
on . his vast, but unfinished, De theologicis dogmatibus, the
first systematic attempt ever made to treat the development
of Christian doctrine from the historical point of view.

PETCHENEGS, or Patzinaks, a barbarous people, probably
of Turkish race, who at the end of the 9th century were driven
into Europe from the lower Ural, and for about 300 years
wandered about the northern frontier of the East Roman
Empire. (See Turks).

PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. 7rerpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro,
Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr),
a masculine name, derived from the famous surname bestowed by
Christ upon his apostle Simon (" Thou art Peter and upon this
rock will I build my church," Matt. xiv. 17-19). The name has
consequently been very popular in Christian countries. It is
noteworthy, however, that, out of deference to the " prince of
the apostles " and first bishop of Rome, the name has never been
assumed by a pope. The biographies which follow are arranged
in the order: (1) the apostle; (2) kings; (3) other eminent men.

PETER, ST, the chief of the Twelve Apostles. He is known
also by other names : (a) " Simon " (21/jxav) in Mark four times
and Luke seven times. This use is only found in narrative

before the story of the mission of the apostles: it is also found in
speeches; Matthew once, Mark once and Luke twice. (b) " Simon
who is called Peter " is found in Matthew twice and Acts four
times, (c) " Simon Peter " is found in Matthew once, Luke
once, John seventeen times (and perhaps also in 2 Peter i. 1,
where the text varies between Simon and Symeon. (d) " Peter "
is found in Matthew nineteen times, Mark eighteen times,
Luke sixteen times, Acts fifty-one times, John fifteen times,
Galatians twice, 1 Peter once, (e) " Cephas " is found in John
once, Galatians four times, 1 Corinthians four times. (/) Symeon
(Lvudiv) is found in Acts once. It appears that the apostle
had two names, each existing in a double form — Greek and
Hebrew, Symeon (riyw) which was Graecized according
to the sound into Simon, and Cephas («?'?) which was
Graecized according to the meaning into Peter (Herpos) . Symeon
and Simon are both well-known names in Aramaic and Greek
respectively, but Cephas and Peter are previously unknown.
Symeon was no doubt his original Aramaic name, and the
earliest gospel, Mark, which has some claim specially to
reproduce Petrine tradition, is careful to employ Simon until
after the name Peter had been given, and not then to use it
again. The Gospels agree in regarding Cephas or Peter as an
additional name, which was given by Christ. But they differ as
to the occasion. According to Mark iii. 13 sqq. it was given on
the occasion of the mission of the Twelve. According to
John i. 42 it was given at his first call. According to
Matt. xvi. 13 sqq. it was given after the recognition of Jesus as
Messiah at Caesarea Philippi. This last account is the only
one which describes any circumstances (for a further discussion
see § 3 (2) below).

According to the Gospels Peter was the son of John ('Iwavys,
John i. 42, xxi. 15 seq.) or Jonas ('Icovas, Matt. xxvi. 17).
According to Mark i. 29 he was a fisherman of Capernaum,
but John i. 44 describes him and his brother Andrew as of
Bethsaida. From Mark i. 30 he is seen to have been married,
and 1 Cor. ix. 5 suggests (but another interpretation is
possible) that his wife went with him on his missionary
journeys. - In 1 Pet. v. 13 Mark is referred to as his son, but
this is usually interpreted of spiritual kinship. According to
legend (Acta Nerei et Achillei, and Acta Philippi) he had a
daughter Petronilla, but there is no reason for thinking that
this is historical.

The Gospel narratives are unanimous in describing Peter as
one of the first disciples of Christ, and from the time of his call
he seems to have been present at most of the chief H j story la
incidents in the narrative. He formed together the Gospels
with the sons of Zebedee to some extent an inner up to the
circle within the Twelve, and this favoured group *^" rrec "
is specially mentioned as present on three occasions
— the raising of the daughter of Jairus (Mark v. 22-43;
Matt. ix. 18-36; Luke viii. 41-56), the transfiguration (Mark
ix. 2 sqq.; Matt. xvii. 1 sqq.; Luke ix. 28 sqq.) and the scene
in the Garden at Gethsemane (Mark xiv. 32 sqq.; Matt. xxvi.
36 sqq.). He is also specially mentioned in connexion with
his call (Mark i. 16-20; Matt. iv. 18 sqq.; Luke v. 1 sqq.;
John i. 40 sqq.); the healing of his wife's mother (Mark i. 21
sqq.; Matt. viii. 14 sqq.; Luke iv. 38 sqq.); the mission of
the Twelve Apostles (Mark iii. 13 sqq.; Matt. x. 1 sqq.; Luke vi.
12 sqq.); the storm on the Lake of Galilee (Mark vi. 45 sqq.;
Matt. xiv. 22 sqq.; John vi. 16 sqq.); the Messianic recognition
at Caesarea Philippi (Mark vii. 27 sqq.; Matt. xvi. 16 sqq.;
Luke ix. 18 sqq.); the incident of the payment of tribute by
the coin found in the fish caught by Peter (Matt. xvii. 25 sqq.)
and with various questions leading to parables or their expla-
nations (Mark xiii. 36 sqq.; Luke xii. 41; Matt, xviii. 21 sqq.;
Mark x. 28; Matt. xix. 27; Luke xviii. 28). In the week of
the Passion he appears in connexion with the incident of the
withered fig-tree (Mark xi. 21; Matt. xxi. 20); as introducing
the eschatological discourse (Mark xiii. 3 sqq.); and as promi-
nent during the Last Supper (Luke xxii. 8 sqq.; John
xiii. 4 sqq.; Mark xiv. 27 sqq.; Matt. xxvi. 31 sqq.). He

286

PETER, ST

was present in Gethsemane, and tried to offer some resistance to
the arrest of Jesus (Mark xiv. 47; Matt. xxvi. 51; Luke xxii. 50;
John xviii. 10). After the arrest he followed the Lord to the
scene of the trial, but denied him and fled. The message of the
young man at the tomb (Mark xvi. 4) was especially addressed
to Peter and it is clear that the genuine conclusion of Mark must
have contained an account of an appearance of the risen Lord
to him.

Out of this mass of incidents the following are central and call
for closer critical consideration.

1. The Call of St Peter.— (Mark i. 16-20; Matt. iv. 18-22;
Luke v. 1-11; John i. 40-42). The account in Matthew is
practically identical with that in Mark and is no doubt taken
from the Marcan source, but Luke and John have different
traditions. The main points are as follows: according to Mark,
at the beginning of the Galilean ministry Jesus saw Peter and
Andrew fishing. He called them, and they joined him. After
this he went with them to Capernaum, preached in the syna-
gogue, and healed Peter's wife's mother. Luke, who certainly
used Mark, has partly rearranged this narrative and partly
rejected it in favour of a different version. According to him the
visit to Capernaum and the healing of the wife's mother preceded
the call of Peter, and this was associated with a tradition of
a miraculous draught of fishes. The advantage of the Lucan
reconstruction, so far as the first part is concerned, is that it
supplies a reason for Peter's ready obedience, which is somewhat
difficult to understand if he had never seen Jesus before. But it
seems probable that this is the motive which led to the redac-
torial change in Luke, and that the Marcan account, which is
traditionally connected with Peter, ought to be followed. With
regard to the narrative of the miraculous draught of fishes, the
matter is more complicated. Luke obviously preferred this
narrative to the Marcan account, but the fact that the same
story comes in John xxi. suggests that there was an early
tradition of some such incident of which the actual occasion
and circumstances were undetermined. Luke preferred to
connect it with the call of Peter, the writer of John xxi. with his
restitution: probably both are of the nature of redactorial
guesses, and the Marcan account must be regarded as preferable
to either. The Johannine account of the call of Peter is quite
different. According to this it took place immediately after
the baptism of Jesus, in Judaea not in Galilee. It is connected
with the giving of the name Peter, which in Mark was not given
until much later.

2. The Confession of Peter at Caesarea Philippi. — (Mark
viii. 27-33; Matt. xvi. 13-23; Luke ix. 18-22). According to
Mark, Peter, in answer to the question of Jesus, recognized that
He was the Messiah, but protested against the prophecy of
suffering which Jesus then added. This narrative is followed,
with the exception of the last part, by Luke, who as usual is
inclined to omit anything which could be regarded as derogatory
to the Apostles. Matthew also uses the Marcan narrative, but
adds to it a new section from some other source which suggests
that the name of Peter was conferred on this occasion — not, as
Mark says, at the first mission of the Twelve — and confers on
him the keys of the kingdom of heaven and the right of binding
and loosing. This must be probably i interpreted as a reference
to the prophecy concerning Eliakim in Isa. xxii. 22, and to
technical use of the words " binding " and " loosing " by the
scribes in authoritative decisions as to the obligations of the law.
It thus confers on Peter a position of quite unique authority.
It must, however, be noted that the power of binding and loosing
is given in Matt, xviii. 18 to the whole body of disciples. This
seems to be an alternative version, also found only in Matthew.
The question of the historical character of the Matthaean
addition to the Marcan narrative is exceedingly difficult; but it

■See, however, A. Sulzbach's article in the Zeitschr. f. N.T. Wiss.
(1903), p. 190. He thinks there is an allusion to a room in the Temple
where the great key was kept ; this room was called Kephas, because
the key was placed in a recess closed by a stone. There is also a
valuable article by W. Kohler in the Archiv fiir Religionswiss.
treating the question of the keys from the point of view of compara-
tive religion.

is hard to think that if it were really authentic it would have
been omitted from all the other gospels, and it perhaps belongs
to the little group of passages in Matthew which seem to represent
early efforts towards church legislation, rather than a strictly
historical narrative. Besides it is noticeable that in one other
point Matthew has slightly remodelled the Marcan narrative.
According to the latter Jesus asked, " Whom say men that I
am?" and Peter replied "the Messiah," without qualification.
But in Matthew the question is changed into " Whom say men
that the Son of Man is?" and, whatever may be the original
meaning of the phrase " the son of man " it cannot be doubted
that in the gospels it means Messiah. Thus the simple answer
of Peter in Mark would be meaningless, and it is replaced by
" The Messiah, the son of the living God," which is no longer
a recognition of the Messiahship of Jesus (this is treated in
Matthew as an already recognized fact, cf. x. 23, xii. 40, &c),
but is a definition and an exaltation of the nature of the Messiah.
3. The Conduct of Peter after the Betrayal. — The consideration
of this point brings one into touch with the two rival traditions
as to the conduct of the disciples after the betrayal and cruci-
fixion of the Lord — the Galilean and the Jerusalem narratives.
There is one incident which must in any case be accepted as it
is found in both narratives. This is the denial of Peter. It
appears that Peter did not stay with the disciples and neither
returned home immediately to Galilee (according to the Galilean
tradition) nor sought hiding in Jerusalem (according to the
Jerusalem tradition), but followed the Lord at a distance and
was a witness of at least part of the trial before the Sanhedrim.
He was detected and accused of being a disciple, which he denied,
and so fulfilled the prophecy of Jesus that he would deny Him
before the cock crowed.

But putting this incident aside, the Galilean and Jerusalem
traditions do not admit of reconciliation with one another. The
former is represented by Mark. According to it the disciples
all fled after the betrayal (though Peter waited until after the
denial), and afterwards saw the risen Lord in Galilee. The
details of this narrative are unfortunately lost, as the genuine
conclusion of Mark is not extant. But Mark xiv. 28 and
xvi. 7 clearly imply a narrative which described how the disciples
returned to Galilee, there saw the risen Lord, and perhaps even
how they then returned to Jerusalem in the strength of their
newly recovered faith, and so brought into existence the church
of Jerusalem as we find it in the Acts. It is also clear from Mark
xvi. 7 that Peter was in some special way connected with this
appearance of the risen Lord, and this tradition is confirmed by
r Cor. xv. 5, and perhaps by Luke xxiv. 34.

The Jerusalem narrative is represented especially by Luke
and John (excluding John xxi. as an appendix). According to
this the disciples, though they fled at the betrayal, did not
return to their homes, but remained in Jerusalem, saw the risen
Lord in that city, and stayed there until after the day of Pente-
cost. Attempts to reconcile these two narratives seem to be
found in Matthew and in John xxi.

Obviously the choice which has to be made between these
traditions cannot be adequately discussed here: it must suffice
to say that intrinsic and traditional probability seem to favour
the Galilean narrative. If so, one must say that after the denial
Peter returned to Galilee — probably to resume his trade of
fishing — and he there saw the risen Lord. This appearance is
referred to in 1 Cor. xv. 5, and was certainly described in the lost
conclusion of Mark. An account of it is preserved in John xxi.,
but it is here connected — probably wrongly — with a miraculous
draught of fishes, just as the account of his call is in Luke.

Immediately after the resurrection there is a missing link
in the history of Peter. We know that he saw the risen Lord,
and, according to the most probable view, that this m story
was in Galilee; but the circumstances are unknown, after the
and we have no account of his return to Jerusalem, Resurrection
as at the beginning of the Acts the disciples are all according to
in Jerusalem, and the writer, in contradiction to the *? e , A f? s M " 1
Marcan or Galilean narrative, assumes that they had
never left it. The first part of the Acts is largely concerned with

PETER, ST

287

the work of Peter. He appears as the recognized leader of the
Apostles in their choice of a new member of the Twelve to take
the place of Judas Iscariot (Acts i. 15 sqq.); on the day of
Pentecost he seems to have played a prominent part in explaining
the meaning of the scene to the people (Acts ii. 14 sqq.) ; and soon
afterwards was arrested by the Jews on the charge of being a ring-
leader in the disorders caused by the healing of the lame man at
the " Beautiful " gate of the temple, but was released. After
this he appears as the leader of the apostles in the story of
Ananias and Sapphira, who perished at his rebuke for their
duplicity (Acts v. 1-11). The last episode of this period is
another arrest by the priests, which ended in his being scourged
and released (Acts v. 17 sqq.).

After this Peter's attention was directed to the growth of
Christianity in Samaria, and he and John made a journey of
inspection through that district, laying hands on those who had
been baptized in order that they might receive the Holy Spirit.
Here Simon Magus (q.v.) was encountered. He was a magician
who had been converted by Philip and baptized; he desired to
obtain the power of conferring the Spirit, and offered Peter
money for this purpose, but was indignantly repulsed. After
this Peter and John returned to Jerusalem.

During the following stay in Jerusalem, the duration of which
is not defined, Peter was visited by Paul (Acts ix. 26-29;
Gal. i. 18), and a comparison of the chronological date afforded
by Gal. i. and ii. points to a year not earlier than 33 (Harnack)
or later than 38 (C. H. Turner) for this meeting. According to
Galatians, Paul saw none of the apostles on this occasion except
Peter and James : it is therefore probable that none of the others
were then in Jerusalem.

After this Peter made another journey, visiting especially
Lydda, Joppa and Caesarea. His stay at Lydda was marked
by the healing of Aeneas (Acts ix. 32-4) and at Joppa by the
resuscitation of Tabitha or Dorcas. While at Joppa he stayed
with Simon the tanner, and thence was summoned to Caesarea
to Cornelius the centurion. He hesitated whether to go, but
was persuaded by a vision and the injunction to call nothing
unclean which God had cleansed. Cornelius was accordingly
baptized. This is an important incident, as being the first ad-
mission of a Gentile into the church: but he was already " God-
fearing," <t>o(Hovii£vos top 6eov (Acts x. 1), which probably
denotes some sort of connexion with the Jewish synagogue,
though it is difficult to say exactly what it was. After this inci-
dent Peter returned to Jerusalem. The members of the Church
were somewhat shocked at the reception of a Gentile: their view
apparently was that the only road to Christianity was through
Judaism. They were, however, persuaded by Peter's speech
(Acts xi. 4-17) ; but it is uncertain how far their concession went,
and in the light of subsequent events it is probable that they still
regarded circumcision as a necessary rite for all Christians.

After the return of Peter to Jerusalem the most important
events were the famine at Jerusalem, and the persecution of the
Church by Herod. During the latter Peter was put in prison
(Acts xii. 3 sqq.), but was released by an angel; he first went to
the house of Mary, the mother of John Mark, and afterwards
went to " another place." This expression has been interpreted
to mean another town, and even to be an implied reference to
Rome. This last suggestion, improbable though it be, is his-
torically important. The persecution of Herod seems to have
been in his last year, which was probably a.d. 43-44. There was
a marked tendency to make the duration of Peter's episcopate
at Rome twenty-five years: and a combination of this tendency
with the explanation that the erepos totos was Rome probably is
the origin of the traditional dating of the martyrdom of Peter
in a.d. 67-68. There is, however, no justification for this view,
and erepos totos need not mean more than another house in
Jerusalem.

The famine referred to in Acts xi. 27 sqq. probably began
before the death of Herod, but it continued after his death, and
the relief sent by the church at Antioch to Jerusalem through
Paul and Barnabas probably arrived about the year 45. It is
not stated in the Acts that Peter was present, and it is therefore

usually assumed that he. was absent, but Sir W. M. Ramsay has
argued in his St Paul the Traveller that the visit of Paul to
Jerusalem with the famine relief is the meeting between Paul
and Peter referred to in Gal. ii. as the occasion of an agreement
between them as to the preaching of the gospel to Jews and
Gentiles. This view is not generally accepted, but it has the
great advantage of avoiding the difficulty that otherwise Paul
in Gal. ii. 1 sqq. must describe as his second visit to Jerusalem
what was really his third. According to Ramsay, then, Peter
was present during the famine, and made a private agreement
with Paul that the latter should preach to the Gentiles, and so
far Gentile Christianity was recognized, but the conditions of
the intercourse between Gentile and Jewish Christians were not
defined, and the question of circumcision was perhaps not finally
settled. According to the more popular view the description in
Gal. ii. applies to Acts xv. the so-called council of Jerusalem.
This council met after the first missionary journey (c. a.d. 49)
of Paul to discuss the question of the Gentiles. Peter, who was
present, adopted the view that Gentile Christians were free from
the obligation of the law, and this view was put into the form of
the so-called Apostolic decrees by James (Acts xv. 23 sqq.).

The next information which we have about Peter is given in
Gal. ii. 11 sqq. According to this he went to Antioch and at
.first accepted the Gentile Christians, but afterwards drew back
and was rebuked by Paul. On the ordinary interpretation this
must have taken place after the council, and it is exceedingly
difficult to reconcile it with the attitude of Peter described in
Acts xv., so that Mr C. H. Turner thinks that in this respect the
account in Gal. ii. is not chronological, and places the visit of
Peter to Antioch before the council. If, however, we take the
theory of Sir W. M. Ramsay the matter is simpler. We thus
get the compact between Paul and Peter during the famine,
then a visit of Peter to Antioch, during which Peter first adopted
and afterwards drew back from the position which he had agreed
to privately.

This vacillation may then have been one of the causes which
led up to the council, which may have been held before, not, as is
usually thought, after the sending of the Epistle History
to the Galatians. For this we have no knowledge after the
of details for which the same certainty can be claimed. Councilor
There are, however, various traditions of importance. erus em '
The following points are noteworthy. 1 Cor. i. 12 suggests the
possibility that Peter went to Corinth, as there was a party
there which used his name. It is, however, possible that this
party had merely'adopted the principles which, as they had been
told, perhaps falsely, were supported by the leader of the
Twelve. Dionysius of Corinth (c. 1 70) states that Peter was in
Corinth. This may represent local tradition or may be an
inference from 1 Cor. i. 12. 1 Peter suggests a ministry in the
provinces of Asia Minor. There is, of course, nothing improb-
able in this, and even if 1 Peter be not authentic, it is early
evidence for such a tradition, but it is also possible that Peter
wrote to converts whom he had not personally made. This
tradition is found in Origen (Eus. H.E. iii. 1), Epiphanius
(Haer. xxvii., vi.), Jerome (De Vir. ill. 1) and other later writers;
but it is possible that it is merely an inference from the epistle.
Early tradition connects Peter with Antioch, of which he is said
to have been the first bishop. The first writer to mention it is
Origen {Horn. vi. in Lucam), but it is also found in the Clementine
Homilies and Recognitions (Horn. 20, 23; Recog. 10, 68) and
probably goes back to the lists of bishops which were drawn up
in the 2nd century. Other important references to this tradition
are found in Eus. H.E. iii. 26, 2; Apost. Const, vii. 46; Jerome,
De Vir. ill. 1; Chronicon paschale; and Liber pontificalis. The
tradition of work in Antioch may well be historical. Otherwise
it is a rather wild elaboration of Gal. ii. 11. The most important
and widespread tradition is that Peter came to Rome; and
though this tradition has often been bitterly attacked, it seems
r to be probable that it is at least in outline quite historical. The
evidence for it is earlier and better than that for any other
tradition, though it is not quite convincing.

The earliest witness to a residence of Peter in Rome is probably

g88

PETER I.

i Peter, for (see Peter, Epistles of) it is probable that the
reference to Babylon ought to be interpreted as meaning Rome.
If so, and if the epistle be genuine, this is conclusive evidence
that Peter was in Rome. Even if the epistle be not genuine
it is evidence of the same tradition. Nor is corroboration lacking:
Clement (c. a.d. 97) refers to Peter and Paul as martyrs (1 Clem.
5-6) and says that " To these men . . . there was gathered a
great company of the elect who . . . became an example to us."
This points in two ways to a martyrdom of Peter in Rome, (1)
because Peter and Paul are co-ordinated, and it is generally
admitted that the latter suffered in Rome, (2) because they seem
to be joined to the great company of martyrs who are to be an
example to the Church in Rome. Similarly Ignatius (c. a.d. 115)
says to the Romans (Rom. iv.), " I do not command you as Peter
and Paul." The suggestion obviously is that the Romans had
been instructed by these Apostles. By the end of the 2nd
century the tradition is generally known: Irenaeus (3, 1, 1),
Clement of Alexandria (comment, on 1 Peter) , Origen (Horn. vi.
in Lucam), Tertullian (Scorp. 15, and several passages) are
explicit on the point, and from this time onwards the tradition
is met with everywhere. There is also a tradition, found in
Irenaeus (3, 1, 1) and in many later writers, and supported by
1 Pet. v. 13, and by the statements of Papias (Eus. H.E. 3, 39,
15) that Mark acted as Peter's assistant in Rome and that his.
gospel is based on recollections of Peter's teaching.

This evidence is probably sufficient to establish the fact that
Peter, like Paul, had a wide missionary career ending in a violent
death at Rome, though the details are not recoverable. The
chronological question is more difficult both as regards the
beginning and the end of this period of activity.

The Acts, in describing the visits of Peter to Samaria, Joppa,
Lydda and Caesarea, justify the view that his missionary activity
began quite early. Gal. ii. 11 and I Cor. ix. 5 show
Chronology tnat Acts minimizes rather than exaggerates this
of Peter's activity; the Antiochian tradition probably repre-
wider sents a period of missionary activity with a centre
Work^ attry at Antioch; similarly the tradition of work in Asia
is possibly correct as almost certainly is that of the
visit to Rome. But we have absolutely no evidence justifying
a chronological arrangement of these periods. Even the silence
of Paul in the epistles of the captivity proves nothing except
that Peter was not then present; the same is true of 2 Tim.
even if its authenticity be undoubted.

The evidence as to the date of his death is a little fuller, but
not quite satisfactory. The earliest direct witness is Tertullian,
who definitely states that Peter suffered under Nero by cruci-
fixion. Origen also relates the latter detail and adds that at
his own request Peter was crucified head downwards. Probably
John xxi. 18 seq. is a still earlier reference to his crucifixion.
Fuller evidence is not found until Eusebius, who dates the arrival
of Peter at Rome in 43 and his martyrdom twenty-five years
later. But the whole question of the Eusebian chronology
is very confused and difficult, and the text of the Chronicon is
not certain. The main objection to this date is based partly
on general probability, partly on the language of Clement of
Rome. It is more probable on general grounds that the martyr-
dom of Peter took place during the persecution of Christians in
64, and it is urged that Clement's language refers to this period.
It is quite possible that an error of a few years has crept into the
Eusebian chronology, which is probably largely based on early
episcopal lists, and therefore many scholars are inclined to think
that 64 is a more probable date than 67. As a rule ihe dis-
cussion has mainly been between these two dates, but Sir W. M.
Ramsay, in his Church in the Roman Empire, has adopted a
different line of argument. He thinks that 1 Peter was written
c. a.d. 80, but that it may nevertheless be Petrine; therefore he
lays stress on the fact that whereas the tradition that Peter was
in Rome is early and probably correct, the tradition that he was
martyred under Nero is not found until much later. Thus he
thinks it possible that Peter survived until c. 80, and was
martyred under the Flavian emperors. The weak point of
this theory is that Clement and Ignatius bring Peter and Paul

together in a way which seems to suggest that they perished,
if not together, at least at about the same time. If this view
be rejected and it is necessary to fall back on the choice between
64 and 67, the problem is perhaps insoluble, but 64 has somewhat
more intrinsic probability, and 67 can be explained as due to
an artificial system of chronology which postulated for Peter an
episcopate of Rome of twenty-five years — a number which comes
so often in the early episcopal lists that it seems to mean little
more than " a long time," just as " forty years " does in the Old
Testament. On the whole 64 is the most probable date, but it
is very far from certain: the evidence is insufficient to justify
any assurance.

For further information and discussion see especially Harnack's
Chronologie, and Bishop Chase's article in Hastings's Dictionary of
the Bible. The latter is in many ways the most complete statement
of the facts at present published.

Caius, who lived in the beginning of the 3rd century (see Eus.
H. E. 2, 25), stated that the rpoiraia (i.e. probably the burial
place, not that of execution) of Peter and Paul were
on the Vatican. This is also found in the Acta Petri, *fp e ° t r * r ve
84 (in the Lib. Pont., ed. Duchesne, p. 52 seq., 118
sqq.). From this place it appears that the relics (whether
genuine or not) were moved to the catacombs in a.d. 258
(cf . the Depositis martyrum, and see Lightfoot's Clement, i. 249) ;
hence arose the tradition of an original burial in the catacombs,
found in the Hieronymian Martyrology.

For further information and investigations see Duchesne, Liber
pontificalis ; Lipsius, Die Apokr. Apostelgesch.; and Erbes " Die
Todestage der Apostel Paulus u. Petrus," in Texte und Unter-
suchungen, N.F., iv. 1. (K. L.)

PETER I., called " the Great " (1672-1725), emperor of Russia,
son of the tsar Alexius Mikhailovich and Natalia Naruishkina,
was born at Moscow on the 30th of May 1672. His earliest
teacher (omitting the legendary Scotchman Menzies) was the
dyak, or clerk of the council, Nikita Zotov, subsequently the
court fool, who taught his pupil to spell out the liturgical and
devotional books on which the children of the tsar were generally
brought up. After Zotov's departure on a diplomatic mission,
in 1680, the lad had no regular tutor. From his third to his
tenth year Peter shared the miseries and perils of his family. His
very election (1682) was the signal for a rebellion. He saw one
of his uncles dragged from the palace and butchered by a savage
mob. He saw his mother's beloved mentor, and his own best
friend, Artamon Matvyeev, torn, bruised and bleeding, from
his retaining grasp and hacked to pieces. The haunting
memories of these horrors played havoc with the nerves of a
supersensitive child. The convulsions from which he suffered
so much in later years must be partly attributed to this violent
shock. During the regency of his half-sister Sophia (1682-1689)
he occupied the subordinate position of junior tsar, and after
the revolution of 1689 Peter was sjtill left pretty much to himself.
So long as he could indulge freely in his favourite pastimes — ship-
building, ship-sailing, drilling and sham fights — he was quite
content that others should rule in his name. He now found a
new friend in the Swiss adventurer, Francois Lefort, a shrewd
and jovial rascal, who not only initiated him into all the
mysteries of profligacy (at the large house built at Peter's
expense in the German settlement), but taught him his true
business as a ruler. His mother's attempt to wean her prodigal
son from his dangerous and mostly disreputable pastimes, by
forcing him to marry the beautiful but stupid Eudoxia Lopu-
khina (Jan. 27, 1689), was a disastrous failure. The young
couple were totally unsuited to each other. Peter practically
deserted his unfortunate consort a little more than a year after
their union.

The death of his mother (Jan. 25, 1694) left the young
tsar absolutely free to follow his natural inclinations. Tiring
of the great lake at Pereyaslavl, he had already seen the sea
for the first time at Archangel in July 1683, and on the 1st of
May 1694 returned thither to launch a ship built by himself the
year before. Shortly afterwards he nearly perished during a
storm in an adventurous voyage to the Solovetsky Islands in

PETER I.

289

the White Sea. His natural bent was now patent. From the
first the lad had taken an extraordinary interest in the technical
and mechanical arts, and their application to military and naval
science. He was taught the use of the astrolabe (which Prince
Yakov Dolgoruki, with intent to please, had brought him from
Paris) by a Dutchman, Franz Timmerman, who also instructed
him in the rudiments of geometry and fortifications. He had
begun to build his own boats at a very early age, and the ultimate
result of these pastimes was the creation of the Russian nauy.
He had already surrounded himself with that characteristically
Petrine institution " the jolly company," or " the company,"
as it was generally called, consisting of all his numerous personal
friends and casual acquaintances. " The company " was
graduated into a sort of mock hierarchy, political and ecclesi-
astical, and shared not only the orgies but also the labours of the
tsar. Merit was the sole qualification for promotion, and Peter
himself set the example to the other learners by gradually
rising from the ranks. In 1695 he had only advanced to the
post of " skipper " in his own navy and of " bombardier " in
his own army. It was, however, the disreputable Lefort who,
for the sake of his own interests, diverted the young tsar from
mere pleasure to serious enterprises, by persuading him first
to undertake the Azov expedition, and then to go abroad to
complete his education.

By this time the White Sea had become too narrow for Peter,
and he was looking about him for more hospitable waters. The
Baltic was a closed door to Muscovy, and the key to it was held
by Sweden. The Caspian remained; and it had for long been
a common saying with foreign merchants that the best way
of tapping the riches of the Orient was to secure possession
of this vast inland lake. But so long as the Turks and Tatars
made the surrounding steppes uninhabitable the Caspian was
a possession of but doubtful value. The first step making for
security was to build a fleet strong enough to provide against
the anarchical condition of those parts; but this implied a direct
attack not only upon the Crimean khan, who was mainly
responsible for the conduct of the Volgan hordes, but upon the
khan's suzerain, the Turkish sultau. Nevertheless Peter did
not hesitate. War against Turkey was resolved upon, and
Azov, the chief Turkish fortress in those regions, which could
be approached by water from Moscow, became the Russian
objective. From the 8th of July to the 22nd of September
1695 the Muscovites attempted in vain to capture Azov. On
the 22nd of November Peter re-entered Moscow. His first
military expedition had ended in unmitigated disaster, yet
from this disaster is to be dated the reign of Peter the Great.

Immediately after his return he sent to Austria and Prussia
for as many sappers, miners, engineers and carpenters as money
could procure. He meant to build a fleet strong enough to
prevent the Turkish fleet from relieving Azov. The guards
and all the workmen procurable were driven, forthwith, in
bands, to all the places among the forests of the Don to fell
timber and work day and night, turning out scores of vessels of
all kinds. Peter himself lived among his workmen, himself
the most strenuous of them all, in a small two-roomed wooden
hut at Voronezh. By the middle of April two warships, twenty-
three galleys, four fireships and numerous smaller craft were
safely launched. On the 3rd of May " the sea caravan " sailed
from Voronezh, " Captain Peter Aleksyeevich " commanding
the galley-flotilla from the galley " Principium," built by his
own hand. The new Russian fleet did all that was required
of it by preventing the Turks from relieving Azov by water;
and on the 18th of July the fortress surrendered. Peter now
felt able to advance along the path of progress with a quicker
and a firmer step. It was resolved to consolidate the victory by
establishing a new naval station at the head of the Sea of Azov,
to which the name of Taganrog was given. But it was necessary
to guarantee the future as well as provide for the present.
Turkey was too formidable to be fought single-handed, and it
was therefore determined to send a grand embassy to the
principal western powers to solicit their co-operation against
the Porte. On the 10th of March 1697 this embassy, under the
xxi. 10

leadership of Lefort, set out on its travels. Peter attached
himself to it as a volunteer sailorman, "Peter Mikhailov,"
so as to have greater facility for learning ship-building and other
technical sciences. As a political mission it failed utterly, the
great powers being at that period far more interested in western
than in eastern affairs. But personally Peter learnt nearly
all that he wanted to know — gunnery at Konigsberg, ship-
building at Saardam and Deptford, anatomy at Leiden, engrav-
ing at Amsterdam — and was proceeding to Venice to complete
his knowledge of navigation when the revolt of the stryeltsy,
or musketeers (June 1698), recalled him to Moscow. This
revolt has been greatly exaggerated. It was suppressed in ah
hour's time by the tsar's troops, of whom only one man was
mortally wounded; and the horrible vengeance (September-
October 1698) which Peter on his return to Russia wreaked upon
the captive musketeers was due not to any actual fear of these
antiquated warriors, but to his consciousness that behind them
stood the reactionary majority of the nation who secretly
sympathized with, though they durst not assist, the rebels.'

Peter's foreign tour had more than ever convinced him of
the inherent superiority of the foreigner. Imitation had
necessarily to begin with externals, and Peter at once fell foul
of the long beards and Oriental costumes which symbolized
the arch-conservatism of old Russia. On the 26th of April 1698
the chief men of the tsardom were assembled round his wooden
hut at Preobrazhenskoye, and Peter with his own hand deliber-
ately clipped off the beards and moustaches of his chief boyars.
The ukaz of the 1st of September 1698 allowed as a compromise
that beards should be worn, but a graduated tax was imposed
upon their wearers. The wearing of the ancient costumes was
forbidden by the ukaz of the 4th of January 1700; thenceforth
Saxon or Magyar jackets and French or German hose were
prescribed. That the people themselves did not regard the
reform as a trifle is plain from the numerous rebellions against
it. By the ukaz of the 20th of December 1699 it was next
commanded that henceforth the new year should not be
reckoned, as heretofore, from the 1st of September, supposed
to be the date of the creation, but from the first day of January,
anno domini.

The year 1700 is memorable in Russian history as the starting-
point of Peter's long and desperate struggle for the hegemony of
the north. He had concluded peace with the Porte (June 13,
1700) on very advantageous terms, in order to devote himself
wholly to a war with Sweden to the end that Russia might gain
her proper place on the Baltic. The possession of an ice-free
seaboard was essential to her natural development ; the creation
of a fleet would follow inevitably upon the acquisition of such a
seaboard; and she could not hope to obtain her due share of the
trade and commerce of the world till she possessed both. Ali the
conjunctures seemed favourable to Peter. The Swedish govern-
ment was in the hands of an untried lad of sixteen; and the
fine fleets of Denmark, and the veteran soldiers of Saxony, were
on the same side as the myriads of Muscovy. It seemed an
easy task for such a coalition to wrest the coveted spoil from
the young Charles XII.; yet Peter was the only one of the three
conspirators who survived the Twenty-one Years' War in which
they so confidently embarked during the summer of 1701. He
was also the only one of them who got anything by it. Charles's
"immersion in the Polish bog" (1702-1707), as Peter phrased
it, enabled the tsar, not without considerable expense and trouble,
to conquer Ingria and lay the foundations of St Petersburg.
In these early days Peter would very willingly have made peace
with his formidable rival if he had been allowed to retain these
comparatively modest conquests. From 1707 to 1709 the wai
on his part was purely defensive; Charles would not hear of
peace till full restitution had been made and a war indemnity
paid, while Peter was fully resolved to perish rather than sur-
render his " paradise," Petersburg. After Pultava (June 26,
1709), Peter, hitherto commendably cautious even to cowardice,
but now puffed up with pride, rashly plunged into as foolhardy
an enterprise as ever his rival engaged in. The campaign of
the Pruth (March to July 1711) must have been fatal to the

290

PETER I.

tsar but for the incalculable behaviour of the omnipotent grand
vizier, who let the Russian army go at the very instant when it
lay helpless in the hollow of his hand. Even so, Peter, by the
peace of the Pruth, had to sacrifice all that he had gained by
the Azov expedition fifteen years previously. On receiving
the tidings of the conclusion of the peace of Nystad (August
30, 1 721), Peter declared, with perfect justice, that it was
the most profitable peace Russia had ever concluded. The
gain to Russia was, indeed, much more than territorial. In
surrendering the pick of her Baltic provinces, Sweden had
surrendered along with them the hegemony of the north, and
all her pretensions to be considered a great power.

The Great Northern War was primarily a training school for a
backward young nation, and in the second place a means of
multiplying the material resources of a nation as poor as she
was backward. During the whole course of it the process of
internal domestic reformation had been slowly but unceasingly
'proceeding. Brand-new institutions on Western models were
gradually growing up among the cumbrous, antiquated, worn-
out machinery of old Muscovy; and new men, like Menshikov,
Goloykin, Apraksin, Osterman, Kurakin, Tolstoy, Shafirov,
Prokopovich, Yaguszhinsky, Yavorsky, all capable, audacious,
and brimful of new ideas, were being trained under the eye of
the great regenerator to help him to carry on his herculean
task. At first the external form of the administration remained
much the same as before. The old dignities disappeared of
their own accord with the deaths of their holders, for the new
men, those nearest to Peter, did not require them. " The
Administrative Senate " was not introduced till 1711, and only
then because the interminable war, which required Peter's
prolonged absence from Russia, made it impossible for him to
attend to the details of the domestic administration. Still
later came the " Spiritual Department," or " Holy Synod "
(January 1721), which superseded the ancient patriarchate. It
was established, we are told, " because simple folks cannot
distinguish the spiritual power from the sovereign power, and
suppose that a supreme spiritual pastor is a second sovereign,
the spiritual authority being regarded as higher and better than
the temporal." From the first the regenerator in his ukazes
was careful to make everything quite plain. He was always
explaining why he did this or that, why the new was better
than the old, and so on; and we must recollect that these were
the first lessons of the kind the nation had ever received. The
whole system of Peter was deliberately directed against the chief
evils from which old Muscovy had always suffered, such as
dissipation of energy, dislike of co-operation, absence of responsi-
bility, lack of initiative, the tyranny of the family, the insignifi-
cance of the individual. The low social morality of all classes,
even when morality was present at all, necessitated the regenera-
tion of the nation against its will, and the process could therefore
only be a violent one. Yet the most enlightened of Peter's
contemporaries approved of and applauded his violence; some
of them firmly believed that his most energetic measures were
not violent enough. Thus Ivan Poroshkov, Peter's contempor-
ary, the father of Russian political economy, writes as follows:
" If any land be over-much encumbered with weeds, corn cannot
be sown thereon unless the weeds first be burned with fire.
In the same way, our ancient inveterate evils should also be
burnt with fire." Peter himself carried this principle to its
ultimate limits in dealing with his unfortunate son the Tsarevich
Alexius (q.v.). From an ethical and religious point of view
the deliberate removal of Alexius was an abominable, an
inhuman crime: Peter justified it as necessary for the welfare
of the new Russia which he had called into existence.

The official birthday of the Russian empire was the 22nd
of October 1721, when, after a solemn thanksgiving service
in the Troitsa Cathedral for the peace of Nystad, the tsar pro-
ceeded to the senate and was there acclaimed: " Father of the
Fatherland, Peter the Great, and Emperor of All Russia."
Some Russians would have preferred to proclaim Peter as
emperor of the East; but Peter himself adopted the more
patriotic title.

Towards the end of the reign the question of the succession
to the throne caused the emperor some anxiety. The rightful
heir, in the natural order of primogeniture, was the little grand
duke Peter, son of the Tsarevich Alexius, a child of six; but
Peter decided to pass him over in favour of his own beloved
consort Catherine. The usiav, or ordinance of 1722, heralded
this unheard-of innovation. Time-honoured custom had
hitherto reckoned primogeniture in the male line as the best
title to the Russian crown; in the ustav of 1722 Peter denounced
primogeniture in general as a stupid, dangerous, and even
unscriptural practice of dubious origin. The ustav was but
a preliminary step to a still more sensational novelty. Peter
had resolved to crown his consort empress, and on the 15th
of November 1723 he issued a second manifesto explaining at
some length why he was taking such an unusual step. That
he should have considered any explanation necessary demon-
strates that he felt himself to be treading on dangerous ground.
The whole nation listened aghast to the manifesto. The corona-
tion of a woman was in the eyes of the Russian people a
scandalous innovation in any case, and the proposed coronation
was doubly scandalous in view of the base and disreputable
origin of Catherine herself (see Catherine I.). But Peter had
his way, and the ceremony took place at Moscow with
extraordinary pomp and splendour on the 7th of May 1724.

During the last four years of his reign Peter's policy was
predominantly Oriental. He had got all he wanted in Europe,
but the anarchical state of Persia at the beginning of 1722
opened up fresh vistas of conquest. The war which lasted
from May 1722 to September 1723 was altogether successful,
resulting in the acquisition of the towns of Baku and Derbent
and the Caspian provinces of Gilan, Mazandaran and Astarabad.
The Persian campaigns wore out the feeble health of Peter,
who had been ailing for some time. A long and fatiguing
tour of inspection over the latest of his great public works,
the Ladoga Canal, during the autumn of 1724, brought back
another attack of his paroxysms, and he reached Peters-
burg too ill to rally again, though he showed himself in
public as late as the 16th of January 1725. He expired in
the arms of his consort, after terrible suffering, on the 28th
of January 1725.

Peter's claim to greatness rests mainly on the fact that from
first to last he clearly recognized the requirements of the Rus-
sian nation and his own obligations as its ruler. It would
have materially lightened his task had he placed intelligent
foreigners at the head of every department of state, allowing them
gradually to train up a native bureaucracy. But for the sake of
the independence of the Russian nation he resisted the temptation
of taking this inviting but perilous short-cut to greatness. He
was determined that, at whatever cost, hardship and incon-
venience, Russia should be ruled by Russians, not by foreigners;
and before his death he had the satisfaction of seeing every
important place in his empire in the hands of capable natives
of his own training. But even in his most sweeping reforms
he never lost sight of the idiosyncrasies of the people. He
never destroyed anything which he was not able to replace by
something better. He possessed, too, something of the heroic
nature of the old Russian bogatuirs, or demigods, as we see them
in the skazki and the builinui. His expansive nature loved
width and space. No doubt this last of the bogatuirs possessed
the violent passions as well as the wide views of his prototypes.
All his qualities, indeed, were on a colossal scale. His rage was
cyclonic: his hatred rarely stopped short of extermination.
His banquets were orgies, his pastimes convulsions. He lived
and he loved like one of the giants of old. There are deeds
of his which make humanity shudder, and no man equally
great has ever descended to such depths of cruelty and treachery.
Yet it may generally be allowed that a strain of nobility, of
which we occasionally catch illuminating glimpses, extorts
from time to time an all-forgiving admiration. Strange, too,
as it may sound, Peter the Great was at heart profoundly
religious. Few men have ever had a more intimate persuasion
that they were but instruments for good in the hands of God.

PETER II.— PETER (KINGS OF SPAIN)

291

Bibliography. — Letters and Papers of Peter the Great (Rus.)
(St Petersburg, 1887, &c); S. M. Solovev, History of Russia (Rus.),
vols, xiv.-xviii. (St Petersburg, 1895, &c.) ; A. Brueckner, Die
Europaisierung Russlands (Gotha, 1888); R. Nisbet Bain, The Pupils
of Peter the Great, chs. i.-iv. (London, 1897), and The First Romanovs,
chs. vii.-xiv. (London, 1905) ; E. Schuyler, Life of Peter the Great
(London, 1884); K. Waliszewski, Pierre le Grand (Paris, 1897);
V. N. Aleksandrenko, Russian Diplomatic Agents in London in the
18th Century (Rus.) (Warsaw, 1897-1898 ; German ed., Guben, 1898) ;
S. A. Chistyakov, History of Peter the Great (Rus.) (St Petersburg,
1903); S. M. Solovev, Public Readings on Peter the Great (Rus.)
(St Petersburg, 1903) ; Documents relating to the Great Northern War
(Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1892, &c). (R- N. B.)

PETER II. (17 1 5-1 730), emperor of Russia, only son of the
Tsarevich Alexius, was born on the 18th of October 1715.
From his childhood the orphan grand duke was kept in the
strictest seclusion. His grandfather, Peter the Great, systemati-
cally ignored him. His earliest governesses were the wives
of a tailor and a vintner from the Dutch settlement; a sailor
called Norman taught him the rudiments of navigation; and,
when he grew older, he was placed under the care of a Hungarian
refugee, Janos Zeikin, who seems to have been a conscientious
teacher. During the reign of Catherine I. Peter was quite
ignored; but just before her death it became clear to those
in power that the grandson of Peter the Great could not be kept
out of his inheritance much longer. The majority of the nation
and three-quarters of the nobility were on his side, while his
uncle, the emperor Charles VI., through the imperial ambassador
at St Petersburg, Rabutin, persistently urged his claims. The
matter was arranged between Menshikov, Osterman and Rabu-
tin; and on the 18th of May 1727 Peter II., according to the
terms of the supposed last will of Catherine I., was proclaimed
sovereign autocrat. The senate, the privy council and the
guards took the oath of allegiance forthwith. The education
of the young prince was wisely entrusted to the vice-chancellor
Osterman. Menshikov, who took possession of Peter II. and
lodged him in his own palace on the Vasily island, had intended
to marry Peter to his daughter Maria; the scheme was frus-
trated by his fall (Sept. 21, 1727); but Peter only fell into the
hands of the equally unscrupulous Dolgoruki, who carried
him away from Petersburg to Moscow. Peter's coronation
was celebrated at that city on the 25th of February 1728.
He was betrothed to Catherine, second daughter of Alexis
Dolgoruki, and the wedding was actually fixed for the 30th
of January 1730; but on that very day the emperor died of
small-pox.

PETER III. (1728-1762), emperor of Russia, only son of
Charles Frederick, duke of Holstein-Gottorp, and of Anne, eldest
surviving daughter of Peter the Great, was born at Kiel on the
21st of February 1728. In December 1741 he was adopted by
his aunt, Elizabeth Petrovna, as soon as she was safely estab^
lished on the Russian throne, and on the 18th of November
1742 was received into the Orthodox Church, exchanging his
original name of Karl Peter Ulrich for that of Peter Fedorovich.
On the 21st of August 1745, by the command of his aunt, he
married the princess Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-
Zerbst, who exchanged her name for that of Catherine Aleksye-
evna. The union between a prince who physically was some-
thing less than a man and mentally little more than a child,
and a princess of prodigious intellect and an insatiable love
of enjoyment, was bound to end in a catastrophe. But there
is no foundation for the stories of Peter's neglect and brutality.
It took the spouses five years to discover that their tastes were
divergent and their tempers incompatible. Even when Peter III.
succeeded his aunt on the 5th of January 1762, he paid off all
the debts that Catherine had contracted without inquiring what
they were for. On her birthday, in April, he made her a present
of domains worth £10,000 per annum, though he had already
readjusted her establishment on a truly imperial scale. A great
deal has been made of Peter's infidelity towards his consort;
but the only one who really suffered from his liaison with the
ugly, stupid and vixenish countess Elizabeth Vorontsova was
the unfortunate emperor. So far from being scandalized by
the juxtaposition of " Das Fraulein " in the Winter Palace,

Catherine accepted it as a matter of course, provided that her
own relations with the handsome young guardsman, Gregory
Orlov, were undisturbed. Nor was Peter's behaviour to his
consort in public of the outrageous character we have been
led to suppose. Peter, in fact, was too good-natured and incon-
sequent to pursue, or even premeditate, any deliberate course
of ill treatment. No personal wrongs, but the deliberate deter-
mination of a strong-minded, capable woman to snatch the reins
of government from the hands of a semi-imbecile, was the cause
of Peter's overthrow, and his stupendous blunders supplied
Catherine with her opportunity. Peter's foreign policy was
the absolute reversal of the policy of his predecessor. He had
not been on the throne for two months when he made pacific
overtures to the wellnigh vanquished king of Prussia, whom he
habitually alluded to as " the king my master." Peter's
enthusiastic worship of Frederick resulted in a peace (May 5)
and then (June 19) in an offensive and defensive alliance
between Russia and Prussia, whereby Peter restored to Prussia
all the territory won from her by Russia during the last five
years at such an enormous expense of men and money, and
engaged to defend Frederick against all his enemies. This was
followed up by a whole series of menacing rescripts addressed
by Peter to the court of Vienna, in which war was threatened unless
Austria instantly complied with all the demands of the king
of Prussia. Finally he picked a quarrel with Denmark for not
accepting as an ultimatum the terms to be submitted by Russia
to a peace conference to meet at Berlin for the purpose of
adjusting the differences between the two powers. On the 6th
of July the Russian army received orders to invade Denmark
by way of Mecklenburg. This advance was only arrested,
when the opposing forces were almost within touch of each
other, by the tidings that a revolution had taken place at St
Petersburg, and that Peter III. was already a prisoner in the
hands of his consort. The coup d'etat of the 9th of July 1762
properly belongs to the history of Catherine II. (q.v.). Here
only a few words must be said as to the mysterious death of
Peter at the castle of Ropsha, to which he was removed imme-
diately after his surrender. Here he remained from the evening
of the 9th to the afternoon of the 18th of July. At first Catherine
and her counsellors could not make up their minds what to do
with " the former emperor." Imprisonment in Schliisselburg
for life, or repatriation to Holstein, were proposed only to be
rejected as dangerous. The Orlovs had even stronger motives
than Catherine for suppressing the ex-emperor, for Gregory
Orlov aspired to win the hand as well as the heart of his imperial
mistress, and so long as Catherine's lawful husband lived, even
in a prison, such a union would be impossible. The available
evidence points to the irresistible conclusion that on the after-
noon of the 18th of July 1762, Peter III., with his consort's con-
nivance, was brutally murdered at Ropsha by Alexius Orlov,
Theodore Baryatinski, and several other persons still unknown.
See R. N. Bain, Peter III., Emperor of Russia (London, 1902);
V. A. Bilbasov, History of Catherine II. (Rus.), vol. i. (Berlin,
1900). (R. N. B.)

PETER (Pedro), the name of several Spanish kings.

Peter I., king of Aragon (d. 1104), son of Sancho Ramirez,
the third in order of the historic kings of Aragon, belonged to
times anterior to the authentic written history of his kingdom;
and little is known of him save that he recovered Huesca from
the Mahommedans in 1096.

Peter II., king of Aragon (1174-1213), son of Alphonso II.
and his wife Sancia, daughter of Alphonso VIII. of Castile,
was born in 11 74. He had a very marked and curious personal
character. As sovereign of lands on both sides of the Pyrenees,
he was affected by very different influences. In his character
of Spanish prince he was a crusader, and he took a distinguished
part in the great victory over the Almohades at the Navas de
Tolosa in 1 21 2. But his lands to the north of the Pyrenees
brought him into close relations with the Albigenses. He was
a favourer of the troubadours, and in his ways of life he indulged
in the laxity of Provencal morals to the fullest extent. We
are told in the chronicle written by Desclot soon after his time,

292

PETER DES ROCHES

that Peter was only trapped into cohabiting with his wife by
the device which is familiar to readers of Measure for Measure.
In the year after the battle of the Navas de Tolosa he took up
arms against the crusaders of Simon of Montfort, moved not
by sympathy with the Albigenses, but by the natural political
hostility of the southern princes to the conquering intervention
of the north under pretence of religious zeal. His son records
the way in which he spent the night before the battle of Muret
with a crudity of language which defies translation, and tells us
that his father was too exhausted in the morning to stand at
Mass, and had to be lifted into the saddle by his squires. Peter
none the less showed the greatest personal valour, and his body,
recognizable by his lofty stature and personal beauty, was
found on the field after the rout (Sept. 12, 12 13).

See Chronicle of James I. of Aragon, translated by J. Forster
(London, 1883) ; and Life and Times of James the First the Conqueror,
by F. Darwin Swift (Oxford, 1894).

Peter III., king of Aragon (1236-1286), son of James the
Conqueror, and his wife Yolande, daughter of Andrew II. of
Hungary, was born in 1236. Having married Constance,
daughter of Manfred of Beneventum, he came forward as the
representative of the claims of the Hohenstaufen in Naples
and Sicily against Charles, duke of Anjou. Peter began the
long strife of the Angevine and Aragonese parties in southern
Italy. His success in conquering Sicily earned him the surname
of " the Great." He! repelled an invasion of Catalonia under-
taken by the king of France in support of Charles of Anjou, and
died on the 8th of November 1286.

For the personal character of Peter III., the best witness is the
Chronicle of Ramonde Muntanez— reprinted in the original Catalan
by R. Lanz, Literarischer Verein in Stuttgart, vol. vii. (1844), and in
French by Buchon, Coll. des chroniques nationales (Pans, 1824-
1828). See also O. Cartellieri, Peter von Aragon und die Sizilian-
ische Vesper (Heidelberg, 1904).

Peter IV., king of Aragon (d. 1387), son of Alphonso IV.
and his wife Teresa d'Ente<;a, is known as " The Ceremonious "
and also as " he of the dagger." He acquired the first title
by the rigid etiquette he enforced, as one means of checking
the excessive freedom of his nobles. The second name was
given him because he wounded himself with his dagger in the
act of cutting to pieces the so-called " charter of the Union,"
which authorised the rebellions of his nobles, and which he
forced them to give up, after he had routed them at the battle
of Epila in 1348. Of no man of the 14th century can it be more
truly said that his life was a warfare on earth. He had first
to subdue his nobles, and to reannex the Balearic Islands to the
crown of Aragon. When he had made himself master at home,
he had to carry on a long and fierce contest with his namesake
Peter the Cruel of Castile, which only terminated when Henry
of Trastamara succeeded, largely with Aragonese help, in making
himself king of Castile in 1369. Peter succeeded in making
himself master of Sicily in 1377, but ceded the actual possession
of the island to his son Martin. He was three times married:
to Mary, daughter of Philip of Evreux, king of Navarre; to
Eleanor, daughter of Alphonso IV. of Portugal; and to Eleanor,
daughter of Peter II. of Sicily, his cousin. The marriage of his
daughter by his third marriage, Eleanor, with John I. of Castile,
carried the crown of Aragon to the Castilian line when his male
representatives became extinct on the death of his son Martin
in 1410.

See Zurita, Anales de Aragon (Saragossa, 1610).

Peter, " the Cruel," king of Castile (1333-1369), son of
Alphonso XI. and Maria, daughter of Alphonso IV. of Portugal,
was born in 1333. He earned for himself the reputation of
monstrous cruelty which is indicatd by the accepted title. In
later ages, when the royal authority was thoroughly established,
there was a reaction in Peter's favour, and an alternative name
was found for him. It became a fashion to speak of him as
El Jusliciero, the executor of justice. Apologists were found to
say that he had only killed men who themselves would not
submit to the law or respect the rights of others. There is
this amount of foundation for the plea, that the chronicler
Lopez de Ayala, who fought against him, has confessed that the

king's fall was regretted by the merchants and traders, who
enjoyed security under his rule. Peter began to reign at the
age of sixteen, and found himself subjected to the control of
his mother and her favourites. He was immoral, and unfaithful
to his wife, as his father had been. But Alphonso XL did not
imprison his wife, or cause her to be murdered. Peter certainly
did the first, and there can be little doubt that he did the second.
He had not even the excuse that he was passionately in love with
his mistress, Maria de Padilla; for, at a time when he asserted
that he was married to her, and when he was undoubtedly
married to Blanche of Bourbon, he went through the form
of marriage with a lady of the family of Castro, who bore him
a son, and then deserted her. Maria de Padilla was only the
one lady of his harem of whom he never became quite tired.
At first he was controlled by his mother, but emancipated
himself with the encouragement of the minister Albuquerque
and became attached to Maria de Padilla. Maria turned him
against Albuquerque. In 1354 the king was practically coerced
by his mother and the nobles into marrying Blanche of Bourbon,
but deserted her at once. A period of turmoil followed in which
the king was for a time overpowered and in effect imprisoned.
The dissensions of the party which was striving to coerce him
enabled him to escape from Toro, where he was under observation,
to Segovia. From 1356 to 1366 he was master, and was engaged
in continual wars with Aragon, in which he showed neither
ability nor daring. It was during this period that he perpetrated
the series of murders which made him odious. He confided in
nobody save the Jews, who were his tax-gatherers, or the
Mahommedan guard he had about him. The profound hatred
of the Christians for the Jews and Mudejares, or Mahommedans
settled among them, dates from the years in which they were
the agents of his unbridled tyranny. In 1366 he was assailed by
his bastard brother Henry of Trastamara at the head of a host
of soldiers of fortune, and fled the kingdom without daring to
give battle. Almost his last act in Spain was to murder Suero,
the archbishop of Santiago, and the dean, Peralvarez. Peter
now took refuge with the Black Prince, by whom he was restored
in the following year. But he disgusted his ally by his faithless-
ness and ferocity. The health of the Black Prince broke down,
and he left Spain. When thrown on his own resources, Peter
was soon overthrown by his brother Henry, with the aid of
Bertrand du Guesclin and a body of French free companions.
He was murdered by Henry in du Guesclin's tent on the 23rd
of March 1369. His daughters by Maria de Padilla, Constance
and Isabella, were respectively married to John of Gaunt, and
Edmund, duke of York, sons of Edward III., king of England.

The great original but hostile authority for the life of Peter the
Cruel is the Chronicle of the Chancellor Pero Lopez de Ayala (Madrid
.1779-1780). A brilliantly written Life is that by Prosper M^rimee,
Hist, de Don Pldre I., roi de Castille (Paris, 1848). (D. H.)

PETER DES ROCHES (d. 1238), bishop of Winchester under
John and Henry III., and conspicuous among the foreign favour-
ites to whom these sovereigns owed much of their unpopularity,
was a Poitevin by extraction. He received the office of chamber-
lain towards the close of Richard's reign, and under Richard's
successor became an influential counsellor. In 1205, doubtless
through John's influence, he was elected to the see of Winchester.
His election was disputed but, on appeal, confirmed by Pope
Innocent III., who honoured Peter by consecrating him in
person. None the less, the new bishop stood by his royal patron
during the whole period of the interdict. In 1213 he was made
justiciar in succession to Geoffrey Fitz Peter. This promotion
was justified by the fidelity with which Peter supported the
king through the barons' war. At the battle of Lincoln (121 7)
Peter led a division of the royal army and earned some distinc-
tion by his valour; but he played a secondary part in the
government so long as William Marshal held the regency.
After Marshal's death (1219) Peter led the baronial opposition
to Hubert de Burgh, with varying success. At first the justiciar
was successful. In 1221 Peter meditated going on crusade;
1 2 23-1 2 24 saw his party broken up by Hubert's energetic
measures; in 1227 was himself dismissed from his office and

PETER LOMBARD— PETER OF COURTENAY

293

turned his back on England to join the crusade of the emperor
Frederick II. He was absent from England until 1231; but in
the meantime enhanced his reputation both as a soldier and
diplomatist. After the fall of De Burgh he kept in the back-
ground, but offices and honours were heaped on his dependants,
especially on his nephew, Peter des Rievaulx, and other Poitevins.
This foreign party triumphed over the revolt which was headed
by Richard Marshal in 1233. But the primate, Edmund
Rich, voiced the general feeling when he denounced Peter
as a mischief maker, and demanded that he should be
dismissed from court. The king complied, and threatened
the bishop with charges of malversation. Peter was how-
ever permitted to leave the country with a pardon (123 5);
he conciliated Gregory IX. by rendering efficient aid in
a war with the citizens of Rome (1235); and in the next year
returned without molestation to his see. He was invited to go
as the king's envoy to the court of Frederick II., but refused
apparently on the score of ill health. His public reconciliation
with De Burgh (1236), effected through the mediation of the
papal legate, provided a dramatic close to their long rivalry,
but had no political significance, since both were now living in
retirement. Peter died in 1238, and was buried at Winchester.
He was undoubtedly a man of a winning personality, a good
diplomat and financier, a statesman whose unpopularity was
due in some measure to his freedom from the insularity of the
Englishmen, against whom he matched himself. But his name
is associated with a worthless clique of favourites, and with
the first steps which were taken by Henry III. to establish a
feeble and corrupt autocracy.

See C. Petit Dutaillis, Vie et regne de Louis VIII. (Paris, 1894);
Lecointre Dupont, Pierre des Roches (Poitiers, 1868); Stubbs's Con-
stitutional History of England, vol. ii. ; H. W. C. Davis, England under
the Normans and Angevins (1905) ; T. F. Tout in the Political History
of England, vol. iii. (1905). (H. W. C. D.)

PETER LOMBARD (c. 1100-c. 1160), bishop of Paris, better
known as M agister sententiarum, the son of obscure parents,
was born about the beginning of the 12th century, at Novara
(then reckoned as belonging to Lombardy). After receiving
his education at Bologna, he removed to France, bearing a
recommendation to Bernard of Clairvaux, who first placed him
under Lotolf at Reims, and afterwards sent him to Paris with
letters to Gilduin, the abbot of St Victor. He soon became
known as a teacher, and obtained a theological chair in the
cathedral school. His famous textbook, the Sententiae, was
written between 1145 and 11 50. On the 29th of June 1159 he
became bishop of Paris. The accounts of his bishopric are
satisfactory. There is a charge that he was guilty of simony,
having received his office through the favour of Philip, brother
of Louis VII., his former pupil. The date of his death is
uncertain. According to one account he died on the 20th of
July 1 1 60, and as Maurice de Sully became bishop that year the
statement seems probable. Yet there is evidence for a later
date, and he may have been set aside for simony.

His famous theological handbook, Sententiarum libri qualuor,
is, as the title implies, primarily a collection of opinions of the
fathers, " sententiae patrum." These are arranged, professedly on
the basis of the aphori c m of Augustine, Lombard's favourite author-
ity, that " omnis doccrina vel rerum est vel signorum," into four
books, of which the first treats of God, the second of the creature,
the third of the incarnation, the work of redemption, and the
virtues, and the fourth of the seven sacraments and eschatology.
The Sententiae show the influence of Abelard, both in method and
arrangement, but lack entirely the daring of Sic et Non. Compared
with that book they are tame. Gratian's Concordia discordantium
canonum, as he called his Decretum, was another strong influence,
Lombard doing in a sense for theology what Gratian did for the canon
law. The influence of Hugh of St Victor is also marked. The rela-
tion to the " sentences " of a Gandulph of Bologna (still unpublished)
has not been established. The most important thing in the book was
its crystallization of the doctrine concerning the sacramental system,
by the definite assertion of the doctrine of the seven sacraments,
and the acceptance of a definition of sacrament, not merely as "a
sign of a sacred thing," but as itself " capable of conveying the grace
of which it is the sign." The sentences soon attained immense
popularity, ultimately becoming the text-book in almost every
theological school, and giving rise to endless commentaries, over 180
of these being written in England. In 1300 the theological professors

of Paris agreed in the rejection of sixteen propositions taken from
Lombard, but their decision was far from obtaining universal
currency.

Besides the Sententiae, Lombard wrote numerous commentaries
(e.g. on the Psalms, Canticles, Job, the Gospel Harmony, and the
Pauline Epistles), sermons and letters, which still exist in MS. The
Glossae seu commentarius in psalmos Davidis, were first published
at Paris in 1533.

Lombard's collected works have been published in J. P. Migne's
Patrologie latine, Tome 191 and 192. See also Denifle and Chatelain,
Chartularium universitalis parisiensis, Tome i. (Paris, 1889) ; Protois,
Pierre Lombard, son epoque, sa vie, ses ecrits, son influence (Paris,
1881) ; Kogel, Petrus Lombard in seiner Stellung zur Philosophic des
Mittelalters (Leipzig, 1897); A. Harnack, Dogmengeschichte, Bd.
iii. (1890; Eng. trans. 1894-1899); and the article in Herzog-Hauck's
Realencyklopadie, Bd. xi. (Leipzig, 1902).

PETER OF AIGUEBLANCHE (d. 1268), bishop of Hereford,
belonged to a noble family of Savoy and came to England in
1236 with his master, William of Savoy, bishop of Valence, being
in attendance on Eleanor of Provence, the bride of Henry III.
A year or two later he is found residing permanently in England
as a member of the king's court; before 1239 he was archdeacon
of Salop, and in 1240 he was chosen bishop of Hereford. In
1255 Peter acted as Henry's principal agent in the matter
of accepting the kingdom of Sicily from Pope Alexander IV.
for his son Edmund, and his rapacious and dishonest methods
of raising money for this foolish enterprise added not a little
to the unpopularity which surrounded the king and his foreign
favourites. When civil war broke out between Henry and his
barons the bishop remained loyal to his master, and whilst
residing, almost for the first time, at Hereford he was taken
prisoner in May 1263. He was, however, released when the
king and his enemies came to terms, and after a stay in France
he retired to Savoy, where he died on the 27 th of November
1268.

See F. Mugnier, Les Savoyards en Angleterre au XIII" siecle et
Pierre a" Aigueblanche (Chambery, 1890).

PETER OF BLOIS [Petrus Blesensis] (c. 1135-c 1205),
French writer, the son of noble Breton parents, was born at
Blois. He studied jurisprudence at Bologna and theology in
Paris, and in 1167 he went to Sicily, where he became tutor to
the young king William II., and keeper of the royal seal (sigil-
larius). But he made many enemies and soon asked permission
to leave the country; his request was granted and about n 70 he
returned to France. After spending some time teaching in
Paris and serving Rotrou de Perche, archbishop of Rouen, as
secretary, Peter entered the employ of Henry II. of England
about 1 1 73. He quickly became archdeacon of Bath and soon
afterwards chancellor, or secretary, to Richard, archbishop of
Canterbury, and to Richard's successor, Baldwin, being sent
on two occasions to Italy to plead the cause of these prelates
before the pope. After the death of Henry II. in 1189, he was
for a time secretary to his widow, Eleanor, in Normandy; he
obtained the posts of dean of Wolverhampton and archdeacon
of London, but he appears to have been very discontented in his
later years. He died some time after March 1204.

Peter's writings fall into four classes, letters, treatises, sermons
and poems. His Epistolae, which were collected at the request of
Henry II., are an important source for the history of the time;
they are addressed to Henry II. and to various prelates and scholars,
including Thomas Becket and John of Salisbury. His treatises
include De Ierosolymitana peregrinatione acceleranda, an exhortation
to take part in the third crusade, and Dialogus inter regem Henricum
II. et abbatem Bonaevallensem; his extant sermons number 65 and
his poems are unimportant. Peter's works have been printed in
several collections, including the Patrologia of J. P. Migne and the
Historiae francorum scriptores of A. Duchesne. Of separate editions
the best are those by Pierre de Goussainville (Paris, 1667) and J. A.
Giles (Oxford, 1846-1847).

See the Histoire litteraire de la France, Tome xv. ; W. Stubbs,
Lectures on Medieval and Modern History (Oxford, 1886); Sir T. D.
Hardy, Descriptive Catalogue of Materials relating to the History
of Great Britain (1862-1867), and C. L. Kingsford in vol. xlv. of the
Dictionary of National Biography (1896).

PETER OF COURTENAY (d. 1219), emperor of Romania (or
Constantinople), was a son of Peter of Courtenay (d. 1183), and
a grandson of the French king, Louis VI. Having, by a first
marriage, obtained the counties of Nevers and Auxerre, he took

PETER OF DUISBURG— PETER THE HERMIT

294

for his second wife, Yolande (d. 1219), a sister of Baldwin and
Henry of Flanders, who were afterwards the first and second
emperors of the Latin Empire of Constantinople. Peter accom-
panied his cousin, King Philip Augustus, on the crusade of 1190,
fought against the Albigenses, and was present at the battle
of Bouvines in 12 14. When his brother-in-law, the emperor
Henry, died without sons in 12 16, Peter was chosen as his
successor, and with a small army set out from France to take
possession of his throne. Consecrated emperor at Rome, in a
church outside the walls, by Pope Honorius III. on the 9th of
April 1 217, he borrowed some ships from the Venetians, prom-
ising in return to conquer Durazzo for them; but he failed in
this enterprise, and sought to make his way .to Constantinople
by land. On the journey he was seized by the despot of Epirus,
Theodore Angelus, and, after an imprisonment of two years,
died, probably by foul means. Peter thus never governed his
empire, which, however, was ruled for a time by his wife,
Yolande, who had succeeded in reaching Constantinople. Two
of his sons, Robert and Baldwin, became in turn emperors of
Constantinople.

PETER OF DUISBURG (d. c. 1326), German chronicler, was
born at Duisburg, and became a priest-brother of the Teutonic
Order. He wrote the Chronicon terrae Prussiae, dedicated to
the grand-master, Werner bf Orseln, which is one of the chief
authorities for the history of the order in Prussia. There is a
rhyming translation in German by Nicholas of Jeroschin, which,
together with the original, is published in Bd. I. of the
Scriptores rerum prussicarum (Leipzig, 1861).

See M. Toppen, Geschichte der preussischen Historiographie (Berlin,
1853) ; a "d W. Fuchs, Peter von Duisburg und das Chronicon olivense
(Konigsberg, 1884).

PETER OF MARICOURT (13th century), a French savant, to
whom his disciple, Roger Bacon, pays the highest tribute in his
opus tertium and other works. According to Bacon he was a
recluse who devoted himself to the study of nature, was able to
work metals, invented armour and assisted St Louis in one of
his expeditions more than his whole army. According to Emile
Charles {Roger Bacon sa vie, ses ouvrages, ses doctrines, 1861),
Peter of Maricourt is the Pierre Peregrin (or Pelerin) de Maricourt
(Meharicourt in Picardy), known also as Petrus Peregrinus of
Picardy, one of whose letters, De magnete, is partly reproduced
in Libri's Hist, des sciences matMmatiques en Italie (1838), ii.
70-71, 487-505-

PETER OF SAVOY (c. 1203-1268), earl of Richmond, younger

son of Thomas I. (Tommaso), count of Savoy, was born at Susa.

After spending some years as an ecclesiastic he resigned his

preferments, and in 1234 married his cousin Agnes, daughter

and heiress of Aymon II., lord of Faucigny. Accepting an

invitation from the English king, Henry III., who had married

his niece, Eleanor of Provence, Peter came to England in 1240,

and was created earl of Richmond, receiving also large estates

and being appointed to several important offices. During

several visits to the continent of Europe Peter had largely

increased his possessions in Vaud and the neighbourhood, and

returning to England in 1252 he became associated with Simon

de Montfort, retaining at the same time the king's friendship.

Having been employed by Henry to negotiate with the pope

and with Louis IX. of France, he supported Earl Simon in his

efforts to impose restrictions upon the royal power; but, more

moderate than many members of the baronial party, went over

to Henry's side in 1 260, and was consequently removed from the

council. In 1263 he left England, and when his nephew,

Boniface, count of Savoy, died in the same year he assumed the

title of count of Savoy. This was also claimed by another

nephew, Thomas; but Peter compelled the inhabitants of Turin

to submit to him and secured possession of the county. He died

on the 16th or 17th of May' 1268, leaving an only child, Beatrice

(d. 13 10). Peter gave to the castle of Chillon its present form,

and his name to the Savoy palace in London. He has been

called le petit Charlemagne, and was greatly praised for his valour

and his wisdom.

See L. Wursteraberger, Peter der Zweite, Graf von Savoyen (Zurich,

1858); F. Mugnier, Les Savoyards en Angleterre (Chambfiry, 1890);
and C. Bemont, Simon de Montfort (Paris, 1884).

PETER THE HERMIT, a priest of Amiens, who may, as Anna
Comnena says, have attempted to go on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem
before 1096, and have been prevented by the Turks from reaching
his destination. It is uncertain whether he was present at Urban's
great sermon at Clermont in 1095; but it is certain that he was one
of the preachers of the crusade in France after that sermon, and
his own experience may have helped to give fire to his eloquence.
He soon leapt into fame as an emotional revivalist preacher: his
very ass became an object of popular adoration; and thousands
of peasants eagerly took the cross at his bidding. The crusade
of the pauperes, which forms the first act in the first crusade, was
his work; and he himself led one of the five sections of the
pauperes to Constantinople, starting from Cologne in April,
and arriving at Constantinople at the end of July 1096. Here
he joined the only other section which had succeeded in reaching
Constantinople — that of Walter the Penniless; and with the
joint forces, which had made themselves a nuisance by pilfering,
he crossed to the Asiatic shore in the beginning of August. In
spite of his warnings, the pauperes began hostilities against the
Turks; and Peter returned to Constantinople, either in despair
at their recklessness, or in the hope of procuring supplies. In
his absence the army was cut to pieces by the Turks; and he was
left in Constantinople without any followers, during the winter
of 1096-1097, to wait for the coming of the princes. He joined
himself to their ranks in May 1097, with a little following which
he seems to have collected, and marched with them through
Asia Minor to Jerusalem. But he played a very subordinate
part in the history of the first crusade. He appears, in the
beginning of 1098, as attempting to escape from the privations
of the siege of Antioch — showing himself, as Guibert of Nogent
says, a " fallen star." In the middle of the year he was sent by
the princes to invite Kerbogha to settle all differences by a duel;
and in 1099 he appears as treasurer of the alms at the siege of
Area (March), and as leader of the supplicatory processions in
Jerusalem which preceded the battle of Ascalon (August).
At the end of the year he went to Laodicea, and sailed thence
for the West. From this time he disappears; but Albert of Aix
records that he died in n 51, as prior of a church of the Holy
Sepulchre which he had founded in France.

Legend has made Peter the Hermit the author and originator
of the first crusade. It has told how, in an early visit to Jeru-
salem, before 1096, Christ appeared to him in the Church of the
Sepulchre, and bade him preach the crusade. The legend is
without any basis in fact, though it appears in the pages of
William of Tyre. Its origin is, however, a matter of some
interest. Von Sybel, in his Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges,
suggests that in the camp of the pauperes (which existed side by
side with that of the knights, and grew increasingly large as the
crusade told more and more heavily in its progress on the purses
of the crusaders) some idolization of Peter the Hermit had
already begun, during the first crusade, parallel to the similar
glorification of Godfrey by the Lorrainers. In this idolization
Peter naturally became the instigator of the crusade, just as
Godfrey became the founder of the kingdom of Jerusalem and the
legislator of the assizes. This version of Peter's career seems as
old as the Chanson des chetifs, a poem which Raymond of Antioch
caused to be composed in honour of the Hermit and his followers,
soon after 1130. It also appears in the pages of Albert of Aix,
who wrote somewhere about 1130; and from Albert it was
borrowed by William of Tyre. The whole legend of Peter is
an excellent instance of the legendary amplification of the first
crusade — an amplification which, beginning during the crusade
itself, in the " idolizations " of the different camps (idola cas-
trorum, if one may pervert Bacon), soon developed into a regular
saga. This saga found its most piquant beginning in the
Hermit's vision at Jerusalem, and there it accordingly began —
alike in Albert, followed by William of Tyre and in the Chanson
des chetifs, followed by the later Chanson d'Antioche.

The original authorities for the story of Peter the Hermit are:
for the authentic Peter, Anna Comnena and the Gesta Francorum;

PETER THE WILD BOY— PETER, EPISTLES OF

for the legendary Peter, Albert of Aix. The whole career of the
Hermit has been thoroughly and excellently discussed by H. Hagen-
meyer, Peter der Heremite (Leipzig, 1879). (E. Br.)

PETER THE WILD BOY (fl. 1725-1785), a Hanoverian

imbecile of unknown parentage, who, having been found living

wild in the woods near Hanover in 1725, was brought to England

by order of George I., whose interest had been aroused in the

unfortunate youth. An extraordinary amount of curiosity and

speculation concerning Peter was excited in London, and the

craze was the subject of a biting satire by Swift, and of another

entitled The Most Wonderful Wonder that ever appeared to the

Wonder of the British Nation, which has been attributed to Swift

and Arbuthnot; Defoe also wrote on the subject, and Lord

Monboddo in his Origin and Progress of Language presents the

idiot Peter as an illustration of his theory of the evolution of

the human species. He lived to an advanced age, was seen by

Lord Monboddo in 1782, and died in 1785.

See Henry Wilson, The Booh of Wonderful Characters (London,
1869).

PETER, EPISTLES OF, the two books of the New Testament
traditionally ascribed to the apostle Peter.

1 Peter
This epistle is addressed to " the elect who are sojourners
of the Dispersion [Diaspora] in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia,
Asia and Bithynia." The " Diaspora " was the name generally
given to the Jews who were " scattered abroad." This suggests
that the letter was intended for Jewish Christians in the provinces
mentioned. But i. 14, 18; ii. 9, 10; iv. 3 point rather to Gentile
Christians, and it is better to take this view, and interpret the
" Diaspora " metaphorically as referring to the isolated position of
Christians among the heathen. The general impression made by
the epistle is that the central idea was to strengthen the courage
of the recipients, who were likely to undergo per-
secution, and to enjoin on them conduct which
would remove all reasonable excuse for thinking
that Christianity ought to be regarded as a crime.

Ch. i. 3-12 is an introduction of praise to God that
he had caused the recipients of the epistle to be
born again to the living hope in a glorious salvation.
The rest of the epistle may be divided into three parts :
(a) i. 13— ii. 10, mainly hortatory injunctions to live
holy lives in accordance with this new birth, and to
grow up as God's people in communion with Christ ;
ifi) ii. 11-iv. 6, particular directions as to the
line of conduct to be pursued towards the Gentiles and
towards those in authority, with special reference to the relations
of slaves to masters, of wives and husbands to each other, and of
Christians to one another ; to the first of these a passage is appended
dealing with the sufferings of Christ as an example (ii. 21-25), an d
the whole is completed by an exhortation to meekness and patience
in suffering, in the light of the sufferings of Christ and the blessings
given by them both to the living and to the dead ; (7) iv. 7-v. 1 1 ,
has less cohesion. It begins with exhortations not to forget prayer
and love, then the believers are warned to be careful to suffer only as
Christians, not as breakers of the laws. The elders and the younger
men are reminded of their duties to the community and to one
another. The whole is brought to a close with an exhortation to all
to fight manfully against the devil and to trust in God.

Date and Authorship. — These two questions are so closely
connected that they cannot be considered separately. The
external evidence of tradition is that the epistle was written by
St Peter. This can be traced back to Irenaeus (iv. 9, 2) and
Clement of Alexandria (Strom, iii. 18, no), and it is thought by
many writers that 2 Peter iii. 1, even if it be not itself Petrine,
is good evidence that the writer regarded 1 Peter as apostolic.
Evidence for its use, without mention of its name, may be found
in Polycarp, but probably not in the other apostolic fathers
(cf. The N.T. in the Apostolic Fathers, Oxford, 1905, p. 137). It
is, however, possible that Papias made use of it. It is doubtful
whether Justin Martyr used it, but probable that it was known
to Theophilus of Antioch. It is not mentioned in the canon
of Muratori. Thus external evidence, though unanimous in
favour of the Petrine authorship, is not sufficient to settle the
question. The internal evidence consists of (a) evidence bearing
on the date in connexion with the persecution of Christians,
03) evidence establishing the relation of the epistle to other

295

documents in early Christian history, and (7) evidence concerning
St Peter personally.

(a) It is clear from I Peter i. 6, ii. 12, iv. 12-19, v - 9. that the
epistle was written during a time of persecution. The question
which is doubtful is to which persecution the description best
applies. The traditional opinion was that the persecution referred
to was that under Nero. But it has been argued that the Neroine
persecution according to Tacitus (Ann. xv. 44) was not a persecution
of Christians as such, but was rather the result of false accusation.
Moreover there is no proof that there was any persecution of
Christians at this time outside Rome, and I Peter alludes to per-
secution in the provinces of Asia Minor. Therefore many critics
have felt obliged to bring the epistle into connexion with the epistle
of Pliny to Trajan, written c. 112, and asking for advice as to the
procedure to be followed in trials of Christians. This is. the earliest
evidence which implies organized persecution in the provinces in
question, and therefore Holtzmann, Weizsacker and others regard
this as fixing the date of the epistle in the beginning of the 2nd
century, and excluding the Petrine authorship. Against this view
it may be argued that the epistle describes the beginning of per-
secution. The writer still hopes that Christians will not be obliged
to suffer " for the name " and is clearly aware of false accusations
of crime. On the other hand Pliny's letter implies a time when
Christianity was in itself a crime and was recognized as such. Thus
it is urged, probably correctly, that the epistle belongs to the
beginning of a period of which Pliny's letter marks a later develop-
ment, and we can only say that c. 112 is the terminus ad quern. The
terminus a quo is more difficult to find. We do not know with cer-
tainty when Christianity became a recognized offence, and scholars
have supported various hypotheses. T. Mommsen, Hardy and
Sanday think that even under Nero it was criminal to be a Christian ;
Neumann thinks that this was first the case under Domitian; Sir
W. M. Ramsay believes that this attitude was one of the results of
the Jewish War of 70, and ascribes it to Vespasian. If the Domitianic
date be adopted the Petrine authorship is almost excluded, and it.
is difficult to reconcile the traditional date of St Peter's martyrdom
with Ramsay's theory.

(/S) The relations of I Peter to other books in early Christian
literature is shown in the following table : —

1 Pet.

Rom.

1

Pet.

Eph.

1 Pet.

Jas.

1 Pet. Polycarp.

i. 14 — xii. 2
ii. 5 — xii. 1
ii. 6-10 — ix. 32

i.

i.
ii.

1 seq

H
18

— i. 3seq.

— "• 3
— vi. 5

i. 1 — i.
i. 6 seq. — i.
i. 24 — i.

1

2 seq.
10

i. 8— i. 3
1. 13— ii. 1
i. 21 — ii. 1

11. 13

— Xlll. 1

111.

1

— v. 22

1. 23 — 1.

18

11. 11 — v. 3

111. 9

— xii. 17

111.

22

— 1.20

iv. 8 — v.

20

11. 12 X. 2

111. 22

— vm. 34

v.

5

V. 21

v. 5 seq. — iv.

6,10

11. 21 — vm. 1,2

iv. 3

— Xlll. 1 1

111. 9 — 11. 2

iv. 7
iv. 9
iv. 10

Xlll. 12

— xiii. 13
— xii. 6

iv. 7 — vn. 2
iv. 16 — viii. 2

From this table it is sufficiently plain that 1 Peter is closely connected
with Romans, Ephesians, James and Polycarp. The majority of
scholars are agreed that in the case of Romans the dependence is
on the side of I Peter, and in the case of Polycarp on the side of
Polycarp. There is less agreement as to Ephesians and James,
though in the former case the general opinion favours the dependence
of 1 Peter, in the latter case its priority. In England, however, the
priority of James has been supported by Mayor and Hort. In the
light of the established use of Romans it is possible that I Peter also
used other Pauline epistles and some scholars have seen special
traces of the influence of 1 Cor. and Gal. (for a list of these cf.
Holtzmann, Einleitung in das N.T., 3, p. 314). It has been argued
that the use of the Pauline epistles is improbable for Peter, but
this is a subjective argument which is not decisive.

(7) According to tradition Peter was martyred in Rome, and it
is probable that this was in the Neroine persecution. If this be so,
the year 64 is the terminus ad quern of the letter, if it be authentic.
Ramsay, however, thinks that Peter may have survived this persecu-
tion and suffered at the beginning of the persecutions which, he
thinks, were initiated by the Flavian emperors (see Peter, St : § 5,
4 and 6).

The whole question of authorship and date is thus a complex
of smaller problems, many of which do not seem to admit of
any definite answer. If St Paul's epistle to the Ephesians be
genuine, and it were really known to the writer of 1 Peter, and if
Peter were martyred in 64, the theory of Petrine authorship
demands that it was written by Peter between 59 and 64. On
the Petrine hypothesis this is the most probable view. The
weak point is that it assumes a great spread of Christianity in
the provinces of Asia Minor outside the activity of Paul, and that
the official persecution of Christians as" such began throughout
the Roman Empire under Nero, for neither of which is there

2g6

PETER, EPISTLES OF

corroborative evidence. On the non-Petrine hypothesis a date
is demanded some time before the letter of Pliny; this suits the
internal evidence better than any possible on the Petrine
hypothesis, but it fails to explain the really considerable and
early evidence for the Petrine authorship, and necessitates
some purely hypothetical suggestion, such as Harnack's view
that the epistle was originally anonymous, and that the opening
and closing sentences (i. i sqq., v. 12 sqq.) were added between
a.d. 150 and 175, perhaps by the writer of 2 Peter.

The Provenance of the Epistle. — This is defined in 1 Peter v. 13
as Babylon. It has sometimes been argued that this is Babylon
in Mesopotamia, in which there were, until the time of the em-
peror Caius, many Jews; but no good tradition connects St Peter
with the evangelization of Mesopotamia, and this district
would have had little in common with the Graeco-Roman world
of Asia Minor. Another suggestion is that the Egyptian Babylon
is meant (Old Cairo); but in the 1st century this was probably
merely a fortress. Thus there is an overwhelming weight of
opinion in favour of the view that Rome, the Babylon of
Apocalyptic literature, is intended. This also agrees with the
tradition in 2 Tim. iv. 1 1 , which (cf. 1 Pet. v. 13) suggests that
St Mark was in Rome.

Reception in the Canon. — 1 Peter seems to have been the
earliest of the Catholic epistles to obtain recognition. By the
year 200 it was accepted everywhere except in two places — the
church of Edessa, which did not receive the Catholic epistles
until the 5th century, and, if the canon of Muratori is to be
trusted, the church of Rome. It should, however, be noted that
Zahn emends the text of the Muratorianum (rather violently)
so as to include the epistle (see also Bible: New Testament
Canon.)

The Theology of 1 Peter. — The simplicity of the theology is marked,
and affords an argument for an early date. Jesus is the Messiah
of whom the prophets had spoken, and the " Spirit of Christ " is
identified with the spirit which was in them. His suffering for sin
had rescued the elect, and was also an example for Christians to
follow. After his death he preached to the " spirits in prison."
The source of Christian life is on the one hand belief in God who
raised the Messiah from the dead, and on the other hand baptism
which " saves . . . through the resurrection of Jesus Christ." The
members of the community are " a royal priesthood, a holy nation "
— i.e. inherit the promises made to the Jews, but this inheritance
is bound up with the strongly eschatological doctrine that Christians
are strangers in the world, the end of which is at hand.

The Church Organization of 1 Peter. — This also is very simple and
primitive, and closely based on the Jewish model. The leaders are
called presbyters or elders, and their duty is to act as shepherds to
the flock. Beyond this there is no sign of a developed organization :
each is to act in accordance with the gift (xapicryuo) which he has
received. There is no trace of a specially set apart ministry either
for the service of the community or for teaching, as to which the only
limitation given is " If any man speak let him speak as the oracles
of God," i.e. probably, in accordance with the Old Testament.

2 Peter

This epistle may be divided into five parts. (1) The writer
who describes himself as " Simon (var. lect. Symeon) Peter,
a servant and apostle of Jesus Christ," exhorts his readers to
become perfect in knowledge and virtue, so as to enter the
kingdom of Christ (i. 3-1 1). (2) He then explains his desire
once more to testify to the power of Jesus, and bases his testimony
partly on his own experience in the Holy Mount (apparently
a reference to the Transfiguration), and partly on the " word
of prophecy" (i. 12-21). (3) The mention of prophecy leads
him to deal with the question of false prophets, who are accused
of false doctrine and immoral practices. In this section is
incorporated almost the whole of the epistle of Jude (ii. 1-22).
(4) He then discusses a special feature of the false teaching,
viz. doubts thrown on the Parousia, the certainty of which
for the future he defends (iii. 1-13). Finally he warns his
hearers that they must be found spotless at the Parousia,
and emphasizes the agreement of his teaching with St Paul's
(iii. 14-18).

The main object of the epistle is to be seen in the attack
made on the false teachers, and in the defence of the certainty
of the Parousia of the Lord.

Authorship. — The traditional view is that it was written by
St Peter from Rome after 1 Peter. This view is however
untenable for the following reasons. (1) The epistle is not
quoted by any writer of the 2nd century, and Origen, who is
the first to mention it as Petrine, admits that its authorship was
disputed. (2) The style and language differ greatly from that
of 1 Peter: this argument may however fairly be met by the
suggestion that it is improbable that he wrote Greek with ease,
and that he may have used a variety of amanuenses. (3) The
growth of immorality and false teaching to which it witnesses
seems irreconcilable with a very primitive period of church life.

(4) It has incorporated the greater part of Jude in a whole-
sale manner difficult to reconcile with apostolical authorship.

(5) It seems to attribute a position of scriptural authority to
the Pauline epistles, and this is improbable either in the mouth
of Peter, or during the 1st century.

Any one of these arguments would be weighty by itself; in
combination they form an irresistible cumulative argument
against the Petrine authorship of 2 Peter.

Date. — If the Petrine authorship be abandoned, the terminus
ad quern of the epistle is its use by Origen (or, just possibly, by
Clement of Alexandria), and the terminus a quo is fixed by the
following considerations: (1) the activity of an immoral
Gnosticism; (2) the attainment by the Pauline epistles of great
authority, and their perversion by heretics; (3) the use made
of the epistle of Jude.

It is difficult to define the exact date to which these indications
point, but there is a general agreement that it must be sought
in the 2nd century, and perhaps the decades immediately before
and after the year a.d. 150 are the most probable.

Place of Origin. — There is hardly any evidence on this point:
but the most probable place seems to be Egypt, as the letter has
points of connexion with Philo, Clement of Alexandria and the
Apocalypse of Peter, and seems first to have been used in the
church of Alexandria. It should however be noted that Deiss-
mann argues on lexical grounds in favour of Asia Minor [Bibel
Stud. pp. 277-284).

Relation to other Early Christian Documents. — The documents
with which 2 Peter has the greatest affinities are the epistle
of Jude, and the Apocalypse of Peter, of which a fragment was
found in Akhmim in 1892 by M Bouriant. In each case the
affinity is very close, and is capableof more than one explanation.
Roughly speaking 2 Peter ii. reproduces Jude: it is possible
therefore either that Jude is an epitome of 2 Peter or that the
writer of 2 Peter used Jude. The former hypothesis has a few
supporters, notably T. Zahn and Spitta, but most writers are
emphatic in thinking that 2 Peter has incorporated Jude, and
this view is almost certainly correct (see Jude, Epistle oe).
The connexion with the Apocalypse of Peter is more complicated:
the evidence of a comparison between the two documents (which
is made in full in F. H. Chase's article in Hastings's Dictionary
of the Bible) is to show that either one document is dependent
on the other, or both were written by the same person, or both
come from the same circle. Of these theories there is least to
be said for the dependence of the Apocalypse on 2 Peter, and
perhaps most for the dependence of 2 Peter on the Apocalypse.
Reception in the Canon. — 2 Peter was the last of the Catholic
epistles to be accepted as canonical. It was first regarded as
such in Alexandria, perhaps originally in connexion with the
Apocalypse of Peter rather than with 1 Peter. Thence it passed
into the canon used by the church of Constantinople, in the 4th
century made its way into the Roman canon, and in the 6th was
accepted last of all by the Syria church (see also Bible: New
Testament Canon).

The Theology of 2 Peter. — The theology of the epistle is specially
marked by two characteristics — its high Christology and its eschato-
logical character. Christ is referred to as " our God and Saviour,"
and the fatherhood of God is apparently only regarded as referring
to the Divine Son. The work of Christ was the redemption of
the elect, and this redemption awaits its consummation in the
Parousia. This is the central point of the teaching of the epistle
and is obviously directed against that of the false prophets. The
I writer looks forward to the destruction of the present world by fire,

PETERBOROUGH

297

when the wicked, whether angels or men, who have been reserved
for judgment will be finally condemned, and a new era of happiness
for the elect will begin.

Church Organization. — There is very little in 2 Peter which throws
light on church organization. From his silence it would appear that
the monarchial episcopacy did not yet exist in the church to which
the writer belonged, and perhaps the prophets were still the chief
guides, but the argument from silence cannot be pressed. In any
case the growth of false and immoral prophets, which ultimately
led to the obsolescence and suppression of this order, was far advanced
and was one of the reasons which led to the writing of the epistle.

Authorities. — Besides the books and articles already mentioned
the following are important: F. H. Chase, " Peter "and " Epistles
of Peter" in Hastings's Diet. Bible; P. W. Schmiedel, "Simon
Peter " in the Ency. Bib. ; Lightfoot, 5. Clement of Rome, 1, 201-315
and 11, 481-502; Harnack, Altchr. Litt. and Chronologie I (the rele-
vant sections). The relevant sections in the Introductions of
Holtzmann, T. Zahn, Jiilicher, Salmon, Weiss and Moffat. The
commentaries of Bigg, Mayor, F. Spitta, Kiihl (in Meyer's Commen-
tary), von Soden (in Holtzmann's Commentary), and Weiss.

(K. L.)
PETERBOROUGH, a town and port of entry of Ontario,
Canada, and capital of Peterborough county, situated 70 m.
N.E. of Toronto, on the Otonabee river and the Grand Trunk
and Canadian Pacific railways. Pop. (1901), 11,239. The
five falls of the Otonabee at this point, with a total descent
of 50 ft., furnish power for a large and increasing number of
manufacturing establishments, whilst its canalization as part
of the Trent canal gives communication with Lake Ontario and
Georgian Bay. Peterborough has an electric railway, and con-
tains important manufactories of electrical machinery and
•supplies, iron and steel bridges, agricultural implements and
cordage, saw, flour and woollen mills.

PETERBOROUGH, a city and municipal and parliamentary
borough of Northamptonshire, England, 76 m. N. from London
by the Great Northern railway; served also by the London &
North Western, Great Eastern and Midland railways. Pop.
(1891), 25,171; (1901), 30,872. It is built chiefly along the
river Nene, on the north side, and on the western border of the
Fen country.

The cathedral of St Peter is the third church that has occupied
the site; the first, founded under Penda, king of the Mercians,
about 656, was entirely destroyed by the Danes in 870, and the
second, founded in King Edgar's reign, was accidentally burnt
in 1 1 16. The present building, founded in the following year,
was, inclusive of the west front, 120 years in building, being
consecrated on the 4th of October 1237. It embraces in all,
however, eight periods of construction, and in no other building
can the transition be better studied through the various grades
of Norman to Early English, while the later addition is an
admirable example of Perpendicular.

The erection proceeded as usual from east to west, and, while
an increase in elegance and elaboration is observable in the later
parts, the character of the earlier buildings was so carefully kept in
mind that no sense of incongruity is produced. A series of uniform
Decorated windows were added throughout the church in the 14th
century, and their effect is rather to enhance than detract from the
unity of design. The choir, early Norman, terminating in an apse,
was founded in 11 17 or 11 18 by John de Sais or Sez, and dedicated
in 1 1 40 or 1 143; the aisles of both transepts and the whole of the
south transept were built by Martin of Bee, 1 140-1 155 ; the remaining
portions of the transepts and the central tower, of three stories, were
completed by William de Waterville, 1155-1175; the nave, late
Norman, was completed by Abbot Benedict, 1177-1193, who added
a beautiful painted roof of wood ; the western transepts, transitional
Norman, were the work of Abbot Andrew, 1 193-1200; the western
front, actually a vast portico of three arches, the unique feature of
the building, and one of the finest specimens of Early English
extant, must have been built between 1200 and 1250, during which
period there were several abbots; but there exists no record of its
reconstruction. The lady chapel, built parallel with the choir by
William Parys, prior, was consecrated in 1290; the bell-tower was
erected by Abbot Richard between 1260 and 1274; the south-west
spire, the pinnacles of the flanking tower of the west portal, and the
enlargement of the windows of the nave and aisles were the work
of Henry de Morcot in the beginning of the 14th century; the " new
building " or eastern chapel in the Perpendicular style, begun in
1438, was not completed till 1528. In 1541 the church was converted
into a cathedral, the abbot being made the first bishop. The
extreme length of the building is 471 ft., and of the nave 21 1 ft.,
the breadth of the west front being 156; the height of the central
tower, as reconstructed in the 14th century, was 150, that of the

spires and tower of the west front is 156 ft. In 1643 the building
was defaced by the soldiers of Cromwell, who destroyed nearly all
the brasses and monuments, burnt the ancient records, levelled the
altar and screen, defaced the windows, and demolished the cloisters.
To obtain materials for repairs the lady chapel was taken down.
In the latter part of the 18th century the church was repaved.
In 1 83 1 a throne, stalls and choir-screen were erected and other
restorations completed. On account of the insecure state of the
central tower in 1883 it was taken down; and its reconstruction,
exactly as it stood with the exception of the four corner turrets
added early in the 19th century, was completed in 1886. The choir
was reopened in 1889 after being closed, for thorough restoration,
for six years.

In 1895 the restoration of the west front and other parts was begun
in the face of considerable adverse criticism; but the work was
carried on with the utmost care. During the carrying out of this
work many interesting discoveries were made, the most important
being the site of the cruciform Saxon church, enclosed within a crypt
under the south transept. Catherine of Aragon was interred in the
cathedral in 1536, and Mary Queen of Scots in 1587, but the body of
the Scottish queen was removed to Westminster Abbey in 1612.
Both interments were superintended by Robert Scarlett the sexton,
commonly known as " Old Scarlett," whose portrait, a copy of the
original, hangs in the west transept. He died in 1594 at the age of
98. Of the monastic buildings there are some interesting remains.
The cathedral is approached by a Norman gateway, above which
is the chapel of St Nicholas, built by Abbot Benedict, and now used
as the music school, and on the left the chapel of St Thomas
a Becket, built by Abbot Ashton in the 15th century as it stands,
but originally Norman. The gateway to the bishop s palace, for-
merly the abbot's house, was built by Abbot Godfrey de Croyland
in 1319, and the deanery gate by Abbot Kirton about 1520. One of
the canonry houses is formed partly from a hall of the 13th century.

Peterborough is included for civil purposes in the parish of St
John the Baptist, but for ecclesiastical purposes it is divided into
four, the additional parishes being St Mary's Boongate (1857),
St Mark's (1858) and St Paul's (1869). The old parish church
of St John originally stood to the east of the cathedral, but was
rebuilt on its present site in the centre of the city (1401-1407)
in Perpendicular style. The educational establishments include
the Henry VIII. grammar or chapter school, which used the
chapel of St Thomas a. Becket until 1885; the St Peter's training
college for schoolmasters for the dioceses of Peterborough, Ely
and Lincoln, erected from designs of Sir Gilbert Scott (1864);
and Deacon's and Ireland's charity school, established in 1721
for the clothing and educating of twenty poor boys. The
principal public building is the market house (1671), used as a
town-hall. The modern prosperity and rapid growth of the
town are chiefly due to the trade caused by the junction of so
many railway lines. Adjoining the town are extensive works
and sheds connected with the Great Northern and Midland
railways. The principal manufacture is that of agricultural
implements. The parliamentary borough returns one member
(since 1885). The municipal borough, incorporated in 1874,
is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, i8r8
acres. The soke or liberty of Peterborough, with a population
of 41,122, constitutes a separate administrative county (1888).
The diocese of Peterborough includes the whole of Rutland,
nearly all Leicestershire and Northamptonshire, and small
portions of Derbyshire and Huntingdonshire.

Peterborough {Burgh, Burgus sancti Petri) is proved by its
original name Medehamstede to have been a Saxon village
before 655 when Saxulf, a monk, founded the monastery on
land granted to him for that purpose by Penda, king of Mercia.
Its name was altered to Burgh between 992 and 1005 after
Abbot Kenulf had made a wall round the minister, but the town
does not appear to have been a borough until the 12th century.
The burgesses received their first charter from " Abbot Robert,"
probably Robert of Sutton (1262-1273). Until the 19th century
the dean and chapter, who succeeded the abbot as lords of the
manor, appointed a high bailiff, and the constables and other
borough officers were elected at their court leet. but the borough
was incorporated in 1874 under the government of a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Among the privileges claimed
by the abbot as early as the 13th century was that of having
a prison for felons taken in the soke and borough. In 1576
Bishop Scamble sold the lordship of the hundred of Nassaburgh,
which is coextensive with the soke, to Queen Elizabeth, who

298

PETERBOROUGH AND MONMOUTH, EARL OF

gave it to Lord Burghley, and from that time until the 19th
century he and his descendants, marquesses of Exeter, had a
separate gaol in Peterborough for prisoners arrested in the soke.
The trades of weaving and woolcombing were carried on in
Peterborough in the 14th century. The abbot formerly held
four fairs, of which two, one called St Peter's fair, granted in
1 1 89 and now held on the second Tuesday and Wednesday in
July, and the other called the Bridge fair, granted in 1439 and
held on the first Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday in October,
still survive and were purchased by the corporation from the
ecclesiastical commissioners in 1876. Peterborough sent two
members to parliament for the first time in 1547.

PETERBOROUGH AND MONMOUTH, CHARLES MOR-
DAUNT, Earl of (c. 1658-1735), English soldier and statesman,
was born about 1658. His father, John Mordaunt, was created
Viscount Mordaunt of Avalon and Baron Mordaunt of Reigate,
Surrey, in 1659 ; J his mother was Elizabeth, the daughter and sole
heiress of Thomas Carey, the second son of Robert Carey, 1st
earl of Monmouth. 2 He matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford,
on the nth of April 1674. When about sixteen years of age
he joined Sir John Narborough's fleet in the Mediterranean, and
won his first distinction in arms in the destruction of the dey's
fleet under the very guns of Tripoli. His father died on the 5th
of June 1675, and Charles Mordaunt succeeded to the peerage
as Viscount Mordaunt. On his return from the second expedi-
tion to Tangier he plunged into active political life as a zealous
Whig and an unswerving opponent of the duke of York. But
his continued hostility to James II. forced him to repair to
Holland in 1686, when he proposed to William of Orange to
invade England. The disposition of the cold and cautious
William had little in common with the fierce and turbulent
Mordaunt. His plan was rejected, though the prudent prince
of Orange deemed it judicious to retain his services. When
William sailed to Torbay his friend accompanied him, and when
the Dutch prince was safely established on the throne of England
honours without stint were showered upon Lord Mordaunt.
He was sworn of the privy council on the 14th of February
1689, on the 8th of April of the same year appointed first lord
of the treasury, and a day later advanced in the peerage by
creation as earl of Monmouth.

In less than a year he was out of the treasury, but he still
remained by the person of his monarch and was with him in
his dangerous passage to Holland in January 1691. He was
one of the eighteen peers who signed the protest against the
rejection, on the 7th of December 1692, of the motion for the
appointment of a committee to inquire into the conduct of the
war, and although William had refused his consent to a bill for
triennial parliaments in the previous session, Lord Monmouth
did not shrink from reintroducing it in December 1693. This
led to a disagreement with the court, though the final breach
did not take place until January 1697, when Monmouth was
accused of complicity in Sir John Fenwick's conspiracy and
of the use of " undutiful words " towards the king. He was
committed to the Tower, staying in confinement until the 30th
of March 1697, and deprived of his employments. Some
consolation for these troubles came to him on the 19th of June
of the same year, when he succeeded to the earldom of Peter-
borough, by the death of his uncle Henry Mordaunt, 2nd earl.

The four years after his release from the Tower were mainly
passed in retirement, but on the accession of Anne he plunged
into political life again with avidity. His first act was to draw
down on himself in February 1702 the censure of the House of
Commons for the part which he took in the attempt to secure
the return of his nominee for the borough of Malmesbury.
Through the fear of the ministry that his restless spirit would
drive him into opposition to its measures if he stayed at home,
he was appointed early in 1705 to command an expedition of

1 A barony of Mordaunt by writ had existed in the family since
1529, and the viscount was the second son of the fifth of these
barons, who in 1628 was created earl of Peterborough, the elder son
Henry being second earl.

1 Cr. 1626. This peerage became extinct in 1661 on the death
of the 2nd earl.

English and Dutch troops in Spain. He was created the sole
commander of the land forces in April 1705 and joint-commander
with Sir Cloudesley Shovel of the fleet on the 1st of May, after
he had been reinstated a member of the privy council on the
29th of March. He arrived at Lisbon on the 20th of June 1705,
sailed for Barcelona (Aug. 1705) on an expedition for the
conquest of Catalonia, and began to besiege that town. For
some weeks the operations were not prosecuted with vigour
and Peterborough urged that the fleet should transport the
troops to Italy, but the energetic counsels of the Archduke
Charles at last prevailed and by the 14th of October the city
fell into his hands. On the 24th of January 1706 he entered
Valencia in triumph, but these movements had weakened the
garrison at Barcelona, which was now besieged by a superior
French force under Tesse. The garrison, commanded by the
archduke, defended their positions with great bravery, but
would have been obliged to surrender had not the fleet of Sir
John Leake, answering the appeals of Charles but contrary to
the original orders of Peterborough, come to their assistance
on the 8th of May, whereupon the French raised the siege on
the nth of May. It is difficult to understand the action of
Peterborough during this campaign, unless on the supposition
that he was out of sympathy with the movement for placing an
Austrian prince on the throne of Spain. When Charles deter-
mined upon uniting with Lord Galway's troops and marching
to Madrid, the advice of Peterborough again hindered his progress.
At first he urged an advance by Valencia as supplies had there
been collected, then he withdrew this statement; afterwards
he delayed for some weeks to join Galway, who was in need of
succour, but ultimately reached the camp on the 6th of August.
The leaders of the army differed in their views, and Lord
Peterborough was recalled to England to explain his conduct
(March 1707).

On his return to England in August he allied himself with the
Tories, and received his reward in being contrasted, much to
his advantage, with the Whig victor of Blenheim and Malplaquet.
The differences between the three peers, Peterborough, Galway
and Tyrawley, who had served in Spain, formed the subject
of angry debates in the Lords, when the majority declared for
Peterborough; after some fiery speeches the resolution that he
had performed many great and eminent services was carried,
and votes of thanks were passed to him without any division
(January and February 1708). His new friends were not
desirous of detaining him long on English soil, and they
sent him on a mission to Vienna, where he characteristically
engaged the ministry in pledges of which they disapproved.
His resentment at this disagreement was softened by the com-
mand of a cavalry regiment, and by his appointment as a Knight
of the Garter (Aug. 3 and 4, 1713). With the accession
of George I. Lord Peterborough's influence was gone. Worn
out with suffering, he died at Lisbon on the 25th of October
1735. His remains were brought to England, and buried at
Turvey in Bedfordshire on the 21st of November.

Lord Peterborough was short in stature and spare in habit of
body. His activity knew no bounds. He was said to have seen
more kings and postilions than any man in Europe, and the
whole point of Swift's lines on " Mordanto " consisted in a
description of the speed with which he hastened from capital
to capital. He was eloquent in debate and intrepid in war, but
his influence in the senate was ruined through his inconsistency,
and his vigour in the field was wasted through his want of union
with his colleagues. His first wife, Carey, daughter of Sir
Alexander Fraser of Dores, Kincardineshire, died on the 13th
of May 1709, and was buried at Turvey. Some years later
(1722) he secretly married Anastasia Robinson (c. 169 5-1 7 5 5), a
famous dramatic singer (from 17 14) of great beauty and sweet-
ness of disposition, daughter of Thomas Robinson (d. 1722),
a portrait painter; but she was at first unrecognized as his wife,
and lived apart from him (regarded merely as his mistress)
with her two sisters at Parson's Green. She remained
on the operatic stage, till 1724. It was only a few months
before his death that (after a second marriage ceremony) she

PETERHEAD— PETERS, H.

299

was introduced to society as the countess of Peterborough.
He had a son John (1681-1710) who predeceased him, and was
therefore succeeded in the title by his grandson Charles (1710-
1779), whose son Charles Henry (1758-1814), 5th earl, died
unmarried, the honours becoming extinct, except for the
barony of Mordaunt. which passed to a collateral branch and
fell into abeyance in 1836.

Bibliography. — The best accounts of the career of Peterborough
are in the life by William Stebbing (1890), and the War of the
Succession in Spain, by Colonel the Hon. Arthur Parnell (1905).
The earlier lives are founded on the memoir of Captain George
Carleton (1728), which was analysed by Colonel Parnell, and dis-
missed as a fictitious narrative inspired by Swift, in the Eng. Hist.
Rev. (1891), vi. 97-151). (W. P. C.)

PETERHEAD, a municipal and police burgh, and seaport of
Aberdeenshire, the most easterly town in Scotland. Pop.
(1901), 11,794. It is situated about 33 m. by road E.N.E. of
Aberdeen and 44J m. by rail, via Maud Junction, on the Great
North of Scotland railway, from which there is a branch line.
The town is built of the red granite for which it is famous, and
the quarrying of which for home and foreign use constitutes
an important industry. Among the principal buildings are the
town-house (1788), with a spire 125 ft. high, and the Arbuthnot
museum and art gallery. In front of the town-hall is a statue to
Field Marshal Keith (born at Inverugie Castle, 2 m. north-west,
in 1696), which was presented to the burgh in 1868 by William I.
of Prussia, afterwards German emperor. Peterhead is one
of the Elgin district group of parliamentary burghs, with Banff,
Cullen, Elgin, Inverurie and Kintore. It formerly had an
extensive trade with the ports of the Baltic, the Levant and
America, and was once a sub-port to Aberdeen, but was made
independent in 1832. It was also for a long period the chief
seat of the Greenland trade, but the Arctic seal and whale
fishery is now extinct. The north and south harbours lie
between the town and Keith Inch — a suburb at the extremity
of the peninsula on part of which the town is built — and the
isthmus dividing them is pierced by a canal crossed by an iron
swing-bridge. In the north harbour are two graving docks. A
third harbour has been built, the area of the three basins
amounting to 21 acres. In addition to the granite quarrying
and polishing, the leading industries are ship- and boat-building,
agricultural implement works and woollen manufactures. The
herring fleet possesses more than 600 boats and the annual
catch averages nearly £200,000. About a mile to the south
is the convict prison for Scotland. Since 1886 the prisoners
have been employed upon the construction of a vast harbour
of refuge, for which the breakwater extends from Boddam
Point northwards across the bay. This great undertaking
(intended to be completed in 1921) was designed by Sir John
Coode (d. 1892). Peterhead is the terminus of a cable to
Norway. About 6 m. south of Peterhead are the famous
Bullers, or Roarers, of Buchan, an enormous rocky cauldron
into which the waves pour through a natural arch of granite,
with incredible violence, in a storm.

The town and lands belonged of old to the Abbey of Deer,
built in the 13th century by William Comyn, earl of Buchan;
but when the abbey was erected into a temporal lordship in the
family of Keith the superiority of the town passed to the earl
marischal, with whom it continued till the forfeiture of the
earldom in 1716. The town and lands were purchased in 1720
by a fishing company in England and, on their failure, by the
Merchant Maidens' Hospital of Edinburgh for £3000, who are
still the overlords. Peterhead, made a burgh of barony in 1593
by George Keith, fifth earl marischal, was the scene of the
landing of the Pretender on Christmas Day 171 5.

PETERHOF, a town of Russia, in the government of St
Petersburg, 18 m. W. of the capital, on the south coast of the
Gulf of Finland. It was founded in 1711 and has grown up
round the palace built by Peter the Great in 1720; pop., 11,300.
Peterhof is almost exclusively a residential town, but gem-cutting
and the manufacture of agricultural implements are carried on.
The palace has undergone alterations and additions, e.g. by
Catharine II., but retains a distinct Petrine stamp.' It is built

on a height 50 ft. above the sea, and contains portraits of
the Russian imperial family and other pictures. A statue of
Peter the Great was set up near the palace in 1883, and one of
Francis I. of France in 1896, a gift from the town of Havre to
Nicholas II. Peterhof is connected with Oranienbaum on the
west and with Stryelna on the east by series of gardens and
villas.

PETERMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH (1822-1878), German
cartographer, was born at Bleicherode, near Nordhausen, on
the 18th of April 1822. At the age of seventeen he entered the
Geographical School of Art in Potsdam, and in 1845 proceeded
to Edinburgh to assist Dr Keith Johnston in the production
of an English edition of the Physical Atlas of Berghaus. In
1847 he came to London, and published among other works,
an account of Barth's expedition to Central Africa (1855).
In 1854 he became director of the geographical institute of
Justus Perthes in Gotha, and editor of the well-known Petermanns
Mitteilungen. His work did much towards elucidating the
geography of the interior of Africa and of the North Polar
regions. Queen Victoria, at the suggestion of Bunsen, appointed
him physical geographer-royal. Petermann died by his own
hand at Gotha on the 25th of September 1878.

PETERS (or Peter), HUGH (1 598-1660), English Independent
divine, son of Thomas Dyckwoode, alias Peters, descended from
a family which had quitted the Netherlands to escape religious
persecution, and of Martha, daughter of John Treffry of Treffry
in Cornwall, was baptized on the 29th of June 1598, and was
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. Having experienced
conversion, he preached in Essex; returning to London he took
Anglican orders and was appointed lecturer at St Sepulchre's.
He entertained, however, unorthodox opinions, and eventually
left England for Holland. He visited Gustavus Adolphus in
Germany about 1632, and afterwards became the minister of
the English church at Rotterdam. Here his unorthodox
leanings again attracted attention, and Peters made a further
move to New England. He was connected with John Winthrop
through his wife, and had already formed several friendships
with the American colonists. He arrived at Boston in October
1635 and was given charge of the church at Salem. He took a
leading part in the affairs of the colony, and interested himself
in the founding of the new colony in Connecticut. In 1641 he
returned to England as agent of the colony, but soon became
involved in the political troubles which now began. He became
chaplain to the forces of the adventurers in Ireland, and served in
1642 in Lord Forbes's expedition, of which he wrote an account.
On his return he took a violent part in the campaign against
Laud, and defended the doctrines of the Independents in a
preface to a tract by Richard Mather entitled " Church Govern-
ment and Church Covenant discussed . . ." (1643). He gained
great reputation as a preacher by his discourses and exhorta-
tions at public executions, and as army chaplain. In the latter
capacity he accompanied Lord Warwick's naval expedition to
Lyme in 1644 and Fairfax's campaigns of 1645 an d 1646, when
his eloquence is said to have had a marvellous effect in inspiring
the soldiers and winning over the people. At the conclusion
of the war, Peters, though greatly disliked by the Presbyterians
and the Scots, had attained great influence as leader of the
Independents. In his pamphlet " Last Report of the English
Wars " (1646) he urged religious toleration, an alliance with
foreign Protestants, and an active propagation of the gospel.
In the dispute between the army and the parliament he naturally
took the side of the former, and after the seizure of the king by
the army in June 1647 had interviews with Charles at Newmarket
and Windsor, in which he favourably impressed the latter, and
gave advice upon the best course to pursue. He performed
useful services in the second Civil War, procured guns for the
besiegers at Pembroke, raised troops in the midlands, and
arranged the surrender of the duke of Hamilton at Uttoxeter.
Though at the Restoration he denied any complicity in the
king's death, it is certain that in his sermons he justified and
supported the trial and sentence. In August he accompanied
Cromwell to Ireland, and was present at the fall of Wexford,

300

PETERS, K.— PETERSBURG

while later he assisted the campaign by superintending from
England the despatch to Cromwell of supplies and reinforce-
ments, and was himself destined by Cromwell for a regiment
of foot. In 1650 he was in South Wales, endeavouring to bring
over the people to the cause, and subsequently was present at
the battle of Worcester. At the conclusion of the war Peters
was appointed one of the preachers at Whitehall and became a
person of influence. Parliament had already voted him an
annuity of £200, and Laud's library or a portion of it had been
handed over to him in 1644. He was one of the committee of
twenty-one appointed to suggest legal reforms, and he published
his ideas on this subject, which included a register of wills and
land titles and the destruction afterwards of the ancient records,
in his tract, " Good Work for a Good Magistrate " (in 1651),
answered by R. Vaughan and Prynne. He strongly disapproved
of the war with Holland, and his interference brought upon
him some sharp reprimands. In July 1658 he was sent to
Dunkirk to provide apparently for the spiritual wants of the
garrison. He preached the funeral sermon on Cromwell, and
after the latter's death took little part in political events,
though strongly disapproving of the removal of Richard. He
met Monck at St Albans on the latter's march to London, but
met with no favour from the new powers, being expelled from
his lodgings at Whitehall in January 1660. On the nth of
May his arrest was ordered. On the 18th of June he was ex-
cepted from the Act of Indemnity and apprehended on the 2nd
of September at Southwark. He sent in a defence of himself
to the Lords, denying any share in the king's death. He was,
however, tried on the 13th of October and found guilty of high
treason. His execution took place at Charing Cross on the 16th
of October, when he behaved with great fortitude, and was
undismayed by the mangling of the body of John Cook, his
fellow sufferer, upon which he was forced to look. Before his
death he wrote " A Dying Father's Last Legacy " to his only
child, Elizabeth, in which he gave a narrative of his career.

His death was viewed with greater rejoicings than perhaps
attended that of any of the regicides, which is the more sur-
prising as Peters possessed many amiable qualities, and several
acts of kindness performed by him on behalf of individual
Royalists are recorded. But he had incurred great unpopularity
by his unrestrained speech and extreme activity in the cause.
He was a man, however, of a rough, coarse nature, without
tact or refinement, of strong animal spirits, undeterred by
difficulties which beset men of higher mental capacity, whose
energies often outran his discretion, intent upon the realities
of life and the practical side of religion. His conception of
religious controversy, that all differences could be avoided if
ministers could only pray together and live together, is highly
characteristic, and shows the largeness of his personal sym-
pathies and at the same time the limits of his intellectual
imagination. Peters married (1) Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas
Cooke of Pebmarsh in Essex and widow of Edmund Read,
and (2) Deliverance Sheffield, by whom he had one daughter,
Elizabeth.

PETERS, KARL (1856- ), German traveller in' Africa,
one of the founders of German East Africa, was born at Neuhaus
on the Elbe on the 27th of September 1856, the son of a Lutheran
clergyman. He studied at Gottingen, Tubingen and Berlin,
and in 1879 was awarded a gold medal by the Berlin University
for his Frieden zu Venedig. After visiting London to study
English principles of colonization, he returned to Berlin and
promoted the German Colonization Society (Deutsche Kolonial-
verein). In the autumn of 1884 he proceeded with two com-
panions to East Africa, and concluded in the name of his society
treaties with the chiefs of Useguha, Nguru, Usagara and Ukami.
Returning to Europe early in 1885, he formed the German East
Africa Company, which speedily obtained an imperial charter.
The story of this enterprise, the first step in the formation of a
German colony in East Africa, is told under Afeica, § 5. In
1888 Peters undertook an expedition from the east coast of
Africa, avowedly for the relief of Emin Pasha. This expedition
was not sz actioned by the German government and was regarded

by the British authorities as a filibustering exploit. One of its
objects was to extend the sphere of German influence, and, reach-
ing Uganda early in 1890, Peters concluded a treaty with the king
of that country in favour of Germany. He left Uganda hastily
on the approach of a representative of the British East Africa
Company, and on reaching Zanzibar learned that his treaty was
useless, as an agreement had been come to between Germany
and Great Britain whereby Uganda was left in the British sphere.
On his return to Germany Peters was received with great honours,
and in 1891 published an account of his expedition entitled
Die deuts,che Emin Pasha Expedition, which was translated
into English. In 1891 he went out again to East Africa as
imperial high commissioner for the Kilimanjaro district, and
in 1892 was cne of the commissioners for delimiting the Anglo-
German boundary in that region. In June 1892 accusations
were brought against him of excesses in his treatment of the
natives, and after three investigations had been held he was,
in 1897, deprived of his commission for " misuse of official
power." (He was regranted his title of imperial commissioner
in 1906.) During 1893-1895 Peters was employed in the colonial
office at Berlin. In 1896 he removed to London, where he
occupied himself in schemes for exploiting parts of Rhodesia
and Portuguese East Africa. In the interests of a company he
formed, Peters explored the Fura district and Macombe's
country on the Zambezi, where in 1899 he discovered ruins of
ancient cities and deserted gold mines. He returned in T901
and gave an account of his explorations in The Eldorado of the
Ancients (1902). In 1905 he again visited the region between
the Zambezi and Sabi rivers.

Besides the books already mentioned and some smaller treatises
Peters published a philosophic work entitled Willenswelt und Welt-
wille (1883), and a disquisition on early gold production entitled
Das goldene Ophir Salomos (1895), translated into English in 1898.

PETERSBURG, a city and port of entry of Virginia, U.S.A.,
on the Appomattox river, at the head of navigation, about
11 m. from its mouth, and 22 m. S. of Richmond. Pop. (1890),
22,680; (1900), 21,810, (10,751 negroes); (1910), 24,127. It is
served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line and the
Norfolk & Western railways. The river, which is here spanned
by two steel bridges and one frame bridge, is navigable to this
point for vessels of 8 ft. draught at mean high water, and has been
greatly improved by the Federal government, which in 1909
was engaged in deepening the whole channel to 12 ft. at mean
high water and in excavating at Petersburg a new channel into
which to deflect the river. In and about the city there is much
of historic and scenic interest. At Blandford, a suburban
hamlet, is the picturesque old Blandford church, erected about
1734. Petersburg has two public parks, and among its institu-
tions are a home for the sick (1886), an orphanage for girls and
another for negroes, the state central hospital for the insane
(negroes), the southern female college (non-sectarian, 1863),
the university school for boys, the Bishop Payne divinity
school (Protestant Episcopal) for negroes, and the Virginia
normal and industrial institute (opened in 1883), also for
negroes. There are two national cemeteries near Petersburg —
Poplar Grove (about 4 m. south), containing about 6200 graves,
and City Point (about 9 m. east), containing about 5100 graves;
and in Blandford cemetery there are about 30,000 graves of
Confederate dead. In this cemetery General William Phillips is
buried, and there is a monument to Captain McRae, commander
of the " Petersburg Volunteers," whose bravery in 1812-1813
prompted President Madison to call Petersburg the " Cockade
City." The falls above the city furnish abundant water-power,
and the city has various manufactures. The factory product
was valued at $5,890,574 in 1905, 11-3% more than in 1900;
in both 1900 and 1905 Petersburg ranked fourth among the
cities of the state in the value of factory products. From
Petersburg are shipped quantities of trunks and bags, peanuts,
tobacco and cotton. In 1909 the foreign trade, wholly imports,
was valued at $360,774. The city was formerly in Chesterfield,
Dinwiddie and Prince George counties, but is now independent
, of county government^

PETERSBURG

301

An Indian village formerly stood on or near the site of the
present city, and Fort Henry was built here by the whites in
1645. Petersburg was founded in 1733 by Colonel William
Byrd (1674-1744) and Peter Jones, and was named (first Peter's
Point, and then Petersburg) in honour of the latter; in 1748 it
was incorporated as a town. On the 25th of April 1781 a
skirmish was fought in front of Petersburg between a British
force of about 3000 under General William Phillips (i73i?-i78i)
and about one-third of that number of American militia under
Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben; the Ameiicans were
defeated, and the British occupied the town. In the following
month the British again entered Petersburg (General Phillips
dying here on the 13th), but they were soon dislodged by
Lafayette who shelled the town. General Winfield Scott was
born near Petersburg, and practised law here for two years
before he entered the army. Petersburg was chartered as a city
in 1850.

Petersburg Campaign (1864-65). The name of Peters-
burg is associated with operations in the American Civil War,
which formed the sequel of the Wilderness Campaign (q.v.)
and the last act in the struggle between the armies of Grant
and Lee for supremacy. Petersburg (see above) and Richmond,
Virginia, connected by rail and covered north, east and south by
forty miles of entrenchments, formed the salients of a vast
fortress, into which reinforcements and supplies could be poured
from the rear by means of the James Canal, the Virginia Central,
the Lynchburg, the Danville and the Weldon railroads — the
latter bringing up to Petersburg from Wilmington (225 m.
distant) the cargoes of blockade runners. Petersburg became
a strategic point as soon as Grant determined to carry the army
of the Potomac — defeated at Cold Harbor on the Chicka-
hominy (see Wilderness Campaign) — south of Richmond,
and, being joined by Butler's Army of the James (momentarily
checked in the Bermuda Hundred Peninsula by a small army
under Beauregard), to operate from the east, depending on
the James river, as his line of supply, while the policy of the
Confederate president was to employ Robert E. Lee's army to
protect his capital. Petersburg was nearer than Richmond
to the navigable part of the James River— City Point is only
10 m. distant — and the capture of Petersburg would involve
the fall of Richmond and the capitulation or flight of Lee's
army.

As early as the gth of June 1864, while the main armies were
still north of the James and Petersburg was garrisoned by a
brigade under General Wise, a Federal expedition from the Army
of the James approached the city. General Gillmore on the
City Point road discovered strong earthworks, and General
Kautz attacking on the Jerusalem Plank road experienced a
repulse: the total force of the Federals was 4500, and Wise's
brigade (2400) had been quickly reinforced from Beauregard's
central position at Bermuda Hundred. A week later a more
serious attempt was made to break through the defences, while
General Lee's main army was detained north of Richmond.
Grant detached the II. and XVIII. corps under Generals Smith
and Hancock, who were to unite and operate along the City Point
railroad and capture the outer line of works about 2 m. from
Petersburg while a demonstration was made along the Norfolk
railroad by cavalry under Kautz. On the 15th of June Smith
attacked and captured five redans before Hancock came up, and
when next day Burnside's corps (IX.) arrived and General
Meade assumed control of the three corps, he attacked again at
6 p.m. On the 17th of June Warren's (V.) corps arrived, and
Meade made a third assault with two corps (V., IX.). On the
18th of June the attack was renewed with three corps (II., V.,
IX.) late in the afternoon, and the results of the four days'
fighting were so far satisfactory that ground was won which
could be entrenched and held against any sortie of the
Petersburg garrison. Probably on the 18th of June the town of
Petersburg might have been captured by Meade, for at this crisis
General Lee was in temporary eclipse. For four days Lee had
refused to credit any report to the effect that Grant was crossing
the James: his cavalry could not ascertain that the enemy in his

front at Malvern Hill (VI. corps and Wilson's cavalry division),
despite its menacing attitude towards Richmond, was only a
flank guard for a movement to the south.

It was late on the 17th of June when General Beauregard, who
had for three days valiantly held his main lines south of Richmond
with some 14,000 infantry against three Federal corps, succeeded
in convincing General Lee that the main army was again (as
in 1862 on the Chickahominy) in the wrong place at the wrong
time. But when at last the Confederate leader was aroused
to a sense of his danger he soon filled every road with divisions
marching to save Petersburg: they marched all night; they slept
in the trenches on arrival, and on the 19th of June these rein-
forcements convinced GeneralMeade that his main attack between
the Appomattox river and the Jerusalem Plank iioad was
delivered a day too late. At a cost of 10,000 casualties Meade
had gained half a mile of ground, but the Confederates in falling
back had concentrated, and now that the new plan of operations
was exposed and the main bodies were again face to face the
power of defensive tactics reasserted itself.

Yet June was not to close without adding some 8000 men to
the Federal casualties, for in addition to daily losses by sharp-
shooting along the front, over 5000 men fell or were captured in
operations directed against the southern railroads. Grant had
resolved to deprive his enemy of these lines of supply: his plan
was to prolong his line of investment westward and construct
redoubts (such as Fort Davis, Fort Steadman and Fort Sedgwick)
as a continual menace to the Confederate garrison and a defence
against sorties, while his cavalry and portions of five corps
(II., V., VI., IX. and XVIII.) engaged in enterprises which it
was hoped would tempt General Lee to fight outside his works.
A decisive victory in the field, a successful assault on the defences
between Richmond and Petersburg, or the complete destruction
of the railroads, would precipitate disaster to the South, and of
these three methods the last would be the surest in its effects.
But such a method was necessarily slow. General Wilson's
cavalry (5500) destroyed 30 m. of the Lynchburg or South Side
railroad, and 30 m. of the Danville railroad, together with
Burkesville Junction and Ream's Station on the Weldon rail-
road; but Wilson was caught by the Confederate cavalry
100 m. from Petersburg and escaped only by destroying his
wagons and limbers and abandoning twelve guns. Even the
Virginia Central railroad could not be held by the Federals
after Sheridan with the main body of the cavalry had been
called back to White House on the Pamunkey to escort a great
convoy.

By the end of June the whole of the rival forces were concen-
trated about the Richmond-Petersburg defences, and General
A. P. Hill had already sallied out on the 21st of June to drive the
II. corps from the Weldon railroad. Federal policy and Federal
strategy, surmounting the crisis of Cold Harbor, were, however,
at last in unison. Grant had a free hand in respect both of his
dispositions and his resources in men and money, and had resolved
to use unsparingly the resources placed at his disposal. Early
in July Grant, however, found himself compelled to detach a
corps (VI.) to strengthen the garrison at Washington, for General
Early had frustrated Hunter's attempt against Lynchburg (see
Shenandoah Valley), driving Hunter into West Virginia, and
then, pushing down the Shenandoah and across the Potomac,
had arrived within a day's march of the Federal capital. Ihis
operation checked Grant's enterprises about Petersburg and
restricted the Federal front to the ground east of the Weldon
railroad.

On the 25th of July Grant resolved to weaken the enemy on
his front by a demonstration north of the James, and accordingly
moved a corps (II.) and two cavalry divisions across the river
to Malvern Hill under cover of Foster's corps (X.). But Lee
possessed the inner line, and the Federal detachment found two
cavalry divisions in its front, and the Richmond defences had
been strengthened by three divisions of infantry. The expedi-
tion then returned to take part in a fresh enterprise, which
ended disastrously to the Federals. A Confederate redan faced
Burnside's IX. corps 100 yds. distant, and this strong work was

302

PETERSBURG

to be destroyed by mining operations. The mine was fired and
produced a crater 150 ft. long, 60 ft. wide and 25 ft. deep, into
which the Federals poured (see Fortification and Siegecraft).
But the troops could be got no farther before the Confederate
counter-attack was upon them, and Burnside's corps lost 4300

In August Sheridan was detached to operate against General
Early in the Shenandoah Valley, and in order to prevent Lee rein-
forcing Early another demonstration against Richmond was planned.
But Lee again strengthened his left and the result of the fighting was
a loss to the Federals of nearly 3000 men. Meanwhile another attack
on the Weldon railroad by Warren's corps was met by General
A. P. Hill on the 20th of August, and the possession of the railroad
cost the Federals 3000 men. A further attempt on this railroad by
Hancock's II. corps and Gregg's cavalry division at a point 3 m.
south of Ream's Station was foiled by A. P. Hill, now aided
by Hampton's two cavalry divisions, and the Federals here lost
2372 men and nine guns. The Confederates therefore still retained
possession of the railroad to a point within one day's hauling by
wagon to Petersburg. During September another Federal enter-
prise north of the James with two corps (X.and XVIII.) resulted in
the capture of Fort Harrison near Chaffin's Bluff, and when General
Lee reinforced his left and counter-attacked his troops were repulsed
with heavy loss. The Federals lost over 2000 men and failed in the
attempt to take Fort Gilmer, Confederate gunboats below Rich-
mond aiding in the defence. While this operation was in progress
on the Confederate left under General Grant's personal supervision
General Lee was apprised of attacks on his extreme right at Peebles
Farm by four divisions, which captured a Confederate redoubt
covering the junction of two routes to the south-west. General
A. P. Hill prevented a further advance of the enemy by a vigorous
counter-attack which caused Warren and Parke (IX.) a loss of 2000
men, of whom nearly three fourths allowed themselves to be captured ;
for the ranks, since the losses of the May battles, had been swamped
with drafted and substitute recruits of poor quality and almost
insignificant training. The Federals had, however, by these opera-
tions pushed their entrenchments beyond the Weldon railroad
westward and established new works within a mile of the Con-
federate right. A minor engagement north of the Tames on the 7th
of October between the Confederates and troops of the Army of the
James was without result. At the end of the month, however,
General Grant resolved to make a serious effort to bring the South
Side railroad within his lines and deprive the enemy of this important
line of supply. Parke (IX.), Warren (V.) and Hancock (II.) took each
some 1 1 ,000 infantry with four days' rations on pack animals. Gregg's
cavalry (3000) were attached for the operation, and both Grant and
Meade accompanied the troops. General A. P. Hill encountered this
force with three divisions (14,000) and Hampton's cavalry (5500),
and he contrived to hold two corps with one division and attack
Hancock (II.) with his main body. The Federals were stopped
when 6 m. from the railway, and Hancock lost 1500 men at Hatcher's
Run on the 27th of October.

General Lee meanwhile had been called to Chaffin's Bluff, where
again Butler was demonstrating with the Army of the James (X. and
XVIII.) on the approaches to Richmond. But General Longstreet
signalized his return to duty with the Army of Northern Virginia
by driving Butler off with a
loss of over 1000 men (action
of Fair Oaks, Oct. 27). General
Warren in December con-
trived to evade A. P. Hill
and destroy the Weldon rail-
road at a point on the
Meherrin river 40 m. from
Petersburg.

There seemed now little to
tie Lee to the lines he had so
painfully constructed, for his
army was without coffee, tea
or sugar, and though of foreign
meat they had 3§ million
rations and of bread 2 J million
rations in reserve, the troops
lived chiefly on corn-bread.
A. P. Hill on the right held
on from Hatcher's Run to
Fort Gregg, whence Gordon
and Anderson prolonged to
the left as far as the Appo-
mattox River, and Long-
street continued the line
northwards along the Bermuda
front across the James as far
as White Oak Swamp (37 m.
in all). The winter was very
severe, and the continual

trench-work and outpost duty overtaxed the patriotism of Lee's
50,000 infantry and stimulated desertion. Supplies were brought
in by wagons, as the rolling stock on the railways was worn, and on
the 5th of February 1865 General Gregg moved out to the Boydton
Plank road to intercept the Confederate convoys. He was sup-
ported by Warren, while Humphreys's (II.) corps connected the
detachment with the left of the Federal entrenchments. Gregg
failed to locate the wagons, and General Lee, hearing of the expedi-
tion, sent out A. P. Hill and Gordon, who drove him back with a loss
of 1500 men. Sheridan, after driving Early from the Valley in
October, destroyed the railways about Staunton, Charlottesville,
Gordonsvillt and Lynchburg, and even rendered the James Canal
useless as a line of supply.

Grant recalled Sheridan to the main army in March, and at the
end of the month prepared for a turning movement westward with
the object of drawing Lee out of his lines. General Lee had
anticipated such an attempt, and had resolved to abandon his lines
and unite with Johnston in North Carolina, but the roads were not

PETERSBURG

1864-5

English Miles

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Roads ,-— <■ Railways...

Federal Works

Con federate Works..

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PETERSBURG

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yet in a state for the movement of artillery and wagons, and it was
to gain time that he now ventured upon a bold offensive stroke —
a night attack upon a strong point in the Federal right called Fort
Stedman — the success of which might cause Grant to call in the
detachments on his left and so facilitate the proposed movement
of the Confederates towards Danville. General Gordon was selected
to conduct the operation and his corps was strongly reinforced for the
occasion. The opposing lines east of Petersburg were only 150 yds.,
and the sentries of each side 50 yds. apart. Gordon's men dashed
across the intervening space at 4.30 a. m. on the 25th March,
surprised the garrison and occupied Fort Stedman, but when day-
light broke and the Federal guns could be brought to bear the
fort was found to be untenable. Parke's corps (IX.) recaptured
the work at a cost of 1000 men, and Gordon fell back, leaving nearly
2000 men in the hands of the Federals. The encounter would have
proved a more desperate one if reinforcements on both sides had
arrived in time, but Gordon had cut the telegraph which connected
Fort Stedman with Grant's headquarters at City Point,_ and the
Confederate train service broke down and delayed the arrival from
Richmond of reinforcements for Gordon. Meanwhile, 6 m. west-
ward, Humphreys' corps (II.) attacked A. P. Hill's defences and
gained some local success, seizing the Confederate picket line between
the Weldon railroad and the Boydton Plank road, which was at
once occupied and strengthened by the Federals. The Federals

had resolved to attempt. Grant meanwhile had ordered Warren
to support Sheridan in an attack on Pickett at daybreak. Sheridan
advanced on the 1st of April and at 3 p.m. issued his orders for
attack, explaining verbally a diagram he had prepared for the use
of divisional commanders. Pickett held a front of 2 m. with
a division of cavalry on either flank and Rosser's cavalry guarding
the baggage behind Hatcher's Run, and when attacked at 4 p.m.
he was with Rosser ij m. in rear. Before Pickett was made
aware of a battle being in progress his left was destroyed.
General Lee seems to have made no arrangements to support Pickett
in this direction. Pickett's right was defended by W. H. F. Lee
against the attack of Custer's cavalry division. The position was
finally carried by Sheridan's cavalry under Devin dismounting and
storming the entrenchments frontally, taking three guns and 100
prisoners. Warren's corps claimed to have captured a battery
and 3244 prisoners. Yet Sheridan was dissatisfied with Warren's
conduct of the battle and deprived him of his command. Pickett's
routed brigades were rallied at the South Side railroad and incor-
porated with General Anderson's command. But the Confederates
had lost White Oak road, and unless General Lee was capable of
a vigorous counterstroke on his extreme right it was evident he must
also lose the South Side railroad. Grant, fearing such an enterprise,
at once reinforced Sheridan and ordered Humphreys' corps (II.)
to attack in his front if necessary to prevent Lee moving troops

lost 2000 men and the Confederates perhaps twice as many on the
25th of March.

At this time Sherman visited Grant at City Point and proposed to
move at the end of ten days on Burkesville Junction and so cut off
Lee from Danville and Lynchburg; it was while Sherman was pre-
paring for this operation that Grant finished the campaign. Secure
behind his formidable entrenchments, Grant had no fear for his
base on the James river, and transferred large bodies of troops to
his left without Lee's knowledge. Sheridan was instructed on the
29th of March to gain the enemy's right and rear, moving by Din-
widdieCourt-Houseandacross Hatcher's Run. Butthe Confederates
were on the alert ; A. P. Hill extended his right, and Fitzhugh Lee's
cavalry was brought to Sutherland Station. Sheridan had already
encountered the cavalry divisions of W. H.F.Lee and Rosser on the
south side of Stony Creek. Warren's corps, moving up the
Quaker road, met a force under R. H. Anderson and drove it
back to its works on White Oak road. Sheridan got into a
flat country of dense forest, tangled undergrowth, streams and
swamps, and the soil of clay and sand was impassable for wagons and
guns until he had corduroyed the route. On the 29th of March General
Lee perceived that the object of Grant was to seize the routes south
of the Appomattox river, by which a movement south-west
could be made to unite with Johnston's army, and he endeavoured
to cover these roads, including the South Side railway, without
losing his hold upon his works about Richmond and Petersburg,
but in such a contest it was evident that numbers must prevail.

Sheridan's cavalry had reached Five Forks on the White Oak
road on the 31st of March, and on his right Humphreys and Warren
(II. and V.) held the Confederates to their works along Hatcher's
Run astride the Boydton Plank road; yet General Lee was able to
concentrate his three cavalry divisions, and supported them by
Pickett's five infantry brigades. Sheridan was attacked and driven
south as far as Dinwiddie Court- House; but Humphreys and
Warren held their ground (action of White Oak Ridge) at a cost
of 2000 men. Pickett and the cavalry fell back to Five Forks during
the night and hastily entrenched, for he had been ordered by General
Lee to defend this position ; since the Boydton Plank road could
no longer be held, the possession of White Oak road and the South
Side railway became necessary for the flank movement which Lee

SracryWalkcr sfr

westward, but Lee made no effort, and so Sheridan was free to
operate farther in the direction of the enemy's right and rear, while
Humphreys held the enemy in his front. Sheridan remained in-
active for a few days, and Lee hoped still to gain time for the roads
to dry before evacuating his lines and removing his stores and
ammunition by wagons towards Lynchburg.

But a crisis was approaching. Sheridan's success at Five Forks
induced Grant to deliver a general assault on the 2nd of April. The
Confederate lines were bombarded all night, and on the 2nd of April
with Wright's corps (VI.), Grant attacked the weakest part of
Lee's line and broke through, losing 1 100 men in fifteen minutes.
A. P. Hill was killed and his corps broke and was cut off from Peters-
burg. At the same time Parke's corps (IX.), on the right of the VI.,
attacked the eastern front near Fort Stedman but was repulsed by
General Gordon; then Humphreys' corps (II.) on the left attacked
a Confederate division under General Cook and forced it to retreat
to the South Side railroad, where at Sutherland Station a final
attack dispersed it. Wright, supported by General Ord (command-
ing the army of the James) , afterwards won the strong redoubts called
Fort Whitworth and Fort Gregg, and thus in a day the Confederate
right had been destroyed from Five Forks to a point some two or
three miles west of the Weldon railroad; 10 m. of works had been
abandoned, and if Grant had been able to press his advantage at
once the campaign must have ended. But Grant was not aware
of the enemy's plight, and so resolved to wait until the morrow
before completing his victory.

Meanwhile Lee perceived that the hour had come at last when
Richmond must fall, and at 3 p.m. he had issued orders for the march
of the remains of his army to Lynchburg via Amelia Court-House,
a march which evidently must partake of the character of a forlorn
hope, hastily planned, ill prepared and undertaken by troops whom
the disasters and hardships of the past six months had weakened
physically and morally. Yet if General Lee had negotiated a peace
on the 2nd of April military history would have lost one of the finest
examples of the strategic pursuit. Lee's proposed movement
involved the transfer of the army and its baggage 100 m. on
bad roads across the front of an enemy, and nothing but mis-
chance could prevent the Federals intercepting Lee's columns by 3
shorter route and seizing the South Side railroad, on which supplies

304

PETERSFIELD—PETER'S PENCE

were to be forwarded from Lynchburg to meet the retreating army
at Appomattox Station, Pamplin's Station or Farmville Station.
The Appomattox River must be crossed two or three times at its
bends. Various creeks and swamps must be bridged, and the bridges
destroyed after crossing. The wagons must move on separate
roads so as to be covered by the columns during marches and combats
and the infantry were to follow the artillery on the roads. Long-
street, Gordon and Mahone's division from Richmond all crossed
the Appomattox at Goode's Bridge. Ewell from Richmond crossed
the Appomattox by the Danville railroad bridge north of Goode's
Bridge. Anderson commanded the flank guard which moved south
of the Appomattox with Fitzhugh Lee's cavalry. Lee gained a
day's start by moving at 8 p.m., for Grant was making preparations
to attack the entrenchments next day (April 3), but the start
was lost in waiting for President Davis and the government to
escape from Richmond. Sheridan's cavalry got in touch with Lee's
flank-guard early on the 3rd of April near Namozine Creek, and at
nightfall the Federal advance-guard was at Deep Creek. On the
4th of April Sheridan reached the Danville railroad at Jetersville,
and on the 5th of April, when Lee had halted at Amelia Court-House
on the railroad to get supplies, the Federals had three corps (II., V.,
VI.) in support of Sheridan 8 m. nearer than Lee to Sailor's Creek,
the point where he must again cross the Appomattox.

Interception was now a fait accompli, though neither side suspected
it. Lee was unaware of the enemy's proximity, and Grant believed
that Lee would remain at Amelia Court-House, but Lee moved west,
crossing Flat Creek at sunset on the 5th of April, to the Lynchburg
railroad (Longstreet, marching all night, reached Rice's Station at
sunrise on the 6th of April), while the Federals moved northwards
on the same day to attack Lee at Amelia Court-House, and on
discovering Lee's evasion the three Federal corps effected a wheel to
the left and advanced on Deatonsville after bridging Flat Creek.
Meanwhile the Federal cavalry under H. E. Davies had located a con-
voy at Painesville, dispersed its escort (Gary's cavalry) and burned
the wagons, but had in turn been attacked by Fitzhugh Lee's cavalry
at Amelia Springs and driven back on the main body at Flat Creek.
Fitzhugh Lee had then marched to join Longstreet at Rice's Station.
The rearguard of Lee's army was Gordon's command, which was at
Amelia Springs after Ewell's command had passed through at
8 a.m. on the 6th of April. Lee's army stretched out for 15 m., and
when its advance-guard was at Rice's Station its rearguard was
still at Amelia Court-House. Rice's Station is 62 m. from Lynch-
burg. Here Longstreet waited all day for Anderson, Ewell and
Gordon to close up, and then at night he moved 8 m. to Farm-
ville Station (68 m. south-west of Richmond), where 80,000 rations
had been railed from Lynchburg; then Longstreet crossed the Appo-
mattox, and on the 7th of April moved forward towards Lynchburg,
covered by Fitzhugh Lee's cavalry. Meanwhile the remainder of Lee s
army had been practically destroyed within a few miles of the point
where Longstreet had halted. Sheridan's cavalry and two corps
(II., VI.) had caught the commands of Anderson, Ewell and Gordon,
entangled with the trains of the army attempting the passage of
Sailor's Creek; and General Ord would even have attacked Long-
street (whom he had located late at night) had his march been
delayed.

Complete disorganization and demoralization seem to have taken
hold of the Confederates on this fatal day, and General Lee was
once more in eclipse. The Federal cavalry headed the column,
the infantry attacked it, and Ewell became the victim of tactical
envelopment after Anderson had been defeated and Gordon had
failed to save the trains of the army. Surrender or massacre being
the alternatives, Ewell surrendered, and here in fact the career
of the army of Northern Virginia ended, as Grant plainly saw, for
a t 5-30 p.m. he addressed a demand to Lee for his capitulation.
But Lee clung to his diminished forces for another 48 hours. Long-
street in crossing at Farmville had burnt the bridges and thus
delayed Ord in pursuit; but Gordon and Mahone, who had crossed
at High Bridge (the railroad bridge), failed to check Humphreys'
corps (II.), and so were compelled to take up a position of defence
on the north bank until darkness enabled them to slip away. General
Lee was with this remnant of the army. Meanwhile Sheridan
with the cavalry and two corps (V., XXIV.) had hastened along the
South Side railroad, seizing the supplies waiting for Lee at Pamplin's
Station, and then moving on another 12 m. to Appomattox Station.
At nightfall he found that he was astride the enemy's line of operation,
which was also his line of supply, and so General Lee would be
compelled to give battle or capitulate on the morrow.

General Lee, quitting Farmville heights on the night of the 7th of
April changed the order of march during the next day, so that Gordon
(8000) was in the van and Longstreet (15,000) furnished the rear-
guard; Ewell's corps was now represented by 300 effectives.
The cavalry still numbered some 1600 sabres. Lee's column was
pursued along the Lynchburg Road by two Federal Corps (II., VI.),
which marched 26 m. in 18 i hours, and at midnight halted within
3 m. of Longstreet, who had entrenched near Appomattox Court-
House, facing east and covering the road on which Gordon's corps
and the cavalry was to press forward to Lynchburg at daylight. But
Gordon on the morning of the 9th of April found Sheridan's cavalry
in his front, and in accordance with plans made overnight he com-
menced an attack, driving the Federals back until he encountered

at 10 a.m. two corps of infantry (V., XXIV.) under General Ord,
who had marched 29 m. in order to support Sheridan at the crisis;
and when at the same moment Longstreet was threatened by
Humphreys and Wright (II., VI.) the situation had arisen which
General Lee considered would justify surrender, an event which
had been anticipated on both sides as the result of the fighting
about Farmville on the 6th and 7th of April.

The closing operations from the 29th of March to the 9th of April
were all in favour of the Federals, but, nevertheless, the historian
counts their losses during this period as nearly 10,000 in the five
corps and cavalry which constituted General Grant's field army.
On the 9th of April, at the Appomattox Court-House, the two
leaders exchanged formal documents by which 2862 officers and
25,494 enlisted men were paroled, all that remained in the field
of some 55,000 Confederates who were drawing rations on the 20th
of February as the army of Northern Virginia. (G. W. R.)

PETERSFIELD, a market town in the Petersfield parlia-
mentary division of Hampshire, England, 55 m. S.W. from
London by the London & South Western railway. Pop. of
urban district (1901), 3265. The church of St Peter retains
some ornate Norman work. The picturesque market-place
contains an equestrian statue of] William III.

Ecclesiastically a chapelry of Buriton, Petersfield (Peterfelde)
owes its origin as a borough to the charter granted by William,
earl of Gloucester, in the reign of Henry II. and confirmed later
by his widow, Ha wise. Petersfield is not mentioned in Domesday,
but it was probably then included in the manor of Mapledurham.
It was a mesne borough possessing by its first charter the
liberties and customs of Winchester together with a merchant
gild. These grants were confirmed by John in 1198 and in
141 5 Henry V. in addition freed the burgesses from all tolls.
No charter of incorporation has been found. Gradually
privileges and rights other than those of a mesne borough
were usurped by the mayor and burgesses, but were recovered
by a suit brought against them by Thomas Hanbury, owner of
the borough, in 161 1. A mayor continued to be elected until
1885. Petersfield was represented in parliament in. 1307. No
return was then made until 1552-1553, from which date two
members were regularly returned. In 1832 the number was
reduced to one, and in 1885 the representation was merged in
that of the county. Three-day fairs at the feasts of St Peter
and 'St Andrew were granted in 1255. In 1892 the summer
fair then held on the 10th of July was abolished. The autumn
fair now held on the 6th of October is for both business and
pleasure. The market, which dates from before 1373, formerly
held on Saturday, is now held on alternate Wednesdays. In
the 1 6th century Petersfield had important cloth and leather
manufactures.

PETER'S PENCE, Rome Scot, or Rom-feoh, a tax of a penny
on every hearth, formerly paid annually to the popes; now
represented by a voluntary contribution made by the devout
in Roman Catholic churches. Its date of origin is doubtful.
The first written evidence of it is contained in a letter of Canute
(103 1) sent from Rome to the English clergy. At this time it
appears to have been levied on all families possessed of land
worth thirty pence yearly rental, out of which they paid one
penny. Matthew Paris says the tax was instituted by Off a,
king of Mercia (757-796) for the upkeep of the English school
and hostel at Rome. Layamon, however, declares that Ina,
king of Wessex (688-725), was the originator of the idea. At
the Norman Conquest it appears to have fallen into arrears for
a time, for William the Conqueror promised the pope in 1076
that it should be regularly paid. By a bull of Pope Adrian IV.
the tax was extended to Ireland. In 1213 Innocent III. com-
plained that the bishops kept 1000 marks of it, only forwarding
300 to Rome. In 1306 Clement V. exacted a penny from each
household instead of the £201, 9s. at which the tax appears to
have been then fixed. The threat of withholding Peter's
pence proved more than once a useful weapon against recalci-
trant popes in the hands of English kings. Thus in 1366 and
for some years after it was refused on the ground of the pope's
obstinacy in withholding his consent to the statute of praemunire.
During the 10th century the custom of Peter's pence was intro-
duced into Poland, Prussia and Scandinavia, and in the nth
century Gregory VII. attempted to exact it from France and

PETERWARDEIN— PETIS DE LA CROIX

305

Spain. The tax was fairly regularly paid by the English until
1 534, when it was abolished by Henry VIII.

PETERWARDEIN (Hung. Petervarad, Serv. Petrovaradin) ,
a royai free town and fortress of Hungary in the county of
Syrmia, Croatia-Slavonia; situated on a promontory formed
by a loop of the Danube, 62 m. N.W. of Belgrade by rail. Pop.
(1900), 5019. It i s connected with Neusatz on the opposite
bank by a bridge of boats, a railway bridge and a steam ferry.
The fortifications consist of the upper fortress, on a lofty serpen-
tine rock rising abruptly from the plain on three sides, and of
the lower fortress at the northern base of the rock. The two
fortresses can accommodate a garrison of 10,000 men. In the
lower fortress is the town, with a military hospital, and an
arsenal containing trophies captured from the Turks. Peter-
wardein, the " Gibraltar of Hungary," is believed to represent
the Roman Acumincum, and received its present name from
Peter the Hermit, who here in 1096 marshalled the levies of the
first crusade. It was captured by the Turks in 1526 and retained
by them for 160 years. In 1716 it witnessed a signal defeat
inflicted on the Turks by Prince Eugene. During the revolu-
tionary struggles of 1848-49 the fortress was held by the
insurgents for a short time.

PETHERICK, JOHN (1813-1882), Welsh traveller in East
Central Africa, was born in Glamorganshire, and adopted the
profession of mining engineer. In 1845 he entered the service
of Mehemet AH, and was employed in examining Upper Egypt,
Nubia, the Red Sea coast and Kordofan in an unsuccessful
search for coal. In 1848 Petherick left the Egyptian service
and established himself at El Obeid, the capital of Kordofan,
as a trader, dealing largely in gum arabic. He was at the same
time made British consular agent for the Sudan. In 1853 he
removed to Khartum and became an ivory trader. He travelled
extensively in the Bahr-el-Ghazal region, then almost unknown,
exploring the Jur, Yalo and other affluents of the Ghazal. In
1858 he penetrated to the Niam-Niam country. His additions
to the knowledge of natural history were considerable, among
his discoveries being the Cobus maria (Mrs Gray's waterbuck)
and the Balaeniceps rex (white-headed stork). Petherick
returned to England in 1859 where he made the acquaintance
of J. H. Speke, then arranging for his expedition to discover
the source of the Nile. While in England Petherick married, and
published an account of his travels. He returned to the Sudan
in 1 86 1, accompanied by his wife and with the rank of consul.
He was entrusted with a mission by the Royal Geographical
Society to convey to Gondokoro relief stores for Captains Speke
and Grant. Petherick got boats to Gondokoro in 1862, but
Speke and Grant had not arrived. Having arranged for a
native force to proceed south to get in touch with the absentees,
a task successfully accomplished, Mr and Mrs Petherick under-
took another journey in the Bahr-el-Ghazal, making important
collections of plants and fishes. They regained Gondokoro
(where one of their boats with stores was already stationed)
in February 1863, four days after the arrival of Speke and Grant,
who had meantime accepted the hospitality of Mr (afterwards
Sir) Samuel Baker. The charge that Petherick failed to meet
his engagement to those travellers is unsubstantiated. A
further charge that Petherick had countenanced and even taken
part in the slave trade was subsequently shown to have no foun-
dation (Petherick in fact had endeavoured to stop the traffic), but
it led Earl Russell, then secretary for foreign affairs, to abolish
the British consulate at Khartum (1864). In 1865 the Pethericks
returned to England, and in 1869 published Travels in Central
Africa and Explorations of the Western Nile Tributaries, in
which book are set out the details of the Speke controversy.
Petherick died in London, on the 15th of July 1882.

PETION DE VILLENEUVE, JEROME (1756-1794), French
writer and politician, was the son of a procureur at Chartres.
He became an avocat in 1778, and at once began to try to make
a name in literature. His first printed work was an essay, Sur
les moyens de prevenir I 'infanticide, which failed to gain the
prize for which it was composed, but pleased Brissot so much
that he printed it in vol. vii. of his Bibliothegue philosophique

des legislaleurs. Petion's next works, Les Lois civiles, and
Essai sur le mariage, in which he advocated the marriage of
priests, confirmed his position as a bold reformer, and when
the elections to the States-General took place in 1789 he was
elected a deputy to the Tiers Etat for Chartres. Both in the
assembly of the Tiers Etat and in the Constituent Assembly
Petion showed himself a radical leader. He supported Mirabeau
on the 23rd of June, attacked the queen on the 5th of October,
and was elected president on the 4th of December 1790. On
the 15th of June 1791 he was elected president of the criminal
tribunal of Paris. On the 21st of June 1791 he was chosen one
of three commissioners appointed to bring back the king from
Varennes, and he has left a fatuous account of the journey. After
the last meeting of the assembly on the 30th of September 1791
Robespierre and Petion were made the popular heroes and were
crowned by the populace with civic crowns. Petion received
a still further proof of the affection of the Parisians for himself
on the 16th of November 1791, when he was elected second
mayor of Paris in succession to Bailly. In his' mayoralty he
exhibited clearly his republican tendency and his hatred of the
old monarchy, especially on the 20th of June 1792, when he
allowed the mob to overrun the Tuileries and insult the royal
family. For neglecting to protect the Tuileries he was suspended
from his functions by the Directory of the department of the
Seine, but the leaders of the Legislative Assembly felt that
P6tion's cause was theirs, and rescinded the suspension on the
13th of July. On the 3rd of August, at the head of the munici-
pality of Paris, Petion demanded the dethronement of the king.
He was elected to the Convention for Eure-et-Loir and became
its first president. L. P. Manuel had the folly to propose that
the president of the Assembly should have the same authority
as the president of the United States; his proposition was at
once rejected, but Petion got the nickname of " Roi Petion,"
which contributed to his fall. His jealousy of Robespierre
allied him to the Girondin party, with which he voted for the
king's death and for the appeal to the people. He was elected
in March 1793 to the first Committee of Public Safety; and he
attacked Robespierre, who had accused him of having known
and having kept secret Dumouriez's project of treason. His
popularity however had waned, and his name was among those
of the twenty-two Girondin deputies proscribed on the 2nd of
June. Petion was one of those who escaped to Caen and raised
the standard of provincial insurrection against the Convention;
and, when the Norman rising failed, he fled with M. E, Guadet,
F. A. Buzot, C. J. M. Barbaroux, J. B. Salle and Louvet de
Couvrai to the Gironde, where they were sheltered by a wig-
maker of Saint Emilion. At last, a month before Robespierre's
fall in June 1794, the escaped deputies felt themselves no longer
safe, and deserted their asylum; Louvet found his way to Paris,
Salle and Guadet to Bordeaux, where they were soon taken;
Barbaroux committed suicide; and the bodies of Petion and
Buzot, who also killed themselves, were found in a field, half-
eaten by wolves.

See Memoires inedits de Petion et memoires de Buzot et de Bar-
baroux, accompagnis de notes inedites de Buzot et de nombreux docu-
ments inedits sur Barbaroux, Buzot, Brissot, &c, precedes d'une
introduction par C. A . Dauban (Paris, 1 866) ; CEuvres de Petion
(3 vols., 1792); F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Constituante (Paris,
1882).

PETIS DE LA CROIX, FRANCOIS (1653-1713), French
Orientalist, was born in Paris in 1653. He was son of the
Arabic interpreter of the French court, and inherited this office
at his father's death in 1695, afterwards transmitting it to his
own son, Alexandre Louis Marie, who also distinguished himself
in Oriental studies. At an early age he was sent by Colbert to
the East; during the ten years he spent in Syria, Persia and
Turkey he mastered Arabic, Persian and Turkish, and also
collected rich materials for future writings. He served a short
time as secretary to the French ambassador in Morocco, and
accompanied as interpreter the French forces sent against
Algiers, contributing to the satisfactory settlement of the treaty
of peace, which was drawn up by himself in Turkish and ratified
in 1684. He conducted the negotiations with Tunis and Tripoli

3° 6

PETIT— PETITION

in 1685, and those with Morocco in 1687; and the zeal, tact
and linguistic knowledge he manifested in these and other
transactions with Eastern courts were at last rewarded in
1692 by his appointment to the Arabic chair in the College
Royal de France, which he filled until his death in 17 13.

He published Conies turcs (Paris, 1707), and Les Mille et un jours
(5 vols., Paris, 1710-1712); an Armenian Dictionary and an Account
of Ethiopia. But the lasting monument of his literary fame is his
excellent French version of Sharaf-uddin 'All Yazdi's Zafarnama
or History of Timur (completed 828 A.H. ; A.D. 1425), which was
given to the world nine years after his death (4 vols., Paris, 1722;
Eng. trans, by J. Darby, London, 1723). This work, one of the
rare specimens of a fairly critical history Persia can boast of, was
compiled under the auspices of Mirza Ibrahim Sultan, the son of
Shah Rukh and grandson of the great Timur. The only error
committed by Petis de la Croix in his otherwise very correct transla-
tion is that he erroneously ascribed the important share which
Ibrahim Sultan had in the Zafarnama to Timur himself.

PETIT, SIR DINSHAW MANECKJI, Bart. (1823-1901),
Parsee philanthropist, was born on the 30th of June 1823. As
broker to European firms he amassed a large fortune during
the period of speculation in Bombay at the time of the American
Civil War. In 1886 he became a member of the governor-
general's legislative council. He devoted his wealth to philan-
thropic objects, among the public and private charities which
he endowed being the Towers of Silence and fire temples of the
Parsees, a hospital for animals, a college for women, and the
Petit hospital. He was knighted in 1887, created a baronet
in 1890, and died in February 1901.

PETIT DE JULLEVILLE, LOUIS (1841-1900), French
scholar, was born in Paris on the 18th of July 1841. Educated
at the Ecole Normale Superieure, and at the French school at
Athens, he received his doctorate in literature in 1868. After
holding various posts as a teacher he became professor of French
medieval literature and of the history of the French language
in the university of Paris in 1886. He died on the 28th of
August 1900.

His most important works are: Histoire du the'dtre en France,
including Les Mysthres (2 vols., 1880); Les Comediens en France au
moyen age (1885); La Comedie et les mceurs en France au moyen
age (1886); Repertoire du theatre comique en France au moyen dge
(1886) ; and Le Theatre en France, histoire de la littirature dramatique
depuis ses origines jusqu'd nos jours (1889). Petit de Julleville
was also the general editor of the Histoire de la langue et de la
litlerature francaise (8 vols., 1896-1900), to which he himself con-
tributed some valuable chapters.

PETITION (Lat. for " seeking " or " praying "), a term
meaning generally a prayerful request, and in its more important
constitutional aspect an application for redress by a person
aggrieved to an authority capable of relieving him. It may be
made in the United Kingdom to the Crown or its officers, or to
either house of parliament, or in certain cases to courts of
justice.

Petitions to the Crown. — The right of petitioning the Crown
was recognized indirectly as early as Magna Carta in the famous
clause, Nuili vendemus, nulli negabimus aut differemus, rectum
vcl justitiam (25 Edw. I. c. 29), and directly at various periods
later, e.g. in the articles of the Commons assented to by Henry
IV., by which the king was to assign two days in the week for
petitions (Rot. Pari. 8 Hen. IV., p. 585). The case of the seven
bishops in 1688 confirmed the right, and finally the Bill of Rights
in 1689 declared " that it is the right of the subjects to petition
the king, and all commitments and prosecutions for such petition-
ing are illegal." Petitions to the Crown appear to have been at
first for the redress of private and local grievances, or for remedies
which the courts of law could not grant (May, Pari. Pr., nth ed.,
522). As equity grew into a system, petitions of this kind not
seeking legislative remedies tended to become superseded by bills
in chancery. Statutes were originally drawn up by the judges
at the close of the session of parliament from the petitions of the
Commons and the answers of the Crown. Under this system of
drafting it was found that the tenor of the petition and answer
were not always stated correctly. To obviate this inconvenience
demands for legislation came in the reign of Henry VI. to be
drawn up in the form of bills which the Crown could accept or
reject, but could not alter (see Anson, Law and Custom of the

Constitution, 3rd. ed., vol. i. p. 241). In the same reign the
words " by authority of parliament " were added to the words of
enactment, and from the time of Henry VII. public legislation
has been by bill and not by petition. A relic of the old form of
statute founded upon petition still remains however in the
preamble of Appropriation Acts and other statutes creating a
charge upon the public revenue. It runs thus: " We, your
majesty's most dutiful and loyal subjects, the Commons of the
United Kingdom ... do most humbly beseech your majesty
that it may be enacted; and be it enacted," &c, from this point
following the enacting words common to all statutes. The
Crown may refer petitions presented to it to be adjudicated upon
by a delegated authority. This course is pursued in the case of
claims to peerages and offices of honour, which are referred to the
House of Lords, and by that house to its committee for privi-
leges, and in the case of petitions to the Crown in council, which
are usually referred to the judicial committee. The Crown may
delegate the power of receiving petitions in the first instance.

Petitions to Parliament. — Petitions to either house of the
legislature seem to have been later in origin than petitions
to the Crown. They are not referred to in the Bill of Rights, but
the right of petition is a convention of the constitution. Petitions
to the Lords or the whole parliament can be traced back to Henry
III. No petition to the Commons has been found earlier than
Richard II.; but from the time of Henry IV. petitions to the
Commons have been freely made. The political importance of
petitioning dates from about the reign of Charles I. The develop-
ment of the practice of petitioning had proceeded so far in the
reign of Charles II. as to lead to the passing in 1662 of an act
(13 Car. II. c. 5) against " tumultuous petitioning," which is
still on the statute book. It provides that no petition or address
shall be presented to the king or either house of parliament by
more than ten persons; nor shall any one procure above twenty
persons to consent or set their hands to any petition for alteration
of matters established by law in church or state, unless with the
previous order of three justices of the county, or the major part
of the grand jury. And in 181 7 (57 Geo. III. c. 19, s. 23)
meetings within a mile from Westminster Hall for the purpose of
considering a petition to both houses or either house of parlia-
ment while either house is sitting were declared to be unlawful
assemblies. Up to 1688 petitions to either house usually dealt
only with some specific grievance. From that time dates the
present practice of petitioning with regard to general measures
of public policy. Petitions to the Houses of Lords or Commons
must be framed in the form prescribed by the standing orders,
must be properly superscribed, and must conclude with a prayer
(May, Pari. Pr., nth ed., 524, 525). They may be sent free by
post to members of either house if they fulfil certain conditions
as to weight, &c, (loc. cit. p. 531).

Petitions to the Commons must be in writing, must contain
none but genuine signatures, and must be free from disrespectful
language or imputations upon any tribunal or constituted authority.
They must be presented by a member of the house, except petitions
to the House of Commons from the corporation of London, which
may be presented at the bar by the sheriffs, and from the corpora-
tion of Dublin, which may be presented by the lord mayor. There
is no means of compelling a member to present a petition. The
rules as to petitions to the House of Lords are similar. The lord
who presents a petition is required to read it to see whether in form
and contents it is fit for presentation. In the Lords receivers and
triers of petitions from Great Britain and Ireland and from Gascony
and the lands and countries beyond the sea were appointed until
1886, though their functions had long been obsolete. Applications
for leave to bring before either house bills for private or local and

Cersonal matters must under the standing orders of both houses
e made by petition ; and the same rule obtains as to applications
for leave to be heard in opposition to such bills.

See Clifford, History of Private Bill Legislation (1887); May,
Pari. Pr., (nth ed.), c. xxv.

Petitions to Courts of Justice.- — Strictly speaking, these are an
indirect mode of petitioning the Crown, for in the theory of
English law the Crown is the fountain of justice. But it is more
convenient to treat them separately, as they now form a part of
the practice of the courts. Appeals to the House of Lords and
the privy council are prosecuted by petition of appeal. The

PETITIO PRINCIPII

307

original jurisdiction of the privy council to deal with petitions
is confined to proceedings under certain statutes, such as the
Endowed Schools Acts, the Public Schools Acts, the Universities
Acts and the Patents Acts. In most cases the petitions are
referred to the judicial committee of the council. Petitions may
be addressed to the lord chancellor in a few instances, e.g. for
the removal of coroners or county court judges. The House of
Lords at one time claimed original jurisdiction in civil and
criminal matters, As to civil matters the claim is abandoned;
as to criminal matters it is now limited to impeachment for
crime by the Commons on the trial for treason or felony of
persons having privilege of peerage.

The most important use of petitions in England is in the High
Court of Justice. In the chancery division petitions are presented
either as interlocutory proceedings in the course of an action, or as
original proceedings where no litigation exists — as being a more
speedy form of remedy than an action. The cases in which a peti-
tion is admissible and the procedure therein, are in the main regu-
lated by orders 52 and 55 of the rules of the supreme court. Evidence
in support of petitions is usually by affidavit. Petitions in the
course of an action are presented to the court in which the action
is brought. Examples of original petitions are those under the
Lands Clauses Acts, the Trustee Acts and the Companies Acts.
For many proceedings under these acts a simpler and cheaper
form of proceeding by summons has been substituted for that by
petition. The matters above-mentioned are usually dealt with by
the chancery division as successor of the court of chancery. Peti-
tions are also in use in other courts having equitable jurisdiction,
e.g. the chancery courts of the counties palatine of Lancaster and
Durham and the county courts as to cases falling within § 67 of
the County Courts Act 1888, and as to cases within county court
jurisdiction under the Settled Land Acts or the Guardianship of
Infants Act 1886 (County Court Rules, O. 38). In a few cases
petitions may be brought by way of appeal, e.g. under the Charitable
Trusts Act i860. In the king's bench division the only use of
petitions appears to be to initiate proceedings in bankruptcy.
Leave to sue in formd pauperis used to be given on petition but is
now usually dealt with summarily. In the probate, &c, division
proceedings in matrimonial causes, &c, are begun by petition, but
the course of the proceedings closely resembles those of an ordinary
action.

Scotland. — In Scotland petitions in the Court of Session are either
original or in a pending action. Original petitions are presented
to one of the divisions of the inner house, unless they relate to
matters mentioned in 20 & 21 Vict. c. 56, s. 4, when they are brought
before the junior lord ordinary, or unless, by special statutory pro-
vision, they may be brought before any lord ordinary, as in the case
of petitions under the " Conjugal Rights (Scotland) Amendment
Act 1861," or the Trusts (Scotland) Act 1867. A petition and
complaint is a process of a quasi-criminal nature by which certain
matters of summary and extraordinary iurisdiction are brought
under the notice of the Court of Session. It lies against magistrates
and officers of the law for breach of duty against parties guilty
of contempt of court, &c. The concurrence of the lord advocate
is necessary to a petition and complaint (see Mackay, Court of
Session Practice, ii. 439).

Ireland. — The law of Ireland as to petitions is in substance the
same as that of England with certain differences of detail as to the
cases in which petitions may be made to courts of justice.

United States. — In the United States before the Civil War questions
arose as to the right of petitioning Congress, particularly with refer-
ence to petitions for the restriction of slavery which at that time
was contended to be a matter of state and not of federal concern
(see Cooley, Constitutional Limitations, 6th ed., 1890, 426). The
right of petitioning the United States government is now secured
by the first amendment to the United States constitution (ratified
in 1789-1791), which provides that " Congress shall make no law
. . . abridging . . . the right of the people peaceably to assemble
and to petition the government for a redress of grievances." In
the view of the Supreme Court this amendment " assumes the
existence of the right of the people to assemble for lawful purposes
and protects it against encroachment by Congress. The right was
not created by the amendment; neither was its continuance
guaranteed except as against congressional interference. For their
protection in its enjoyment, therefore, the people must look to the
states. The power for that purpose was originally placed there,
and has never been surrendered. The right of the people peaceably
to assemble for the purpose of petitioning Congress for a redress
of grievances, or for anything else connected with the powers or
duties of the national government is an attribute of national citizen-
ship, and as such under the protection of and guaranteed by the
United States. The very idea of a government republican in form
implies a right on the part of its citizens to meet peaceably for
consultation in respect to public affairs and to petition for a redress
of grievances " (U.S. v. Cruikshank, 1875; 92 U.S. 542, 552).

A Bill of Rights is incorporated in the constitutions of many
states of the Union, and is made part of the supreme law of

the states (see Hough, American Constitutions, ii. 571). Petitions
can be presented to the federal or state courts of justice under much
the same circumstances as in England. " It is a general rule in
such cases that an affidavit should be made that the facts therein
contained are true as far as known to the petitioner, and that those
facts which he states as knowing from others he believes to be true "
(Bouvier, Law Diet.).

British Possessions. — There is a right of petition to the king for
the review of decisions (in matters criminal or civil) of courts of
justice in the Channel Islands or Isle of Man, and in all other parts
of the empire outside the British islands and of British courts ir
foreign countries. This right is cut down by imperial or colonia
legislation in the case of Canada and Australia, see Tarring, Lav.
Relating to Colonies (3rd ed., 1906) c. v.

The term Petition of Right, in English law, is used in two senses.
(1) It denotes the statute of 1625 (3 Car. I. c. 1), a parliamentary
declaration of the liberties of the people. (2) It also and more
usually is employed to describe a mode of prosecuting a claim by
a subject against the Crown, said to owe its origin to Edward I.
Petition of right in this sense lies (a) to obtain restitution of real
or personal property of the subject which has found its way into
the hands of the Crown, or compensation if restitution cannot be
made; (b) to recover damages for breach of a contract made on
behalf of the Crown, whether the breach is due to the acts or the
omissions of servants of the Crown. Where the Crown is in
possession of property of the suppliant, and the title of the Crown
appears by record, as by inquest of office, the remedy is somewhat
different and is called monstrans de droit. Petition of right does
not lie in respect of engagements in the naval, military or civil
service of the Crown, which are as a general rule made " during
pleasure," nor for breach of public duty, e.g. failure to perform
treaty obligations, nor for trespass or negligence or other torts
by Crown servants. Where such acts are wrongful the remedy is
by action against the official as an individual and not in his
official capacity {Raleigh v. Goschen, 1898, L.R. 1 ch. 73).

The procedure on a petition of right is either at common law or
by statute. At common law the petition went through its earliest
stages in the chancery. It suggests such a right as controverts the
title of the Crown, and the Crown endorses upon the petition Soil
droit fait al partie. Thereupon a commission is issued to inquire
into the truth of the suggestion. After the return to the commission,
the attorney-general pleads or demurs, and the merits are then
determined as in actions between subject and subject. If the
right be determined against the Crown, judgment of amoveas manus
is given in favour of the suppliant. The Petition of Right Act
i860 (23 & 24 Vict. c. 34, extended to Ireland in 1873, 36 & 37
Vict. c. 69) preserves to the suppliant his right to proceed at common
law, but gives an alternative remedy. The procedure is regulated
by the act of i860, and as to England also by rules made under
that act on the 1st of February 1862. The petition is left with the
secretary of state for the home department for the consideration
of his majesty, who if he thinks fit grants his fiat that right be done.
The fiat is sealed in the home office and issued to the suppliant
who files it in the central office of the High Court of Justice, and
a sealed copy is served upon the solicitor to the treasury, with a
demand for a plea or answer on behalf of the Crown. The subse-
quent proceedings including those as to disclosing relevant docu-
ments are assimilated as far as possible to those in an ordinary
action. A judgment in favour of the suppliant is equivalent to
a judgment of amoveas manus ouster le main. Costs are payable
to and by the Crown. A petition of right is usually tried in the
chancery or king's bench divisions; but where the subject-matter
of the petition arises out of the exercise of belligerent rights on
behalf of the Crown, or would be cognizable in a prize court if the
matter were in dispute between private persons, the suppliant may
at his option intitule his petition in the admiralty division, and the
lord chancellor may direct the prosecution in that division of peti-
tions of right under the act of i860 even when they are not so
intituled (27 & 28 Vict. c. 25, s. 52).

The law as to petition of right applies to Ireland but not to
Scotland, and a right to present such a petition appears to exist
in colonies whose law is based on the common law of England.
But in many colonies legislation has been passed with respect to
suits against government which makes it unnecessary to resort to
a petition of right.

PETITIO PRINCIPII, or Begging the Question (Gr. to h>
a.pxfj\aix^avav,Tb e£ apx^s alTeiadai), in logic, the fourth of
Aristotle's fallacies e£a) rrjs Xe£ecos or extra dictionem. Strictly
this fallacy belongs to the language of disputation, when the
questioner seeks {petit) to get his adversary to admit the very
matter in question. Hence the word principium gives a wrong
impression, for the fallacy consists not in seeking for the

3 o8

PETITOT— PETO

admission of a principle which will confute the particular pro-
position — a perfectly legitimate form of refutation — but in luring
the adversary into confessing the contradictory. In the ordinary
use, however, " begging the question " consists in assuming in
the premises the conclusion which it is desired to prove. '

PETITOT, JEAN (1608-1691), French-Swiss enamel painter,
was born at Geneva, a member of a Burgundian family which had
fled from France on account of religious difficulties. His father,
Faulle, was a wood carver; his mother's name was Etienette
Royaume. Jean was the fourth son, and was apprenticed to a
jeweller goldsmith named Pierre Bordier, with whom he struck
up a close friendship. The two friends, dissatisfied with the
progress they made in Geneva, went into France, and after
working for a while with Toutin came to England with letters
of introduction to Turquet de Mayern, physician to Charles I.,
who presented them to the king, for whom they made a St
George for the badge of the order and carried out many com-
missions for portraits; amongst others preparing two large ones
representing Rachel de Ruvigny, countess of Southampton, now
at Chatsworth, and Mary Villiers, duchess of Richmond and
Lennox, dated 1643, a t one time in the possession of the Crown
and now in the Pierpont Morgan collection. On the execution of
the king, Petitot left England for Paris with the royal household,
Bordier remaining in England and carrying out certain important
commissions for Cromwell and the parliament. On reaching
Paris, Petitot entered into partnership with a goldsmith, Jacques
Bordier, a cousin of Pierre, and it seems probable from recent
research in contemporary documents that the enamel portraits
attributed to Petitot were really the work of the two partners
collaborating, the actual drawing being the work of Petitot,
while for the enamel process Bordier was mainly responsible.
The two painters were given apartments in the Louvre, received
numerous commissions from Louis XIV., and painted portraits
of almost every person of importance in his brilliant court. The
friendship between the two lasted for thirty-five years, and was
only put an end to by Bordier's death. The enamellers rendered
special political services in France for the republic of Geneva,
and were practically regarded as the official representatives of
the republic, receiving warm thanks from the Syndics for their
diplomatic work. On the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
1685, pressure was brought to bear upon Petitot that he should
change his religion. The king protected him as long as possible,
and when he was arrested, with his niece, Anne Bordier, sent
Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, to convince the old man of the error of
his ways. Eventually, in poor health and great despair, Petitot
placed his signature to an act of abjuration, and Louis XIV.,
unwilling to acknowledge the true reason for the imprison-
ment of Petitot and for his liberation, informed one of his sons,
who came to thank him for the pardon given to his father, that
he was willing to fall in for once with " the whim of an old man
who desired to be buried with his ancestors." In 1687 therefore
Petitot left Paris to return to Geneva, and, after a long and tedious
inquiry, was absolved by the consistory of the church of Geneva
from the crime of which they considered he had been guilty,
and received back to the Huguenot communion in the church of
St Gervais. In Geneva he received a very important com-
mission from John Sobieski, king of Poland, who required
portraits of himself and his queen. This was followed by number-
less other commissions which the painter carried out. He died
of paralysis on the 3rd of April 1601, while in the very act of
painting on the enamel a portrait of his faithful wife.

Petitot married in 1651 Marguerite Cuper, and Jacques
Bordier married in the same year her younger sister Anne
Madeleine. He had seventeen children, and for their benefit
wrote out a little octavo volume containing some genealogical
information, two delightful portraits, one of himself and one of
his wife, and many pages occupied with prayers, meditations
and religious advice. He also prepared a second manuscript
volume of prayers and meditations for the use of his family, and
from these two books and the records of the Huguenot societies
of France and England information has been obtained respecting
the painter and his family.

Of the works of Petitot the most important collection is in the
Jones Bequest at the Victoria and Albert Museum. There are
many in the Louvre, sixteen at Chantilly, seventeen at Windsor,
and others in the collections of Earl Beauchamp, the duke of Rut-
land, the duke of Richmond, the earl of Dartrey, Mr Alfred de
Rothschild and the late Baroness Burdett-Coutts. Amongst
Lord Dartrey's examples are portraits of Petitot and of his son,
and two of the wife of Jean Petitot the younger. A second portrait
of the artist belongs to the queen of Holland, and another is in the
collection of the late Mr Stroehlin of Geneva. In Mr Pierpont
Morgan's collection there are many exceedingly fine examples,
but especially three drawings on paper, the only three which
appear to have survived, and the large signed miniature of the
duchess of Richmond already mentioned, the largest work Petitot
ever executed save the one at Chatsworth.

See Petitot et Bordier, by Ernest Stroehlin (Geneva, 1905) ; " Some
New Information respecting Jean Petitot," by G. C. Williamson,
Nineteenth Century and After (January 1908), pp. 98-110; the
privately printed Catalogue of the Collection of Mr J. Pierpont
Morgan, vol. iii.; The History of Portrait Miniatures, by G. C.
Williamson, vol. ii. (London, 1904). (G. C. W.)

PETITOT, JEAN LOUIS (1652-c. 1730), French enamel
painter, was the eldest son of Jean Petitot (q.v.), and was
instructed in enamelling by his father. Some of his works so
closely resemble those of the elder Petitot that it is difficult to
distinguish between them, and he was really the only serious
rival his father ever had. He settled for a while in London,
where he remained till 1682, and painted many enamel portraits of
Charles II. In 1682 he removed to Paris, but in 1695 was back
again in London, where he remained until the time of his death.

His portrait by Mignard is in the museum at Geneva, and another
in enamel by himself in the collection of the earl of Dartrey, who
also owns two of his wife, Madeleine Bordier, whom he married
in 1683. Another portrait believed to represent him is in the col-
lection of Mr Pierpont Morgan. (G. C. W.)

PETITS-CHEVAUX (Fr. for " little horses" ), a gambling game
played with a mechanical device consisting of a board perforated
with a number of concentric circular slits, in which revolve, each
independently on its own axis, figures of jockeys on horseback,
distinguished by numbers or colours. The bystanders having
staked their money according to their choice on a board marked
in divisions for this purpose, the horses are started revolving
rapidly together by means of mechanism attached to the board,
and the horse which stops nearest a marked goal wins, every
player who has staked on that horse receiving so many times his
stake. Figures of railway trains and other objects sometimes
take the place of horses. In recent years there has been a ten-
dency to supplant the petits ekevaux at French resorts by the boule
or ball game, on the same principle of gambling; in this a ball
is rolled on a basin-shaped table so that it' may eventually settle
in one of a number of shallow cups, each marked with a figure.

PETO, SIR SAMUEL MORTON, Bart. (1809-1889), English
contractor, was born at Woking, Surrey, on the 4th of August
1809, and was at an early age apprenticed to his uncle, a London
builder, who on his death in 1830 bequeathed the business to
Peto and another nephew, Thomas Grissell. The partnership
between Peto and Grissell lasted till 1846, amongst the many
London buildings erected by the firm being the Reform Club, the
Lyceum and St James's theatres, and the Nelson column. Peto
afterwards entered into partnership with Edward Ladd Betts
(1815-1872), and between 1846 and 1872 Messrs Peto & Betts
carried out many large railway contracts at home and abroad,
notably the more important portions of the South-Eastern and
of the London Chatham & Dover lines, and, in conjunction
with Thomas Brassey, the Grand Trunk railway of Canada, and
the London Tilbury & Southend railway. In 1854-1855
Peto and Brassey constructed a railway in the Crimea between
Balaclava and the British entrenchments before Sebastopol,
charging the British government only the actual out-of-pocket
expenses, and for his services in this matter Peto was in 1855 made
a baronet. Peto entered parliament as a Liberal in 1847, and,
with a few years' interval, continued there till 1868, when, his
firm having been compelled to suspend payment in the financial
crisis of 1866, he was forced to resign his seat, though both Mr
Disraeli and Mr Gladstone publicly eulogized his personal
character. He died on the 13th of November 1889.

PETOFI— PETRA

309

PETOFI, ALEXANDER (1823-1849), Hungarian lyric poet,
was born at Kis-K6roso, Pest county, on New Year's Day, 1823.
The family received its diploma of nobility from the emperor
Leopold in 1688, but the ultra-patriotic Alexander early changed
the old family name, Petrovics, which pointed to a Croatian
origin, into the purely Magyar form of Petofi. The lad's early
days were spent at Felegyhaz and Szabadszallas, the most
Hungarian parts of Hungary, where he got most of his early
education, including a good grounding in Latin. German he
learnt subsequently at Pesth, and French he taught himself.
He began writing verses in his twelfth year, while a student at the
Aszod gymnasium, where he also displayed a strong predilection
for the stage, to the disgust of his rigorous father, who formally
disowned his son, early in 1839, for some trifling peccadillo, and
whose tyrannical temper became downright furious when a
series of misfortunes ruined him utterly in 1840. For the next
three years Petofi led the wretched life of a strolling player,
except for a brief interval when, to escape starvation, he enlisted
as a common soldier in an infantry regiment. During the greater
part of 1842 we find him a student at the Calvinist College at
Papa, where he made the acquaintance of young Jokai, and wrote
the poem " Borozo," which the great critic Bajza at once inserted
in the leading literary review, the Athenaeum (May 22, 1842). In
November of the same year the restless poet quitted Papa to
join another travelling troupe, playing on one occasion the Fool
in King Lear, and after wandering all over Hungary and suffering
incredible hardships, finally settled down at Pesth (1844), where
for a time he supported himself by all sorts of literary hack-work.
Nevertheless, in the midst of his worst privations he had read
voraciously, and was at this time profoundly influenced by the
dominant Romanticism of the day; while, through Tieck, he
learnt to know and value the works of Shakespeare. His first
volume of original poems was published in 1844 by the Society
Nemzeti Kor, through the influence of the poet Vorosmarty,
when every publisher had refused his MS., and the seventy-five
florins which he got for it had become a matter of life or death to
him. He now became a regular contributor to the leading papers
of Pesth, and was reconciled to his parents, whom he practically
supported for the rest of their lives out of his literary earnings.
His position, if not exactly brilliant, was now at least secure.
The little volume published by the Nemzeti Kor was followed by
the parody, A Helyseg Kalapdcsa (1844); the romantic epic
J duos Vitez (1844); Ciprislombok Etelke Sirjdrdl, a collection of
passionate elegies over his lost love, Etelke Csapo (1845); Uti
Jegyzetek, an imitation of Heine's Reisebilder (1845); Szerelem
Gybngyei (1845); Felhok (1846); Szerelme es hdzass&ga (1846),
and many other volumes. The first edition of his collected
poems appeared in 1847. Petofi was not yet twenty-five, and,
despite the protests of the classicists, who regarded him with
cold dislike, the best heads in Hungary, poets like Vorosmarty
and critics like Szemere, already paid him the homage due
to the prince of Magyar lyrical poets. The great public was
enthusiastic on the same side, and posterity, too, has placed him
among the immortals. Petofi is as simple and genuine a poet of
nature as Wordsworth or Christian Winther, and his erotics,
inspired throughout by a noble idealism, have all Byron's force
and fervour, though it is perhaps in his martial songs that
Petofi's essentially passionate and defiant genius asserts itself
most triumphantly. On the 8th of September 1847 Petofi married
Julia Szendrey, who bore him a son. When the revolutionary
war broke out, he espoused the tenets of the extreme democratic
faction with a heat and recklessness which estranged many of his
friends. He took an active part in the Transylvanian campaigns
of the heroic Bern; rose by sheer valour to the rank of major; was
slain at the battle of Segesvar (July 31, 1849), and his body,
which was never recovered, is supposed to have been buried in
the common grave of the fallen honveds in the churchyard of
Feheregyhaz. The first complete edition of Petofi's poems
appeared in 1874. The best critical edition is that of Haras,
1894. There are numerous indifferent German translations.

See Ferenczi, Petofi EJetrajza; Fischer, Petofi's Leben und
Werke > (R. N. B.)

PETOSKEY, a city and the county-seat of Emmet county.
Michigan, U.S.A., on Little Traverse Bay, an arm of Lake
Michigan, at the mouth of Bear Creek, in the north-west part of
the lower peninsula. Pop. (1890), 2872; (1900), 5285, of whom
856 were foreign-born; (1904), 5186; (i9io),4778. It is served
by the Pere Marquette and the Grand Rapids & Indiana rail-
ways and by steamboat lines to Chicago, Detroit, Buffalo and
other lake ports. Bear Creek furnishes considerable water-power,
and among the manufactures are lumber, paper, leather and
foundry and machine-shop products. Petoskey was settled
about 1874, was incorporated as a village in 1879, was chartered
as a city in 1895, and in 1902 replaced Harbor Springs
as county-seat. It was named after an Ojibwa Indian chief.

PETRA (f/ Uerpa= the rock), a ruined site, 30° 19' N. and 35°
31' E., lying in a basin among the mountains which form the
eastern flank of Wadi el-'Araba, the great valley running from
the Dead Sea to the Gulf of 'Akaba. The descriptions of Strabo
(xvi. p. 779), Pliny (N.H. vi. 32) and other writers leave no
doubt as to the identity of this site with the famous capital of the
Nabataeans (q.v.) and the centre of their caravan trade. Walled
in by towering rocks and watered by a perennial stream, Petra
not only possessed the advantages of a fortress but controlled
the main commercial routes which passed through it to Gaza in
the west, to Bostra and Damascus in the north, to Elath and
Leuce Come on the Red Sea, and across the desert to the Persian
Gulf.

From the 'Araba travellers approach by a track which leads
round Jebel Harun (Mt Hor) and enters the plain of Petra from
the south; it is just possible to find a way in from the high plateau
on the north; but the most impressive entrance is from the east,
down a dark and narrow gorge, in places only 10 or 12 ft. wide,
called the Sik, i.e. the shaft, a split in the huge sandstone rocks
which serves as the waterway of the Wadi Musa. Near the end
of the defile stands the most elaborate of the ruins, el-Hazne or
" the Treasury of Pharaoh," not built but hewn out of the cliff;
a little farther on, at the foot of the mountain called en-Nejr,
comes the theatre, so placed as to bring the greatest number of
tombs within view; and at the point where the valley opens out
into the plain the site of the city is revealed with striking effect.
Almost enclosing it on three sides are rose-coloured mountain
walls, divided into groups by deep fissures, and lined with rock-
cut tombs in the form of towers. The stream of Wadi Musa crosses
the plain and disappears among the mountains opposite; on
either bank, where the ground is fairly level, the city was built,
covering a space of about ij sq. m. Among the ruins on the
south bank stand the fragments of a temple called Kasr Fir'aun
of late Roman date; just beyond this rises a rocky height which
is usually regarded as the acropolis.

A position of such natural strength must have been occupied
early, but we have no means of telling exactly when the history
of Petra began; the evidence seems to show that the city was of
relatively late foundation, though a sanctuary (see below) may
have existed there from very ancient times. This part of the
country was assigned by tradition to the Horites, i.e. probably
" cave-dwellers," the predecessors of the Edomites (Gen. xiv. 6,
xxxvi. 20-30; Deut. ii. 12) ; the habits of the original natives may
have influenced the Nabataean custom of burying the dead and
offering worship in half-excavated caves. 1 But that Petra itself
is mentioned in the Old Testament cannot be affirmed with
certainty; for though Petra is usually identified with Sela' 2 which
also means " a rock," the reference in Judges i. 36; Isa. xvi. 1,
xlii. 1 1 ; Obad. 3, is far from clear. 2 Kings xiv. 7 seems to be more
explicit; in the parallel passage, however, Sela' is understood
to mean simply " the rock" (2 Chr. xxv. 12, see LXX). Hence
many authorities doubt whether any town named Sela' is men-
tioned in the Old Testament. 3 What, then, did the Semitic

1 Buhl, Gesch. der Edomiter (1893), p. 52.

2 E.g. by Driver, Deut. p. 38; Noldeke, Ency. Bibl. col. 1 185;
Ed. Meyer, Die Israeliten u. ihre Nachbarstamme, p. 357.

3 Buhl, p. 35 sqq., G. F. Moore, Judges, p. 55 seq., Oxford Hebr.
Lex. s. v. ]ha ; T. K. Cheyne, Ency. Bibl. s. v. Sela ; A. Jeremias,

I Das A. T. im Lichte d. alten Orients, p. 457.

3io

PETRARCH

inhabitants call their city? Eusebius and Jerome (Onom. sacr.
286, 71. 145, 9; 228, 55. 287, 94), apparently on the authority of
Josephus (Ant. iv. 7, 154, 7), assert that Rekem was the native
name. But in the Aramaic versions Rekem is the name of
Kadesh; Josephus may have confused the two places. Some-
times the Aramaic versions give the form Rekem- Geya, which
recalls the name of the village El-ji, south-east of Petra; the
capital, however, would hardly be defined by the name of a
neighbouring village. The Semitic name of the city, if it was not
Sela", must remain unknown. 1 The passage in Diodorus Siculus
(xix. 94-97) which describes the expeditions which Antigonus
sent against the Nabataeans in 312 B.C. is generally understood
to throw some light upon the history of Petra, though it must be
admitted that the petra referred to as a natural fortress and place
of refuge cannot be a proper name, and the description at any
rate implies that the town was not yet in existence. Briinnow
thinks that " the rock " in question was the sacred mountain
en-Nejr (above); but Buhl suggests a conspicuous height about
16 m. north of Petra, Shobak, the Mont-royal of the Crusaders. 2
More satisfactory evidence of the date at which the earliest
Nabataean settlement began is to be obtained from an exami-
nation of the tombs. Two types may be distinguished broadly,
the Nabataean and the Graeco-Roman. The Nabataean type
starts from the simple pylon-tomb with a door set in a tower
crowned by a parapet ornament, in imitation of the front of a
dwelling-house; then, after passing through various stages, the
full Nabataean type is reached, retaining all the native features
and at the same time exhibiting characteristics which are partly
Egyptian and partly Greek. Of this type there exist close
parallels in the tomb-towers at el-Hejr in north Arabia, which
bear long Nabataean inscriptions, 3 and so supply a date for the
corresponding monuments at Petra. Then comes a series of tomb-
fronts which terminate in a semicircular arch, a feature derived
from north Syria, and finally the elaborate facades, from which
all trace of native style has vanished, copied from the front of
a Roman temple. The exact dates of the stages in this develop-
ment cannot be fixed, for strangely enough few inscriptions of
any length have been found at Petra, 4 perhaps because they have
perished with the stucco or cement which was used upon many of
the buildings. We have, then, as evidence for the earliest period,
the simple pylon-tombs, which belong to the pre-Hellenic age;
how far back in this stage the Nabataean settlement goes we
do not know, but not farther than the 6th century B.C. A
period follows in which the dominant civilization combines Greek,
Egyptian and Syrian elements, clearly pointing to the age of the
Ptolemies. Towards the close of the 2nd century B.C., when the
Ptolemaic and Seleucid kingdoms were equally depressed, the
Nabataean kingdom came to the front; under Aretas III.
Philhellene, c. 85-60 B.C., the royal coins begin; at this time
probably the theatre was excavated, and Petra must have
assumed the aspect of a Hellenistic city. In the long and pros-
perous reign of Aretas IV. Philopatris, 9 b.c.-a.d. 40, the fine
tombs of the el-IJejr type may be dated, perhaps also the great
High-place. Then the city became more and more Romanized.
In a.d. 106, when Cornelius Palma was governor of Syria,
"Arabia belonging to Petra," 6 was absorbed into the Roman
Empire, and the native dynasty came to an end. But the city
continued to flourish. It was visited in a.d. 131 by Hadrian, and
stamped Adriane Petra on its coins in gratitude for the emperor's
benefactions; the superb Hazne, probably a temple for the worship
of Isis, and the Der, which resembles the Hazne in design, belong
to this period. A century later, in the time of Alexander

1 Yakut gives the name Sal' to a fortress in Wadi Musa, Noldeke,
ZDMG. xxv. 259 seq. (1871).

2 Briinnow, Die Frov. Arabia, i. 190; Buhl, op. cit. p. 34.

3 CIS. ii. 197-226; Cooke, North-Semitic Inscriptions, 78-91, &c.

4 Four important Nabat. inscrr. have been found, of which
three are dated, viz. NSI. p. 250, n = CIS. ii. 349, 16th year of
Aretas III., i.e. B.C. 70, so also CIS. ii. 442; NSI. 94 and 95 = CIS.
ii. 350 and 354, the latter dated the 29th year of Aretas IV., i.e.
a.d. 20. The other Nabat. inscrr. are mostly graffiti, scratched
on the rocks by visitors or worshippers at the holy places; CIS.

"■355-441. 444-464-

6 This is the meaning of Arabia Petraea. Dio Cass, lxviii. 14.

Severus (a.d. 222-235), when the city was at the height of its
splendour, the issue of coinage comes to an end, and there is no
more building of sumptuous tombs, owing apparently to some
sudden catastrophe, such as an invasion by the neo-Persian
power under the Sassanid dynasty. Meanwhile as Palmyra
(fl. a.d. 130-270) grew in importance and attracted the
Arabian trade away from Petra, the latter declined; it seems,
however, to have lingered on as a religious centre; for we are
told by Epiphanius (c. a.d. 315-403) that in his time a feast was
held there on the 25th of December in honour of the virgin
Chaabou and her offspring Dusares (Haer. 51).

The chief god of Petra was Dhu-shara (Aoucrdpr/s), i.e. the lord
or owner of Shard; 6 he was worshipped under the form of a black
rectangular stone, a sort of Petraean Ka'aba (Suidas Lex. s.v.
®eos "Apr;?, and cf. Epiphan. above). Associated with Dhu-shara
was Allat, the chief goddess of the ancient Arabs. Sanctuary
chambers may be seen at various points in the site of Petra, and
many places of sacrifice open to the sky are met with among the
tombs, marked by remains of altars. But most eminent of all
was the great High-place which has recently been discovered on
en-Nejr (or Zibb 'atuf). It consists of a rock-hewn altar of
burnt-offering with a place for killing the victims beside it and
a shallow court, perhaps intended to hold water, in front: the
most complete specimen of an ancient Semitic sanctuary that is
known. 7 Not far off are two obelisks cut out of the solid rock
which has been removed to the level of their bases; these were
either idols of Dhu-shara and Allat, or more probably were
designed to mark the limits of the haram of the sanctuary.
West .of the obelisks are three other places of sacrifice; and on
the rocks below worshippers have carved their names (CIS.
ii. 390-404). En-Nejr, with the theatre at its foot, must have
been the sacred mountain, the original sanctuary of Petra,
perhaps " the very high mountain of Arabia called Dusare
after the god Dusares " referred to by Steph. Byz. (s.v.
Aovcapri). Christianity found its way into Petra in early
times; Athanasius mentions a bishop of Petra (Herpuv rqs
'Apaj3tas, ad Antioch. 10) named Asterius; at least one of
the tombs (the " tomb with the urn" ) was used as a church;
an inscription in red paint records its consecration " in the time
of the most holy bishop Jason" (a.d. 447). The Christianity of
Petra, as of north Arabia, was swept away by the Mahommedan
conquest in a.d. 629-632. Under the Latin kingdom Petra was
occupied by Baldwin I. and formed the second fief of the barony
of Krak with the title Chateau de la Valee de Moyse or Sela; it
remained in the hands of the Franks till 1189; fragments of the
Crusaders' citadel are still standing near the High-place on
en-Nejr.

The ruins of Petra were an object of curiosity in the middle ages
and were visited by the Sultan Bibars of Egypt towards the close
of the 13th century. The first European to describe them was
Burckhardt (1812). All former descriptions are now superseded
by the magnificent work of Briinnow and Domaszewski, Die Pro-
vincia Arabia (1904), who have minutely surveyed the whole site,
classified the tombs, and compiled the accounts of earlier investi-
gations; and by the independent researches of Dalman, Petra und
seine Felsheiligtumer (1908), and of Musil, Arabia Petraea (1907-1908).
The Corpus Inscr. Sem. ii. 305 sqq., should be consulted, and
the descriptions in Baedeker- Socin's Palestina (7th edition), and
Revue biblique for 1897, 1898, 1903. (G. A. C.*)

PETRARCH (1304-1374). Francesco Petrarca, the great
Italian poet and first true reviver of learning in medieval Europe,
was born at Arezzo on the 20th of July 1304. His father
Petracco held a post of notary in the Florentine Rolls Court of
the Riformagioni; but, having espoused the same cause as Dante
during the quarrels of the Blacks and Whites, Petracco was
expelled from Florence by that decree of the 27th of January
1302 which condemned Dante to lifelong exile. With his wife he

6 The whole range in which Petra lies is called Jebel esh-Sharat,
but it is doubtful whether the name of the god was derived from
that of the mountain, see Ed. Meyer, loc. cit. p. 268 and Cooke,
NSI. p. 218.

7 First mentioned by E. L. Wilson (1891), rediscovered by
G. L. Robinson (1900), described by S. I. Curtis, P. E. F. Q. St.
1900), and Savignac, Rev. bibl. (1903) ; with full plan and photo-
graphs).

PETRARCH

^ii

took refuge in the Ghibelline township of Arezzo; and it was
here, on the very night when his father, in company with other
members of the White party, made an unsuccessful attempt to
enter Florence by force, the Francesco first saw the light. He
did not remain long in his birthplace. His mother, having
obtained permission to return from banishment, settled at
Incisa, a little village on the Arno above Florence, in February
1305. Here Petrarch spent seven years of boyhood, acquiring
that pure Tuscan idiom which afterwards he used with such
consummate mastery in ode and sonnet. Here too, in 1307, his
brother Gherardo was born. In 1312 Petracco set up a house
for his family at Pisa ; but soon afterwards, finding no scope there
for the exercise of his profession as jurist, he removed them all in
13 13 to Avignon. This was a step of no small importance for
the future poet-scholar. Avignon at that period still belonged
to Provence, and owned King Robert of Naples as sovereign.
But the popes had made it their residence after the insults offered
to Boniface VIII. at Anagni in 1303. Avignon was therefore
the centre of that varied society which the high pontiffs of
Christendom have ever gathered round them. Nowhere else
could the youth of genius who was destined to impress a cosmo-
politan stamp on medieval culture and to begin the modern era
have grown up under conditions more favourable to his task.
At Incisa and at Pisa he had learned his mother-tongue. At Car-
pentras, under the direction of Convennole of Prato, he studied
the humanities between the years 1315 and 1319. Avignon,
at a distance from the party strife and somewhat parochial
politics of the Italian commonwealths, impressed his mind
with an ideal of civility raised far above provincial prejudices.
Petrarch's real name according to Tuscan usage was Francesco
di Petracco. But he altered this patronymic, for the sake of
euphony, to Petrarca, proving by this slight change his emanci-
pation from usages which, had he dwelt at Florence, would most
probably have been imposed on him. Petracco, who was very
anxious that his eldest son should become an eminent jurist,
sent him at the age of fifteen to study law at Montpellier. Like
Ovid and many other poets, Petrarch felt no inclination for his
father's profession. His intellect, indeed, was not incapable
of understanding and admiring the majestic edifice of Roman
law; but he shrank with disgust from the illiberal technicalities
of practice. There is an authentic story of Petracco's flinging
the young student's books of poetry and rhetoric upon the fire,
but saving Virgil and Cicero half-burned from the flames at his
son's passionate entreaties. Notwithstanding Petrarch's firm
determination to make himself a scholar and a man of letters
rather than a lawyer, he so far submitted to his father's wishes
as to remove about the year 1323 to Bologna, which was then the
headquarters of juristic learning. There he stayed with his
brother Gherardo until 1326, when his father died, and he
returned to Avignon. Banishment and change of place had
already diminished Petracco's fortune, which was never large;
and a fraudulent administration of his estate after his death left
the two heirs in almost complete destitution. The most precious
remnant of Petrarch's inheritance was a MS. of Cicero. There
remained no course open for him but to take orders. This he
did at once on his arrival in Provence; and we have good reason
to believe that he advanced in due time to the rank of priest.
A great Roman noble and ecclesiastic, Giacomo Colonna, after-
wards bishop of Lombez, now befriended him, and Petrarch lived
for some years in partial dependence on this patron.

On the 6th of April 1327 happened the most famous event of
Petrarch's history. He saw Laura for the first time in the church
of St Clara at Avignon. Who Laura was remains uncertain still.
That she was the daughter of Audibert de Noves and the wife of
Hugh de Sade rests partly on tradition and partly on documents
which the abbe de Sade professed to have copied from originals
in the 18th century. Nothing is now extant to prove that, if
this lady really existed, she was the Laura of the Canzoniere,
while there are reasons for suspecting that the abbe was either
the fabricator of a romance flattering to his own family, or the
dupe ot some previous impostor. We may, however, reject the
sceptical hypothesis that Laura was a mere figment of Petrarch's

fancy; and, if we accept her personal reality, the poems of her
lover demonstrate that she was a married woman with whom he
enjoyed a respectful and not very intimate friendship.

Petrarch's inner life after this date is mainly occupied with
the passion which he celebrated in his Italian poems, and with
the friendships which his Latin epistles dimly reveal to us.
Besides the bishop of Lombez he was now on terms of intimacy
with another member of the great Colonna family, the cardinal
Giovanni. A German, Ludwig, whom he called Socrates, and a
Roman, Lello, who received from him the classic name of Laellius,
were among his best-loved associates. Avignon was the chief
seat of his residence up to the year of 1333, when he became
restless and undertook his first long journey. On this occasion
he visited Paris, Ghent, Liege, Cologne, making the acquaintance
of learned men and copying the manuscripts of classical authors.
On his return to Avignon he engaged in public affairs, pleaded
the cause of the Scaligers in their lawsuit with the Rossi for the
lordship of Parma, and addressed two poetical epistles to Pope
Benedict XII. upon the restoration of the papal see to Rome.
His eloquence on behalf of the tyrants of Verona was successful.
It won him the friendship of their ambassador, Azzo di Correggio
— a fact which subsequently influenced his life in no small
measure. Not very long after these events Petrarch made his
first journey to Rome, a journey memorable from the account
which he has left us of the impression he received from its ruins.

It was some time in the year 1337 that he established himself
at Vaucluse and began that life of solitary study, heightened by
communion with nature in her loneliest and wildest moods, which
distinguished him in so remarkable a degree from the common
herd of medieval scholars. Here he spent his time partly among
books, meditating on Roman history, and preparing himself for
the Latin epic of Africa. In his hours of recreation he climbed
the hills or traced the Sorgues from its fountain under those tall
limestone cliffs, while odes and sonnets to Madonna Laura were
committed from his memory to paper. We may also refer many
of his most important treatises in prose, as well as a large portion
of his Latin correspondence, to the leisure he enjoyed in this
retreat. Some woman, unknown to us by name, made him the
father of a son, Giovanni, in the year 1337; and she was probably
the same who brought him a daughter, Francesca, in 1343.
Both children were afterwards legitimized by papal bulls.
Meanwhile his fame as a poet in the Latin and the vulgar tongues
steadily increased, until, when the first draughts of the Africa
began to circulate about the year 1339, it became manifest that
no one had a better right to the laurel crown than Petrarch. A
desire for glory was one of the most deeply-rooted passions of his
nature, and one of the points in which he most strikingly antici-
pated the humanistic scholars who succeeded him. It is not,
therefore, surprising to find that he exerted his influence in several
quarters with the view to obtaining the honours of a public
coronation. The result of his intrigues was that on a single day
in 1340, the 1st of September, he received two invitations, from
the university of Paris and from King Robert of Naples respec-
tively. He chose to accept the latter, journeyed in February
1341 to Naples, was honourably entertained by the king, and,
after some formal disputations on matters touching the poet's
art, was sent with magnificent credentials to Rome. There, in
the month of April, Petrarch assumed the poet's crown upon the
Capitol from the hand of the Roman senator amid the plauditsof
the people and the patricians. The oration which he delivered
on this occasion was composed upon these words of Virgil: —
" Sed me Parnassi deserta per ardua dulcis
Raptat amor."

The ancient and the modern eras met together on the Capitol
at Petrarch's coronation, and a new stadium for the human spirit,
that which we are wont to style Renaissance, was opened.

With the coronation in Rome a fresh chapter in the biography
of Petrarch may be said to have begun. Henceforth he ranked
as a rhetorician and a poet of European celebrity, the guest of
princes, and the ambassador to royal courts. During the spring
months of 1341 his friend Azzo di Correggio had succeeded in
freeing Parma from subjugation to the Scaligers, and was laying

312

PETRARCH

the foundations of his own tyranny in that city. He invited
Petrarch to attend him when he made his triumphal entry at the
end of May; and from this time forward for a considerable
period Parma and Vaucluse were the two headquarters of the
poet. The one he called his Transalpine, the other his Cisalpine
Parnassus. The events of the next six years of his life, from May
1341 to May 1347, may be briefly recapitulated. He lost his old
friend the bishop of Lombez by death and his brother Gherardo
by the entrance of the latter into a Carthusian monastery.
Various small benefices were conferred upon him; and repeated
offers of a papal secretaryship, which would have raised him
to the highest dignities, were made and rejected. Petrarch
remained true to the instinct of his own vocation, and had no
intention of sacrificing his studies and his glory to ecclesiastical
ambition. In January 1343 his old friend and patron Robert,
king of Naples, died, and Petrarch was sent on an embassy from
the papal court to his successor Joan. The notices which he has
left us of Neapolitan society at this epoch are interesting, and, it
was now, perhaps, that he met Boccaccio for the first time. The
beginning of the year 1345 was marked by an event more
interesting in the scholar's eyes than any change in dynasties.
This was no less than a discovery at Verona of Cicero's Familiar
Letters. It is much to be regretted that Petrarch found the
precious MS. so late in life, when the style of his own epistles had
been already modelled upon that of Seneca and St Augustine.

In the month of May 1347 Cola di Rienzi accomplished that
extraordinary revolution which for a short space revived the
republic in Rome, and raised this enthusiast to titular equality
with kings. Petrarch, who in politics was no less visionary than
Rienzi, hailed the advent of a founder and deliverer in the
self-styled tribune. Without considering the impossibility of
restoring the majesty of ancient Rome, or the absurdity of
dignifying the medieval Roman, rabble by the name of Populus
Romanus, he threw himself with passion into the republican
movement, and sacrificed his old friends of the Colonna family
to what he judged a patriotic duty.

Petrarch built himself a house at Parma in the autumn of 1347.
Here he hoped to pursue the tranquil avocations of a poet
honoured by men of the world and men of letters throughout
Europe, and of an idealistic politician, whose effusions on the
questions of the day were read with pleasure for their style.
But in the course of the next two years this agreeable prospect
was overclouded by a series of calamities. Laura died of the
plague on the 6th of April 1348. Francesco degli Albizzi,
Mainardo Accursio, Roberto de' Bardi, Sennuccio del Bene,
Luchino Visconti, the cardinal Giovanni Colonna and several
other friends followed to the grave in rapid succession. All of
these had been intimate acquaintances and correspondents of
the poet. Friendship with him was a passion; or, what is more
true perhaps, he needed friends for the maintenance of his
intellectual activity at the highest point of its effectiveness.
Therefore he felt the loss of these men acutely. We may say with
certainty that Laura's death, accompanied by that of so many
distinguished associates, was the turning-point in Petrarch's
inner life. He began to think of quitting the world, and pondered
a plan for establishing a kind of humanistic convent, where he
might dedicate himself, in the company of kindred spirits, to still
severer studies and a closer communion with God. Though
nothing came of this scheme, a marked change was henceforth
perceptible in Petrarch's literary compositions. The poems
written In Morte di Madonna Laura are graver and of more
religious tone. The prose works touch on retrospective topics or
deal with subjects of deep meditation. At the same time his
renown, continually spreading, opened to him ever fresh relations
with Italian despots. The noble houses of Gonzaga at Mantua,
at Carrara at Padua, of Este at Ferrara, of Malatesta at Rimini,
of Visconti at Milan, vied with Azzo di Correggio in entertaining
the illustrious man of letters. It was in vain that his correspon-
dents pointed out the discrepancy between his professed zeal for
Italian liberties, his recent enthusiasm for the Roman republic,
and this alliance with tyrants who were destroying the freedom
of the Lombard cities. Petrarch remained an incurable rhetori-

cian; and, while he stigmatized the despots in his ode to Italy and
in his epistles to the emperor he accepted their hospitality.
They, on their part, seem to have understood his temoerament,
and to have agreed to recognize his political theories as of no
practical importance. The tendency to honour men of letters
and to patronize the arts which distinguished Italian princes
throughout the Renaissance period first manifested itself in the
attitude assumed by Visconti and Carraresi to Petrarch.

When the jubilee of 1350 was proclaimed, Petrarch made a
pilgrimage to Rome, passing and returning through Florence,
where he established a firm friendship with Boccaccio. It has
been well remarked that, while all his other friendships are
shadowy and dim, this one alone stands out with clearness. Each
of the two friends had a distinguished personality. Each played
a foremost part in the revival of learning. Boccaccio carried his
admiration for Petrarch to the point of worship Petrarch repaid
him with sympathy, counsel in literary studies, and moral support
which helped to elevate and purify the younger poet's over-
sensuous nature. It was Boccaccio who in the spring of 1351
brought to Petrarch, then resident with the Carrara family at
Padua, an invitation from the seigniory of Florence to accept
the rectorship of their recently founded university. This was
accompanied by a diploma of restoration to his rights as citizen
and restitution of his patrimony. But, flattering as was the
offer, Petrarch declined it. He preferred his literary leisure at
Vaucluse, at Parma, in the courts of princes, to a post which
would have brought him into contact with jealous priors and
have reduced him to the position of the servant of a common-
wealth. Accordingly, we find him journeying again in 13 51 to
Vaucluse, again refusing the office of papal secretary, again plan-
ning visionary reforms for the Roman people, and beginning that
curious fragment of an autobiography which is known as the Epistle
to Posterity. Early in 1353 he left Avignon for the last time, and
entered Lombardy by the pass of Mont Genevre, making his way
immediately to Milan. The archbishop Giovanni Visconti was
at this period virtually despot of Milan. He induced Petrarch,
who had long been a friend of the Visconti family, to establish
himself at his court, where he found employment for him as
ambassador and orator. The most memorable of his diplomatic
missions was to Venice in the autumn of 1353. Towards the
close of the long struggle between Genoa and the republic of St
Mark the Genoese entreated Giovanni Visconti to mediate on
their behalf with the Venetians. Petrarch was entrusted with
the office; and on the 8th of November he delivered a studied
oration before the doge Andrea Dandolo and the great council.
His eloquence had no effect; but the orator entered into relations
with the Venetian aristocracy which were afterwards extended
and confirmed. Meanwhile, Milan continued to be his place of
residence. After Giovanni's death he remained in the court of
Bernabo and Galeazzo Visconti, closing his eyes to their cruelties
and exactions, serving them as a diplomatist, making speeches
for them on ceremonial occasions, and partaking of the splendid
hospitality they offered to emperors and princes. It was in this
capacity of an independent man of letters, highly placed and
favoured at one of the most wealthy courts of Europe, that he
addressed epistles to the emperor Charles IV. upon the distracted
state of Italy, and entreated him to resume the old Ghibelline
policy of Imperial interference. Charles IV. passed through
Mantua in the autumn of 1354. There Petrarch made his
acquaintance, and, finding him a man unfit for any noble enter-
prise, declined attending him to Rome. When Charles returned
to Germany, after assuming the crowns in Rome and Milan,
Petrarch addressed a letter of vehement invective and reproach
to the emperor who was so negligent of the duties imposed on
him by his high office. This did not prevent the Visconti sending
him on an embassy to Charles in 1356. Petrarch found him
at Prague, and, after pleading the cause of his masters, was
despatched with honour and the diploma of count palatine. His
student's life at Milan was again interrupted in 1360 by a mission
on which Galeazzo Visconti sent him to King John of France.
The tyrants of Milan were aspiring to royal alliances; Gian
Galeazzo Visconti had been married to Isabella of France;

PETRARCH

3*3

Violante Visconti, a few years later, was wedded to the English
duke of Clarence. Petrarch was now commissioned to congratu-
late King John upon his liberation from captivity to England.
This duty performed, he returned to Milan, where in 1361 he
received news of the deaths of his son Giovanni and his old friend
Socrates. Both had been carried off by plague.

The remaining years of Petrarch's life, important as they were
for the furtherance of humanistic studies, may be briefly con-
densed. On the nth of May 1362 he settled at Padua, from the
neighbourhood of which he never moved again to any great
distance. The same year saw him at Venice, making a donation
of his library to the republic of St Mark. Here his friend
Boccaccio introduced to him the Greek teacher Leontius Pilatus.
Petrarch, who possessed a MS. of Homer and a portion of Plato,
never acquired the Greek language, although he attempted to
gain some little knowledge of it in his later years. Homer, he
said, was dumb to him, while he was deaf to Homer; and he could
only approach the Iliad in Boccaccio's rude Latin version. About
this period he saw his daughter Francesca happily married, and
undertook the education of a young scholar from Ravenna,
whose sudden disappearance from his household caused him the
deepest grief. This youth has been identified, but on insufficient
grounds, with that Giovanni Malpaghini of Ravenna who was
destined to form a most important link between Petrarch and
the humanists of the next age of culture. Gradually his oldest
friends dropped off. Azzo di Correggio died in 1362, and Laelius,
Simonides, Barbato, in the following year. His own death was
reported in 1365; but he survived another decade. Much of this
last stage of his life was occupied at Padua in a controversy with
the Averroists, whom he regarded as dangerous antagonists both
to sound religion and to sound culture. A curious treatise, which
grew in part out of this dispute and out of a previous duel
with physicians, was the book Upon his own Ignorance and that of
many others. At last, in 1369, tired with the bustle of a town so
big as Padua, he retired to Arqua., a village in Euganean hills,
where he continued his usual train of literary occupations,
employing several secretaries, and studying unremittingly. All
through these declining years his friendship with Boccaccio was
maintained and strengthened. It rested on a solid basis of
mutual affection and of common studies, the different tempera-
ments of the two scholars securing them against the disagree-
ments of rivalry or jealousy. One of Petrarch's last compositions
was a Latin version of Boccaccio's story of Griselda. On the 18th
of July 1374 his people found the old poet and scholar dead
among his books in the library of that little house which looks
across the hills and lowlands towards the Adriatic.

When we attempt to estimate Petrarch's position in the
history of modern culture, the first thing which strikes us is that
he was even less eminent as an Italian poet than as the founder
of Humanism, the inaugurator of the Renaissance in Italy.
What he achieved for the modern world was not merely to
bequeath to his Italian imitators masterpieces of lyrical art
unrivalled for perfection of workmanship, but also, and far more,
to open out for Europe a new sphere of mental activity. Stand-
ing within the threshold of the middle ages, he surveyed the
kingdom of the modern spirit, and, by his own inexhaustible
industry in the field of scholarship and study, he determined
what we call the revival of learning. By bringing the men of his
own generation into sympathetic contact with antiquity, he gave
a decisive impulse to that European movement which restored
freedom, self-consciousness, and the faculty of progress to the
human intellect. He was the first man to collect libraries, to
accumulate coins, to advocate the preservation of MSS. For
him the authors of the Greek and Latin world were living men —
more real, in fact, than those with whom he corresponded; and
the rhetorical epistles he addressed to Cicero, Seneca and Varro
prove that he dwelt with them on terms of sympathetic intimacy.
So far-reaching were the interests controlled by him in this
capacity of humanist that his achievement as an Italian lyrist
seems by comparison insignificant.

Petrarch's ideal of humanism was essentially a noble one.
He regarded the orator and the poet as teachers, bound to

complete themselves by education, and to exhibit to the world an
image of perfected personality in prose and verse of studied
beauty. Self-culture and self-effectuation seemed to him the
highest aims of man. Everything which contributed to the
formation of a free, impassioned, liberal individuality he regarded
as praiseworthy. Everything which retarded the attainment of
that end was contemptible in his eyes. The authors of antiquity,
the Holy Scriptures and the fathers of the Church were valued
by him as one common source of intellectual enlightenment.
Eminently religious, and orthodox in his convictions, he did not
seek to substitute a pagan for the Christian ideal. This was left
for the scholars of the 15 th and 16th centuries in Italy. At the
same time, the Latin orators, historians and poets were venerated
by him as depositories of a tradition only second in importance
to revelation. For him there was no schism between Rome and
Galilee, between classical genius and sacred inspiration. Though
the latter took the first rank in relation to man's eternal welfare,
the former was necessary for the perfection of his intellect and
the civilization of his manners. With this double ideal in view,
Petrarch poured scorn upon the French physicians and the Italian
Averroists for their illiberal philistinism, no less than for their
materialistic impiety. True to his conception of independent
intellectual activity, he abstained from a legal career, refused
important ecclesiastical office, and contented himself with paltry
benefices which implied no spiritual or administrative duties,
because he was resolved to follow the one purpose of his life —
self-culture. Whatever in literature revealed the hearts of men
was infinitely precious to him; and for this reason he professed
almost a cult for St Augustine. It was to Augustine, as to a
friend or a confessor, that he poured forth the secrets of his own
soul in the book De contemptu mundi.

In this effort to realize his truest self Petrarch was eminently
successful. Much as he effected by restoring to the world a sound
conception of learning, and by rousing that genuine love and
curiosity which led to the revival, he did even more by im-
pressing on the age his own full-formed and striking personality.
In all things he was original. Whether we regard him as a
priest who published poem after poem in praise of an adored
mistress, as a plebeian man of letters who conversed on equal
terms with kings and princes, as a solitary dedicated to the love
of nature, as an amateur diplomatist treating affairs of state with
pompous eloquence in missives sent to popes and emperors, or
again as a traveller eager for change of scene, ready to climb
mountains for the enjoyment of broad prospects over spreading
champaigns; in all these divers manifestations of his peculiar
genius we trace some contrast with the manners of the 14th
century, some emphatic anticipation of the 16th. The defects
of Petrarch's character were no less striking than its qualities,
and were indeed their complement and counterpart. That
vivid conception of intellectual and moral self-culture which
determined his ideal took the form in actual life of all-absorbing
egotism. «He was not content with knowing himself to be
the leader of the age. He claimed autocracy, suffered
no rival near his throne, brooked no contradiction, demanded
unconditional submission to his will and judgment. Petrarch
was made up of contradictions. Praising solitude, playing the
hermit at Vaucluse, he only loved seclusion as a contrast to the
society of courts. While he penned dissertations on the futility of
fame and the burden of celebrity he was trimming his sails to
catch the breeze of popular applause. No one professed a more
austere morality, and few medieval writers indulged in cruder
satire on the female sex; yet he passed some years in the society
of a concubine, and his living masterpiece of art is the apotheosis
of chivalrous passion for a woman. These discords of an un-
decided nature displayed themselves in his political theories and
in his philosophy of conduct. In one mood he was fain to ape
the antique patriot; in another he affected the monastic saint.
He was clamorous for the freedom of the Roman people; yet at
one time he called upon the popes to re-establish themselves in
the Eternal City; at another he besought the emperor to make it
his headquarters; at a third he hailed in Rienzi the founder of
a new republic. He did not perceive that all these plans were

3H

PETRARCH

incompatible. His relations to the Lombard nobles were equally
at variance with his professed patriotism; and, while still a
housemate of Visconti and Correggi, he kept on issuing invectives
against the tyrants who divided Italy. It would not be difficult
to multiply these antitheses in the character and the opinions of
this singular man. But it is more to the purpose to remark that
they were harmonized in a personality of potent and enduring
force.

The point to notice in this complex personality is that
Petrarch's ideal remained always literary. As philosopher, poli-
tician, historian, essayist, orator, he aimed at lucid and harmo-
nious expression — not, indeed, neglecting the importance of the
material he undertook to treat, but approaching his task in the
spirit of an artist rather than a thinker or a man of action. This
accounts for his bewildering versatility, and for his apparent
want of grasp on conditions of fact. Viewed in this light
Petrarch anticipated the Italian Renaissance in its weakness —
that philosophical superficiality, that tendency to ornate
rhetoric, that preoccupation with stylistic trifles, that want of
profound conviction and stern sincerity, which stamp its minor
literary products with the note of mediocrity. Had Petrarch
been possessed with a passion for some commanding principle in
politics, morality or science, instead of with the thirst for self-
glorification and the ideal of artistic culture, it is not wholly
impossible that Italian humanism might have assumed a manlier
and more conscientious tone. But this is not a question which
admits of discussion; for the conditions which made Petrarch
what he was were already potent in Italian society. He did but
express the spirit of the period he opened; and it may also be
added that his own ideal was higher and severer than that of the
illustrious humanists who followed him.

As an author Petrarch must be considered from two points of
view — first as a writer of Latin verse and prose, secondly as an
Italian lyrist. In the former capacity he was speedily out-
stripped by more fortunate scholars. His eclogues and epistles
and the epic of Africa, on which he set such store, exhibit a
comparatively limited command of Latin metre. His treatises,
orations, and familiar letters, though remarkable for a prose style
which is eminently characteristic of the man, are not distinguished
by purity of diction. Much as he admired Cicero, it is clear that
he had not freed himself from current medieval Latinity. Seneca
and Augustine had been too much used by him as models of
composition. At the same time it will be conceded that he
possessed a copious vocabulary, a fine ear for cadence, and the
faculty of expressing every shade of thought or feeling. What he
lacked was that insight into the best classical masterpieces, that
command of the best classical diction, which is the product of
successive generations of scholarship. To attain to this,
Giovanni da Ravenna, Colluccio Salutato, Poggio and Filelfo
had to labour, before a Poliziano and a Bembo finally prepared
the path for an Erasmus. Had Petrarch been born at the close
of the 15th instead of at the opening of the 14th century there is
no doubt that his Latinity would have been as pure, as versatile,
and as pointed as that of the witty stylist of Rotterdam.

With regard to his Italian poetry Petrarch occupies a very
different position. The Rime in Vita e Morle di Madonna Laura
cannot become obsolete, for perfect metrical form has here been
married to language of the choicest and the purest. It is true
that even in the Canzoniere, as Italians prefer to call that collec-
tion of lyrics, Petrarch is not devoid of faults belonging to his age,
and affectations which have imposed themselves with disastrous
effect through his authority upon the literature of Europe. He
appealed in his odes and sonnets to a restricted audience already
educated by the chivalrous love-poetry of Provence and by
Italian imitations of that style. He was not careful to exclude
the commonplaces of the school, nor anxious to finish a work of
art wholly free from fashionable graces and from contemporary
conceits. There is therefore a certain element of artificiality in
his treatment; and this, since it is easier to copy defects than
excellencies, has been perpetuated with wearisome monotony
by versifiers who chose him for their model. But, after, rnaking
due allowance for peculiarities, the abuse of which has brought

the name of Petrarchist into contempt, we can agree with Shelley
that the lyrics of the Canzoniere " are as spells which unseal the
inmost enchanted fountains of the delight which is the grief of
love." Much might be written about the peculiar position held
by Petrarch between the metaphysical lyrists of Tuscany and the
more realistic amorists of succeeding generations. True in this
respect also to his anticipation of the coming age, he was the first
Italian poet of love to free himself from allegory and mysticism.
Yet he was far from approaching the analysis of emotion with
the directness of a Heine or De Musset. Though we believe in
the reality of Laura, we derive no clear conception either of her
person or her character. She is not so much a woman as woman
in the abstract; and perhaps on this very account the poems
written for her by her lover have been taken to the heart by
countless lovers who came after him. The method of his art is so
generalizing, while his feeling is so natural, that every man can
see himself reflected in the singer and his mistress shadowed forth
in Laura. The same criticism might be passed on Petrarch's
descriptions of nature. That he felt the beauties of nature keenly
is certain, and he frequently touches them with obvious appreci-
ation. Yet he has written nothing so characteristic of Vaucluse
as to be inapplicable to any solitude where there are woods and
water. The Canzoniere is therefore one long melodious monody
poured from the poet's soul, with the indefinite form of a beautiful
woman seated in a lovely landscape, a perpetual object of delight-
ful contemplation. This disengagement from local circumstance
without the sacrifice of emotional sincerity is a merit in Petrarch,
but it became a fault in his imitators. Lacking his intensity of
passion and his admirable faculty for seizing the most evanescent
shades of difference in feeling, they degenerated into colourless
and lifeless insipidities made insupportable by the frigid repeti-
tion of tropes and conceits which we are fain to pardon in the
master.

Petrarch did not distinguish himself by love-poetry alone in
the Italian language. His odes to Giacomo Colonna, to Cola di
Rienzi and to the princes of Italy display him in another light.
They exhibit the oratorical fervour, the pleader's eloquence in its
most perfect lustre, which Petrarch possessed in no less measure
than subjective passion. Modern literature has nothing nobler,
nothing more harmonious in the declamatory style than these
three patriotic effusions. Their spirit itself is epoch-making in
the history of Europe. Up to this point Italy had scarcely begun
to exist. There were Florentines and Lombards, Guelfs and
Ghibellines; but even Dante had scarcely conceived of Italy
as a nation, independent of the empire, inclusive of her several
component commonwealths. To the high conception of Italian
nationality, to the belief in that spiritual unity which underlay
her many discords and divisions, Petrarch attained partly through
his disengagement from civic and local partisanship, partly
through his large and liberal ideal of culture.

The materials for a life of Petrarch are afforded in abundance by
his letters, collected and prepared for publication under his own
eyes. These are divided into Familiar Correspondence, Correspond-
ence in Old Age, Divers Letters and Letters without a Title; to which
may be added the curious autobiographical fragment entitled the
Epistle to Posterity. Next in importance rank the epistles and
eclogues in Latin verse, the Italian poems and the rhetorical ad-
dresses to popes, emperors, Cola di Rienzi and some great men of
antiquity. For the comprehension of his character the treatise De
contemptu tnundi, addressed to St Augustine and styled his Secret,
is invaluable. Without attempting a complete list of Petrarch's
works, it may be well to illustrate the extent of his erudition and
his activity as a writer by a brief enumeration of the most im-
portant. In the section belonging to moral philosophy, we find
De remediis utriusque fortunae, a treatise on human happiness
and unhappiness; De vita solitaria, a panegyric of solitude; De
otio religiosorum, a similar essay on monastic life, inspired by
a visit to his brother Gherardo in his convent near Marseilles. On
historical subjects the most considerable are Rerum memorandarum
libri, a miscellany from a student's commonplace-book, and De
viris illustrious, an epitome of the biographies of Roman worthies.
Three polemical works require mention : Contra cujusdam anonymi
Gdlli calumnias apologia, Contra medicum quendam invectivarum
libri, and De sui ipsius et multorum ignorantia — controversial
'and sarcastic compositions, which grew out of Petrarch's quarrels
with the physicians of Avignon and the Averroists of Padua. In
this connexion it might also be well to mention the remarkable

PETRE, SIR E.— PETREL

3i5

satires on the papal court, included in the Epistolae sine titulo.
Five public orations have been preserved, the most weighty of
which, in explanation of Petrarch's conception of literature, is the
speech delivered on the Capitol upon the occasion of his coronation.
Among his Latin poems Africa, an epic on Scipio Africanus, takes
the first place. Twelve Eclogues and three books of Epistles in
verse close the list. In Italian we possess the Canzoniere, which
includes odes and sonnets written for Laura during her lifetime,
those written for her after her death, and a miscellaneous section
containing the three patriotic odes and three famous poetical
invectives against the papal court. Besides these lyrical composi-
tions are the semi-epical or allegorical Trionfi — Triumphs of Love,
Chastity, Death, Fame, Time and Divinity, written in terza rima
of smooth and limpid quality. Though these Triumphs, as a
whole, are deficient in poetic inspiration, the second canto of the
Trionfo della morle, in which Petrarch describes a vision of his
dead love Laura, is justly famous for reserved passion and pathos
tempered to a tranquil harmony.

The complete bibliography of Petrarch forms a considerable
volume. Such a work was attempted by Domenico Rossetti
(Trieste, 1828). It will be enough here to mention the Basel edition
of 1581, in folio, as the basis for all subsequent editions of his
collected works. Among editions of the Canzoniere special mention
may be made of those of Marsand (Padua, 1820), Leopardi in Le
Monnier's collection, Mestica (1895), and Cardnui (1899). Nor
must Fracassetti's Italian version of the Letters (published in 5 vols,
by Le Monnier) be neglected. De Sade's Life of the poet (Amster-
dam, 1 764-1 767) marks an epoch in the history of his numerous
biographies; but this is in many important points untrustworthy,
and it has been superseded by Gustav Koerting's exhaustive
volume on Petrarcas Leben una Werke (Leipzig, 1878). Georg
Voigt's Wiederbelebung des classischen Alterthums (Berlin, 1859)
contains a well-digested estimate of Petrarch's relation to the
revival of learning. Meziere's Petrarque (1868) is a monograph of
merit. English readers may be referred to a little book on Petrarch
by Henry Reeve, and to vols. ii. and iv. of Symond's Renaissance
in Italy. See also Maud F. Jerrold, Francesco Petrarca, poet and
humanist (1909). (J. A. S.)

PETRE, SIR EDWARD (1631-1699), Jesuit confessor of King
James II. of England, was born in Paris. He was the son of Sir
Francis Petre, Bart., of Cranham, head of a junior branch of the
family of the Barons Petre, and his wife Elizabeth Gage,
daughter of Sir John Gage, both strong Roman Catholics. In
1649 he was sent for his education to the Jesuit College at St
Omer, and he entered the order under the name of Spencer in
1652, but did not receive the full orders till 1671. In 1679 he
succeeded his elder brother in the title and family estates. On
the accession of James II. in 1685 he was chosen as confessor by
the king, who looked upon him as " a resolute and undertaking
man." During the whole of the king's reign Petre was one of
his advisers who did the most to encourage him in the policy
which ended by producing the revolution of 1688. The king
contemplated making him archbishop of York, as the see was
then vacant, but the pope, Innocent XL, who was not friendly to
the order, would not grant a dispensation to hold it, and even
directed Petre's superiors to rebuke him for his excessive am-
bition. In 1687 lie was made privy councillor. When the
revolution broke out Petre was compelled to flee disguised as a
woman. After his flight he had no further relations with
James II. After a visit to Rome, he became head of the Jesuit
College at St Omer in 1693, from whence he was transferred to
Walten in Flanders in 1697. He died on the 15th of May
1699. A younger brother Charles (1644-1712) was also a
member of the order.

PETRE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1505-1572), English politician,
was a son of John Petre, a Devon man, and was educated at
Exeter College, Oxford, afterwards becoming a fellow of All
Souls' College. He entered the public service in early life, owing
his introduction therein doubtless to the fact that at Oxford
he had been tutor to Anne Boleyn's brother, George Boleyn,
Viscount Rochford, and began his official career by serving the
English government abroad. In 1536 he was made deputy, or
proctor, for the vicar-general, Thomas Cromwell, and as such he
presided over the convocation which met in June of this year.
In 1543 Petre was knighted and was appointed a secretary of
state; in 1545 he was sent as ambassador to the emperor
Charles V. A very politic man, he retained his position
under Edward VI. and also under Mary, forsaking the protector
Somerset at the right moment and winning Mary's goodwill by

favouring her marriage with Philip II. of Spain. He resigned
his secretaryship in 1557, but took some part in public business
under Elizabeth until his death at his residence, Ingatestone,
Essex, on the 13th of January 1572.

His son John Petre (1549-1613) was created Baron Petre of
Writtle in 1603. The 2nd baron was his son William (1575-
1637), whose grandson was William, the 4th baron (c. 1626-
1684). Denounced by Titus Oates as a papist, the last named
was arrested with other Roman Catholic noblemen in 1678 and
remained without trial in the Tower of London until his death.
His brother John (1629-1684) was the 5th lord, and the latter's
nephew, Robert (1689-1713), was the 7th lord. It was Robert's
action in cutting a lock of hair from a lady's head which led Pope
to write his poem " The Rape of the Lock." The Petres have been
consistently attached to the Roman Catholic faith, William
Joseph, the 13th baron (1847-1893), being a priest of the Roman
church, and the barony is still (1911) in existence. One of the
1st baron's grandsons was William Petre (1602-1677), who trans-
lated the Flos sanctorum of Pedro de Ribadeneira as Lives of the
Saints (St Omer, 1699; London, 1730).

See Genealogical Collections illustrating the History of Roman
Catholic Families of England, vol. i., edited by J. J. Howard and
H. F. Burke.

PETREL, the general name of a group of birds (of which more
than 100 species are recognized), derived from the habit which
some of them possess of apparently walking on the surface of the
water as the apostle St Peter (of whose name the word is 'a
diminutive form) is recorded (Matt. xiv. 29) to have done. The
petrels, all of which are placed in the family Procellariidae,.vrere
formerly associated with the Laridae (see Gull), but they are
now placed as the sole members of the suborder Tubinqres (the
name denoting the characteristic tubular structure, of their
nostrils) and of the order Procellariiformes (see Bikd). .They are
subdivided into four groups or subfamilies: (1) Pelecanoidinae
(or Halodrominae) , containing some three or four species known
as diving-petrels, with habits very different from others of the
family, and almost peculiar to high southern latitudes from Cape
Horn to New Zealand; (2) Procellariinae, or petrels proper (and
shearwaters); (3) Diomedeinae, or albatrosses (see Mallemuck);
and (4) Oceanitinae, containing small sooty-black birds of the
genera Cymodroma, Pealea, Pelagodroma, Garrodia and Oceanites,
the distinctive nature of which was first recognized by Coues
in 1864.

Petrels are archaic oceanic forms, wun gieat powers of flight,
dispersed throughout all the seas and oceans of the world, and
some species apparently never resort to land except for the pur-
pose of nidification, though nearly all are liable at times to be
driven ashore, and often very far inland, by gales of wind. 1 It
would also seem that during the breeding-season many of them
are wholly nocturnal in their habits, passing the day in holes of
the ground, or in clefts of the rocks, in which they generally
nestle, the hen of each pair laying a single white egg, sparsely
speckled in a few species with fine reddish dots. Of those
species that frequent the North Atlantic, the common Storm-
Petrel, Procellaria pelagica, a little bird which has to the
ordinary eye rather the look of a Swift or Swallow, is the
" Mother Carey's chicken " of sailors, and is widely believed to be
the harbinger of bad weather; but seamen hardly discriminate
between this and others nearly resembling it in appearance, such
as Leach's or the Fork-tailed Petrel, Cymochorea leucorrhoa, a
rather larger but less common bird, and Wilson's Petrel, Ocean-
ites oceanicus, the type of the Family Oceanitidae mentioned
above, which is more common on the American side. But it is in
the Southern Ocean that Petrels most abound, both as species
and as individuals. The Cape-Pigeon or Pintado Petrel, Daption
capensis, is one that has long been well known to mariners and
other wayfarers on the great waters, while those who voyage to
or from Australia, whatever be the route they take, are

1 Thus Oestrelata haesitata, the Capped Petrel, a species whose
proper home seems to be Guadeloupe and some of the neighbouring
West-Indian Islands, has occurred in the State of New York, near
Boulogne, in Norfolk, and in Hungary (Ibis, 1884, p. 202).

316

PETRIE, G.— PETROLEUM

certain to meet with many more species, some, as Ossifraga
gigantca, as large as Albatrosses, and several of them called by
sailors by a variety of choice names, generally having reference
to the strong smell of musk emitted by the birds, among which
that of " Stink-pot " is not the most opprobrious. None of
the Petrels are endowed with any brilliant colouring — sooty-
black, grey of various tints (one of which is often called
" blue "), and white being the only hues the plumage exhibits.
The distribution of the several species of Petrels in the Southern
Ocean has been treated by A. Milne-Edwards in the Annates des
sciences naturelles for 1882 (6th series Zoologie, vol. xiii. art. 4, pp.
1-22). (A. N.)

PETRIE, GEORGE (1700-1866), Irish antiquary, was the son
of James Petrie, a native of Aberdeen, who had settled in Dublin
as a portrait and miniature painter. He was born in Dublin in
January 1790, and was educated as an artist. Besides attaining
considerable reputation as a painter of Irish landscape, he
devoted much time to the illustration of the antiquities of the
country. In 1828 he was appointed to conduct the antiquarian
and historical section of the ordnance survey of Ireland. In
1832 he became editor of the Dublin Penny Journal, a periodical
designed to disseminate information among the masses, to which
he contributed numerous articles on the history of the fine arts
in Ireland. Petrie may be regarded as the first scientific in-
vestigator of Irish archaeology, his contributions to which are
also in themselves of much importance. His Essay on Round
Towers, for which in 1830 he received the prize of the Irish
Academy, still ranks as a standard work. Among his other
' contributions to Irish archaeology are his Essay on the Military
Architecture 0] Ireland and his History and Antiquities of Tar a
Hill. He died on the 17th of January 1866.

See the Life and Labours in Art and Archaeology of George Petrie,
by William Stokes (1868).

PETRIE, WILLIAM MATTHEW FLINDERS (1853- ),
English egyptologist, was born at Charlton on the 3rd of June
1853, being the son of William Petrie, C.E. His mother was the
daughter of Captain Matthew Flinders, the Australian explorer.
He took an early interest in archaeological research, and between
1875 and 1880 was busily engaged in studying ancient British
remains at Stonehenge and elsewhere; in 1880 he published his
book on Stonehenge, with an account of his theories on this
subject. He was also much interested in ancient weights and
measures, and in 1875 published a work on Inductive Metrology.
In 1881 he began a long series of important surveys and excava-
tions in Egypt, beginning with the pyramids at Giza, and follow-
ing up his work there by excavations at the great temple at Tanis
(1884), and discovering and exploring the long-lost Greek city of
Naucratis in the Delta (1885), and the towns of Am and Daphnae
(1886), where he found important remains of the time when they
were inhabited by the Pharaohs. Between 1888 and 1890 he
was at work in the Fayum, opening up Hawara, Kahun and
Lachish; and in 1891 he discovered the ancient temple at Medum.
Much of this work was done in connexion with the Palestine
Exploration Fund. By this time his reputation was estab-
lished. He published in 1893 his Ten Years' Diggings in Egypt,
was given the honorary degree of D.C.L. by Oxford, and was
appointed Edwards Professor of Egyptology at University
College, London. In 1894 he founded the Egyptian Research
Account, which in 1905 was reconstituted as the British School
of Archaeology in Egypt (not to be confused with the Egypt
Exploration Fund, founded 1892). Perhaps the most important
work which the School has accomplished has been the investi-
gation of the site of Memphis (q.v.)

The extent as well as the chronological order of Professor Petrie's
excavations may best be shown by a list of his works.

Works. — His chief general works on Egyptian subjects are,
Ten Years' Diggings in Egypt (1893); History of Egypt (1894—
1905); Egyptian Tales (1895); Religion and Conscience in Ancient
Egypt (1898); Syria and Egypt (1898); Royal Tombs of the First
Dynasty (1900); Royal Tombs of the Earliest Dynasties (1901);
Hyksos and Israelite Cities (1906) ; Religion of Ancient Egypt (1906) ;
Personal Religion in Egypt (1908). On particular sites, Pyramids
and Temples of Gizeh (1883); Tanis I. (1885); Nankratis I. (1886);
Hawara (1889); Kahun (1890); Illahun (1891); Medum (1892);

Tell el Amarna (1895); Koplos (1896); Nogada (1896); Six
Temples at Thebes (1897) ; Deshasheh (1897) ; Dendereh (1900) ;
Diospolis (1901); Abydos I. (1902); Abydos II. (1903); Ehnasya
(1904); Egyptians in Sinai and Researches in Sinai (1906); Gizeh
and Rifeh (1907) ; Athribis (1908) ; Memphis and Qurneh (1909).

PETRIOU (also called Cha-chang-sao) , a town and port of
Siam, in the division of Pachim, about 45 m. E. of Bangkok.
It is the centre of that part of southern Siam which is watered
by the Bang Pakong River. It is built on low-lying, swampy
ground, about 10 m. from the mouth of the above river. The
population is about 10,000, mixed Siamese and Chinese, the
latter slightly predominating. Rice-mills give employment to
a large number of indentured Chinese coolies, but the inhabi-
tants are chiefly engaged in agriculture. A railway connecting
with Bangkok was opened in the spring of 1908.

PETROLEA, a town and port of entry in Lambton county,
Ontario, Canada, situated 42 m. W. of London on Bear Creek,
an affluent of Sydenham River, and on the Grand Trunk and
Michigan Central railways. Pop. (1901), 4135. It is in the
midst of the oil region of Canada, and numerous wells in the
vicinity have an aggregate output of about 30,000,000 gallons
of crude oil per annum, much of which is refined in the town.

PETROLEUM (Lat. petra, rock, and oleum, oil), a term which,
in its widest sense, embraces the whole of the hydrocarbons,
gaseous, liquid and solid, occurring in nature (see Bitumen).
Here the application of the term is limited to the liquid which
is so important an article of commerce, though references will
also be made to natural gas which accompanies petroleum.
Descriptions of the solid forms will be found in the articles on
asphalt or asphaltum, albertite, elaterite, gilsonite, hatchettite
and ozokerite. Particulars of the shales which yield oil on
destructive distillation are given in the article on paraffin.

Ancient History. — Petroleum was collected for use in the most
remote ages of which we have any records. Herodotus de-
scribes the oil pits near Ardericca (near Babylon), and the pitch
spring of Zacynthus (Zante), whilst Strabo, Dioscorides and
Pliny mention the use of the oil of Agrigentum, in Sicily, for
illumination, and Plutarch refers to the petroleum found near
Ecbatana (Kerkuk). The ancient records of China and Japan
are said to contain many allusions to the use of natural gas
for lighting and heating. Petroleum (" burning water ") was
known in Japan in the 7 th century, whilst in Europe the gas
springs of the north of Italy led to the adoption in 1226 by the
municipality of Salsomaggiore of a salamander surrounded by
flames as its emblem. Marco Polo refers to the oil springs of
Baku towards the end of the 13th century ; the medicinal proper-
ties of the oil of Tegernsee in Bavaria gave it the name of " St
Quirinus's Oil " in 1436; the oil of Pechelbronn, Elsass, was dis-
covered in 1498, and the " earthbalsam " of Galicia was known
in 1506. The earliest mention of American petroleum occurs
in Sir Walter Raleigh's account of the Trinidad pitch-lake in
1595; whilst thirty-seven years later, the account of a visit of
a Franciscan, Joseph de la Roche d'Allion, to the oil springs of
New York was published in Sagard's Histoire du Canada. In
the 17 th century, Thomas Shirley brought the natural gas of
Wigan, in Shropshire, to the notice of the Royal Society. In
1 7 24 Hermann Boernaave referred to the oleum terrae of Burma,
and "Barbados tar" was then well known as a medicinal agent.
A Russian traveller, Peter Kalm, in his work on America,
published in 1748, showed on a map the oil springs of Pennsyl-
vania, and about the same time Raicevich referred to the
" liquid bitumen " of Rumania.

Modern Development and Industrial Progress. — The first
commercial exploitation of importance appears to have been the
distillation of the oil at Alfreton in Derbyshire by James Young,
who patented his process for the manufacture of paraffin in
1850. In 1853 and 1854 patents for the preparation of this
substance from petroleum were obtained by Warren de la Rue,
and the process was applied to the " Rangoon oil " brought to
Great Britain from Yenangyaung in Upper Burma. The active
growth of the petroleum industry of the United States began
in 1859, though in the early part of the century the petroleum
of Lake Seneca, N.Y., was used as an embrocation under the

PETROLEUM

3 X 7

name of "Seneca oil," and the "American Medicinal Oil"
of Kentucky was largely sold after its discovery in 1829. The
Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company was formed in 1854, but its
operations were unsuccessful, and in 1858 certain of the mem-
bers founded the Seneca Oil Company, under whose direction
E. L. Drake started a well on Oil Creek, Pennsylvania. After
drilling had been carried to a depth of 69 feet, on the 28th of
August 1859, the tools suddenly dropped into a crevice, and on
the following day the well was found to have " struck oil."
This well yielded 25 barrels a day for some time, but at the end
of the year the output was at the rate of 15 barrels. The pro-
duction of crude petroleum in the United States was officially
reported to have been 2000 barrels in 1859, 4,215,000 barrels
in 1869, 19,914,146 barrels in 1879, 35,163,513 barrels in 1889,
57,084,428 barrels in 1899, and 126,493,936 barrels in 1906.
From Oil Creek, development spread first over the eastern
United States and then became general, subsequently embracing
Canada (1862), recently discovered fields being those of Illinois,
Alberta and California (44,854,737 barrels in 1908).

For about 10 years Pennsylvania was the one great oil pro-
ducer of the world, but since 1870 the industry has spread all
over the globe. From the time of the completion on the Baku
field of the first flowing well (which was unmanageable and
resulted in the loss of the greater part of the oil), Russia has
ranked second in the list of producing countries, whilst Galicia
and Rumania became prominent in 1878 and 1880 respectively.
Sumatra, Java and Borneo, where active development began
in 1883, 1886 and 1896, bid fair to rank before long among the
chief sources of the oil supplies of the world. Similarly, Burma,
where the Burmah Oil Company have, since 1890, rapidly
extended their operations, is rising to a position of importance.
Oil fields are being continually opened up in other parts of the
world, and whilst America still maintains her position as the
largest petroleum producer, the world's supplies are now being
derived from a steadily increasing number of centres.

Physical and Chemical Properties. — Although our information
respecting the chemical composition of petroleum has been
almost entirely gained since the middle of the 18th century, a
considerable amount of empirical knowledge of the substance
was possessed by chemists at an earlier date, and there was much
speculation as to its origin. In his Sylva sylvarum (1627),
Francis Bacon states that " the original concretion of bitumen
is a mixture of a fiery and watery substance," and observes
that flame " attracts " the naphtha of Babylon " afar off."
P. J. Macquer (1764), T. O. Bergman (1784) Charles Hatchett
(1798) and others also expressed views with regard to the
constitution and origin of bitumens. Of these early writers,
Hatchett is the most explicit, the various bituminous substances
being by him classified and defined. Jacob Joseph Winterl,
in 1788, appears to have been the first to examine petroleum
chemically, but the earliest systematic investigation was that
carried out by Professor B. Silliman, Jun., in 1855, who then
reported upon the results which he had obtained with the
" rock oil or petroleum " of Venango county, Pennsylvania.
This report has become a classic in the literature of petroleum.
The physical properties of petroleum vary greatly. The
colour ranges from pale yellow through red and brown to black
or greenish, while by reflected light it is, in the majority of cases,
of a green hue. The specific gravity of crude petroleum appears
to range from -771 to 1-06, and the flash point from below o°
to 37o°F. Viscosity increases with density, but oils of the same
density often vary greatly; the coefficient of expansion, on the
other hand, varies inversely with the density, but bears no
simple relation to the change of fluidity of the oil under the
influence of heat, this being most marked in oils of paraffin
base. The calorific power of Baku oil appears to be highest,
while this oil is poorest in solid hydrocarbons, of which the
American petroleums contain moderate quantities, and the
Upper Burma oils the largest amount. The boiling point, being
determined by the character of the constituents of the oil,
necessarily varies greatly in different oils, as do the amounts of
distillate obtained from them at specified temperatures.

Even prior to the discovery of petroleum in commercial
quantities, a number of chemists had made determinations of
the chemical composition of several different varieties, and these
investigations, supplemented by those of a later date, show that
petroleum consists of about 84 % by weight of carbon with 12%
of hydrogen, and varying proportions of sulphur, nitrogen and
oxygen. The principal elements are found in various combina-
tions, the hydrocarbons of the Pennsylvania oils being mainly
paraffins (q.v.), while those of Caucasian petroleum belong for
the most part to the naphthenes, isomeric with the defines (q.v.).

Paraffins are found in all crude oils, and defines in varying
proportions in the majority, while acetylene has been found in
Baku oil; members of the benzene group and its derivatives,
notably benzene and toluene, occur in all petroleums. Naph-
thenes are the chief components of some oils, as already indicated,
and occur in varying quantities in many others. Certain crude
oils have also been found to contain camphenes, naphthalene
and other aromatic hydrocarbons. It is found that transparent
oils under the influence of light absorb oxygen, becoming deeper
in colour and opalescent, while strong acidity and a penetrating
odour are developed, these changes being due to the formation
of various acid and phenylated compounds, which are also
occasionally found in fresh oils. The residues from petroleum
distillation have been shown to contain very dense solids and
liquids of high specific gravity, having a large proportion of
carbon and possessed of remarkable fluorescent properties.

Natural gas is found to consist mainly of the lower paraffins,
with varying quantities of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen, in some cases also sulphuretted
hydrogen and possibly ammonia. This mixture dissolves in
petroleum, escaping when the oil is stored, and conversely it
invariably carries a certain amount of water and oil, which is
deposited on compression.

Occurrence. — Bitumen is, in its various forms, one of the most
widely-distributed of substances, occurring in strata of every
geological age, from the lowest Archean rocks to those now in
process of deposition, and in greater or less quantity throughout
both hemispheres, from Spitzbergen to New Zealand, and from
California to Japan. The occurrence of commercially valuable
petroleum is, however, comparatively limited, hitherto exploited
deposits being confined to rocks younger than the Cambrian and
older than the Quaternary, while the majority of developed oil-
fields have been discovered north of the equator.

The main requisites for a productive oil or gas field are a porous
reservoir and an impervious cover. Thus, while the mineral may
be formed in a stratum other than that in which it is found, though
in many cases it is indigenous to it, for the formation of a natural
reservoir of the fluid (whether liquid or gas) it is necessary that
there should be a suitable porous rock to contain it. Such a rock
is typically exemplified by a coarse-grained sandstone or con-
glomerate, while a limestone may be naturally porous, or, like
the Trenton limestone of Ohio and Indiana, rendered so by its
conversion into dolomite and the consequent production of cavities
due to shrinkage — a change occurring only in the purer limestones.
Similarly it is necessary, in view of the hydrostatical relations of
water and mineral oils, and the volatile character of the latter,
that the porous stratum should be protected from water and air
by an overlying shale or other impervious deposit. Water, often
saline or sulphurous, is also found in these porous rocks and re-
places the oil as the latter is withdrawn.

In addition to these two necessary factors, structural conditions
play an important part in determining the accumulation of oil
and gas. The main supplies have been obtained from strata
unbroken and comparatively undisturbed, but the occurrence
of anticlinal or terrace structure, however slightly marked or limited
in extent, exerts a powerful influence on the creation of reservoirs
of petroleum. These tectonic arches often extend for long dis-
tances with great regularity, but are frequently crossed by sub-
sidiary anticlines, which themselves play a not unimportant part
in the aggregation of the oil. Owing to difference of density the
oil and water in the anticlines separate into two layers, the upper
consisting of oil which fills the anticlines, while the water remains
in the synclines. Any gas which may be present rises to the summits
of the anticlines. When the slow folding of the strata is accom-
panied by a gradual local descent, a modified or " arrested "
anticlinal structure, known as a " terrace " is produced, the up-
heaving action at that part being sufficient only to arrest the descent
which would otherwise occur. The terraces may thus be regarded
as flat and extended anticlines. They need not be horizontal,
and sometimes have a dip of a few feet per mile, as in the case of
the Ohio and Indiana oil fields, where the amount varies from

3 i8

PETROLEUM

one to ten feet. These slight differences in level, however, are
found to have a most powerful effect in the direction already
mentioned.

It is evident that accurate knowledge of the character and
structure of the rock-formations in petroliferous territories is of
the greatest importance in enabling the expert to select favourable
sites for drilling operations; hence on well-conducted petroleum-
properties it is now customary to note the character and thickness
of the strata perforated by the drill, so that a complete section
may be prepared from the recorded data. In some cases the depths
are stated with reference to sea-level, instead of being taken from
the surface, thus greatly facilitating the utilization of the records.

Oil and gas are often met with in drilled wells under great pressure,
which is highest as a rule in the deepest wells. The closed pressure-
in the Trenton limestone in Ohio and Indiana is about 200-30001.
per sq. in., although a much higher pressure has been registered
in many wells. The gas wells of Pennsylvania indicate about
double the pressure of those drilled in the Trenton limestone,
600-800 lb. not being unusual, and even 1000 lb having been
recorded. The extremely high pressure under which oil is met
with in wells drilled in some parts of the Russian oil fields is a matter
of common knowledge, and a fountain or spouting well resulting
therefrom is one of the "sights" of the country. A famous fountain
in the Groznyi oil field in the northern Caucasus, which began to
flow in August 1895, was estimated to have thrown up during the
first three days 1,200,000 poods (over 4,500,000 gallons, or about
18,500 tons) of oil a day. It flowed continuously, though in
gradually diminishing quantity, for fifteen months; afterwards
the flow became intermittent. In April 1897 there was still an
occasional outburst of oil and gas.

Three theories have been propounded to account for this
pressure : —

1. That it results from the weight of the overlying strata.

2. That it is due to water-pressure, as in artesian wells (" hydro-
static " or " artesian " theory).

3. That it is caused by the compressed condition of the gradually
accumulating gas.

Of these the first has been proved untenable, and while in some
instances (e.g. certain wells in Ohio), the second has held good,
the third appears to be the most widely applicable.

The conditions of formation and accumulation of petroleum
point to the fact that the principal oil fields of the world are merely
reservoirs, which will become exhausted in the course of years, as
in the case of the decreasing yield of certain of the American fields.
But new deposits are continually being exploited, and there may
be others as yet unknown, which would entirely alter any view
that might be expressed at the present time in regard to the probable
duration of the world's supply of oil and gas.

As already stated, every one of the great geological systems
appears to have produced some form of bitumen, and in the follow-
ing table an attempt has been made to classify on this basis the
various localities in which petroleum or natural gas has been found
in large or small quantities: —

Recent. — Lancashire (Down Holland Moss), Holland, Sweden,
Sardinia, Kaluga (Russia), Red Sea, Mediterranean.

Pleistocene. — Schleswig-Holstein, Minnesota, Illinois, Louisiana.
Pliocene. — Spain, Italy, Albania, Croatia, Hungary, Hesse,
Hanover, Transcaspia, Algeria, Florida, Alabama, California,
Mexico, Peru, Victoria, New Zealand.

Miocene. — France, Switzerland, Spain, Italy, Sicily, Greece,
Rumania, Turkey-in-Europe, Styria, Slavonia, Hungary, Transyl-
vania, Galicia, Lower Austria, Wurttemberg, Brandenberg, West
Prussia, Crimea, Kuban, Terek, Kutais, Tiflis, Elizabetpol, Siberia,
Transcaspia, Mesopotamia, Persia, Assam, Burma, Anam, Japan,
Philippine Islands, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Algeria, Egypt, British
Columbia, Alaska, Washington, California, Colorado, Texas,
Louisiana, Barbados, Trinidad, Venezuela, Peru, South Australia,
Victoria, New Zealand.

Oligocene. — France, Spain, Greece, Rumania, Hungary, Transyl-
vania, Galicia, Bavaria, Elsass, Rhenish Bavaria, Hesse, Saxony,
Crimea, Daghestan, Tiflis, Baku, Alaska, California, Florida.

Eocene. — Devonshire (retinasphalt), France, Spain, Italy, Asia
Minor, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Rumania, Dalmatia,
Istria, Hungary, Transylvania, Galicia, Moravia, Bavaria, Elsass,
Kutais, Armenia, Persia, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Punjab,
Assam, Sumatra, Algeria, Egypt, Maryland, Colorado, Utah,
Nevada, California, Louisiana, Texas, Cuba, Colombia, Brazil.

Cretaceous. — Holland, France, Switzerland, Spain, Italy, Sicily,
Greece, Hungary, Silesia, Moravia, Westphalia, Brunswick, Hanover,
Schleswig-Holstein, (German) Silesia, Poland, Kutais, Uralsk,
Turkestan, Armenia, Syria, Arabia, Persia, Tunis, Egypt, West
Africa, British Columbia, Alberta, Assiniboia, Athabasca, Manitoba,
New Jersey, South Dakota, - Washington, Montana, Oklahoma,
Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, California, New Mexico, Arkansas,
Texas, Louisiana, Mexico, Hayti, Trinidad, Colombia, Argentina [?],
New Zealand.

Neocomian. — Sussex, France, Switzerland, Spain, Hungary,
Transylvania, Bukowina, Galicia, Hesse, Baden, Hanover, Bruns-
wick, California, Texas, Mexico, Bolivia, Argentina.

Jurassic. — Yorkshire, Somerset, Buckingham, France, Switzer-

land, Spain, Italy, Lower Austria, Baden, Elsass, Hesse, Hanover,
Brunswick, Sizran, Tiflis, Siberia, Persia, Madagascar, Alaska,
Wyoming, Colorado, Mexico, Argentina.

Triassic. — Yorkshire, Staffordshire, France, Portugal, Spain,
Italy, Montenegro, Upper Austria, Tyrol, Bavaria, Wurttemberg,
Baden, Elsass, Lothringen, Rhenish Bavaria, Rhenish Prussia,
Hanover, Brunswick, Sweden, Spitzbergen, Punjab, China, Trans-
vaal, Cape Colony, Connecticut, New Jersey, Virginia, North Caro-
lina, Wyoming, Argentina, New South Wales, Queensland.

Permian. — Yorkshire, Denbigh, Moravia, Bohemia, Baden,
Saxony, Vologda, Afa, Kazan, Simbirsk, Samara, Kansas, Wyoming,
Oklahoma, Texas (Permo-Carboniferous).

Carboniferous. — Scotland, North of England, and Midlands,
Wales, France, Belgium, Carniola, Moravia, Elsass, Saxony, Perm,
Sizran, China, Cape Colony, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Pennsyl-
vania, West Virginia, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa,
Missouri, Tennessee, Kentucky, Alabama, Kansas, Arkansas
Colorado, Oklahoma, Tasmania, Victoria (Permo-Carboniferous),
West Australia (Permo-Carboniferous).

Devonian. — Scotland, Devonshire, Spain, Hanover, Archangel,
Vitebsk, Athabasca, Mackenzie, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick,
Newfoundland, New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio,
Michigan, Wisconsin, Kentucky.

Silurian. — Shropshire, Wales, Bohemia, Sweden, Esthonia,
Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, Newfoundland, New York, Pennsyl-
vania [?], Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, Tennessee,
Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Oklahoma, New Mexico, New
Caledonia.

Cambrian. — Shropshire, New York.
Archean. — France, Norway, Sweden, Ontario.
In this list, while certain occurrences in rocks of undetermined
age in little-known regions have been omitted, many of those
included are of merely academic interest, and a still larger number
indicate fields supplying at present only local needs. All have been
arranged in geographical order without reference to productive
capacity or importance. It should be pointed out that the deposits
which have been hitherto of chief commercial importance occur
in the old rocks (Carboniferous to Silurian) on the one hand, and
in the comparatively new Tertiary formations on the other, the
intermediate periods yielding but little or at any rate far less
abundantly.

Origin. — The question of the origin of petroleum (and natural
gas), though for the first half of the 19th century of little more
than academic interest, has engaged the attention of naturalists
and others for over a hundred years. As early as 1804, Humboldt
expressed the opinion that petroleum was produced by distillation
from deep-seated strata, and Karl Reichenbach in 1834, suggested
that it was derived from the action of heat on the turpentine of
pine-trees, whilst Brunet, in 1838, adumbrated a similar theory of
origin on the ground of certain laboratory experiments. The
theories propounded may be divided into two groups, namely, those
ascribing to petroleum an inorganic origin, and those which regard
it as the result of the decomposition of organic matter.

M. P. E. Berthelot was the first to suggest, in 1866, after con-
ducting a series of experiments, that mineral oil was produced
by purely chemical action, similar to that employed in the manu-
facture of acetylene. Other theories of a like nature were brought
forward by various chemists, Mendeleeff, for example, ascribing
the formation of petroleum to the action of water at high tempera-,
tures on iron carbide in the interior of the earth.

On the other hand, an overwhelming and increasing majority of
those who have studied the natural conditions under which petroleum
occurs are of opinion that it is of organic origin. The earlier sup-
porters of the organic theory held that it was a product of the natural
distillation of coal or carbonaceous matter; but though in a few
instances volcanic intrusions appear to have converted coal or
allied substances into oil, it seems that terrestrial vegetation does
not generally give rise to petroleum. Among those who have
considered that it is derived from the decomposition of both animal
and vegetable marine organisms may be mentioned J. P. Lesley,
E. Orton and S. F. Peckham, but others have held that it is of
exclusively animal origin, a view supported by such occurrences
as those in the orthoceratities of the Trenton limestone, and by the
experiments of C. Engler, who obtained a liquid like crude petroleum
by the distillation of menhaden (fish) oil. Similarly there is a
difference of opinion as to the conditions under which the organisms
have been mineralized, some holding that the process has taken
place at a high temperature and under great pressure; but the
lack of practical evidence in nature in support of these views has
led many to conclude that petroleum, like coal, has been formed
at moderate temperatures, and under pressures varying with the
depth of the containing rocks. This view is supported by the fact
that petroleum is found on the Sardinian and Swedish coasts as
a product of the decomposition of seaweed, heated only by the sun,
and under atmospheric pressure.

Consideration of the evidence leads us to the conclusion that,
at least in commercially valuable deposits, mineral oil has generally
been formed by the decomposition of marine organisms, in some
cases animal, in others vegetable, in others both, under practically
normal conditions of temperature and pressure.

PETROLEUM

3 r 9

on

Derrick.

Extraction (Technically termed Production.) — The earliest system
adopted for the collection of petroleum appears to have consisted in
skimming the oil from the surface of the water upon
Mth /* which it had accumulated, and Professor Lesley states
Methods. that at p amt Creek, in Johnson county, Kentucky,
a Mr George and others were in the habit of collecting oil from the
sands, " by making shallow canals loo or 200 ft. long, with an up-
right board and a reservoir at one end, from which they obtained
as much as 200 barrels per year by stirring the sands with a pole."
It is said that at Echigo in Japan, old wells, supposed to have been
dug several hundred years ago, are existent, and that a Japanese
history — called Kokushiriyaku, states that " burning water ' was
obtained in Echigo about a.d. 615.

The petroleum industry in the United States may be considered
to date from the year 1859, when the first well avowedly drilled
for the production of oil was completed by E. L. Drake.
The United -j-j^ p resent method of drilling has been evolved from
3 eSw the artesian well system previously adopted for obtain-
ing brine and water. The drilling of petroleum wells is carried on
by individuals or companies, either on lands owned by them, or
on properties whose owners grant leases, usually on condition that
a certain number of wells shall be sunk within a stated period,
and that a portion of the oil obtained (usually from one-tenth to
one-fourth) shall be appropriated as royalty to the lessor. Such
leases are often transferred at a larger royalty, especially after the
territory has been proved productive. The " wild-cat " wells,
sunk by speculators on untested territory or on lands which had not
previously proved productive, played an important part in the
earlier mapping out of the petroleum fields. To discourage the
sinking of wells on land immediately adjoining productive territory,
it has been usual to drill along the borders of the land as far as
practicable, in order to first obtain the oil which might otherwise
be raised by others; and on account of the small area often con-
trolled by the operator, the number of wells drilled has frequently
been far in excess of the number which might reasonably be
sunk. Experience has proved that in some of the oil fields of the
United States one well to five acres is as close as they should be
drilled. _ •

After the selection of the site, the first operation consists in the
erection of the rig. The chief portion of this rig is the derrick,
which consists of four strong uprights or legs held in
position by ties and braces, and resting on strong
wooden sills, which are preferred, as a foundation, to
masonry. For drilling the deeper wells, the derrick, on account
of the length of the " string " of drilling tools, is usually at least
70 ft. high, about 20 ft. wide at the base, and 4 ft. wide at the sum-
mit. The whole derrick is set up by keys, no mortices or tenons
being used, and thus the complete rig may be readily taken down
and set up on a new site. The samson-post, which supports the
walking beam, and the jack-posts, are dove-tailed and keyed into
the sills. The samson-post is placed flush with one side of the
main sill, the band-wheel jack-post being flush with the other
side, so that the walking-beam, which imparts motion to the
string of tools, works parallel with the main sill.

The boiler generally used is of the locomotive type and is usually
stationary, though sometimes a portable form is preferred. It is
either set in the first instance at some distance from the engine and
well, or is subsequently removed sufficiently far away before the
drill enters the oil-bearing formation, and until the oil and gas
are under control, in order to minimize the risk of fire. A large
boiler frequently supplies the engines of several wells. The engine,
which is provided with reversing gear, is of 12 or 15 horse-power
and motion is communicated through a belt to the band-wheel,
which operates the walking-beam by means of a crank. The
throttle-valve is opened or closed by turning a grooved vertical
pulley by means of an endless cord, called the telegraph, passing
round another pulley fixed upon the " headache-post," and is thus
under the control of the driller working in the derrick. The head-
ache-post is a vertical wooden beam placed on the main sill directly
below the walking-beam, to receive the weight of the latter in case
of breakage of connexions. The position of the reversing link is
altered by means of a cord, passing over two pulleys, fixed re-
spectively in the engine-house and on the derrick. At one end of
the band-wheel shaft is the bull-rope pulley, and upon the other
end is a crank having six holes to receive a movable wrist-pin, the
length of stroke of the walking-beam being thus adjusted. The
revolution of the bull-wheels is checked by the use of a powerful
hand-brake.

The band-wheel communicates .motion to the walking-beam,
while drilling is in progress, through the crank and a connecting-
rod known as the pitman ; to the bull-wheels, while the tools are
being raised, by the bull-rope; and to the sand-pump reel, by a
friction pulley, while the sand-pump is being used. It is therefore
necessary that the machinery should be so arranged that the con-
nexions may be rapidly made and broken. The sand-pump reel
is set in motion bv pressing a lever, the reel being then brought
inlo contact with the face of the band- wheel. The sand-pump
descends bv gravitation, and its fall is checked by pressing back
the l<>ver, so as to throw the reel against a post which serves as
a brake.

The drilling tools are suspended by an untarred manila rope,
2 in. in diameter, passing from the bull-wheel shaft over a grooved
wheel known as the crown-pulley, at the summit of the
derrick. The string of drilling tools consists of two z, . %
parts separated by an appliance known as the jars. tools.
This piece of apparatus was introduced by William Morris in 1 831,
and consists of a long double link with closely-fitting jaws which,
however, slide freely up and down. It may be compared to a
couple of elongated and flattened links of chain. The links are
about 30 in. long and are interposed between the heavy iron auger-
stem carrying the bit and the upper rod, known as the sinker-bar.
Their principal use is to give a sharp jar to the drill on the up-
stroke so that the bit is dislodged if it has become jammed in the
rock. In addition to the appliances mentioned the tools comprise
reamers to enlarge the bore of the well, the winged-substitute
which is fitted above the bit to prevent it from glancing off, and
above the round reamer to keep it in ulace, a temper-screw with
clamps and wrenches. Sand-pumps and bailers are also required
to remove detritus, water and oil from the bore-hole.

The action of the jars and temper-screw has been described by
John F. Carll as follows: " Suppose the tools to have been just
run to the bottom of the well, the jars closed and the cable slack.
The men now take hold of the bull-wheels and draw up the slack
until the sinker-bar rises, the ' play ' of the jars allowing it to
come up 13 in. without disturbing the auger-stem. When the jars
come together they slack back about 4 in., and the cable is in position
to be clamped in the temper-screw. If now the vertical movement
of the walking-beam be 24 in., when it starts on the up-stroke the
sinker-bar rises 4 in., and the cross-heads come together with a
smart blow, then the auger-stem is picked up and lifted 20 in.
On the down-stroke, the auger-stem falls 20 in., while the sinker-
bar goes down 24 in. to telescope the jars for the next blow coming
up. A skilful driller never allows his jars to strike on the down-
stroke, they are only used to jar down when the tools stick on some
obstruction in the well before reaching the bottom, and in fishing
operations. An unskilful workman sometimes ' loses the jar ' and
works for hours without accomplishing anything. The tools may
be standing at the bottom while he is playing with the slack of
the cable or they may be swinging all the time several feet from the
bottom. As the jar works off, or grows more feeble, by reason of
the downward advance of the drill, it is ' tempered ' to the proper
strength by letting down the temper-screw to give the jars more
play. The temper-screw forms the connecting link between the
walking-beam and cable, and it is ' let out ' gradually to regulate
the play of the jars as fast as the drill penetrates. When its whole
length is run down, the rope clamps play very near the well-mouth.
The tools are then withdrawn, the well is sand-pumped, and pre-
parations are made for the next ' run.' "

The ordinary sand-pump or bailer, consists of a plain cylinder
of light galvanized iron with a bail at the top and a stem-valve at
the bottom. It is usually about 6 ft. in length but is sometimes
as much as 15 or 20 ft., and as its valve-stem projects downwards
beyond the bottom, it empties itself when rested upon the bottom
of the waste-trough.

The operation of drilling is frequently interrupted by the occur-
rence of an accident, which necessitates the use of fishing tools.
If the fishing operation is unsuccessful the well has to be abandoned,
often after months of labour, unless it is found possible to drill
past the tools which have been lost. In readiness for a fracture
of the drilling tools or of the cable, special appliances known as
fishing tools are provided. These are so numerous and varied
in form that a description would be impossible within the scope
of this article. The fishing tools are generally attached to the
cable, and are used with portions of the ordinary string of tools,
but some arc fitted to pump-rods or tubing, and others to special
rods.

The drilling of a well is commonly carried out under contract,
the producer erecting the derrick and providing the engine and boiler
while the drilling contractor finds the tools, and is
responsible for accidents or failure to complete the Dj['" la g tne
well. The drilling " crew " consists of two drillers " e "*
and two tool-dressers, working in pairs in two " tours " (noon to
midnight and midnight to noon).

The earlier wells in Pennsylvania consisted of three sections,
the first formed of surface clays and gravels, the second of stratified
rocks containing water, and the third of stratified rocks, including
the oil-sands, usually free from water. The conductor, which was
a wooden casing of somewhat greater internal diameter than the
maximum bore of the well, passed through the first of these divisions,
and casing was used in the second to prevent percolation of water
into the oil-bearing portion. In later wells the conductor has been
replaced with an 8-in. wrought-iron drive-pipe, terminating in a
steel shoe, which is driven to the bed-rock, and a 7f-in. hole is
drilled below it to the base of the lowest water-bearing stratum.
The bore is then reduced to 5f-'"n., and a bevelled shoulder being
made in the rock, a 5}- in. casing, having a collar to fit water-tight
on the bevel shoulder, is inserted. The well is then completed
with a ^" in. bit. As the water is shut off before the portion of
the well below the water-bearing strata i« bored the remainder of
the drilling is conducted with only sufficient water in the well to

320

PETROLEUM

admit of sand-pumping. The drill is thus allowed to fall freely,
instead of being partly upheld by the buoyancy of the water, as in
earlier wells.

Wells in Pennsylvania now range in depth from 300 ft. to 3700 ft.
Four strings of iron casing are usually employed, having the follow-
ing diameters: 10 in., 8\ in., 6\ in. and 5 in., the lengths of tube
forming the casing being screwed together. Contractors will often
undertake to drill wells of moderate depth at 90 cents to $1 per foot,
but the cost of a deep well may amount to as much as $7000.

The rotary system of drilling which is in general use in the oil-
fields of the coastal plain of Texas is a modification of that invented
notary ^y Fauvelle in 1845, and used in the early years of the
System industry in some of the oil-producing countries of
' Europe. It is one of the most rapid and economical
which can be employed in soft formations, but where hard rock
is encountered it is almost useless. The principle of this system
consists essentially in the use of rotating hollow drilling rods or
casing, to which is attached the drilling-bit and through which a
continuous stream of water, under a pressure of 40 to 100 lb. per
sq. in., is forced.

The yield of petroleum wells varies within very wide limits, and
the relative importance of the different producing districts is also
Yield of constantly changing. I. C. White, state geologist_ of
Wells. West Virginia, estimates that in fairly good producing

sand a cubic foot of rock contains from 6 to 12 pints
of oil. He assumes that in what is considered a good producing
district the amount of petroleum which can be obtained from a
cubic foot of rock would not be more than a gallon, and that the
average thickness of the oil-bearing rock would not exceed 5 ft.
Taking these figures as a basis, the total yield of oil from an acre
of petroliferous territory would be a little over 5000 barrels of
42 U.S. gallons.

A flow of oil may often be induced in a well which would otherwise
require to be pumped, by preventing the escape of gas which issues
with the oil, and causing its pressure to raise the oil. The device
employed for this purpose is known as the water-packer, and
consists in its simplest form of an india-rubber ring, which is applied
between the tubing and the well-casing, so that upon compression
it makes a tight joint. The gas thus confined in the oil-chamber
forces the oil up the tubing.

For pumping a well a valved working-barre.1 with valved sucker
is attached to the lower end of the tubing, a perforated '"'anchor "
being placed below. The sucker carries a series of three or four
leather cups, which are pressed against the inner surface of the
working barrel by the weight of the column of oil. The sucker
is connected by a string of sucker-rods with the walking-
beam. There is usually fixed above the sucker a short iron valve-
rod, with a device known as a rivet-catcher to prevent damage
to the pump by the dropping of rivets from the pump-rods.

On the completion of drilling, or when the production is found
to decrease, it is usual to torpedo the well to increase the flow.
To rpe(Jo i no- The explosive employed is generally nitroglycerin,
Wells an tne amount used has been increased from the

original 4 to 6 quarts to 60, 80, 100 and even 200 quarts.
It is placed in tin canisters of about 35 to 5 in. in diameter and
about 10 ft. in length. The canisters have conical bottoms and
fit one in the other. They are consecutively filled with nitro-
glycerin, and are lowered to the bottom of the well, one after the
other, by a cord wound upon a reel, until the required number
have been inserted. Formerly the upper end of the highest canister
was fitted with a " firing-head,'' consisting of a circular plate of
iron, slightly smaller than the bore of the well, and having attached
to its underside a vertical rod or pin carrying a percussion cap.
The cap rested on the bottom of a small iron cylinder containing
nitroglycerin. To explode the charge an iron weight, known
as a go-devil, was dropped into the well, and striking the disk
exploded the cap and fired the torpedo. Now, however, a miniature
torpedo known as a go-devil squib, holding about a quart of nitro-
glycerin, and having a firing-head similar to that already described,
is almost invariably employed. The disk is dispensed with, and
the percussion cap is exploded by the impact of a leaden weight
running on a cord. The squib is lowered after the torpedo, and,
when exploded by the descent of the weight, fires the charge. It
must be borne in mind that although the explosion may increase
the production for a time, it is by no means certain that the
actual output of a well is increased in all such cases, though from
some wells there would be no production without the use of the
torpedo.

The petroleum industry in Canada is mainly concentrated
in the district of Petrolea, Ontario. On account of the small
[Millar In depth of the wells, and the tenacious nature of the
Canada. principal strata bored through, the Canadian method
of drilling differs from the Pennsylvanian or American
system in the following particulars: —

1. The use of slender wooden boring-rods instead of a cable.

2. The employment of a simple auger instead of a spudding-bit.

3. The adoption of a diffeient arrangement for transmitting
motion.

4. The use of a lighter set of drilling tools.

Although petroleum wells in Russia have not the depth of many

of those in the United States, the disturbed character of the strata.
with consequent liability to caving, and the occurrence of hard
concretions, render drilling a lengthy and expensive Drilling la
operation. It is usual to begin by making an excava- R uss i a4
tion 8 ft. in diameter and 24 ft. in depth, and lining the
sides of this with wood or brick. The initial diameter of the well
drilled from the bottom of this pit is in some instances as much ae
36 in., bore-holes of the larger size being preferred, as they are less
liable to become choked, and admit of the use of larger bailers for
raising the oil.

The drilling of wells of large size requires the use of heavy tools
and of very strong appliances generally. The system usually
adopted is a modification of the Canadian system already described,
the boring rods being, however, of iron instead of wood, but the
cable system has also to some extent been used. For the ordinary
2-in. plain-laid manila cable a wire rope has in some cases been
successfully substituted.

Rivetted iron casing, made of ^-in. plate, is employed, and is
constantly lowered so as to follow the drill closely, in order to
prevent caving. Within recent years, owing to the initiative of
Colonel English, a method of raising oil by the agency of com-
pressed air has been introduced into the Baku oil-fields.

In Gahcia the Canadian system is nearly exclusively adopted.
In some instances under-reaming is found necessary. This consists
in the use of an expanding reamer by means of which Orlllloglg
the well may be drilled to a diameter admitting of the Qajida.
casing descending freely, which obviously could not be
accomplished with an ordinary bit introduced through the casing.
Of late years the under-reamer has been largely superseded by the
eccentric bit.

The Davis calyx drill has also been employed for petroleum
drilling. This apparatus may be described as a steel-pointed core-
drill. The bit or cutter consists of a cylindrical Tne Ca i yx
metallic shell, the lower end of which is made, by a £j r ;// #
process of gulleting, into a series of sharp teeth, which are
set in and out alternately. The outward set of teeth drill the hole
large enough to permit the drilling apparatus to descend freely, and
the teeth set inwardly pare down the core to such a diameter as will
admit of the body of the cutter passing over it without seizing.
The calyx is a long tube, or a series of connected tubes, situated
above the core barrel, to which it is equal in diameter.

In conclusion it may be stated that the two systems of drilling
for petroleum with which by far the largest amount of work has
been, and is being done, are the American or rope comparison
system, and the Canadian or rod system. The former of systems.
is not only employed in the United States, but is in use
in Upper Burma, Java, Rumania and elsewhere. The latter was
introduced by Canadians into Galicia and, with certain modifi-
cations, has hitherto been found to be the best for that country.
A form of the rod system is used in the Russian oil-fields, but
owing to the large diameter of the wells the appliances differ from
those employed elsewhere.

The wells from which the supplies of natural gas are obtained in
the United States are drilled and cased in the same manner as the
oil wells.

Transport and Storage. — In the early days of the petroleum
industry the oil was transported in the most primitive manner.
Thus, in Upper Burma, it was conveyed in earthenware vessels
from the wells to the river bank, where it was poured into the holds
of boats. It is interesting to find that a rude pipe-line formerly
existed in this field for conveying the crude oil from the wells to the
river; this was made of bamboos, but it is said that the loss by
leakage was so great as to lead to its immediate abandonment on
completion. In Russia, until 1875, the crude oil was carried in
barrels on Persian carts known as " arbas." These have two
wheels of 8J to 9 ft. in diameter, the body carrying one barrel,
while another is slung beneath the axle. In America, crude
petroleum was at first transported in iron-hooped barrels, holding
from 40 to 42 American gallons, which were carried by teamsters
to Oil Creek and the Allegheny River, where they were loaded on
boats, these being floated down stream whenever sufficient water
was present — a method leading to much loss by collision and
grounding. Bulk barges were soon introduced on the larger rivers,
but the use of these was partially rendered unnecessary by the
introduction of railways, when the oil was at first transported in
barrels on freight cars, but later in tank-cars. These at first con-
sisted of an ordinary truck on which were placed two wooden
tub-like tanks, each holding about 2000 gallons ; they were replaced
in 1 87 1 by the modern type of tank-car, constructed with a hori-
zontal cylindrical tank of boiler plate.

The means of transporting petroleum in bulk commonly used at
the present day is the pipe-line system, the history of which dates
from i860. In that year S. D. Karns suggested laying a 6-in.
pipe from Burning Springs to Parkersburg, West Virginia, a distance
of 36 m. ; but his proposal was never carried into effect. Two
years later, however, L. Hutchinson of New York, laid a short line
from the Tarr Farm wells to the refinery, which passed over a hill,
the oil being moved on the syphon principle, and a year later con-
structed another three miles long to the railway. These attempts
were, however, unsuccessful, on account of the excessive leakage

PETROLEUM

321

at the joints of the pipes. With the adoption of carefully fitted
screw-joints in 1865 the pipe line gradually came into general use,
until in 1891 the lines owned by the various transit companies of
Pennsylvania amounted in length to 25,000 m

The pumps employed to force the oil through the pipes were
at first of the single-cylinder or " donkey " type, but these were
found to cause excessive wear — a defect remedied by the use of
the Worthington pump now generally adopted. The engines used
on the main 6-in. lines are of 600 to 800 h.p., while those on the
small-diameter local lines range from 25 to 30 h.p.

Tanks of various types are employed in storing the oil, those at
the wells being circular and usually made of wood, with a content
of 250 barrels and upwards. Laige tanks of boiler-plate are used
to receive the oil as it comes through the pipe-lines Those adopted
by the National Transit Company are 90 ft. in diameter and 30 ft.
high, with slightly conical wooden roofs covered with sheet iron;
their capacity is 35,000 barrels, and they are placed upon the
carefully levelled ground without any foundation.

Kerosene is transported in bulk by various means; specially
constructed steel tank barges are used on the waterways of the
United States, tank-cars on the railroads, and tank-wagons on the
roads. The barrels employed in the transport of petroleum pro-
ducts are made of well-seasoned white-oak staves bound by six or
eight iron hoops. They aie coated internally with glue, and painted
in the well-known colours, blue staves and white heads. The
tins largely used for kerosene are made by machinery and contain
5 American gallons. They are hermetically sealed for transport.

In Canada, means of transport similar to those already described
are employed, but the reservoirs for storage often consist of excava-
tions in the soft Erie clay of the oil district, the sides of which are
supported by planks.

The primitive methods originally in use in the Russian oil-fields
have already been described; but these were long ago supeiseded
by pipe-lines, while a great deal of oil is carried by tank steamers
on the Caspian to the mouth of the Volga where it is transferred
to barges and thence at Tzaritzin to railway tank-cars. The
American type of storage-tank is generally employed, in conjunction
with clay-lined reservoirs.

Natural gas is largely used in the United States, and for some
time, owing to defective methods of storage, delivery and con-
sumption, great waste occurred. The improvements introduced
in 1890 and 1891. whereby this state of affairs was put an end to,
consisted in the introduction of the principle of supply by meter,
and the adoption of a comprehensive system of reducing the initial
pressure of the gas, so as to diminish loss by leakage. For the
latter purpose, Westinghouse gas-regulators are employed, the
positions of the regulators being so chosen as to equalize the
pressure throughout the service. The gas is distributed to the
consumer from the wells in wrought-iron pipes, ranging in diameter
from 20 in. down to 2 in. Riveted wrought-iron pipes 3 ft. in
diameter are also used. The initial pressure is sometimes as high
as 400 lb to the sq. in., but usually ranges from 200 to 300 lb.
The most common method of distribution in cities and towns is
by a series of pipes from 12 in. down to 2 in. in diameter, usually
carrying a pressure of about 4 oz. to the sq. in. To these pipes the
service-pipes leading into the houses of the consumers are connected.
Refining of Petroleum. — The distillation of petroleum, especially
of such as was intended for medicinal use, was regularly
carried on in the 18th century, and earlier. V. I. Ragozin states
in his work on the petroleum industry that -Johann Lerche,
who visited the Caspian district in 1735, found that the crude
Caucasian oil required to be distilled to render it satisfactorily
combustible, and that, when distilled, it yielded a bright yellow
oil resembling a spirit, which readily ignited. As early as 1823 the
brothers Dubinin erected a refinery in the village of Mosdok, and in
1846 applied to Prince Woronzoff for a subsidy for extending the
use of petroleum-distillates in the Caucasus. In their application,
which was unsuccessful, they stated that they had taught the Don
Cossacks to " change black naphtha into white," and showed by
a drawing, pieserved in the archives cf the Caucasian government,
how this was achieved. They used an iron still, set in brickwork,
and from a working charge of forty " buckets " of crude petroleum
obtained a yield of sixteen buckets of " white naphtha." The
top of the still had a removable head, connected with a condenser
consisting of a copper worm in a barrel of water. The " white
naphtha " was sold at Nijni Novgorod without further treatment.

Some of the more viscous crude oils obtained in the United
States are employed as lubricants under the name of " natural
oils," either without any treatment or after clarification by subsi-
dence and filtration through animal charcoal. Others are deprived
of a part of their more volatile constituents by spontaneous
evaporation, or by distillation, in vacuo or otherwise, at the lowest
possible temperature. Such are known as " reduced oils."

In most petroleum-producing countries, however, and particu-
larly where the product is abundant, the crude oil is fractionally
distilled, so as to separate.it into petroleum spirit of various grades,
burning oils, gas oils, lubricating oils, and (if the crude oil yields
that product) paraffin. The distillates obtained are usually purified
by treatment, successively, with sulphuric acid and solution of
caustic soda, followed by washing with watet.

Crude petroleum was experimentally distilled in the United States
in 1833 by Prof. Siliiman (d. 1864), and the refining of petroleum
in that country may be said to date from about the year 1855,
when Samuel M. Kier fitted up a small refinery with a five-barrel
still, for the treatment of the oil obtained from his father's salt-
wells. At this period the supply of the raw material was insuf-
ficient to admit of any important development in the industry, and
before the drilling of artesian wells for petroleum was initiated
by Drake the " coal-oil " or shale-oil industry had assumed con-
siderable proportions in the United States. Two large refineries,
one on Newtown Creek, Long Island, and another in South Brooklyn,
also on Long Island, were in successful operation when the abundant
pioduction of petroleum, which immediately followed the completion
of the Drake well, placed at the disposal of the refiner a materia!
which cculd be worked more profitably than bituminous shale.
The existing refineries were accordingly altered so as to adapt
them for the refining cf peti oleum; but in the manufacture of
burning oil fiom petroleum the small stills which had been in use
in the distillation of shale-oil wete at first employed.

In the earlier refineries the stills, the capacity of which varied
from 25 to 80 barrels, usually consisted of a vertical cylinder,
constructed of cast- or wrought-iron, with a boiler-plate bottom and
a cast-iron dome, on which the '' goose-neck " was bolted. The
charge was distilled almost tc dryness, though the operation was
not carried far enough to cause the residue to " coke." The
operation was, however, completely revolutionized in the United
States by the introduction of the " cracking process," and by the
division of the distillation into two parts, one consisting in the
removal of the more volatile constituents of the oil, and the other
in the distillation (which is usually conducted in separate stills)
of the residues from the first distillation, for the pioduction of
lubricating oils and paraffin.

Various arrangements have been proposed and patented for the
continuous distillation of petroleum, in which crude oil is supplied
to a range of stills a^, fast as the distillates pass off. The system is
largely employed in Russia, and its use has been frequently attempted
in the United States, but the results have not been satisfactoiy, on
account, it is said, of the much greater quantity of dissolved gas
contained in the American oil, the laiger proportion of kerosene
which such oil yields, and the less fluid character of the residue.

In the United States a horizontal cylindrical still is usually
employed in the distillation of the spirit and kerosene, but what
is known as the " cheese-box " still has also been largely used.
American stills of the former type are constructed of wrought-iron
or steel, and are about 30 ft. in length by 12 ft. 6 in. in diameter,
with a dome about 3 ft. in diameter, furnished with a vapour-pipe
15 in. in diameter The charge for such a still is about 600 barrels.
The stills were formerly completely bricked in, so that the vapours
should be kept fully heated until they escaped to the condenser,
but since the introduction of the " cracking process," the upper
part has usually been left exposed to the air. The cheese-box still
has a vertical cylindrical body, which may be as much as 30 ft. in
diameter and 9 ft. in depth, connected by means of three vertical
pipes with a vapour-chest furnished with a large number, frequently
as many as forty, of 3-in. discharge-pipes arranged in parallel lines.
The stills employed in Russia and Galicia are usually smaller
than those already described.

The " cracking " process, whereby a considerable quantity of
the oil which is intermediate between kerosene and lubricating
oil is converted into hydrocarbons of lower specific gravity and
boiling-point suitable for illuminating purposes, is one of great
scientific and technical interest. It is generally understood that the
products of fractional distillation, even in the laboratory, are not
identical with the hydrocarbons present in the crude oil, but are
in part produced by the action of heat upon them. This was
plainly stated by Professor Siliiman in the earliest stages of develop-
ment of the American petroleum industry. An important paper
bearing on the subject was published in 1871, by T. E. Thorpe
and J. Young, as a preliminary note on their experiments on the
action of heat under pressure on solid paraffin. They found that
the paraffin was thus converted, with the evolution of but little
gas, into hydrocarbons which were liquid at ordinary temperatures.
In an experiment on 3500 grams of paraffin pioduced from shale
(melting point 44"5 ° C.) they obtained nearly 4 litres of liquid hydro-
carbons, which they subjected to fractional distillation, and on
examining the fraction distilling below 100 C, they found it to
consist mainly of olefines. The hydrocarbon C20H42. for example,
might be resolved into CsH^+CisHso, or CeHu+CuHis, or
C7H16+C13H26, &c, the general equation of the decomposition
being—

C„H 2tl+ .2 (paraffin) =C»_pH2(n_j,) + j (paraffin) -fC p H2 P (define).

The product actually obtained is a mixture of several paraffins
and several olefines.

The cracking process practically consists in distilling the oils
at a temperature higher than the normal boiling point of the con-
stituent* which it is desired to decompose. This may be brought
about by a distillation under pressure, or by allowing the condensed
distillate to fall into the highly heated residue in the still. The
result of this treatment is that the comparatively heavy oils

322

PETROLEUM

undergo dissociation, as shown by the experiments of Thorpe and
Young, into specifically lighter hydrocarbons of lower boiling points,
and the yield of kerosene from ordinary crude petroleum may thus
be greatly increased. A large number of arrangements for carrying
out the cracking process have been proposed and patented, probably
the earliest directly bearing on the subject being that of James
Young, who in 1865 patented his " Improvements in treating
hydrocarbon oils." In this patent, the distillation is described as
being conducted in a vessel having a loaded valve or a partially
closed stop-cock, through which the confined vapour escapes under
any desired pressure. Under such conditions, distillation takes
place at higher temperatures than the normal boiling-points of the
constituent hydrocarbons of the oil, and a partial cracking results.
The process patented by Dewar and Redwood in 1889 consists
in the use of a suitable still and condenser in free communication
with each other — i.e. without any valve between them — the space
in the still and condenser not occupied by liquid being charged
with air, carbon dioxide or other gas, under the required pressure,
and the condenser being provided with a regulated outlet for con-
densed liquid. An objectionable feature of the system of allowing
the vapour to escape from the still to the condenser through a
loaded valve, viz : the irregularity of the distillation, is thus
removed, and the benefits of regular vaporization and condensation
under high pressure are obtained. In the American petroleum
refineries it is found that sufficient cracking can be produced by
slow distillation in stills of which the upper part is sufficiently cool
to allow of the condensation of the vapours of the less volatile
hydrocarbons, the condensed liquid thus falling back into the
heated body of oil.

In the earlier stages of the development of the manufacture
of mineral lubricating oils, the residues were distilled in cast-iron
stills, and the lubricating properties of the products thus obtained
were injured by overheating. The modern practice is to employ
horizontal cylindrical wrought-iron or steel stills, and to introduce
steam into the oil. The steam is superheated and may thus be
heated to any desired temperature without increase of pressure,
which would be liable to damage the still. The steam operates
by carrying the vapours away to the condenser as fast as they are
generated, the injury to the products resulting from their remaining
in contact with the highly-heated surface of the still being thus
prevented.

In order to separate the distillate into various fractions, and to
remove as much of it as possible free from condensed steam, it is
now usual to employ condensing appliances of special form with
outlets for running off the different fractions.

The process of distillation of lubricating oils under reduced
atmospheric pressure is now in very general use, especially for
obtaining the heavier products. The vapours from the still pass
through a condenser into a receiver, which is in communication
with the exhauster.

The products obtained by the distillation of petroleum are not
in a marketable condition, but require chemical treatment to remove
acid and other bodies which impart a dark colour as well as an
unpleasant odour to the liquid, and in the case of lamp-oils, reduce
the power of rising in the wick by capillary attraction.

At the inception of the industry kerosene came into the market
as a dark yellow or reddish-coloured liquid, and in the first instance,
the removal of colour was attempted by treatment with soda lye
and lime solution. It was, however, found that after the oil so
purified had been burned in a lamp, for a short time, the wick became
encrusted, and the oil failed to rise properly. Eichler, of Baku,
is stated to have been the first to introduce, in Russia, the use of
sulphuric acid, followed by that of soda lye, and his process is in
universal use at the present time. The rationale of this treatment
is not fully understood, but the action appears to consist in the
separation or decomposition of the aromatic hydrocarbons, fatty
and other acids, phenols, tarry bodies, &c, which lower the quality
of the oil, the sulphuric acid removing some, while the caustic soda
takes out the remainder, and neutralizes the acid which has been
left in the oil. This treatment with acid and alkali is usually
effected by agitation with compressed air. Oils which contain
sulphur-compounds are subjected to a special process of refining
in which cupric oxide or litharge is employed as a desulphurizing
agent.

Testing. — A large number of physical and chemical tests are
applied both to crude petroleum and to the products manufactured
therefrom. The industry is conducted upon a basis of recognized
standards of quality, and testing is necessary in the interests of
both refiner and consumer, as well as compulsory in connexion with
the various statutory and municipal regulations.

In the routine examination of crude petroleum it is customary
to determine the specific gravity, and the amount of water and
earthy matter in suspension; the oil is also frequently subjected
to a process of fractional distillation in order to ascertain whether
there has been any addition of distilled products or residue.
Petroleum spirit is tested for specific gravity, range of boiling-
points, and results of fractional distillation. To illuminating oil
or kerosene a series of tests is applied in order that the colour,
odour, specific gravity and flash-point or fire-test may be recorded.
In the testing of mineral lubricating oils the viscosity, flash-point,

" cold-test," and specific gravity are the characters of chief im-
portance. Fuel oil is submitted to certain of the foregoing tests and
in addition the calorimetric value is determined. Paraffin wax is
tested for melting-point (or setting-point), and the semi- refined
product is further examined to ascertain the percentage of oil,
water and dirt present.

• In civilized countries provision is made by law for the testing of
the flash-point or fire-test of lamp-oil (illuminating oil or kerosene),
the method of testing and the minimum limit of flash-point or
fire-test being prescribed (see below, Legislation).

The earliest form of testing instrument employed for this purpose
was that of Giuseppe Tagliabue of New York, which consists of a
glass cup placed in a copper water bath heated by a spirit lamp. The
cup is filled with the oil to be tested, a thermometer placed in it
and heat applied, the temperatures being noted at which, on passing
a lighted splinter of wood over the surface of the oil, a flash occurs,
and after further heating, the oil ignites. The first temperature
is known as the flash-point, the second as the " fire-test." Such
an apparatus, in which the oil-cup is uncovered, is known as an
open-test instrument. In Saybolt's Electric Tester (1879) ignition
is effected by a spark from an induction-coil passing between
platinum points placed at a fixed distance above the oil.

Before long, however, it was found that the open-cup tests
(though they are employed in the United States and elsewhere at
the present time) were often very untrustworthy. Accordingly
Keates proposed the substitution of a closed cup in 1871, but his
suggestions were not adopted. In 1875 Sir Frederick Abel, at
the request of the British Government, began to investigate the
matter, and in August 1879 the " Abel test " was legalized. This
apparatus has an oil-cup consisting of a cylindrical brass or gun-
metal vessel, the cover of which is provided with three rectangular
holes which may be closed and opened by means of a perforated
slide moving in grooves; the movement of the slide causes a small
oscillating colza- or rape-oil lamp to be tilted so that the flame
(of specified size) is brought just below the surface of the lid. The
oil-cup is supported in a bath or heating-vessel, consisting of two
flat-bottomed copper cylinders, to contain water, heated by a spirit
lamp, and provided with an air-space between the water-vessel and
the oil-cup. Thermometers are placed in both oil-cup and water-
bath, the temperature of the latter being raised to 130 at the
commencement of the test, while the oil is put in at about 6o° F.
Testing is begun when the temperature reaches 66° by slowly drawing
the slide open and reclosing it, the speed being regulated by the
swing of a pendulum supplied with the instrument. It has been
found that variations in barometric pressure affect the flash-point
and accordingly corrections have to be made in obtaining strictly
comparative results at different pressures. The Abel-Pensky
instrument, used in India and in Germany, differs only in being
provided with a clockwork arrangement for moving the slide.
Numerous other forms of open-test and close-test instruments
have from time to time been devised, some of which are in use
in the United States and in other countries.

It is still customary to determine the open flash-point and fire-
test of lubricating oils, but the close flash-point is also usually ascer-
tained, a modification of the Abel or Abel-Pensky apparatus, known
as the Pensky-Martens, having been devised for the purpose. This
instrument is so constructed that the higher temperature needed
can be readily applied, and it is fitted with a stirrer to equalize
the heating of the contents of the oil-cup.

For the testing of the viscosity of lubricating oils the Boverton
Redwood standardized viscometer is generally employed in Great
Britain. By means of this instrument the time occupied in the flow
of a measured quantity of the oil through a small orifice at a given
temperature is measured.

Uses. — Petroleum has very long been known as a source of
light and heat, while the use of crude oil for the treatment of
wounds and cutaneous affections, and as a lubricant, was even
more general and led to the raw material being an article of
commerce at a still earlier date. For pharmaceutical purposes
crude petroleum is no longer generally used by civilized races,
though the product vaseline is largely employed in this way,
and emulsions of petroleum have been administered internally
in various pectoral complaints ; while the volatile product
termed rhigolene has been largely used as a local anaesthetic.

For illuminating purposes, the most extensively-used product
is kerosene, but both the more and the less volatile portions of
petroleum are employed in suitable lamps. Petroleum products
are also largely utilized in gas manufacture for, (1) the production
of " air-gas," (2) the manufacture of oil-gas, and (3) the enrich-
ment of coal-gas. For heating purposes, the stoves employed
are practically kerosene lamps of suitable construction, though
gasoline is used as a domestic fuel in the United States. The
use of petroleum as liquid fuel is dealt with under Fuel, as is
the employment of its products in motors, which has greatly

PETROLOGY

3^3

ino eased the demand for petroleum spirit. Petroleum has
largely superseded other oils, and is still gaining ground, as a
lubricant for machinery and railway rolling-stock, either alone
or in admixture with fixed oils. The more viscous descriptions
of mineral oils have also been found suitable for use in the
Elmore process of ore-concentration by oil.

Legislation. — Since the inception of the petroleum industry, most
civilized countries have prescribed by law a test of flash-point or
inflammability, designed in most cases primarily to afford a
definition of oils for lighting purposes which may be safely stored
without the adoption of special precautions. In the United
Kingdom the limit has, for the purpose in question, been fixed by
the legislature at 73° F., by the " Abel-test," which is the equivalent
of the former standard of 100 F. by the " open-test." While
the subject of the testing of petroleum for legislative purposes has
been investigated in Great Britain by committees of both branches
of the legislature, with a view to change in the law, the standard
has never been raised, since such a course would tend to reduce the
available supply and thus lead to increase in price or deterioration
in quality. Moreover the chief object of the Petroleum Acts passed
in the United Kingdom has hitherto been to regulate storage, and
it has always been possible to obtain oils either of higher or lower
flash-point, when such are preferred, irrespective of the legal
standard, in addition to which it may be asserted that in a properly
constructed lamp used with reasonable care the ordinary oil of
commerce is a safe illuminant. The more recent legislation with
regard to " petroleum spirit " relates mainly to the quantity which
may be stored for use on " light locomotives."

The more important local authorities throughout the country
have made regulations under the powers conferred upon them by
the Petroleum Acts, with the object of regulating the " keeping,
sale, conveyance and hawking " of petroleum products having a
flash-point below 73 ° F., and the Port of London authority, together
with other water-way and harbour authorities in the United King-
dom, have their own by-laws relating to the navigation of vessels
carrying such petroleum.

In other countries the flash-pomt standards differ considerably,
as do the storage regulations. In France, the standard is 35 C.
(Granier tester, equivalent to 98° F.), and according to their flash-
point, liquid hydrocarbons are divided into two classes (below and
above 35 C), considered differently in regard to quantities storable
and other regulations. In Germc.iy, the law prescribes a close-test
of 2i° C, equal to about 70 F., whilst in Russia the standard is
28 C, equal to 84-4° F., by the close-test; in both these countries
the weights of petroleum which may be stored in specified buildings
are determined by law. In the United States, various methods
of testing and various minimum standards have been adopted.
In Pennsylvania, the prescribed limit is a " fire-test " of no F.,
equivalent to about 70 F., close-test, while in the State of New
York it is ioo° F., close-test.

See Sir Boverton Redwood's Petroleum and its Products (2nd ed.,
London, 1906) ; A. Beeby Thompson, Petroleum Mining (1910) ; L. C.
Tassart, Exploitation du Petrole (1908) ; C. Engler and H. Hofer, Das
Erdol, 5 vols. (1909 seer,.) ; A. B. Thompson, The Oil Fields of Russia
(1908) ; and J. D. Henry, Oil Fields of the Empire (1910). (B. R.)

PETROLOGY, the science of rocks (Gr. irerpos), the branch
of geology which is concerned with the investigation of the
composition, structure and history of the rock masses which
make up the accessible portions of the earth's crust. Rocks
have been defined as " aggregates of minerals." They are the
units with which the geologist deals in investigating the structure
of a district. Some varieties cover enormous areas and are
among the commonest and most familiar objects of nature.
Granite, sandstone, clay, limestone, slate often form whole
provinces and build up lofty mountains. Such unconsolidated
materials as sand, gravel, clay, soil are justly included among
rocks as being mineral masses which play an important role in
field geology. Other rock species are of rare occurrence and
may be known in only one or two localities in distant parts of
the earth's surface. Nearly all rocks consist of minerals,
whether in a crystalline or non-crystalline state, but the insoluble
and imperishable parts of the skeletons of animals and plants
may constitute a considerable portion of rocks, as for example,
coral limestone, lignite beds and chalk.

Treatment of the Subject. — In this paragraph the subject matter
of the science of petrology is briefly surveyed ; the object is to point
out the headings under which particular subjects are treated
(there is a separate article on the terms printed in italics). General
questions as to the nature, origin and classification of rocks and the
methods of examination are discussed in the present article;
mineralogy comprises similar matter respecting the component
minerals; metamerphism, metasomatism, pneumatolysis and the

formation of concretions are agencies which effect rocks and modify
them. Three classes of rocks are recognized: the igneous, sedimen-
tary and metamorphic. The plutonic, or deep-seated rocks, which
cooled far below the surface, and occur as batholites, bosses, laccolites,
and veins, include the great classes granite, syenite, diorite, gabbro
and peridotite; related to the granites are aplite, greisen, pegmatite,
schorl rock and micropegmatite ; to the syenites, borolanite, monzonite,
nepheline-syenite and ijolite; to the diorites, aphanite, napolecnite
and tonalite; to the gabbros, pyroxenite and theralite, and to
peridotites, picriie and serpentine. The hypabyssal intrusive rocks,
occurring as sills, veins, dikes, necks, &c, are represented by por-
phyry and porphyrite (including bostonite, felsite and quartz-por-
phyry), diabase and lamprophyre ; some pitchstones belong to this
group and contain crystallites and spherulites. The volcanic rocks,
found typically as lava flows, include rhyolite and obsidian (with,
sometimes perlite), trachyte and phonolite (and leucitophyre which
is treated under leucite), andesite and daciie, basalt (with the related
dolerite, variolite and tachylyte), nephelinite and tephrite. Among
sedimentary rocks we recognize a volcanic group (including tuff,
agglomerate and some kinds of pumice) ; an arenaceous series such
as sand (some with glauconite), sandstone, quartzile, greywacke and
gravel; an argillaceous group including clay, firebrick, phyllite, laterite
shale and slate; a calcareous series with chalk, limestone (often
forming stalactites and stalagmites) , dolomite and marls or argillaceous
limestones (flint occurs as nodules in chalk) ; the natural phosphates
may be mentioned here. The metamorphic rocks are commonly
gneisses and schists (including mica-schist) ; other types are amphiho-
lite, charnockite, eclogite, epidiorite, epidosite, granulite, itacolumite,
hornfels, mylonite and the scapolite rocks.

Composition. — Only the commonest minerals are of impor-
tance as rock formers. Their number is small, not exceeding a
hundrod in all, and much less than this if we do not reckon the
subdivisions into which the commoner species are broken up.
The vast majority of the rocks which we see around us every
day consist of quartz, felspar, mica, chlorite, kaolin, calcite, epi-
dote, olivine, augite, hornblende, magnetite, haematite, limonite
and a few other minerals. Each of these has a recognized
position in the economy of nature. A main determining factor
is the chemical composition of the mass, for a certain mineral
can be formed only when the necessary elements are present
in the rock. Calcite is commonest in limestones, as these consist
essentially of carbonate of lime; quartz in sandstones and in
certain igneous rocks which contain a high percentage of silica.
Other factors are of equal importance in determining the natural
association or paragenesis of rock-making minerals, principally
the mode of origin of the rock and the stages through which it
has passed in attaining its present condition. Two rock masses
may have very much the same bulk composition and yet consist
of entirely different assemblages of minerals. The tendency is
always for those compounds to be formed which are stable under
the conditions under which the rock mass originated. A granite
arises by the consolidation of a molten magma (a fused rock
mass; Gr. jj.kyy.a., from nkoaav, to knead) at high temperatures
and great pressures and its component minerals are such as are
formed in such circumstances. Exposed to moisture, carbonic
acid and other subaerial agents at the ordinary temperatures
of the earth's surface, some of these original minerals, such as
quartz and white mica are permanent and remain unaffected;
others " weather " or decay and are replaced by new combina-
tions. The felspar passes into kaolin, muscovite and quartz,
and if any black mica (biotite) has been present it yields chlorite,
epidote, rutile and other substances. These changes are accom-
panied by disintegration, and the rock falls into a loose, inco-
herent, earth)' mass which may be regarded as a sand or soil.
The materials thus formed may be washed away and deposited
as a sandstone or grit. The structure of the original rock is
now replaced by a new one; the mineralogical constitution is
profoundly altered; but the bulk chemical composition may
not be very different. The sedimentary rock may again undergo
a metamorphosis. If penetrated by igneous rocks it may be
recrystallized or, if subjected to enormous pressures with heat
and movement, such as attend the building of folded mountain
chains, it may be converted into a gneiss not very different
in mineralogical composition though radically different in
structure to the granite which was its original state.

Structure. — The two factors above enumerated, namely the
chemical and mineral composition of rocks, are scarcely of greater

324-

PETROLOGY

importance than their structure, or the relations of the parts
of which they consist to one another. Regarded from this
standpoint rocks may be divided into the crystalline and the
fragmental. Inorganic matter, if free to take that physical
state in which it is most stable, always tends to
Rocks. " e crystallize. Crystalline rock masses have con-
solidated from solution or from fusion. The vast
majority of igneous rocks belong to this group and the degree
of perfection in which they have attained the crystalline state
depends primarily on the conditions under which they solidified.
Such rocks as granite, which have cooled very slowly and under
great pressures, have completely crystallized, but many lavas
were poured out at the surface and cooled very rapidly; in this
latter group a small amount of non-crystalline or glassy matter
is frequent. Other crystalline rocks such as rock-salt, gypsum
and anhydrite have been deposited from solution in water,
mostly owing to evaporation on exposure to the air. Still
another group, which includes the marbles, mica-schists and
quartzites, are recrystallized, that is to say, they were at first
fragmental rocks, like limestone, clay and sandstone and have
never been in a molten condition nor entirely in solution. Certain
agencies however, acting on them, have effaced their primitive
structures, and induced crystallization, This is a kind of
metamorphism.

The fragmental structure needs little explanation; wherever
rocks disintegrate fragments are produced which are suitable
for the formation of new rocks of this group. The
Rocks*" original materials may be organic (shells, corals,
plants) or vitreous (volcanic glasses) or crystalline
(granite, marble, &c); the pulverizing agent may be frost, rain,
running water, or the steam explosions which shatter the lava
within a volcanic crater and produce the fragmental rocks
known as volcanic ash, tuffs and agglomerates. The materials
may be loose and incoherent (sand, clay, gravel) or compacted
by pressure and the deposit of cementing substances by percolat-
ing water (sandstone, shale, conglomerate). The grains of
which fragmental rocks are composed may be coarse or fine,
fresh or decayed, uniform or diverse in their composition; the
one feature which gives unity to the class is the fact that they
are all derived from pre-existing rocks or organisms. Because
they are made up of broken pieces these rocks are often said to
be " clastic."

Origin of Rocks. — The study of the structure of rocks evidently
leads us to another method of regarding them, which is more
fundamental than those enumerated above, as the structure
depends on the mode of origin. Rocks are divided into three
great classes, the Igneous, the Sedimentary and the Metamorphic.
The igneous (Lat. ignis, fire) rocks have all consoli-
Rocks". S dated from a state of fusion. Some of them are
crystalline or " massive "; others are fragmental.
The massive igneous rocks include a few which are nearly com-
pletely vitreous, and still more which contain a small amount
of amorphous matter, but the majority are completely crystal-
lized. Among the best known examples are obsidian, pumice,
basalt, trachyte, granite, diorite. The fragmental igneous
rocks consist of volcanic ashes more or less firmly compacted.
The sedimentary rocks form a second group; they
Bocks'" "^ nave au> been laid down as deposits on the earth's
surface subject to the conditions of temperature,
moisture arid pressure which obtain there. They include
fragmental and crystalline varieties. The former consist of
the debris of pre-existing rocks, accumulated in seas, lakes or
dry land and more or less indurated by pressure and cementing
substances. Gravel, sand and clay, conglomerate, sandstone,
shale are well-known examples. Many of them are fossiliferous
as they contain fragments of organisms. Some are very largely
made up of remains of animals or plants, more or less altered by
mineralization. These are sometimes placed into a special
group as rocks of organic origin; limestone, peat and coal are
typical of this class. The crystalline sediments are such as
rock-salt and gypsum, deposits of saline lakes or isolated
portions of the sea. They were formed under conditions

unfavourable to life and hence rarely contain fossils. The
metamorphic rocks are known to be almost entirely altered
igneous or sedimentary masses. Metamorphism
consists in the destruction of the original structures hlc r^^
and the development of new minerals. The chemical
composition of the rocks however suffers little change. The
rock becomes as a rule more crystalline; but all stages in the
process may be found and in a metamorphosed sediment, e.g. a
sandstone, remains of the original sand grains and primary
fragmental structure may be observed, although extensive
recrystallization has taken place. The agencies which produce
metamorphism are high temperatures, pressure, interstitial
moisture and in many cases movement. The effects of high
temperatures are seen best in the rocks surrounding great out-
crops of intrusive granite, for they have been baked and crystal-
lized by the heat of the igneous rock (thermo-metamorphism).
In folded mountain chains where the strata have been greatly
compressed and their particles have been forced to move over
one another a different type of metamorphism prevails (regional
or dynamic metamorphism).

Methods of Investigation. — The macroscopic (Gr. fiaKpbs, large)
characters of rocks, those visible in hand-specimens without
the aid of the microscope, are very varied and
difficult to describe accurately and fully. The character*.
geologist in the field depends principally on them
and on a few rough chemical and physical tests; and to the
practical engineer, architect ancj quarry-master they are all-
important. Although frequently insufficient in themselves to
determine the true nature of a rock, they usually serve for a
preliminary classification and often give all the information
which is really needed. With a small bottle of acid to test for
carbonate of lime, a knife to ascertain the hardness of rocks
and minerals, and a pocket lens to magnify their structure, the
field geologist is rarely at a loss to what t group a rock belongs.
The fine grained species are often indeterminable in this way,
and the minute mineral components of all rocks can usually be
ascertained only by microscopic examination. But it is easy
to see that a sandstone or grit consists of more or less rounded,
waterworn sand-grains and if it contains dull, weathered
particles of felspar, shining scales of mica or small crystals of
calcite these also rarely escape observation. Shales and clay
rocks generally are soft, fine grained, often laminated and not
infrequently contain minute organisms or fragments of plants.
Limestones are easily marked with a knife-blade, effervesce
readily with weak cold acid and often contain entire or broken
shells or other fossils. The crystalline nature of a granite or
basalt is obvious at a glance, and while the former contains white
or pink felspar, clear vitreous quartz and glancing flakes of mica,
the other will show yellow-green olivine, black augite and grey
striated plagioclase.

But when dealing with unfamiliar types or with rocks so fine
grained that their component minerals cannot be determined
with the aid of a lens, the geologist is obliged to have
recourse to more delicate and searching methods of characters.
investigation. With the aid of the blowpipe (to
test the fusibility of detached crystals), the goniometer, the
magnet, the magnifying glass and the specific gravity balance,
the earlier travellers attained surprisingly accurate results.
Examples of these may be found in the works of von Buch,
Scrope, Darwin and many others. About the end of the 18th
century, Dolomieu examined crushed rock powders under the
microscope and Cordier in 1815 crushed, levigated and investi-
gated the finer ground-mass of igneous rocks. His researches
are models of scrupulous accuracy, and he was able to announce
that they consisted essentially of such minerals as felspar,
augite, iron ores and volcanic glass, and did not differ in nature
from the coarser grained rocks. Nicol, whose name is associated
with the discovery of the Nicol's prism, seems to have been the
first to prepare thin slices of mineral substances, and his methods
were applied by Witham (1831) to the study of plant petri-
factions. This method, of such far-reaching importance in
petrology, was not at once made use of for the systematic

PETROLOGY

325

investigation of rocks, and it was not till 1858 that Sorby
pointed out its value. Meanwhile the optical study of sections
of crystals had been advanced by Sir David Brewster and other
physicists and mineralogists and it only remained to apply
their methods to the minerals visible in rock sections. Very
rapid progress was made and the names of Zirkel, Allport,
Vogelsang, Schuster, Rosenbusch, Bertrand, Fouque and Levy
are among those of the most active pioneers in the new field of
research. To such importance have microscopical methods
attained that textbooks of petrology at the present time are very
largely devoted to a description of the appearances presented
by the minerals of rocks as studied in transparent micro-sections.
A good rock-section should be about one-thousandth of an inch
in thickness, and is by no means very difficult to make. A thin
„.. splinter of the rock, about as large as a halfpenny may

sections. k e ta ] cen . ; t s h ou id be as fresh as possible and free from
obvious cracks. By grinding on a plate of planed steel or cast
iron with a little fine carborundum it is soon rendered flat on one side
and is then transferred to a sheet of plate glass and smoothed with
the very finest emery till all minute pits and roughnesses are removed
and the surface is a uniform plane. The rock-chip is then washed,
and placed on a copper or iron plate which is heated by a spirit or
gas lamp. A microscopic glass slip is also warmed on this plate
with a drop of viscous natural Canada balsam on its surface. The
more volatile ingredients of the balsam are dispelled by the heat,
and when that is accomplished the smooth, dry, warm rock is pressed
firmly into contact with the glass plate so that the film of balsam
intervening may be as thin as possible and free from air-bubbles.
The preparation is allowed to cool and then the rock chip is again
ground down as before, first with carborundum and, when it becomes
transparent, with fine emery till the desired thickness is obtained.
It is then cleaned, again heated with a little more balsam, and
covered with a cover glass. The labour of grinding the first surface
may be avoided by cutting off a smooth slice with an iron disk armed
with crushed diamond powder. A second application of the slitter
after the first face is smoothed and cemented to the glass will in
expert hands leave a rock-section so thin as to be already transparent.
In this way the preparation of a section may require only twenty
minutes.

The microscope employed is usually one which is provided with a
rotating stage beneath which there is a polarizer, while above the
„ objective or the eyepiece an analyser is mounted ; alter-

Microscope. nat ; ve i y t y le sta g e ma y be fixed and the polarizing and
analysing prisms may be capable of simultaneous rotation by means
of toothed wheels and a connecting-rod. If ordinary light and not
polarized light is desired, both prisms may be withdrawn from the
axis of the instrument; if the polarizer only is inserted the light
transmitted is plane polarized; with both prisms in position the
slide is viewed between " crossed nicols." A microscopic rock-
section in ordinary light if a suitable magnification (say 30) be
employed is seen to consist of grains or crystals varying in colour,
„. . size and shape. Some minerals are colourless and trans-
tMi"i P arent (quartz, calcite, felspar, muscovite, &c), others
of minerals. arg ye ji ow or brown (rutilc, tourmaline, biotite), green
(diopside, hornblende, chlorite), blue (glaucophane), pink (garnet),
&c. The same mineral may present a variety of colours, in the
same or different rocks, and these colours may be arranged in
zones parallel to the surfaces of the crystals. Thus tourmaline
may be brown, yellow, pink, blue, green, violet, grey or colourless,
but every mineral has one or more characteristic, because most
common tints. The shapes of the crystals determine in a
general way the outlines of the sections of them presented on
the slides. If the mineral has one or more good cleavages they
will be indicated by systems of cracks (see PI. III.). The refrac-
tive index is also clearly shown by the appearance of the sections,
which are rough, with well-defined borders if they have a much
stronger refraction than the medium in which they are mounted.
Some minerals decompose readily and become turbid and semi-
transparent (e.g. felspar) ; others remain always perfectly fresh and
clear (e.g. quartz), others yield characteristic secondary products
(such as green chlorite after biotite). The inclusions in the crystals
are of great interest ; one mineral may enclose another, or may con-
tain spaces occupied by glass, by fluids or by gases.

Lastly the structure of the rock, that is to say, the relation of its
components to one another, is usually clearly indicated, whether it
be fragmental or massive ; the presence of glassy matter
in contradistinction to a completely crystalline or
" holo-crystalline " condition; the nature and origin of
organic fragments; banding, foliation or lamination; the pumiceous
or porous structure of many lavas; these and many other characters,
though often not visible in the hand specimens of a rock, are rendered
obvious by the examination of a microscopic section. Many refined
methods of observation may be introduced, such as the measurement
of the size of the elements of the rock by the help of micrometers;
their relative proportions by means of a glass plate ruled in small
squares; the angles between cleavages or faces seen in section by
the use of the rotating graduated stage, and the estimation of the

Pleochro-
ism.

Micro-
Structure.

refractive index of the mineral by comparison with those of different
mounting media.

Further information is obtained by inserting the polarizer and
rotating the section. The light vibrates now only in one plane, and
in passing through doubly refracting crystals in the
slide is, speaking generally, broken up into two rays,
which vibrate at right angles to one another. In many
coloured minerals such as biotite, hornblende, tourmaline, chlorite,
these two rays have different colours, and when a section con-
taining any of these minerals is rotated the change of colour is
often very striking. This property, known as " pleochroism " (Gr.
TrXekoe, more; xp^s. colour), is of great value in the determination of
rock-making minerals. It is often especially intense in small spots
which surround minute enclosures of other minerals, such as zircon
and epidote; these are known as " pleochroic halos."

If the analyser be now inserted in such a position that it is crossed
relatively to the polarizer the field of view will be dark where there
are no minerals, or where the light passes through isotro- Dou hj e
pic substances such as glass, liquids and cubic crystals. n e f ract i on
All other crystalline bodies, being doubly refracting,
will appear bright in some position as the stage is rotated. The
only exception to this rule is provided by sections which are
perpendicular to the optic axes of birefringent crystals; these
remain dark or nearly dark during a whole rotation, and as will
be seen later, their investigation is of special importance. The
doubly refracting mineral sections, however, will in all cases
appear black in certain positions as the stage is cw/ nc tf on
rotated. They are said to be "extinguished" when
this takes place. If we note these positions we may measure
the angle between them and any cleavages, faces or other
structures of the crystal by means of the rotating stage. These
angles are characteristic of the system to which the mineral belongs
and often of the mineral species itself (see Crystallography).
To facilitate measurement of extinction angles various kinds of
eyepieces have been devised, some having a stauroscopic calcite
plate, others with two or four plates of quartz cemented together;
these are often found to give more exact results than are obtained
by observing merely the position in which the mineral section is most
completely dark between crossed nicols.

The mineral sections when not extinguished are not only bright
but are coloured and the colours they show depend on several factors,
the most important of which is the strength of the double refraction.
If all the sections are of the same thickness as is nearly true of well-
made slides, the minerals with strongest double refraction yield
the highest polarization colours. The order in which the colours
are arranged is that known as Newton's scale, the lowest being
dark grey, then grey, white, yellow, orange, red, purple, blue and
so on. The difference between the refractive indexes of the ordinary
and the extraordinary ray in quartz is -009, and in a rock-section
about 5^b of an inch thick this mineral gives grey and white
polarization tints; nepheline with weaker double refraction gives
dark grey; augite on the other hand will give red and blue, while
calcite with still stronger double refraction will appear pinkish or
greenish white. All sections of the same mineral, however, will not
have the same colour; it was stated above that sections perpendicular
to an optic axis will be nearly black, and, in general, the more nearly
any section approaches this direction the lower its polarization
colours will be. By taking the average, or the highest colour
given by any mineral, the relative value of its double refraction can
be estimated ; or if the thickness of the section be precisely known
the difference between the two refractive indexes can be ascertained.
If the slides be thick the colours will be on the whole higher than in
thin slides.

It is often important to find out whether of the two axes of elas-
ticity (or vibration traces) in the section is that of greater elasticity
(or lesser refractive index). The quartz wedge or selenite plate
enables us to do this. Suppose a doubly refracting mineral section
so placed that it is "extinguished"; if now it is rotated through
45 it will be brightly illuminated. If the quartz wedge be passed
across it so that the long axis of the wedge is parallel to the axis
of elasticity in the section the polarization colours will rise or fall.
If they rise the axes of greater elasticity in the two minerals are
parallel ; if they sink the axis of greater elasticity in the one is parallel
to that of lesser elasticity in the other. In the latter case by pushing
the wedge sufficiently far complete darkness or compensation will
result. Selenite wedges, selenite plates, mica wedges and mica
plates are also used for this purpose. A quartz wedge also may be
calibrated by determining the amount of double refraction in all
parts of its length. If now it be used to produce compensation
or complete extinction in any doubly refracting mineral section, we
can ascertain what is the strength of the double refraction of the
section because it is obviously equal and opposite to that of a known
part of the quartz wedge.

A further refinement of microscopic methods consists of the use
of strongly convergent polarized light (konoscopic methods). This
is obtained by a wide angled achromatic condenser above the polar-
izer, and a high power microscopic objective. Those sections are
most useful which are perpendicular to an optic axis, and conse-
quently remain dark on rotation. If they belong to uniaxial crystals
they show a dark cross or convergent light between crossed nicols,

326

PETROLOGY

the bars of which remain parallel to the wires in the field of the eye-
piece. Sections perpendicular to an optic axis of a biaxial mineral
under the same conditions show a dark bar which on rotation
becomes curved to a hyperbolic shape. If the section is perpendicu-
lar to a " bisectrix " (see Crystallography) a black cross is seen
which on rotation opens out to form two hyperbolas, the apices of
which are turned towards one another. The optic axes emerge at
the apices of the hyperbolas and may be surrounded by coloured
rings, though owing to the thinness of minerals in rock sections
these are only seen when the double refraction of the mineral is
strong. The distance between the axes as seen in the field of the
microscope depends partly on the axial angle of the crystal and
partly on the numerical aperture of the objective. If it is measured
by means of an eye-piece micrometer, the optic axial angle of the
mineral can be found by a simple calculation. The quartz wedge,
quarter mica plate or selenite plate permit the determination of the
positive or negative character of the crystal by the changes in the
colour or shape of the figures observed in the field. These operations
are precisely similar to those employed by the mineralogist in the
examination of plates cut from crystals. It is sufficient to point
out that the petrological microscope in its modern development is
an optical instrument of great precision, enabling us to determine
physical constants of crystallized substances as well as serving to
produce magnified images like the ordinary microscope. A great
variety of accessory apparatus has been devised to fit it for these
special uses.

The separation of the ingredients of a crushed rock powder
from one to another in order to obtain pure samples suitable
Separation f° r analysis is also extensively practised. It may
ofCompo- be effected by means of a powerful electro-magnet
nents. t h e strength of which can be regulated as desired.
A weak magnetic field will attract magnetite, then haematite
and other ores of iron. Silicates containing iron will follow
in definite order and biotite, enstatite, augite, hornblende,
garnet and similar ferro-magnesian minerals may be succes-
sively abstracted; at last only the colourless, non-magnetic
compounds, such as muscovite, calcite, quartz and felspar, will
remain. Chemical methods also are useful. A weak acid will
dissolve calcite from a crushed limestone, leaving only dolomite,
silicates or quartz. Hydrofluoric acid will attack felspar before
quartz, and if employed with great caution will dissolve these
and any glassy material in a rock powder before dissolving
augite or hypersthene. Methods of separation by specific
gravity have a still wider application. The simplest of these
is levigation (Lat. levigare, to make smooth, levis) or treatment
by a current of water; it is extensively employed in the mechanical
analysis of soils and in the treatment of ores, but is not so
successful with rocks, as their components do not as a rule
differ very greatly in specific gravity.

Fluids are used which do not attack the majority of the rock-
making minerals and at the same time have a high specific gravity.
Solutions of potassium mercuric iodide (sp. gr. 3-196), cadmium
borotungstate (sp. gr. 3-30), methlyene iodide (sp. gr. 3-32), bromo-
form (sp. gr. 2-86), or acetylene bromide (sp. gr. 3-00) are the prin-
cipal media employed. They may be diluted (with water, benzene,
&c.) to any desired extent and again concentrated by evaporation.
If the rock be a granite consisting of biotite (sp. gr. 3-1), muscovite
(sp. gr. 2-85), quartz (sp. gr. 2-65), oligoclase (sp. gr. 2-64) and
orthoclase (sp. gr. 2-56) the crushed minerals will all float in
methylene iodide; on gradual dilution with benzene they will be
precipitated in the order given above. Although simple in theory
these methods are tedious in practice, especially as it is common
for one rock-making mineral to enclose another. But expert
handling of fresh and suitable rocks yields excellent results and much
purer powders may be obtained by this means than by any other.

Although rocks are now studied principally in microscopic
sections the investigation of fine crushed rock powders, which
Examlaa- was the first branch of microscopic petrology to
tion of Rock receive attention, is by no means discontinued.
Powders, -phe modern optical methods are perfectly applicable
to transparent mineral fragments of any kind. Minerals
are almost as easily determined in powder as in section, but
it is otherwise with rocks, as the structure or relation of the
components to one another, which is an element of great im-
portance in the study of the history and classification of rocks,
is almost completely destroyed by grinding them to powder.

In addition to naked-eye and microscopic investigations
chemical methods of research arc of the greatest practical
utility to the petrographer. The crushed and separated
powders, obtained by the processes described above, may be

analysed and thus the chemical composition of the minerals
in the rock determined qualitatively or quantitatively. The
chemical testing of microscopic sections and minute
grains by the help of the microscope is a very ^JJ 1 '^'
elegant and valuable means of discriminating between
the mineral components of fine-grained rocks. Thus the
presence of apatite in rock-sections is established by covering
a bare rock-section with solution of ammonium molybdate;
a turbid yellow precipitate forms over the crystals of the mineral
in question (indicating the presence of phosphates). Many
silicates are insoluble in acids and cannot be tested in this way,
but others are partly dissolved, leaving a film of gelatinous
silica which can be stained with colouring matters such as the
aniline dyes (nepheline, analcite, zeolites, &c).

Complete chemical analyses of rocks are also widely made use of
and are ot the first importance, especially when new species are under
description. Rock analysis has of late years (largely under the
influence of the chemical laboratory of the United States Geological
Survey) reached a high pitch of refinement and complexity. As
many as twenty or twenty-five components may be determined, but
for practical purposes a knowledge of the relative proportions of
siiica, alumina, ferrous and ferric oxides, magnesia, lime, potash,
soda and water will carry us a long way in determining the position
to which a rock is to be assigned in any of the conventional classifica-
tions. A chemical analysis is in itself usually sufficient to indicate
whether a rock is igneous or sedimentary and in either case to show
with considerable accuracy to what subdivision of these classes it
belongs. In the case of metamorphic rocks it often establishes
whether the original mass was a sediment or of volcanic origin.

The specific gravity of rocks is determined in the usual way by
means of the balance and the pyenometer. It is greatest in those
rocks which contain most magnesia, iron and heavy
metals; least in rocks rich in alkalis, silica and water. p> ec '» c
It diminishes with weathering, and generally those rocks gravity.
which are highly crystalline have higher specific gravities than those
which are wholly or partly vitreous when both have the same
chemical composition. The specific gravity of the commoner rocks
ranges from about 2-5 to 3-2.

The above methods of investigation, naked eye, physical,
microscopical, chemical, may be grouped together as analytical
in contradistinction to the synthetic investigation
of rocks, which proceeds by experimental work to *"*.
reproduce different rock types and in this way to y " SSS '
elucidate their origin and explain their structures. In many
cases no experiment is necessary. Every stage in the origin of
clays, sands and gravels can be seen in process around us, but
where these have been converted into coherent shales, sand-
stones and conglomerates, and still more where they have
experienced some degree of metamorphism, there are many
obscure points about their history upon which experiment may
yet throw light. Up to the present time these investigations
have been almost entirely confined to the attempt to reproduce
igneous rocks by fusion of mixtures of crushed minerals or of
chemicals in specially contrived furnaces. The earliest researches
of this sort are of those of Faujas St Fond and of de Saussure,
but Sir James Hall really laid the foundations of this branch
of petrology. He showed (1798) that the whinstones (diabases)
of Edinburgh were fusible and if rapidly cooled yielded black
vitreous masses closely resembling natural pitchstones and
obsidians; if cooled more slowly they consolidated as crystalline
rocks not unlike the whinstones themselves and containing
olivine, augite and felspar (the essential minerals of these rocks).
Many years later Daubree, Delesse and others carried on similar
experiments, but the first notable advance was made in 1878,
when Fouque and Levy began their researches.

They succeeded in producing such rocks as porphyrite, leucite-
tephrite, basalt and dolerite, and obtained also various structural
modifications well known in igneous rocks, e.g. the porphyritic and
the ophitic (Gr. 60is, serpent). Incidentally they showed that
while many basic rocks (basalts, &c.) could be perfectly imitated in
the laboratory, the acid rocks could not, and advanced the explana-
tion that for the crystallization of the latter the gases never absent
i" 1 natura ' roc ' i magmas were indispensable mineralizing agents.
It has subsequently been proved that steam, or such volatile sub-
stances as certain borates, molybdates, chlorides, fluorides, assist
in the formation of orthoclase, quartz and mica (the minerals of
granite). Sir James Hall also made the first contribution to the
experimental study of metamorphic rocks by converting chalk

PETROLOGY

Plate I.

"*£& A

Fig. i. —BANDED OBSIDIAN, KIRGHIZ Fig. 2.— FLU DAL RHYOLITE, Fig

HLNOARi (-X 15). This "rock has a damascened pattern owing

In the centre are crystals of felspar, rather to the irregular mingling of streams of brown

brown and colourless glass which have been turbid through weathering. The matrix is and of colourless glass. It is nearly quite

arranged in stripes by the fluxion movement partly gtassv, partly felsitic, and shows the free from minute crystals.
of the viscous mass before solidification, effects of streaming movements with eddies
The glass is rendered granular by very minute behind the felspar crystals.

BANDED OBSIDIAN, KIRGHIZ

(X25),
The rock consists of alternate bands of

-OBSIDIAN, MEXICO (x 15).

"ic. 4- PERLITIC OBSIDIAN, TOKAI, Fig. 5.— PERLITIC PITCIISTONE, Fig. 6.— OBSIDIAN, ICELAND (x 17).

HUNGARY ( x 15). MEISSEN, GERMANY (x 15). , ., , , . „ ..

v K " In the clear glassy base there are rounded

The clear glassy rock is traversed by a large The pcrlitic, rounded cracks are very yellow spots (spherulites) arranged in fluxion
number of cracks, some long and straight, clearly seen, because the rock is decomposing streams.
v;hile others are_ nearly circular. These are and becoming slightly opaque along them,
rendered more distinct by the deposit of thin At the top there is a corroded crystal of felspar,
films of secondary limonite in them. The showing cleavage, with large circular en-
cracks are due to contraction on cooling. closures of brownish glass.

Fig. 7.— SPHERULITIC RHYOLITE,
HLINIK, HUNGARY (x 10).

The white, angular patches are crystals of
quartz and of sanidine felspar. Between
them there is a yellowish glass showing
circular areas with a well-defined radiate
fibrous structure (spherulites).

Fig. 8.— SPHERVLITIC FELSITE,
ARRAN, SCOTLAND (x 10).

The round spherulites of this rock are
large and sometimes composite; their radiate
structure is obvious. This is a devitrified
pitchstone, no longer glassy but finelycrystal-
line, and at the centres of the spherulites there
are spaces occupied by a secondary deposit of
quartz.

Fig. 9.- PORPHYRITIC AND FLUIDAL
RHYOLITE, HUNGARY (x 12).

The ground mass is partly glassy, partly
felsitic, and _ shows fluxion-banding. The
large quartz is a double hexagonal pyramid,
but Its edges and corners are rounded by
corrosion and large irregular areas of glass
penetrate to its centre.

PETROLOGY

Fig. i.— PGRPHYRITIC PITCHSTONE,
SCUIR OF EIGG, SCOTLAND ( xio).

A large porphyrinic felspar crystal is seen
lying in a pale-brown glassy base and con-
taining many glass inclusions of irregular
shape. The felspar, in one margin especially,

shows corroded outlines.

Fig. 4. -GRANITE RUBiSLAW, ABER-
DEEN (X IO).

This is a non-porphyritic, noncrystalline
rock. Among its components the crystals
of dark mica are conspicuous, and with them
occur also a few plates of white mica, with
perfect cleavage. The slightly turbid or
granular substance is felspar, a littk: de-
composed, and the large, clear spaces are
crystals of quartz.

Fig. 2.— TRACHYTE, OROTAVA, TENE-
RIFFE (x 12).

There are larger porphyritic felspars of the
first generation, and smaller ones of later
origin composing part of the ground-mass,
which also contains a considerable amount of
yellow vitreous material.

Fig. 5.— HORNBLENDE-GRANITE,
DALBEATTIE, SCOTLAND (x 15).

The dark crystal with fine parallel lines of
cleavage is biotite; the others, with two less
perfect cleavages, are hornblende. At the
top there is a long rod-shaped grain of sphene.
The granular-looking substance is felspar, and
the quartz, as usual, is clear and Transparent.

Fig. 3.— TRACHYTE, PERLENHARDT,
GERMANY (x 10).

In this rock there are porphyritic crystals
of felspar and of dark brown biotite (nearly
black in the photograph), with a few of green
augite and magnetite. The ground-mass is

finely crystalline.

Fig. 6.— GRAPHIC GRANITE, BODEN-
MAIS, BAVARIA (x to).

This rock consists of angular patches of
clear quartz scattered through a striated dull
matrix of felspar. The different quartz areas
have all the same optical orientation, as if
they were parts of a single crystal.

Fig. 7.— LUXCLLIANITE, LCXLLYAN,
CORNWALL (X15).

In this variety of tourmaline-granite there
are many blue needles of tourmaline, grouped
in stellate clusters which are embedded in a
matrix of clear quartz. These pointed
needles diverge from the surfaces 01 larger
grains of tourmaline.

Fig. 8.— GRANOPHYRE, BRAEMAR,
SCOTLAND (X37).

This photograph is taken between crossed
nicols to show the graphic structure of the
ground-mass, similar to that of Fig. 6, but on
a much finer scale. The quartz towards the
centre of the field appears as white, angular
areas, embedded in a grey matrix of felspar,
and each mineral reacts in a uniform fashion
to polarized light over an area of moderate
extent.

Fig. 9.— DIORITE, HODRITCH, HUN-
GARY (x 10).

The dark crystals are green hornblende,
and show the outlines which are characteristic
of that mineral. The cloudy grey substance
between them is felspar in a somewhat
weathered state.

PETROLOGY

327

into marble by heating it in a closed gun-barrel, which prevented the
escape of the carbonic acid at high temperatures. Adams and
Nicholson have carried this a stage farther by subjecting marble
to great pressure in hydraulic presses and have shown how the
foliated structures, frequent in natural marbles, may be produced
artificially.

Rock Classification. — The three great classes of rocks above
enumerated — the igneous, the sedimentary and the metamorphic
— are subdivided into many eroups which to a small extent
resemble the genera and species under which the naturalist
classifies the members of the animal kingdom. There are,
however, no hard and fast boundaries between allied rocks.
By increase or diminution in the proportions of their constituent
minerals they pass by every gradation into one another; the
distinctive structures also of one kind of rock may often be
traced gradually merging into those of another. Hence the
definitions adopted in establishing rock nomenclature merely
correspond to selected points (more or less arbitrary) in a con-
tinuously graduated series. This is frequently urged as a
reason for reducing rock classification to its simplest possible
terms, and using only a few generalized rock designations. But
it is clear that many apparently trivial differences tend regularly
to recur, and have a real significance, and so long as any variation
can be shown to be of this nature it deserves recognition.

The igneous rocks (crystalline and fragmental) form a well-defined
group, differing in origin from all others. The crystalline or massive
varieties may occur in two different ways; the lavas have
Igneous been poured out at the surface and have consolidated
Rocks. after ejection, underj conditions which are fairly well
understood, seeing that they may be examined at active volcanoes
in many parts of the world; the intrusive rocks, on the other hand,
have been injected from below into cracks and fissures in the strata
and have cooled there beneath masses which conceal them from view
till exposed by denudation at a subsequent period. The members
of these two groups differ in many respects from one another, so
that it is often possible to assign a rock to one or other of them on
mere superficial inspection. The lavas (or effusive rocks), having
cooled rapidly in contact with the air, are mostly finely crystalline
or have at least fine-grained ground-mass representing
Lavas or t j iat p art Q f tne v ; scous semi-crystalline lava flow which
Effusive was st j|| liquid at th e moment of eruption. At this
Types. time they were exposed only to atmospheric pressure, and
the steam and other gases, which they contained in great quantity,
were free to escape; many important modifications arise from this,
the most striking being the frequent presence of numerous steam
cavities (vesicular structure) often drawn out to elongated, shapes
subsequently filled up with minerals by infiltration (amygdaloidal
structure). As crystallization was going on while the mass was
still creeping forward over the surface of the earth, the latest
formed minerals (in the ground-mass) are commonly arranged in
subparallel winding lines following the direction of movement
(fluxion or fluidal structure) (see PI. I. figs. 2 and 9, PI. II. fig. 2), and
the larger early minerals which had previously crystallized may show
the same arrangement. Most lavas have fallen considerably below
their original temperatures before they are emitted. In their
behaviour they present a close analogy to hot solutions of salts
in water, which, when they approach the saturation temperature,
first deposit a crop of large, well-formed crystals (labile stage) and
subsequently precipitate clouds of smaller less perfect crystalline
particles (metastable stage). In igneous rocks the first generation
of crystals generally forms before the lava has emerged to the surface,
that is to say, during the ascent from the subterranean depths to the
crater of the volcano. It has frequently been verified by observation
that freshly emitted lavas contain large crystals borne along in a
molten, liquid mass. The large, well-formed, early crystals are
said to be porphyritic (PI. 1 1 1, figs. 1,2,3) ; the smaller crystals of the
surrounding matrix or ground-mass belong to the post-effusion stage.
More rarely lavas are completely fused at the moment of ejection;
they may then cool to form a non-porphyritic, finely crystalline rock,
or if more rapidly chilled may in large part be non-crystalline or
glassy (vitreous rocks such as obsidian, tachylyte, pitchstone (PI. I.
figs. 1, 4, 5). A common feature of glassy rocks is the presence of
rounded bodies (spherulites: Gr. o<t>aif>a, ball), consisting of fine diver-
gent fibres radiating from a centre (PI. I. figs. 7, 8); they consist of
imperfect crystals of felspar, mixed with quartz or tridymite; similar
bodies are often produced artificially in glasses which are allowed to
cool slowly. Rarely these spherulites are hollow or consist of con-
centric shells with spaces between (lithophysae : Gr. XWos, stone;
<j>v6a, bellows). Perlitic structure, also common in glasses, consists
in the presence of concentric rounded cracks owing to contraction
on cooling (see Perlite).

The phenocrysts (Gr. cfraLveii', to show; upvaraWov, crystal) or por-
phyritic minerals are not only larger than those of the ground-
mass. As the matrix was still liquid when they formed they were
free to take perfect crystalline shapes, not being interfered with by

the pressure of adjacent crystals. They seem to have grown rapidly,
as they are often filled with enclosures of glassy or finely crystalline
material like that of the ground-mass (PI. II. fig. 1). Microscopic
examination of the phenocrysts often reveals that they have had a
complex history. Very frequently they show successive layers
of different composition, indicated by variations in colour or other
optical properties; thus augite may be green at the centre and various
shades of brown outside this; or may be pale green centrally and
darker green with strong pleochroism (aegirine) at the periphery.
In the felspars the centre is usually more basic and richer in lime
than the surrounding faces, and successive zones may often be noted,
each less basic than those which lie within it. Phenocrysts of quartz
(and of other minerals), instead of sharp, perfect crystalline faces,
may show rounded corroded surfaces (PL I. fig. 9), with the points
blunted and irregular tongue-like projections of the matrix into the
substance of the crystal. It is clear that after the mineral had
crystallized it was partly again dissolved or corroded at some period
before the matrix solidified. Corroded phenocrysts of biotite and
hornblende are very common in some lavas; they are surrounded
by black rims of magnetite mixed with pale green augite. The
hornblende or biotite substance has proved unstable at a certain
stage of consolidation and has been replaced by a paramorph of
augite and magnetite which may be partially or completely sub-
stituted for the original crystal but still retains its characteristic
outlines.

Let us now consider the characteristics of a typical deep-seated
rock like granite or diorite (PI. II. figs. 4, 5, 9). That these are
igneous is proved by the manner in which they have
burst through the superincumbent strata, filling the ^^ tonlc . or
cracks with ramifying veins; that they were at a very Abyssal
high temperature is equally clear from the changes which Ty P es -
they have induced in the rocks in contact with them. But as their
heat could dissipate only very slowly, because of the masses which
covered them, complete crystallization has taken place and no
vitreous rapidly chilled matter is present. As they have had time
to come to rest before crystallizing they are not fluidal. Their
contained gases have pot been able to escape through the thick layer
of strata beneath which they were injected, and may often be ob-
served occupying cavities in the minerals, or have occasioned many
important modifications in the crystallization of the rock. Because
their crystals are of approximately equal size these rocks are said to
be granular; there is typically no distinction between a first generation
of large well-shaped crystals and a fine-grained ground-mass. Their
minerals have formed, however, in a definite order, and each has had
a period of crystallization which maybe very distinct or may have
coincided with or overlapped the period of formation of some of the
other ingredients. The earlier have originated at a time when
most of the rock was still liquid and are more or Jess perfect ; the later
are less regular in shape because they were compelled to occupy
the interspaces left between the already formed crystals (PI. II.
figs- 5. 9)- The former are said to be idiomorphic (or automorphic),
the latter are anidiomorphic (allotniomorphic, xenomorphic). 1
There are also many other characteristics which serve to distinguish
the members of these two groups. Orthoclase, for example, is the
typical felspar of granite, while its modification sanidine occurs in
lavas of similar composition. The same distinction holds between
elaeolite and nepheline. Leucite is common in lavas, very rare in
plutonic rocks. Muscovite is confined to the intrusives. These
differences show the influence of the physical conditions under
which consolidation takes place.

There is a certain class of intrusive rocks which have risen
upwards towards the surface, but have failed to reach it, and have
solidified in fissures as dikes and intrusive sills at no
great depth. To this type the name intrusive (or hyp- lairuslve ° r
abyssal) is often given in distinction to the plutonic (or hypabyssal
abyssal) which formed at greater depths. As might T yP es -
be expected, they show structures intermediate between those of
the effusive and the plutonic rocks. They are very commonly por-
phyritic, not rarely vitreous, and sometimes even vesicular. In fact
many of them _ are indistinguishable petrologically from lavas of
similar composition.

The attempt to form a special group of hypabyssal (intrusive and
dike) rocks has met with much criticism and opposition. Such a
group certainly cannot rank as equally important and equally well
characterized with the plutonic and the effusive. But there are
many kinds of rock which are not found to occur normally in any
other manner. As examples we may cite the lamprophyres, the
aplites and the porphyrites. These never occur as lava flows or as
great plutonic bosses; if magmas of the same composition as these
rocks occur in either of these ways they consolidate with different
assemblages of minerals and different structures.

In subdividing the plutonic, the hypabyssal and the effusive
rocks, the principle is followed of grouping those
together which resemble one another in mineral con- Subdivisions
stitution and in chemical composition. In a broad °J g ?^ > . us
sense these two properties are interdependent. Rock Class.

1 Idiomorphic, having its own characteristic form, Gr. Wktc,
belonging to one's self, (alrros ), )top4>-fi (form); allotriomorphic, from
Gr. aWorpws, belonging to another (ciAAos), a stranger (£b>os)*

3 28

PETROLOGY

Mineral
Constitu-
tion.

The commoner rock constituents are nearly all oxides; chlorine,
sulphur and fluorine are the only important exceptions to this and
_. . . their total amount in any rock is usually much less than
hart '"/o- F " W - Clarke has calculated that a little more
v ar ers ' than 47 % of the earth's crust consists of oxygen. It
occurs principally in combination as oxides, of which the chief
are silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash and soda.
The silica functions principally as an acid, forming silicates, and ,all
the commonest minerals of igneous rocks are of this nature. From
a computation based on 1672 analyses of all kinds of rocks Clarke
arrived at the following as the average percentage composition:
Si0 2 = 59-71, Al 2 O s = 15-41. Fe 2 3 = 2-63, FeO = 3-52, MgO=A-36,
CaO=4-90, Na 2 = 3-55, K 2 = 2-8o, H 2 = i-52,Ti0 2 = o-6o,P 2 6 =
0-22, total 99-22 %. All the other constituents occur only in very
small quantities, usually much less than 1 %.

These oxides do not combine in a haphazard
way. The potash and soda, for example, with a
sufficient amount of alumina and silica, combine to
produce felspars. In some cases they may take
other forms, such as nepheline, leucite and mus-
covite, but in the great majority of instances they
ire found as felspar. The phosphoric acid with
lime forms apatite. The titanium dioxide with
ferrous oxide gives rise to ilmenite. Part of the
! : me forms lime felspar. Magnesia and iron oxides
vv-ith silica crystallize as olivine or enstatite, or with
alumina and lime form the complex ferro-magnesian
silicates of which the pyroxenes, amphiboles and
biotites are the chief. Any excess of silica above
what is required to neutralize the bases will
separate out as quartz; excess of alumina crystal-
lizes as corundum. These must be regarded only as
general tendencies, which are modified by physical
conditions in a manner not as yet understood.
It is possible by inspection of a rock analysis to
say approximately what minerals the rock will contain, but there
are numerous exceptions to any rule which can be laid down.

Hence we may say that except in acid or siliceous rocks containing
66 % of silica and over, quartz will not be abundant. In basic
rocks (containing 60% silica or less) it is rare and
accidental. If magnesia and iron be above the average
while silica is low olivine may be expected; where silica
is present in greater quantity other ferro-magnesian
minerals, such as augite, hornblende, enstatite or biotite, occur
rather than olivine. Unless potash is high and silica relatively
low leucite will not be present, for leucite does not occur with
free quartz. Nepheline, likewise, is usually found in rocks with
much soda and comparatively little silica. With high alkalis
soda-bearing pyroxenes and amphiboles may be present. The
lower the percentage of silica and the alkalis the greater is the
prevalence of lime felspar as contracted with soda or potash
felspar. Clarke has calculated the relative abundance of the
principal rock-forming minerals with the following results: Apatite
= 0-6, titanium minerals = 1-5, quartz = 12-0, felspars = 59-5,
biotite = 3-8, hornblende and pyroxene = 1 6- 8, total = 94-2%.
This, however, can only be a rough approximation. The other
determining factor, namely the physical conditions attending con-
solidation, plays on the whole a smaller part, yet is by no means
negligible, as a few instances will prove. There are certain minerals
which are practically confined to deep-seated intrusive rocks, e.g.
microcline, muscovite, diallage. Leucite is very rare in plutonic
masses; many minerals have special peculiarities in microscopic
character according to whether they crystallized in depth or near
the surface, e.g. hypersthene, orthoclase, quartz. There are some
curious instances of rocks having the same chemical composition
but consisting of entirely different minerals, e.g. the hornblendite of
Gran, in Norway, containing only hornblende, has the same com-
position as some of the camptonites of the same locality which con-
tain felspar and hornblende of a different variety. In this connexion
we may repeat what has been said above about the corrosion of
porphyritic minerals in igneous rocks. In rhyolites and trachytes
early crystals of hornblende and biotite may be found in great
numbers partially converted into augite and magnetite. The horn-
blende and biotite were stable under the pressures and other con-
ditions which obtained below the surface, but unstable at higher
levels. In the ground-mass of these rocks augite is almost universally
present. But the plutonic representatives of the same magma,
granite and syenite contain biotite and hornblende far more commonly
than augite.

Those rocks which contain most silica and on crystallizing yield
free quartz are erected into a group generally designated the " acid "
. . . rocks. Those again which contain least silica and most

Intermediate" 13 ^^' 3 anc ' ' ron ' so tnat q uar tz is absent while olivine
and Basic ' s usua "y abundant, form the " basic " group. The
Igneous " intermediate " rocks include those which are character-
Rocks. ' ze d by tne general absence of both quartz and olivine.

An important subdivision of these contains a very high
percentage of alkalis, especially soda, and consequently has minerals
such as nepheline and leucite not common in other rocks. It is
often separated from the others as the " alkali " or " soda " rocks,

and there is a corresponding series of basic rocks. Lastly a small
sub-group rich in olivine and without felspar has been called the
" ultrabasic " rocks. They have very low percentages of silica but
much iron and magnesia.

Except these last practically all rocks contain felspars or fels-
pathoid minerals. In the acid rocks the common felspars are ortho-
clase, with perthite, microcline, oligoclase, all having much silica
and alkalis. In the basic rocks labradorite, anorthite and bytownite
prevail, being rich in lime and poor in silica, potash and soda.
Augite is the commonest ferro-magnesian of the basic rocks, but
biotite and hornblende are on the whole more frequent in the acid.

The rocks which contain leucite er nepheline, either partly or
wholly replacing felspar are not included in this table. They are
essentially of intermediate or of basic character. We might in con-
sequence regard them as varieties of syenite, diorite, gabbro, &c,

Commonest
Minerals.

Acid.

Intermediate.

Basic.

Ultrabasic.

Quartz
Orthoclase
(and Oligo-
clase), Mica,
Hornblende,

Augite.

Little or no Quartz.

No Quartz

Plagioclase

Augite,

Olivine.

No Felspar
Augite,

Hornblende,
Olivine.

Orthoclase

Hornblende,

Augite,

Biotite.

Plagioclase

Hornblende,

Augite,

Biotite.

Plutonic or"!
A b y s s a 1 V
type._ |

Intrusive or~l
Hypabys- V
sal type. )

Lavas orl
Eff usi ve !-
type. J

Granite.

Quartz-
porphyry.

Rhyolite,
Obsidian.

Syenite.

Orthoclase-
porphyry.

Trachyte.

Diorite.

Porphyrite.

Andesite.

Gabbro.
Dolerite.
Basalt.

Peridotite.

Picrite.

Limburgite.

in which felspathoid minerals occur, and indeed there are many
transitions between syenites cf ordinary type and nepheline — or
leucite — syenite, and between gabbro or dolerite and theralite or
essexite. But as many minerals develop in these " alkali " rocks
which are uncommon elsewhere, it is convenient in a purely formal
classification like that which is outlined here to treat the whole
assemblage as a distinct series.

Nepheline and Leucite-bearing Rocks.

Commonest
Minerals.

Plutonic

type.
Intrusive

type.
Effusive

type or

Lavas.

Alkali Felspar,
Nepheline or Leu-
cite, Augite.Horn-

blende, Biotite.

Nepheline-syenite.
Leucite-syenite.
Nepheline-
porphyry

Phonolite,
Leucitophyre.

Soda Lime Felspar
Nepheline or Leu-
cite, Augite, Horn-
blende (Olivine)

Nepheline or

Leucite, Augite,

Hornblende,

Olivine.

Essexite and
Theralite.

Tephrite and
Basanite.

Ijolite and
Missourite.

Nepheline-

basalt.
Leucite-basalt

L

This classification is based essentially on the mineralogical constitu-
tion of the igneous rocks. Any chemical distinctions between
the different groups, though implied, are relegated to a subordinate
position. It is admittedly artificial but it has grown up with the
growth of the science and is still adopted as the basis on which
more minute subdivisions are erected. The subdivisions are by no
means of equal value. The syenites, for example, and the perido-
tites, are far less important than the granites, diorites and gabbros.
Moreover, the effusive andesites do not always correspond to the
plutonic diorites but partly also to the gabbros. . As the different
kinds of rock, regarded as aggregates of minerals, pass gradually
into one another, transitional types are very common and are often
so important as to receive special names. The quartz-syenites and
nordmarkites may be interposed between granite and syenite, the
tonalites and adamellites between granite and diorite, the monzon-
ites between syenite and diorite, norites and hyperites between
diorite and gabbro, and so on.

There is of course a large number of recognized rock species not
included in the tables given. These are of two kinds, either belong-
ing to groups which are subdivisions of those enumerated (bearing
the same relation to them that species do to genera) or rare and
exceptional rocks that do not fall within any of the main subdivisions
proposed. The question may be asked — When is a rock entitled
to be recognized as belonging to a distinct species or variety and
deserving a name for itself? It must, first of all, be proved to
occur in considerable quantity at some locality, or better still at
a series of localities or to have been produced from different magmas
at more than one period of the earth's history. In other words, it
must not be a mere anomaly. Moreover, it should have a dis-
tinctive mineral constitution, differing from other rocks, or some-
thing individual in the characters of its minerals or of its structures.
It is often surprising how peculiar types of rock, believed at first

PETROLOGY

329

to be unique, turn up with identical features in widely scattered
regions, alnbite, for example, occurs in Norway, Scotland, Montreal,
British Columbia, New York and Brazil, tinguaite in Scotland,
Norway, Brazil, Montana, Portugal, &c. This indicates that
underlying all the variations in mineralogical, structural and
chemical properties there are definite relationships which tend to
repeat themselves, producing the same types whenever the same
conditions are present.

Although in former years the view was widely current, especially
in Germany, that igneous rocks belonging to different geological
epochs should receive different names, it is now admitted on all
sides that this cannot be upheld.

In 1902 a group of American petrographers brought forward
a proposal to discard all existing classifications of igneous rocks
and to substitute for them a " quantitative" classification based
on chemical analysis. They showed how vague and often un-
scientific was much of the existing terminology and argued that as
the chemical composition of an igneous rock was its most funda-
mental characteristic it should be elevated to prime position.
Geological occurrence, structure, mineralogical constitution, the
hitherto accepted criteria for the discrimination of rock species
were relegated to the background. The completed rock analysis
is first to be interpreted in terms of the rock-forming minerals
which might be expected to be formed when the magma crystallizes,
e.g. quartz felspars of various kinds, olivine, akermannite, fels-
pathoids, magnetite, corundum and so on, and the rocks are divided
into groups strictly according to the relative proportion of these
minerals to one another. There is no need here to describe the
minutia of the process adopted as the authors have stated them
very clearly in their treatise {Quantitative Classification of Igneous
Rocks, Chicago, 1902), and there is no indication that even in the
United States it will ever displace the older classifications.

We can often observe in a series of eruptives belonging to one
period and a restricted area certain features which distinguish
Con . them as a whole more or less completely from other

aanvuinity. similar assemblages. Such groups are often said to
be consanguineous, and to characterize a definite
" petrological province. " Excellent examples of this are furnished
by the Devonian igneous rocks of southern Norway as described by
Brogger, the Tertiary rocks of the Hebrides (Harker), the Italian,
lavas studied by H. S. Washington. On a larger scale the volcanoes
which girdle the Pacific (Andes, Cordillera, Japan, &c), and those
which occur on the volcanic islands of the Atlantic, show the same
phenomena. Each of these groups has been formed presumably
from a single deep-seated magma or source of supply and during
a period which while necessarily prolonged was not of vast duration
in a geological sense.

On the other hand, each of the great suites of eruptive rocks
which constitute such a petrological province embraces a great
Differentia- ran S e °f types. Prolonged eruptions have in a few
tion. cases a somewhat monotonous character, owing to the

predominance of one kind of rock. Thus the lavas of
the Hawaiian Islands are mostly basaltic, as are those of Oregon,
Washington and the Deccan, all of which form geological masses
of enormous magnitude. But it is more usual to find basalts,
andesites, trachytes, dacites and many other rocks occurring in
a single eruptive complex. The process by which a magma splits
up into a variety of partial products is known as " differentiation."
Its importance from the standpoint of theoretical petrology is very
great, but as yet no adequate explanation of it has been offered.
Differentiation may show itself in two ways. In the first type
the successive emissions from a volcanic focus may differ consider-
ably from one another. Thus in the Pentland Hills, near Edinburgh,
the lavas which are of lower Devonian age, were first basaltic,
then andesitic, trachytic and dacitic, and finally rhyolitic, and this
succession was repeated a second time. Yet they all must have
come from the same focus, or at any rate from a group of foci
very closely connected with one another. Occasionally it is found
that the earlier lavas are of intermediate character and that basic
alternate with acid during the later stages of the volcanic history.

Not less interesting are those cases in which a single body of
rock has in consolidation yielded a variety of petrographical types
often widely divergent. This is best shown by great plutonic
bosses which may be regarded as having once been vast subterranean
spaces filled with a nearly homogeneous liquid magma. Cooling
took place gradually from the outer surfaces where the igneous
rock was in contact with the surrounding strata. The resultant
laccolite (Gr. Xd«os, pit, crater, X£0os, stone), stock or boss, may
be a few hundred yards or many miles in diameter and often
contains a great diversity of crystalline rocks. Thus peridotite,
gabbro, diorite, tonalite and granite, are often associated, usually
in such a way that the more basic are the first -formed and lie nearest
the external surfaces of the mass. The reverse sequence occurs
occasionally, the edges being highly acid while the central parts
consist of more basic rocks. Sometimes the later phases pene-
trate into and vein the earlier; evidently there has been some
movement due to temporary increase of pressure when part of the
laccolite was solid and part still in a liquid state. This links these
phenomena with those above described where successive emissions
of different character have proceeded outwards from the focus.

According to modern views two explanations of these facts are
possible. Some geologists hold that the different rock facies
found in association are often due to local absorption of surrounding
rocks by the molten magma (" assimilation "). Effects of this
kind are to be expected, and have been clearly proved in many
places. There is, however, a general reluctance to admit that they
are of great importance. The nature and succession of the rock
species do not as a rule show any relation to the sedimentary or
other materials which may be supposed to have been dissolved;
and where solution is known to have gone on the products are
usually of abnormal character and easily distinguishable from the
common rock types.

Hence it is generally supposed that differentiation is to be
ascribed to some physical or chemical processes which lead to the
splitting up of a magma into dissimilar portions, each of which
consolidates as a distinct kind of rock. Two factors can be selected
as probably most potent. One important factor is cooling and
another is crystallization. According to physico-chemical laws the
least soluble substances will tend to diffuse towards the cooling
surfaces (Ludwig-Sorcts's principle). This is in accordance with
the majority of the observed facts and is probably a vera causa of
differentiation, though what its potency may be is uncertain. As a
rock solidifies the minerals which crystallize follow one another in
a more or less well-defined order, the most basic (according to
Rosenbusch's law) .being first to separate out. That in a general
way the peripheral portions of a laccolite consist mainly of those
early basic minerals suggests that the sequence of crystallization
helps largely in determining the succession (and consequently the
distribution of rock species in a plutonic complex). Gravity also
may play a part, for it is proved that in a solution at rest the heaviest
components will be concentrated towards the base. This must,
however, be of secondary importance as in laccolites the top portions
often consist of more basic and heavier varieties of rock than the
centres. It has also been argued that the earliest minerals being
heaviest and in any case denser than the fused magma around
them, will tend to sink by their own weight and to be congregated
near the bottom of the mass. Electric currents, magnetic attraction
and convection currents have also been called in to account for the
phenomena observed. Magmas have also been compared to liquids
which, when they cool, split up into portions no longer completely
soluble in one another (liquation hypothesis). Each of these partial
magmas may dissolve a portion of the others and as the temperature
falls and the conditions change a range of liquids differing in
composition may be supposed to arise.

All igneous magmas contain dissolved gases (steam, carbonic
acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine, boric acid, &c).
Of these water is the principal, and was formerly believed to have
percolated downwards from the earth's surface to the heated rocks
below, but is now generally admitted to be an integral part of the
magma. Many peculiarities of the structure of the plutonic rocks
as contrasted with the lavas may reasonably be accounted for by
the operation of these gases, which were unable to escape as the
deep-seated masses slowly cooled, while they were promptly given
up by the superficial effusions. The acid plutonic or intrusive rocks
have never been reproduced by laboratory experiments, and the
only successful attempts to obtain their minerals artificially have
been those in which special provision was made for the retention
of the " mineralizing " gases in the crucibles or sealed tubes employed.
These gases often do not enter into the composition of the rock-
forming minerals, for most of these are free from water, carbonic
acid, &c. Hence as crystallization goes on the residual liquor
must contain an ever-increasing proportion of volatile constituents.
It is conceivable that in the final stages the still uncrystallized
part of the magma has more resemblance to a solution of mineral
matter in superheated steam than to a dry igneous fusion. Quartz,
for example, is the last mineral to form in a granite. It bears
much of the stamp of the quartz which we know has been deposited
from aqueous solution in veins, &c. It is at the same time the most
infusible of all the common minerals of rocks. Its late formation
shows that in this case it arose at comparatively low temperatures
and points clearly to the special importance of the gases of the
magma as determining the sequence of crystallization.

When solidification is nearly complete the gases can no longer
be retained in the rock and make their escape through fissures
towards the surface. They are powerful agents in attacking the
minerals of the rocks which they traverse, and instances of their
operation are found in the kaolinization of granites, tourmaliniza-
tion and formation of greisen, deposit of quartz veins, stanniferous
and auriferous veins, apatite veins, and the group of changes
known as propylitization. 1 These " pneumatolytic " (Gr. irvev/ia,
spirit, vapour, \ieiu, to loose, dissolve) processes are of the first
importance in the genesis of many ore deposits. They are a real
part of the history of the magma itself and constitute the terminal
phases of the volcanic sequence.

The complicated succession from basic (or ultrabasic) to acid
types exemplified in the history of many magmas is reflected with

1 The term " propylite " (Gr. irp6irv\ov, a gateway) was given
by Richthofen to a volcanic rock which is supposed to have marked
a new epoch in volcanic geology (see Andesite).

33o

PETROLOGY

astonishing completeness in the history of individual products.
In each class of rock crystallization follows a definite course. The
^ first minerals to separate belong to a group known
CrystaJHza- as the "P'" 01 " accessories ; this includes zircon, apatite,
t fo a sohene iron oxides; then follow in order olivine, augite,

hornblende, biotite, plagioclase, felspar (beginning with
the varieties most rich in lime and ending with those which contain
most soda), orthoclase, microcline and quartz (with micropegmatite).
Many exceptions to this rule are known; the same mineral may
crystallize at two different periods ; two or more minerals may
crystallize simultaneously or the stages in which they form may
overlap. But the succession above given holds in the vast majority
of cases. Expressed in this way: the more basic minerals precede
the less basic ; it is known as Rosenbusch's law.

Types of Structure. — In some rocks there seems to be little tendency
for the minerals to envelop one another. This is true of many
gabbros, aplites and granites (PI. Ill, fig. 7). The grains then lie
side by side, with the faces of the latter moulded on or adapted to
the more perfect crystalline outlines of the earlier. More commonly
some closer relationship exists between them. When the smaller
idiomorphic crystals of the first-formed are scattered irregularly
through the larger and less perfect crystals of later origin, the
Polkilltlc structure > s said to be poikilitic (Gr. mint\os, many-
• coloured, mottled). A variety of this, known as ophitic
(PI. Ill, fig. 6), is very characteristic of many dolerites and diabases,
in which large plates of augite enclose many small laths of plagio-
clase felspar. Biotite and hornblende frequently enclose felspar
ophitically; less commonly iron oxides and sphene do so. In pcri-
dotites the " lustre-mottled " structure arises from pyroxene or
hornblende enveloping olivine in the same manner (PI. Ill, fig. 8).
In these cases no crystallographic relation exists between the two
minerals (enclosing and enclosed).

But often the surrounding mineral has been laid down on the
surface of the other in such a way that they have certain crystalline
Parallel faces or axes parallel to one another. This is known
Growths. as " P ara H e l growth." It is best seen in zoned crystals
of plagioclase felspar, which may range in composition
from anorthite to oligoclase, the more acid layers being deposited
regularly on the surfaces of the more basic. Biotite and muscovite,
hornblende and augite, enstatite and diallage, epidote and orthite,
very frequently are associated in this way.

When two minerals crystallize simultaneously they may be
intergrown in " graphic " fashion. The best example is quartz
Graphic anc ^ orthoclase occurring together as micropegmatite
Inter- ^' ^' ^ gs ' ^ an ^ ^). The quartz forms angular

growths, patches in the felspar, which though separated have
the same crystalline orientation and one position of
extinction, while the felspar on its part behaves in the same way.
Two porous crystals thus interpenetrate but the scattered parts of
each mineral maintain their connexion with the others. There
may be also a definite relation between the crystalline axes of the
two crystals, though this is not known in all cases. Augite also
occurs in graphic intergrowth with hornblende, olivine and felspar;
and hornblende, cordierite, eoidote and biotite in graphic inter-
growth with quartz.

Physical Chemistry of Igneous Rocks. — The great advances that
have been made in recent years in our knowledge of physical
chemistry have very important bearings on petrological investiga-
tions. Especially in the study of the genesis of igneous rocks we
anticipate that by this means much light will be thrown on problems
which are now very obscure and a complete revolution in our ideas
of the conditions which affect crystallization may yet be the con-
sequence. Already many important results have been gleaned.
As yet little work of an exact and quantitative nature has been
done on actual rocks or on mixtures resembling them in composition,
but at the Carnegie Institution in Washington, an elaborate series
of experiments in the synthesis of minerals and the properties of
mixtures' of these is being carried on, with all the refinements
which modern science can suggest. The work of Doelter and of
Vogt may also be mentioned in this connexion. At the same time
the mathematical theory of the physical processes involved has
received much attention, and serves both to direct and to elucidate
the experimental work. ' '

A fused mixture of two minerals may be regarded as a solution

of one on the other. If such a solution be cooled down, crystalliza-

tion will generally set in and if the two components be

*f". asas independent (or do not form mixed crystals) one of

o u ons. t y iem ma y b e expected to start crystallizing. On further

cooling, more of this mineral will separate out till at last a residue

is left which contains the two components in definite proportions.

This mixture, which is known as the eutectic mixture, has the lowest

melting-point of any which can be formed from these minerals.

If heat be still abstracted the eutectic will consolidate as a whole;

its two mineral components will crystallize simultaneously. At

any given pressure the composition of the eutectic mixture in such

a case is always the same.

Similarly, if there be three independent components (none of
which forms mixed crystals with the others), according to their
relative amounts and to the composition of the eutectic mixture
one will begin to crystallize ; then another will make its appearance

in solid form, and when the excess of these has been removed, the
ternary eutectic (that mixture of the three which has the lowest
melting-point) will be produced and crystallization of all three
components will go on simultaneously.

These processes have without doubt a very close analogy to
the formation of igneous rocks. Thus in certain felsites or por-
phyries which may be considered as being essentially mixtures of
quartz and felspar, a certain amount of quartz has crystallized out
at an early period in the form of well-shaped porphyritic crystals,
and thereafter the remainder of the rock has solidified as a very
fine-grained, cryptocrystalline or sometimes micrographic ground-
mass which consists of quartz and felspar in intimate intermixture.
The latter closely resembles a eutectic, and chemical studies have
proved that within somewhat narrow limits the composition of
these felsitic ground-masses is constant.

But the comparison must not be pushed too far, as there are
always other components than quartz and felspar (apatite, zircon,
biotite and iron oxides being the most common), and in rocks of
this type the gases dissolved in the magma play a very important
part. As crystallization goes on, these gases are set free and their
pressure must increase to some extent. Moreover, the felspar is
not one mineral but two or perhaps three, there being always soda
felspar and potash felspar and usually also a small amount of lime
felspar in these porphyries.

In a typical basic rock the conditions are even more complex.
A dolerite, for example, usually contains, as its last products of
crystallization, pyroxene and felspar. Of these the latter consists
of three distinct species, the former of an unknown number ; and in
each case they can form mixed crystals, to a greater or less extent
with one another. From these considerations it will be clear that the
properties of solutions of two or three independent components, do
not necessarily explain the process of crystallization in any igneous
rock.

Very frequently in porphyries not only quartz but felspar also
is present in large well-formed early crystals. Similarly in basalts,
augite and felspar may appear both as phenocrysts and as com-
ponents of the ground-mass. As an explanation of this it has been
suggested that supersaturation has taken place. We may suppose
that the augite which was in excess of the proportion necessary to
form the felspar-augite, eutectic mixture, first separated out. When
the remaining solution reached the eutectic composition the felspar
did not at once start crystallizing, perhaps because nuclei are
necessary to initiate crystal-growth and these were not at hand;
augite went on crystallizing while felspar lagged behind. Then
felspar began and as the mixture was now supersaturated with that
mineral a considerable amount of it was rapidly thrown out of the
solution. At the same time there would be a tendency for part of
the augite, already crystallized, to be dissolved and its crystals
would be corroded, losing their sharp and perfect edges, as is often
observed in rocks of this group. When the necessary adjustments
had been made the eutectic mixture would be established and
thereafter the two minerals would consolidate simultaneously (or
nearly so) till crystallization was complete.

There is a good deal of evidence to show that supersaturation
is not unimportant in igneous magmas. The frequency with which
they form glasses proves that under certain conditions the molten
rocks are highly viscous. Much will depend also on the presence,
accidental or otherwise, of nuclei on which a mineral substance
can be deposited. It is known that minerals differ in their tendency
to crystallize, some doing so very readily while others are slow and
backward. The rate at which crystallization goes on depends on
many factors, and there are remarkable differences in this respect
between minerals.

On the other hand, there is plenty of evidence to show that
supersaturation, though probably one of the causes, is not the prin-
cipal cause of the appearance of more than one mineral in two
generations of crystals. In some of the quartz-porphyries, for
example, there are phenocrysts not only of quartz and felspar but
also of micropegmatite. These prove that quartz and felspar were
not crystallizing successively or alternately but simultaneously.

The great majority of the minerals found in igneous rocks are not
of simple composition, but are mixtures of various elementary
minerals in very different proportions. This enormously compli-
cates the theoretical problems of consolidation. It has been found,
for example, that in the case of three minerals — one of which is
independent, while the two others can form mixed crystals — there
is a large number of possible sequences; and, what is very important,
one mineral may separate out entirely at an early stage, or its
crystallization may be interrupted and not continuous. The
ternary eutectic, which is produced by a mixture of three independent
minerals, may not in such a case be the last substance to crystallize,
and may not be present at all. This is very much in accordance
with the observed facts of petrology; for usually in a rock there is
one mineral which indubitably was the last of all to finish crystal-
lizing and contained no appreciable quantity of the others.

As yet we know little about such important questions as the
composition of the eutectic mixtures of rock-minerals, their latent
heat of fusion, specific heats, mutual solubilities, inversion tempera-
tures, &c. Until we are in possession of a large body of accurate
information on such points as these the theoretical treatment of

PETROLOGY

33 1

the processes involved in the formation of igneous rocks cannot be
successfully handled. But every day sees an increase in the amount
of data available, and encourages us to believe that sooner or later
some of the simpler igneous rocks at any rate will be completely
explicable on physico-chemical principles.

Rock masses of igneous origin have no sooner consolidated than

they begin to change. The gases with which the magma is charged

are slowly dissipated, lava-flows often remain hot and

f steaming for many years. These gases attack the com-

™ " c ponents of the rock and deposit new minerals in cavities
Changes. an[ j g ssures _ fjjg beautiful zeolites, so well known to
collectors of minerals, are largely of this origin. Even before
these " post- volcanic " processes have ceased atmospheric decom-
position begins. Rain, frost, carbonic acid, oxygen and other
agents operate continuously, and do not cease till the whole mass
has crumbled down and most of its ingredients have been resolved
into new products. In the classification of rocks these secondary
changes are generally considered unessential; rocks are classified
and described as if they were ideally fresh, though this is rarely
the case in nature.

Epigenitic change (secondary processes) may be arranged under
a number of headings, each of which is typical of a group of rocks
„ . or rock-forming minerals, though usually more than

cod aiy ong j t jj ese alterations will be found in progress in th^

Changes.

same rock. Silicification, the replacement of the minerals

by crystalline or crypto-crystalline silica, is most common in acid
rocks, such as rhyolite, but is also found in serpentine, &c. Kaolini-
zation is the decomposition of the felspars, which are the commonest
minerals of igneous rocks, into kaolin (along with quartz, muscovite,
&c.) ; it is best shown by granites and syenites. Serpentinization
is the alteration of olivine to serpentine (with magnetite) ; it is
typical of peridotites, but occurs in most of the basic rocks. In
uralitization secondary hornblende replaces augite; this occurs
very generally in diabases; chloritization is the alteration of augite
(biotite or hornblende) to chlorite, and is seen in many diabases,
diorites and greenstones. Epidotization occurs also in rocks of
this group, and consists in the development of epidote from biotite,
hornblende, augite or plagioclase felspar.

The sedimentary rocks, which constitute the second great group,
have many points in common that distinguish them from the
igneous and the metamorphic. They have all originated on
the surface of the earth, and at the period of their formation
were exposed only to the temperature of the air and to atmo-
spheric pressure (or the pressures which exist at the bottoms of
seas and lakes) . Their minerals are in most cases not susceptible
to change when exposed to moist air or sea, and many of them
are hydrated (chlorite, micas, &c), or oxidized (iron ores), or
contain carbonic acid (calcite, dolomite). The extent, however,
to which this is the case depends largely on the rapidity with
which they have accumulated; coarse rocks quickly piled up
often consist of materials only partly weathered. When
crystalline, the sedimentary rocks are usually soluble at low
temperatures. The members of this group occur in beds or
strata, hence they are often known as the stratified rocks; the
upper beds are always of later formation than those which
underlie them, except (as may happen when great disturbance
has taken place) the whole series is inverted or overturned.
Many of the stratified rocks have been formed by the agency of
moving water (rivers, currents, &c.) and are grouped together
as " aqueous " rocks; others have been deposited by the wind
in deserts, on sandy beaches, &c. (these are " aeolian ")■
Others are the remains of animals or of plants, modified by the
action of time, pressure and percolating water. Lastly, we find
beds of crystalline nature, such as rock-salt and gypsum, which
have been formed by the desiccation of saline waters; other
crystalline stratified rocks, such as dolomite and many bedded
iron-stones, are replacement products due to the introduction
of mineral matter in solution, which replaced the original rock
mass partially or wholly.

When the rocks exposed at the earth's surface give way before
the attack of the agencies of denudation, they crumble down and
are resolved into two parts. One of these consists of solid material
(sand, clay and angular debris) insoluble in carbonated waters;
the other part is dissolved and washed away. The undissolved
residues, when they finally come to rest, form clastic sedimentary
rocks (sandstone, conglomerate, shale, &c). The dissolved por-
tions are partly transferred to the sea, where they help to increase
its store of salts, and may again be precipitated as crystalline
sedimentary rocks; but they are also made use of by plants and
by animals to form their skeletal and vital tissues. From this
latter portion the rocks of organic origin are built up. These

may also contain certain ingredients derived from the atmosphere
(nitrogen, carbon in coals, &c).

We have thus three types of sediments of distinct origin, which
may be named the clastic (or fragmental), the crystalline and the
organic.

The clastic materials may accumulate in situ, and then differ
chiefly in their disintegrated and weathered state from the parent
rock masses on which they rest. The best example of c , .
these are the soils, but in elevated regions angular broken as "

rock often covers large areas. More usually they are transported
by wind or water, and become sorted out according to their size
and density. The coarsest debris comes first to rest and is least
worn and weathered; it includes screes, gravels, coarse sands, &c,
and consolidates as conglomerates, breccias and pebbly grits. The
bedding of these rocks is rudimentary and imperfect, and as each
bed is traced along its outcrop it frequently changes its character
with the strata on which it rests. The most finely divided sediment
travels farthest, and is laid down in thin uniform sheets of wide
extent. It is known as mud and clay; around the shores of our
continents, at distances of a hundred miles and more from land, great
sheets of mud are spread over the ocean floors. This mud contains
minute particles of quartz and of felspar, but consists essentially
of finely divided scaly minerals, which by their small size and flat
shape tend to remain suspended in water for a very long time.
Chlorite, white micas and kaolin are the best examples of this class
of substances. Wind action is even more effective than water in
separating and removing these fine particles. They to a very large
extent escape mechanical attrition, because they are transported in
suspension and are not swept along the ground or the bottom of the
sea; hence they are mostly angular. Fragments of intermediate
magnitudes (from j-J-j of an inch to \ of an inch) are classed as
sands. They consist largely of quartz, because it does not weather
into scaly minerals like felspar, and having but a poor cleavage
does not split up into flakes like mica or chlorite. These quartz
grains have been rolled along and are usually rounded and worn
(PI. IV., fig. i). More or less of garnet felspar, tourmaline, zircon,
rutile, &c, are mixed with the quartz, because these are hard
minerals not readily decomposed.

The mechanical sorting by the transporting agencies is usually
somewhat incomplete, and mixed types of sediment result, such as
gravels containing sand, or clays with coarser arenaceous particles.
Moreover, successive layers of deposit may not always be entirely
similar, and alternations of varying composition may follow one
another in thin laminae: e.g. laminae of arenaceous material in beds
of clay and shale. Organic matter is frequently mingled with the
finer-grained sediments.

These three types have been named the psephitic (or pebbly;
Gr. iAtj^os, pebble); psammitic (or sandy, Gr. \J/o.mm>s, sand), and
pelitic (or muddy: Gr. TvqXbs, mud).

Two groups of clastic sediments deserve special treatment.
The pyroclastic (Gr. irdp, fire, and kAootos, broken) rocks of volcanic
origin, consist mostly of broken pieces of lava (bombs, ash, &c.)
(PI. IV. fig. 2), and only accidentally contain other rocks or fossils.
They are stratified, and may be coarse or fine, but are usually much
less perfectly sorted out, according to their fineness, than ordinary
aqueous or aeolian deposits. The glacial clays (boulder clays),
representing the ground moraines of ancient glacievs and ice sheets,
are characterized by the very variable size of their ingredients and
the striated, blunted sub-angular form of the larger rock frag-
ments. In them stratification is exceptional and fossils are very
rare.

The crystalline sedimentary rocks have been deposited from solu-
tion in water. The commonest types, such as rock-salt, gypsum,
anhydrite, carnallite, are known to have arisen by the „ . „
evaporation of enclosed saline lakes exposed to a dry ^ s a ae '
atmosphere. They occur usually in beds with layers of red clay and
marl; some limestones have been formed by calcareous waters
containing carbonate of lime dissolved in an excess of carbonic
acid ; with the escape of the volatile gas the mineral matter is pre-
cipitated (sinters, Sprudelstein, &c). Heated waters on cooling
may yield up part of their dissolved mineral substances; thus sili-
ceous sinters are produced around geysers and hot springs in many
parts of the world. There seems no reason to separate from these
the veinstones which fill the fissures by which these waters rise to
the surface. They differ from those above enumerated in being
more perfectly crystallized and in having no definite stratification,
but only a banding parallel to the more or less vertical walls of the
fissure. Another subdivision of this class of rocks is due to recrystal-
lization or crystalline replacement of pre-existing sediments. Thus
limestones are dolomitized or converted into ironstones, flints and
cherts, by percolating waters which remove the lime salts and
substitute for them compounds of iron, magnesia, silicon, and so on.
This may be considered a kind of metamorphism ; it is generally
known as metasomatism (q.v.).

The rocks of organic origin may be due to animals or plants.
They are of great importance, as limestones and coals belong to
this group. They are the most fossiliferous of all _ ,
rocks; but clastic sediments are often rich in fossils ^* a
though crystalline sediments rarely are. They may be sub-
divided, according to their dominant components, into calcareous,

332

PETROLOGY

Cement*
(ton.

carbonaceous, siliceous, ferruginous, and so on. The calcareous
organic rocks may consist principally of foraminifera, crinoids,
corals, brachiopoda, mollusca, polyzoa, &c. Most of them, however,
contain a mixture of organisms. By crystallization and metaso-
matic changes they often lose their organic structures ; metamorphism
of any kind has the same effect. The carbonaceous rocks are
essentially plant deposits; they include peat, lignite and coal.
The siliceous organic rocks include radiolarian and diatom oozes;
in the older formations they occur as radiolarian cherts. Flint
nodules owe their silica to disseminated fossils of this nature which
have been dissolved and redeposited by concretionary action.
Some kinds of siliceous sinter may be produced by organisms in-
habiting hot silicated waters. Calcareous oolites in the same way
may have arisen through the agency of minute plants. Bog iron
ores also may be of organic rather than of merely chemical origin.
The phosphatic rocks so extensively sought after as sources of fertil-
izing agents for use in agriculture are for the most part of organic
origin, since they owe their substance to the remains of certain
varieties of animals which secrete a phosphatic skeleton; but most
of them no longer show organic structures but have been converted
into nodular or concretionary forms.

All sediments are at first in an incoherent condition {e.g. sands,
clays and gravels, beds of shells, &c), and in this state they may
remain for an indefinite period. Millions of years have
elapsed since some of the early Tertiary strata gathered
on the ocean floor, yet they are quite friable (e.g. the
London Clay) and differ little from many recent accumulations.
There are few exceptions, however, to the rule that with increasing
age sedimentary rocks become more and more indurated, and
the older they are the more likely it is that they will have
the firm consistency generally implied in the term " rock." The
pressure of newer sediments on underlying masses is apparently
one cause of this change, though not in itself a very powerful
one. More efficiency is generally ascribed to the action of
percolating water, which takes up certain soluble materials and
redeposits them in pores and cavities. This operation is probably
accelerated by the increased pressure produced by superincumbent
masses, and to some extent also by the rise of temperature which
inevitably takes place in rocks buried to some depth beneath
the surface. The rise of temperature, however, is never very
great; we know more than one instance of sedimentary deposits
which have been buried beneath four or five miles of similar strata
(e.g. parts of the Old Red Sandstone), yet no perceptible difference
in condition can be made out between beds of similar composi-
tion at the top of the series and near its base. The redeposited
cementing material is most commonly calcareous or siliceous.
Limestones, which were originally a loose accumulation of shells,
corals, &c, become compacted into firm rock in this manner; and
the process often takes place with surprising ease, as for example
in the deeper parts of coral reefs, or even in wind-blown masses of
shelly sand exposed merely to the action of rain. The cementing
substance may be regularly deposited in crystalline continuity on
the original grains, where these were crystalline; and even in sand-
stones (such as Kentish Rag) a crystalline matrix of calcite often
envelopes the sand grains. The change of aragonite to calcite and of
calcite to dolomite, by forming new crystalline masses in the
interior of the rock, usually also accelerates consolidation. Silica
is less easily soluble in ordinary waters, but even this ingredient
of rocks is dissolved and redeposited with great frequency. Many
sandstones are held together by an infinitesimal amount of colloid
or cryptocrystalline silica; when freshly dug from the quarry they
are soft and easily trimmed, but after exposure to the air for some
time they become much harder, as their siliceous cement sets and
passes into a rigid condition. Others contain fine scales of kaolin
or of mica. Argillaceous materials may be compacted by mere
pressure, like graphite and other scaly minerals. Oxides and
carbonates of iron play a large part in many sedimentary rocks and
are especially important as colouring matters. The red Sands and
. limestones, for example, which are so abundant, contain

o ration. sma j[ amoun t s of ferric oxide (haematite), which in a
finely divided state gives a red hue of all rocks in which it is
present;. Limonite, on the other hand, makes rocks yellow or
brown; oxides of manganese, asphalt and other carbonaceous
substances are the cause of the black colour of many sediments.
Bluish tints result sometimes from the presence of phosphates or of
fluorspar; while green is most frequently seen in rocks which contain
glauconite or chlorite.

Metamorphic Rocks. — The metamorphic rocks, which form the
third great subdivision, are even more varied than the igneous
and tho sedimentary. They include representatives of nearly
all kinds of the other two classes, their common characteristic
being that they have all undergone considerable alterations in
structure or in mineral composition. The agencies of meta-
morphism (q.v.) are of two kinds — thermal and regional. In the
former case contact with intrusive igneous masses, such as
granite, laccolites or dikes, have indurated and recrystallized
the original rock. In the second case the actions are more

complex and less clearly understood; it is evident that pressure
and interstitial movement have had a powerful influence,
possibly assisted by rise of temperature. In thermal or contact
alteration the rocks are baked, indurated, and often in large
measure recrystallized. In regional metamorphism recrystal-
lization also goes on, but the final products are usually schists
and gneisses. It is as a rule not difficult to distinguish the
two classes of metamorphic rocks at a glance, and they may
conveniently be considered separately.

When a rock is contact altered by an igneous intrusion it very
frequently becomes harder, more crystalline and more lustrous,
owing to the development of many small crystals in its
mass. Many altered rocks of this type were formerly T "* rn, °"
called hornstones, and the term hornfdses (Ger. m ^ amor '
Hornfels) is often used by geologists to signify those p sm '
fine grained, compact, crystalline products of thermal metamor-
phism. A shale becomes a dark argillaceous hornfels, full of tiny
plates of brownish biotite; a marl or impure limestone changes to
a grey, yellow or greenish lime-silicate-hornfels, tough and splintery,
with abundance of augite, garnet, wollastonite and other minerals
in which lime is an important component. A diabase or andesite
becomes a diabase hornfels or andesite hornfels with a large
development of new hornblende and biotite and a partial recrystal-
lization of the original felspar. A chert or flint becomes a finely
crystalline quartz rock; sandstones lose their clastic structure and
are converted into a mosaic of small close-fitting grains of quartz.

If the rock was originally banded or foliated (as, for example, a
laminated sandstone or a foliated calc-schist) this character may not
be obliterated, and a banded hornfels is the product ; fossils even may
have their shapes preserved, though entirely recrystallized, and in
many contact altered lavas the steam cavities are still visible, though
their contents have usually entered into new combinations to form
minerals which were not originally present. The minute structures,
however, disappear, often completely, if the thermal alteration is very
profound; thus small grains of quartz in a shale are lost or blend
with the surrounding particles of clay, and the fine ground-mass of
lavas is entirely reconstructed.

By recrystallization in this manner peculiar rocks of very distinct
types are often produced. Thus shales may pass into cordierite
rocks, or may show large crystals of andalusite (and chiastolite,
PI. IV., fig. 9), staurolite, garnet, kyanite and sillimanite. A consider-
able amount of mica (both muscovite and biotite) is simultaneously
formed, and the resulting product has a close resemblance to many
kinds of schist. Limestones, if pure, are often turned into coarsely
crystalline marbles (PI. IV., fig. 4); but if there was an admixture
of clay or sand in the original rock such minerals as garnet, epidote,
idocrase, wollastonite, will be present. Sandstones when greatly
heated may change into coarse quartzites composed of large clear
grains of quartz. These more intense stages of alteration are not
so commonly seen in igneous rocks, possibly because their minerals,
being formed at high temperatures, are not so easily transformed or
recrystallized.

In a few cases rocks are fused and in the dark glassy product
minute crystals of spinel, sillimanite and cordierite may separate
out. Shales are occasionally thus altered by basalt dikes, and fels-
pathic sandstones may be completely vitrified. Similar changes
may be induced in shales by the burning of coal seams or even by
an ordinary furnace.

There is also a tendency for interfusion of the igneous with the
sedimentary rock. Granites may absorb fragments of shale or
pieces of basalt. In that case hybrid rocks arise which have not
the characters of normal igneous or sedimentary rocks. Such effects
are scarce and are usually easily recognized. Sometimes an invading
granite magma permeates the rocks around, filling their joints
and planes of bedding, &c, with threads of quartz and felspar.
This is very exceptional, but instances of it are known and it may
take place on a large scale.

The other type of metamorphism is often said to be regional;
sometimes it is called dynamic, but these terms have not strictly
the same connotation. It may be said as a rule to make _
the rock more crystalline and. at the same time to give *J e £' ona '
it a foliated, schistose or gneissic structure. This latter M f*8 mor "
consists in a definite arrangement of the minerals, so that p sm '
such as are platy or prismatic (e.g. mica and hornblende, which are
very common in these rocks) have their longest axes arranged parallel
to one another. For that reason many of these rocks split readily
in one direction (schists). The minerals also tend to aggregate
in bands ; thus there are seams of quartz and of mica in a mica schist,
very thin, but consisting essentially of one mineral. These seams
are called folia (leaflets) , and though never very pure or very persis-
tent they give the rock a streaked or banded character when they
are seen edgewise (PI. IV. figs. 6, 7, 8). Along the folia composed of
the soft or fissile minerals the rocks will sever most readily, and the
freshly split specimen will appear to be faced or coated with this
mineral; for example, a piece of mica schist looked at face wise might
be supposed to consist entirely of shining scales of mica. On the
edge of the specimen, however, the white folia of granular quartz

PETROLOGY

Plate IIL

Fig. i.— PHONOLITE, TEPLITZER Fig. 2.— LEUCITOPHYRE, RIEDEN,

SCHLOSSBERG, BOHEMIA (x 12). EIFFEL, GERMANY (x 15)

The large white crystal is felspar, the A porphyritic clear crystal of leuclte lies
smaller ones are nepheline having six-sided near the centre of the field; towards the
and four-sided sections. The dark mineral margins are nosean crystals with clear centres
in the ground-mass is aegirine. and broad black edges. The black spots are

aegirine and aegirine-augite, and in the
ground-mass small prisms of white nepheline
may be seen.

Fig. 4 -HYPERSTHENE-ANDESITE,
ALWYN, CHEVIOTS, ENGLAND
(x 10).

A porphyritic rock with phenocrysts of
white plagioelase felspar and of pale-brown
augite and hypersthene in a fine ground-mass,
partly glassy.

Fig. 3.— LEUCITE-BASANITE,VESUVIUS

(x8).

The rounded central crystal is leucite,
showing zones of inclusions and well-marked
cracks; below it is a dark-brown augite, and
olivine occurs near the bottom of the field.
There are numerous rectangular white sections
of plagioelase felspar. The dark ground-
mass is partly vitreous.

Fig. 5.— OLIVINE-BASALT, CRAIG-

LOCKART, EDINBURGH, SCOTLAND

(x 10).

Two large crystals of augite above and
below, and of olivine (right and left) lie in a
crystalline ground-mass of plagioelase fel-
spar, augite, and magnetite. The olivine has
been altered to fibrous green serpentine, and
the pseudomorphs show traces of the original
cleavage cracks.

Fig. 6— OPHITIC OLIVINE-DOLERITE
DUN FION, ARRAN, SCOTLAND.

The white mineral is plagioelase felspar,
which penetrates a large dark crystal of
augite in ophitic manner. At the bottom of
the field there are a few grains of olivine,
colourless, but with strongly marked cracks.

Fig. 7.— OLIVINE-GABBRO, VOLPERS-
DORF, SILESIA (x ioj.

Felspar occurs towards the edges of the
field and surrounds a cluster of diallage (with

strong, dark, parallel lamination) and of oli-
vine (covered with ajjlack network of second-
ary magnetite).

Fig. 8— PERIDOTITE, ELBA (x 10).

The rounded crystals arc olivine, weathering
as usual to magnetite and serpentine along its
cracks and borders. The dark interstitial
substance is enstatite weathered to bastite.

Fig. 9.— SERPENTINE, COLMONELL,
AYRSHIRE, SCOTLAND (x 12).

In this rock the process of serpentinization,
seen in the previous figure, is complete.
No olivine remains, but a meshwork of
magnetite indicates the position of the cracks
in the original crystals.

Pt.ate IV.

PETROLOGY

Fig. i. — PEBBLY GRIT, BANFF. SCOT-
LAND (x 12).

The white pebbles are quartz with irregular
cracks and streaks of fluid inclusions. The
matrix is a dark, semi-opaque mixture of clay
and small sand-grains.

Fig. 2.— VOLCANIC TUFF, ARTHUR'S
SEAT, EDINBURGH (x 8).

A fragmental volcanic rock with small
lapilh of basalt; these are vesicular and
contain little felspar crystals. Broken fel-
spars also lie scattered through the rock.

F1G.3.-CRINOIDAL LIMESTONE, (CAR-
BONIFEROUS), CLIFTON, NEAR
BATH, ENGLAND (x 10).

The oolitic grains are round or oval, with
concentric zoning; in their interior there is
sometimes a shell fragment or other nucleus.
The interstitial matrix is clear, granular,
crystalline calcite.

F^^T 7 ":

Fig. 4

ITALY

A section of well-known statuary marble
which consists entirely of calcite in small
irregular crystals closely fitted together.

S"""8i _.» - "*: * - '.:

Fig. 5.— OOLITIC CHERT (CAMBRIAN)
SUTHERLANDSHIRE, SCOTLAND

(x 15)-

Fig. 6.—MYLONITE DURNESS,
SUTHERLANDSHIRE (xf8).

..... , , ,. . ,. , This well-banded rock was once a crystalline

i his has been once an oolitic limestone, but gneiss which has been greatly crushed by

the calcite has been entirely replaced by silica earth-movements, and has been ground down

with perfect preservation of the oolitic into a fine aggregate of quartz, felspar, and

structure. m ica. The banding is due to internal flow

under great pressure.

Fig. -.-SLATE, WADEBRIDGE, CORN-
WALL (x 20).

A fine-grained clav rock with small clear
spots of quartz and minute scales of mica,
chlorite, &c. The parallel arrangement of the
latter is the cause of cleavage. Obscure dark
lines cut across the rock and indicate the
development of a secondary cross-cleavage or
slip-cleavage.

Fig. 8.— MICA-SCHIST, BLAIR-ATHOLL.
PERTHSHIRE, SCOTLAND (X32).

A clay rock like the preceding one, but more
metamorphic and coarsely crystalline. The
clear spots are quartz and the bladed mineral
between them is brown and white mica
(biotite and muscovite) .

Fig. 9. -CHIASTOLITE-SLATE,
SKIDDAW, CUMBERLAND (x 17).

A clay rock affected by contact meta-
morphism attended by the production of
needles of chiastolite, which have in transverse
section a diamond-shape with dark enclosures
at their centres and a dark cross radiating to
their corners.

PETRONEL— PETRONIUS

33.

will be visible. In gneisses these alternating folia are thicker and
less regular than in schists; they are often lenticular, dying out
rapidly. Gneisses also, as a rule, contain more felspar than schists
do, and they are tougher and less fissile. Contortion or crumpling
(PI. IV. fig. 6) of the foliation is by no means uncommon, and then
the splitting faces are undulose or puckered. The origin of schistosity
or foliation is not perfectly understood, but it is clear that in many
cases it is due to pressure, acting in a direction perpendicular to the
banding, and to interstitial movement or internal flow arranging
the mineral particles while they are crystallizing.

Rocks which were originally sedimentary and rocks which were
undoubtedly igneous are converted into schists and gneisses, and if
originally of similar composition they may be very difficult to dis-
tinguish from one another if the metamorphism has been great.
A quartz-porphyry, for example, and a fine felspathic sandstone,
may both be converted into a grey or pink mica-schist. Usually,
however, we may distinguish between sedimentary and igneous
schists and gneisses. Often the metamorphism is progressive, and
if the whole district occupied by these rocks be searched traces of
bedding, of clastic structure, unconformability or other evidence
may be obtained showing that we are dealing with a group of altered
sediments. In other cases intrusive junctions, chilled edges, con-
tact alteration or porphyritic structure may prove that in its original
condition a metamorphic gneiss was an igneous rock. The last
appeal is often to the chemist, for there are certain rock types which
occur only as sediments, while others are found only among igneous
masses, and, however advanced the metamorphism may be, it rarely
modifies the chemical composition of the mass very greatly. Such
rocks, for example, as limestones, calc-schists, dolomites, quartzites
and aluminous shales have very definite chemical characters which
distinguish them even when completely recrystallized.

The schists and gneisses are classified according to the minerals
they consist of, and this depends principally on their chemical
composition. We have, for example, a group of metamorphic
limestones, marbles, calc-schists and cipolins, with crystalline
dolomites; many of these contain silicates such as mica, tremolite,
diopside, scapolite, quartz and felspar. They are derived from
calcareous sediments of different degrees of purity. Another group
is rich in quartz (quartzites, quartz schists and quartzose gneisses),
with variable amounts of white and black mica, garnet, felspar,
zoisite and hornblende. These were once sandstones and arenaceous
rocks. The graphitic schists may readily be believed to represent
sediments once containing coaly matter or plant remains; there
are also schistose ironstones (haematite-schists), but metamorphic
beds of salt or gypsum are exceedingly uncommon. Among schists
of igneous origin we may mention the silky calc-schists, the foliated
serpentines (once ultrabasic masses rich in olivine), and the white
mica-schists, porphyroids and banded halleflintas, which have been
derived from rhyolites, quartz-porphyries and acid tuffs. The
majority of mica-schists, however, are altered clays and shales, and
pass into the normal sedimentary rocks through various types of
phyllite and mica-slates. They are among the most common meta-
morphic rocks; some of them are graphitic and others calcareous.
The diversity in appearance and composition is very great, but they
form a well-defined group not difficult to recognize, from the abun-
dance of black and white micas and their thin, foliated, schistose
character. As a special subgroup we have the andalusite-, stauro-
lite-, kyanite- and sillimanite-schists, together with the cordierite-
gneisses, which usually make their appearance in the vicinity of
gneissose granites, and have presumably been affected by contact
alteration. The more coarsely foliated gneisses are almost as
frequent as the mica-schists, and present a great variety of types
differing in composition and in appearance. They contain quartz,
one or more varieties of felspar, and usually mica hornblende or
augite, often garnet, iron oxides, &c. Hence in composition they
resemble granite, differing principally in their foliated structure.
Many of them have " augen " or large elliptical crystals, mostly
felspar bu1? sometimes quartz, which are the crushed remains of
porphyritic minerals; the foliation of the matrix winds around these
augen, closing in on each side. Most of these augen gneisses are
metamorphic granites, but sometimes a conglomerate bed simulates
a gneiss of this kind rather closely. There are other gneisses, which
were derived from felspathic sandstones, grits, arkoses and sedi-
ments of that order; they mostly contain biotite and muscovite,
but the hornblende and pyroxene gneisses are usually igneous rocks
allied in composition to the hornblende-granites and quartz-diorites.
The metamorphic forms of dolerite, basalt and the basic igneous
rocks generally have a distinctive facies as their pyroxene and olivine
are replaced by dark green hornblende, with often epidote, garnet
and biotite. These rocks have a well developed foliation, as the
prismatic hornblendes lie side by side in parallel arrangement. The
majority of amphibolites, hornblende-schists, foliated epidiorites
and green schists belong to this group. Where they are least
altered they pass through chloritic schists into sheared diabases,
Baser gabbros and other rocks in which remains of the original
igneous minerals and structures occur in greater or less profusion.
Bibliography. — Most text-books of geology treat of petrology in
more or less detail (see Geology: § Bibliography). Elementary
books on petrology include F. H. Hatch, Petrology (5th ed., London,
1909) ; L. V. Pirsson, Rocks and Rock-minerals (New York, 1908) ;

J. D. Dana, Handbook of Mineralogy and Petrography (12th ed.,
New York, 1908) ; A. Harker, Petrology for Students (4th ed.,
Cambridge, 1908); G. A. J. Cole, Aids to Practical Geology
(6th ed., London, 1909). For rock minerals consult J. P. Iddings,
Rock Minerals (New York, 1906) ; A. Johannsen, Determination
of Rock-forming Minerals (New York, 1908) ; E. Hussak and
E. G. Smith, Determination of Rock-forming Minerals (2nd ed.,
New York, 1893); N. H. and A. N. Winchell, Optical Mineralogy
(New York, 1909). On the classification and origin of rocks
see A. Harker, Natural History of Igneous Rocks (London, 1909);
J. P. Iddings, Igneous Rocks, (New York, 1909) ; Cross, Iddings,
Washington and Pirsson, Quantitative Classification of Igneous
Rocks (Chicago, 1902) ; C. Van Hise, Metamorphism (Washington,
1904) ; A. P. Merrill, Rocks, Rock-weathering and Soils (London,
1897); C. Doelter, Petrogenesis (Brunswick, 1906); J. H. L. Vogt,
Silikatschmelzlosungen (Christiania, 1903); F. Fouque and A.
Michel Levy, Synthese des mineraux et des roches (Paris, 1882).
The principal authorities on the analysis and chemical composition
of rocks are J. Roth, Beitrdge zur Petrographie (Berlin, 1873-1884);
A. Osann, Beitrdge zur chemischen Petrographie (Stuttgart, 1903);
H. S. Washington, Manual of the Chemical Analysis of Rocks (New
York, 1904) and Chemical Analyses of Igneous Rocks (Washington,
1904) ; F. W. Clarke, Analyses of Rocks (Washington, 1904) ; Max
Dittrich, Anleitung zur Gesteinsanalyse (Leipzig, 1905) ; W. F. Hille-
brand, Analysis of Silicate and Carbonate Rocks (Washington, 1907).

The great systematic treatises on Petrology are F. Zirkel,
Lehrbuch der Petrographie (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1894, 3 vols.) ; H. Rosen-
busch, Mikroskopische Physiographie (4th ed., Stuttgart, 1909, 2 vols.)

Useful German handbooks include ; E. Weinschenk, P olarisations-
mikroskop, Gesteinsbildendc Mineralien and Gesteinskunde (2nd ed.,
Freiburg, 1907, &c.) ; R. Reinisch, Petrographisches Praktikum (2nd
ed., Berlin, 1907) ; H. Rosenbusch, Elemente der Gesteinslehre (3rd
ed., Stuttgart, 1909) ; A. Grubenmann, Die krystallinen Schiefer
(Berlin, 1907) ; F. Loewisson Lessing, Petrographisches Lexikon
(1893 and 1898, also a Fr. ed., 1901); F. Rinne, Praktische Gesteins-
kunde (2nd ed., Hanover, 1905).

The principal French works are E. Jannettaz, Les Roches (3rd
ed., Paris, 1900) ; F. Fouque 1 and A. Michel Levy, Mineralogie
micrographique (Paris, 1879); A.. Michel Levy and A. Lacroix, Les
Mineraux des roches (Paris, 1888) ; A. Lacroix, Mineralogie de la
France (I., II., Paris, 1893); and Les Enclaves des roches eruptives
(Macon, 1893).

British petrography is the subject of a special work by J. J. H.
Teall (London, 1888). Much information about rocks is contained
in the memoirs of the various geological surveys, and in Quart. J own.
of the Geol. Soc. of London, Mineralogical Magazine, Geological
Magazine, Tschermak's Mineralogische Mittkeilungen (Vienna),
Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie (Stuttgart), Journal of Geology
(Chicago), &c. (J. S. F.)

PETRONEL, a 16th or 17th century fire-arm, defined by
R. Barret ( Theorike and Practike of Modem Wanes, 1 598) as
a " horseman's peece." It was the fire-arm which developed
on the one hand into the pistol and on the other into the carbine.
The name (Fr. pelrinel for poitrinal) was given to the weapon
either because it was fired with the butt resting against the chest
(poitrine, Lat. pectus) or because it was carried slung from a belt
across the chest.

PETRONIUS (G. (P) 1 Petronius Arbiter), Roman writer of
the Neronian age. His own work, the Satirae, tells us nothing
directly of his fortunes, position, or even century. Some lines
of Sidonius Apollinaris refer to him and are often taken to imply
that he lived and wrote at Marseilles. If, however, we accept
the identification of this author with the Petronius of Tacitus,
Nero's courtier, we must suppose either that Marseilles was his
birthplace or, as is more likely, that Sidonius refers to the novel
itself and that its scene was partly laid at Marseilles. The chief
personages of the story are evidently strangers in the towns
of southern Italy where we find them. Their Greek-sounding
names (Encolpius, Ascyltos, Giton, &c.) and literary training
accord with the characteristics of the old Greek colony intheist
century a.d. The high position among Latin writers ascribed
by Sidonius to Petronius, and the mention of him beside
Menander by Macrobius, when compared with the absolute silence
of Quintilian, Juvenal and Martial, seem adverse to the opinion
that the Satirae was a work of the age of Nero. But Quintilian
was concerned with writers who could be turned to use in the

1 The MSS. of the Satirae give no praenomen. Tacitus's Petronius
is Gaius, though the elder Pliny and Plutarch call him Titus. The
name Arbiter, given him by later writers, is not an ordinary cog-
nomen; it may have been bestowed on him by contemporaries
from the fact that his judgment was regarded as the criterion of
good taste.

334-

PETRONIUS

education of an orator. The silence of Juvenal and Martial
may be accidental or it is possible that a work so abnormal in
form and substance was more highly prized by later generations
than by the author's contemporaries.

A comparison of the impression the book gives us of the
character and genius of its author with the elaborate picture
of the courtier in Tacitus certainly suggests the identity of the
two. Tacitus, it is true, mentions no important work as the
composition of his C. Petronius; such a work as the Satirae he
may have regarded as beneath that dignity of history which he
so proudly realized. The care he gives to Petronius's portrait
perhaps shows that the man enjoyed greater notoriety than was
due merely to the part he played in history. " He spent his
days in sleep, his nights in attending to his official duties or in
amusement, by his dissolute life he had become as famous as
other men by a life of energy, and he was regarded as no ordinary
profligate, but as an accomplished voluptuary. His reckless
freedom of speech, being regarded as frankness, procured him
popularity. Yet during his provincial governorship, and later
when he held the office of consul, he had shown vigour and
capacity for affairs. Afterwards returning to his life of vicious
indulgence, he became one of the chosen circle of Nero's intimates,
and was looked upon as an absolute authority on questions of
taste {arbiter eleganliae) in connexion with the science of luxurious
living." 1 Tacitus goes on to say that this excited the jealousy
of Tigellinus, an accusation followed, and Petronius committed
suicide in a way that was in keeping with his life and character.
He selected the slow process of opening veins and having them
bound up again, whilst he conversed on light and trifling topics
with his friends. He then dined luxuriously, slept for some
time, and, so far from adopting the common practice of flattering
Nero or Tigellinus in his will, wrote and sent under seal to Nero
a document which professed to give, with the names of his
partners, a detailed account of the abominations which that
emperor had practised.

A fact confirmatory of the general truth of this graphic
portrait is added by the elder Pliny, who mentions that just
before his death he destroyed a valuable murrhine vase to
prevent its falling into the imperial hands. Do the traits of
this picture agree with that impression of himself which the
author of the Satirae has left upon his work ? That we possess
therein part of the document sent to Nero is an impossible
theory. Our fragments profess to be extracts from the
fifteenth and sixteenth books of the Satirae: Petronius could
not have composed one-tenth even of what we have in the time
in which he is said to have composed his memorial to Nero.
We may be sure too that the latter was very frank in its language,
and treated Nero with far greater severity than the Banquet
treats Trimalchio. On the other hand, it is clear that the creator
of Trimalchio, Encolpius and Giton had the experience, the
inclinations and the literary gifts which would enable him to
describe with forcible mockery the debaucheries of Nero. And
the impression of his personality does in another respect corre-
spond closely with the Petronius of the Annals — in the union
of immoral sensualism with a rich vein of cynical humour and
admirable taste.

The style of the work, where it does not purposely reproduce
the solecisms and colloquialisms of the Vulgar rich, is of the
purest Latin of the Silver age. 8 Nor would there be any point
in the verses on the capture of Troy and the Civil War at any

1 Ann. xvi. 1 8.

2 The false taste in literature and expression fostered by the
declamationes is condemned by both Persius and Petronius on the
same grounds. Cf. too Pers. i. 121, hoc ego apertum, hoc ridere meum,
tarn nil, nulla tibi uendo Made with Sat. 52, meum intellegere nulla
pecunia uendo; Pers. ii. 9, si ebulliat patruus, praeclarum funus, el
si sub rastro crepet argenti miki seria with Sat. 88, Alius donum
promittit, si propinquum divitem extulerit, alius si thesaurum ejf oderit
and 42, homo animam ebulliit; Pers. iv. 26, arat . . . quantum non
milvus oberrat with Sat. 37, fundos habet qua milvi volant. Both use
the rare word baro. Animam ebullire occurs in Seneca's Apocolo-
cyntosis, and the verbal resemblances illustrate perhaps rather the
common use by both writers of the vulgar style. Cf . for resemblances
to the style of the younger Seneca and the date of the work in general,
Studer, Rh. Mus. (1843).

other era than that in which Nero's Troica and Lucan's Pharsalia
were fashionable poems. The reciting poet indeed is a feature
of a later age also, as we learn from Martial and Juvenal. But we
know from Tacitus that the luxury of the table, so conspicuous in
Trimalchio's Banquet, fell out of fashion after Nero {Ann. 3. 55).
Of the work itself there have been preserved 141 sections of a
narrative, in the main consecutive, although interrupted by
frequent gaps. The name Satirae, given in the best MSS.,
implies that it belongs to the type to which Varro, imitating
the Greek Menippus, had given the character of a medley of
prose and verse composition. But the string of fictitious narra-
tive by which the medley is held together is something quite
new in Roman literature. This careless prodigal was so happily
inspired in his devices for amusing himself as to introduce to
Rome and thereby transmit to modern times the novel based
on the ordinary experience of contemporary life 3 — the pre-
cursor of such novels as Gil Bias and Roderick Random. There
is no evidence of the existence of a regular plot in the fragments,
but we find one central figure, Encolpius, who professes to narrate
his adventures and describe all that he saw and heard, whilst
allowing various other personages to exhibit their peculiarities
and express their opinions dramatically.

The fragment opens with the appearance of the hero, Encolpius,
who seems to be an itinerant lecturer travelling with a companion
named Ascyltos and a boy Giton, in a portico of a Greek town,
in Campania. An admirable lecture on the false taste in literature,
resulting from the prevailing system of education, is replied to by a
rival declaimer, Agamemno, who shifts the blame from the teachers
to the parents. The central personages of the story next go through
a series of questionable adventures, in the course of which they are
involved in a charge of robbery. A day or two after they are present
at a dinner given by a freedman of enormous wealth, Trimalchio,
who entertained with ostentatious and grotesque extravagance
a number of men of his own rank but less prosperous. We listen to
the ordinary talk of the guests about their neighbours, about the
weather, about the hard times, about the public games, about the
education of their children. We recognize in an extravagant form
the same kind of vulgarity and pretension which the satirist of all
times delights to expose in the illiterate and ostentatious millionaires
of the age. Next day Encolpius separates from his companions
in a fit of jealousy, and, after two or three days' sulking and brooding
on his revenge, enters a picture gallery, where he meets with an old
poet, who, after talking sensibly on the decay of art and the inferior-
ity of the painters of the age to the old masters, proceeds to illustrate
a picture of the capture of Troy by some verses on that theme. This
ends in those who are walking in the adjoining colonnade driving
him out with stones. The scene is next on board ship, where
Encolpius finds he has fallen into the hands of some old enemies.
They are shipwrecked, and Encolpius, Giton and the old poet get
to shore in the neighbourhood of Crotona, where, as the inhabitants
are notorious fortune-hunters, the adventurers set up as men of
fortune. The fragment ends with a new set of questionable adven-
tures, in which prominent parts are played by a beautiful enchantress
named Circe, a priestess of Priapus, and a certain matron who leaves
them her heirs, but attaches a condition to the inheritance which
even Encolpius might have shrunk from fulfilling. 4 If we can sup-
pose the author of this work to have been animated by any other
motive than the desire to amuse himself, it might be that of convinc-
ing himself that the world in general was as bad as he was himself.
Juvenal and Swift are justly regarded as among the very greatest
of satirists, and their estimate of human nature is perhaps nearly
as unfavourable as that of Petronius; but their attitude towards
human degradation is not one of complacent amusement; their
realism is the realism of disgust, not, like that of Petronius, a realism
of sympathy. Martial does not gioat over the vices of which he
writes with cynical frankness. He is perfectly aware that they are
vices, and that the reproach of them is the worst that can be cast
on any one. And, further, Martial, with all his faults, is, in his
affections, his tastes, his relations to others, essentially human,
friendly, generous, true. There is perhaps not a single sentence
in Petronius which implies any knowledge of or sympathy with
the existence of affection, conscience or honour, or even the most
elementary goodness of heart.

3 For the whole question of possible predecessors and Petronius's
relation to the extant Greek romances see W. Schmid, " Der grie-
chische Roman " in Jahrbiicher fur das Mass. Altertum, &c. (1904).
One would certainly have expected the realistic tendency which
appears in the New Comedy, the Characters of Theophrastus and
the Mimes, to have borne this fruit before the first century of our
era.— (W. C. Su.)

4 Omnes qui in testamento meo legata habent praeter libertos
meos, hac conditione percipient quae dedi, si corpus meum in partes
conciderint et astante populo comederint (141).

PETROPAVLOVSK— PETRUCCI

335

Tha work has reached us in so fragmentary and mutilated a shape
that we may of course altogether have missed the key to it; it may
have been intended by its author to be a sustained satire, written in
a vein of reserved and powerful irony, of the type realized in our
modern Jonathan Wild or Barry Lyndon. Otherwise we must admit
that, in the entire divorce of intellectual power and insight from any
element of right human feeling, the work is an exceptional pheno-
menon in literature. For, as a work of original power, of humorous
representation, of literary invention and art, the fragment deserves
all the admiration which it has received. We recognize the arbiter
elegantiae in the admirable sense of the remarks scattered through
it on education, on art, on poetry and on eloquence. There is a true
feeling of nature in the description of a grove of plane-trees, cypresses
and pines:

" Has inter ludebat aquis errantibus amnis
Spumeus et querulo vexabat rore lapillos."
And some of the shorter pieces anticipate the terseness and
elegance of Martial. The long fragment on the Civil War does
not seem to be written so much with the view of parodying as of
entering into rivalry with the poem of Lucan. In the epigram
extemporized by Trimalchio late on in the banquet:
" Quod non expectes, ex transverso fit —
Et supra nos Fortuna negotia curat,
Quare da nobis vina Falerna, puer,"
we have probably a more deliberate parody of the style of verses
produced by the illiterate aspirants to be in the fashion of the day.
We might conjecture that the chief gift to which Petronius owed
his social and his literary success was that of humorous mimicry.
In Trimalchio and his various guests, in the old poet, in the culti-
vated, depraved and moody Encolpius, in the Chrysis, Quartilla,
Polyaenis, &c, we recognize in living examples the play of those
various appetites, passions and tendencies which satirists deal with
as abstract qualities. Another gift he possesses in a high degree,
which must have availed him in society as well as in literature — the
gift of story-telling ; and some of the stories which first appear in the
Satirae — e.g. that of the Matron of Ephesus — have enjoyed a great
reputation in later times. His style, too, is that cf an excellent
talker, who could have discussed questions of taste and literature
with the most cultivated men of any time as well as amused the most
dissolute society of any time in their most reckless revels. One
phrase of his is often quoted by many who have never come upon
it in its original context, " Horatii curiosa felicitas."

Authorities. — Until about 1650 only part of the Banquet of
Trimalchio, with the other fragments of the work, was known.
The best MS. of this type is a Leiden MS., a copy by Scaliger of one
which seems to have belonged to Cujacius. Marinus Statilius
(see, however, Ellis, Journal of Philology, 12, p. 266) discovered at
Trau in Dalmatia a MS. containing the whole Banquet, which was
first published at Padua in 1664.

The important editions are (1) with explanatory notes: Burmann
(Amsterdam, 1743, with Heinsius's notes), and, of the Cena only,
Friedlilnder (Leipzig, 2nd ed., 1906) and Lowe (Cambridge, 1904);
(2) with critical notes: Biicheler (Berlin, 1862, 4th ed., 1904).
Translations into German in Friedliinder's edition (Cena only),
into French By de Guerle (complete, in Garnier's Bibliotheque),
into English in Lowe's edition (Cena only) and Bohn's series (com-
plete). Lexicon to Petronius by Segebade and Lommatsch (Leip-
zig, 1898). Criticism, &c, in Haley, " Quaestt. Petron." (Harvard
Studies, 1891); Colligndn, £.tude sur Petrone (Paris, 1892); Emile
Thomas, L' F.nvers de la societe romaine d' apr'es Petrone (Paris, 1892);
\i\rze\, Der Dialog, ii. (Leipzig, 1895) ; Tyrrell, Latin Poetry (London,
1895); Norden, Antike. Kunstprosa i. (Leipzig, 1898); Henderson,
Life and Principate of the Emperor Nero (London, 1903) ; Dill, Roman
Society from Nero to MarcusAurelius(London,igo$) ; and the various
histories of Roman literature (especially Schanz, §§ 395 sqq.).

(W. Y. S.; W. C. Su.).

PETROPAVLOVSK, a town of West Siberia, in the govern-
ment of Akmolinsk, on the right bank of the Ishim river, and
on the great Siberian highway, 170 m. by rail W. of Omsk. The
population, 7850 in 1865, was 21,796 in 1900, of whom one-third
were Mahommedan Kirghiz. The town carries on an active
trade in cattle, furs, tea, wool, skins, cottons, woollen stuffs,
corn, metals, metallic wares and spirits. The small fort of
Petropavlovsk was founded in 1752, and was the military centre
of the Ishim line of fortifications.

Petropavlovsk is also the name of a Russian seaport in Kam-
chatka, on the eastern shore of the Bay of Avacha.in 53 N. and 158
44' E. Its harbour, one of the best on the Pacific, is little used, and
the town consists merely of a few huts with some 400 inhabitants.
Its naval institutions were transferred to Nikolayevsk after the
attack of the Anglo French fleet in 1854.

PETROPOLIS, a city of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,
in an elevated valley of the Serra de Estrella, 2634 ft. above
sea-level and 27 m. N. of the city of Rio de Janeiro, with which
it is connected by a combined railway and steamship line, and

also by a longer railway line. Pop. of the municipality (1900),
29,331, a large percentage being summer residents, as tl.e
census was taken late in December; (1902, municipal census;,
18,373. Petropolis is served by the Principe do Grao Paii
railway, now a part of the Leopoldina system, which connects
with Rio de Janeiro and Nictheroy on the coast, and with the
station of Entre Rios on the Central of Brazil railway, lis
altitude gives the city a cool invigorating climate, making it
a favourite summer residence for the well-to-do classes of Rio.
The rainfall is abundant, and especially so in summer (December
to March) when the humidity is extreme. Vegetation is luxu-
riant and comprises a great variety of tropical and sub-tropical
species. The city is built in a large, irregularly shaped basin
formed by streams which converge to form the Piabanha river,
a tributary of the Parahyba do Sul. Among the public
buildings are the old imperial palace, a modern summer resi-
dence of the national executive and a municipal hall. Although
Petropolis is not a commercial centre, its water-power and cool
climate are making it an important manufacturing town.
Among the products are cotton fabrics and garments, beer,
and Camembert and Brie cheeses.

Petropolis was founded in 1845 by Julius Frederick Koler
under the auspices of the emperor of Brazil, Dom Pedro II.,
on lands purchased by his father, Dom Pedro I., in 1822. The
place was previously known as Corrego Secco, which Dr George
Gardner described in 1837 as " a small, miserable village."
The first emperor planned to establish there a German colon}-,
but the plan was not realized until 1845, when about 2700
colonists from Germany were located there. Its growth was
slow, but the choice of the place by the emperor as a summer
residence drew thither many of the wealthy residents of the
capital. The Maua railway was opened to the foot of the serra
(Raiz da Serra) in 1854, and the macadamized road up the
serra to the town in 1856. The mountain section of the railway,
on the Riggenbach system, was completed in 1883. Petropolis
has since become the summer residence of the diplomatic
corps and of the higher officials of the Federal government, and
was the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro from 1893 to 1903.
PETROVSK, a seaport of Russia in Transcaucasia, on the
Caspian Sea, in the province of Daghestan, 180 m. by rail
E. of Vladikavkaz, and 235 m. N.W. from Baku. Pop. 9806.
The town has become the port of embarcation for Krasnovodsk.
the Transcaspian territory, and the Central Asian khanates.
There are naphtha wells; and the hot sulphur baths at Ak-gol
and Taiga, close by, attract many visitors in summer.

PETROVSK, a town of eastern Russia, in trie government
of Saratov, on the Medvyeditsa, a tributary of the Don, 60 m.
N.W. of the town of Saratov. Pop. (1864), 10,128; (1897),
13,212. It was founded by Peter the Great in 1098 as a
defence against the Kuban Tatars. Its industrial establishments
include distilleries, tanneries, tallow and brickworks.

PETROZAVODSK, a town and episcopal see of Russia,
capital of the government of Olonets, on the west shore of Lake
Onega, 190 m. N.E. of St Petersburg. Pop. (1865), 11,027;
(1897), 12,521. Two cathedrals, built towards the end of the
18th century, a mining school, an ecclesiastical seminary and
a government cannon-foundry are the chief public buildings
and institutions. Peter the Great founded ironworks here in
1703, but they continued in operation only twenty-four years.
The cannon-foundry was instituted in 1774. Petrozavodsk
became the capital of the government of Olonets in 1802.

PETRUCCI, PANDOLFO (d. 1512), tyrant of Siena, spent the
greater part of his youth in exile, on account of the civil strife by
which his native town of Siena was torn; but on the triumph of
the party of the Noveschi (those who supported the Council of
Nine) in 1487 he was able to return home. On the death of his
brother Giacopo, one of the most powerful men in the city,
Pandolfo succeeded to all the latter's offices and emoluments
(1497), thus becoming in fact if not in name master of Siena. By
his marriage with Aurelia, daughter of Nicola Borghese, another
very influential citizen, he still further strengthened his authority.
But he soon began to abuse his power by selling public office:, to

33 6

PETRUS AUREOLUS— PETTY

the highest bidders, or conferring them on his followers. A plot
was made to murder him, but he discovered the conspiracy in
time, and his own father-in-law, who had been leader of the
movement, was put to death. In 1498 he prevented the out-
break of war with Florence over the possession of Montepulciano,
which had been a bone of contention between the two cities for
over a hundred years. His attitude towards Cesare Borgia was
exceedingly astute; at first he assisted him, and obtained from
him with the favour of the French king the cession of Piombino;
but having subsequently aroused the suspicions of Borgia, the
latter attempted to suppress Petrucci by inviting him to the fatal
meeting of Senigallia. The Sienese tyrant, however, did not
fall into the trap, and although Borgia in 1502 obliged him to
quit Siena, he returned two months later, more powerful than
before. Petrucci supported Pisa in the war against Florence, but
eventually, through the intervention of the pope and of the king
of Spain, he made peace with the latter city, to which he gave
back Montepulciano in 1512. As a reward for this action
Pope Julius II. created his nephew cardinal. During his last
days Petrucci abdicated his authority in favour of his son
Borghese. He died at San Quirico di Osenna on the 21st of
May 1512.

See Pecci, Memorie storico-critiche di Siena (Siena, 1755); U. G.
Mondolfo, P. Petrucci signere di Siena (Siena, 1899).

PETRUS AUREOLUS (Oriol), scholastic philosopher and
monk of the Franciscan order, lived in the latter half of the 13th
century, and died in Paris in 13 21 just after his appointment as
archbishop of Aix. He was one of the first to attack the
realist doctrines of Duns Scotus, and is interesting mainly as the
precursor of William of Occam in his revival of Nominalism. His
ability earned for him the titles of Doctor Facundus and Doctor
Abundans.

PETTENKOFEN, AUGUST VON (1821-1889), Austrian painter,
born in Vienna, was brought up on his father's estate in Galicia.
Having decided to give up the military career on which he had
started, he devoted himself to painting, taking for his subjects
the simple scenes of the life on the dreary Puszta. His paintings
are treasured for their fine qualities of colour, and for the
sincerity with which the artist sets before us the uneventful
melancholy life of Hungarian peasants and gipsies — without any
theatrical pathos or forced humour. He was the inventor of the
Pettenkofen box, an appliance for dissolving and redistributing
cracked or discoloured varnish without friction or the dangerous
use of chemicals. He died in Vienna in 1889.

PETTENKOFER, MAX JOSEPH VON (1818-1901), Bavarian
chemist and hygienist, was born on the 3rd of December 1818
at Lichtenheim, near Neuburg. He was a nephew of Franz
Xaver Pettenkofer (1783-1850), who from 1823 was surgeon and
apothecary to the Bavarian court and was the author of some
chemical investigations on the vegetable alkaloids. He studied
pharmacy and medicine at Munich, where he graduated M.D. in
1843, and after working under Liebig at Giessen was appointed
chemist to the Munich mint in 1845. Two years later he was
chosen extraordinary professor of chemistry in the medical
faculty, in 1853 he received the ordinary professorship, and in
1865 he became also professor of hygiene. In 1894 he retired
from active work, and on the 10th of February 1901 he shot him-
self in a fit of depression at his home on the Starnberger See, near
Munich. In his earlier years he devoted himself to chemistry,
both theoretical and applied, publishing papers on the prepara-
tion of gold and platinum, numerical relations between the atomic
weights of analogous elements, the formation of aventurine
glass, the manufacture of illuminating gas from wood, the preser-
vation of oil-paintings, &c. The reaction known by his name for
the detection of bile acids was published in 1844. In his widely
used method for the quantitative determination of carbonic acid
the gaseous mixture is shaken up with baryta or lime water of
known strength and the change in alkalinity ascertained by means
of oxalic acid. But his name is most familiar in connexion with
his work in practical hygiene, as an apostle of good water, fresh
air and proper sewage disposal. His attention was drawn to this
subject about 1850 by the unhealthy condition of Munich.

Pettenkofer gave vigorous expression to his views on hygiene am
disease in numerous books and papers; he was an editor of thi
Zeitschrift fur Biologie from 1865 to 1882, and of the Archiv fii
Hygiene from 1883 to 1894.

PETTICOAT, an underskirt, as part of a woman's dress. Th<
petticoat, i.e. " petty-coat " or small coat, was originally a shor
garment for the upper part of the body worn under an oute:
dress; in the Promptorium parvulorum the Latin equivalent ii
lunicula. It was both a man's and a woman's garment, and wai
in the first case worn as a small coat under the doublet
and by women apparently as a kind of chemise. It was
however, early applied to the skirt worn by women hanging
from the waist, whether as the principal lower garment or as
an underskirt. In the middle of the 17th century the wide
breeches with heavy lace or embroidered ends worn by men
were known as " petticoat breeches," a term alsc applied to the
loose canvas or oilskin overalls worn by fishermen.

PETTIE, JOHN (1839-1893), Scottish painter, was born in
Edinburgh on the 17th of March 1839, the son of Alexander
and Alison Pettie. In 1852 the family removed to East
Linton, Haddingtonshire, and a portrait by the lad of the
village carrier and his donkey overcame his father's objections
to art as a career for his son. When sixteen he entered the
Trustees' Academy in Edinburgh, working under Robert Scott
Lauder with W. Q. Orchardson, J. MacWhirter, W. M'Taggart,
Peter Graham, Tom Graham and G. P. Chalmers. His first
exhibits at the Royal Scottish Academy were " A Scene from
the Fortunes of Nigel " — one of the many subjects for which
he sought inspiration in the novels of Sir Walter Scott — and
two portraits in 1858, followed in 1859 by " The Prison Pet."
To the Royal Academy in i860 he sent "The Armourers";
and the success of this work and ot " What d'ye Lack,
Madam ? " in the following year, encouraged him to settle in
London (1862), where he joined Orchardson. In 1866 he was
elected an Associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1874 received
full academical honours in succession to Sir Edwin Landseer.
His diploma picture was "Jacobites, 1745-" Pettie was a hard
and rapid worker, and, in his best days, a colourist of a high
order and a brilliant executant. In his early days he produced
a certain amount of book illustration. His connexion with
Good Words began in 1861, and was continued till 1864. With
J. MacWhirter he illustrated The Postman's Bag (Strahan,
1862), and Wordsworth's Poetry for the Young (Strahan, 1863).
His principal paintings, in addition to those already mentioned,
are " CromweU's Saints " (1862); " The Trio " (1863); " George
Fox refusing to take the Oath " (1864); " A Drumhead Court-
martial "(1865); "The Arrest for Witchcraft " (1866); "Treason"
(1867, now in the Mappin Art Gallery, Sheffield) ; " Tussle with a
Highland Smuggler " (1868); " The Sally " (1870); " Terms to
the Besieged " (1872); " The Flag of Truce " (1873); " Ho! Ho !
Old Noll" and "A State Secret" (1874); "A Sword and Dagger
Fight" (1877); " The Death Warrant " (1879); " Monmouth and
James II."(i882); " The Vigil " (1884, in the Chantrey Collec-
tion, National Gallery of British Art); " Challenged " (1885);
"The Chieftain's Candlesticks " (1886); "Two Strings to Her
Bow " (1887); " The Traitor " and " Sir Charles Wyndham as
David Garrick " (1888); and " The Ultimatum " and " Bonnie
Prince Charlie " (1892). Pettie died at Hastings on the 21st
of February 1893. In J 894 a selection of his work was included
in the Winter Exhibition of the Royal Academy. His portrait
by himself is in the Tate Gallery.

John Pettie, R.A. (London, 1908), by his nephew Martin Hardie,
gives the story of his life, a catalogue of his pictures, and fifty
reproductions in colours.

PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687), English statistician and
political economist, born on the 26th of May 1623, was the son
of a clothier at Romsey in Hampshire, and received his early
education at the grammar school there. About the age of
fifteen he went to Caen (Normandy), taking with him a little
stock of merchandise, on which he traded, and so maintained
himself whilst learning French, improving himself in Latin and
Greek, and studying mathematics and other sciences. On his
return to England he seems to have had for a short time a place

PETTY-OFFICER— PETWORTH

337

in the royal navy. He went abroad again in 1643, and remained
for three years in France and the Netherlands, pursuing his
studies. In Paris he read Vesalius with Hobbes, who was then
preparing his Tractalus opticus, and it is said that Petty drew
the diagrams for him. In 1647 Petty obtained a patent for the
invention of double writing, i.e. a copying machine. In politics
he espoused the side of the parliament. His first publication
was a letter to Samuel Hartlib in 1648, entitled Advice for the
Advancement of some Particular Parts of Learning, the object
of which was to recommerid such a change in education as would
give it a more practical character. In the same year he took
up his residence at Oxford, where he was made deputy professor
of anatomy, and where he gave instruction in that science and
in chemistry. In 1649 he obtained the degree of doctor of physic,
and was soon after elected a fellow of Brasenose College. He
gained some notoriety in 1650 by restoring to life a woman who
had been hanged for infanticide. In 165 1 he was made professor
of anatomy at Oxford, and also became professor of music at
Gresham College. In 1652 he went to Ireland, having been
appointed physician to the army in that country. In 1654,
observing that the admeasurement and division of the lands
forfeited in 1641 and granted to the soldiers had been " most
inefficiently and absurdly managed," he entered into a contract
to execute a fresh survey, which he completed in thirteen
months. 1 By this he gained £9000, and part of the money he
invested profitably in the purchase of soldiers' debentures. He
thus became possessor of so large a domain in the county of
Kerry that, according to John Aubrey, he could behold from
Mt Mangerton 50,000 acres of his own land. He set up iron-
works in that neighbourhood, opened lead-mines and marble-
quarries, established a pilchard fishery, and commenced a trade
in timber. Besides the office of commissioner of distribution
of the lands he had surveyed, he held that of secretary to the
lord-lieutenant, Henry Cromwell, and was also during two years
clerk of the council. In January 1658 he was elected to Richard
Cromwell's parliament as member for West Looe in Cornwall.
After the Restoration he returned to England and was favourably
received and knighted by Charles II., who was " much pleased
with his ingenious discourses," and who, it is said, intended to
create him earl of Kilmore. He obtained from the king a new
patent constituting him surveyor-general of Ireland. In 1663 he
attracted much notice by the success of his invention of a double-
bottomed ship, which twice made the passage between Dublin
and Holyhead, but was afterwards lost in a violent storm. He
was one of the first members of the Royal Society, and sat on
its council. He died in London on the 16th of December 1687,
and was buried in the church of his native place. His will, a
curious and characteristic document, is printed in Chalmers's
Biographical Dictionary.

His widow, Elizabeth (d. 1708), daughter of Sir Hardress
Waller (1604-1666), the Irish Cromwellian soldier and regicide,
was created Baroness Shelburne by James II. in 1688; and her
two sons were successively created earls of Shelburne, but on
their death without issue the Petty estates passed to their
sister, Anne, and after her marriage to the 1st earl of Kerry the
Shelburne title was revived in her son's favour (see under
Lansdowne, 1st Marquess).

Petty's Irish survey was based on a collection of social data
which entitles him to be considered a real pioneer in the science
of comparative statistics. He was also one of the first in whom
we find a tendency to a view of industrial phenomena which was
at variance with the then dominant mercantilist ideas, and he
exhibits a statesmanlike sense of the elements in which the
strength of a nation really consists. Roscher names him as
having, along with Locke and Dudley North, raised the English
school to the highest point it attained before the time of Hume.

1 The survey executed by Petty was, somewhat whimsically,
called the " Down Survey," because the results were set down in
maps; it is called by that name in Petty's will. He left in MS. a
lull account of the proceedings in connexion with it, which was
rflited by Sir Thomas A. Larcom for the Irish Archaeological
Society in 1851. The maps, some of which were injured by a fire
in 1711, are preserved in the Public Record Office, Dublin.

His Treatise of Taxes and Contributions contains a clear state-
ment of the doctrine that price depends on the labour necessarj
for production. Petty is much concerned to discover a fixed
unit of value, and he thinks he has found it in the necessary
sustenance of a man for a day. He understands the cheapening
effect of the division of labour. He states correctly the notion of
" natural and true " rent as the remainder of the produce of land
after payment of the cost of production; but he seems to have no
idea of the " law of diminishing returns." He has much that
is just on the subject of money: he sees that there may be an
excess of it as well as a deficiency, and regards the prohibition
of its exportation as contrary to sound policy. But he errs in
attributing the fall of the rate of interest which takes place in the
progress of industry to the increase in the quantity of money.
He protested against the fetters imposed on the trade of Ireland,
and advocated a union of that country with Great Britain.
Whilst the general tendency in his day was to represent England
as in a state of progressive decline — an opinion put forward
particularly in the tract entitled Britannia languens — Petty
declared her resources and prospects to be not inferior to those
of France.

A complete list of his works is given in the Athenae oxonienses.
The most important are: the Treatise of Taxes and Contributions
(1662, 1667 and 1685); Political Arithmetic, presented in MS. to
Charles II., but, because it contained matter likely to be offensive
to France, kept unpublished till 1691, when it was edited by Petty's
son Charles; Quantulumcunque, or a Tract concerning Money (1682);
Observations upon the Dublin Bills of Mortality in 1081 and the State
of that City (1683) ; Essay concerning the Multiplication of Mankind
( 1 686) ; Political A natomy of Ireland ( 1 69 1 ) . Several papers appeared
in the Philosophical Transactions. See Economic Writings of Sir
William Petty, ed. C. H. Hull (2 vols., 1899).

PETTY-OFFICER, the title in the navy of a large number of
minor (Fr. petit, small) officers, of less than commissioned or
warrant rank — such as the master-at-arms, sailmaker, caulker,
armourer, cook, &c. They were originally named, and removable,
by the captain.

PETUNIA, in botany, a genus of plants belonging to the
natural order Solanaceae and containing about 16 species, chiefly
South American (southern Brazil and Argentina). The garden
forms are derived from the white-flowered P. nyctaginiflora and
the violet- or purple-flowered P. violacea. The varieties of
petunia, especially the double forms, make admirable specimens
for pot culture.

Named or specially fine varieties are propagated by cuttings
taken from stock plants kept through the winter on a dry warm
shelf, and moved into a brisk moist heat in early spring ; the young
shoots are planted in pans Or pots filled with sandy soil, and, aided
by a brisk bottom heat, strike root in a few days. They are then
potted singly into thumb-pots, and when once established are
gradually hardened off, and afterwards repotted as required. The
shoots should be topped to make bushy plants, and their tops may
be utilized as cuttings. The single varieties are raised from seeds
sown in light sandy soil in heat, in the early spring, and very slightly
covered. The plants need to be prickedtiut or potted off as soon as
large enough to handle. Good strains of seeds supply plants suitable
for bedding; but, as they do not reproduce themselves exactly, any
sorts particularly required must be propagated, like the double
ones, from cuttings.

PETWORTH, a market town in the Horsham parliamentary
division of Sussex, England, 55 m. S.S.W. from London by
the London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901),
2503. The church of St Mary is Perpendicular, and contains
numerous memorials of members of the Percy family and others.
Petworth House, situated in a beautiful park, dates from the
1 8th century, and contains a magnificent collection of pictures.
At Bignor in the neighbourhood are remains of an important and
splendidly adorned Roman villa.

The first mention of Petworth (Peartingawyrth, Peteorde,
Puetewird, Pedewurde, Putteworth, Pytteworth, Petteworth)
occurs in a grant by Eardwulf, king of Northumbria, to St Peter's
Church, about 791. In the time of Edward the Confessor Petworth
was an allodial manor held by his queen Edith, and in 1086 Robert
Fitz-Tetbald held it of Roger Montgomery, earl of Shrewsbury.
It then included a church and a mill, and was rated at nine hides.
Through Queen Adelisa, Petworth came first into the hands of

33«

PEUTINGER— PEWTER

her steward, Reginald de Wyndsor, and was afterwards given I
to her brother Josceline, who held it of the honour of Arundel. I
Josceline married Agnes de Percy and assumed the surname of
Percy. The honour and manor of Petworth followed the descent
of this family until 1708. In 1377 Henry Percy was created earl
of Northumberland. The only daughter of the last earl married
Charles, duke of Somerset, in 1682, and Petworth descended
through their daughter Catherine to the earls of Egremont. The
adopted son of the third earl was created Baron Leconfield in
1850-

PEUTINGER KONRAD (1465-1547), German humanist and
antiquarian, was born at Augsburg. In 1497 he was town clerk
of his native place, and was on intimate terms with the emperor
Maximilian. He was one of the first to publish Roman inscrip-
tions, and his name remains associated with the famous Tabula
peutingcriana (see Map), a map of the military roads of the
western Roman Empire, which was discovered by Konrad Celtes,
who handed it over to Peutinger for publication. Peutinger also
edited the Historia Gothorum of Jordanes, and the Historia
gentis Langobardorum of Paulus Diaconus.

The Tabula peutingeriana was first published as a whole by
F. de Scheyb (1753); later editions by E. Desjardins (1869-
1874) and C. Miller (1888); see also E. Paulus, Erklarung der Peu-
tinger Tafel (1867); and Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature
(Eng. trans., 1900).

PEVENSEY, a village in the Eastbourne parliamentary
division of Sussex, England, 65 m. S.S.E. from London by the
London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901),
468. The village is a member of the Cinque Ports, but the sea
has receded a mile from it in historic times. The outer wail,
with solid towers, of the celebrated castle, is of Roman construc-
tion, and originally enclosed a complete oval; it is generally
considered to have enclosed the strong town of Anderida. Within
rise the fine ruins, principally of the 13th century, but in part
Norman, of the castle proper, with a keep and four massive
round towers. The church of St Nicholas, close to the castle,
shows beautiful Early English work. It has been supposed that
Pevensey was the scene oi the landing of Caesar in 55 B.C., but the
question is disputed.

The name of Pevensey (Paevenisel, Pevensel, Pevenes, Pemsey)
first occurs in a grant of land there by the south Saxon Duke
Berthuald to the abbey of St Denis in 795. In later Saxon times,
at least by the reign of Edward the Confessor, it was a royal
borough and had a harbour and a market. Its early importance
was due to its fencible port. It was the landing place of William
the Norman on his way to conquer, and was the caput of the rape
of Pevensey, which was granted by William to the earl of Mortain
and subsequently became the Honour of the Eagle. Some time
before the reign of Edward I. the town of Pevensey was made
a member of Hastings and shared the liberties of the Cinque
Ports, but apart from them it possesses no charter. It was
governed by a bailiff and twelve jurats, elected annually, until
by an act of 1883 it ceased to exist as a borough. Its seal
dates apparently from the reign of Henry III. The gradual
decline of Pevensey was complete in the 15th century and
was caused by the recession of the sea and consequent loss of the
harbour.

PEW (Mid. Eng. puwe, through 0. Fr. puya, put, mod. puy,
in the sense of hill, cf. appuyer, to lean against; from Lat. podium,
a high place, balcony; Gr. ttoSlov, pedestal, irovs, foot), a term,
in its most usual meaning, for a fixed seat in a church, usually
enclosed, slightly raised from the floors, and composed of wood
framing, mostly with ornamented ends. Some bench ends are
certainly of Decorated character, and some have been considered
to be of the Early English period. They are sometimes of plain
oak board, 2^ to 3 in. thick, chamfered, and with a necking
and finial generally called a poppy head; others are plainly
panelled with bold cappings; in others the panels are ornamented
with tracery or with the linen pattern, and sometimes with
running foliages. The large pews with high enclosures, curtains,
&c, known familiarly as " horse-boxes," and common in English
parish churches during the 18th and early part of the 19th
centuries, have nearly all been cleared away. The parish church

of Whitby, in Yorkshire, is perhaps the best surviving example of
an unaltered interior.

The Latin word podium was particularly applied to a balcony
or parapet next to the arena in the Roman theatre where the emperor
and other distinguished persons sat. According to Du Cange
(Glossarium, s.v. podium), it is found in medieval Latin for a
bench (subsellium) for the minor canons at a church in Lyons (1343),
and also for a kneeling stool in a monastic church. The word
" pew " in English was often used for a stall for the minister, for a
reading desk, or for a pulpit. The floor space of the nave and tran-
septs of medieval churches was usually .open, mats being sometimes
provided for kneeling, and if any fixed seats were provided these
would be for the patrons of the church or for distinguished people.
Some enclosed seats, however, seem to have been reserved for women,
as is seen in Piers Plowman, ch. vii. 144, " Among wyves and wodewes
ich am ywoned sitte yparroked in puwes." They did not come into
general use till the middle of the 15th or beginning of the 16th
century (see Gasquet, Parish Life in Medieval England, (1906, pp. 62
and 133). Over the few seats thus allotted dispute arose and
attempts were made to appropriate them. Thus the constitutions
for the synod of Exeter, drawn up by Bishop Peter Quivel in 1287,
forbid any one " to claim any sitting in the church as his own. . . .
Whoever first comes to pray, let him take what place he wishes in
which to pray."

At common law all seats in a parish church are for the common
use of all the parishioners, and every parishioner has a right to a
seat without paying for it. The disposition of the seats is in the
discretion of the churchwardens acting for the ordinary for the
purpose of orderly arrangement (as to the exercise of this dis-
cretion see Reynolds v. Monckton, 1841, 2 M. & R. 384), and this
can be exercised in cases where all the seats are free {Asher v.
Calcraft, 1887, 18 Q.B.D. 607). The right to a seat does not
belong to a non-parishioner. As against the assignment and
disposition of seats by the ordinary, acting through the church-
wardens, two kinds of appropriation can be set up (a) by the
grant of a faculty by the ordinary, and (b) by prescription, based
on the presumption of a lost facidty. Such faculties are rarely
granted now; they were formerly common; the grant was to a
man and his family " so long as they remain inhabitants of a
certain house in the parish "; the words " of a certain house " are
now usually omitted. The claim to a pew by prescription must
be in respect of a house in the parish; the right is subject to the
burden of repairing the pew; it is not an easement, nor does the
Prescription Act 1832 apply to it (see for the whole subject of a
claim by prescription Phillips v. Halliday, 1891, A.C. 228). The
letting of pews in parish churches became common in the 16th
century, but there are some earlier instances of the use, for
example at St Ewens, Bristol, in 1455 (Churchwardens' Accounts,
Sir J. Maclean, Trans. Bristol and Gloucester Archaeol. Assoc, vol.
xv., 1890-1891). The taking of pew rents in parish churches is
illegal (Lord Stowell, in Walter v. Gunner, 1798, 3 Hag. Consist.
817); but under the various Church Building Acts seats may be
let and rents charged to pay the salary of the minister, &c.

See A. Heales, History and Law of Church Seats and Pews (1872) ;
Phillimore, Eccles. Law (1896), ii. 1424 seq.

PEWTER, a general name used to denote a number of alloys
of various metals in diverse proportions, the sole common feature
of which lies in the fact that tin is always the chief constituent.
The etymology of the word is doubtful, but it is probably an
English modification of spelter, which was adopted with more or
less local alteration by the continental European nations, who
at an early period were eager purchasers of the ware, becoming
peauler in Dutch, peutre, peautre or piautre in French, peltro in
Italian and peltre in Spanish. Roman pewter, the oldest known,
which has been disinterred at various places in England and
elsewhere, was composed of tin and lead alone, for the occasional
traces of iron are believed to be accidental, in proportions which,
though varying considerably, group themselves around two
definite formulae, one containing 71-5 parts of tin to 27-8 of
lead, the other 78-2 of tin to 21-7 of lead, or one libra of tin to
4j and 3 unciae of lead respectively. On the European continent
in the middle ages, some ten centuries later than the supposed
date of the Roman pewter found in Britain, when we first get
definite records of the composition of pewter, lead remained
the chief, if not the only secondary ingredient. In 1437 the
pewterers of Montpelier added 4 parts of lead to 96 of tin,

PEZENAS— PFAFF

339

when making dishes and porringers 10 parts of lead to 90 of
tin for salt-cellars and ewers; those of Limoges used 4 parts of
lead to 100 of tin; at Nuremberg in 1576 it was ordained that
not more than 1 lb of lead should be mixed with every 10 lb
of tin; in France during the 18th century a limit of 15% of
lead was imposed, while at the present time 16-5 % with a margin
of 1-5 for errors is regarded as safe for the storage of wine and
consequently legal.

In England the earliest known ordinances for the regulation
of the craft were drawn up in 1348 and received the approval
of the mayor and aldermen. From them we learn that for
rounded vessels lead might be mixed with the tin in the pro-
portion of 26 lb to each hundredweight, though this quantity
appears to have been found excessive, since in 1351 a pewterer
was punished because his alloy contained more than 16 lb
to the hundredweight, unless this be a clerical error in the
contemporary records of the Pewterers' Company. Articles
made of this material were to be known as " vessels of tyn for
ever " but the alloy soon came to be known as " ley." Another
formula, however, authorized in the same document, would
appear to have been at that time an exclusively English secret,
to which was presumably due the universal recognition of the
superiority of the island wares which is so notable a fact in the
history of pewter. It was known as " fyne peauter " and used
for dishes, saucers, platters, chargers, and for all " things that
they make square," such as cruets, chrismatories, &c, which
owing either to the rough usage they would be submitted to, or
to the sharpness of their angles, called for greater toughness in
the material. The recipe for this alloy as originally propounded
was as much brass to the tin " as it wol receiuve of his nature,"
but the lack of precision in this perhaps rendered it difficult to
distinguish accidental variations from deliberate adulteration,
and in 1474-1475 it was resolved that 26 lb of brass must
be mixed with every hundredweight of tin. The penalties for
infringement of the rules were severe and frequently enforced,
but in spite of them alterations and improvements crept in.
The chief and perhaps the earliest of these was the addition of a
certain proportion of bismuth, or as it was then called " tin
glass." When this was first used is not recorded, but by 1561
it was accepted as a matter of course; in 1630 a maker " was
found in fault for not sufficiently tempering his metal with tin
glass"; and in 1653 it was ordered that 3 lb weight of tin
glass at least must be mixed with every 1000 lb of tin. Anti-
mony was subsequently introduced — though there is no mention
of it in the records of the Pewterers' Company — sometimes
alone as in tin and temper (i-6 to 150 parts) and trifle (17 parts
to 83 of tin), sometimes with other metals as in hard metal
(96 parts of tin, 8 of antimony and 2 of copper), a mixture
very closely resembling that still used under the name of " Brit-
annia metal," and in plate pewter (100 parts of tin, 8 of antimony,
4 of copper and 4 of bismuth). The wares were originally fash-
ioned iu two ways, by hammering or by casting, and the workers
in each were strictly differentiated, the former, who worked in
fine pewter, being known as Sadware men, the latter who used
" ley " as Hollow-ware men. A third class, known as Triflers,
from the alloy they were limited to, probably at first only manu-
factured such small articles of domestic use or ornament as did
not definitely fall under either of the other headings, but from an
authorized list of wares, drawn up by a committee of Triflers in
161 2, it is clear that the barrier between them and the Hollow-
ware men had been largely broken down. Another method of
working pewter which seems to have been introduced later, and
never followed to any great extent, was spinning, by which the
vessel was shaped in a mould on a wheel by the mere pressure of a
Dlunt tool, the softness of the metal allowing of its flowing
sufficiently for this purpose.

Pewter first appears in history in 1074, when a synod at Rouen
permitted its use as a substitute for gold or silver in church vessels,
a concession accepted also at Winchester two years later, again
withdrawn in 1175, but once more tacitly adopted some twenty
years after. The records of its domestic use commence with the
caldrons employed for boiling the meat at the coronation of

Edward I. in 1274, though we gather that the trade was even
then flourishing in Paris and Bruges, whence during the following
century it extended to Augsburg, Nuremberg, Poitiers, Mons and
other continental centres. Confined at first to the more wealthy
classes, we can trace as time goes on its extension lower and
lower in the social scale, until at the end of the 17th century its
use was almost universal. Thenceforward its vogue steadily
declined. The growing cheapness of glass and chinaware and the
invention of more showy metals brought upon it by degrees the
fatal stigma of vulgarity, until with very few exceptions its
manufacture entirely ceased.

Artistically, pewter was at its best when its makers were least
conscious of the art revealed in it, thinking more of the durability
and appropriateness to purpose of their wares than of their
decorative qualities. Though intentionally ornamental vessels
may be found earlier, it was not until the 18th century that
the pewterers set themselves to slavishly copying the designs
and methods of the silversmiths, whether suitable to their
material or not, and thereby undoubtedly hastened their own
downfall.

Of recent years pewter has taken its place among the articles
sought after by collectors, and its cost has so materially and
rapidly increased that the manufacture of vessels, guaranteed
of course genuinely antique, bids fair to become once more
a paying industry. Unfortunately the various enactments
compelling each maker to stamp his ware with a definite touch-
mark seem at all times to have been very generally evaded or
ignored, and experience alone is therefore the only safe guide
to distinguishing new from old.

Bibliography. — History of the Worshipful Company of Pewterers
of the City of London, by Charles Welch (London, 1902) ; Pewter Plate,
by R. J. L. Masse (London, 1904) ; Scottish Pewter Ware and Pew-
terers, by L. Ingleby Wood (Morton, Edinburgh, n.d.); Old Pewter,
by Malcolm Bell (Newnes, London, n.d.) ; Les Metaux dans I'anti-
quile et au moyen age. L'Etain, by Germain Bapst (Paris, 1884);
Dictionnaire de V ameublement et de la decoration, by Henri Havard;
Ilistoire du mobilier, by Albert Jacquemart (Paris, 1877); " Analysis
of Roman Pewter," by W. Gowland, Archaeologia, vol. lvi. (1898);
Pewter Marks and Old Pewter Ware: Domestic and Ecclesiastical,
by Christopher A. Markham (1909). (M. Be.)

PEZENAS, a town of southern France, in the department of
Herault 33 m. W.S.W. of Montpellier on the southern railway.
Pop. (1906), 6432. The commerce in cognac, spirits and wines
is so important that the prices current for these at the weekly
sales are registered throughout .the wine marts of France and
Europe. There is a handsome monument to Moliere, who lived
at Pezenas several years and produced his first plays there in 1655
and 1656. A gateway (15th century) and old mansion of the
15th and 16th centuries are of interest.

Pezenas (Piscennae) was founded by the Gauls. In the
10th century it became the capital of a countship subsequently
held by important families including those of Montmorency,
Conde and. Conti. In the 17th century the town was on several
occasions the meeting place of the estates of Languedoc.

PFAFF, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1765-1825), German mathe-
matician, was born on the 22nd of December 1765 at Stuttgart.
He received his early education at the Carlsschule, where he met
F. Schiller, his lifelong friend. His mathematical capacity was
early noticed; he pursued his studies at Gottingen under Abraham
Gotthelf Kastner (1719-1800), and in 1787 he went to Berlin and
studied practical astronomy under J. E. Bode. In 1788 Pfaff
became professor of mathematics in Helmstedt, and so continued
until that university was abolished in 18 10. From that time till
his death on the 21st of April 1825 he held the chair of mathe-
matics at Halle. Pfaff's researches bore chiefly on the theory of
series, to which he applied the methods of the so-called combina-
torial school of German mathematicians, and on the solution of
differential equations. His two principal works are Disquisitiones
analytical maxime ad calculum integralem et doctrinam serierum
pertinentes (4to., vol. i., Helmstedt, 1797) and " Methodus
generalis, acquationes differentiarum particularum, necnon
aequationes differentiates vulgares, utrasque primi ordinis inter
quotcumque variabiles, complete integrandi " in Abh. d. Berl.
Acad. (1814-1815). The former work contains Pfaff's discussion

34°

PFALZBURG— PFORTA

of a certain differential equation which generally bears his
name, but which had originally been treated in a less complete
manner by L. Euler (see Differential Equations). The latter
work contains an important addition to the theory of partial
differential equations as it had been left by J. L. Lagrange.

His brother, Johann Wilhelm Andreas Pfaff (1774-1835),
was professor of pure and applied mathematics successively at
Dorpat, Nuremberg, Wiirzburg and Erlangen. Another brother,
Christian Heinrich Pfaff (1773-1852), graduated in medicine
at Stuttgart in 1793, and from 1801 till his death was professor
of medicine, physics and chemistry at the university of Kiel.

PFALZBURG, a town of Germany, in the imperial province of
Alsace-Lorraine, lies high on the west slopes of the Vosges, 25 m.
N.W. of Strassburg by rail. Pop. (1905), 3716. It contains an
Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a synagogue and a
teachers' seminary. Its industries include the manufacture of
gloves, straw hats and liqueurs, and also quarrying.

The principality of Pfalzburg, of which this town was the
capital, originally a part of Luxemburg, afterwards belonged in
turn to the bishop of Metz, the bishop of Strassburg and the
duke of Lorraine, and passed into the possession of France in
1 66 1. The town was of importance as commanding the passes
of the Vosges, and was strongly fortified by Vauban in 1680.
The works resisted the Allies in 1814 and 181 5, and the Germans
for four months in 1870, but they were taken on the 12th of
December of that year. They have since been razed.

PFEIFFER, FRANZ (181 5-1868), German scholar, was born at
Bettlach near Soleure on the 27th of February 1815. After
studying at the university of Munich he went to Stuttgart,
where in 1846 he became librarian to the royal library. In
1856 Pfeiffer founded the Germania, a quarterly periodical
devoted to German antiquarian research. In 1857, having
established his fame as one of the foremost authorities on
German medieval literature and philology, he was appointed
professor of these subjects at the university of Vienna; and in
i860 was made a member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences.
He died at Vienna on the 29th of May 1868.

Among the many writings edited by him may be mentioned the
Barlaam und Josaphat of Rudolf von Ems (1843), the Edelstein of
Ulrich Boner (1844), Die deutschen Mystihsr des 14. Jahrhunderts
(1845-1857; new ed., 1906), the Buck der Natur of Konrad von
Megenberg, a 14th-century writer (1861), Die Predigten des Berthold
von Regensburg (1862), and the poems of Walther von der Vogel-
weide (1864; 6th ed. by K. Bartsch, 1880). Of his independent
writings the most important are Zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte,
Ober Wesen und Bildung der hofischen Sprache in mittelhochdeutscher
Zeit, Der Dichter des Nibelungenliedes, Forschung und Kritik auf
dem Gebiete des deutschen Altertums, and Altdeutsches Vbungsbuch.
A biographical sketch by Karl Bartsch is in Uhlands Briefwechsel
mil Freiherrn von Lassberg, edited by Franz Pfeiffer (1870).

PFEIFFER. IDA LAURA (1797-1858), Austrian traveller,
daughter of a merchant named Reyer, was born at Vienna on
the 14th of October 1797. In 1820 she married Dr Pfeiffer, a
lawyer of Lemberg, who subsequently incurred official persecu-
tion and was reduced to poverty. In her later life Mme
Pfeiffer devoted her limited means to travel. In 1842 she visited
Palestine and Egypt, and published an account of her journey in
Rcise ciner Wienerin in das Heilige Land (Vienna, 1843). In 1845
she set out to Scandinavia and Iceland, describing her tour in
two volumes, Reise nach dem skandinavischen Norden und der
Insel Island (Pest, 1846). In 1846 she started on a journey round
the world, visiting Brazil, Chile and other countries of South
America, Tahiti, China, India, Persia, Asia Minor and Greece,
and reaching home in 1848. The results were published in
Eine Frauenfahrt um die Well (Vienna, 1850). In 1851 she went
to England and thence to South Africa, intending to penetrate
into the interior; this proved impracticable, but she proceeded
to the Malay Archipelago, spending eighteen months in the
Sunda Islands and the Moluccas. After a visit to Australia,
Madame Pfeiffer proceeded to California, Oregon, Peru, Ecuador,
New Granada, the Missiones Territory, and north again to the
Great Lakes, reaching home in 1854. Her narrative, Meine
zweite Weltreise, was published at Vienna in 1856. In May of the
same year she set out to explore Madagascar, where at first she

was cordially received by the queen. But she unwittingly
allowed herself to be involved in a plot to overthrow the govern-
ment, and was expelled the country. She died at Vienna on
the 27th of October 1858.

The Reise nach Madagascar was issued in 1861 (Vienna), with a
biography by her son.

PFLEIDERER, OTTO (1839-1908), German Protestant theo-
logian, Was born at Stetten near Cannstadt in Wiirttemberg
on the 1st of September 1839. From 1857 to 1861 he studied at
Tubingen under F. C. Baur; and afterwards in England and
Scotland. He then entered the ministry, became repetent at
Tiibingen, and for a short time held a pastorate at Heilbronn
(1868). In 1870 he became chief pastor and superintendent at
Jena and soon afterwards professor ordinarius of theology, but
in 1875 he was called to the chair of systematic theology at
Berlin, having made his name by a series of articles on New Testa-
ment criticism and Johannine and Pauline theology, which
appeared in Adolf Hilgenfeld's Zeitschrijt fur wissenschaflliche
Theologie, and by his Der Paulinismus, published in 1873 (2nd
ed., 1890; Eng. trans., Paidinism: a Contribution to the History oj
Primitive Christian Theology, 2 vols., 1873, &c). Das Urchris-
tentum, seine Schriften und Lehren, in geschichtlichem Zusam-
menhang beschrieben was published in 1878 and considerably
enlarged for a second edition in 1902 -(Eng. trans., 1906). In
1890 appeared The Development of Theology since Kant, and its
Progress in Great Britain since 182$, which was written far
publication in England. A more elaborate work was his
Religionsphilosophie auf geschichtlichen Grundlage (1878; 2nd ed.,
enlarged, 1883-1884; Eng. trans., from 2nd German ed., The
Philosophy of Religion on the Basis of its History, 4 vols., 1886-
1888). " The Influence of the Apostle Paul on the Development
of Christianity " was the title of a course of Hibbert Lectures
given in London in 1885. In 1894 he delivered the GifTord
Lectures at Edinburgh, the subject being " The Philosophy and
Development of Religion." His later publications included:
The Early Christian Conception of Christ (1905), Die Entstehung
des Christentums (1905; Eng. trans., 1906), Religion und Religionen
(1906; Eng. trans., 1907), and Die Entwicklung des Christentums
(1907). He died on the 18th of July 1908, at Gross Lichterfelde,
near Berlin. In New Testament criticism Pfleiderer belonged
to the critical school which grew out of the impulse given by
F. C. Baur. But, like other modern German theologians, he
showed a greater disposition to compromise. All his work shows
a judicial tone of mind, and is remarkable for the charm of its
style.

Pfleiderer's younger brother Edmund (1842-1902) dis-
tinguished himself both in philosophy and theology. He too
entered the ministry (1864) and during the Franco-German
War served as army chaplain, an experience described in his
Erlebnisse tines Feldgeistlichen (1890). He was afterwards
appointed professor ordinarius of philosophy at Kiel (1873),
and in 1878 he was elected to the philosophical chair at
Tubingen. He published works on Leibnitz, empiricism and
scepticism in Hume's philosophy, modern pessimism, Kantic
criticism, English philosophy, Heraclitus of Ephesus and many
other subjects.

PFORTA, or Schulpforta, formerly a Cistercian monastery
dating from 1140, and now a celebrated German public school.
It is in the Prussian province of Saxony, on the Saale, 2 m.
S.W. of Naumburg. The remains of the monastery include the
13th century Gothic church, recently restored, the Romanesque
chapel (12th century) and other buildings now used as dormi-
tories, lecture rooms, &c. There is also the Fiirstenhaus, built in
1573. Schulpforta was one of the three Fiirstenschulen founded
in 1543 by Maurice duke, and later elector, of Saxony, the two
others being at Grimma and at Meissen. The property of the
dissolved monastery provided a good revenue for the new educa-
tional foundation, which now amounts to about £15,000 a year.
Free education is provided for 140 boys, the total number of
pupils being 185. After being in the possession of Saxony, Pforta
passed to Prussia in 181 5, and since this date the school has been
entirely reorganized.

PFORZHEIM— PHAEDRUS

34 1

PFORZHEIM, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of
Baden, at the confluence of the Nagold and the Enz, on the
northern margin of the Black Forest, 19 m. S.E. of Karlsruhe by
rail, and at the junction of lines to Wildbad and Ettlingen.
Pop. (1895), 33,345; (1905), 59,395, most of whom are Protestants.
Its most interesting buildings are the old palace of the margraves
of Baden, and the Schlosskirche, the latter an edifice of the
i2th-i5th centuries, containing the tombs and monliments of
the margraves. Pforzheim is the chief centre in Germany for
the manufacture of gold and silver ornaments and jewelry, an
industry which gives employment to about 22,000 hands,
besides which there are iron and copper works, and manu-
factures of chemicals, paper, leather, machinery, &c. A brisk
trade is maintained in timber, cattle and agricultural produce.

Pforzheim (Porta Hercyniae) is of Roman origin. From about
1300 to 1565 it was the seat of the margraves of Baden. It was
taken by the troops of the Catholic League in 1624, and was
destroyed by the French in 1689. The story of the 400 citizens
of Pforzheim who sacrificed themselves for their prince after
the battle of Wimpfen in May 1622 has been relegated by
modern historical research to the domain of legend.

See Coste, Die 400 Pforzheimer (1879); Brombacher, Der Tod der
400 Pforzheimer (Pforzheim, 1886); Stolz, Geschichte der Stadt
Pforzheim (Pforzheim, 1901).

PHAEDO, Greek philosopher, founder of the Elian school, was
a native of Elis, born in the last years of the 5th century B.C. In
the war of 401-400 between Sparta and Elis he was taken
prisoner and became a slave in Athens, where his beauty brought
him notoriety. He became a pupil of Socrates, who conceived
a warm affection for him. It appears that he was intimate with
Cebes and Plato, and he gave his name to one of Plato's dialogues.
Athenaeus relates, however, that he resolutely declined responsi-
bility for any of the views with which Plato credits him, and that
the relations between him and Plato were the reverse of friendly.
Aeschines also wrote a dialogue called Phaedo. Shortly after
the death of Socrates Phaedo returned to Elis, where his disciples
included Anchipylus, Moschus and Pleistanus, who succeeded
him. Subsequently Menedemus and Asclepiades transferred
the school to Eretria, where it was known as the Eretrian school
and is frequently identified {e.g. by Cicero) with the Megarians.
The doctrines of Phaedo are not known, nor is it possible to
infer them from the Platonic dialogue. His writings, none of
which are preserved, were in the form of dialogues. As to their
authenticity nothing is known, in spite of an attempt at selection
by Panaetius (Diog. Laert. ii. 64), who maintains that the
Zopyrus and the Simon are genuine. Seneca has preserved one
of his dicta (Epist. 94. 41), namely that one method of acquiring
virtue is to frequent the society of good men.

See Wilamowitz, Hermes, xiv. 189 seq.

PHAEDRA, in Greek legend, daughter of Minos and Pasiphae.
With her sister Ariadne she was carried off by Theseus to Athens,
and became his wife. On the way to Eleusis she met Hippolytus,
son of Theseus by a former wife (Hippolyte, queen of the Ama-
zons, or her sister Antiope), and fell in love with him. Finding
her advances rejected, she hanged herself, leaving behind a
letter in which she accused Hippolytus of having made dis-
honourable proposals. The same story, in the main, is told of
Bellerophon and Anteia. It formed the subject of tragedies by
Sophocles, Euripides (two, one of which is extant), Seneca and
Racine.

PHAEDRUS, Roman fabulist, was by birth a Macedonian and
lived in the reigns of Augustus, Tiberius, Gaius and Claudius.
According to his own statement (prologue to book iii.), not
perhaps to be taken too literally, he was born on the Pierian
Mountain, but he seems to have been brought at an early age to
Italy, for he mentions that he read a verse of Ennius as a boy at
school. According to the heading of the chief MS. he was a
slave and was freed by Augustus. He incurred the wrath of
Sejanus, the powerful minister of Tiberius, by some supposed
allusions in his fables, and was brought to trial and punished.
We learn this from the prologue to the third book, which is
dedicated to Eutychus, who has been identified with the famous

charioteer and favourite of Gaius. The fourth book is dedicated
to Particulo, who seems to have dabbled in literature. The dates
of their publication are unknown, but Seneca, writing between
a.d. 41 and 43 (Consol. ad Polyb. 27), knows nothing of Phaedrus,
and it is probable that he had published nothing then. His work
shows little or no originality; he simply versified in iambic
trimeters the fables current in his day under the name of "Aesop,"
interspersing them with anecdotes drawn from daily life, history
and mythology. He tells his fable and draws the moral with
businesslike directness and simplicity; his language is terse and
clear, but thoroughly prosaic, though it occasionally attains a
dignity bordering on eloquence. His Latin is correct, and,
except for an excessive and peculiar use of abstract words,
shows hardly anything that might not have been written in the '
Augustan age. From a literary point of view Phaedrus is
inferior to Babrius, and to his own imitator, La Fontaine; he
lacks the quiet picturesqueness and pathos of the former, and
the exuberant vivacity and humour of the latter. Though he
frequently refers to the envy and detraction which pursued him,
Phaedrus seems to have attracted little attention in antiquity.
He is mentioned by» Martial (iii. 20, 5), who imitated some of his
verses, and by Avianus. Prudentius must have read him, for
he imitates one of his lines (Prud. Cath. vii. 115; cf. Phaedrus,
iv. 6, 10).

The first edition of the five books of Phaedrus was published
by Pithou at Troyes in 1 596 from a manuscript now in the possession
of the marquis of Rosanbo. In the beginning of the 18th century
there was discovered at Parma a MS. of Perotti (1430-1480), arch-
bishop of Siponto, containing sixty-four fables of Phaedrus, of which
some thirty were new. These new fables were first published at
Naples by Cassitto in 1808, and afterwards (much more correctly)
by Jannelli in 1809. Both editions were superseded by the dis-
covery of a much better preserved MS. of Perotti in the Vatican,
published by Angelo Mai in 1831. For some time the authenticity of
these new fables was disputed, but they are now generally accepted,
and with justice, as genuine fables of Phaedrus. They do not form
a sixth book, for we know from Avianus that Phaedrus wrote five
books only, but it is impossible to assign them to their original
places in the five books. They are usually printed as an appendix.
In the middle ages Phaedrus exercised a considerable influence
through the prose versions of his fables which were current, though
his own works and even his name were forgotten. Of these prose
versions the oldest existing seems to be that known as the " Anony-
mus Nilanti," so called because first edited by Nilant at Leiden
in 1709 from a MS. of the 13th century. It approaches the text of
Phaedrus so closely that it was probably made directly from it.
Of the sixty-seven fables which it contains thirty are derived from
lost fables of Phaedrus. But the largest and most influential
of the prose versions of Phaedrus is that which bears the name of
Romulus. It contains eighty-three fables, is as old as the 10th
century, and seems to have been based on a still earlier prose version,
which, under the name of " Aesop," and addressed to one Rufus,
may have been made in the Carolingian period or even earlier.
About this Romulus nothing is known. The collection of fables
in the Weissenburg (now Wolfenbuttel) MS. is based on the same
version as Romulus. These three prose versions contain in all
one hundred distinct fables, of which fifty-six are derived from the
existing and the remaining forty-four presumably from lost fables
of Phaedrus. Some scholars, as Burmann, Dressier and L. Miiller,
have tried to restore these lost fables by versifying the prose versions.
The collection bearing the name of Romulus became the source
from which, during the second half of the middle ages, almost all
the collections of Latin fables in prose and verse were wholly or
partially drawn. A 12th-century version of the first three books
of Romulus in elegiac verse enjoyed a wide popularity, even into the
Renaissance. Its author (generally referred to since the edition
of Nevelet in 1610 as the " Anonymus Neveleti ") was long unknown,
but Hervieux has shown grounds for identifying him with Walther
of England, chaplain to Henry II. and afterwards archbishop of
Palermo.

Another version of Romulus in Latin elegiacs was made by Alex-
ander Neckam, born at St Albans in 1157. Amongst the collections
partly derived from Romulus the most famous is probably that in
French verse by Marie de France. About 1200 a collection of fables
in Latin prose, based partly on Romulus, was made by the Cistercian
monk Odo of Sherrington ; they have a strong medieval and clerical
tinge. In 1370 Gerard of Minden wrote a poetical version of Romulus
in Low German.

Since Pithou's edition in 1596 Phaedrus has been often edited and
translated ; among the editions may be mentioned those of Burmann
(1718 and 1727), Bentley (1726), Schwabe (1806), Berger de Xivrey
(1830), Orelli (1832), Eyssenhardt (1867), L. Miiller (1877) Ty "
(1885), and above all that of L. Havet (Paris, 1895).

Rica
For the

342

PHAER— PHAGOCYTOSIS

medieval versions of Phaedrus and their derivatives see L. Roth, in
Philologus, i. 523 seq. ; E. Grosse, in Jahrb. f. class. Philol., cv.
(1872); and especially the learned work of Hervieux, Les Fabulistes
latins depuis le siccle d'Augusle jusqu'a la fin du moyen Age (Paris,
1 884), 'who gives the Latin texts of all the medieval imitators (direct
and indirect) of Phaedrus, some of them being published for the
first time. (J. P. P.)

PHAER (or Phayer), THOMAS (15107-1560), English trans-
lator of Virgil, was educated at Oxford and at Lincoln's Inn. He
published in 1535 Nalura brevium, and in 1543 Newe Boke of
Presidents. He says on the title-page of his version of the
Aeneid that he was " solicitor to the king and queen's majesties,
attending their honourable council in the marches of Wales."
He settled at Kilgarran in Pembrokeshire, and combined the
study of medicine with his legal practice. He wrote several
medical works, and was admitted M.D. of Oxford in 1559. He
contributed to Sackville's Mirrour for Magistrates, "Howe
Owen Glendower, being seduced by false prophecies, toke upon
him to be Prince of Wales." In 1558 appeared The Seven First
Bookes of the Eneidos of Virgil converted into English Meter. He
had completed two more books in April 1560 and had begun the
tenth, but he died in the autumn of that year, leaving his task
incomplete. The translation was finished by Thomas Twyne in
1584. Phaer's translation, which was in rhymed fourteen-
syllabled lines, was greatly admired by his contemporaries, and
he deserves credit as the first to attempt a complete version,
the earlier renderings of Surrey and Gawain Douglas being
fragmentary although of greater poetic value.

PHAfiTHON (Gr. 4>aiduv, shining, radiant), in Greek mytho-
logy, the son of Helios the sun-god, and the nymph Clymene.
He persuaded his father to let him drive the chariot of the sun
across the sky, but he lost control of the horses, and driving too
near the earth scorched it. To save the world from utter
destruction Zeus killed Phaethon with a thunderbolt. He fell
to earth at the mouth of the Eridanus, a river of northern Europe
(identified in later times with the Po), on the banks of which his
weeping sisters, the Heliades, were transformed into poplars
and their tears into amber. This part of the legend points
to the mouth of the Oder or Vistula, where amber abounds.
Phaethon was the subject of a drama of the same name by
Euripides, of which some fragments remain, and of a lost tragedy
of Aeschylus (Heliades) ; the story is most fully told in the
Metamorphoses of Ovid (i. 750-ii. 366 and Nonnus, Dionysiaca,
xxxviii). Phaethon has been identified with the sun himself
and with the morning star (Phosphorus). In the former
case the legend is supposed to represent the sun sinking
in the west in a blaze of light. His identification with the
morning star is supported by Hyginus (Astron. ii. 42), where it
is stated that the morning (and evening) star was the son of
Cephalus and Eos (the father and mother of Phaethon according
to Hesiod, Theog. 984-986). The fall of Phaethon is a favourite
subject, especially on sarcophagus reliefs, as indicating the
transitoriness of human life.

See G. Knaack, " Quaestiones Phaethonteae," in Philologische
Untersuchungen (1885); F. Wieseler, Phaethon (1857); Wilamowitz-
M Ollendorff and C. Robert in Hermes, xviii. (1883); Frazer's
Pausanias, ii. 59; S. Reinach, Revue del' hist, des religions, lviii. (1908).

PHAGOCYTOSIS (Gr. <j>ayuv, to eat, devour, and (euros,
cell). Many cells of the body possess the property of engulfing
particles, a character to be associated with their power of
performing amoeboid movement. This property is termed
phagocytosis. Primarily this phagocytic power was simply the
means by which the cell took within its cell body food particles
which were ultimately digested and assimilated. In the higher
organisms, however, this property has been developed for different
purposes, and in pathology at the present day a meaning wider
than that above given is often included in the term. The
particle having been taken into the cell, one of three things may
happen. (1) The particle may consist of digestible material, in
which case the cell secretes a digestive fluid, a food vacuole is
formed, the particle is gradually dissolved by the secretion and
the products absorbed into the cell substance. (2) The particle
may be indigestible, in which case it is retained within the cell

body for a time and ultimately discharged. The particle
englobed may comprise almost any material, but if it is to serve
as a food it must be of animal or vegetable origin. At the time
of ingestion it may be dead or living. In the case in which it is
living the organism is first killed and then digested, or (3) the
organism may prove resistant, in which case it may multiply
and finally destroy the cell, when a number of organisms are set
free. This is one of the means by which, in the higher organisms,
a local infection may become distributed through the organism.
The digestion effected within a cell is fermentative in character.
Thus a proteolytic ferment has been prepared from the bodies of
amoebae — the ferment possessing fairly active properties both
in acid, neutral or alkaline media, but especially in the latter.

In studying the process of phagocytosis generally much infor-
mation may be gained as to its general characters by the study of
the processes of intracellular digestion in the simpler Inverte-
brates, a study largely extended by Metchnikoff and his co-
workers in the elaboration of Metchnikoff 's view of the nature of
immunity. Thus, to take an instance from the sponges. Food
substances, in the form of minute organisms, which have
penetrated the pores of the sponge are seized by the ciliated or
amoeboid cells lining those spaces, and are then killed and
digested. In this case also the process of digestion is proved
to be fermentative. It is teadily understandable that we should
find such cells on the external surface of an organism or on the
surface lining the alimentary tract, particularly in the latter
position. But in addition there are many cells within the body
in which phagocytic power is retained and markedly developed.
Such cells may be fixed or wandering cells. They are employed
for removing foreign material or debris which may occur within
a tissue. For instance, as the result of an injury, inflammatory
process, &c, cells and other structures of a tissue may be
destroyed. One of the processes of repair consists in the removal
of the resulting debris, which is effected by phagocytes. A
similar process is seen with red blood corpuscles which may have
escaped into a tissue through rupture of capillaries. Foreign
particles accidentally gaining admission to a tissue are in many
cases removed in a similar manner, e.g. soot particles which have
passed through the respiratory surface are then largely removed
by phagocytes and carried to the bronchial lymphatic glands.
Very commonly living organisms effect an entrance through
wound surfaces, the alimentary surface, &c, and one of the
processes employed for their destruction and removal is that of
phagocytosis.

As an illustration of the removal of foreign red blood corpuscles
we may take the experiments of Metchnikoff in which a small
drop of defibrinated blood of the goose was injected under
the skin of a snail. The corpuscles quickly spread through
the haemolymph of the snail, which by itself, however,
effects no change in them. At the end of several hours exami-
nation shows that the leucocytes of the snail have englobed a
large number of the red corpuscles. The following day intact
corpuscles can still be found in the haemolymph, but the major
number have already been devoured by the leucocytes. When
taken up by a phagocyte the red corpuscle becomes round and
its wall permeable. A vacuole is formed around the corpuscle,
in which dissolved haemoglobin can be seen; a part of this
haemoglobin also passes into the nucleus of the red corpuscle,
proving that it too has been profoundly altered. Many of the
nuclei are discharged. After some time the only parts of the
corpuscle remaining are pieces of the nucleus and the peripheral
layer of the corpuscle. Frequently the phagocytes, after having
devoured one or several red corpuscles, themselves become a prey
to their fellows. Analogous changes are observed in the tissues
of a mammal when blood which has been extravasated is being
removed, e.g. after a bruise. The first effect of the haemorrhage
is an exudative inflammation, during which leucocytes arrive in
large numbers and engulf the corpuscles. In the process of
digestion which follows the haemoglobin is altered and new
pigments formed from it. In mammals this pigment is dark red
or brownish, in the pigeon it is green. Finally the corpuscles
are completely digested. Analogous phenomena may be observed

PHALANGER

343

in connexion with the removal of cell debris resulting from any
injury. Numbers of phagocytes may be found at work in this
direction, for instance in the pus formed within an aseptic
abscess. Hence we may regard the phagocytes as acting as the
scavengers of the tissues.

In the instances we have been dealing with the phagocytes
are chiefly of the class of wandering cells and are brought to the
seat of their activity by the blood. In examining any tissue
where the process is going on it is seen that the phagocytes have
accumulated there in large numbers. They have been attracted
to the damaged area. The mechanism which effects this attrac-
tion is a chemical one — chemiotaxis. At the seat of the change
chemical substances are produced which act upon the phagocytes,
causing them to migrate towards the source — positive chemio-
taxis. Apparently the material dissolving from cell debris can
act in this manner. Thus if a capillary tube filled with a tissue
extract be inserted under the skin of an animal, within a short
time it will be found to be surrounded with numbers of leuco-
cytes, which may also ha-ve encroached into the tube itself.
As in other instances of chemiotaxis the same chemical stimulus
in a higher concentration may repel the cells — negative chemio-
taxis. Instances of this are especially frequent in relation to
micro-organisms and phagocytes, to which we may now turn.

That phagocytes can paralyse, kill and digest many micro-
organisms is the main fact in Metchnikoff's theory of the nature
of immunity. The reaction may be readily studied by injecting
a small quantity of a fluid culture of some mildly pathogenic
organism into the peritoneal cavity of an animal, and in the course
of an hour or so examining a smear from the surface of the
omentum, when an abundance of phagocytes enclosing the organ-
ism in different stages of digestion will be found. Or we may
adopt Leishman's method, in which a few drops of human blood
are diluted with saline solution and centrifuged. The layer of
white corpuscles is pipetted off, suspended in serum, and a
minute drop of a suspension of a pathogenic organism is added.
The preparation is then incubated at 37 C. for a quarter of an
hour. Upon examining a drop of this mixture a number of
bacteria are found within the phagocytes. Thus this attack and
destruction of bacteria by phagocytes may take place within the
body or by cells removed from the body. Whether or no a
phagocyte can engulf bacteria is dependent upon a number of
factors — partly specific properties of the phagocyte, partly
factors varying with the constitution of the body serum. Thus
Wright and Douglas, employing Leishman's method, have proved
that leucocytes do not take up bacteria freely unless the serum
in which they are suspended contain opsonins. They found, for
example, that leucocytes taken from a patient suffering from a
pyococci infection if suspended in normal human serum take
up the cocci abundantly, whereas if the same leucocytes are
suspended under similar conditions in the patient's own serum
the reaction may be almost absent. Further, leucocytes taken
from a normal individual and suspended in the patient's serum
are practically inactive, while the same phagocytes in normal
serum are very active. Exactly how the substance in the serum
acts is undecided, but it has been proved that there are in serum
substances which become fixed to bacteria and which render them
an easier prey to the phagocytes. This specific opsonin is used up
when the bacteria are added to the serum, so that if the bacteria
are subsequently removed the serum is no longer active. There
is evidence too that there is a multiplicity of opsonins. As to the
origin of the opsonins we have no certain evidence. It is sug-
gested that they are a secretion from the leucocytes themselves
and that it is an evidence of another and preliminary mode of
attack possessed by the leucocyte, viz. the discharge of a secre-
tion from the cell which is to damage or paralyse the bacterium
and thus enable the phagocyte to engulf it.

The mechanism of destruction of a bacterium once it has been
taken up by a phagocyte is probably, just as in the instance of
dead cellular material, one of intracellular digestion. The
bacterium before being engulfed is probably inert in most
instances, though it may yet prove too strong for the phagocyte.
The next stage we can trace is the formation of a vacuole around

the organism, or, if the latter be large, around a part of the
organism, and the part thus surrounded quickly shows signs of
destruction. For instance, its staining reactions become weaker.
When a part only of the organism is surrounded by a vacuole
the part thus surrounded soon ceases to stain, while the remain-
ing part stains normally, and we thus have a marked contrast
evidencing the two stages.

In the next place we must ask which are the cells possessing
phagocytic powers ? Leaving apart the cells lining the alimentary
tract (because we know practically nothing of their power in this
respect) a number of free cells possess amoeboid properties as
well as also a number of fixed cells. These latter are attached to
certain spots of a tissue, but are capable of throwing out processes
which can seize upon particles of foreign matter or even upon
certain elements of the same organism. Of this category
Metchnikoff distinguishes the nerve cells, the large cells of the
spleen pulp and of lymph glands, certain endothelial cells, the
neuroglia cells, and perhaps certain cells of connective tissues.
All these elements can under certain conditions act as phago-
cytes, and with the exception of the nerve cells all are of meso-
blastic origin. Those of greater importance on account of their
greater activity in this respect are the large splenic and lymph
cells, the neuroglia cells and certain endothelial cells. With
regard to the wandering cells Metchnikoff considers that some are
certainly non-phagocytic, for instance the lymphocytes. Accord-
ing to Metchnikoff it is only when these cells become older and
have developed a nucleus rich in chromatin and an abundant cell
body that these cells develop phagocytic properties. This is
the large hyaline leucocyte. The polymorphonuclear and the
eosinophil leucocyte are both phagocytes. Metchnikoff there-
fore divides the phagocytes into two classes — the microphages,
comprising the polymorphonuclear and the eosinophil cell, and
the macrophages, containing the large hyaline cell, the cell of the
splenic pulp, the endothelial cell and the neuroglia cell. From
further observation of these cells he concludes that the micro-
phages are chiefly concerned in opposing the micro-organisms of
acute infections, whereas the macrophages are chiefly concerned
in combating chronic infections. It is the macrophage also
which is concerned in removing cell debris, e.g. red corpuscles
from a haemorrhage or the red corpuscles of another animal which
may have been introduced experimentally.

Metchnikoff and his co-workers have shown that the two
principal groups of leucocytes are generally spread throughout
the vertebrates. Thus instances of each kind are found even in
the lamprey, though here their staining properties are feebler;
also cells which show but small differences from the analogous
cells of mammals are found in the alligator. (T. G. Br.)

PHALANGER, a book-name applied to the more typical
representatives of the group of diprotodont marsupial mammals,
including the cuscuses of tne Moluccas and Celebes, and the so-
called opossums of Australia, and thus collectively the whole
family Phalangeridae. (See Marstjpialia.)

Phalangers generally are small or medium-sized woolly-
coated marsupials, with Jong, powerful, and often prehensile
tails, large claws, and opposable nailless first hind toes. They
seem in the day to be dull and sleepy, but are alert at night.
They live mostly upon fruits, leaves and blossoms, although a few
feed habitually upon insects, and all relish, in confinement, an
occasional bird or other small animal. Several possess flying-
membranes stretched between their fore and hind limbs, by the
help of which they can make long and sustained leaps through
the air, like flying-squirrels; but the possession of these flying-
membranes does not seem to be any indication of special affinity,
the characters of the skull and teeth sharply dividing the flying
forms and uniting them with other species of the non-flying
groups. The skull (see fig. 1) is, as a rule, broad and flattened,
. with the posterior part swollen out laterally owing to the
numerous air-cells situated in the substance of the squamosal
•bones. The dental formula is very variable, especially as regards
the premolars, of which some at least in each genus are reduced
to functionless rudiments, and may even vary in number on the
two sides of the jaw of the same individual. The incisors are

344

PHALANGER

always f, the lower one very large and inclined forwards, and
the canines normally f, of which the inferior is always minute,
and in one genus generally absent. The molars number either
§ or -f. All the species here discussed are included in the
sub-family Phalangerinae, of which the distinctive features, as
well as those of the family Phalangerinae, are referred to under
Marsupialia.

The most generalized representatives of the group appear to be
the ring-tailed phalangers, constituting the genus Pseudochirus,
which is common to Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea, and

Fig. i. — Skull of Grey Cuscus {Phalanger orientalis).

includes at least half a score of species. The dentition is generally
i. |, c. I, p.+m. ?, but one upper incisor and the canine may be
wanting. The crowns of the molars show a crescentictstructure,
but they are said to retain the three primitive cusps, which are
fused in the other genera. The prehensile tail has its tip naked
for a short distance, and the whole of the terminal third and the
under surface of the remainder short-haired, the tip being generally
white. The hair is thick and woolly, and generally yellowish-olive
in colour. These phalangers are the ring-tailed opossums of the
Australians. From this genus is apparently derived the taguan
flying-squirrel, or flying-phalanger {Petauroides volans), which
ranges from Queensland to Victoria, and is the largest of the flying
group. Its dentition is essentially similar to that of Pseudochirus,
although there is one pair less of cheek-teeth, and the bushy tail is
naked and prehensile at the tip. Reverting to the non-flying species,
we have Gymnobelideus leadbeateri, a small animal from Victoria
representing a genus by itself, with the same dental formula as
Pseudochirus, but cheek-teeth of a different type, the ears naked
(instead of hairy) behind, glands on the chest and between the ears,
and the tail long and evenly bushy to the tip. From this are
evidently derived the flying-phalangers — flying-squirrels — of the
genus Petaurus, which differ merely in the possession of a para-
chute, and are represented by several species, ranging from
Australia (exclusive of Tasmania) to the Aru Islands, New Guinea,
and New Ireland. Of the yellow-bellied species, P. australis,
the habits are described by J. Gould as follows: " This animal is
common in all the brushes of New South Wales, particularly those
which stretch along the coast from Port Philip to Moreton Bay.
In these vast forests trees of one kind or another are perpetually
flowering, and thus offer a never-failing supply of the blossoms
upon which it feeds; the flowers of the various kinds of gums, some
of which are of great magnitude, are the principal favourites. Like
the rest of the genus, it is nocturnal in its habits, dwelling in holes
and in the spouts of the larger branches during the day, and dis-
playing the greatest activity at night while running over the small
leafy branches, frequently even to their very extremities, in search of
insects and the honey of the newly opened blossoms. Its structure
being ill adapted for terrestrial habits, it seldom descends to the
ground except for the purpose of passing to a tree too distant to be
attained by springing from the one it wishes to leave. The tops of
the trees are traversed by this animal with as much ease as the
most level ground is by such as are destined for terra firma. If
chased or forced to flight it ascends to the highest branch and
performs the most enormous leaps, sweeping from tree to tree with
wonderful address; a slight elevation gives its body an impetus
which with the expansion of its membrane enables it to pass to a
considerable distance, always ascending a little at the extremity of
the leap; by this ascent the animal is prevented from receiving
the shock which it would otherwise sustain."

A second species, P. sciureus, m some ways one of the most
beautiful of all mammals, is shown in fig. 2.

A precisely similar relationship exists between the tiny feather-
tailed phalanger, Distoechurus pennatus, of New Guinea, and the
equally minute pigmy flying-phalanger or flying-mouse, Acrobates
pygmaeus, of Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria; both
being characterized by the hairs of the tail forming a vane on each
side, as well as by tufts of long hairs at the base of the thinly-

haired ears. There are six pairs of cheek-teeth, of which the last
three are small and rounded, with blunted cusps, while the anterior
teeth are sharp and of insectivorous type. The pigmy flying-
phalanger feeds on honey from flowers and insects.

To some extent intermediate in structure between Acrobates
and Petaurus, although withouj: a parachute, are the beautiful little
dormouse-phalangers, as typified by Dromicia nana, which range
from Western Australia and Tasmania to New Guinea. They
appear to be a generalized type, which has died out where they have
come into competition with the more specialized forms. Although
unable to fly they are exceedingly active, and take long leaps from
bough to bough; externally they are characterized by their dormouse-

FlG. 2. — Squirrel Flying-Phalanger (Petaurus sciureus).

like form, large, thin, and nearly naked ears, without tufts inside
or at the base, sharp and rudimentary front claws and long sharp
hind ones, and mouse-like tail, which is furry at the base, then
scaly, and naked and prehensile at the tip. There may be either
six or seven pairs of cheek-teeth, of which the hinder carry four
small smooth cusps, and the first upper incisor is much longer than
the other two. The striped phalangers (Dactylopsila) are larger
animals, of the approximate size of a squirrel, easily recognized by
the longitudinal yellow and black striping of the fur, and the slender
and elongated fourth front toe. The typical D. trivirgata is
common to north Australia and New Guinea, but D. palpator,
which has the fourth toe still more elongated, is exclusively Papuan.
They have seven pairs of cheek-teeth, of which the four last are
oblong and four-cusped ; and the first lower incisor is longer than in
any other phalanger. They apparently feed on both leaves and
grubs, probably extracting the latter from crannies with the elon-
gated toe. The tail is more or less bare on the under side of the
tip.

The last group of the sub-family is represented firstly by the
cuscuses, or cususes (Phalanger), which are arboreal animals of the
approximate size of cats, and range from the Solomon Islands
through New Guinea and the Moluccas to Celebes, being, in fact,
the only Old World marsupials found westwards of New Guinea.
Externally they are characterized by their thick woolly fur, short
or medium ears, which are hairy outside, and sometimes inside as
well, by the naked and striated soles of the feet, and the long and
markedly prehensile tail, of which the basal half is furred like the
body, and the terminal half entirely naked. The number of cheek-
teeth varies, owing to the frequent absence of some of the front
ones, but there are generally seven pairs, of which the last four carry
crescents internally and cusps externally. About ten species are
known, of which the grey cuscus (P. orientalis) of Amboyna and
Timor was discovered about 300 years ago, and was thus the first
known Old World marsupial. In the spotted cuscus (P. maculatus)
the males are marked with orange and white, while the females are
uniformly greyish. Cuscuses are sleepy animals, feeding mainly
on leaves, but also devouring birds and small mammals.

Nearly allied to the cuscuses are the typical Australian phalangers,
or opossums, forming the genus Trichosurus. They differ from
the cuscuses, among other features, by the thick and non-tapering
tail being covered with bushy hair up to the extreme tip, which is
naked, as is a narrow line along the middle of the terminal third

PHALANX— PHALTAN

345

(or rather more) of the lower surface, by the presence of a gland
on the chest, and by the soles of the hind feet being hairy. In the
skull the upper canine is separated from the outermost incisor,
instead of close to it as in the cuscuses (fig. i). The best-known
species is the brush-tailed phalanger, or brush-tailed opossum
(T. vulpecula), of Australia, an animal of the size of a small fox,
represented in Tasmania by the brown phalanger (T. vulpecula
fuliginosus). The short-eared phalanger (T. canina) represents the
group in Southern Queensland and New South Wales. The dental
formula in both is t. f , c. I, p. |, m. f. These animals are wholly
arboreal and mainly nocturnal in their habits; and it is these which
form the chief game in " opossum-shooting " among the gum-trees
by moonlight.
The long-snouted phalanger is referred to under Marsupialia.

(R. L.*)

PHALANX (Gr. ^aXcryi;, of unknown origin), the name, in
Greek history of the arrangement of heavy-armed infantry in a
single close mass of spearmen (see Army: History). In anatomy,
the Latin plural phalanges is the term applied to the bones of
the finger and toe, and in botany to a group of united
stamen clusters. The term " phalanx " was adopted by
F. C. M. Fourier (q.v.) as the name of the socialistic community
living in a " phalanstery."

PHALARIS, tyrant of Acragas (Agrigentum) in Sicily, c. 570-
554 B.C. He was entrusted with the building of the temple
of Zeus Atabyrius in the citadel, and took advantage of his
position to make himself despot (Aristotle, Politics, v. 10).
Under his rule Agrigentum seems to have attained considerable
prosperity. He supplied the city with water, adorned it with
fine buildings, and strengthened it with walls. On the northern
coast of the island the people of Himera elected him general
with absolute power, in spite of the warnings of the poet
Stesichorus (Aristotle, Rhetoric, ii. 20). According to Sui'das he
succeeded in making himself master of the whole of the island.
He was at last overthrown in a general rising headed by
Telemachus, the ancestor of Theron (tyrant c. 488-472), and
burned in his brazen bull.

After ages have held up Phalaris to infamy for his excessive
cruelty. In his brazen bull, invented, it is said, by Perillus of
Athens, the tyrant's victims were shut up and, a fire being kindled
beneath, were roasted alive, while their shrieks represented the
bellowing of the bull. Perillus himself is said to have been the first
victim. There is hardly room to doubt that we have here a tradition
of human sacrifice in connexion with the worship of the Phoenician
Baal (Zeus Atabyrius) such as prevailed at Rhodes; when misfortune
threatened Rhodes the brazen bulls in his temple bellowed. The
Rhodians brought this worship to Gela, which they founded con-
jointly with the Cretans, and from Gela it passed to Agrigentum.
Human sacrifices to Baal were common, and, though in Phoenicia
proper there is no proof that the victims were burned alive, the
Carthaginians had a brazen image of Baal, from whose down-
turned hands the children slid into a pit of fire; and the story that
Minos had a brazen man who pressed people to his glowing breast
points to similar rites in Crete, where the child-devouring Minotaur
must certainly be connected with Baal and the favourite sacrifice
to him of children.

The story of the bull cannot be dismissed as pure invention.
Pindar (Pythia, i. 1 85), who lived less than a century afterwards,
expressly associates this instrument of torture with the name of
the tyrant. There was certainly a brazen bull at Agrigentum,
which was carried off by the Carthaginians to Carthage, whence
it was again taken by Scipio and restored to Agrigentum. In
later times the tradition prevailed that Phalaris was a naturally
humane man and a patron of philosophy and literature. He is
so described in the declamations ascribed to Lucian, and in the
letters which bear his own name. Plutarch, too, though he takes
the unfavourable view, mentions that the Sicilians gave to the
severity of Phalaris the name of justice and a hatred of crime.
Phalaris may thus have been one of those men who combine justice
and even humanity with religious fanaticism (Sui'das, s.v. ; Diod. Sic.
ix. 20, 30, xiii. 90, xxxii. 25; Polybius vii. 7, xii. 25; Cicero, De
Officiis, ii. 7, iii. 6).

The letters bearing the name of Phalaris (148 in number) are
now chiefly remembered for the crushing exposure they received at
the hands of Richard Bentley in his controversy with the Hon.
Charles Boyle, who had published an edition of them in 1695. The
first edition of Bentley's Dissertation on Phalaris appeared in 1697,
and the second edition, replying to the answer which Boyle published
in 1698, came out in 1699. From the mention in the letters of
towns (Phintia, Alaesa and Tauromenium) which did not exist in
the time of Phalaris, from the imitations of authors (Herodotus,
Democritus, Euripides, Callimachus) who wrote long after he was
dead, from the reference to tragedies, though tragedy was not yet
invented in the lifetime of Phalaris, from the dialect, which is not

Dorian but Attic, nay, New or Late Attic, as well as from absurdities
in the matter, and the entire absence of any reference to them by
any writer before Stobaeus (c. a.d. 500), Bentley sufficiently proved
that the letters were written by a sophist or rhetorician (possibly
Adrianus of Tyre, died c. a.d. 192) hundreds of years after the death
of Phalaris. Sui'das admired the letters, which he thought genuine,
and in modern times, before their exposure by Bentley, they were
thought highly of by some (e.g. Sir William Temple in his Essay on
Ancient and Modern Learning), though others, as Politianus and
Erasmus, perceived that they were not by Phalaris. The latest
edition of the Epistles is by R. Hercher, in Epistolographi graeci
(1873), and of Bentley's Dissertation byW.Wagner (with introduction
and notes, 1883) ; see especially R. C. Jebb, Life of Bentley (1882).

PHALLICISM, or Phallism (from Gr. #a\A6s), an anthropo-
logical term applied to that form of nature worship in which
adoration is paid to the generative function symbolized by the
phallus, the male organ. It is common among primitive
peoples, especially in the East, and had been prominent also
among more advanced peoples, e.g. the Phoenicians and the
Greeks. In its most elementary form it is associated with
frankly orgiastic rites. This aspect remains in more advanced
forms, but gradually it tends to give place to the joyous recog-
nition of the principle of natural reproduction. In Greece for
example, where phallicism was the essence of the Dionysiac
worship and a phallic revel was the origin of comedy (see also
Hermes), the purely material and the symbolical aspects no
doubt existed side by side; the Orphic mysteries had to the
intellectual Greeks a significance wholly different from that which
they had to the common people. Phallic worship is specially
interesting as a form of sympathetic magic: observing the
fertilizing effect of sun and rain, the savage sought to promote
the growth of vegetation in the spring by means of symbolic
sexual indulgence. Such were the rites which shocked Jewish
writers in connexion with the worship of Baal and Astaroth
(see Baal, and cf. Atargatis, Ishtar). The same principle is
at the root of the widespread nature worship of Asia Minor, whose
chief deity, the Great Mother of the Gods (q.v.), is the personifi-
cation of the earth's fertility: similarly in India worship is paid
to divine mothers. Generally it should be observed that phallic
worship is not specially or perhaps primarily paid to male deities,
though commonly the more important deity is accompanied by
a companion of the other sex, or is itself androgynous, the two
symbols being found together.

In the Dionysiac rites the emblem was carried at the head of
the processions and was immediately followed by a body of men
dressed as women (the ithy phalli) . In Rome the phallus was
the most common amulet worn by children to avert the evil
eye: the Latin word was fascinum (cf. Pliny, Nat. Hist. xix. 50,
satyrica signa; Varro, Ling. Lat. vii. 97, ed. Muller). Pollux
says that such emblems were placed by smiths before their
forges. Before the temple of Aphrodite at Hierapolis (q.v.)
were two huge phalli (180 ft. high), and other similar objects
existed in all parts of the ancient world both in statuary and in
painting. Among the Hindus (see Hinduism) the phallus is
called linga or lingam, with the female counterpart called yoni;
the linga symbolizes the generative power of Siva, and is a charm
against sterility. The rites classed together as Sakti puja
represent the adoration of the female principle. In Mexico,
Central America, Peru and other parts of America phallic
emblems are found. The tendency, however, to identify all
obelisk-like stones and tree-trunks, together with rites like
circumcision, as remains of phallic worship, has met with much
criticism (e.g. Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2nd ed.,
pp. 456 sqq.) ; ^

For authorities see works quoted under Religion: §§ A and B
ad fin.

PHALTAN, a native state of India, in the central division of
Bombay, ranking as one of the Satara jagirs. Area, 397 sq. m.;
pop. (1901), 45,739, showing a decrease of 31% in the decade.
The estimated revenue is £13,000, and the tribute £640. The
chief, whose title is nimbalkar, is a Mahratta, tracing his descent
to a grantee from a Delhi emperor in the 14th century. The
town of Phaltan is 37 m. north-east of Satara; pop. (1901),
0512-

346

PHANARIOTES— PHARISEES

PHANARIOTES, a name derived from Phanar, the chief
Greek quarter at Stamboul, where the oecumenical patriarchate
is situated, and applied to those members of families resident
in the Phanar quarter who between the years 171 1 and 1821
were appointed hospodars of the Danubian principalities; that
period of Moldo-Wallachian history is also usually termed the
Phanariote epoch. It is not to be understood as marking the
introduction into the principalities of the Greek element, which
had already established itself firmly in both provinces, to both of
which Greek princes had been appointed before the 18th century.
But whereas the Greek families of earlier introduction gradually
became merged in their country of adoption, the later immi-
grants retained their separate nationality and grew to be powerful
agents for furthering the spread of Graecism in the principalities.
The person raised to the princely dignity was usually the chief
dragoman of the Sublime Porte, and was consequently well
versed in contemporary politics and the statecraft of the Otto-
man government. The new prince, who was compelled to pur-
chase his elevation with a heavy bribe, proceeded to the country
which he was selected to govern, and of the language of which
he was in nearly every case totally ignorant, accompanied by a
horde of needy hangers-on; he and his acolytes counted on re-
couping themselves in as short a time as possible for their initial
outlay and in laying by a sufficiency to live on after the termina-
tion of the prince's brief authority. It was the interest of the
Porte to change the princes as often as possible, as the accession
donation thus became due more frequently. When, owing to the
numerous cases of treachery among the princes, the choice became
limited to a few families the plan was hit upon of frequently
shifting the prince from one province to the other: the prince of
Wallachia, the richer of the two principalities, was always ready
to pay a handsome douceur to avert his transfer to Yassy; the
prince of Moldavia was equally ready to bribe his supporters
at Constantinople to secure his appointment to Wallachia. To
raise funds to satisfy the rapacity of the Porte the princes became
past masters in the art of spoliation, and the inhabitants, liable
to every species of tax which the ingenuity of their Greek rulers
could devise, were reduced to the last stage of destitution. The
active part taken by the Greek princes in the revolt of 1820-21
induced the Porte to revert to the appointment of native
princes.

PHAN1AS, of Eresus in Lesbos, Greek philosopher, important
as an immediate follower of and commentator on Aristotle,
came to Athens about 332 B.C., and joined his compatriot,
Theophrastus, in the Peripatetic school. He wrote works entitled
Analytica, Categoriae and De inter pretalione, which were either
paraphrases or critical commentaries, and seem to have added
little to Aristotle's own writings. Alexander of Aphrodisias
refers to a work irpbs Aibdupov, and Athenaeus quotes from
another treatise, Against the Sophists. Outside philosophy, he
and Theophrastus carried on the physical investigations of
Aristotle; Athenaeus frequently quotes from a work on botany
which manifests great care in definitions and accuracy of obser-
vation. From Plutarch {Life of Themistocles) we learn that
he was regarded as an historian of importance. The chief of
his historical works is the Prytaneis Eresii, which was either a
history of his native place or a general history of Greece arranged
according to the period of the Eresian magistracy. He wrote
also works on the Tyrants of Sicily and on tyranny in general.
The value of these books is attested by the frequency with which
they are quoted on questions of chronology {e.g. by Plutarch,
Sui'das, Athenaeus). To the history of Greek literature he
contributed works on the poets and on the Socratics, both of
which are quoted.

He must be distinguished from another Phanias, a Stoic philo-
sopher, disciple of Posidonius. Diogenes Laertius mentions a
work of his wherein he compares Posidonius with Panaetius in
arguing from physical principles.

PHANOCLES, Greek elegiac poet, probably flourished about
the time of Alexander the Great. His extant fragments show
resemblances in style and language to Philetas, Callimachus and
Hermesianax. He was the author of a poem on paederasty.
A lengthy fragment in Stobaeus {Florilegium, 64) describes

the love of Orpheus for the youthful Calais, son of Boreas
and his subsequent death at the hands of the Thracian
women. It is one of the best extant specimens of Greek elegiac
poetry.

See N. Bach, Philetae, Hermesianaciis , et Phanodis reliquiae (1829) ;
L. Preller, Ausgewdhlte Aufsdtze aus dem Gebiete der classischen
Alterthumsivissenschaft (1864).

PHANTASMAGORIA, a name invented by a certain Philipstal
in 1802 (from Gr. 4>avTacrfj.a, phantasm, apparition; and ayopa,
assembly) for a show or exhibition of optical illusions produced
by means of the projecting lantern {q.v.). The word has since
been applied to any rapidly or strikingly changing scene, and
especially to a disordered or fantastic scene or picture of the
imagination.

PHARAOH (Par'oh), the Hebraized title of the king of Egypt
{q.v.), in Egyptian Per-'o; Pheron in Herodotus represents the
same. Its combination with the name of the king, as in Pharaoh-
Necho, Pharaoh-Hophra, is in accordance with contemporary
native usage: the name of the earlier Pharaoh Shishak (Sheshonk)
is rightly given without the title. In hieroglyphic a king bears
several names preceded by distinctive titles. In the IVth
Dynasty there might be four of the latter: (1) W\ identifying

him with the royal god Horus; the name is commonly written

in a frame |ij;|; m| representing the facade of a building,

perhaps a palace or tomb, on which the falcon stands. (2)

connecting him with the vulture and uraeus god-

desses, Nekhabi and Buto of the south and north. (3)

a hawk on the symbol of gold, signifying the victorious Horus.

(4) riiF) the old titles of the rulers of the separate king-
ed a

doms of Upper and Lower Egypt, to be read stni, " butcher(?) "
and byti, " beekeeper (?) " The personal name of the king
followed (4), and was enclosed in a cartouche (. > ap-
parently symbolizing the. circuit of the sun which alone
bounded the king's rule. Before the IVth Dynasty the car-
touche is seldom found: the usual title is (1), and (3) does not
occur. In the Vth Dynasty the custom began of giving the
king at his accession a special name connecting him with the sun :
this was placed in the cartouche after (4), and a fifth title was

added: (5) ^5=i Si-re, " son of the Sun-god," to precede

Si-re,

a cartouche containing the personal name. The king was briefly
spoken of by his title stni (see 4), or hnm-f, "his service," or Ity,
" liege-lord." These titles were preserved in the sacred writing
down to the latest age. An old term for the royal palace
establishment and estate was Per-'o, " the Great House, " and
this gradually became the personal designation of Pharaoh
(cf. the Grand Porte), displacing all others in the popular
language. (F. Ll. G.)

PHARI, a town of Tibet. It is supposed to be the highest and
coldest town in the world, being 15,000 ft. above the sea. As it
commands the road between the Chumbi Valley and Lhasa and
also one of the chief passes into Bhutan, Phari is of considerable
military importance, and is defended by a large fort or Jong,
which was occupied by the British expedition of 1904. Phari
Jong is supposed to have been built about 1500 A.D., and was
enlarged or rebuilt in 1792, under Chinese advice, as a defence
against the British. It has the appearance of a medieval castle,
and seems to have been built in imitation of the European
style.

PHARISEES, a sect of the Jews first mentioned by Josephus,
in his account {Ant. xiii. 5, 9) of the reign of Jonathan, the
brother and successor of Judas Maccabaeus. The name, which
may be translated " Separatists," indicates their devotion to
the ideal, enforced by Ezra and Nehemiah upon the reluctant
Jews, of a nation separate from all other nations in virtue of its

PHARMACOLOGY

347

peculiar relation to Yahweh (Neh. ix.). This ideal nation
consisted of all who were prepared to obey the Law of
Moses, irrespective of their natural descent. Consequently the
Pharisees, who seem to have been an order of religious teachers,
were concerned to make converts (proselytes), and some of their
greatest teachers were of non-Jewish parentage. They were
also concerned to insist upon the strict observance of the Law,
so far as it was compatible with the exigencies of ordinary life,
and to train disciples who should set"~a proper example to the
mass of the people.

The ideal of separation descended from the Great Synagogue
(Assembly) of the time of Ezra to the Synagogue of the Hasi-
daeans (Assidaeons), who allied themselves with Judas Macca-
baeus when his followers decided to suspend the law of the
Sabbath, in order that the true Jews might preserve themselves
from annihilation and survive to keep the Law as a whole. This
action of the Hasidaeans is clearly the practical outcome of the
principle which Josephus describes in the language of philosophy
as the characteristic of the Pharisees — " some things and not all
are the work of Fate " (Ant. xiii. 5, 9). Fate is the Stoic term
for God; and these forerunners of the Pharisees judged that the
time had come for them to take action rather than to wait
passively on God. But then and always the prime concern of the
Pharisees was the extension of God's sovereignty (the Kingdom
of God) throughout the world. God's will, which all men should
obey, was revealed in the Law, and though He might appoint
governors over them, He remained their King, and no governor
who was not a prophet — God's mere mouthpiece — could com-
mand their unquestioning obedience. When Judas reconquered
Jerusalem and re-dedicated the desecrated Temple, his work,
from the Pharisees' point of view, was done. The Temple-
worship was part and parcel of the Divine plan, and a legitimate
High Priest was necessary. Alanius was, therefore, welcomed
by the Hasidaeans, and only his treacherous murder of sixty of
their number taught them that any Syrian nominee was their
enemy. Later they acquiesced in the election of Simon to the
high-priesthood with the condition " until there should arise a
faithful prophet "; but some of them remonstrated against the
combination of the sacred office with the position of political
ruler in the person of John Hyrcanus as contrary to the precedent
set by Moses at his death. When Alexandra came to the throne
the Pharisees were the real rulers and imposed upon the people
the deductions from the written Law which formed the growing
body of their oral tradition. Their reign was long enough to
establish this tradition in respect of ritual, and even when this
golden age — as it seemed to later Scribes — was over they
exercised a paramount influence upon the common people.
They had learned to read God's will in the events of history, and
deduced (for example) the doctrine of the resurrection of the
dead from the death of the martyrs under Antiochus Epiphanes
and Alcimus. And what they learned from current history and
from the ancient history of the nation recorded in Scripture they
taught in the synagogues, which corresponded not merely to the
parish churches but also to the schools — day schools and Sunday
schools — of to-day. Apart from their control of public education,
their power was enhanced by their efforts to better the position
of women, and by their notorious leniency in the matter of
punishments. Everything — the repeated statements of Josephus
and the facts of Jewish history after a.d. 70 — goes to show that
the Pharisees moulded the religion of the people. Attempts
have been made in modern times to represent the Apocalyptists
as opposed to the Pharisees and as occupying the position in
popular estimation which Josephus ascribes to the Pharisees. But
for such representations there is no solid ground. Superficially
the language of apocalypses differs from that of rabbinic deci-
sions., and where the seer takes a comprehensive view of the ages
the rabbi legislates for particular cases. But even in the Talmud
the reign of Alexandra is described in apocalyptic language such
as is commonly applied to the future age, and if allowance be
made for the symbolism proper to revelations it is clear that
essentially the scribe and the seer have the same purpose and
even the same doctrines. The Pharisees were occupied with the

piecemeal realization of the dreams of their supposed opponents,
which gain a vague glory from their being far off.

The gospels generally have left upon the minds of men an
impression unfavourable to the Pharisees. They contain de-
nunciations attributed to our Lord and assigned — with obvious
injustice in some cases — to the scribes of this sect. It is to be
remembered that the Pharisees were the only sect of the Jews
who survived in Christian times and that the Pharisees were
never a homogeneous body possessed of a definite policy or body
of doctrine. Moreover it is clear that our Lord denounced not
all the Pharisees but the hypocrites only, as did the rabbis
whose sayings are reported in the Talmud and other Jewish
books. Again the third gospel in particular betrays relations
between the Pharisees and Jesus very different from those of the
common Christian view, which conjures up an impossible picture
of an absolute breach between the Prophet of Nazareth and
the whole corporation of the Pharisees as a result of a quarrel
with certain members of that dissident sect of independent
thinkers. Gamaliel and his pupil St Paul Are better representa-
tives of the non-hypocritical Pharisee; and the Pauline Epistles
or the writings of Philo are the best extant examples of the manner
and matter of their teaching. As for the denunciations, apart
from the charge of insincerity, it appears that the scribes in
question are pilloried for the defects — or the excesses — of their
qualities. Indeed they are corroborative evidence for the
reverence with which the Pharisees were regarded by the
people generally, and for the zeal with which they strove to
fulfil God's will as contained in the Law and elucidated by the
Tradition. (J. H. A. H.)

PHARMACOLOGY. Systematic writers on the subject differ
considerably in the exact meaning which they attach to the term
pharmacology (<j>hpixa.Kov, a drug; X670S, a discourse), some
making it much more comprehensive than others. Binz, for
instance, defines it as treating of the origin, nature, chemical
and physical qualities, physiological actions, and therapeutical
uses of drugs; in France and in Italy it is restricted to the mere
description of medicines and their preparations, the action and
uses of which as refnedies are included in the term therapeutics.
In English-speaking countries, and by the majority of German
writers, the meaning is now restricted to the study of the action
of chemical substances (as apart from foods) on all kinds of
animals, from bacteria up to man; it is, in fact, a comparative
study of the action of chemical bodies on invertebrate and verte-
brate animals. One of its practical aims is to obtain a wide and
accurate knowledge of remedial substances in relation to their
application in the treatment of disease, while another is to
discover new or improved remedies. This meaning of the word
has now become fixed in the English language by use and wont.
The term pharmaco-dynamics (4>a.p/xaKov, dvvafjus, power),
which is etymologically more correct, is often used as its equiva-
lent, but it has never become widely adopted. The study of
pharmacological actions was at first almost entirely confined
to those of remedial agents, and especially to the remedies in the
different national pharmacopoeias, but in many cases it has now
been extended to substances which are not used for curative
purposes. The introduction into practical use of many medi-
cines, such as paraldehyde, phenazone and strophanthus, has
followed the study of their actions on animals, and this tends
to be more and more the case. Pharmacology is a branch of
biology; it is also closely connected with pathology and bacteri-
ology, for certain drugs produce structural as well as functional
changes in the tissues, and in germ diseases the peculiar symptoms
are caused by foreign substances (toxins) formed by the infective
organisms present in the body. The effects of many of these
toxins bear a close resemblance to the action of certain well-
known drugs, as in the case of tetanus toxin and strychnine, and
are studied by the same methods of observation and research.
It is impossible also to dissociate pharmacology from clinical
therapeutics; the former investigates the agents which are used
in the treatment of disease, the latter is concerned with their
remedial powers and the conditions under which they are to
be used. Hence the word " pharmaco-therapy " has come into

348

PHARMACOLOGY

History.

use, and most of the newer standard textbooks combine together
the consideration of pharmacology and therapeutics. Pharma-
cology is also related to toxicology, as many remedial and other
agents are more or less poisonous when given in large doses, but
it does not include the detection, tests, and the other strictly
medico-legal aspects of poisoning.

Pharmacology proper began as the result of the application
of strictly experimental methods to physiology. The discovery
(early in the 19th century) that plants owe their
remedial and poisonous qualities to small quantities of
definite active principles, such as alkaloids and neutral bodies,
which can be extracted in a chemically pure condition, had also a
very important effect on its development. We meet first with
experiments made by investigators who perceived that observa-
tions on man and animals might lead to a better understanding
of the action of drugs. In 1676 Wepfer and Conrad Brunner
demonstrated on dogs the tetanizing action of nux vomica, and
similar rough experiments were repeated from time to time with
other substances by later investigators. In 1755 Menghini
published an elaborate study of the action of camphor on a great
variety of different kinds of animals. Albert von Haller (b.
1 70S) sought to elucidate the action of remedies by observations
on healthy men, and in 1767 William Alexander made experi-
ments on himself with drugs, which were, however, brought to
an abrupt termination by his nearly killing himself, In 1776
Daries, by observations on himself and on cats, established the
mydriatic action of belladonna and other atropaceous plants.
Hitherto no attempt had been made to determine what particular
parts of the body were especially affected by drugs, but Fontana
showed, in his great work (Florence, 1765) on the venom of the
viper and on other poisons, that the general symptoms were
brought about by an action on particular organs. He performed
more than six thousand experiments, more than four thousand
of which were on animals, and he determined the effects on the
heart and other important structures. These analytical methods
of research were well known to the second Monro in Edinburgh,
and to his pupils, one of whom, William Alexander, wrote a thesis
m 1790 entitled " De partibus corporis animalis quae viribus
opii parent." His methods were doubtless known also to the
French physiologist Magendie, who improved upon them, and
who in 1809 published a research on the Upas Tieute and other
strychnine-containing plants, in which he showed that their
effects were due to an action on the spinal cord. The researches
of his pupil, Claude Bernard, on curare, were equally exact and
logical, and have served as the model for many subsequent
investigations. In consequence, from the time of Magendie
pharmacology may be said to have been put on a more exact basis.
By the middle of the 19th century there were many workers on
the subject, and the actions of such drugs as digitalis, morphine,
alcohol, and many others had been frequently and minutely
investigated. About this time Buchheim, professor of materia
medica in Dorpat from 1846 to 1879, founded the first pharmaco-
logical laboratory on modern lines in Europe, and he introduced
a more rational classification of drugs than had hitherto been in
use, arranging them in groups according to their pharmaco-
logical actions. In the herbals and older treatises on materia
medica and therapeutics no explanation is usually offered of the
action of medicines, and in such works as that of Cullen (1789)
only a few of the more obvious actions are occasionally explained
according to the current theories of physiology and pathology.
In works such as Pareira's Elements of Materia Medica and Thera-
peutics (1842), the physiological effects of medicines are usually
described, but very briefly as compared with the materia medica.
At the present day most textbooks dealing with medicinal agents
and treatment devote a large part of their space to pharma-
cology, and a corresponding change has taken place in the
teaching of the subject in univeisities and medical schools.
Since Magendie's time numerous papers dealing with pharmaco-
logical subjects have appeared in the Journal of Anatomy and
Physiology, the Journal of Physiology, Virchow's Archiv, and the
principal medical periodicals of all countries. In 1873 the Archiv
filr experimentelle Patholvgie und Pharmakologie first appeared,

in 1895 the Archives Internationales de Pharmakodynamie, and
in 1909 The Journal of Pharmacology and Therapeutics "(pub-
lished at Baltimore, U.S.A.), all of which are chiefly or entirely
devoted to pharmacology.

The methods of research are essentially those employed by
physiologists, the action of substances being studied in the usual
way on bacteria, leucocytes, frogs, rabbits and other animals.
Not only are the general symptoms investigated, but it is neces-
sary to carry out experiments on the nerves, muscles, circulation,
secretions, &c, so as to get a more exact knowledge of the
reasons of the general action. It is true that many of these
animals react somewhat differently to drugs, both as regards each
other and as regards man, but for the most part the differences
are quantitative rather than qualitative. After carrying out a
series of observations on animals, the drug can be assigned to its
special group, and a good idea can be obtained of its possible
practical value or the reverse; hence there is a saving of time and
an avoidance of the necessity of testing its effects on man. The
action of a drug may be called direct when it acts on any part
to which it is immediately applied, or which it may
reach through the blood; and indirect when one organ Drug"."
is affected secondarily to another, as, for instance, in
strychnine poisoning when the muscles are violently contracted
as the result of the action of the alkaloid upon the spinal cord.
In a few cases the action is merely physical, but most frequently
it is chemical in its nature, and is exerted on the living cell, the
activity of which is either stimulated or depressed. In some
cases the substances actually enter into a chemical combination
with the protoplasm, which may be temporary or (much less
frequently) permanent; in other cases they seem simply to
modify or disturb the usual chemical activity of the cells. Pro-
longed or excessive stimulation invariably leads to depression
or paralysis, the tissues becoming fatigued, and from this con-
dition they may recover or they may not. When we come to
consider more in detail the results of these actions we find that
the various secretions of the body, such as the sweat, gastric
juice, bile, milk, urine, &c, may be increased or diminished;
that the heart may have its muscular or nervous apparatus
stimulated or depressed; that the nerve-centres in the brain,
medulla and spinal cord may be rendered more sensitive or the
reverse; and that the general metabolism of the body may be
altered in various ways. In addition, the fluid constituents,
such as the lymph and blood, may have their composition and
bulk considerably altered, while the special senses, the tempera-
ture, and, in short, every function and tissue, may be more or
less affected.

Some drugs given in excess are poisons to all forms of proto-
plasm, but when given in doses much short of the lethal they
usually exhibit a distinct tendency to affect specially, and at an
early period, certain organs or tissues, and hence result differences
in action; others may act only on certain organs, leaving the others
practically untouched. It is often possible by appropriate dosage
to contrive that these special parts or organs may be affected
and the rest of the body left practically intact, and it is by
taking advantage of these selective actions that remedial or
therapeutical effects are usually obtained. Some substances
have a very wide range of action, and involve a great variety of
structures, while others, such as purgatives, have a very limited
sphere. The action of drugs is often modified by circumstances
peculiar to the individuals or animals to whom they are ad-
ministered. In man the most important of these circumstances
is age, but speaking broadly this is really a question of bulk, the
child being affected like the adult, but by smaller doses. There
are exceptions to this, however, as children are more affected
in proportion by opium and some other substances, and less by
mercury and arsenic. In old age also the nervous system and
the tissues generally do not react so readily as in youth. Habit,
race, personal temperament, emotional conditions, disease, the
time and circumstances of administration, and other accidental
causes may also modify the action in man. Some species of
animals are much more susceptible to the action of certain
drugs than others, a condition which depends on obvious

PHARMACOLOGY

349

or unknown structural or metabolic differences. In the same
way some individuals show a special tendency to poisoning by-
doses of certain drugs which are harmless to the great majority
of mankind, and hence we get unexpected or unusual results,
these arising from special susceptibility on the part of certain
organs. These idiosyncrasies are not confined to drugs, but are
seen with a few articles of food, such as eggs and shellfish. It
is well known that the habitual consumption of certain drugs,
such as tobacco, Indian hemp, opium, arsenic, alcohol and
many others, gradually induces a condition of tolerance to their
effects, so that large doses can be taken without causing symp-
toms of poisoning. In all cases, however, there is a limit, and
after it is reached the ordinary effects of these substances are
seen. Some individuals, however, never become tolerant, and
show poisonous effeGts on each repetition of the dose. The
degree of tolerance often differs in individuals at different
times and in different circumstances, and may become lost by
breaking off the habit for a short time. The explanation
generally given is that the nerve and other cells become
accustomed to the drug, so that they cease to react, or that an
antitoxin is formed which antagonizes the poison, or that the
poison is rapidly destroyed in the body. Recent researches
on arsenic and atropine, however, point to the leucocytes as
playing an important part in the production of tolerance, as
these gradually become capable of ingesting large amounts of
the foreign substances, and thus render them more or less
harmless to the tissues, until they are gradually excreted from
the body. When the amount is too large to be dealt with
by the leucocytes, poisoning seems to occur even in the most
habituated. Tolerance is therefore analogous to, but not
identical with, the immunity which takes place with the toxins
of infectious diseases and snake poison. Certain substances,
notably digitalis, lead, mercury and strychnine, exhibit what is
called a cumulative action — that is to say, when small quanti-
ties have been taken over a period of time, poisoning or an
excessive action suddenly ensues. The explanation in these
cases is that the drug is absorbed more rapidly than it is
excreted, hence there is a tendency to accumulation in the
body until a point is reached when the amount becomes
poisonous.

Bodies which have a close resemblance in their chemical con-
stitution exhibit a similar resemblance in their pharmacological
action, and as the constitution of the substance becomes modified
chemically so does its action pharmacologically. Numerous
researches have demonstrated these points with regard to
individual groups of substances, but hitherto it has not been
possible to formulate any fixed laws regarding the relationship
between chemical constitution and physiological action.

When drugs are swallowed no absorption may take place
from the alimentary canal; but, as a rule, they pass from there
into the blood. Absorption may also take place from the skin,
from the rectum, from the respiratory passages, or from wounds,
and from direct injection into the subcutaneous tissue or into a
blood vessel. Very rarely, as in the case of silver salts, excre-
tion does not take place; but usually the drug is got rid of by
the ordinary channels of elimination. Just as drugs act upon
the tissues, so they themselves are in many cases reacted upon,
and broken up or altered. While in the alimentary canal they
are subjected to the action of the digestive fluids and the varied
contents of the stomach and intestines, and after absorption
they come under the influence of the constituents of the blood
and lymph, and of the chemical action of the tissue cells. In-
organic bodies, such as metals, may enter into albuminous
combinations which may greatly modify their effects, and
organic substances may be split up into simpler compounds by
oxidation or reduction, or may be rendered more complex by
synthesis.

The antagonism between certain drugs has been much
studied in relation to their use as antidotes in poisoning, the aim
being to counteract the effects rather than to obtain a direct
physiological antagonistic action. Substances which directly
antagonize each other by acting on the same tissue are few in

number, but there are numerous instances in which the effects or
symptoms may be obviated by acting on another tissue. Thus
curare may stop strychnine convulsions by paralysing the
terminations of motor nerves, and chloroform may exercise the
same effect by abolishing the irritability of the spinal cord. If
two poisons act on the same tissue, one stimulating and the
other paralysing it, the paralysing substance removes the
action of the stimulant substance, not by bringing the tissue
back to its normal state, but by abolishing its excitability;
hence, although life may be saved by such an action, yet it
can only be so within certain limits of dosage, because the
antagonism is never complete at every point.

Speaking in the widest sense, every substance has an action
on living protoplasm, but for convenience pharmacological
substances have come to be limited to those which are used
as drugs, or which have a distinct action upon the animal
organism. Such substances are derived from (i) the chemical
elements and their compounds; (2) plants; and (3) animals.
The first class includes such substances as iodine, mercury, iron,
carbon, and their various compounds, and such bodies as
alcohol, chloroform and chloral, all of which are found in
nature or can be prepared by ordinary chemical processes of
manufacture. From plants many substances are obtained which
at the present time we are unable to make in the chemical
laboratory, and of the constitution or composition of which
we are in many cases ignorant. Some of these, such as resins,
gums, essential oils and fats, are readily obtained as natural
exudations or by very simple manipulations, while others, such
as the alkaloids, glucosides and vegetable acids, often require
to be extracted by very complex processes. Substances ob-
tained from animals include gland secretions, pepsin and other
ferments, musk, cod-liver oil, &c, and to these may be added
various antitoxins. The classification of substances having
pharmacological actions presents so many difficul-
ties that no satisfactory or universally adopted tion-
method has yet been proposed. Our knowledge
presents so many gaps, and the mode of action of many remedies
is so obscure and imperfectly understood, that any arrange-
ment adopted must be more or less tentative in character. The
close alliance between pharmacology, therapeutics and clinical
medicine has induced many authors to treat the subject from
a clinical point of view, while its relationships to chemistry and
physiology have been utilized to elaborate a chemical and
physiological classification respectively as the basis for system-
atic description. Certain writers in despair have adopted an
alphabetical arrangement of the subject, while others have
divided it up into inorganic, vegetable and animal substances.
These last-mentioned methods are far behind our present state
of knowledge, and need not be discussed here. The objection
to a strictly chemical classification is, that while many sub-
stances closely allied chemically have a somewhat similar action
in certain respects, yet in others they differ very widely — a
striking example of which is given in the case of sodium and
potassium. A physiological classification according to an action
on the brain, heart, kidney or other important organ becomes
still more bewildering, as many substances produce the same
effects by different agencies, as, for instance, the kidneys may
be acted upon directly or through the circulation, while the heart
may be affected either through its muscular substance or its
nervous apparatus. A clinical or therapeutical classification
into such divisions as anaesthetics, expectorants, bitters, and
so on, according to their practical applications, also leads to
difficulties, as many drugs are employed for numerous purposes.
The ideal method of grouping pharmacological substances
would be in reference to their chemical action on living proto-
plasm, but as yet our knowledge is too scanty for this. At
the present time the method adopted by Buchheim, or some
modification of it, is the most scientific. As the result of
painstaking investigations he grouped together all those sub-
stances having similar actions, giving to each group the name of its
best-known or most thoroughly investigated member. Once the
groups were more or less fixed any new substance could, when

35°

PHARMACOLOGY

its action was determined, be referred to its own group, and
thus be placed or classified. As few substances are absolutely
identical in action, but only broadly similar, it is often difficult
to divide sharply one group from another. In a resume it is
manifestly impossible to pass in review every pharmacological
substance, and we shall therefore confine ourselves to those
groups which are of practical importance. Many individual
drugs are described under their own headings.

Group I. Acids. — This includes sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric,
phosphoric, tartaric, citric, acetic and lactic acids, all of which owe
their action to their acidity. Many of the other acids, such as
carbolic and salicylic, have specific effects which have no relationship
to their acid reaction. The concentrated acids have an intense
local action, varying from complete destruction of the tissues to
more or less irritation. When considerably diluted they are only
slightly irritating; externally applied and in the stomach they have
an antiseptic action; they increase the secretion of saliva, and thus
assuage thirst. In the intestine they combine with ammonia and
other alkalis present, and are absorbed into the blood as neutral
salts, being excreted chiefly in the urine. In small doses they some-
what increase general metabolism. Boric acid only belongs partially
to this group, as it and its compound borax have certain specific
actions in addition.

Group II. Alkalis. — This includes caustic potash, caustic soda,
solution of ammonia, their carbonates and bicarbonates, borax,
soaps, lithium carbonate and citrate, quicklime, slaked lime, chalk,
magnesia and magnesium carbonate. All these substances, apart
from any other actions, exert a similar effect upon the body in
virtue of their alkalinity. When they are taken internally in small
amounts they neutralize the acids in the stomach and other parts of
the alimentary canal, and at the same time they increase the normal
acid secretion of the stomach. After absorption into the blood,
which they make somewhat more alkaline, they are excreted chiefly
in the urine, to which they impart an alkaline reaction if given in
sufficient quantity. Some of them by stimulating the kidney
cells act as diuretics, but others apparently lack this action. Caustic
potash and caustic soda are locally very irritating, and destroy the
tissues, but lose this quality when combined with acids as in the case
of their carbonates, bicarbonates and borax. Quicklime is also
caustic, but magnesia is bland and unirritating. Weak solutions
applied locally saponify fats, soften the epiderm»6, and thus act as
slight stimulants and cleansers of the skin. Calcium salts form
insoluble soaps with fats, and combine with albumen in a manner
which makes them soothing and astringent rather than irritating.
Apart from alkaline effects, these metals differ considerably
pharmacologically. Potassium and lithium have a depressing
action upon the nervous system, ammonium salts have a stimulating
action, while sodium practically speaking is indifferent. Calcium
and magnesium have actions somewhat similar to that of potassium.
Most of these substances are normal constituents of the body,
and indispensable for healthy existence. They are contained in
sufficient amount in our ordinary dietary to supply the needs of
the organism.

Group III. Easily absorbed Salts. — Sodium chloride may be
taken as the type of those salts which diffuse readily, and are
therefore easily absorbed. Sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate,
potassium chloride, ammonium chloride, the alkaline iodides and
bromides, also belong partly to this group, although most of them
have also specific actions. Locally they cause considerable irritation,
and when swallowed in concentrated solution may cause vomiting.
From the stomach and intestines they are rapidly absorbed, and
rapidly excreted from the blood, increasing all secretions and the
general metabolism. These effects are apparently due to their
irritating action upon individual cells.

Group IV. Salts absorbed with difficulty. — This group includes
the sulphates of sodium, potassium and magnesium, the acetate
and tartrate of potash, citrate of magnesium, sodium phosphate,
sodium tartrate and similar salts. Locally their action is slight,
but when taken internally, dissolved in water, they are not absorbed
from the alimentary canal except in very limited amount. They
therefore remain for the most part in the intestine, and as they
attract and retain large quantities of water, and at the same time
siightly stimulate the mucous membrane, they come to have a
purgative action and form the well-known group of saline cathartics.
The small portion which is absorbed exerts a diuretic action.

Group V. Heavy Metals. — These include iron, manganese,
aluminium, chromium, zinc, copper, silver, gold, platinum, lead,
mercury, and probably antimony, arsenic and bismuth. Although
some of these differ very greatly in their actions after absorption,
still locally they have certain effects in common due chiefly to their
chemical action on albumen. Their soluble salts combine with
albumen and preserve it, strong solutions being extremely irritant
or caustic, while weaker ones are astringent simply, or even soothing.
They are all antiseptics. Their insoluble compounds are much
less active locally than the soluble, and in many cases are only
effective to the extent to which they are dissolved by the secretions.
Some metals are only absorbed from the alimentary canal to such

a very limited amount that they exert no general action, while others
readily pass into the blood and give rise to more or less marked
effects. All of them injected into the blood in large doses act as
muscle and nerve poisons, and during their excretion by the kidney
usually irritate it severely, but only a few are absorbed in sufficient
amount to produce similar effects when given by the mouth. When
iron is injected directly into a vein it depresses the heart's action,
the blood pressure and the nervous system, and during its excretion
greatly irritates the bowel and the kidneys. When taken by the
mouth, however, no such actions are seen, owing to the fact that
very minute quantities are absorbed and that these become stored
in the liver, where they are converted into organic compounds and
ultimately go to form haemoglobin. Soluble salts of manganese,
aluminium, zinc, copper, gold, platinum and bismuth have, when
given by the mouth, little action beyond their local astringent or
irritating effects ; but when injected into a blood vessel they all exert
much the same depressing effect upon the heart and nervous system.
Silver resembles them closely, but differs by the circumstance that
it is deposited permanently in minute granules in the tissues, and,
without affecting the general health, stains the skin of a bluish
colour (argyria). Mercury and lead are absorbed from the bowel
in considerable quantities, and are capable of inducing acute
irritant poisoning as well as chronic poisoning. Lead poisons the
muscular and nervous systems, and gives rise to paralysis, wasting,
colic and other symptoms, while in the case of mercury, tremors,
salivation, anaemia and very marked cachexia are induced.
Arsenic and antimony do not form combinations with albumen,
but they both greatly depress the central nervous system and
circulation; and, if their action be long continued in large doses,
they cause fatty degeneration of the viscera and disappearance
of glycogen from the liver. Locally they are both very irritating,
and antimony has a special tendency to cause vomiting.

Group VI. Halogens. — This group includes iodine, bromine and
chlorine, in their free state or as compounds. Locally they are
all three strongly irritant or caustic, owing to their chemical action
on albumen. They are in addition powerful germicides, and by
splitting up water may act as oxidizing agents. Owing to their
strong affinity for the hydrogen of organic compounds they often
act as bleachers and deodorizers. Iodine has a special interest, as
it is a necessary constituent of food, and is present in the secretion
of the thyroid gland. Apart from certain conditions of ill health,
the iodides, as such, have no very marked influence on the healthy
body beyond their saline action. Alkaline bromides, in addition
to their saline action, have in sufficient doses a depressing effect
upon the central nervous system, and less markedly upon the
heart. Chlorine compounds are not known to exercise any action
of a similar kind.

Group VII. Sulphur. — Sulphur itself has no action, but when
brought into contact with the secretions it forms sulphides, sulphites
and sulphuretted hydrogen, and thereby becomes more or less irritant
and antiseptic. In the bowel its conversion into sulphides causes it
to act as a mild laxative. Baths containing sulphuretted hydrogen
or alkaline sulphides have a slightly irritating effect upon the skin,
and stimulate the general metabolism.

Group VIII. Phosphorus. — This includes phosphides, and,
according to some authorities, hypophosphites. Phosphorus is
present in all cells, in considerable quantity in the nervous tissue,
and in the bones as phosphates. It is therefore, in some form or
other, a necessary part of dietary. When taken by the mouth
phosphorus is an irritant poison in large doses; in small doses the
only effects noticeable consist in an increased formation of bony
and connective tissue, although it is also supposed to exert a gently
stimulating effect upon the nervous system.

Group IX. Oxygen. — When pure oxygen is inhaled the only
effect is a slight increase of the amount of the gas in the blood, but
this has no particular physiological effect. The pharmacological
action of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), potassium permanganate,
powdered charcoal and some other oxidizing agents depends on the
readiness with which they give up oxygen.

Group X. Carbonic Acid. — Carbonic acid gas, carbonic oxide
(CO) and some other irrespirable gases produce their effects practi-
cally by asphyxiation. When dissolved in wafer, however, carbonic
acid gas is a gentle stimulant to the mouth, stomach and bowel,
the mixture being absorbed more rapidly than plain water; hence
its greater value in assuaging thirst. Nitrous oxide (laughing gas)
was at one time believed to act simply by cutting off the supply of
oxygen to the tissues, but it also has a specific effect in producing
paralysis of certain parts of the central nervous system, and hence
its value as an anaesthetic; when given in small amounts mixed
with air it produces a condition of exhilaration.

Group XL Water. — Water acts directly as a diluent and solvent.
It therefore increases all the secretions, especially those of the skin
and kidneys, while it also stimulates the general metabolism of the
body and the excretion of nitrogenous products. Mineral waters
act in the same way, but their effects are very much modified by, and
depend largely upon, other constituents, such as alkaline salts,
iron, arsenic, sulphides, carbonic acid, &c.

Group XII. Tannic Acid. — Tannic acid is present in small
quantities in the great majority of plants, but in notable quantity in
gall-nuts, oak bark, bearberry leaves, rhatany root, catechu, kino,

PHARMACOLOGY

35i

red gum, bael fruit, logwood and witch hazel, all of which are
largely used as medicines. In these the variety of tannic acid is
not exactly the same, but although there are slight chemical differ-
ences, they all possess the power of tanning raw hides and of pre-
serving albuminous tissues. The action of tannic acid is strictly
local, and depends upon its power of precipitating albumen and of
destroying germs. It thus acts as an astringent on all mucous
membranes. After absorption into the blood it loses this effect,
as it is partly broken up into gallic acid and partly combined with
alkalis, both of which changes nullify its action upon albumen.

Group XIII. Local Irritants. — Although some of the drugs
already considered have a local irritant action, they produce other
more import? nt effects, but the substances here ranged under this
heading depend entirely for their action on their local irritant
effects.

a. Those which act upon the alimentary canal: Simple bitters
such as quassia wood, columbo root, taraxacum, gentian, chiretta,
and many others, irritate gently the mucous membrane of the
stomach and bowels, and by increasing the secretions improve
the appetite and digestion. The aromatic bitters such as chamo-
mile flowers, cascarilla bark, hops, orange peel and others contain
in addition small quantities of essential oils which increase their
local action. The active principles in some of these bitters have
been isolated pure, and have been found to be alkaloids or neutral
compounds. Substances like pepper, cayenne pepper, mustard,
horse-radish and ginger irritate the stomach and bowel much in
the same way, but are more pungent, and are consequently used as
condiments. Some of these have a similar but less marked effect
upon the skin. The large number of vegetable substances used as
purgatives owe their action to an irritating effect upon the mucous
membrane and the neuro-muscular apparatus of the bowel, whereby
the secretions and peristalsis are more or less increased, as the result
of which diarrhoea ensues. Some of them cause so much irritation
that the discharge is very watery (hydragogue cathartics), while
others, for example aloes, by acting gently on the lower part of
the bowel and on its muscular coat, produce simply a laxative
effect. A few of them, such as aloin and colocynthin, are also
purgative when injected subcutaneously or into the blood, probably
owing to their being excreted into the intestinal canal.

b. Those which act on the skin: The best known of these is
cantharides (Spanish fly), the active principle of which is a colour-
less crystalline body — cantharidin — which is extremely irritating.
On a mucous membrane or a delicate skin it exerts an irritant
action, which occurs more quickly than on a thickened epidermis,
such as the scalp, and according to the strength and period of
application there may result redness, a blister, or an ulcer. Many
other substances, such as chrysarobin, mustard, pepper, &c, are
also capable of irritating the skin, the effect produced varying from
mere dilatation of the cutaneous vessels to destruction of tissue.

Group XIV. Male-fern.— This includes the male-fern, santonin,
cusso, pomegranate bark, pumpkin seeds and many other substances
containing active principles which have a specific poisonous action
on intestinal parasitic worms. Apart from this their actions vary
considerably, but are of little practical importance.

Group XV. Ethereal Oils. — This includes a very large number
of substances which owe their action to the fact that they contain
ethereal or essential oils. The best known of these are cloves,
pimento (allspice), myrtle, eucalyptus, caraway, fennel, dill, cori-
ander, rosemary, lavender, peppermint, spearmint, nutmeg, cinna-
mon, sandal-wood, turpentine, juniper berries, valerian and sumbul.
In this group may be included the oleo-resins, such as copaiba,
cubebs and Canada balsam; the gum-resins, such as asafetida,
myrrh, ammoniacum and galbanum; and the true balsams, such
as benzoin, storax, balsam of Tolu and balsam of Peru. The resins
when taken internally have much the same action as essential oils,
which are closely allied chemically, while the benzoic and cinnamic
acids in the balsams modify their actions very slightly. Although
individual essential oils may differ somewhat in action, chemically
and pharmacologically they are fundamentally similar. They all
have a poisonous action on protoplasm, which makes them useful
in medicine as antiseptics, disinfectants, germicides, anti-fermenta-
tives and parasiticides; when locally applied they are more or less
irritating, and, when very dilute, astringent. When swallowed
in small doses they slightly irritate the mouth and gastric mucous
membrane, increasing the secretions and producing a feeling of
warmth. At the same time they increase the movements of the
stomach, and also in this way hasten digestion, an action which
extends to the upper part of the bowel. They are readily absorbed
into the blood, and they are excreted chiefly by the kidneys in a
more or less altered form, and probably also by the different mucous
membranes, and even by the skin. After absorption their action,
speaking generally, is exerted on the brain and spinal cord, and is
at first slightly stimulant and afterwards depressing, even to the
causing of sleepiness and stupor. Locally applied they depress
the terminations of sensory nerves, and may thereby lessen pain.
On the heart and circulation the effects are stimulant unless large
doses are given, when the pulse becomes slow and blood-pressure
much lessened. During excretion they irritate the kidneys and the
sweat-glands, and thereby increase the excretion of urine and of
sweat. They also increase the number of leucocytes in the blood,

and the more irritating of them increase the flow of blood to the
pelvic organs, and may thus stimulate the uterus, or in large doses
cause abortion. The various camphors, such as laurel camphor,
Borneo camphor, menthol and cumarin, are oxidized derivatives of
essential oils, and differ only superficially from them in their action.
Group XVI. Phenol. — This includes a very large number of
bodies chemically allied to benzol, such as carbolic acid, sulpho-
carbolates, creosote, wood tar, coal tar, oil of cade, thymol, salicylic
acid, benzoic acid, naphthol, hydroquinon, cresol, guaiacol, ichthyol,
saccharin and many others. These all resemble carbolic acid more
or less closely, and may Be described as general protoplasm poisons.
Locally their destructive and irritating effects vary a good deal, but
even when very dilute they all have a marked poisonous action on
bacteria, white blood corpuscles, yeast and similar organisms.
After absorption most of them exercise a depressing effect upon the
nervous system, and are capable of reducing high temperature.
They are mostly excreted in the urine.

Group XVII. Alcohol. — This group also includes a very large
number, of chemical bodies, only a few of which are mentioned here.
Ethyl alcohol is taken as a type of the action of methyl alcohol,
amyl alcohol, propyl alcohol, ether, acetic ethe-r, paraldehyde,
sulphonal, chloroform, methyl chloride, ethyl chloride, chloral
hydrate, butylchloral hydrate, and almost any number of derivatives
from these. Some of them are so volatile that they produce their
effects when inhaled, others when sprayed upon the skin cause
intense cold and then anaesthesia; but taken in the broadest sense
the action of all of them after absorption into the blood is very
similar, and is exerted upon the central nervous system, more especi-
ally the cerebrum. In all cases there is a longer or shorter period
of excitement, followed by intoxication or narcosis, and with large
doses this passes into paralysis and death from depression of the
respiratory centre or of the heart. Small doses of any of them
dilate the blood vessels from an action on the vaso-motor centre in
the medulla oblongata, as a result of which the heart beats more
rapidly and the blood circulates more freely; but larger doses have
a general depressing effect upon the circulatory system. Under
their action more heat is lost from the body, the general metabolism
is diminished and the temperature falls. With some of them, such
as chloral and chloroform, the stimulation period is short compared
with the narcotic period, while with others, such as ether, the reverse
is the case.

Group XVIII. Nitrites. — This group contains amyl nitrite,
ethyl nitrite, methyl nitrite, nitroglycerin, sodium and potassium
nitrites, erythrol-tetranitrate, and many other compounds con-
taining nitrous or nitric acid. The latter becomes reduced to
nitrous in the body, and thereby exercises its characteristic effects.
These consist chiefly in an action upon non-striped muscle, vaso-
motor centres, blood vessels and the blood. When they are given
by inhalation or by the mouth their first effect is to produce marked
dilatation of the small arteries, with a fall of blood-pressure and a
greatly increased rapidity of the heart's action. At the same
time the non-striped muscles slightly lose their tonicity, and when
very large doses are given the haemoglobin of the blood becomes
converted into the chocolate-coloured methaemoglobin. The
volatile members of the group act much more rapidly and more
transiently than the others.

Group XIX. Alkaloids.- — This embraces a very large number
of important pharmacological substances, which differ a good deal
in the details of their action, but they all act upon muscle and
nerve tissue. Some of them affect only certain portions of the
nervous system, others have a much wider range of action; they
may act in cither case as stimulants or as depressants, and hence
the symptoms produced by them vary very greatly.

1. Morphine and the other opium alkaloids (codeine, narcotine,
laudanine, &c.) have two prominent actions-a narcotic followed by
a tetanic action. In morphine, on the higher animals at least, the
narcotic action is very marked, the tetanizing action slightly so;
while in thebaine there is little narcotic effect, but a tetanizing action
like that of strychnine. Morphine exercises its effects chiefly upon
the cerebrum and the medulla oblongata in man. It has in addition
a markedly depressing action upon the respiratory centre, it lessens
all the secretions except the sweat, and diminishes bowel peristalsis
and the size of the pupil. Men are much more affected by it than
birds, rabbits, dogs and most other animals. Cats, however, show
marked symptoms of cerebral excitement and increase of the
reflexes. Compared with morphine, codeine and the other alkaloids
are only slightly narcotizing.

2. Strychnine and brucine very closely resemble each other in
action, and under this heading curarine may also be included.
These bodies stimulate the grey matter in the spinal cord and
cause tetanic convulsions. In the case of curare these are masked
almost at once by paralysis of the terminations of the motor nerves.

3. Caffeine is the active principle in tea, coffee, kola, mate and
guarana; while theobromine, a body closely allied to it, is found
in cocoa and chocolate. They both stimulate the grey nerve-cells
in the brain and cord, this being the foundation of their dietetic
value and their use as nervine stimulants. They also markedly
increase the secretion of urine by stimulating the secreting cells
of the kidneys.

4. Cocaine is the active principle of the coca leaf, which is chewed

35 2

PHARMACOLOGY

as a stimulant-narcotic in Peru and Bolivia. Small doses excite
the nervous system, while larger doses are depressing. The chief
action of cocaine from a practical point of view is its power of
paralysing the terminations of sensory nerves.

5. Atropine, hyoscyamine, homatropine, duboisine, daturine
and some other bodies have a paralysing action upon the ends
of the motor and secretory nerves. They therefore lessen al!
the secretions, and among other actions dilate the pupil and
increase the rapidity of the heart by paralysing the vagus. In
addition they have a stimulating action on the central nervous
system.

6. Nicotine, piturine and lobeline are the active principles of
tobacco and other substances which are smoked as stimulant
narcotics. In large doses they are powerful nerve poisons, but as
usually taken they exercise a gently stimulant effect upon the
nervous system. Pilocarpine has an action closely allied to that
of nicotine, but as it is much less poisonous (the effects produced
by small doses being chiefly excessive sweating and salivation), it
is capable of being utilized in medicine. Muscarine has a very
close resemblance in action to pilocarpine.

7. Physostigmine, the active principle of the Calabar bean, acts
chiefly as a stimulant to voluntary and involuntary muscles, and
at the same time exercises a depressing effect upon the spinal cord.
It contracts the pupil.

8. Conine, gelseminine and sparteine all exert a paralysing
effect on the terminations of the motor nerves, to the implication
of which the weakened gait and other symptoms are due.

9. Aconitine, delphinine and many of their derivatives have a
very widespread depressing action on muscle and nerve.

10. Apomorphine is essentially a muscle poison, but owing to the
fact that minute doses stimulate the vomiting centre and cause
emesis before any other symptoms are observable, its emetic action
is the most prominent effect in man.

11. Emetine acts as a gradual depressant to the nervous system
in animals. In man its chief effect is its emetic action, which
seems to be due entirely to local irritation of the stomach.

12. Quinine. Several of the other alkaloids found in cinchona
bark act very much like quinine. They all depress the conducting
power and the grey matter of the spinal cord, and to a much less
extent that of the brain. They lessen the general metabolism and
lower febrile temperature. The cinchona alkaloids have a specific-
ally poisonous effect on the parasites of malaria when present in
human blood, and are poisonous to all low organisms.

13. Phenacetin, acetanilide, phenazone and many similar bodies
act as antipyretics in virtue of an action on the heat-regulating
centres in the cerebrum.

Gkoup XX. Digitalis. — This group-name has been given to a
large number of substances which have an action similar to that of
the foxglove leaves, including the active principles of strophanthus,
squill, Urechites suberecta, Convallaria majalis, Nerium Oleander,
Helleborus niger, Antiaris toxicaria (the upas tree), and several
others. The active principles of these vary a good deal in chemical
composition, but they are all non-nitrogenous neutral bodies.
Their action is exerted upon muscle, and chiefly upon the muscle
of the heart and blood vessels. The individual muscle-fibres con-
tract and expand more perfectly, and thus the diastole and systole
of the heart are rendered more complete, the pulse is slowed, and
the blood-pressure is raised. The slowing of the heart is partly
brought about by an action on the vagus centre.

Group XXI. Picrotoxin. — In large doses the action of picrotoxin
is exerted chiefly on the medullary nerve centres, whereby irregular
tonic-clonic convulsions are produced; in minute doses it stops the
secretion of sweat.

Group XXII. Saponin. — Saponin and many allied bodies
form an abundant soapy-looking froth when shaken up with water,
and they are contained in a very large number of plants, the chief
of which are the Quillaia saponaria, Polygala senega, sarsaparilla,
and others, known collectively as soapworts. They all act as local
irritants in the alimentary canal, and after absorption are more
or less depressing to the muscular and nervous systems. They
produce slight nausea and increased secretion of mucus.

Group XXIII. Cyanogen. — This includes compounds of cyano-
gen such as hydrocyanic (prussic) acid, cyanides of potassium,
sodium. &c, cherry-laurel water, amygdalin, bitter almonds and
other chemical and vegetable substances which readily yield hydro-
cyanic acid. Hydrocyanic acid is a general protoplasmic poison,
all the lower organisms being very susceptible to its action, while
in the higher animals it speedily depresses or paralyses all forms of
nerve tissue. It enters into combination with haemoglobin, forming
a bright scarlet compound and interfering with respiration. It kills
by its paralysing effect on the motor ganglia of the heart and on the
respiratory centre.

Group XXIV. Ferments. — These include such bodies as pepsin,
diastase, the pancreatic ferments, papain, the pine-apple ferment,
taka-diastase and others, and serve to convert starch into sac-
charine substances, or albumen into peptone and albumoses.

Group XXV. Animal Glands and Secretions. — Of these the
thyroid gland, the suprarenal bodies, the spleen, the bile, the bone
marrow, the ovaries and some others have been investigated fully.
Speaking generally, when given in small doses their action on the

healthy organism is slight or nil, but in disease some of them are
capable of acting as substitutes for deficient secretions.

Group XXVI. Antitoxins. — These are substances which antago-
nize the toxins formed in the body by pathogenic organisms, the
toxins of snake venom and other animal poisons, and vegetable
toxins such as abrin, ricin, &c. A healthy person can be rendered
insusceptible by gradually accustoming him to increasing doses of
these poisons, and this immunity is due to antitoxins which are
found in the blood-serum and which are products of the blood cells.
The nature of these antitoxic substances is not definitely known,
but they combine with and destroy the poisons. In specific germ
diseases a similar antitoxin forms, and in cases which recover it
counteracts the toxin, while the germs are destroyed by the tissues.
Antitoxins can be prepared by immunizing a large animal, such as a
horse, by injecting gradually increasing doses of specific toxins into
its subcutaneous tissue. In due time the horse is bled, the serum
is filtered free of blood corpuscles, and then constitutes the anti-
toxic serum, which can be standardized to a certain potency. Such
serums are injected subcutaneously in diphtheria, tetanus, strepto-
coccic infections, plague, snake-poisoning, cholera and other similar
diseases. They do not as a rule harm healthy men even in large
quantities, but when repeated they often cause serious symptoms
due to the body becoming more sensitive to the action of the horse-
serum in which they are contained.

Group XXVII. Neutral Fats. — This includes cod-liver oil,
almond oil, olive oil, lard, &c, all of which act as foods when taken
internally, and have a merely physical emollient action when applied
externally. Lanolin, linseed oil, wax, spermaceti, &c, also belong
to this group. The paraffins, glycerin and vaseline, although not
fats, have much the same effect when applied externally, but they
are not nutritive.

Group XXVIII. Sugars, Starches, Gums, Gelatin, &c. — Although
these and allied bodies are used in various ways as remedies, their
action is for the most part purely mechanical or dietetic.

Authorities. — T. Lauder Brunton, Pharmacology, Therapeutics
and Materia Medica (3rd ed., London, 1891); The Action of Medicines
(London, 1897) ; H. C. Wood, Therapeutics: its Principles and Practice
(10th ed., London, 1905) ; A. Cushny, A Textbook of Pharmacology
and Therapeutics (1906) ; C. D. F. Phillips, Materia Medica, Pharma-
cology, and Therapeutics (Inorganic Substances) (London, 1894);
Binz, Lectures on Pharmacology (Trans., New Sydenham Society,
London, 1895); Schmiedeberg, Grundriss der Arzneimittellehre
(3rd ed., Leipzig, 1895. Eng. trans, by Thos. Dixon, Edin-
burgh, 1887) ; Stokvis, Lecons de pharmacotherapie (Haarlem and
Paris, 1898) ; Rabuteau, Traite de thSrapeutique et de pharmacologic
(Paris, 1884); Vulpian, Les Substances toxiques et midicamenteuses
(Paris, 1882) ; J. Harley, The Old Vegetable Neurotics (London, 1869) ;
J. Mitchell Bruce, Materia Medica and Therapeutics ; W. Hale White,
Materia Medica, Pharmacy, Pharmacology and Therapeutics (London,
1909); Walter E. Dixon, A Manual of Pharmacology (London, 1906).

(R. S.*)

Terminology in Therapeutics.
It may be useful to give here a general explanation of the
common names used in the therapeutic classification of drugs.
It is convenient to divide drugs and other substances used in
medicine into groups according to the part of the system on
which they chiefly act, though, as stated above, many drugs
act in more than one manner and could come under several
groups.

I. Drugs acting on the blood vessels, which either dilate the
vessels when taken internally or applied locally, or contract the
superficial arterioles. Irritants (Lat. irritare, to excite) include:
Rubefacients (Lat. rubefacere, to make red), which cause the skin
to become red from dilatation of the blood vessels; Vesicants
(Lat. vesica, a bladder), which irritate sufficiently to cause the
blood-serum to exude and form vesicles or blisters, e.g. cantharides;
Pustulants (Lat. pustula, a blister), still more powerful in their
effects, causing the blisters to become filled with pus, e.g. croton
oil. Escharctics (Gr. kaxi-pa, hearth, brazier; hence mark of a
burn, " scar ") or Caustics (Gr. Kaieiv, to burn), cause the death
of the part, e.g. silver nitrate and nitric acid. The term counter-
irritant is used when an irritant is applied to the skin for the pur-
pose of relieving pain or congestion by dilating the superficial
vessels. Drugs which contract the vessels and diminish exudation
comprise Astringents (Lat. astringere, to draw close), while Styptics
((tt(}<j>uv, to contract) or Haemostatics (Gr. alpa, blood, ararLnds,
causing to stand) are substances applied either locally or internally
in order to arrest bleeding; cold, adrenalin, ergot and the per-salts
of iron may be taken as examples.

II. Drugs acting on the digestive tract. Sialogogues (Gr. olaKov,
spittle, &7«y<5s, leading) increase the flow of saliva, e.g. mercury;
Antisialogogues decrease the flow, e.g. belladonna. Aromatics
(Gr. &pwna, spice) or Bitters increase the flow of the gastric juice.
Stomachics (Gr. aronaxos) have the same effect. The term Carmina-
tives (Lat. carminare, to card wool), adopted from the old medical
theory of humours, is generally applied to pungent substances which
help to expel gas from the stomach by stimulating the movement

PHARMACOPOEIA

353

of its contents. Emetics (Gr. tueros, vomiting) are substances
given tor the purpose of causing vomiting, e.g. ipecacuanha or
apomorphine. Anti-emetics or Sedatives (Lat. sedare, to compose)
arrest vomiting either by their central or local action, e.g. opium,
cocaine or cerium oxalate. Purgatives (Lat. purgare, to cleanse)
aid the onward passage of the contents of the intestinal canal,
either by increasing the contractions of its muscular coat as laxatives
(Lat. laxare, to loosen), e.g. as magnesia, or by increasing the flow
of fluid. Some are termed drastics (Gr. Spaarubs, active) or cathartics
(Gr. KoBapriKhs, cleansing), which produce watery evacuations.
Cholagogues (Gr. x°^7> bile, &ya>ybs, leading) are purgatives which
act by increasing the flow of bile, either by causing an increased
secretion (e.g. podophyllum) or by sweeping it onwards by
stimulating the intestinal contractions (e.g. calomel).

III. Drugs acting on parasites. Anthelmintics (Gr. ivrl, against,
eSuivs, ikpivdos, a worm) are drugs which kill parasites inhabiting
the intestine. The term vermicide (Lat. vermis, worm, caedere, to
kill) is applied to drugs which directly kill the entozoa, while
vermifuge (Lat. vermis, worm, fugare, to put to flight) is applied
to the purgative usually given after the vermicide for the purpose
of expelling the worm. Parasiticides or anti-par asitics destroy
parasites; the terms are usually restricted to those acting on skin-
parasites as contrasted with intestinal ones.

IV. Drugs acting on the urinary system. Diuretics (Gr. hik,
through, ovpov, the urine) increase the flow of urine, while lithon-
triptics (Gr. \Wos, stone, rpifieiv, to rub, grind down) are drugs
given to prevent the formation of urinary calculi.

V. Drugs acting on the generative system. Aphrodisiacs (Gr.
' ' K<t>poblTri, the goddess of love) increase the action of the generative
centre in the spinal cord; Anaphrodisiacs decrease its action.
Ecbolics (Gr. UflaWeiv, to throw out) or oxytocics (Gr. 6£0s,
sharp, quick, tokos, parturition) stimulate uterine action. Emmena-
gogues (Gr. ip.p.rjva, menses, kyoiym, leading) are substances which
increase the menstrual flow. Galactogogues (Gr. 7d\a, milk) in-
crease the secretion of milk, while antigalactogogues {e.g. belladonna)
have the opposite effect.

VI. Drugs acting on the respiratory system. Expectorants
increase the bronchial secretions; antispasmodics relax the spasm
of the muscular coat of the bronchial tubes, e.g. stramonium.
This latter term is also used for drugs which act as general
depressants.

VII. Drugs or substances acting on the bodily heat. Anti-
pyretics (Gr. i.vTi, against, wvperbs, fever) either increase the heat
loss or diminish its production; e.g. phenacetin, cold water, &c.

VIII. Drugs or substances acting on the skin. Diaphoretics
(Gr. hia4>optiv, to carry through) increase the amount of sweat,
either by acting directly on the sweat centres or on the nerve
terminals. The word Sudorific (Lat. sudor, sweat) is applied to
them when they act very powerfully. Anhidroses or Antihidrotics
(Gr. l&puK, sweat) diminish the secretion of sweat. Emollients
(Lat. mollis, soft) are substances which soften and protect the
parts. Demulcents (Lat. demulcere, soften), soothe the skin or
mucous membrane.

IX. Drugs acting on metabolism. Alteratives are drugs which
alter the course of a disease, the mode of action being unknown.
Tonics are drugs which increase the muscular tone of the body by
acting either on the stomach, heart, spinal cord, &c.

X. Drugs acting on the blood. Antitoxins arc organic products
designed to neutralize the formation of the toxins of certain dis-
eases in the blood. Toxins are also injected in order to stimulate
the blood plasma to form antitoxins (see Bacteriology). Anti-
periodics inhibit a disease having periodic recurrences; e.g. quinine
in malaria. Haematinics are drugs which increase the amount of
haemoglobin in the blood.

XI. Drugs acting on the nervous system. Anaesthetics {a. v.)
diminish sensibility, either central or peripheral; Anodynes (Gr.
a.v-, priv., bliivri, pain) relieve pain only, but, as in Analgesics
(Gr. aXYijuis, sense of pain), sensibility is unaltered. Stimulants
are those which lead to excitation of the mental faculties and in
quantity may lead to delirium and incoherence. Hypnotics (Gr.
Sxj-os, sleep) or Soporifics (Lat. sopor, a deep sleep) are drugs which
produce sleep without causing cerebral excitement. Narcotics
(Gr. vb.pK.Ti, numbness) are those which besides producing sleep
may in large doses depress the functions of respiration and
circulation.

XII. Drugs which arrest the progress of putrefaction. This is
either by inhibiting the growth of micro-organisms {Antiseptics)
or by destroying them when present {Disinfectants). (H. L. H.)

PHARMACOPOEIA (lit. the art of the (papnaKoiroios, or drug-
compounder), in its modern technical sense, a book containing
directions for the identification of simples and the preparation
of compound medicines, and published by the authority of a
government or of a medical or pharmaceutical society. The
name has also been applied to similar compendiums issued by
private individuals. The first work of the kind published under
government authority appears to have been that of Nurem-
berg in 1542; a passing student named Valerius Cordus showed
xxi. 12

a collection of medical receipts, which he had selected from the
writings of the most eminent medical authorities, to the phy-
sicians of the town, who urged him to print it for the benefit
of the apothecaries, and obtained for his work the sanction of
the senatus. An earlier work, known as the Antidotarium
florentinum, had been published under the authority of the
college of medicine of Florence. The term " pharmacopoeia"
first appears as a distinct title in a work published at Basel in
1561 by Dr A. Foes, but does not appear to have come into
general use until the beginning of the 17th century. Before 1542
the works principally used by apothecaries were the treatises
on simples by Avicenna and Serapion; the De synonymis
and Quid pro quo of Simon Januensis; the Liber servitoris
of Bulchasim Ben Aberazerim, which described the pre-
parations made from plants, animals and minerals, and was the
type of the chemical portion of modern pharmacopoeias; and
the Antidotarium of Nicolaus de Salerno, containing Galenical
compounds arranged alphabetically. Of this, last work there
were two editions in use — Nicolaus magnus and Nicolaus parvus:
in the latter several of the compounds described in the larger
edition were omitted and the formulae given on a smaller scale.
Until 161 7 such drugs and medicines as were in common use
were sold in England by the apothecaries and grocers. In that
year the apothecaries obtained a separate charter, and it was
enacted that no grocer should keep an apothecary's shop. The
preparation of physicians' prescriptions was thus confined to
the apothecaries, upon whom pressure was brought to bear to
make them dispense accurately, by the issue of a pharmacopoeia
in May 1618 by the College of Physicians, and by the power
which the wardens of the apothecaries received in common with
the censors of the College of Physicians of examining the shop*
of apothecaries within 7 m. of London and destroying all the
compounds which they found unfaithfully prepared. This, the
first authorized London Pharmacopoeia, was selected chiefly
from the works of Mezue and Nicolaus de Salerno, but it was
found to be so full of errors that the whole edition was cancelled,
and a fresh edition was published in the following December.
At this period the compounds employed in medicine were often
heterogeneous mixtures, some of which contained from 20 to 70,
or more, ingredients, while a large number of simples were used
in consequence of the same substance being supposed to possess
different qualities according to the source from which it was
derived. Thus crabs' eyes, pearls, oyster-shells and coral were
supposed to have different properties. Among other ingredi-
ents entering into some of these formulae were the excrements
of human beings, dogs, mice, geese and other animals, calculi,
human skull and moss growing on it, blind puppies, earthworms,
&c. Although other editions of the Loudon Pharmacopoeia
were issued in 1621, 1632, 1639 and 1677, it was not until the
edition of 1721, published under the auspices of Sir Hans Sloane,
that any important alterations were made. In this issue many
of the ridiculous remedies previously in use were omitted,
although a good number were still retained, such as dogs'
excrement, earthworms, and moss from the human skull; the
botanical names of herbal remedies were for the first time added
to the official ones; the simple distilled waters were ordered of
a uniform strength; sweetened spirits, cordials and ratifias
were omitted as well as several compounds no longer used in
London, although still in vogue elsewhere. A great improve-
ment was effected in the edition published in 1746, in which
only those preparations were retained which had received the
approval of the majority of the pharmacopoeia committee; to
these was added a list of those drugs only which were supposed
to be the most efficacious. An attempt was made to simplify
further the older formulae by the rejection of superfluous
ingredients. In the edition published in 1788 the tendency to
simplify was carried out to a much greater extent, and the
extremely compound medicines which had formed the principal
remedies of physicians for 2000 years were discarded, while a
few powerful drugs which had been considered too dangerous to
be included in the Pharmacopoeia of 1765 were restored to theii
previous position. In 1809 the French chemical nomenclatuie

u

354

PHARMACOPOEIA

was adopted, and in 1815 a corrected impression of the same
was issued. Subsequent editions were published in 1824,
1836 and 1831.

The first Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia was published in 1699
and the last in 1841; the first Dublin Pharmacopoeia in 1807
and the last in 1850.

The preparations contained in these three pharmacopoeias
were not all uniform in strength, a source of much inconvenience
and danger to the public, when powerful preparations such as
dilute hydrocyanic acid were ordered in the one country and
dispensed according to the national pharmacopoeia in another.
In consequence of this inconvenience the Medical Act of 1858
ordained that the General Medical Council should cause to be
published a book containing a list of medicines and compounds,
to be called the British Pharmacopoeia, which should be a
substitute throughout Great Britain and Ireland for the separate
pharmacopoeias. Hitherto these had been published in Latin.
The first British Pharmacopoeia was published in the English
language in 1864, but gave such general dissatisfaction both to
the medical profession and to chemists and druggists that the
General Medical Council brought out a new and amended edition
in 1867. This dissatisfaction was probably owing partly to the
fact that the majority of the compilers of the work were not
engaged in the practice of pharmacy, and therefore competent
rather to decide upon the kind of preparations required than
upon the method of their manufacture. The necessity for this
element in the construction of a pharmacopoeia is now fully
recognized in other countries, in most of which pharmaceutical
chemists are represented on the committee for the preparation
of the legally recognized manuals.

National pharmacopoeias now exist in the following countries:
Austria, Belgium, Chile, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain,
Greece, Holland, Hungary, India, Japan, Mexico, Norway, Portugal,
Russia, Spain, Sweden, Italy, Switzerland, the United States of
America and Venezuela. All the above-mentioned were issued
under the authority of government, and their instructions have the
force of law in their respective countries, except that of the United
States, which was prepared by commissioners appointed by medical
and pharmaceutical societies, and has no other authority, although
generally accepted as the national textbook.

The French Codex has probably a more extended use than any
other pharmacopoeia outside its own country, being, in connexion
with Dorvault's L'Officine, the standard for druggists in a large
portion of Central and South America; it is also official in Turkey.
The sum-total of the drugs and preparations it contains is about
1250, or double the average of other modern pharmacopoeias.
The progress of medical knowledge has led to a gradual but very
perceptible alteration in the contents of the pharmacopoeias. The
original very complex formulae have been simplified until only
the most active ingredients have been retained, and in many
cases the active principles have to a large extent replaced the crude
drugs from which they were derived. From time to time such
secret remedies of druggists or physicians as -have met with popular
or professional approval have been represented by simpler official
preparations.

The rapid increase in medical and pharmaceutical knowledge
renders necessary frequent new editions of the national pharma-
copoeias, the office of which is to furnish definite formulae for pre-
parations that have already come into extensive use in medical
practice, so as to ensure uniformity of strength, and to give the
characters and tests by which their purity and potency may be
determined. But each new edition requires several years to carry
out numerous experiments for devising suitable formulae, so that
the current Pharmacopoeia can never be quite up to date. This
difficulty has hitherto been met by the publication of such non-
official formularies as Squire's Companion to the Pharmacopoeia
and Martindale's Extra Pharmacopoeia, in which all new remedies
and their preparations, uses and doses are recorded, and in the
former the varying strengths of the same preparations in the different
pharmacopoeias are also compared. The need of such works to
supplement the Pharmacopoeia is shown by the fact that they are
even more largely used than the Pharmacopoeia itself, the first
having been issued in 18 and the second in 13 editions at compara-
tively short intervals. In England the task of elaborating a new
Pharmacopoeia is entrusted to a body of a purely medical character,
and legally the pharmacist has not, as in other countries, a voice
in the matter, notwithstanding the fact that, although the medical
practitioner is naturally the best judge of the drug or preparations
that will afford the best therapeutic result, he is not so competent
as the pharmacist to say how that preparation can be produced in
the most effective and satisfactory manner, nor how the purity of
drugs can be tested. In the preparation of the fourth edition of

the British Pharmacopoeia in 1898 some new departures were made.
A committee of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain was
appointed at the request of the General Medical Council to advise
on pharmaceutical matters and the valuable assistance rendered
by it is acknowledged in the preface of that work. A census of
prescriptions was taken to ascertain the relative frequency with
which different preparations and drugs were used in prescriptions,
and suggestions and criticisms were sought from various medical
and pharmaceutical bodies at home and in the colonies. As regards
the purely pharmaceutical part of the work a committee of refer-
ence in pharmacy, nominated by the pharmaceutical societies of
Great Britain and Ireland, was appointed to report to the Pharma-
copoeia Committee of the Medical Council.

Some difficulty has arisen since the passing of the Adulteration
of Food and Drugs Act concerning the use of the Pharmacopoeia
as a legal standard for the drugs and preparations contained in it.
The Pharmacopoeia is defined in the preface as only " intended to
afford to the members of the medical profession and those engaged
in the preparation of medicines throughout the British Empire
one uniform standard and guide whereby the nature and composi-
tion of substances to be used in medicine may be ascertained and
determined." It is obvious that it cannot be an encyclopaedia
of substances used in medicine, and can only be used as a standard
for the substances and preparations contained in it, and for no
others. It has been held in the Divisional Courts (Dickins v.
Randerson) that the Pharmacopoeia is a standard for official pre-
parations asked for under their pharmacopoeial name. But there
are many substances in the Pharmacopoeia which are not only
employed in medicine, but have other uses, such as sulphur, benzoin,
tragacanth, gum arabic, ammonium carbonate, beeswax, oil of
turpentine, linseed oil, and for these a commercial standard of
purity as distinct from a medicinal one is needed, since the prepara-
tions used in medicine should be of the highest possible degree of
purity obtainable, and this standard would be too high and too
expensive for ordinary purposes. The use of trade synonyms in
the Pharmacopoeia, such as saltpetre for purified potassium nitrate,
and milk of sulphur for precipitated sulphur, is partly answerable
for this difficulty, and has proved to be a mistake, since it affords
ground for legal prosecution if a chemist sells a drug of ordinary
commercial purity for trade purposes, instead of the purified
preparation which is official in the Pharmacopoeia for medicinal
use. This would not be the case if the trade synonym were omitted.
For many drugs and chemicals not in the Pharmacopoeia there is
no standard of purity that can be used under the Adulteration of
Food and Drugs Act, and for these, as well as for the commercial
quality of those drugs and essential oils which are also in the
Pharmacopoeia, a legal standard of commercial purity is much
needed. This subject formed the basis of discussion at several
meetings of the Pharmaceutical Society, and the results have been
embodied in a work entitled Suggested Standards for Foods and
Drugs, by C. G. Moor, which indicates the average degree of purity
of many drugs and chemicals used in the arts, as well as the highest
degree of purity obtainable in commerce of those used in medicine.
An important step has also been taken in this direction by the
publication under the authority of the Council of the Pharmaceutical
Society of Great Britain of the British Pharmaceutical Codex, in
which the characters of and tests for the purity of many non-
official drugs and preparations are given as well as the character
of many glandular preparations and antitoxins that have come
into use in medicine, but have not yet been introduced into the
Pharmacopoeia. This work may also possibly serve as a standard
under the Adulteration of Food and Drugs Act for the purity ancj
strength of drugs not included in the Pharmacopoeia and as a
standard for the commercial grade of purity of those in the Pharma-
copoeia which are used for non-medical purposes.

Another legal difficulty connected with modern pharmacopoeias
is the inclusion in some of them of synthetic chemical remedies,
the processes for preparing which have been patented, whilst the
substances are sold under trade-mark names such as veronal. The
scientific chemical name is often long and unwieldy, and the
physician prefers when writing a prescription to use the shorter
name under which it is sold by the patentees. In this case the
pharmacist is compelled to use the more expensive patented article
and the patient complains of the price. If he uses the same article
under its pharmacopoeial name when the patented article is pre-
scribed he lays himself open to prosecution by the patentee for
infringement of patent rights. The only plan, therefore, is for the
physician to use the chemical name (which cannot be patented)
as given in the Pharmacopoeia, or — for those synthetie remedies
not included in the Pharmacopoeia — to use the scientific and
chemical name given in the British Pharmaceutical Codex.

International Pharmacopoeia. — Increased facilities for travel have
brought into greater prominence the importance of an approach
to uniformity in the formulae of the more powerful remedies, in
order to avoid danger to patients when a prescription is dispensed
in a different country from that in which it was written. Attempts
have been made by international pharmaceutical and medical
conferences to settle a basis on which an international pharmacopoeia
could be prepared, but, owing to national jealousies and the attempt
to include too many preparations in such a work it has not as yet

PHARMACOSIDERITE— PHARMACY

355

been produced. The standardization of preparations of patent
medicines, as regards the amount of active principles they contain,
can only conveniently and economically be done in operating on
large quantities, and must naturally lead to the preparations being
standardized at wholesale houses, who issue a guarantee with them ;
but it is not yet certain that deterioration may not take place after
standardization, in such as those of ergot or digitalis, so that it is
somewhat questionable whether the standardization is of permanent
value in all cases. Probably more dependence is to be placed on
careful selection of the drug, and skill in its preparation and pre-
servation by the retail pharmacist, who should be personally
responsible for the quality and purity of the preparations he sells.
Although the attempt to form an international pharmacopoeia
has failed, a project for an imperial pharmacopoeia which should
be adapted to the general and local requirements of all parts of
the British Empire has met with better success. With the aid of
the medical and pharmaceutical authorities in each of the seventy
administrative divisions of the British Empire an Indian and Colonial
addendum to the British Pharmacopoeia of 1898 was compiled
and published in 1900 in which each article receives official sanction
in the countries indicated at the foot of the monographs. This
was regarded as a preparatory step to the publication of a complete
imperial pharmacopoeia.

Several unofficial universal pharmacopoeias have been published
in England and in France, which serve to show the comparative
strength of parallel preparations in different countries. The metric
or decimal mode of calculation and the centigrade scale of tempera-
ture are adopted in all pharmacopoeias except those of Great
Britain (in which the metric equivalents are now given) and in
some instances of Greece. The majority omit chemical formulae.
An alphabetical arrangement is followed in all. The maximum
doses of preparations are given in several pharmacopoeias and the
physician must indicate on his prescription, if he exceeds this limit,
by using a note of exclamation after each article, that he purposely
intends such a dose to be employed. The great increase of medical
literature and international exchange of medical journals has led
to the adoption in almost every country of all the really valuable
remedial agents, and the more extended use of active principles
has given rise to an approximation in strength of their solutions.
The difficulty of nomenclature could probably be overcome by a
list of synonyms being given with each article, and that of language
by the use of Latin. The greatest stumbling-blocks in the way of
uniformity are the tinctures and extracts — a class of preparations
containing many very powerful drugs, but in which the same name
does not always indicate the same thing; thus, extract of aconite
signifies an extract of the root in the pharmacopoeias of the United
States, Japan and Russia, extract of the leaves in the Danish and
Portuguese, inspissated juice of the fresh leaves in the Greek,
and alcoholic extract of the root in that of Spain and Italy, and
alcoholic extract of the dried leaves in the Chilean pharmacopoeias.
It appears probable, however, that the growth of pharmaceutical
chemistry will indicate, in time, which of those in use form the most
active and trustworthy preparations, while the general adoption
of the metric system will lead to clearer approximation of strength
than hitherto. The method adopted by the Portuguese Pharma-
copoeia comes nearest to that uniformity which is so desirable in
such preparations, as the tinctures of the fresh plants are all pre-
pared with equal parts of the drug and alcoholic menstruum ;
simple tinctures in general, with unfortunately a few exceptions,
with one part of the drug in five parts of alcohol of given strength;
ethereal tinctures are in the proportion of one part in ten; and the
tinctures of the alkaloids and their salts contain one part of the
alkaloid in ninety-nine of menstruum.

Homoeopathic and eclectic practitioners as well as dentists
have also their special pharmacopoeias.

See Bell and Redwood, Progress of Pharmacy (London, 1880) ;
Scherer, Literatura pharmacopoearum (Leipzig and Sorau, 1822);
Flint, Report on the Pharmacopoeias of all Nations (Washington,
1883). (E. M. H.)

PHARMACOSIDERITE, a mineral species consisting of
hydrated basic ferric arsenate, 2FeAs04-Fe(OH) 3 -5H 2 0. Crys-
tals have the form of small, sharply defined cubes of an olive- or
grass-green colour, and occur together in considerable numbers
on the matrix of the specimens. On account of its cubic form
the mineral was early known as " cube ore " (Ger., Wurjelerz);
the name pharmacosiderite, given by J. F. L. Hausmann in
1813, alludes to the arsenic and iron present (<j>apfj.aKov,
poison, and ai5r)pos, iron). The faces of the cube are striated
parallel to one diagonal, and alternate corners are sometimes
replaced by face of a tetrahedron. The crystals are feebly
doubly refracting, and in polarized light exhibit a banded
structure parallel to the cube faces. The hardness is 2-|- and the
specific gravity 2-8. Recent analyses prove the presence of a
small but variable amount of potassium (K 2 0, 2-68— 4-13%)
in the Cornish crystals, though in those from Hungary there is

only a trace; this constituent appears to take the place of basic
hydrogen in the above formula. A curious property is to be
observed when a crystal of pharmacosiderite is placed in a
solution of ammonia — in a few minutes the green colour changes
throughout the whole crystal to red; on placing the red crystal
in dilute hydrochloric acid the green colour is restored. Natural
crystals are sometimes honey-yellow to brown in colour, but
this appears to be due to alteration.

Pharmacosiderite is a mineral of secondary origin, the crystals
occurring attached to gozzany quartz in the upper part of veins of
copper ore. It was found in some abundance at the end of the 18th
century in the copper mines of the St Day district in Cornwall,
and has since been found at a few other localities, for example, at.
Konigsberg near Schemnitz in Hungary, and in the Tintic district
in Utah. (L. J. S.)

PHARMACY, a term which in the original Greek form signified
the use of any kind of drug (<papna.Koi>), potion or spell,
and hence also poison and witchcraft. In the modern
signification it is applied to the act of preparing, preserving
and compounding medicines, according to the prescriptions
of physicians. It was used first in this sense in 1597.

In the earliest periods of the world's history of which we have
any record, this art, like that of the perfumer, was practised
by a special class of the priesthood, as in the case of Eleazar
(Num. iv. 16), and that of medicine by another class (Lev. xiii.).

Egyptian inscriptions indicate that the physician-priests
sent their prescriptions to be dispensed by the priests of Isis
when, accompanied by the chanter of incantations and spells,
they visited the sick 1 . A papyrus of Sent, 3300 B.C., gives
directions as to the preparation of prescriptions. In the Ebers
papyrus, 1550 B.C., mention is made of blisters, ointments,
clysters, mineral and vegetable drugs. The art of the apothe-
cary is alluded to very early in the Old Testament history
(Exod. xxx. 25-35 an d in xxxvii. 20) and again in the time of
Solomon (Eccles. x. 9), but this word, which is translated par
fumeur in the French version, only indicates that the preparation
of fragrant unguents and incense formed, even at that early
date, a part of pharmacy, since the drugs mentioned, viz.
galbanum, myrrh, stacte, frankincense, calamus, cassia and
cinnamon, were all of them used in perfumes, even the myrrh
being probably the kind distinguished at the present time in
the Bombay market as perfumed myrrh or bissabol, which
still forms an ingredient of the joss sticks used as incense in the
temples in China. The myrrh mentioned in Gen. xxxvii. 35
is described under another Hebrew word, and refers to ladanum,
a fragrant resin produced in Cyprus, and the use of this drug,
as well as that of cinnamon and cassia, indicates even at that
early period a knowledge of the products of Somaliland, Arabia
and the East Indies and the existence of trade between the
farther East and Egypt. In China also at a very early period
the art of pharmacy was practised. Ching-Hong, a contem-
porary of Menes I. of Egypt, was learned in the art, and made
decoctions and extracts of plants. The materia medica of the
Chinese at the present date affords an excellent illustration of
the changes that have taken place in the use of drugs, and of the
theories and superstitions that have guided the selection of
these from the earliest ages, inasmuch as it still comprises
articles that were formerly used in medicine, but have now been
utterly discarded. Thus the doctrine of signatures, is evident
in the use of the celebrated Ginseng root of China, which, like
that of the mandrake (Gen. xxx. 14-16), owed its employment
to the fact that the root often divides into branches resembling
the arms and legs of a man, and this resemblance gave rise to
the belief that it conferred strength and virility. The same
belief is shown in the botanical names applied to many plants,
e.g. Pulmonaria, Hepatica, Scrophularia, and others.

The astrological belief that plants, animals and minerals are
under the influence of the planets is shown in the older names
of some of the metals, e.g. Saturn for lead, Venus for copper,
and Mars for iron, and the belief that the colours of flowers

1 The Egyptians believed that the medicinal virtues of plants were
due to the spirits who dwelt within them.

356

PHARMACY

indicated the particular planet they were under led to their use
in diseases and for constitutions supposed to be under the same
planet. Physicians to this day head their prescriptions with a
sign that originally meant an invocation to Jupiter, but now
represents the word recipe.

The belief, which is still held by the Chinese, that the excrements
of animals retain the properties and peculiarities of the animals
from which they are derived, led to the use in medicine of these
disgusting remedies, which are still sold in drug shops in China,
and were only omitted from the English Pharmacopoeia as late as
1 7 2 1 . At that date the science of chemistry was very imperfectly
known, and the real constituents of ordinary remedies so little
understood that different virtues were attributed to different pro-
ducts containing the same constituents. Thus, prepared oyster-
shells, coral, pearls, crabs' " eyes " and burnt hart's horn were
regarded as specifics in different complaints, in ignorance of
the fact that they all contain, as the chief ingredients, calcium
phosphate and carbonate. The celebrated Gascoigne's powder,
which was sold as late as the middle of the 19th century in the
form of balls like sal prunella, consisted of equal parts of crabs'
" eyes," the black tips of crabs' claws, Oriental pearls, Oriental
bezoar and white coral, and was administered in jelly made of
hart's horn, but was prescribed by physicians chiefly for wealthy
people, as it cost about forty shillings per ounce. Superstition
also entered largely into the choice of remedies. Thus various
parts of criminals, such as the thigh bone of a hanged man,
moss grown on a human skull, &c, were used, and even the
celebrated Dr Culpeper in the 17th century recommended
" the ashes of the head of a coal black cat as a specific for such
as have a skin growing over their sight."

In course of time the knowledge of drugs, and consequently
the number in use, gradually increased, and some of the prepara-
tions made in accordance with the art attained a celebrity that
lasted for centuries. Thus diachylon plaster was invented by
Menecrates in a.d. i, and .was used by him for the same purposes
as it is employed to-day. An electuary of opium, known as
Mithradatum, was invented by Mithradates VI., king of Pontus,
who lived in constant fear of being poisoned, and tested the
effects of poisons on criminals, and is said to have taken poisons
and their antidotes every day in the year. The prescription
for the general antidote known as Mithradatum was found with
his body, together with other medical MSS., by Pompey, after
his victory over that king. The prescription was improved by
Damocrates and Andromachus, body physicians to Nero. The
first was subsequently known as Mithradatum Damocratis, and
the second as Theriaca Andromachi, the name Theriaca or
Tiriaca being derived from the snake called Tyrus, the flesh
of which was added to it by Andromachus. The former con-
tained 55, or, according to some formulae, 72 ingredients, and
occurs in all the dispensatories, from that of Corvus Valerius
up to the pharmacopoeias of the 19th century; and aromatic
preparations of opium are still used, under the name of Theriaka
in Persia. The Theriaca prepared at Venice had the highest
reputation, probably because in Venice the component parts
were exposed to the inspection of wise men and doctors for two
months, to determine whether they were or were not fit for use.
The apothecaries' ordinance at Nuremberg provided that no
Theriaca should in future be branded with the seal of the city
unless it had been previously examined and declared worthy
of the same by the doctors of medicine, and that every druggist
must know the age of the Theriaca he sold. Inasmuch as its
action changed very materially with age, " the buyer should in
all instances be informed, so that he may not be deceived."
The last public preparation of Theriaca took place at Nurem-
berg in 1754.

In a.d. 77-78 Dioscorides of Anazarba, in Cilicia, wrote his
great work on materia medica, which still remains the most
important work on the plants and drugs used in ancient times
(of which about 400 were enumerated) and until the 17th century
was held as the most valuable guide to medicinal plants and
drugs extant. Nearly 100 years afterwards Galen, the imperial
physician at Rome (a.d. 131-200), who was learned in surgery,

pharmacy and materia medica, added about 200 more plants
to those described by Dioscorides.

Galen believed in the doctrine of humours originated by
Hippocrates, which supposes the condition of the body to depend
upon the proper mixture of the four elements, hot, cold, moist
and dry, and that drugs possess the same elementary qualities,
and that on the principle of contraries one or other was indicated,
e.g. a cooling remedy for a feverish state. This doctrine was
held for many centuries, and drugs are classed by all the old
herbalists as having one or other of these qualities in a greater
or less degree. Galen is said to have invented hiera-picra,
which he employed as an anthelmintic; it is still used in
England as a domestic remedy. In the 6th century Alexander
of Tralles used colchicum for gout, iron for anaemia, and rhubarb
in liver weakness and dysentery. The practice of pharmacy was
extended by the Arabian physicians, and the separation of it
from medicine was recognized in the 8th, and legalized in the
nth century. The practice of "polypharmacy," ortheuseof a
large number of ingredients in prescriptions, which was common
in the middle ages, was greatly due to the view enunciated by
Alkekendo, and held by one of the Arabian schools of medicine:
that the activity of medicine increases in a duplicate ratio
when compounded with others; and it was only in the first half
of the 18th century that the practice was altogether discontinued
in the pharmacopoeias, although the theory was shown to be
incorrect by Averroes in the 12th century.

The establishments for dispensing medicines at Cordova,
Toledo and other large towns under Arab rule, were placed under
severe legal restrictions. Frederick II. in a.d, 1233 passed a
law, which remained in force for a long time in the two Sicilies,
by which every medical man was required to give information
against any pharmacist who should sell bad medicine. The
pharmacists were divided into two classes, the stationarii, who
sold simple drugs and non-magisterial preparations at a tariff
determined by competent authorities, and the confectionarii,
whose business it was to dispense scrupulously the prescrip-
tions of medical men; all pharmaceutical establishments were
placed under the surveillance of the college of medicine. In
the monastic period pharmacy was to a great extent under the
control of the religious orders, particularly the Benedictines, who,
from coming into contact with the Arabian physicians, devoted
themselves to pharmacy, pharmacology and therapeutics; but,
as monks were forbidden to shed blood, surgery fell largely into
the hands of barbers, so that the class of barber-surgeons came
into existence, and the sign of their skill in blood-letting still
appears in provincial districts in England in the form of the
barber's pole, representing the application of bandages.

In England the separation between medicine and pharmacy
was somewhat later than on the continent of Europe. The
earliest record of an apothecary's shop in London was in 1345.
The status of the apothecary, as subordinate to the physician
in the time of Henry VIII., is evident from the following, out of
21 rules laid down by a prominent apothecary, who was a cousin
of Anne Boleyn: " His garden must be at hand, with plenty of
herbs and seeds and roots. He must read Dioscorides. He
must have mortars, pots, filters, glasses and boxes clean and
sweet. He must have two places in the shop, one most clean
for physic, and the base place for chirurgic stuff. He is neither
to increase nor to diminish the physician's prescription; he is
neither to buy nor to sell rotten drugs. He is only to meddle
in his own vocation; and to remember that his office is only to
be the physician's cook."

The drugs used by the physicians and apothecaries were
purchased from the grossarii or sellers in gross, who were sub-
sequently called grocers, some of whom specialized as druggists
and others as chymists or chemists. The apothecaries, who
were the pharmacists of those days, were not represented by
any corporate body, but in the reign of King James I., in 1606,
were incorporated with the Company of Grocers. This arrange-
ment was not, however, approved of by the physicians, who
obtained in 161 7 a separate charter for the apothecaries, to
the number of 114, which was the number of physicians then

PHARMACY

357

practising in London. At the same time it was enacted that no
grocer should keep an apothecary's shop, and that no surgeon
should sell medicines, and that the physicians should have the
power to search the shops of the apothecaries within 7 m. of
London under a penalty of £100 in case of a refusal to permit
it. Soon after the apothecaries were formed into a separate
company they took into consideration means to prevent the
frauds and adulterations practised by the grocers and druggists,
and, to remedy the evil, established a manufactory of their own
in 1626 so that they might make preparations for their own
members. The frauds and adulterations were probably due in
part to the apothecaries, for Dr Merrit, a collegiate physician
of London, stated that " such chymists which sell preparations
honestly made complain that few apothecaries will go to the
price of them." The medicinal preparations which required
the aid of a furnace, such as mineral earths, were undertaken by
the chymists, who probably derived their name from the
Alchymists, who flourished from the 14th to the 16th centuries.
When the word was discovered to be derived from an Arabic
prefix and a Greek word the prefix was dropped. In the 19th
century the word chymist became altered to chemist, although
the original spelling is still continued to a small extent. The
curious signs on the coloured carboys in chemists' windows,
which were commonly to be seen until the middle of the 19th
century, were signs used by the alchemists to indicate various
chemical substances. In 1694 the apothecaries had increased
from 114 to nearly 1000, and many of them, having acquired
a knowledge of the uses of medicine, began to prescribe medicines
for their customers and to assume the functions of the physician,
who retorted in 1697 by establishing dispensaries, where medicines
could be procured at their intrinsic value, or at cost price. The
assistants employed at these dispensaries after a time appear
to have gone into business on their own account, and in this way
the dispensing chemists, as a class, appear to have originated.

In 1748 the Apothecaries' Corporation obtained a charter
empowering them to license apothecaries to sell medicines in
London, or within 7 m., and intended to use it to restrain
chemists and druggists from practising pharmacy, and to
prohibit physicians and surgeons from selling the medicines
they prescribed; but the apothecaries, by paying increased
attention to medical and surgical practice, had not only alien-
ated the physicians and surgeons, but materially strengthened
the position of chemists and druggists as dispensers of pre-
scriptions. When a further attempt was made in 181 5 to bring
a bill into parliament including provisions for prohibiting the
practice of pharmacy by uneducated persons, and giving power
to examine dispensing chemists, the latter became alarmed,
and, finding that the provisions of the bill were entirely in the
interests of the apothecaries, and directed against chemists and
druggists, the latter took measures to oppose it in parliament,
which were so far successful as to prevent apothecaries from
interfering in any way with, or obtaining any control over,
chemists and druggists. In 1841 another attempt was made by
the apothecaries to control the trade of chemists and druggists
on the ground that no adequate examination or education in
pharmacy existed, and that such should be instituted, and be
controlled by the apothecaries and physicians, but the latter
disclaimed any desire to take an active part in the matter. The
chemists and druggists, recognizing that no institution for the
systematic education and examination of chemists and druggists
existed in England, and that no proof could be given that each
individual possessed the necessary qualifications, decided that
this objection must be met, and that pharmacy must be placed
upon a more scientific footing. They therefore resolved upon the
foundation of a voluntary society, under the title of the Pharma-
ceutical Society of Great Britain, " for advancing the know-
ledge of chemistry and pharmacy, and promoting a uniform
system of education for those who should practise the same, also
for protecting the collective and individual interests and privi-
leges of all its members, in the event of any hostile attack in
parliament or elsewhere." This society was instituted in 1841,
t'.ie original founders being chemists and druggists in the

metropolis and provincial towns. On the 18th of February 1843
a royal charter of incorporation was granted to the society, and
a permanent status was thus acquired. Chemists in business
before the granting of the charter were entitled to join the
society as members, but those who wished to join it subsequently
could do so only on condition of passing an examination for the
purpose of testing their knowledge of pharmacy. A school of
pharmacy was instituted, and a museum and library were
started. The chemical laboratory in connexion with the school
was, when first instituted, the only one in England for teaching
purposes, and the museum is now reputed to be the best
pharmaceutical one in the world, the library now containing
about 13,000 volumes.

The examinations are three in number. The first is of a pre-
liminary character, qualifying for registration as a student or
apprentice; in lieu of this examination, certificates of matriculation
at a university, and those of certain other educational bodies,
are accepted. The second examination qualifies for registration as
a chemist and druggist. This is known as the minor examination,
and must be passed before anyone can legally dispense, compound
and sell scheduled poisons. The subjects included are systematic
botany, vegetable morphology and physiology, chemistry, physics,
materia medica, pharmacy, dispensing, posology, the reading of
prescriptions, and a knowledge of poisons and their antidotes. The
Poisons and Pharmacy Act of 1908 (section 4) has given the society
power to regulate the preliminary training, arrange a curriculum,
and divide the qualifying examination into two parts, so that an
approximation to the standard of pharmaceutical education on the
Continent is likely to take place within a short period. Degrees in
science and pharmacy are granted by the universities of Manchester
and Glasgow, and other universities were in 1910 considering
the question of granting degrees.

The third, or major examination, which qualifies for registration
as a pharmaceutical chemist, is not, like the minor, a compulsory
one, but ranks as an honours examination. The education for this
examination has kept pace with the rapid advances of science, all
the following subjects now receiving attention: the microscopical
structure of plants and drugs, so as to detect adulterations and
impurities in powdered drugs; organic and quantitative analysis,
including those of food and drugs, water, soils, gas and urine ; optics, so
as to enable them to carry out the prescriptions of oculists; spectrum
analysis; the use of the polariscope and ref ractometer ; the method
of applying Rontgen rays; the preparation of glandular secretions
and antitoxins; and the chemistry of remedies for the fungoid
diseases and insect pests of plants.

Those who have passed this examination are competent to perform
analysis of all kinds, and generally obtain the preference for various
appointments, such as head dispensers in government or other
large hospitals, or as analysts. The society has also established a
chemical research laboratory, in which much useful work has
been done in connexion with the national pharmacopoeia under
the direction of the Pharmacopoeia Committee of the Medical
Council.

A pharmacy act, which was passed in 1852, established a
distinction between registered and examined, and unregistered
and unexamined chemists and druggists, creating a register
of the former under the name of pharmaceutical chemists,
so that the public might discriminate between the two classes.
A subsequent pharmacy act, passed in 1868, added a register
of chemists and druggists, and rendered it unlawful for any
unregistered person to sell or keep open shop for selling the
poisons mentioned in the schedule of this act. The adminis-
tration of the act was entrusted to the pharmaceutical society,
and the duty of prosecuting unauthorized practitioners has
been performed by the society ever since, without any pecu-
niary assistance from the state, although the legal expenses
involved in prosecution amount to a considerable portion of its
income.

The Poisons and Pharmacy Act of 1908 extended the schedule
of poisons instituted by the act of 1868, and it now includes
arsenic, aconite, aconitine and their preparations; all poisonous
vegetable alkaloids, and their salts and poisonous derivatives;
atropine and its salts and their preparations; belladonna and all
preparations or admixtures (except belladonna plasters) con-
taining O'l % or more of belladonna alkaloid; cantharides and
its poisonous derivatives; any preparation or admixture of
coca-leaves containing o-i % or more of coca alkaloids; corrosive
sublimate; cyanide of potassium and all poisonous cyanides
and their preparations; tartar emetic, nux vomica, and all

358

PHARMACY

preparations or admixtures containing 0-2% or more of
strychnine; opium and all preparations and admixtures contain-
ing 1% or more of morphine; picro-toxine ; prussic acid and all
preparations and admixtures containing o- 1 % or more of
prussic acid; savin and its oil, and all preparations or admixtures
containing savin or its oil. None of these may be sold to any
person who is unknown to the seller, unless introduced by a
person known to the seller, and not until after an entry is
made in a book kept for the purpose, stating, in the prescribed
form, the date of sale, name and address of purchaser, the
name and quantity of the article sold, and the purpose for
which it is stated by the purchaser to be required. The
signature of the purchaser and introducer (if any) must be
affixed to the entry.

The following poisons may not be sold, either retail or
wholesale, unless distinctly labelled with the name of the article,
and the word poison, with the name and address of the seller: —
Almonds, essential oil of (unless deprived of prussic acid). Anti-
monial wine. Cantharides, tincture and all vesicating liquids,
preparations or admixtures of. Carbolic acid, and liquid pre-
parations of carbolic acid and its homologues containing more than
3 % of those substances, except preparations for use as sheep-wash
or for any other purpose in connexion with agriculture or horti-
culture, contained in a closed vessel distinctly labelled with the
word " poisonous," the name and address of the seller, and a notice
of the special purposes for which the preparations are intended.
Chloral hydrate. Chloroform, and all preparations or admixtures
containing more than 20 % of chloroform. Coca, any preparation
or admixture of, containing more than o>i% but less than 1%
of coca alkaloids. Digitalis. Mercuric iodide. Mercuric sulpho-
cyanide. Oxalic acid. Poppies, all preparations of, excepting red
poppy petals and syrup of red poppies (Papaver Rhoeas). Precipi-
tate, red, and all oxides of mercury. Precipitate, white. Stro-
phanthus. Sulphonal. All preparations or admixtures which are
not included in part I of the schedule, and contain a poison within
the meaning of the pharmacy acts, except preparations or admix-
tures, the exclusion of which from this schedule is indicated by the
words therein relating to carbolic acid, chloroform and coca, and
except such substances as come within the provisions of section 5
of the act.

It has been erroneously represented by interested persons
that the Pharmaceutical Society desires a monopoly of the sale
of poisons. This is not the case. Any poisonous substance
that is not included in the schedules can be sold by anyone,
as, for instance, red lead, sulphate of copper, &c. The duty of
the Pharmaceutical Society is a purely legal one, and relates
only to the schedules of poisons framed by the government to
protect the public by rendering it a difficult matter to obtain
the poisons most frequently used for criminal purposes. In
continental countries the laws are even more stringent.

In response to an agitation originated by certain manufacturers
(one of whom was a member of parliament), who were prosecuted
for omitting to label arsenical and nicotine preparations as poisons,
as required by the Pharmacy Act of 1868, a new act was passed in
1908, by which persons, without any training in toxicology, and
being neither pharmaceutical chemists, nor chemists and druggists,
may be granted licences by local authorities to sell poisonous
substances used exclusively in agriculture or horticulture, for the
destruction of insects, fungi or bacteria, or as sheep dips or weed-
killers, but: which are poisonous by reason of containing the
scheduled poisons, arsenic or nicotine, &c. One condition concerning
the granting of such licences has been, it is said, deliberately ignored
in many towns, viz. that the local authority, before granting a
licence, " shall take into consideration whether, in the neighbour-
hood, the reasonable requirements of the public are satisfied with
regard to the purchase of poisonous substances, and. also any
objections they may receive from the chief officer of police, or from
any existing vendors of the substances to which the application
relates." It is left to the Pharmaceutical Society to take legal
action against any infringement of the law, although it is obvious
that this should be carried out at the government expense, since
it is for the benefit of a section of the public, and obviously to the
loss of the members of the Pharmaceutical Society. Moreover,
the present act nullifies the object of the previous act of 1868,
which was to reduce the facilities for obtaining poisons. The fact
that a voluntary society with limited funds must contest the
illegal decisions of local councils, without government support,
seems likely to render this portion of the act of 1908 a dead letter.

At the time of the passing of the Pharmacy Act of 1852 co-operative
associations did not come under consideration, and no provision
was made concerning them as regards the title of chemist, or as to
any action such associations might take to evade the law. It
has been decided in the law courts that a limited liability company

is not a person in the eye of the law, and therefore does not come
under the operation of the act of 1868. The result of this decision
was that any chemist who failed to pass the qualifying examination
could constitute himself with a few others, even if ignorant of
pharmacy, into a limited liability company, which would then have
been outside the powers of the act, and not subject to its provisions.
This false position was remedied by the act of 1908, which brings
companies into line with individuals.

On the continent of Europe the dispensing of prescriptions
is confined to pharmacists (pharmaciens and apothc-
kers). They are not allowed to prescribe nor the „ re/ f n „,

,. , ,. , . , ,. Regulations.

medical men to dispense, except under special licence,
and then only in small villages, where the pharmacist could not
make a living. The principle of " one man one shop " is general;
a pharmacist may not own more than one shop in the same town.
In Holland he may not enter into any agreement, direct or
indirect, with a medical man with regard to the supply of medi-
cines. In Austria, Germany, Italy, Rumania and Russia the
number of pharmacies is limited according to the population.
In France, Switzerland, Belgium and Holland the number is not
limited, and every qualified pharmacist has the right to open a
shop or buy a pharmacy. Where the number of pharmacies
is limited by law prescriptions may only be dispensed at
these establishments. The original prescription is kept by
the pharmacist for either three or ten years, according to the
country, and a certified copy given to the patient, written on
white paper if for internal use, or on coloured paper (usually
orange yellow) if for external use. The price of the drugs
and the tariff for dispensing prescriptions is fixed by govern-
ment authority. In Russia a prescription containing any of the
poisons indicated in the schedules A and B in the Russian
pharmacopoeia may not be repeated, except by order of the
doctor. The use of pharmacopoeia preparations made by
manufacturers is allowed, but the seller is held responsible for
their purity and strength. The prices charged for dispensing
are lower in countries where the number of pharmacies is
limited by law, the larger returns enabling the profit to be
lessened.

The educational course adopted in different countries varies as
to the details of the subjects taught. The preliminary, or
classical examination, is usually that of university matriculation,
or its equivalent. The period of study is eighteen months
in Denmark or Norway, and two in Austria, Finland, Germany,
Portugal, Russia, Sweden and Switzerland, three in Belgium,
France, Greece and Italy, four to six in Holland, and five in
Spain. In Great Britain the period of study is voluntary, and
usually occupies only one year. Two or three years of appren-
ticeship is required in most countries, including Great Britain,
but none in Belgium, Greece, Italy or Spain.

The subject of patent medicines is but little understood by the
general public. Any medicine, the composition of which is kept
secret, but which is advertised on the label for the
cure of diseases, must in Great Britain bear a patent Medicines
medicine stamp equal to about one-ninth of its face
value. The British Medical Association published in 1907 a work
on Secret Remedies; what they cost and what they contain. The
analyses published in this work show that nearly all the widely
advertised secret remedies contain only well-known and inexpen-
sive drugs. The Pharmaceutical Society on the other hand has
also published a Pharmaceutical Journal Formulary, including
several hundred formulae of proprietary medicines sold by
pharmacists, so that it is now possible for any medical man
to ascertain what they contain. The government accepts all the
therein published formulae as " known, admitted and approved "
remedies, and therefore not requiring a patent medicine stamp.
In this way widely advertised secret remedies can be replaced by
medicines of known composition and accepted value in any part
of the world. Most, continental countries have issued stringent
laws against the sale of secret remedies, and these have been
lately strengthened in Germany, France and Italy. In
Switzerland secret remedies cannot be advertised without
submitting the formula and a sample of the remedy to the
board of health. (E. M. H.)

PHARNABAZUS— PHARYNX

359

PHARNABAZUS, Persian soldier and statesman, the son of
Pharnaces, belonged to a family which from 478 governed the
satrapy of Phrygia on the Hellespont, from its headquarters at
Dascylium, and, according to a discovery by Th. Noldeke, was
descended from Otanes, one of the associates of Darius in the
murder of Smerdis. Pharnabazus first appears as satrap of this
province in 413, when, having received orders from Darius II.
to send in the outstanding tribute of the Greek cities on the
coast, he, like Tissaphernes of Caria, entered into negotiations
with Sparta and began war with Athens. The conduct of the
war was much hindered by the rivalry between the two satraps,
of whom Pharnabazus was by far the more energetic and up-
right. After the war he came into conflict with Lysander (q.v.:
see also Peloponnesian War), who tried to keep the Greek
cities under his own dominion, and became one of the causes of
his overthrow, by a letter which he sent to the ephors at Sparta
(Plut. Lys. 19; Ncpos, Lys. 4; Polyaen. vii. 19). He received
Alcibiades at his court and promised him means to go up to the
king to reveal the intrigues of Cyrus, but when the Spartans
insisted on his death he yielded to their demand for his assassi-
nation (Plut. Alcib. 37 sqq.; Diod. xiv. n). When in 399 the
war with Sparta broke out he again tried to conduct it strenu-
ously. With the help of Conon and Evagoras of Salamis he
organized the Persian fleet, and while he was hard pressed on
land by Agesilaus he prepared the decisive sea-battle, which was
fcught in August 394 at Cnidus under his and Conon's command,
and completely destroyed the Spartan fleet. He sent support to
the allies in Greece, by which the walls of the Peiraeus were rebuilt .
But in the war on land he struggled in vain against the lethargy
and disorganization of the Persian Empire; and when at last,
in 387, in consequence of the embassy of Antalcidas to Susa,
the king decided to conclude peace with Sparta and to enter
again into close alliance with her, Pharnabazus, the principal
opponent of Sparta, was recalled from his command in high
honours, to marry Apame, a daughter of the king (Plut. Arlax.
27). In 385 he was one of the generals sent against Egypt, and
in 377 he was ordered to prepare a new expedition against the
valley of the Nile. The gathering of the army took years, and
when in 373 all was ready, his attempt to force the passage of
the Nile failed. A conflict with Iphicrates, the leader of the
Greek mercenaries, increased the difficulties; at last Pharna-
bazus led the army back to Asia. From these campaigns date
the silver coins with the name of Pharnabazus in Aramaic
writing. When he died is not known.

In the time of Alexander we meet with a Persian general Pharna-
bazus, son of Artabazus (Arrian ii. 1 seq.), who probably was the
grandson of the older Pharnabazus.

The name Pharnabazus is also borne by a king of Iberia (Georgia)
on the Caucasus, where the dynasty seems to have been of Persian
origin, defeated by a general of Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony)
in 36 B.C. (Dio Cass. xlix. 24). In the Georgian dynasty the name
occurs as late as the 19th century. (Ed. M.)

PHARYNGITIS. The pharynx, or upper portion of the gullet
(seen to a large extent on looking at the back of the mouth) is
frequently the seat of a chronic inflammatory condition, usually
associated with derangements of the digestive organs, or with
syphilis or gout; sometimes it is due to much speaking or to
excessive tobacco-smoking — especially of cigarettes. On in-
spection, the inflamed mucous membrane is seen unduly red
and glazed, and dotted over with enlarged follicles. The con-
dition produces considerable irritation and " dryness," with
cough and discomfort, which may eventually become chronic.
Treatment consists in removing all sources of irritation, in
rectifying gastric disturbance, and in the application of the
electric cautery, of astringent lotions or of mild causlic solutions.
The pain may be relieved by spraying with certain anodyne
solutions. In the case of adenoid growths (see Adenoids) there
is often an associated granular appearance of the pharynx, due
to enlargement of the minute glands of the mucous membrane.
The inflamed pharynx of the orator (" clergyman's sore-throat ")
may be put right by lessons in elocution or by complete rest for
a time. The gouty throat may call for a change of diet, or for a
stay at one of the watering-places where early rising, moderate

food, regular exercise and the drinking of laxative waters join in
restoring health. (E. O.*)

PHARYNX (Gr. <j>apvy^, throat), in anatomy, the cavity into
which both the nose and mouth lead, which is prolonged into
the oesophagus or gullet below, and from which the larynx or
air tube comes off below and in front; it therefore serves as a
passage both for food and air. It may be likened to an empty
sack turned upside down and narrowing toward its mouth. The
back and sides of the sack are formed by the three constrictor
muscles of the pharynx, each of which overlaps the outer surface
of the one above it, and these are lined internally by thick
mucous membrane. The upturned bottom of the sack is
attached firmly to the base of the skull and the internal ptery-
goid plates, so that this part cannot collapse, but below the
anterior and posterior walls are in contact, and a transverse
section of the pharynx is a mere slit.

From the front wall, on a level with the floor of the nose and roo*
of the mouth, a slanting shelf of muscular and glandular tissue
covered with mucous membrane, projects downward and backward
into the cavity, and divides it into an upper part or naso-pharynx
and a lower or oral pharynx (see fig.). This shelf is the soft palate,
and from the middle of its free border hangs a worm-like projection,
of variable length but averaging about half an inch, the uvula.
The whole of the front wall of the naso-pharynx is wanting, and
here the cavity opens into the nose through the posterior nasal
apertures (see Olfactory System). On each side of the naso-
pharynx, and therefore above the soft palate, is the large triangular
opening of the Eustachian tube through which air passes to the
tympanum (see Ear). Behind this opening, and reaching up to
the roof of the naso-pharynx, is a mass of lymphoid tissue, most
marked in children, known as the pharyngeal tonsil. This tissue,
when it hypertrophies, causes the disease known as " adenoids."

From the mid-line of the roof of the pharynx a small pouch, the
bursa pharyngea, best seen in childhood, projects upward, while
on each side, above and behind the opening of the Eustachian
tube, is a depression known as the lateral recess of the pharynx.
The oral pharynx communicates with the naso-pharynx by the
pharyngeal isthmus behind the free edge of the soft palate. Above
and in front it is continuous with the cavity of the mouth, and the
demarcation between the two is a ridge of mucous membrane on
each side running from the soft palate to the side of the tongue,
and caused by the projection of the palato-glossus muscle. This
is known as the anterior pillar of the fauces or anterior palatine
arch. About half an inch behind this ridge is another, made by
the palato-pharyngeus muscle, which gradually fades away in the
side of the pharynx below. This is the posterior pillar of the
fauces or posterior palatine arch, and between it and the anterior
is the fossa (tonsilar sinus) in which the tonsil lies.

The Tonsil is an oval mass of lymphoid tissue covered by mucous
membrane which dips in to form mucous crypts; externally its
position nearly corresponds to that of the angle of the jaw. It
is very vascular, deriving its blood from five neighbouring arteries.
Below the level of the tonsil the anterior wall of the pharynx is
formed by the posterior or pharyngeal surface of the tongue {q.v.),
while below that is the epiglottis and upper opening of the larynx
which is bounded laterally by the aryteno-epiglottic folds (see
Respiratory System). On the lateral side of each of these folds
is a pear-shaped fossa known as the sinus pyriformis. Below this
the pharynx narrows rapidly until the level of the lower border of
the cricoid cartilage in front and of the sixth cervical vertebra
behind is reached ; here it passes into the oesophagus, having reached
a total length of about five inches.

The mucous membrane of the naso-pharynx, like that of the rest
of the respiratory tract, is lined by ciliated columnar epithelium,
but in the oral pharynx the epithelium is of the stratified squamous
variety. Numerous racemose glands are present (see Epithelial
Tissues), as well as patches of lymphoid tissue especially in child-
hood. Outside the mucous membrane and separating it from the
constrictor muscles is the pharyngeal aponeurosis, which blends
above with the periosteum of the base of the skull.

Embryology. — The pharynx is partly formed from the ecto-
dermal stomatodaeal invagination (see Embryology and Mouth)
and partly from the fore gut, which is the cephalic part of the
entodermal mesodaeum. Up to the fifteenth day (see Mouth), the
bucco-pharyngeal membrane separates these structures, and, though
no vestiges of it remain, it is clear that the upper and front part of
the naso-pharynx is stomatodaeal while the rest is mesodaeal.
The five visceral arches with their intervening clefts or pouches
surround the pharynx, and the Eustachian tube is a remnant of
the first of these. The second pouch is represented in the adult
by the tonsilar sinus, and until lately the lateral recess of the
pharynx was looked upon as part of the same, but it has now been
shown to be an independent diverticulum. The sinus pyriformis
proba.bly represents that part of the fourth groove from which the
lateral lobes of the thyroid body are derived.

360

PHEASANT

The Bursa pharyngea was at one time looked upon as the place
whence the pituitary body had been derived from the roof of the
pharynx, but this is now disproved and its meaning is unknown
The tonsil is formed in the second branchial cleft or rather pouch,
for the clefts are largely incomplete in man, about the fourth month;
its lymphoid tissue, as well as that elsewhere in the pharynx, is
formed from lymphocytes in the subjacent mesenchyme (see Em-
bryology), though whether these wander in from the blood or are
derived from original mesenchyme cells is still doubtful. The

Middle turbinated

Middle meatus of nose

Inferior meatus
of nose

Superior meatus of nose

Sphenoidal sinus

Inferior turbinated bone

Geniohyoid

Lymphoid follicle

Hyoid bone

(From Ambrose Birmingham, Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy.)

Sagittal Section through Mouth, Tongue, Larynx, Pharynx and Nasal Cavity.
The section is slightly oblique, and the posterior edge of the nasal septum has been pre-
served. The specimen is viewed slightly from below, hence in part the low position
of the inferior turbinated bone.

development of the ventral part of the pharynx is dealt with in
the articles Tongue and Respiratory System.

For literature see Quain's Elements of Anatomy, vol. i. (London,
1908), and J. P. McMurrich, Development of the Human Body
(London, 1906).

Comparative Anatomy. — In the lower, water-breathing, verte-
brates the pharynx is the part in which respiration occurs. The
water passes in through the mouth and out through the gill slits
where it comes in contact with the gills or branchiae.

The lowest subphylum of the phylum Chordata, to which the
term Adelochorda is sometimes applied, contains a worm-like
creature Balanoglossus, in which numerous rows of gill slits open
from the pharynx, though Cephalodiscus, another member of the
same subphylum, has only one pair of these.

In the subphylum Urochorda, to which the Ascidians or sea-
squirts belong, there are many rows of gill slits, as there are also in the
Acrania, of which Amphioxus, the lancelet, is the type. In all these
lower forms there are no true gills, as the blood-vessels lining the
large number of slits provide a sufficient area for the exchange
of gases.

Iii the Cyclostomata a reduction of the number of gill slits takes
place, and an increased area for respiration is provided by the gill
pouches lined by pleated folds of entodermal mucous membrane;

these form the simplest type of true internal gills. In the larval
lamprey (Ammocoetes) there are eight gill slits opening from the
pharynx, but in the adult (Petromyzon) they are reduced to seven,
and a septum grows forward separating the ventral or branchial
part of the pharynx from the dorsal or digestive part. Both these
tubes, however, communicate near the mouth.

In fishes there are usually five pairs of gill slits, though a rudi-
mentary one in front of these is often present and is called the
spiracle. Occasionally, as in Hexanchus and Heptanchus, there
may be six or seven slits, and the evidence of
comparative anatomy is that fishes formerly
had a larger number of gill slits than at
present.

In the Teleostomi, which include the
bony fishes, there is an external gill cover or
operculum.

In the Dipnoi or mud fish the work of the
gills is shared by that of the lungs, and in
the African form, Protopterus, external gills,
developed from the ectodermal parts of the
gill slits, first appear. In the tailed Am-
phibians (Urodela) the first and fifth gill
clefts are never perforated and are therefore
in the same condition as all the gill clefts of
the human embryo, while in the gilled
salamanders (Necturus and Proteus) only
two gill clefts remain patent. The gills in
all the Amphibia are external and of ecto-
dermal origin, but in the Anura (frogs and
toads) these are succeeded before the meta-
morphosis from the tadpole stage by internal
gills, which, unlike those of fish, are said to
be derived from the ectoderm.

In the embryos of the Sauropsida (reptiles
and birds) five gill clefts are evident, though
the posterior two are seldom at any time
perforated, while in the Mammalia the rudi-
ments of the fifth cleft are no longer found
in the embryo, and in man, at all events,
none of them are normally perforated except
that part of the first which forms the
Eustachian tube. It will thus be seen that
in the process of phylogeny there is a gradual
suppression of the gill clefts beginning at the
more posterior ones.

The soft palate is first found in crocodiles
as a membranous structure, and it becomes
muscular in mammals. The bursa pharyngea
and pharyngeal tonsil are found in several of
the lower mammals. In the sheep the latter
is particularly large.

For literature and further details, see
R. Wiedersheim's Comparative Anatomy of
Vertebrates, translated by W. N. Parker
(London, 1907) ; also Parker and Haswell's
Zoology (London, 1897). (F. G. P.)

PHEASANT (Mid. Eng. fesattnt and

fesaun; Ger. fasan and anciently fasant;

Fr. faisan — all from the Lat. phasianus

or phasiana, sc. avis), the bird brought from

the banks of the river Phasis, now the Rioni,

in Colchis, where it is still abundant, and

introduced, according to legend, by the

Argonauts into Europe. Judging from the

recognition of the remains of several species referred to the genus

Phasianus both in Greece and in France, 1 it seems not impossible

that the ordinary pheasant, the P. colchicus of ornithclogists,

may have been indigenous to this quarter of the globe. If it was

introduced into England, it must almost certainly have been

brought by the Romans; 2 for, setting aside several earlier records

of doubtful authority, 3 Stubbs has shown that by the regulations

of King Harold in 1059 unus phasianus is prescribed as the

1 These are P. archiaci from Pikermi, P. altus and P. medius
from the lacustrine beds of Sansan, and P. desnoyersi from Touraine,
see A. Milne Edwards, Ois.foss. de la France (ii. 229, 239-243).

2 Undoubted remains have been found in excavations at Silchester.

3 Among these perhaps that worthy of most attention is in
Probert's translation of The Ancient Laws of Cambria (ed. 1823,
pp. 367, 368), wherein extracts are given from Welsh triads, pre-
sumably of the age of Howel the Good, who died in 948. One of
them is, " There are three barking hunts: a bear, a squirrel and a
pheasant." The explanation is, " A pheasant is called a barking
hunt, because when the pointers come upon it and chase it, it takes
to a tree, where it is hunted by baiting." The present writer has
not been able to trace the manuscript containing these remarkable

Posterior edge of nasal septum

Orifice of Eustachian tube

,'ii \Bursa pharyngea

Part of the
pharyngea! tonsil

Lateral recess of
pharynx

Levator cushion

Salpingo-
pharyngeal fold
Glands in soft
palate

Anterior palatine
arch
Supra tonsillar

Plica triangularis
Tonsil

Posterior palatine
arch

Epiglottis

Aryteno-
epiglottic fold

Cricoid cartilage

PHEIDIAS

361

alternative of two partridges or other birds among the " pitantiae"
(rations or commons, as we might now say) of the canons of
Waltham Abbey, and, as W. B. Dawkins has remarked (Ibis, 1869,
p. 358), neither Anglo-Saxons nor Danes were likely to have intro-
duced it into England. It seems to have been early under legal
protection, for, according to Dugdale, a licence was granted in
the reign of Henry I. to the abbot of Amesbury to kill hares and
pheasants, and from the price at which the latter are reckoned
in various documents, we may conclude that they were not very
abundant for some centuries, and also that they were occasion-
ally artificially reared and fattened, as appears from Upton, 1
who wrote about the middle of the 1 5th century, while Henry
VIII. seems from his privy purse expenses to have had in his
household in 1532 a French priest as a regular " fesaunt breder,"
and in the accounts of the Kytsons of Hengrave in Suffolk for
1607 mention is made of wheat to feed pheasants, partridges and
quails.

The practice of bringing up pheasants by hand is now ex-
tensively followed, and the numbers so reared vastly exceed those
that are bred at large. The eggs are collected from birds that
are either running wild or kept in pens, and are placed under
domestic hens; but, though these prove most attentive foster-
mothers, much additional care on the part of their keepers is
needed to ensure the arrival at maturity of the poults; for,
being necessarily crowded in a comparatively small space, they
are subject to several diseases which often carry off a large
proportion, to say nothing of the risk they run by not being
provided with proper food, or by meeting an early death from
various predatory animals attracted by the assemblage of so
many helpless victims. As they advance in age the young
pheasants readily take to a wild life, and indeed can only be
kept from wandering in every direction by being plentifully
supplied with food, which has to be scattered for them in the
coverts in which it is desired that they should stay. The pro-
portion of pheasants artificially bred that " come to the gun "
would seem to vary enormously, not only irregularly according
to the weather, but regularly according to the district. ' In the
eastern counties of England, and some other favourable localities,
perhaps three-fourths of those that are hatched may be satis-
factorily accounted for; but in many of the western counties,
though they are the objects of equal or even greater care,
it would seem that more than half of the number that
live to grow their feathers disappear inexplicably before
the coverts are beaten. For the sport of pheasant-shooting see
Shooting.

Formerly pheasants were taken in snares or nets, and by
hawking; but the crossbow was also used, and the better to
obtain a " sitting shot," — for with that weapon men had not
learnt to " shoot flying " — dogs appear to have been employed
in the way indicated by the lines under an engraving by Hollar,
who died in 1677: —

" The Feasant Cocke the woods doth most frequent,
Where Spaniells spring and pearche him by the sent." 2

Of the many other species of the genus Phasianus, two only
can be dwelt upon here. These are the ring-necked pheasant
of China, P. torqualus, easily known by the broad white collar,
whence it has its name, as well as by the pale greyish-blue of its
upper wing-coverts and rump and the light buff of its flanks,
and the P. versicolor of Japan, often called the green pheasant

statements so as to find out the original word rendered " pheasant "
by the translator; but a reference to what is probably the same
passage with the same meaning is given by Ray (Synops. meth.
animalium, pp. 213, 214) on the authority of Llwyd or Lloyd,
though there is no mention of it in Wotton and Clarke's Leges
Wallicae (1730). A charter (Kemble, Cod. diplom. iv. 236), pro-
fessedly of Edward the Confessor, granting the wardenship of
certain forests in Essex to Ralph Peperking, speaks of " fesant hen "
and " fesant cocke," but is now known to be spurious.

1 In his De studio militari (not printed till 1654) he states (p. 195)
that the pheasant was brought from the East by " Palladius an-
corista."

2 Quoted by the writer (Broderip ?) of the article "Spaniel"
in the Penny Cyclopaedia. The lines throw light on the asserted
Welsh practice mentioned in a former note.

from the beautiful tinge of that colour that in certain lights
pervades almost the whole of its plumage, and, deepening into
dark emerald, occupies all the breast and lower surface that in
the common and Chinese birds is bay barred with glossy black
scallops. Both of these species have been introduced into
England, and cross freely with P. colchicus, while the hybrids
of each with the older inhabitants of the woods are not only
perfectly fertile inter se, but cross as freely with the other
hybrids, so that birds are frequently found in which the blood
of the three species is mingled. The hybrids of the first cross
are generally larger than either of their parents, but the superi-
ority of size does not seem to be maintained by their descendants.
White and pied varieties of the common pheasant, as of most
birds, often occur, and with a little care a race or breed of each
can be perpetuated. A much rarer variety is sometimes seen;
this is known as the Bohemian pheasant, not that there is the
least reason to suppose it has any right to such an epithet, for
it appears, as it were, accidentally among a stock of the pure
P. colchicus, and offers an example analogous to that of the
Japan peafowl (see Peacock), being, like that breed, capable
of perpetuation by selection. Two other species of pheasant
have been introduced to the coverts of England — P. reevesi from
China, remarkable for its very long tail, white with black bars,
and the copper pheasant, P. soemmerringi, from Japan. The
well-known gold and silver pheasants, P. pictus and P. nycthe-
merus, each the type of a distinct section or subgenus, are both
from China and have long been introduced into Europe, but are
only fitted for the aviary. To the former is allied the still more
beautiful P. amherstiae, and to the latter about a dozen more
species, most of them known to Indian sportsmen by the general
name of " kaleege." The comparatively plain pucras pheasants,
Pucrasia, the magnificent monauls, Lophophorus, and the fine
snow-pheasants, Crossoptilum — of each of which genera there
are several species, may also be mentioned.

All the species known at the time are beautifully figured from
drawings by J. Wolf in D. G. Elliot's Monograph of the Phasianidae
(2 vols., fol., 1870-1872) — the last term being used in a somewhat
general sense. With a more precise scope W. B. Tegetmeier's
Pheasants: their Natural History and Practical Management
(4th ed., 1904) is to be commended as a very useful work. (A. N.)

PHEIDIAS, son of Charmides, universally regarded as the
greatest of Greek sculptors, was born at Athens about 500 B.C.
We have varying accounts of his training. Hegias of Athens,
Ageladas of Argos, and the Thasian painter Polygnotus, have
all been regarded as his teachers. In favour of Ageladas it may'
be said that the influence of the many Dorian schools is certainly
to be traced in some of his work. Of his life we know little
apart from his works. Of his death we have two discrepant
accounts. According to Plutarch he was made an object of
attack by the political enemies of Pericles, and died in prison at
Athens. According to Philochorus, as quoted by a scholiast
on Aristophanes, he fled to Elis, where he made the great
statue of Zeus for the Eleans, and was afterwards put to
death by them. For several reasons the first of these tales is
preferable.

Plutarch gives in his life of Pericles a charming account of
the vast artistic activity which went on at Athens while that
statesman was in power. He used for the decoration of his own
city the money furnished by the Athenian allies for defence
against Persia: it is very fortunate that after the time of Xerxes
Persia made no deliberate attempt against Greece. " In all
these works," says Plutarch, " Pheidias was the adviser and
overseer of Pericles." Pheidias introduced his own portrait
and that of Pericles on the shield of his Parthenos statue.
And it was through Pheidias that the political enemies of
Pericles struck at him. It thus abundantly appears that
Pheidias was closely connected with Pericles, and a ruling spirit
in the Athenian art of the period. But it is not easy to go
beyond this general assertion into details.

It is important to observe that in resting the fame of Pheidias
upon the sculptures of the Parthenon we proceed with little evi-
dence. No ancient writer ascribes them to him, and he seldom,
if ever, executed works in marble. What he was celebrated

362

PHEIDON— PHELPS, A.

for in antiquity was his statues in bronze or gold and ivory.
If Plutarch tells us that he superintended the great works of
Pericles on the Acropolis, this phrase is very vague. On the
other hand, inscriptions prove that the marble blocks intended
for the pedimental statues of the Parthenon were not brought
to Athens until 434 B.C., which was probably after the death
of Pheidias. And there is a marked contrast in style between
these statues and the certain works of Pheidias. It is therefore
probable that most if not all of the sculptural decoration of the
Parthenon was the work of pupils of Pheidias, such as Alcamenes
and Agoracritus, rather than his own.

The earliest of the great works of Pheidias were dedications
in memory of Marathon, from the spoils of the victory. At
Delphi he erected a great group in bronze including the figures
of Apollo and Athena, several Attic heroes, and Miltiades the
general. On the Acropolis of Athens he set up a colossal bronze
image of Athena, which was visible far out at sea. At Pellene
in Achaea, and at Plataea he made two other statues of Athena,
also a statue of Aphrodite in ivory and gold for the people
of Elis. But among the Greeks themselves the two works of
Pheidias which far outshone all others, and were the basis of
his fame, were the colossal figures in gold and ivory of Zeus at
Olympia and of Athena Parthenos at Athens, both of which
belong to about the middle of the 5th century. Of the Zeus
we have unfortunately lost all trace save small copies on coins
of Elis, which give us but a general notion of the pose, and the
character of the head. The god was seated on a throne, every
part of which was used as a ground for sculptural decoration.
His body was of ivory, his robe of gold. His head was of
somewhat archaic type: the Otricoli mask which used to be
regarded as a copy of the head of the Olympian statue is certainly
more than a century later in style. Of the Athena Parthenos
two small copies in marble have been found at Athens (see
Greek Art, fig. 38) which have no excellence of workmanship,
but have a certain evidential value as to the treatment of their
original.

It will be seen how very small is our actual knowledge of the
works of Pheidias. There are many stately figures in the Roman
and other museums which clearly belong to the same school as
the Parthenos; but they are copies of the Roman age, and not
to be trusted in point of style. A. Furtwangler proposes to
find in a statue of which the head is at Bologna, and the body
at Dresden, a copy of the Lemnian Athena of Pheidias; but his
arguments (Masterpieces, at the beginning) are anything but
conclusive. Much more satisfactory as evidence are some 5th
century torsos of Athena found at Athens. The very fine torso
of Athena in the ficole des Beaux Arts at Paris, which has
unfortunately lost its head, may perhaps best serve to help
our imagination in reconstructing a Pheidian original.

As regards the decorative sculptures of the Parthenon, which
the Greeks rated far below their colossus in ivory and gold, see
the article Parthenon.

Ancient critics take a very high view of the merits of Pheidias.
What they especially praise is the ethos or permanent moral
level of his works as compared with those of the later " pathetic "
school. Demetrius calls his statues sublime, and at the same
time precise. That he rode on the crest of a splendid wave of
art is not to be questioned: but it is to be regretted that we have
no morsel of work extant for which we can definitely hold him
responsible. (P. G.)

PHEIDON (8th or 7th century B.C.), king of Argos, generally,
though wrongly, called " tyrant." According to tradition he
flourished during the first half of the 8th century B.C. He was
a vigorous and energetic ruler and greatly increased the power
of Argos. He gradually regained sway over the various cities of
the Argive confederacy, the members of which had become
practically independent, and (in the words of Ephorus) " re-
united the broken fragments of the inheritance of Temenus."
His object was to secure predominance for Argos in the north
of Peloponnesus. According to Plutarch, he attempted to
break the power of Corinth, by requesting the Corinthians to
send him 1000 of their picked youths, ostensibly to aid him in

war, his real intention being to put them to death; but the plot
was revealed. Pheidon assisted the Pisatans to expel the Elean
superintendents of the Olympian games and presided at the
festival himself. The Eleans, however, refused to recognize the
Olympiad or to include it in the register, and shortly afterwards,
with the aid of the Spartans, who are said to have looked upon
Pheidon as having ousted them from the headship of Greece,
defeated Pheidon and were reinstated in the possession of
Pisatis and their former privileges. Pheidon is said to have
lost his life in a faction fight at Corinth, where the monarchy
had recently been overthrown. The affair of the games has an
important bearing on his date. Pausanias (vi. 22, 2) definitely
states that Pheidon presided at the festival in the 8th Olympiad
(i.e. in 748 B.C.), but in the list of the suitors of Agariste, daughter
of Cleisthenes of Sicyon, given by Herodotus, there occurs the
name of Leocedes (Lacedas), son of Pheidon of Argos. Accord-
ing to this, Pheidon must have flourished during the early part
of the 6th century. It has therefore been assumed that
Herodotus confused two Pheidons, both kings of Argos. The
suggested substitution in the text of Pausanias of the 28th for
the 8th Olympiad (i.e. 668 instead of 748) would not bring it into
agreement with Herodotus, for even then Pheidon's son could
not have been a suitor in 570 for the hand of Agariste. But
the story of Agariste's wooing resembles romance and has slight
chronological value. On the whole, modern authorities assign
Pheidon to the first half of the 7th century. Herodotus further
states that Pheidon established a system of weights and measures
throughout Peloponnesus, to which Ephorus and the Parian
Chronicle add that he was the first to coin silver money, and that
his mint was at Aegina. But according to the better authority
of Herodotus (i. 04) and Xenophanes of Colophon, the Lydians
were the first coiners of money at the beginning of the 7th century,
and, further, the oldest known Aeginetan coins are of later date
than Pheidon. Hence, unless a later Pheidon is assumed, the
statement of Ephorus must be considered unhistorical. No
such difficulty occurs in regard to the weights and measures;
it is generally agreed that a system was already in existence in
the time of Pheidon, into which he introduced certain changes.
A passage in the Aristotelian Constitution of Athens (x. 2)
states that the measures used before the Solonian period of
reform were called " Pheidonian."

See Herodotus vi. 127; Ephorus in Strabo viii. 358, 376; Plutarch,
Amatoriae narrationes , 2; Marmor parium, ep. 30; Pollux ix. 83;
Nicolaus Damascenus, frag. 41 (in C. W. Muller's Frag. hist, grae-
corum, iii.) ; G. Grote, History of Greece, pt. ii. ch. 4; B. V. Head,
Historia Numorum (1887); F. Hultsch, Griechische und romische
Metrologie (1882); G. Rawlinson's Herodotus, appendix, bk. i.,
note 8. On the question of Pheidon's date, see J. B. Bury, History
of Greece, ii. 468 (1902) ; J. P. Mahaffy, Problems in Greek History,
ch. 3 (1892); J. G. Frazer's note on Pausanias vi. 22, 2; and especi-
ally G. Busolt, Griechische Geschichte (2nd ed., 1893), ch. iii. 12. C.
Trieber, Pheidon von Argos (Hanover, 1880) , and J. Beloch, in
Rheinisches Museum, xlv. 595 (1890), favour a later date, about
580.

PHELPS, AUSTIN (1820-1890), American Congregational
minister and educationalist, was born on the 7th of January
1820 at West Brookfield, Massachusetts, son of Eliakim Phelps, 1
a clergyman, who, during the boyhood of his son was principal
of a girls' school in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, and later pastor
of a Presbyterian church in Geneva, New York. The son
studied at Hobart College in 1833-1835, then at Amherst for
a year, and in 1837 graduated at the university of Pennsylvania.
He studied theology at Union Theological Seminary, at the Yale
Divinity School, and at Andover, and was licensed to preach
in 1840 by the Third Presbytery of Philadelphia. He was
pastor of the Pine Street (Congregational) Church in Boston
in 1842-1848, and in 1848-1879 was professor of sacred rhetoric
and homiletics at Andover Theological Seminary, of which he
was president from 1869 to 1879, when his failing health forced
him to resign. He died on the 13th of October 1890 at Bar
Harbor, Maine. His Theory of Preaching (1881) and English

1 Eliakim Phelps afterwards lived in Stratford, Herkimer county,
New York, where his house was " possessed " and was long a place
of curious interest to students of " spiritualism."

PHELPS, E. J.— PHENACETIN

3 6 3

Style in Public Discourse (1883) became standard textbooks;
and personally he was a brilliant preacher. He married in
1842 Elizabeth Stuart (1815-1852), eldest daughter of Moses
Stuart, then president of Andover; she was the author of the
popular story Sunnyside (1851) and of other books. In 1854
he married her sister, who died only eighteen months later; and
in 1858 he married Mary A. Johnson, of Boston.

With Professors E. A. Park and D. L. Furber he edited Hymns
and Choirs (i860), and with Professor Park and Lowell Mason The
Sabbath Hymn Book (1859). The Still Hour (1859), a summary of
a series of sermons on prayer, is a devotional classic. His other
works are: The New Birth (1867), portraying conversion (in some
instances) as a gradual change; Sabbath Hours (1874); Studies of
the Old Testament (1878) ; Men and Books (1882) ; My Portfolio (1882) ;
My Study (1885) ; and My Note Book (1890).

See Austin Phelps: A Memoir (New York, 1891), by his daughter,
Elizabeth Stuart Phelps- Ward.

PHELPS, EDWARD JOHN (1822-1900), American lawyer
and diplomat, was born on the nth of July 1822 at Middlebury,
Vermont. He graduated from Middlebury College in 1840,
was a schoolmaster for a year in Virginia, and was admitted to
the bar in 1843. He began practice at Middlebury, but in
1845 removed to Burlington, Vermont. From 1851 to 1853 he
was second comptroller of the United States Treasury, and then
practised law in New York City until 1857, when he returned
to Burlington. Becoming a Democrat after the Whig party
had ceased to exist, he was debarred from a political career in
his own state, where his party was in the minority, but he
served in the state constitutional convention in 1870, and in
1880 was the Democratic candidate for governor of his state.
He was one of the founders of the American Bar Association,
and was its president in 1 880-1 881. From 1881 until his
death he was Kent Professor of Law in Yale University. He
was minister to Great Britain from 1885 to 1889, and in 1893
served as senior counsel for the United States before the inter-
national tribunal at Paris to adjust the Bering Sea controversy.
His closing argument, requiring eleven days for its delivery,
was an exhaustive review of the case. Phelps lectured on
medical jurisorudence at the university of Vermont in 1881-
1883, and on constitutional law at Boston University in 1882-
1883, and delivered numerous addresses, among them that on
" The United States Supreme Court and the Sovereignty of
the People " at the contennial celebration of the Federal
Judiciary in 1890 and an oration at the dedication of the
Bennington Battle Monument, unveiled in 1891 at the centennial
of Vermont's admission to the Union. In politics Phelps was
always Conservative, opposing the anti-slavery movement
before i860, the free-silver movement in 1896, when he supported
the Republican presidential ticket, and' after 1898 becoming
an ardent " anti-expansionist." He died at New Haven,
Connecticut, on the 9th of March 1900.

See the Orations and Essays of Edward John Phelps, edited by
J. G. McCullough, with a Memoir by John W. Stewart (New York,
1901) ; and " Life and Public Services of the Hon. Edward J. Phelps,"
by Matthew H. Buckham, in Proceedings of the Vermont Historical
Society (Burlington, Vt., 1901).

PHELPS, SAMUEL (1804-1878), English actor and manager,
was born at Devonport on the 13th of February 1804. He was
early thrown upon his own resources, and worked in various
newspaper offices. Shortly after his marriage in 1826 to Sarah
Cooper (d. 1867), he accepted a theatrical engagement in the
York circuit at eighteen shillings a week, and afterwards
appeared in south of England towns in prominent tragic roles,
attracting sufficient attention to be spoken of as a rival to
Kean He made his first London appearance on the 28th
of August 1837 as Shylock .at the Haymarket. After a short
season there he was with Macready for about six years at
Covent Garden, the Haymarket and Drury Lane successively. ,
In 1844 he became co-lessee of Sadler's Wells Theatre with
Thomas L. Greenwood and Mrs Mary Amelia Warner (1804-
1854). Greenwood supplied the business capacity, Phelps was
the theatrical manager, and Mrs "Warner leading lady. In
this position Phelps remained for twenty years, during which
time he raised the Sadler's Wells house to an important position,

and himself appeared in a very expensive and varied repertory.
Thirty-four of Shakespeare's plays were presented there under
his direction, with great educational effect, both on public and
players. In 1861 Greenwood retired from the partnership,
and Phelps, unable to cope with the business of management,
retired from it in the following year. For the next fifteen years
he acted under various managements, achieving considerable
success in some of Halliday's dramatic versions of Scott's novels,
such as The Fortunes of Nigel and Ivanhoe. His last appear-
ance was in 1878 as Wolsey in Henry VIII., and he died on the
6th of November 1878. He was a sound and capable actor,
rather than one of any marked genius; and, in spite of his
predilection for tragedy, was most successful in such characters
of comedy as called for dry humour. Perhaps Sir Pertinax
Macsycophant in Charles Macklin's The Man of the World was
his finest impersonation. He published an annotated edition
of Shakespeare's plays (2 vols., 1852-1854).

PHELYPEAUX, a French family of Blesois. Its two principal
branches were those of the siegneurs of Herbault, La Vrilliere
and Saint Florentin, and of the counts of Pontchartrain and
Maurepas. Raimond Phelypeaux, seigneur of Herbault and
La Vrilliere (d: 1629), was treasurer of the Epargne in 1599,
and became secretary of state in 1621. His son Louis succeeded
him in this latter office, and died in 1681. Balthazar Phely-
peaux, marquis de Chateauneuf (d. 1700), and Louis, marquis
de La Vrilliere (d. 1725), respectively son and grandson of
Louis, were also secretaries of state. Louis Phelypeaux (1705-
1777), count of Saint Florentin and afterwards duke of La
Vrilliere (1770), succeeded his father as secretary of state;
became minister of the king's household in 1749, a minister
of state in 1751, and discharged the functions of minister of
foreign affairs on the disgrace of Choiseul (1770). He incurred
great unpopularity by his abuse of lettres de cachet, and had to
resign in 1775. Raimond Balthazar Phelypeaux, seigneur
du Verger, a member of the La Vrilliere branch, was sent as
ambassador to Savoy in 1700, where he discovered the intrigues
of the duke of Savoy, Victor Amadeus II., against France; and
when war was declared he was kept a close prisoner by the duke
(1703-1704). At the time of his death (1713) he was governor-
general in the West Indies. The branch of Pontchartrain-
Maurepas was founded by Paul Phelypeaux (1 569-1621),
brother of the first-mentioned Raimond; he became secretary
of state in 1610.

PHENACETIN, C 2 H 5 0-C 6 H 4 'NHCOCH 3 (para-acetamino-
phenetol), a drug prepared by acetylating para-phenetidin,
or by heating para-acetylaminophenol and potassium ethyl
sulphate with alcoholic soda to 150 C. Para-phenetidin is
prepared by treating the sodium salt of para-nitrophenol with
ethyl iodide, and reducing the nitrophenetol to para-phenetidin
or aminophenetol. The yield may be doubled by diazotizing
para-phenetidin, coupling with phenol, ethylating and reducing:

EtO-C e H 4 -NH 2 -^EtO-C 6 H4-N20H-^EtO-C 6 H 4 -N 2 -C e H-OH-^
EtO-C 6 H4-N2-C 6 H 4 -OEt-^2EtO-C 6 H4-NH 2 .

It crystallizes from water in colourless plates, melting at 135 C.
It is. soluble in about 70 parts of hot and in about 1400 parts of
cold water.

Several compounds related to phenacetin have been intro-
duced into medicine. Triphenin is propylphenetidin; lacto-
phenin is lactylphenetidin; pyrantin is para-ethoxyphenyl
succinimide, EtO-C 6 H 4 -N[CO'CH 2 ] 2 ; salophen or saliphenin is
salicylphenetidin; amygdophenin is mandelylphenetidin. In
addition, several other derivatives have been suggested which
have a greater solubility than phenacetin, e.g. phesin, which is the
sodium salt of phenacetin sulphonic acid, apolysin and citrophen
(citrophenin), which are citric acid derivatives of para-phene-
tidin, &c.

Phenacetin is contained in both the British and United States
pharmacopoeia, in the latter under the name of acetphenetidin.
The dose is 5 to 10 grs. given in cachets or in suspension. When
the drug is carelessly made it may contain impurities, producing
considerable irritation of the kidneys. The physiological action
of phenacetin consists in a sedative action on the sensory tracts of
the spinal cord, and a depressant action on the heart, where it

3^4

PHENACITE— PHENAZINE

tends to paralyse the action of the cardiac muscle. Upon the
bodily heat it exercises a marked effect, decreasing the action of
the heat-producing centre as well as increasing the dissipation of
heat, and thus causing a marked fall in temperature. In toxic
doses the blood becomes dark and blackish from the formation of
methaemoglobin, and the urine is changed in colour from the passage
of altered blood. The chief therapeutic use of phenacetin is as an
antineuralgic, and it is of service in migraine, rheumatism of the
sub-acute type, intercostal neuralgia and locomotor ataxia.

PHENACITE, a mineral consisting of beryllium orthosilicate,
Be 2 Si0 4 , occasionally used as a gem-stone. It occurs as isolated
crystals, which are rhombohedral with parallel-faced hemihedrism,
and are either lenticular or prismatic in habit: the lenticular
habit is determined by the development of faces of several
obtuse rhombohedra and the absence of prism faces (the accom-
panying figure is a plan of such
a crystal viewed along the triad,
or principal, axis). There is no
cleavage, and the fracture is
conchoidal. The hardness is
high, being 75- 8; the specific
gravity is 2-98. The crystals are
sometimes perfectly colourless
and transparent, but more often
they are greyish or yellowish
and only translucent; occasion-
ally they are pale rose-red. In
general appearance the mineral
is not unlike quartz, for which
indeed it had been mistaken; on this account it was named, by
N. Nordenskiold in 1833, from Gr. <j>eva^ (a deceiver).

Phenacite has long been known from the emerald and chryso-
beryl mine on the Takovaya stream, near Ekaterinburg in
the Urals, where large crystals occur in mica-schist. It is also
found with topaz and amazon-stone in the granite of the Ilmen
mountains in the southern Urals and of the Pike's Peak region
in Colorado. Large crystals of prismatic habit have more
recently been found in a felspar quarry at Kragero in Norway.
Framont near Schirmeck in Alsace is another well-known locality.
Still larger crystals, measuring 12 in. in diameter and weighing
28 lb, have been found at Greenwood in Maine, but these are
pseudomorphs of quartz after phenacite.

For gem purposes the stone is cut in the brilliant form, of
which there are two fine examples, weighing 43 and 34 carats,
in the British Museum. The indices of refraction (co = 1-6540,
€ = 1-6527) are higher than those of quartz, beryl or topaz; a
faceted phenacite is consequently rather brilliant and may
sometimes be mistaken for diamond. (L. J. S.)

PHENACODUS, one of the earliest and most primitive of
the ungulate mammals, typifying the family Phenacodontidae
and the sub-order Condylarthra. The typical Phenacodus
primaevus, of the Lower or Wasatch Eocene of North America,
was a relatively small ungulate, of slight build, with straight
limbs each terminating in five complete toes, and walking in
the digitigrade fashion of the modern tapir. The middle toe
was the largest, and the weight of the body was mainly supported
on this and the two adjoining digits, which appear to have been
encased in hoofs, thus foreshadowing the tridactyle type
common in perissodactyle and certain extinct groups of ungulates.
The skull was small, with proportionately minute brain; and
the arched back, strong lumbar vertebrae, long and powerful
tail, and comparatively feeble fore-quarters all proclaim kinship
with the primitive creodont Carnivora (see Creodonta), from
which Phenacodus and its allies, and through them the more
typical Ungulata, are probably derived. All the bones of the
limbs are separate, and those of the carpus and tarsus do not
alternate; that is to say, each one in the upper row is placed im-
mediately above the corresponding one in the row below. The
full series of forty-four teeth was developed; and the upper molars
were short-crowned, or brachyodont, with six low cones, two
internal, two intermediate and two external, so that they were
of the typical primitive bunodont structure. In habits the
animal was cursorial and herbivorous, or possibly carnivorous.

In the Puerco, or Lowest Eocene of North America the place
of the above species was taken by Euprotogonia puercensis, an
animal only half the size of Phenacodus primaevus, with the
terminal joints of the limbs intermediate between hoofs and
claws, and the first and fifth toes taking their full share in the
support of the weight of the body. These two genera may be
regarded as forming the earliest stages in the evolution of the
horse, coming below Hyracotherium (see Equidae).

As ancestors of the Artiodactyle section of the Ungulata, we
may look to forms more or less closely related to the North
American Lower Eocene genera Mioclaenus and Pantolestes,
respectively typifying the families Mioclaenidae and Panto-
lestidae. They were five-toed, bunodont Condylarthra, with a
decided approximation to the perissodactyle type in the struc-
ture of the feet. A third type of Condylarthra from the North
American Lower Eocene is represented by the family Menisco-
theriidae, including the genera Meniscotherium and Hyracops.
These, it is suggested, may have been related to the ancestral
Hyracoidea. Teeth and jaws probably referable to the Condyl-
arthra have been obtained in European early Tertiary forma-
tions. All Ungulata probably originated from Condylarthra.

See H. F. Osborn, Skeleton of Phenacodus primaevus; comparison
with Euprotogonia, Bull. Amer. Mus. x. 159. (R. L.*)

PHENANTHRENE, C 14 H 10 , a hydrocarbon isomeric with
anthracene, with which it occurs in the fraction of the coal tar
distillate boiling between 2 7o°-4oo° C. It may be separated
from the anthracene oil by repeated fractional distillation,
followed by fractional crystallization from alcohol (anthracene
being the less soluble), and finally purified by oxidizing any
residual anthracene with potassium bichromate and sulphuric
acid (R. Anschutz and G. Schultz, Ann., 1879, 196, p. 35); or
the two hydrocarbons may be separated by carbon bisulphide,
in which anthracene is insoluble. It is formed when the
vapours of toluene, stilbene, dibenzyl, prtho-ditolyl, or coumarone
and benzene are passed through a red-hot tube; by distilling
morphine with zinc dust; and, with anthracene, by the action
of sodium on ortho-brombenzyl bromide (C. L. Jackson and
J. F. White, Amer. Chem. Jour., 1880, 2, p. 391). It crystallizes
in colourless plates or needles, which melt at 99 C. Its solutions
in alcohol and ether have a faint blue fluorescence. When
heated to 250° C. with red phosphorus and hydriodic acid it
gives a hydride C14 H24. It is nitrated by nitric acid and sulphon-
ated by sulphuric acid. With picric acid it forms a sparingly
soluble picrate, which melts at 145 C. On the condition of
phenanthrene in alcoholic solution see R. Behrend, Zeit. phys.
Chem., 1892, 9, p. 405; 10, p. 265. Chromic acid oxidizes
phenanthrene, first to phenanthre^c-quinone, and then to
diphenic acid, H0 2 C-C6H4-C 6 H4-C0 2 H.

Phenanthrene-quinone, [CelLyCO^, crystallizes in orange needles
which melt at 198 C. It possesses the characteristic properties
of a diketone, forming crystalline derivatives with sodium bisulphite
and a dioxime with hydroxylamine. It is non- volatile in steam,
and is odourless. Sulphurous acid reduces it to the corresponding
dihydroxy compound. It combines with ortho-diamines, in the
presence of acetic acid, to form phenazines.

On the constitution of phenanthrene see Chemistry : § Organic.

PHENAZINE (Azophenylene), G 2 H 8 N 2 , in organic chemistry,
the parent substance of many dyestuffs, e.g. the eurhodines,
toluylene red, indulines and safranines. It is a dibenzopara-
diazine having the formula given below. It may be obtained
by distilling barium azobenzoate (A. Claus, Ber., 1873, 6, p. 723);
by passing aniline vapour over lead oxide, or by the oxidation
of dihydrophenazine, which is prepared by heating pyrocatechin
with orthophenylene diamine (C. Ris, Ber., 1886, 19, p. 2206).
It is also formed when ortho-aminodiphenylamine is distilled
over lead peroxide (O. Fischer and E. Hepp). It crystallizes in
yellow needles which melt at 171° C, and are only sparingly
soluble in alcohol. Sulphuric acid dissolves it, forming a deep-
red solution. The more complex phenazines, such as the
naphthophenazines, naphthazines and naphthotolazines, may
be prepared by condensing ortho-diamines with ortho-quinones
(O. Hinsberg, Ann., 1887, 237, p. 340); by the oxidation of an
ortho-diamine in the presence of a-naphthol (O. Witt), and by

PHENOLPHTHALEIN-uPHEROECYDES OF SYROS

365

the decomposition of ortho-anilido-(-toluidido- &c.)-azo com-
pounds with dilute acids. If alkyl or aryl-ortho-diamines be
used azonium bases are obtained. The azines are mostly
yellow in colour, distil unchanged and are stable to oxidants.
They add on alkyl iodides readily, forming alkyl azonium salts.

By the entrance of amino or hydroxyl groups into the molecule
dyestuffs are formed. The mono-amino derivatives or eurhodines
are obtained when the arylmonamines are condensed with ortho-
amino zo compounds; by condensing quinone dichlorimide or
para-nitrosodimethyl aniline with monamines containing a free
para position, or by oxidizing ortho-hydroxydiaminodiphenylamines
(R. Nietzki, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2976; O. Fischer, ibid., 1896, 29,
p. 1874). They are yellowish-red solids, which behave as weak
bases, their salts undergoing hydrolytic dissociation in aqueous
solution. When heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid the
amino group is replaced by the hydroxyl group and the phenolic
eurhodols are produced.

The symmetrical diaminophenazine is the parent substance of
the important dyestuff toluylene red or dimethyldiaminotoluphen-
azine. It is obtained by the oxidation of orthophenylene diamine
with ferric chloride; when a mixture of para-aminodimethylaniline
and meta-toluylenediamine is oxidized in the cold, toluylene blue,
an indamine, being formed as an intermediate product and passing
into the red when boiled; and also by the oxidation of dimethyl-
paraphenylene diamine with metatoluylene diamine. It crystal-
lizes in orange-red needles and its alcoholic solution fluoresces
strongly. It dyes silk and mordanted cotton a fine scarlet. It
is known commercially as neutral red. For the phenazonium salts
see Safranine.

Phenazone is an isomer of phenazine, to which it bears the same
relation that phenanthrene bears to anthracene. It is formed by
reducing diortho-dinitrodiphenyl with sodium amalgam and methyl
alcohol, or by heating diphenylene-ortho-dihydrazine with hydro-
chloric acid to 150 C. It crystallizes in needles which melt at
156 C. Potassium permanganate oxidizes it to pyridazine tetra-
carboxylic acid.

Phenazine.

Phenazone.

PHENOLPHTHALEIN, in organic chemistry, a compound
derived from phthalophenone, or diphenyl phthalide (formula
I.), the anhydride of triphenyl-carbinol-ortho-carboxylic acid,
which is obtained by condensing phthalyl chloride with benzene
in the presence of aluminium chloride. The phthaleins are
formed from this anhydride by the entrance of hydroxyl or
amino groups into the two phenyl residues, and are prepared
by condensing phenols with phthalic anhydride, phenol itself
giving rise to phenolphthalein (formula II.) together with a
small quantity of fiuorane (formula III.), whilst resorcin under
similar conditions yields fluorescein (g.v.). The phthaleins on
reduction yield phthalines, which are derivatives of triphenyl-
methane carboxylic acid; these reduction products are colourless
and may be regarded as the leuco-compounds of the phthaleins,
1 bus phenolphthalein itself gives phenolphthaline (formula IV.).
Dehydrating agents usually convert the phenolphthalines into
anthraquinone derivatives.

C,H,

/

CPh 2 .

Vo /

O, C 6 H 4

/

C(C e H 4 -OH) 2 .
s CO

O, C 6 H 4

/

C[C 6 H 4 ] 2 0.

\:o

\

o

I. Diphenylphthalide, II. Phenolphthalein, III. Fiuorane.

/CH(C 6 H 4 -OH)2
C„H<

IV. Phenolphthaline.

Phenolphthalein is obtained when phenol and phthalic anhydride
are heated with concentrated sulphuric acid. It crystallizes in
colourless crusts and is nearly insoluble in water, but dissolves in
dilute solutions of the caustic alkalis with a fine red colour, being
reprecipitated from these solutions by the addition of mineral
acid. It dissolves in concentrated caustic alkalis to a colourless
solution which probably contains salts of a non-quinonoid character.
This difference in behaviour has led to considerable discussion
(see H. Meyer, Monats., 1899, 20, p. 337; R. Meyer, Ber., 1903,
36, p. 2949 ; A. G. Perkin and Green, Jour. Chem. Soc, 1904, p. 398).
On fusion with caustic alkali, phenolphthalein yields benzoic acid
and para-dihydroxybenzophenone, which shows that in the original
condensation the phthalic acid residue has taken the para position
to the hydroxyl groups of the phenol.

Fiuorane is a product of the condensation of the phthalic acid
residue in the ortho position to the hydroxyl groups of the phenol,

anhydride formation also taking place between these hydroxyl
groups. It dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with a yellowish-
green fluorescence. The rhodamines, which are closely related to
the phthaleins, are formed by the condensation of the alkyl meta-
aminophenols with phthalic anhydride in the presence of sulphuric
acid. Their salts are fine red dyes.

PHENOMENON (Gr. 4>aivbntvov, a thing seen, from (palveadai,
to appear), in ordinary language a thing, process, event, &c,
observed by the senses. Thus the rising of the sun, a thunder-
storm, an earthquake are natural " phenomena." From this
springs the incorrect colloquial sense, something out of the
common, an event which especially strikes the attention; hence
such phrases as " phenomenal " activity. In Greek philosophy
phenomena are the changing objects of the senses as opposed
to essences (to, avra) which are one and permanent, and are
therefore regarded as being more real, the objects of reason
rather than of senses which are " bad witnesses." In modern
philosophy the phenomenon is neither the " thing-in-itself,"
nor the noumenon (q.v.) or object of pure thought, but the thing-
in-itself as it appears to the mind in sensation (see especially
Kant; and Metaphysics). In this sense the subjective character
is of prime importance. Among derivative terms are " Pheno-
menalism" and "Phenomenology." Phenomenalism is either
(1) the doctrine that there can be no knowledge except by
phenomena, i.e. sense-given data, or (2) the doctrine that all
known things are phenomena, i.e. that there are no " things-in-
themselves." " Phenomenology " is the science of phenomena:
every special science has a special section in which its particular
phenomena are described. The term was first used in English
in the 3rd edition of the Ency. Brit, in the article " Philosophy "
by J. Robison. Kant has a special use of the term for that
part of the Metaphysic oj Nature which considers motion and
rest as predicates of a judgment about things.

PHERECRATES, Greek poet of the Old Attic Comedy, was a
contemporary of Cratinus, Crates and Aristophanes. At first
an actor, he seems to have gained a prize for a play in 438 B.C.
The only other ascertained date in his life is 420, when he pro-
duced his play The Wild Men. Like Crates, whom he imitated,
he abandoned personal satire for more general themes, although
in some of the fragments of his plays we find him attacking
Alcibiades and others. He was especially famed for his inven-
tive imagination, and the elegance and purity of his diction
are attested by the epithet aTrncwraros (most Attic) applied
to him by Athenaeus and the sophist Phrynichus. He was the
inventor of a new metre, called after him Pherecratean, which
frequently occurs in the choruses of Greek tragedies and in
Horace.

A considerable number of fragments from his 16 (or- 13) plays
has been preserved, collected in T. Kock, Comicorum Atticorum
Fragmenta, i. (1880), and A. Meineke, Poetarum Comicorum Grae-
corum Fragmenta (1855).

PHERECYDES OF LEROS, Greek mythographer, fl. c. 454
B.C. He is probably identical with Pherecydes of Athens,
although the two are distinguished by Sui'das (also by I. Lipsius,
Quaestiones logographicae, 1886). He seems to have been born
in the island of Leros, and to have been called an Athenian
because he spent the greater part of his life and wrote his great
work there. Of his treatises, On Leros, On Iphigeneia, On the
Festivals of Dionysus, nothing remains; but numerous fragments
of his genealogies of the gods and heroes, variously called
'Icrropiat, TeveaXoyiai, Avroxdbves, in ten books, written in the
Ionic dialect, have been preserved (see C. W. Muller's Frag,
hist, graec, vol. i. pp. xxxiv., 70). He modified the legends, not
with a view to rationalizing them, but rather to adjust them to
popular beliefs. He cannot, therefore, be classed with Hecataeus,
whose method was far more scientific.

See C. Liitke, Pherecydea (diss. Gottingen, 1893); W. Christ,
Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur (1898) ; and specially H. Bertsch,
Pherekydeische Studien (1898).

PHERECYDES OF SYROS, Greek philosopher (or rather
philosophical theologian) , flourished during the 6th century B.C.
He was sometimes reckoned one of the Seven Wise Men, and is
said to have been the teacher of Pythagoras. With the possible

3 66

PHIGALIA

exception of Cadmus (q.v.) of Miletus, he was the first Greek
prose-writer. He belonged to the circle of Peisistratus at
Athens, and was the founder of an Orphic community. He
is characterized as " one of the earliest representatives of a
half-critical, half -credulous eclecticism ". (Gomperz). He was
credited with having originated the doctrine of metempsychosis
(q.v.), while Cicero and Augustine assert that he was the first to
teach the immortality of the soul. Of his astronomical studies
he left a proof in the " heliotropion," a cave at Syros which
served to determine the annual turning-point of the sun, like
the grotto of Posillipo (Posilipo, Posilippo) at Naples, and was
one of the sights of the island.

In his cosmogonic treatise on nature and the gods, called
Htvrkuvxo'i (Preller's correction of Sui'das, who has iirTaixvxos)
from the five elementary or original principles (aether, fire, air,
water, earth; Gomperz substitutes smoke and darkness for
aether and earth), he enunciated a system in which science,
allegory and mythology were blended. In the beginning were
Chronos, the principle of time; Zeus (Zas), the principle of
life; and Chthonie, the earth goddess. Chronos begat fire, air
and water, and from these three sprang numerous other gods.
Smoke and darkness appear in a later tradition. A fragment
of the " sacred marriage " of Zas and Chthonie was found on
an Egyptian papyrus at the end of the 19th century.

See H. Diels, Fragmente der Vorsokratiker (1903); also O. Kern, De
Orphei, Epimenidis, Pherecydis Iheogoniis (i838); D. Speliotopoulos,
Xltpi <J\pe«Mov rod 2i>pi ,u (Athens, 1890); T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers
(Eng. trans.), i. 85; B. P. Grenfell, New Classical Fragments (1897);
H. Weil, Etudes s'ur Vantiquite grecque (1900).

PHIGALIA, or Phigaleia (QiyaXia or ®iya\eLa; mod. Pavlitsa),
an ancient Greek city in the south-west angle of Arcadia, situated
on an elevated rocky site, among some of the highest mountains
in the Peloponnesus — the most conspicuous being Mt Cotylium
and Mt Elasum; the identification of the latter is uncertain.

In 659 B.C. Phigalia was taken by the Lacedaemonians,
but soon after recovered its independence by the help of the
Orasthasians. During the struggle between Achaeans and
Aetolians in 221 B.C. it was held by Dorimachus, who left it
on the approach of Philip V. of Macedon. In common with
the other cities of Arcadia, it appears from Strabo to have
fallen into utter decay under the Roman rule. Several curious
cults were preserved near Phigalia, including that of the fish-
tailed goddess Eurynome and the Black Demeter with a horse's
head, whose image was renewed by Onatas. Notices of it in
Greek history are rare and scanty. Though its existing ruins
and the description of Pausanias show it to have been a place
of considerable strength and importance, no autonomous coins
of Phigalia are known. Nothing remains above ground of the
temples of Artemis or Dionysus and the numerous statues and
other works of art which existed at the time of Pausanias's
visit, about a.d. 170. A great part of the city wall, built in fine
Hellenic masonry, partly polygonal and partly isodomous, and
a large square central fortress with a circular projecting tower,
are the only remains now traceable — at least without the aid
of excavation. The walls, once nearly 2 m. in circuit, are strongly
placed on rocks, which slope down to the little river Neda.

One very important monument still exists in a fairly perfect
state; this is a temple dedicated to Apollo Epicurius (the Pre-
server), built, not at Phigalia itself, but at Bassae, 5 or 6 m.
away, on the slope of Mt Cotylium; it commemorates the aid
rendered by Apollo in stopping a plague which in the 5th century
B.C. was devastating Phigalia. This temple is mentioned by
Pausanias (viii. 41) as being (next to that of Tegea) the finest
in the Peloponnesus, " from the beauty of its stone and the
symmetry of its proportions." It was designed by Ictinus, who,
with Callicrates, was joint architect of the Parthenon at Athens.
Though visited by Chandler, Dodwell, Gell, and other English
travellers, the temple was neither explored nor measured till
1811-1812, when C. R. Cockerell and some other archaeologists
spent several months in making excavations there. After
nearly fifty years' delay, Professor Cockerell published the
results of these labours, as well as of his previous work at Aegina,
in Temples of Aegina and Bassae (i860), one of the most careful

and beautifully illustrated archaeological works produced. The
labours of Cockerell and his companions were richly rewarded;
not only were sufficient remains of the architectural features
discovered to show clearly the whole design, but the internal
sculptured frieze of the cella was found almost perfect. This
and other fragments of its sculpture are now in the British
Museum. The colonnade of the temple has been recently
restored by the Greek authorities.

The figure shows the plan of the temple, which is of the Doric order,
but has an internal arrangement of its cella unlike that of any other
known temple. It stands on an
elevated and partly artificial plateau,
which commands an extensive view
of the oak-clad mountains of
Arcadia, reaching away to the blue
waters of the Messenian Gulf.
Unlike other Doric temples, which
usually stand east and west, this is
placed north and south; but it has
a side entrance on the east. It is
hexastyle, with fifteen columns on
its flanks; thirty-four out of the
thirty-eight columns of the peristyle
are still standing, with the greater
part of their architrave, but the rest
of the entablature and both pedi-
ments have fallen, together with the
greater part of the internal columns
of the cella. It will be seen from
the plan that these are very
strangely placed, apparently without
symmetry, as regards the interior,
though they are set regularly op-
posite the voids in the peristyle.

With the exception of one at the
south end, which is Corinthian, the
internal columns are of the Ionic
order, and are engaged with the cella-
wall, forming a scries of recesses,
which may have been designed to
contain statues. Another peculi-
arity of this interior is that these
columns reach to the top of the
cella in one order, not in two ranges
of columns, one over the other, as
was the usual Doric fashion. These
inner columns carried an Ionic
entablature, of which the frieze now
in the British Museum formed a

part. The pediments and external metopes of the peristyle appear
to have contained no sculpture, but the metopes within the peristyle
on the exterior of the cella had sculptured subjects; only a few frag-
ments of these were, however, discovered. The position occupied by
the great statue of Apollo is a difficult problem. Cockerell, with much
probability, places it in the southern portion of the cella, facing the
eastern side door, so that it would be lighted up by the rays of the
rising sun. The main entrance is at the northern end through the
pronaos, once defended by a door in the end of the cella and a metal
screen, of which traces were found on the two columns of the pronaos.
There was no door between the posticum and the cella. The general
proportions of the fronts resemble those of the Theseum at Athens,
except that the entablature is less massive, the columns thicker,
and the diminution less — all proportionally speaking. In plan the
temple is long in proportion to its width — measuring, on the top of
the stylobace, 125 ft. 7 in. by 48 ft. 2 in., while the Theseum (built
probably half a century earlier) is about 104 ft. 2 in. by 45 ft. 2 in.

The material of which the temple is built is a fine grey limestone
(once covered with painted stucco), except the roof -tiles, the capitals
of the cella columns, the architraves, the lacunaria (ceilings) of the
posticum and pronaos, and the sculpture, all of which are of white
marble. The roof-tiles, specially noticed by Pausanias, are remark-
able for their size, workmanship, and the beauty of the Parian-marble
of which they are made. They measure 2 ft. 1 in. by 3 ft. 6 in., and
are fitted together in the most careful and ingenious manner. Unlike
those of the Parthenon and the temple of Aegina, the aptiol or " joint-
tiles " are worked out of the same piece of marble as the flat ones,
for the sake of more perfect fitting and greater security against wet.
Traces of painting on various architectural members were found
by Cockerell, but they were too much faded for the colours to be
distinguished. The designs are the usual Greek patterns — the
fret, the honeysuckle, and the egg and dart.

The sculpture is of the greatest interest, as being designed to deco-
rate one of the finest buildings in the Peloponnesus in the latter half
of the 5th century B.C.; see Brit. Mus. Catalogue of Sculpture, vol. i
The frieze, now in the British Museum, is complete; it is nearly
101 ft. long by 2 ft. high, carved in relief on twenty-three slabs of
marble 4i to 5 in. thick. The subjects are the battle of the Lapithae
, and the Centaurs, and that between the Amazons and the Greeks, the

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Plan of the Temple at
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PHILADELPHIA

367

two favourite subjects in Greek plastic art of the best period. They
are designed with wonderful fertility of invention, and life-like
realism and spirit ; the composition is arranged so as to form a series
of diagonal lines or zigzags m , thus forming a pleasing contrast
to the unbroken horizontal lines of the cornice and architrave.
The various groups are skilfully united together by some dominant
line or action, so that the whole subject forms one unbroken com-
position.

The relief is very high, more than 35 in. in the most salient parts,
and the whole treatment is quite opposite to that of the Parthenon
frieze, which is a very superior work of art to that at Bassae. Many
of the limbs are quite detached from the ground; the drill has been
largely used to emphasize certain shadows, and in many places,
for want of due calculation, the sculptor has had to cut into the flat
background behind the figures. From this it would appear that no
finished clay-model was prepared, but that the relief was sculptured
with only the help of a drawing. The point of sight, more than 20 ft.
below the bottom of the frieze, and the direction in which the light
fell on it have evidently been carefully considered. Many parts,
invisible from below, are left comparatively rough. The workman-
ship throughout is unequal, and the hands of several sculptors can
be detected. On the whole, the execution is not equal to the beauty
of the design, and the whole frieze is somewhat marred by an evident
desire to produce the maximum of effect with the least possible
amount of labour — very different from the almost gem-like finish
of the Parthenon frieze. Even the design is inferior to the
Athenian one; most of the figures are ungracefully short in their
proportions, and there is a great want of refined beauty in many of
the female hands and faces. It is in the fire of its varied action and
its subtlety of expression that this sculpture most excels. The
noble movements of the heroic Greeks form a striking contrast to
the feminine weakness of the wounded Amazons, or the struggles
with teeth and hoofs of the brutish Centaurs; the group of Apollo
and Artemis in their chariot is full of grace and dignified power.
The marble in which this frieze is sculptured is somewhat coarse and
crystalline; the slabs appear not to have been built into their place
but fixed afterwards, with the aid of two bronze bolts driven through
the face of each.

Of the metopes, which were 2 ft. 8 in. square, only one exists
nearly complete, with eleven fragments; the one almost perfect
has a relief of a nude warrior, with floating drapery, overcoming a
long-haired bearded man, who sinks vanquished at his feet. The
relief of these is rather less than that of the frieze figures, and the
work is nobler in character and superior in execution.

In addition to the works mentioned in the text, see Leake, Morea
(i. 490 and ii. 319; Curtius, Peloponnesos. i. 319; Ross, Reisen in
Peloponnesos; Stackelberg, Der Apollo-Tempel zu Bassae (1826);
Lenormant, Bas-reliefs du Parthenon et de Phigalie (1834); and
Histories of Sculpture mentioned under Greek Art.

(J.H. M.;E.Gr.)

PHILADELPHIA, the Greek name (1) of a city in Palestine
in the land of Ammon (see Ammonites), and (2) of a city so-called
in honour of Attalus II. of Pergamum, the modern Ala-Shehr

PHILADELPHIA, the third city in population in the United
States, the chief city of Pennsylvania, and a port of entry,
co-extensive with Philadelphia county, extending W. from the
Delaware river beyond the Schuylkill River, and from below
the confluence of the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers N.E.
about 23 m. along the Delaware river and Poquessing Creek.
Independence Hall, which is a few squares east by south of the
city hall, is in 39 56' 57-5" N. and 75° 8' 54-75" W. The port is
about 102 m. from the Atlantic Ocean, and the city hall is 90 m.
by rail S.S.W. of New York and 135 m. N.E. of Washington.
The city has an area of 132-7 sq. m. At the southern extremity
are lowlands protected by dikes from the tide; the business centre
between the rivers is about 40 ft. higher but level; the district
west of the Schuylkill is generally rolling; and in the upper
district the surface rises from the Delaware toward the north-
west until in the extreme north-west is a picturesque district
overlooking Wissahickon Creek from hills exceeding 400 ft. in
height.

Population. — When the first United States census was taken,
in 1790, Philadelphia was the second largest city in the Union,
and had a population of 28,522. It held this rank until 1830,
when it was exceeded in size by Baltimore as well as by New
York. In 1850 it was smaller also than Boston; but in 1854
the Consolidation Act extended its boundaries so as to include
all Philadelphia county and in i860 the city had risen again
to second rank. This rank it held until 1890 when, although
its population had grown to 1,046,964, it was 50,000 less than
that of Chicago. In 1900, with a population of 1,293,679, it

was still farther behind both New York and Chicago. In 1900,
of the total population, 998,357, or 77-18%, were native-born,
as against only 63% native-born in New York and 65-43%
native-born in Chicago. Of Philadelphia's native-born white
population, however, 414,093, or 44-24%, were of foreign-
born parentage. The foreign-born population included 98,427
born in Ireland, 71,319 born in Germany, 36,752 born in
England, 28,951 born in Russia (largely Hebrews), 17,830 born
in Italy, 8479 born in Scotland and 5154 born in Austria; and
the coloured consisted of 62,613 negroes, 1165 Chinese, 234
Indians and 12 Japanese. In i9iothe population was 1,549,008.
Streets. — With the exception of a limited number of diagonal
thoroughfares and of streets laid out in outlying districts in
conformity with the natural contour of the ground the plan of
the city is regular. Market Street — which Penn called High
Street — is the principal thoroughfare east and west, Broad Street
the principal thoroughfare north and south, and these streets in-
tersect at right angles at City Hall Square in the business centre.
The streets parallel with Broad are numbered from First or Front
Street west from the Delaware River to Sixty-Third Street,
taking the prefix " North " north of Market Street and the prefix
" South " south of it; the streets parallel with Market are named
mostly from trees and from the governors and counties of
Pennsylvania.

The wholesale district is centred at the east end of Market Street
near the Delaware river. The best retail shops are farther west
on the south side of Chestnut Street and on Market and Arch
streets. Most of the leading banks and trust companies are on
Chestnut Street and on Third Street bet ween Chestnut and Walnut
streets. Several of the larger office buildings and the stations of
the Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia & Reading railways are in
the vicinity of the city hall; here too, are the Baldwin Locomo-
tive Works. The large textile mills, the great coal wharves
and the Cramp Ship- Yards are to the north-east along the
Delaware, and in districts west of these are the leading manu-
factories of iron and steel. There are large sugar refineries in
the south-eastern part of the city. Rittenhouse Square, a short
distance south-west of the city hall, is the centre of the old
aristocratic residential district, and the south side of Walnut
Street between Fourteenth and Nineteenth streets is a fashion-
able parade. There are fine residences on North Broad Street
and on some of the streets crossing it, and many beautiful villas
in the picturesque suburbs of the north-west. The most con-
gested tenements, occupied largely by Italians, Hebrews and
negroes, are along the alleys between the rivers and south of
Market Street, often in the rear of some of the best of the older
residences.

The principal structure is the city hall (or " Public Buildings ")
one of the largest buildings in the world in ground space (45
acres). It rises 548 ft. to the top of a colossal bronze statue
(37 ft. high) of William Penn (by Alexander Calder) surmounting
the tower. It accommodates the state and county courts as
well as the municipal and county offices. The foundation stone
was laid in August 1872. On its first floor is Joseph A. Bailly's
statue of Washington, which was erected in front of Indepen-
dence Hall in 1869. About the Public Buildings are statues
of Generals McClellan and Reynolds, President McKinley, and
Joseph Leidy and St Gaudens's " Pilgrim." On all sides are
great buildings: on the north the masonic temple (1868-1873);
on the south the stately Betz Building; on the west the enormous
Broad Street station cf the Pennsylvania railway. The Penn-
sylvania Academy of Fine Arts and the Oddfellows' Temple
are among other notable buildings in the vicinity. The post
office, facing Ninth Street and extending from Market Street
to Chestnut Street, was opened in 1884; in front is a seated
statue of Benjamin Franklin, by John J. Boyle. The mint is
at the corner of Sixteenth and Spring Garden streets. The
custom-house, on Chestnut Street, was designed by William
Strickland (1787-1854), in his day the leading American architect.
It was modelled after the Parthenon of Athens, was built for
the Second United States Bank, was completed in 1824, and was
put to its present use in 1845. Other prominent buildings of

3 68

PHILADELPHIA

which Strickland was the architect are the stock exchange,
St Paul's Protestant Episcopal Church, St Stephen's Church, the
almshouse and the United States Naval Asylum. The main
building of Girard College (on Girard Avenue, between North
19th and -North 25th streets), of which Thomas Ustick Walter
(1804- 1887), a pupil of Strickland's, was the architect, is one of
the finest specimens of pure Greek architecture in America. Near
the Schuylkill river, in West Philadelphia, are the buildings of
the university of Pennsylvania. Its free museum of science and
art, at South 23rd and Spruce, on the opposite side of the river,
was built from the designs of Walter Cope, Frank Miles Day
and Wilson Eyre, and its north-western part was first opened
in 1899. Tall steel-frame structures, of which the Betz Building,
completed in 1893, was the first, have become numerous. The
Roman Catholic Cathedral of St Peter and St Paul, east of
Logan Square, was begun in 1846 and was eighteen years in
building. The Arch Street Methodist Episcopal Church is
one of the most handsome churches in the city. The South
Memorial Church of the Advocate (1897), on North 18th and
Diamond streets, is a reproduction on a smaller scale of Amiens
Cathedral.

Perhaps the most famous historical monument in the United
States is Independence Hall, on Chestnut Street between Fifth
and Sixth streets, designed for the state house by Andrew
Hamilton (c. 1676-1741), speaker of the assembly, and was used
for that purpose until 1799. The foundations were laid in 1731
and the main building was ready for occupancy in 1735, although
the entire building was not completed until 1751. The steeple
was taken down in 1774 but was restored by Strickland in 1828,
and further restorations of the building to its original condition
were effected later. In the east room on the first floor of this
building the second Continental Congress met on the 10th of
May 1775, George Washington was chosen commander-in-chief
of the Continental army on the 15th of June 1775, and the
Declaration of Independence was adopted on the 4th of July
1776. The room contains much of the furniture of those days,
and on its walls are portraits of forty-five of the fifty-six signers '
of the Declaration and a portrait of Washington by Peale. At
the head of the stairway is the famous Liberty bell, which bears
the inscription, " Proclaim liberty through all the land unto all
the inhabitants thereof " and is supposed (without adequate
evidence) to have been the first bell to announce the adoption
of the Declaration of Independence. It was cast in England
in 1752, was cracked soon after it was brought to America, was
recast with more copper in Philadelphia, and was cracked again
in 1835 while being tolled in memory of Chief Justice John
Marshall, and on the 22nd of February 1843 this crack was so
increased as nearly to destroy its sound. On the second floor
is the original of the charter which William Penn granted to
the city in 1701 and the painting of Penn's treaty with the
Indians by Benjamin West. The building has been set apart
by the city, which purchased it from the state in 1816, as a
museum of historical relics. On the north-west corner of
Independence Square is old Congress hall, in which Congress
sat from 1790 to 1800, and in which Washington was inaugurated
in 1793 and Adams in 1797. At the north-east corner is the
old city-hall, on the second floor of which the Supreme Court
of the United States sat from 1791 to 1900. A short distance
east of Independence Square in Carpenters' Hall, in which the
first continental congress assembled on the 5th of September
1774 and in which the national convention in 1787 framed
the present constitution of the United States; the building was
also the headquarters of the Pennsylvania committee of corre-
spondence, the basement was used as a magazine for ammunition
during the War of Independence, and from 1791 to 1797 the
whole of it was occupied by the First United States Bank. The
Carpenters' Company (established in 1724) erected the building
in 1770, and since 1857 has preserved it wholly for its historic
associations. On Arch Street near the Delaware is preserved
as a national monument the house in which Betsy Ross, in 1777,
made what has been called the first United States flag, in accor-
dance with the resolution of Congress of the 14th of June. Not

far from this house is Christ Church (Protestant Episcopal),
a fine colonial edifice designed mainly by Dr John Kearsley
(1684-1772). The corner stone was laid in 1727, but the steeple,
in part designed by Benjamin Franklin and containing a famous
chime of eight bells, was not completed until 1754. The
interior was restored to its ancient character in 1882, the pews
of Washington and Franklin are preserved, and a set of com-
munion plate presented to the church by Queen Anne in 1708
is used on great occasions. In the churchyard are the graves
of Benjamin Franklin, Robert Morris, Brigadier- General John
Forbes, John Penn, Peyton Randolph, Francis Hopkinson and
Benjamin Rush. St Peter's, the second Protestant Episcopal
Church in the city, has a massive tower and a simple spire;
within are the original pews. In the south-east part of the city
near the Delaware is the ivy-clad Old Swedes' Church, built of
brick in 1698-1700. The house which William Penn built
about 1683 for his daughter Letitia was removed to Fairmount
Park and rebuilt in 1883. In Germantown (q.v,), a suburb
which was annexed in 1854, are several other historic buildings.
The dominant feature of the domestic architecture is the long
rows, in street after street, of plain two-storey or three-storey
dwellings of red (" Philadelphia ") pressed brick with white
marble steps and trimmings, and with white or green shutters,
each intended for one family.

Parks. — Fairmount Park extends along both banks of the Schuyl-
kill for about 5 m. and from the confluence of the Schuylkill and
Wissahickon Creek it continues up the latter stream through a
romantic glen for 6 m. Its area is about 3418 acres. Five acres
of an estate belonging to Robert Morris during the War of Indepen-
dence and known as " Fair Mount," or " The Hills," were purchased
by the municipality for " a city waterworks and for park purposes "
in 1812, and from this beginning the park grew to its present dimen-
sions by purchases and gifts. The principal buildings in the park
are : the McPherson mansion, once the property of Benedict Arnold
and in October 1780 confiscated by the committee of safety; the
Peters (or Belmont) Mansion, built in 1745 and much frequented
by the notables of the Revolutionary and early national period;
the birth-place of David Rittenhouse, the astronomer, and a monas-
tery of the German pietists, both on the banks of Wissahickon;
and memorial hall and horticultural hall, both survivals of the
centennial exhibition of 1876. On Lemon Hill, near the south end
of the park, stands the Robert Morris mansion; in the vicinity is the
cabin which was General U. S. Grant's headquarters at City Point,
Virginia, during the winter of 1 864-1 865. Near the Columbia
Avenue entrance to the park and near the East Park Reservoir are
the children's playhouse and playground, endowed by the will
of Mrs Sarah A. Smith (d. 1895). At the Green Street entrance is
an imposing monument to Washington, designed by Rudolph Siemer-
ing and erected by the Society of the Cincinnati in 1896-1897, with
a bronze equestrian statue. The Smith Memorial entrance, white
granite with bronze statues, was erected in memory of the officers
of the Civil War. The park also contains 1 a monument to Lincoln
by Randolph Rogers; an equestrian statue of Grant by Daniel
Chester French and Edward C. Potter ; an equestrian statue of Major-
General James Gordon Meade by Alexander Milne Calder; an
equestrian statue of Joan of Arc by Emmanuel Fremiet ; an heroic
bust of James A. Garfield by Augustus St Gaudens; statues of
Columbus, Humboldt, Schiller and Goethe; a Tam O' Shanter group
of four figures in red sandstone by James Thom; John J. Boyle's
" Stone Age in America " ; Cyrus Edwin Dallin's " Medicine Man " ;
Wilhelm Wolff's " Wounded Lioness " (at the entrance to the
Zoological Gardens); Albert Wolff's "Lion Fighter"; Auguste
Nicolas Cain's " Lioness bringing a Wild Boar to her Cubs " ; Edward
Kemeys's " Hudson Bay Wolves "; Frederick Remington's " Cow
Boy "; and several artistic fountains, and a Japanese temple-gate.
In the down-town district, Franklin, Washington, Rittenhouse
and Logan squares, equidistant from the city-hall, have been
reserved for public parks from the founding of the city; in Ritten-
house Square is the bronze " Lion and Serpent " of A. L. Barye.
In Clarence H. Clark Park, West Philadelphia, is Frank Edwin
Elwell's group " Dickens and Little Nell." In Broad and Spring
Garden streets opposite the Baldwin Locomotive Works is Herbert
Adams's statue of Matthias William Baldwin (1795-1866), founder
of the works. Close to the bank of the Delaware, some distance
N.N.E. of the city-hall, is the small Penn Treaty Park with a
monument to mark the site of the great elm tree under which
Penn, according to tradition, negotiated his treaty with the
Indians in 1683. In the south-west part of the city, along the
Schuylkill, is Bartram's botanical garden (27 acres), which the city

1 Many of the statues and other works of art in Fairmount and
other parks are the gift of the Fairmount Park Art Association
(1871; reorganized in 1888 and IQ06).

PHILADELPHIA

369

added to its park system in 1891 ; in it is the stone house, with ivy-
covered walls, which the famous botanist built with his own hands.
Through the efforts of the City Park Association, organized in
1888, a number of outlying parks, connecting parkways and small
triangular or circular parks, have been placed on the city plan.
Among these are League Island Park (300 acres), opposite the United
States navy yard on League Island; Penny Pack Creek Park
(about 1200 acres), extending 6J m. along Penny Pack Creek, in the
north-east; Cobb's Creek Park, extending about 4 m. along the west-
ern border ; Fairmount Parkway, 300 ft. wide on a direct line south-
east from Fairmount Park to Logan Square and somewhat narrower
from Logan Square to the city-hall ; and Torresdale Parkway (300 ft.
wide and io£ m. long), from Hunting Park, <0 m. north of the city-
hall, along a direct line north-east to the city limits. A plaza at
the intersection of Broad and Johnson streets, radiating streets
therefrom, and the widening of Broad Street to 300 ft. from this
plaza to League Island Park are also on the city plan. Laurel
Hill cemetery, on a high bank of the Schuylkill and contiguous to
Fairmount Park, is the city's principal burying ground; in it are the
tombs of Dr Elisha Kent Kane, the Arctic explorer, and Major-
General Meade.

Theatres.- — The first Shakespearean performance in the United
States was probably at Philadelphia in 1749; another company
played there in 1754 and 1759; and in 1766 was built the Old South-
wark theatre, in which Major John Andr6 and Captain John Peter
De Lancey acted during the British occupation of the city, and which
after twenty years of illegal existence was opened " by authority "
in 1789. The Walnut Street theatre (1808) is said to be the oldest
play-house in the United States. Other theatres are the Garrick,
the large Academy of Music, the Chestnut Street opera house, the
Lytic, the Adelphi, the Park and the German.

Clubs. — Among social clubs are the Union League, the University
(1881), the Philadelphia, the City, the Markham, the Manufacturers
(1887), the Rittenhouse, the Lawyers, the Clover, the Pen and Pencil,
the Art, the Mercantile, several country clubs and athletic clubs
(notably the Racket), and the foremost cricket clubs in the United
States, the Belmont, the Philadelphia, the Keystone, the Merion
(at Haverford), and the Germantown (at Manheim).

Museums, Learned Societies and Libraries. — In the southern part
of Fairmount Park is a zoological garden with an excellent collection.
Its site is the former estate of John Penn, grandson of William Penn.
The collection is an outgrowth of the museum, the first in the United
States, opened by Charles Willson Peale in Independence Hall in
1802. It is now owned by the Zoological Society (incorporated in
1859) and was opened in 1874. Other museums in Fairmount Park
are : the botanical collection in horticultural hall ; and in memorial
hall the general art collections of the Pennsylvania Museum and
School of Industrial Arts and the Wilstach collection of paintings
(about 500), including examples of the Italian schools from the 15th
to the 17th centuries and of modern French and American painters.
Bartram's botanical garden, mentioned above as a city park, was
established in 1728 by John Bartram (1699-1777) and is the oldest
botanical garden in America. The Philadelphia Commercial
Museums, founded in 1894, is a notable institution for promoting
the foreign commerce of the United States, having a collection of
raw materials and manufactured products from all countries, a
laboratory and a library. The institution investigates trade condi-
tions and the requirements of markets in all parts of the world,
maintains a bureau of information, issues a weekly bulletin for
American exporters and a monthly publication for foreign buyers,
and has published several " foreign commercial guides " and other
commercial works. The museum is maintained chiefly by municipal
appropriations and by fees. Its control is vested in " The Board
of Trustees of the Philadelphia Museums," composed of fourteen
citizens of Philadelphia chosen for life and eight ex officio members
who are the incumbents of the leading state and municipal offices.
There are home and foreign advisory boards, and the immediate
management is under a director. In 1727 Franklin, then in his
twenty-second year, formed most of his " ingenious acquaintance
into a club," which he called the Junto, " for mutual improvement,"
and out of the Junto grew in 1 73 1 the library of the Library Company
of Philadelphia, which he spoke of as the " mother of all North
American subscription libraries," but which was not the first sub-
scription library in North America. The Library Company of
Philadelphia absorbed in 1769 the Union Library, which had been
founded some years before; and in 1792 the Loganian library, a
valuable collection of classical and other works provided for under
the will of James Logan, a friend of Penn, was transferred to it.
Subsequently it acquired by bequest the libraries of the Rev. Samuel
Preston of London and of William Mackenzie of Philadelphia.
Among the rarities in the latter was a copy of Caxton's Golden
Legend (i486). In 1869 the Library Company was made the
beneficiary, under the will of Dr James Rush (1786-1869), of an
estate valued at about a million dollars, and with this money the
Ridgway branch was established in 1878. The library has owned
its building since 1790 ; the building on the present site was opened
in 1880 and was enlarged in 1889.

The American Philosophical Society, founded by Franklin in 1743,
is the oldest and the most famous academy of science in America.
Its organization was the immediate consequence of a circular by

Franklin entitled, A Proposal for Promoting Useful Knowledge
among the British Plantations in America. In 1769 it united with
(and officially took the name of) " The American Society held at
Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge." Among its early
presidents were Franklin, Rittenhouse and Jefferson. It has a
valuable library — about 50,000 vols. — containing the great mass
of the correspondence of Franklin; here, too, are many interesting
relics, among them the chair in which Jefferson sat while writing
the Declaration of Independence and an autograph copy of the
Declaration. The society has published 27 quarto vols, of Transac-
tions (1771-1908); its Proceedings have been published regularly
since 1838, and in 1884 those from 1744 to 1838, compiled from the
manuscript minutes, were also published. The Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia, founded in 1812, has been noted for its
collection of birds since it acquired, in 1846, the collection of the due
de Rivoli numbering more than 12,000 specimens; several smaller
collections have since been added. The academy has a notable
collection of shells and fossils and the " types " of Leidy, Cope, Say,
Conrad and other naturalists, and a library. It is composed of the
following "sections ": biological and microscopical (1868), entomo-
logical (1876), botanical (1876), mineralogical and geological (1877)
and ornithological (1891). It has published a Journal since 1817
and its Proceedings since 1841, and periodicals on entomology,
conchology and ornithology. To a few young men and women it
gives training in scientific investigation without charge. The
Pennsylvania Historical Society, organized in 1824, has a valuable
collection of historical material, including the papers of the Penn
family and the Charlemagne Tower collection of American colonial
laws, and many early American printed handbills and books
(especially of Bradford, Franklin and Christopher Saur), portraits
and lelics. With the proceeds of the society's publication fund the
Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography has been published
since 1877. The Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Phila-
delphia, organized in 1858, is the oldest numismatic organization in
the United States; it has a collection of coins, and since 1865 it has
published its Proceedings. The College of Physicians and Surgeons
has an excellent medical library. The free library of Philadelphia
(established 1 891) includes a main library and several branches.
Other important libiaries are that of the univeisity of Pennsylvania,
the Mercantile, that of Franklin Institute, that of the Law Associa-
tion of Philadelphia, the Athenaeum, that of the German Society
of Pennsylvania, and Apprentices'. The free museum of science
and art of the university cf Pennsylvania has valuable archaeological
collections, notably the American and the Babylonian collections
made by university expeditions.

Schools. — William Penn in his frame of government provided for
a committee of manners, education and art. The assembly, in
March 1683, passed an act which provided that all children should
be taught to read and write by the time they were twelve years of
age, that then they should be taught some useful trade, and that
for every child not so taught the parent or guardian should be fined
five pounds. At a meeting of the provincial council held in
Philadelphia in 1683 the governor and council appointed as school-
master, Enoch Flower, who for twenty years had held that position
in England. But schools were left almost wholly to private
initiative until 1818. The first grammar school, commonly known
in its early years as the Friends' free school, was established in
1689 under the care of the celebrated George Keith; although
maintained by the Friends it was open to all, and for more than sixty
years was the only public place for free instruction in the province.
It was chartered by Penn in 1701, 1708 and 1711, in time became
known as the William Penn Charter School, and is still a secondary
school on Twelfth Street. In 1740 a building was erected for a
" charity school " and for a " house of worship," but the school
had not been opened when, in 1749, Franklin published his Proposals
relating to the Education of Youth in Pensilvania. Under the
influence of this publication a new educational association was formed
which purchased the building and in January 1751 opened in it an
institution that was chartered as an " academy and charitable
school " in 1753, was rechartered as a college and academy in 1755,
and became the university of Pennsylvania by act of the state
legislature passed in 1791. The university occupied the site of the
present post office from 1802 until 1872, but was then removed
to grounds near the western bank of the Schuylkill.

The foundation of the present public school system was laid in
1818 by an act of the legislature which constituted the city and
county of Philadelphia the first school district of Pennsylvania
and provided for the establishment therein of free schools for indigent
orphans and the children of indigent parents; the same act author-
ized the establishment of a model school for the training of teacheis,
which was the pioneer school for this purpose in America. In 1834
free elementary schools were authorized for all children of school
age, and since then the system has developed until it embraces the
Central High School for boys, which has a semi-collegiate course
with a department of pedagogy and confers the degrees of B.A. and
B.S. ; a Normal High School for girls, into which the model school
was converted in 1848, in which most of the teachers of the
city are trained and which only graduates of the Girls' High
School are permitted to enter; the William Penn High School
for girls (opened 1909) with academic, commercial, applied arts,

37o

PHILADELPHIA

household science and library economy departments; a School of
industrial arts; two manual training schools; about one hundred
night schools (attended mainly by adults) ; several special schools
for habitual truants or insubordinate and disorderly children ; and a
number of vacation schools and playgrounds for the summer season.
In 1909 district high schools were planned as a part of the public
school system. The city has also many private high schools and
academies.

Besides the university of Pennsylvania and the Central High
School for boys the collegiate institutions are La Salle College
(Roman Catholic; opened in 1867) and the Temple University (non-
sectarian; chartered in 1888 as Temple College after four years of
teaching; in 1891 received the power to confer degrees); which is
designed especially for self-supporting men and women and was
founded by Russell Hermann Conwell (b. 1842), a lawyer and jour-
nalist, who entered the Baptist ministry in 1879, was pastor of the
Grace Baptist Church of Philadelphia in 1881-1891, became pastor
of the Grace Baptist Temple, in 1 891, and was a public lecturer.
He was the first president of the Temple College, which was begun
in connexion with the work of his church. Temple University
offers instruction both day and evening, has classes from the kinder-
garten to the highest university grades, and courses in business, civil
engineering, domestic art and domestic science, physical training,
pedagogy and music; it has a theological school (1893), a law school
(1894), a medical school (1901) and a school of pharmacy(i902) ;
and in 1907 the Philadelphia Dental College, one of the best known
dental schools in the country, joined the university. In 1893
a trust fund left by Hyman Gratz was used to found the Gratz
College for the education of teachers in Jewish schools and for the
study of the Hebrew language, and Jewish history, literature and
religion; the college is under the control of the Kaal Kidosh Mikoe
Israel of Philadelphia. Bryn Mawr College (o.v.), one of the leading
institutions in America for the higher education of women, is a few
miles beyond the city limits. Schools of medicine, for which Phila-
delphia has long been noted, include the department of medicine
of the university of Pennsylvania (opened in 1765); Jefferson
Medical College (1825); the Woman's Medical College (1850), the
first chartered school of medicine for women to confer the degree of
M.D. ; the Medico-Chirurgical College (1881) ; Hahnemann (homoeo-
pathic) Medical College (1888); and the department of medicine of
Temple University (1901). Among other professional schools are
the department of law of the university of Pennsylvania (1790),
the law school of Temple University (1894); the divinity school of
the Protestant Episcopal Church (1862); the Lutheran theological
Seminary (1864); Saint Vincent's (Theological) Seminary (R.C.,
1868); the theological school of Temple University (non-sectarian,
1893); Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery (1856); Philadelphia
Dental College (1863; since 1907 a part of Temple University);
the department of dentistry of the university of Pennsylvania
(1878); the department of dentistry of the Medico-Chirurgical
College (1897); the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy (1821); the
department of pharmacy of the Medico-Chirurgical College (1898);
and the school of pharmacy of Temple University (1902). Girard
College (see Girard, Stephen) is a noted institution for the educa-
tion of poor white orphan boys. The Pennsylvania Academy of the
Fine Arts, founded in 1805 in Independence Hall, was the first art
school in America; it occupies a fine building on Broad and Cherry
streets, with a gallery of about 500 paintings, including examples of
early American masters (especially Gilbert Stuart, of whom it has
the largest collection), of modern American artists (especially in
the Temple collection), and, in the collection of Henry C. Gibson,
of French landscapes. The Drexel Institute of Arts and Sciences,
founded in 1891 by Anthony J. Drexel and endowed by him with
$2,000,000, occupies a beautiful building (Chestnut Street and 32nd ;
opened in 1891) and embraces the following departments: archi-
tecture, science and technology, commerce and finance, domestic
science, domestic arts, library school, English language and literature,
history, civil government and economics, physical training, evening
classes, department of free public lectures and concerts, library and
reading room, and museum and picture gallery. The institution
bestows free scholarships on a considerable number of students
and charges the others very moderate fees. Its building houses
a library, a collection of rare prints and autographs, and a museum
with a picture gallery and exhibits of embroidery, textiles, ceramics,
wood and metal work, &c. The Pennsylvania Museum and School
of Industrial Art founded in 1876 and opened in 1877, has schools
at Broad and Pine streets- — the museum is housed in Memorial
Hall in Fairmount Park. The school is a pioneer in America; it
was originally a school of applied art, but in 1884 the Philadelphia
textile school was established as another department. The Wagner
Free Institute of Science, founded by William Wagner in 1855, has a
library and a natural history museum, provides free lectures on
scientific subjects, and publishes Transactions, containing scientific
memoirs. The Franklin Institute for the promotion of mechanic
arts (1824) has a technical library (with full patent records of several
nations); since 1824 it has held exhibitions of manufactures; it has
published since 1826 the Journal of the Franklin Institute; the
institute provides lecture courses and has night schools of drawing,
machine design and naval architecture. The Spring Garden Insti-
tute (1851), with day classes in mechanical drawing, handiwork,

and applied electricity, and night classes in those subjects and in
freehand and architectural drawing; the Philadelphia School of
Design for Women (1836), of which Emily Sartain, a daughter of
John Sartain, became principal in 1886; and a school of horology
(1894) are other manual and industrial training schools within the
city, and not far beyond the city limits is the Williamson Free School
of Mechanical Trades (1888), endowed by Isaiah Vansant Williamson
(1803-1889) with more than $5,000,000 for the free training of
bricklayers, machinists, carpenters, pattern makers, stationary
engineers and other mechanics. The Lincoln Institution and
Educational Home until 1907 was devoted mainly to the education
of Indians.

Newspapers and Periodicals. — The American Weekly Mercury was
the first newspaper published in Philadelphia and the third in
the colonies. It was first issued on the 22nd of December 1719 by
Andrew Sowle Bradford, a son of William Bradford, the first
printer in the Middle Colonies, and was the first newspaper in these
colonies. The second newspaper in the city and in the province
was the Universal Instructor in all Arts and Sciences and Penn-
sylvania Gazette. It was established in 1728 by Samuel Keimer, but
less than a year afterwards it became the property of Benjamin
Franklin and Hugh Meredith, who shortened its title to the Penn-
sylvania Gazette. The only one of the newspapers established
during the colonial era which survived the 19th century was the
Pennsylvania Packet or General Advertiser, which was started in 1771
by John Dunlap, and during the War of Independence was published
semi-weekly, with occasional " postscripts " of important news;
in 1839 it was absorbed by the North American (1829), with which
the United States Gazette (1789) was united in 1847 and which is still
published as the North American. The Aurora and General Adver-
tiser, established in 1790 by Benjamin Franklin Bache (1769-1798),
a grandson of Franklin, was a notorious anti-Federalist organ in its
early years. A pioneer among newspapers at modern prices is the
Public Ledger, founded in 1836, and in 1864 purchased by George
William Childs. Other prominent daily papers now published are
the Inquirer (Republican; 1829), the Press (Republican; 1857),
the Record (Independent Democrat; 1870), the Demokrat (German;
1838), the Evening Bulletin (Republican; established in 1815 as the
American Sentinel), the Evening Item (1847), the Evening Telegraph
( I ndependent Republican ; 1 864) , and the Tageblatt (Labour ; German ;
1877). Many of the earlier literary periodicals of America were
published in Philadelphia ; among them were the American Magazine
(1757-1758 and 1769), Thomas Paine's Pennsylvania Magazine
(1775-1776), the Columbian Magazine (1786-1790; called the
Universal Asylum in 1790) which was edited by Matthew Carey and
by A. J. Dallas, the excellent American Museum (1787-1792 and
1798), with which Carey was connected, the Port Folio (1801-1827;
edited until 1812 by Joseph Dennie) and the Analectic (1802-1812)
which succeeded Select Reviews and Spirit of the Foreign Magazines
(1809), of which Washington Irving was editor in 1813-1814, and
to which Paulding and Verplanck contributed, and the American
Quarterly Review (1827-1837). Among others were: Godey's Lady's
Book (1830-1877), for which Poe, Irving, Longfellow, Willis and
others wrote; and Graham's Lady's and Gentleman's Magazine
(1840-1859), with the contributors just named and Cooper, JohnG.
Saxe, E. P. Whipple and others. Lippincott's Magazine (1868) is
a monthly, best known for its fiction. The Saturday Evening Post,
which has the largest circulation of the weekly publications, and the
Ladies' Home Journal (1883), the semi-monthly with the largest
circulation, are owned by the same company. The Farm Journal
(1877) is a well-known agricultural monthly.

Trusts, Charities, &c. — Girard College and thirty-eight other
charities are maintained out of the proceeds of as many trusts,
which are administered by a board of directors composed of twelve
members, appointed by the courts of common pleas, and the mayor,
president of the select council, and president of the common
council as ex-officio members. In 1907 the invested capital of the
Girard Trust alone amounted to $24,467,770 and the income from it
was $1,988,054. The total capital of all the minor trusts in the same
year was $1,583,026 and the income from this was $56,730. Among
the minor trust funds are: Wills Hospital (established in 1825);
Benjamin Franklin Fund (1790) for aiding young married artificers;
Thomas D. Grover Fund (1849) for providing the poor with fuel and
food; Mary Shields Almshouse Fund (1880); and the John Scott
Medal Fund (1816) for bestowing medals upon young inventors.
To Franklin Philadelphia is largely indebted for the Pennsylvania
hospital, the first hospital in the United States, which was projected
in 1 75 1 and is one of the foremost of nearly one hundred such institu-
tions in the city. The municipal hospital for contagious diseases
and hospitals for the indigent and the insane are maintained by the
municipality, but most of the other institutions for the sick are
maintained by medical schools and religious sects. Municipal
charities are under the supervision of the department of public
health and charities. Philadelphia is the seat of the state peniten-
tiary for the eastern district, in which, in 1829, was inaugurated
the " individual " system, i.e. the separate imprisonment and dis-
criminating treatment of criminals with a view to effecting their
reform.

Transportation and Commerce. — Nearly every street in the
business centre and about one-third of the streets throughout the

PHILADELPHIA

37 1

built-up portion of the city have a single track of electric railway
(overhead trolley), and most of the wider ones, except Broad Street,
which has none, have a double track. A subway line has been
opened for a short distance under Market Street, and other subway
lines, as well as elevated lines, have been projected. The entire
system, embracing in 1909 a total of 624-21 m., is operated by the
Philadelphia Rapid Transit Company. Several inter-urban electric
lines afford cheap service to neighbouring towns and cities. The
extensive railway system under the control of the Pennsylvania
railway together with the Baltimore & Ohio railway affords
transportation facilities north to New York, south to Baltimore,
Washington and the south, west to the bituminous coalfields of
Pennsylvania, the grain fields of the Middle West, and to Pittsburg,
Cleveland, Cincinnati and Chicago. The Philadelphia & Reading
railway connects the city with the great anthracite coal region,
and both the Philadelphia & Reading and the Pennsylvania control
a line to Atlantic City. The Schuylkill is navigable for small craft
to the " Fall line," about 7! m. above its mouth and for vessels
drawing 26 ft. to the oil refineries at Point Breeze, 3 m. from the
mouth ; from Point Breeze to the head of navigation the channel
depth varies from 14 to 22 ft. The Delaware river is navigable to
Trenton, New Jersey, about 30 m. above the upper end of the port
of Philadelphia, and although in its natural condition this river
was only 17 ft. deep at low water in its shallowest part below the
port this depth was increased between 1836 and 1899 to 26 ft.
(except in three shoal stretches), and a project of the Federal govern-
ment was adopted in 1899 for increasing the depth to 30 ft. and the
width to 600 ft. In 1905 the city of Philadelphia and the state of
Pennsylvania appropriated $750,000 for the improvement of the
river between the city and the southern boundary of the state. 1
Steamships ply regularly between Philadelphia and several European
ports, ports in the West Indies, and ports of the United States.

The port extends from the Pennsylvania railway terminal at
Greenwich Point up the Delaware River to the Philadelphia &
Reading terminal at Port Richmond, a distance of about 8 m., and
there are minor harbour facilities on the Schuylkill. The natural
facilities, together with the improvements that have been made, were
long offset by an inefficient port administration under an antiquated
law of 1803 which permitted the wharves to pass largely under
private control; but in 1907 the old board of port wardens was
abolished and in its place was 1 created a municipal department of
wharves, docks and ferries.

Until the opening of the Erie Canal, in 1825, Philadelphia was
the emporium of the United States; it was then displaced by New
York. Some years later Philadelphia lost its lucrative China trade,
and its decline in commercial importance continued until 1883,
when the value of its imports amounted to only $32,811,045, the
value of its exports to only $38,662,434, and the city was out-
ranked in foreign trade by New York, Boston, San Francisco and
New Orleans. By 1900, however, the value of its imports had
risen to $49,191,236 and the value of its exports to $81,327,704;
in 1909 the value of the imports was $78,003,464, an amount less
than one-eleventh that of New York, but exceeded only by New
York and Boston, and the value of the exports was $80,650,274,
an amount less than one-eighth that of New York, but exceeded
only by New York, Galveston and New Orleans. The principal
imports are sugar, drugs and chemicals, goatskins, wool, tobacco,
jute and burlap, and cotton goods, iron ore, manufactured iron,
hides and bananas; the principal exports are iron (manufac-
tured), steel, petroleum, wheat, flour, lard, cattle and meat pro-
ducts. The proximity of the city to New York, whence many of
its products are shipped, makes the statistics of its direct imports
and exports no true index of its commercial importance.

Manufactures. — Philadelphia has always been one of the foremost
manufacturing centres in the United States, and in 1905 it was
outranked only by New York and Chicago. 2 The total value of its
factory product was $519,981,812 in 1900, and $591,388,078 in 1905.
Measured by the value of the products, Philadelphia ranked first
among the cities of the country in 1905 in refining sugar and molasses
($37,182,504; 13-4% of the total of the country) and in the manu-
facture of carpets and rugs ($25,232,510; 41% of the total of
the country), leather ($23,903,239; 9-5% of the total of the
country), hosiery and knit goods ($15,770,873; 11-5% of the total
of the country), woollen goods ($12,239,881; 8-6% of the total of
the country), and felt hats ($5,847,771; 16% of the total of the
country) ; second in the manufacture of worsted goods ($26,964,533;
16% of the total of the country) and in dyeing and finishing textiles
($4,371,006; 8-6% of the total of the country); and third in the
manufacture of clothing ($31,031,882; 5-1% of the total of the
country) and silk goods ($5,079,193; 3-8% *>f the total of the
country). Other large industries are the manufacture of foundry
and machine-shop products, cotton goods, malt liquors, iron and
steel, chemicals, cigars and cigarettes, soap, confectionery, furniture,

paints, boots and shoes, electrical apparatus, and cordage and twine,
and among notable individual establishments are the Baldwin
Locomotive Works, the Cramp Ship- Yards and the Disston or
Keystone Saw Works. There are petroleum refineries at Point
Breeze near the mouth of the Schuylkill ; petroleum is piped to them
from the north-west part of the state.

Water Supply. — The first municipal waterworks, installed in
1 799-1 801, pumped water by steam power from the Schuylkill
into an elevated tank in Centre Square, where the city-hall now
stands; this was one of the earliest applications of steam to municipal
water pumping. In 1812-1815 new steam works were installed on
Quarry Hill, or Fairmount; in 1819-1822 pumping works operated
by water power were substituted for those operated by steam; and
it was in great part for the preservation of the purity of the water
supply that Fairmount Park was created. The park, however, did
not serve its purpose in this respect. The water was impure and
inadequate: additional works were installed from time to time,
mostly on the Schuylkill, whence water was pumped by steam to
reservoirs from which distribution was made by gravity ; and to meet
the increasing demands new filtration works and accessories were
installed in 1901-1908. These take the water mainly from the
Delaware river.

Government and Finances. — Inasmuch as it has been proved
that in 1683 there was in use in Philadelphia a seal bearing the
inscription " Philadelphia .83. William. Penn. Proprietor, and.
Governor " and in all respects different from the provincial
seal or the county seal, it seems that there was then a distinct
government for the city. In July 1684 the provincial council,
presided over by William Penn, appointed a committee to draft
a borough charter, but there is no record of the work of this
committee, and it is uncertain what the government of Phila-
delphia was for the next seventeen years. 3 In 1701 Penn himself
issued a charter creating a close corporation modelled after the
English borough and under this the city was governed until
the War of Independence. Upon the annulment of the Penn
charter by the Declaration of Independence, government by
commissions was established, but in 1789 a new charter was
granted and, although the government has since undergone
many and great changes, it is by virtue of this charter that the
city remains a corporation to-day. The Consolidation Act of
1854 extended the boundaries to the county lines without
destroying the county government, changed the corporate name
from " Mayor, Aldermen, and Citizens of Philadelphia " to " the
City of Philadelphia," created the offices of controller and
receiver of taxes, and considerably modified the powers and
duties of the corporation and its officers. The Bullitt Act,
passed in 1885. to go into effect in 1887, and since 1885 amended
and supplemented, is a new charter except in name; particularly
notable is its transfer of the balance of power from the councils
and various self-perpetuating commissions to the mayor.

The mayor is elected for a term of four years and is not eligible
to the office for the next succeeding term. With the advice and
consent of the select council he appoints the directors of the
departments of public safety, public works, 4 health and charities,
supplies and (since 1907) wharves, docks and ferries, and the three
members of the civil service commission. He may appoint three
persons to examine any department and for reasons given in writing
may remove any officer whom he has appointed. His veto power
extends to items in appropriation bills, but any item or ordinance
may be passed over his veto within five days of such veto by an affir-
mative vote of three-fifths of the members elected to each council.
The select council is composed of one member from each of the 47
wards, and In the common council each ward has one member for
every four thousand names on the last completed assessment list
(including names of those paying poll taxes as well as those paying
taxes on real or personal property) ; in 1909 there were 80 members
of the common council. The several administrative departments

'The city had previously expended $1,555,000 on the improve-
ment of the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers.

2 The Philadelphia Museums claim that excluding slaughter-
house and sweat-shop products the value of Philadelphia's manu-
factured products is greater than that of any other city in the
country.

3 A document purporting to be a charter, bearing the date of the
20th of May 1691, and signed by Thomas Lloyd, deputy-governor,
was discovered in 1887, but the great seal is missing and there is no
evidence that the charter was even in operation. The minutes of
" a meeting of the Council held at Philadelphia on the third day of
Sixth Month 1691 " mention " Humphrey Morrey the present
Mayor of the city of Philadelphia " ; and this would seem to show
that there was a regular municipal government in 169 1. See
Philadelphia: Its Founding and Seals: Report of the Committee
. . . to determine the Year of the Physical and Legal Founding of the
City of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1908).

4 In 1905 the state legislature took the appointment of these officers
from the mayor and vested it in the councils, but this legislation
was repealed in 1906.

372

PHILADELPHIA

are: public safety, public works, receiver of taxes, city treasurer,
city controller, law, education, charities and corrections, sup-
plies, wharves, docks and ferries, civil service commission and
sinking fund commission (composed of the mayor, the city
controller and a commissioner elected by a majority vote of the
city councils). Members of the select council are elected for
three years — one-third each year; members of the common council
for two years — one half each year ; and the receiver of taxes, the city
treasurer, the city controller, and the city solicitor, who is the head
of the department of law, for a term of three years. The police
constitute a bureau of the department of public safety, and at their
head is a superintendent appointed by the director of the depart-
ment with the approval of the select council. The department of
education is administered by a central board appointed (at large)
by the judges of the courts of common pleas.

The assessed value of taxable property in the city increased from
Si53-369. 48 in 1856 to $536,667,834 in 1880, to $880,935,265 in
1900, and to $1,358,675,057 in 1910. The city's yearly expenditure
increased from $5,170,680 in 1856 to $14,640,479 in 1880, to
$30,628,246 in 1900, and to $48,012,630 in 1909. The principal
items of expenditure in 1909 were: for public schools $8,242,218;
for the bureau of water, $2,827,200; for streets and highways,
$4,219,260; for police, $3,810,535; and for protection against fire,
$1.873, 7 2 °- The receipts for the same year were $44,372,927, of
which $18,851,442 were from the property tax (municipal and
state), and $4,396,124 were from the water tax. The city's indebted-
ness increased rapidly for a period of twenty-five years following
consolidation. At the beginning of 1856 the funded debt was
$16,781,470, by the beginning of 1870 it had grown to $42,401,933,
and by the beginning of 1880 to $70,970,041. By the new state
constitution adopted in 1873 no municipality is permitted to create
a debt exceeding 7% of the assessed value of its taxable property, 1
in 1879 the state legislature passed an act to prevent the city from
living beyond its income, and as a consequence of these restrictions
the funded debt, less loans held by the sinking fund, was reduced
by the beginning of 1895 to $33,139,695. The great expense of
installing the new filter plant, developing the park system, and
making other improvements has, however, caused it to grow again ;
at the beginning of 1910 the total funded debt was $95,483,820 and
the net funded debt was $84,901,620.

History. — The patent granted to William Penn for the territory
embraced within the present commonwealth of Pennsylvania
was signed by Charles II. on the 4th of March 1681 and Penn
agreed that " a quantity of land or ground plat should be laid
out for a large town or city in the most convenient place upon
the river for health and navigation," and that every purchaser
of 500 acres in the country shall be allowed a lot of 10 acres in
the town or city, " if the place will allow it." In September
Penn appointed William Crispin, Nathaniel Allen and John
Bezan a commission to proceed to the new province and lay
out the city, directing them to select a site on the Delaware
where " it is most navigable, high, dry and healthy; that is
where most ships can best ride, of deepest draught of water,
if possible to load or unload at the bank or key side without
boating or lightering of it." Crispin, a kinsman of the pro-
prietor, died on the voyage out, but William Heage had been
named a fourth commissioner some time after the appointment
of the others and the three survivors arrived in the province
toward the close of the year. They had been preceded by
Penn's cousin, Captain William Markham, as deputy-governor,
and were soon followed by the surveyor-general, Thomas Holme.
Although the Swedes had established a settlement at the mouth
of the Schuylkill not later than 1643 and the site now selected
by the commissioners was held by three brothers of the Swaenson
family, these brothers agreed to take in exchange land in what
is now known as Northern Liberties, and as early as July 1682
Holme, according to modified instructions from Penn for making
the lots smaller than originally intended, laid out the city
extending from the Delaware river on the east to the Schuylkill
river on the west, a distance of about 2 m., and from Vine
Street on the north to Cedar (now South) Street on the south,
a distance of about 1 m. Penn landed at New Castle on the
Delaware on the 27th of October 1682 and two days later came
up as far as Upland, now Chester, 13 m. south of Philadelphia,
but when he came to his newly founded city is not known. He
is known, however, to have presided at a meeting of the pro-
vincial council held here on the 10th of March 1683, and from
that time Philadelphia was the capital of Pennsylvania until
1 If the debt of a city already, exceeded the 7 % limit it could be
increased only by permission of the legislature.

1799, when Lancaster became the capital. During nearly the
whole of this period it was also the most important city com-
mercially, politically and socially in the colonies. Quaker
influence remained strong in the city, especially up to the be-
ginning of the 19th century; and it was predominant in Phila-
delphia long after it had given way before the Scotch-Irish in
the rest of Pennsylvania. But even in Philadelphia the academy
(later the university of Pennsylvania) soon came under the
control of the Protestant Episcopal Church. The first Contin-
ental Congress met in Carpenters' Hall on the 5th of September
1774; the second in the old state house (Independence Hall)
on the 10th of May 1775; and throughout the War of Indepen-
dence, except from the 26th of September 1777 to the 18th of
June 1778, when it was in possession of the British, 2 Philadelphia
was the virtual capital of the colonies; it was a brilliant social
city, especially during the British possession. The national
convention which framed the present constitution of the United
States sat in Philadelphia in 1787, and from 1790 to 1800 the
city was the national capital. Here Benjamin Franklin and
David Rittenhouse made their great contributions to science,
and here Washington delivered his farewell address to the people
of the United States. Here, in July and August 1789, the
clerical and lay delegates from the Protestant Episcopal Churches
in the United States met and formally organized the Protestant
Episcopal Church in the United States. Here the first bank
in the colonies — the Bank of North America — was opened in
1 781, and here the first mint for the coinage of the money of the
United States was established in 1792. The city was visited
with an epidemic of yellow fever in 1793 and again in 1798;
and in 1832 nearly 1000 inhabitants died of Asiatic cholera.

The original boundaries remained unchanged for 172 years,
but the adjoining territory as it became populated was erected
into corporated districts in the following order: Southwark
(1762), Northern Liberties (1771), Moyamensing (1812), Spring
Garden (1813), Kensington (1820), Penn (1844), Richmond
(1847), West Philadelphia (1851) and Belmont (1853). In 1854
all these districts, together with the boroughs of Germantown,
Frankford, Manayunk, White Hall, Bridesburg and Aramingo,
and the townships of Passyunk, Blockley, Kingsessing, Rox-
borough, Germantown, Bristol, Oxford, Lower Dublin, Moreland,
Byberry, Delaware and Penn was abolished and the boundaries
of Philadelphia were extended to the county lines by a single
act of the state legislature. The consolidation was in part the
outcome of a demand for efficiency in preserving order. There
had been occasional outbreaks of disorder: on the 17th of May
1838 an anti-abolition mob had burned Pennsylvania Hall,
which had been dedicated three days before to the discussion
of abolition, temperance and equality; in May 1844 anti-
Catholic rioters had burned St Michael's and St Augustine's
churches, and minor riots had occured in 1835, 1842 and 1843.
Philadelphia was from the first strongly anti-slavery in sentiment,
and it was here in December 1833 that the American Anti-
Slavery Society was organized, and in 1856, on the anniversary
of the battle of Bunker Hill, that the first national convention
of the Republican party met. During the Civil War the arsenal
and the Southwark navy yard were busy manufacturing material
for the Federal armies, the city was crowded with wounded
soldiers, and here in 1864 was held the great sanitary fair for
the benefit of the United States sanitary commission, an organiza-
tion for the relief and care of wounded and sick soldiers. In
1876, the centennial year of American independence, a great
exhibition of the industries of all nations was held in Fairmount
Park from the 10th of May to the 10th of November, and about
fifty buildings were erected for the purpose. In October
1882 the city celebrated the bi-centennial of the landing of
William Penn, and in October 1908 the 225th anniversary of its
foundation.

s Lord Howe, who had been in command of the British, embarked
for England on the 24th of May, and on the 18th of this month was
held for his farewell entertainment the famous Mischianza, a feast
of gaiety with a tournament somewhat like those common in the
age of chivalry, which was in large part planned by Captain John
Andre.

PHILADELPHIANS— -PHILARET

373

Bibliography.— J. T. Scharf and T. Westcott, History of
Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1884), the standard history; J. F.
Watson, Annals of Philadelphia, revised by W. P. Hazard (Phila-
delphia, 1898), often the record of tradition; E. P. Allinson and B.
Penrose, Philadelphia 1681-1887; a History of Municipal Develop-
ment (Philadelphia, 1887); J. H. Young (ed.), Memorial History
of the City of Philadelphia (New York, 1895); Lillian I. Rhoades,
The Story 'of Philadelphia (New York, 1900); T. Williams,
" Philadelphia," in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Middle
States (New York, 1899) ; F. M. Etting, An Historical Account of the
Old Slate House (Philadelphia, 1891); E. K. Price, History of the
Consolidation of Philadelphia- (Philadelphia, 1873); and Agnes
Repplier, Philadelphia, the Place and People (New York, 1898).

PHILADELPHIANS, a sect of religious mystics, founded in
London in the latter part of the 17th century. In 1652 Dr John
Pordage (1607-1681), rector' of Bradfield, Berkshire, gathered
together a few followers of Jakob Boehme, the chief of whom
was Jane Lead or Leade {ne'e Ward; 1623-1704). Pordage was
ejected from his living by the Triers in 1655, but was restored
in 1660. Mrs Leade had been from girlhood of a mystical
temperament, and experienced phantasms which she recorded
in a diary entitled A Fountain of Gardens, beginning in 1670,
in which year the Philadelphian society was definitely organized.
She drew up for it " The Laws of Paradise," which show that
the enterprise was designed " to advance the Kingdom of God
by improving the life, teaching the loftiest morality, and enforc-
ing the duty of universal brotherhood, peace and love." Its
members had a strong faith in what they called the " Divine
Secrets," the wonders of God and nature, the profound spiritual
experiences of regeneration and soul-resurrection, and the
second Advent. In 1693 some of Mrs Leade's writings were
translated into Dutch, and by this means and her acquaintance
with Francis Lee (1661-1-10), an Oxford scholar who studied
medicine at Leiden and became her son-in-law, a connexion
was opened up with Germany and Holland. In 1703 the Phila-
delphians drew up their confession, but they made no further
progress and soon declined. The Holland branch withdrew,
and the English government forbade the society to meet. For
many years, however, a considerable number of people regarded
Mrs Leade's visions, which were published in a long series of
writings, as proofs of her divine calling. In her later years she
had a severe struggle with poverty, which was relieved by a
pension granted by Baron Kniphausen.

PHILAE, an islet in the Nile above the First Cataract, of great
beauty and interest, but since the completion of the Assuan
dam in 1902 submerged except for a few months yearly during
High Nile (July to October), when the water is allowed to run
freely through the sluices of the Assuan dam. Philae is the
nearest island to the point where the ancient desert road from
Assuan rejoins the river south of the cataract. It marks also
the end of the cataract region. Below it the channel is broad
and straight with rocky granite islands to the west. The name
in Egyptian was Pilak, " the angle (?) island ": the Arabs call
it Anas el Wagud, after the hero of a romantic tale in the Arabian
Nights. Ancient graffiti abound in all this district, and on
Bigeh, a larger island adjoining Philae, there was a temple as
early as the reign of Tethmosis III. The name of Amasis II.
(570-535 b.c.) is said to have been found at Philae, and it is
possible that there were still older buildings which have been
swallowed up in later constructions. About 350 B.C. Nekhtnebf,
the last of the native kings of Egypt, built a temple to Isis,
most of which was destroyed by floods. Ptolemy Philadelphus
reconstructed some of this work and began a large temple which
Ptolemy Euergetes I. completed, but the decoration, carried
on under later Ptolemies and Caesars, was never finished. The
temple of Isis was the chief sanctuary of the Dodecaschoenus,
the portion of Lower Nubia generally held by the Ptolemies
and Romans. The little island won great favour as a religious
resort, not only for the Egyptians and the Ethiopians and others
who frequented the border district and the market of Assuan,
but also for Greek and Roman visitors. One temple or chapel
after another sprang up upon it dedicated to various gods,
including the Nubian Mandulis. Ergamenes (Arkamane), king
of Ethiopia, shared with the Ptolemies in the building. Besides

the temple of Isis with its birth-temple in the first court, there
were smaller temples or shrines of Arsenuphis, Mandulis, Imuthes,
Hathor, Harendotes (a form of Horus) and Augustus (in the
Roman style), besides unnamed ones. There were also monu-
mental gateways, and the island was protected by a stone quay
all round with the necessary staircases, &o, and a Nilometer.
The most beautiful of all the buildings is an unfinished kiosque
inscribed by Trajan, well known under the name of " Pharaoh's
Bed." Graffiti of pilgrims to the shrine of Isis are dated as late
as the end of the 5th century a.d. The decree of Theodosius
(a.d. 378) which suppressed pagan worship in the empire was
of little effect in the extreme south. In a.d. 453 Maximinus,
the general of the emperor Marcian, after inflicting a severe defeat
on the Nobatae and Blemmyes who were settled in Lower Nubia,
and thence raided Upper Egypt, made peace on terms which
included permission for these heathen tribes to visit the temple
and even to borrow the image of Isis on certain occasions. It
was not till the reign of Justinian, a.d. 527-563, that the temple
of Philae was finally closed, and the idols taken to Constantinople.
Remains of Christian churches were disclosed by the thorough
exploration carried out in 1895-1896 in view of the Barrage
scheme, under the direction of Captain Lyons. The accumula-
tions of rubbish on the island were cleared away and the walls
and foundations of the stone buildings were all repaired and
strengthened before the dam was completed. The annual
flooding now appears to be actually beneficial to the stonework,
by removing the disintegrating salts and incrustations. The
tops of most of the buildings and the whole nucleus of the
temple of Isis to the floor remained all the year round above
the water level until the dam was raised another 26 ft. — a work
begun in 1907— when the temples were entirely submerged
except during July-October. But the beauty of the island and
its ruins and palm trees, the joy of travellers and artists, is
almost gone.

See H. G. Lyons, A Report on the Island and Temples of Philae
(Cairo, 1896), with numerous plans and photographs; a second
report, A Report on the Temples of Philae (1908), deals with the
condition of the ruins as affected by the immersions occasioned by
the filling of the Assuan dam; Baedeker's Egypt; and on the effects
of the submersion, &c, reports in Annates du service des anttquttes,
vols. iv. v. (F. Ll. (j.J

PHILARET [Theodore Nikitich Romanov] (?i553-i633),
patriarch of Moscow, was the second son of the boyar Nikita
Romanovich. During the reign of his first cousin Theodore I.
(1 584-1 598), Theodore Romanov distinguished himself both as
a soldier and a diplomatist, fighting against the Swedes in
1590, and conducting negotiations with the ambassadors of the
emperor Rudolph II. in 1 593-1 594- On the death of the childless
tsar, he was the popular candidate for the vacant throne; but
he acquiesced in the election of Boris Godunov, and shared the
disgrace of his too-powerful family three years later, when Boris
compelled both him and his wife, Xenia Chestovaya, to take
monastic vows under the names of Philaret and Martha respec-
tively. Philaret was kept in the strictest confinement in the
Antoniev monastery, where he was exposed to every conceivable
indignity; but when the pseudo-Demetrius overthrew the
Godunovs he released Philaret and made him metropolitan of
Rostov (1605). In 1609 Philaret fell into the hands of pseudo-
Demetrius II., who named him patriarch of all Russia, though
his jurisdiction only extended over the very limited area which
acknowledged the impostor. From 1610-1618 he was a prisoner
in the hands of the Polish king, Sigismund III., whom he refused
to acknowledge as tsar of Muscovy on being sent on an embassy
to the Polish camp in 1610. He was released on the conclusion
of the truce of Deulino (Feb. 13, 1619), and on the 2nd of June
was canonically enthroned patriarch of Moscow. Henceforth,
till his death, the established government of Muscovy was a
diarchy. From 1619 to 1633 there were two actual sovereigns,
Tsar Michael and his father, the most holy Patriarch Philaret.
Theoretically they were co-regents, but Philaret frequently
transacted affairs of state without consulting the tsar. He
replenished the treasury by a more equable and rational system
of assessing and collecting the taxes. His most important

374

PHILATELY— PHILEMON

domestic measure was the chaining of the peasantry to the soil,
a measure directed against the ever increasing migration of the
down-trodden serfs to the steppes, where they became free-
booters instead of tax-payers. The taxation of the tsar's
slyuzhnuie lyudi, or military tenants, was a first step towards
the proportional taxation of the hitherto privileged classes.
Philaret's zeal for the purity of orthodoxy sometimes led him
Wo excesses: but he encouraged the publication of theological
works, formed the nucleus of the subsequently famous Patri-
archal Library, and commanded that every archbishop should
establish a seminary for the clergy, himself setting the example.
Another great service rendered by Philaret to his country was
the reorganization of the Muscovite army with the help of foreign
officers. His death in October 1633 put an end to the Russo-
Polish War (1632-33), withdrawing the strongest prop from an
executive feeble enough even when supported by all the weight
of his authority.

See R. N. Bain, The Firsl Romanovs (London, 1905) ; S. M. Solovev,
Hist, of Russia (Rus.), vol. ix. (St Petersb. 1895, &c.) (R. N. B.)

PHILATELY (Gr. <j>l\os, loving, and areX-qs, free of tax), the
study and collection of postage-stamps and other marks of pre-
payment issued by post-offices. The fancy for collecting postage-
stamps began a short time after the issue of the first British
penny and two-penny stamps in 1840 (see Post and Postal
Service). Dr Gray, an official of the British Museum, began
collecting them soon after their appearance, and an advertise-
ment in an issue of The Times of 1841 asks for gifts of cancelled
stamps for a young lady. In 1842 the new hobby was ridiculed
in Punch. It was not until about i860, however, that stamp
collecting began to be systematically carried on with full regard
to such minutiae as the different kinds of paper, water-marks,
perforation, shade of colour and distinctive outline. About
1862 a teacher in Paris directed that foreign stamps should be
collected and pasted upon the pages of his pupils' atlases and
geographies according to countries, and this may have been the
first form of the systematic classification of stamps in a collection.
Of existing collections the oldest were begun between 1853 and
i860, by which year French collectors had assumed especial
prominence. Professional dealers now made their appearance,
and in 1861 philatelic literature, now of vast extent, was in-
augurated by the publication in Strasburg of a catalogue of
stamps issued up to that time. The Paris collectors were the
first to classify stamps, measure them by the gauge, note the
water-marks and separate the distinct issues of each country.
Collecting with due regard to the relationship of different issues
is called plating. The first English catalogue was issued in
1862, followed in December of the same year by The Stamp
Collector's Review and Monthly Advertiser, published in Liverpool,
the first philatelic periodical, the second, The Stamp Collector's
Magazine, appearing in 1863. In 1863 also appeared Le Timbre-
Poste, a Brussels journal. Up to 1910 over 800 philatelic
periodicals had appeared.

Although small bodies of enthusiasts had banded together
in England, France and the United States for the study and
collection of postage-stamps as early as 1865, it was not until
1869 that the first great club, the Philatelic Society of London,
still the most important in the world, was founded. Other
societies in Great Britain are the Junior Philatelic of London,
and those of Birmingham, Manchester, Edinburgh and Leith.
The leading society in America is. the American Philatelic
Association; in France the Societe francaise de timbrologie; in
Germany the Internationaler Philatelislen-Verein. More than
400 such organizations are now in existence, the majority of
them in the United States and Germany. At a philatelic con-
gress, held in London in 19 10, the formation of a universal union
of philatelic societies " to discourage unnecessary or speculative
issues " was considered.

Not only the stamps themselves were collected, but " entires,"
i.e. postcards, envelopes with the stamps still adhering, &c.
Marks of prepayment at last became so numerous that, about
1880, specialists began to appear, who restricted their collections
to the stamps of some particular country or continent, or to

postcards or newspaper-wrappers alone. The most extensive
and valuable stamp collection in the world, that of Baron P.
von Ferrary of Paris, was begun about 1865. This collection,
which cost its owner at least £250,000, contains a cancelled and
an uncancelled specimen of each stamp. The next greatest
collection is that bequeathed to the British nation in 1891 by
T. K. Tapling, M.P., now in the British Museum. Among other
important collections may be mentioned those in the German
Postal Museum in Berlin, of King George V. of England, W. B.
Avery, H. J. Duveen and the earl of Crawford. The largest
sum realized for an entire collection was £27,500, which was paid
for that of M. P. Castle, consisting of European stamps only.
The value of a stamp depends partly upon its age, but much
more upon its rarity, which again is dependent upon the number
of the particular stamps originally issued. Most stamps have
a quoted value, but some possess a conventional value only,
such as those of which only one or two specimens are known to
exist ; for instance, the one-cent stamp of the 1856 issue of British
Guiana (one known copy); the Italian 15 centesimi stamp of
1865 converted by an overprint into 20 centesimi (one copy);
the Cape of Good Hope triangular, printed by mistake on paper
intended for stamps of other colonies (four copies) ; and the 2 cent
stamps of the earliest issue of British Guiana (ten copies). The
best known of the very rare stamps are the id. and 2d. " Post-
Office " Mauritius, for which higher prices have been paid than
for any other stamps, although 23 copies are known to exist
out of the 1000 issued. For a fine specimen of these Mauritius
stamps £2000 has been offered. Two of them have been sold
for £2400. Philatelic exhibitions such as those held in London
in 1890 and 1897 and in Manchester in 1909 have proved
popular.

" Reprints " are reimpressions, taken from the original plates,
of obsolete stamps, and have a much smaller value than speci-
mens of the original issue. Forgeries of the rarer stamps are
common but are easily detected. Modern postage-stamp albums
are often beautiful specimens of the printer's art, reproductions
of every known stamp being given in the original colours.

See W. J. Hardy and E. D. Bacon, The Stamp Collector (London,
1898); Oliver Firth, Postage Stamps and Their Collection, (1897);
F. J. Melville, A B C of Stamp Collecting (1903) ; Caiman and Collin,
Catalogue for Advanced Collectors (New York, 1902) ; Hastings
E. Wright and A. B. Creeke, History of the Adhesive Stamps of the
British Isles (London, 1899) ; J. K. Tiffany, Stamp Collector's Library
Companion (Chicago, 1889); Luff, The Postage Stamps of the United
States (New York, 1902) ; W. E. Daniells, History of British Post-
marks (London, 1898); L. Salefranque, Le Timbre a travers Vhistoire
(Rouen, 1890) ; R. Senf , Illustrierter Postwerthzeichenkatalog (Leipzig,
annually) ; Krotzsch, Permanentes Handbuch der Postfreimarkenkunde
(Leipzig, annually) ; periodicals : The London Philatelist (monthly) ;
Illustrierte Brief marken-Zeitung (Leipzig).

PHILEMON (c. 361-263 B.C.), Greek poet of the New Comedy,
was born at Soli in Cilicia, or at Syracuse. He settled at Athens
early in life, and his first play was produced in 330. He was a
contemporary and rival of Menander, whom he frequently
vanquished in poetical contests. Posterity reversed the verdict
and attributed Philemon's successes to unfair influence. He
made a journey to the east, and resided at the court of Ptolemy,
king of Egypt, for some time. Plutarch (De Cohibenda Ira, 9)
relates that on his journey he was driven by a storm to Cyrene,
and fell into the hands of its king Magas, whom he had formerly
satirized. Magas treated him with contempt, and finally dis-
missed him with a present of toys. Various accounts of his death
are given; a violent outburst of laughter, excess of joy at a
dramatic victory, or a peaceful end while engaged in composing
his last work (Apuleius, Florida, 16; Lucian, Macrob. 25;
Plutarch, An Seni, p. 725). Of the ninety-seven plays which
he is said to have composed, the titles of fifty-seven and
considerable fragments have been preserved. Some of these
may have been the work of his son, the younger Philemon,
who is said to have composed fifty-four comedies. The
Merchant and The Treasure of Philemon were the originals
respectively of the Mercator and Trinummus of Plautus, The
fragments preserved by Stobaeus, Athenaeus and other writers
contain much wit and good sense. Quintilian (Instit. x. 1, 72)

PHILEMON, EPISTLE TO— PHILETAS

375

assigned the second place among the poets of the New Comedy
to Philemon, and Apuleius, who had a high opinion of him, has
drawn a comparison between him and Menander.

See A. Meineke, Menandri et Philemonis reliquiae (1823, including
Bentley's emendations) ; T. Kock, Comicorum graecorum fragmenta,
vol. iii. (1884).

PHILEMON, EPISTLE TO, a scripture of the New Testament.
Onesimus, a slave, had robbed (vv. n, 18-19) an d run away
from his master Philemon, a prosperous and influential Christian
citizen of Colossae (Col. iv. 9), either offence rendering him liable
to be crucified. Voluntarily or accidentally, he came across
Paul, who won him over to the Christian faith. In the few
tactful and charming lines of this brief note, the apostle sends
him back to his master with a plea for kindly treatment. After
greeting Philemon and his wife, with Archippus (possibly their
son) and the Christians who met for worship at Philemon's house
(vv. 1-2), Paul rejoices over (w. 4-7) his correspondent's
character; it encourages him to make an appeal on behalf of
the unworthy Onesimus (8-21), now returning (Col. iv. 9) along
with Tychicus to Colossae, as a penitent and sincere Christian,
in order to resume his place in the household. With a line or
two of personal detail (22-25) the note closes.

Rome would be a more natural rendezvous for fugitivarii
(runaway slaves) than Caesarea (Hilgenfeld and others), and
it is probable that Paul wrote this note, with Philippians and
Colossians, from the metropolis. As Laodicea is close to Colossae
it does not follow, even if Archippus be held to have belonged
to the former town (as Lightfoot argues from Col. iv. 13-17),
that Philemon's residence must have been there also (so A.
Maier, Thiersch, Wieseler, &c). Paul cannot have converted
Philemon at Colossae (Col. ii. 1), but elsewhere, possibly at
Ephesus; yet Philemon may have been on a visit to Ephesus,
for, even were the Ephesian Onesimus of Ignatius (Eph. ii.) the
Onesimus of this note, it would not prove that he had always
lived there. No adequate reason has been shown for suspecting
that the note is interpolated at any point. The association of
Timotheus with Paul (v. 1) does not involve any official tinge,
which would justify the deletion of nal Tifiodeos b aSeKcjm nov in
that verse, and of fifiuv in vv. 1-2 (so Holtzmann), and Hausrath's
suspicions of the allusion to Paul as a prisoner and of v. 12 are
equally arbitrary. The construction in vv. 5-6 is difficult, but
it yields to exegetical treatment (cf. especially Haupt's note)
and does not involve the interpolation of matter by the later
redactor of Colossians and Ephesians (Holtzmann, Hausrath 1
and Bruckner, Reihenfolge d. paul. Brief e, 200 seq.).

The brevity of the note and its lack of doctrinal significance
prevented it from gaining frequent quotation in the early
Christian literature, but it appears in Marcion's canon as well
as in the Muratorian, whilst Tertullian mentions, and Origen
expressly quotes it. During the 19th century, the hesitation
about Colossians led to the rejection of Philemon by some critics
as a pseudonymous little pamphlet on the slave question —
an aberration of literary criticism (reproduced in Ency. Bib.,
3693 seq.) which needs simply to be chronicled. It is interesting
to observe that, apart from the letter of commendation for
Phoebe (Rom. xvi.), this is the only letter in the New Testa-
ment addressed, even in part, to a woman, unless the second
epistle of John be taken as meant for an individual.

Bibliography. — In addition to most commentaries on Colossians
and to Dr M. R. Vincent's edition of Philippians, compare special
exegetical studies by R. Rollock (Geneva, 1602), G. C. Storr (1781),
J. K. I. Demme, Erkldrung d. Philemon-Brief es (1844); H. A. Peter-
mann, Ad fidem versionum . . . cum earum textu orig. graece (Berlin,
1844); M. Rothe, Pauli ad Philem. epistolae interpretatio historico-
exegetica (Bremen, 1844); and H. J. Holtzmann, Zeitschrift fur
'wissen. Theologie (1873), pp. 428 sqq., besides the essays of J. G. C.
Klotzsch, De occasione et indole epistolae ad Philem. (1792); D. H.
Wildschut, De vi dictionis et sermonis elegantia in epistola ad Philem.
(1809) ; and J. P. Esser, Der Brief an Philemon (1875). An up-to-date
survey of criticism is furnished by Dr J. H. Bernard in Hastings's
Dictionary of the Bible, iv. 832-834, and a good exposition may be
found in Z. Weber's Der Brief an d. Philemon, ein Vorbild fur die

1 History of the New Testament Times (1895), ' v - 122-123. See,
on this, Schenkel's Bibel-Lexikon, iv. 531-532.

chrisil. Behandlung sozialer Fragen (1896), as well as in Dr A. H.
Drysdale's devotional commentary (London, 1906). (J. Mi.)

PHILEMON and BAUCIS, the hero and heroine of a beautiful
story told by Ovid (Metam. viii. 610-715), the scene of which
is laid in Phrygia. Zeus, accompanied by Hermes, visited earth
in human form; tired and weary, they sought shelter for the
night, but all shut their doors against them except an aged
couple living in a humble cottage, who afforded them hospitality.
Before their departure the gods revealed themselves, and bade
their hosts follow them to the top of a mountain, to escape the
punishment destined to fall on the rest of the inhabitants. The
country was overwhelmed by a flood; the cottage, which alone
remained standing, was changed into a magnificent temple.
The gods appointed Philemon and Baucis priest and priestess,
and granted their prayer that they might die together. After
many years they were changed into trees — Philemon into an
oak, Baucis into a lime. The story, w,hich emphasizes the
sacred duty of hospitality, is probably of local Phrygian origin,
put together from two widely circulated legends of the visits
of gods to men, and of the preservation of certain individuals
from the flood as the reward of piety. It lingers in the account
(Acts xiv.) of the healing of the lame man by Paul at Lystra, the
inhabitants of which identified Paul and Barnabas with Zeus
and Hermes, " come down in the likeness of men."

Similar stories are given in J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie (Eng.
trans., 1883, ii. 580, and iii. 38).

PHILES, MANUEL (c. 1275-1345), of Ephesus, Byzantine
poet. At an early age he removed to Constantinople, where
he was the pupil of Georgius Pachymeres, in whose honour he
composed a memorial poem. Philes appears to have travelled
extensively, and his writings contain much information concern-
ing the imperial court and distinguished Byzantines. Having
offended one of the emperors by indiscreet remarks published
in a chronography, he was thrown into prison and only released
after an abject apology. Philes is the counterpart of Theodoras
Prodromus in the time of the Comneni; his character, as shown
in his poems, is that of a begging poet, always pleading poverty,
and ready to descend to the grossest flattery to obtain the favour-
able notice of the great. With one unimportant exception, his
productions are in verse, the greater part in dodecasyllabic
iambic trimeters, the remainder in the fifteen-syllable " political "
measure.

Philes was the author of poems on a great variety of subjects : on
the characteristics of animals, chiefly based upon Aelian and Oppian,
a didactic poem of some 2000 lines, dedicated to Michael Palaeo-
logus; on the elephant; on plants; a necrological poem, probably
written on the death of one of the sons of the imperial house; a
panegyric on John Cantacuzene, in the form of a dialogue; a con-
versation between a man and his soul; on ecclesiastical subjects,
such as church festivals, Christian beliefs, the saints and fathers
of the church ; on works of art, perhaps the most valuable of all his
pieces for their bearing on Byzantine iconography, since the
writer had before him the works he describes, and also the most
successful from a literary point of view; occasional poems, many of
which are simply begging letters in verse.

Editions: the natural history poems in F. Lehrs and F. Diibner,
Poetae bucolici et didactici (Didot series, 1846); Manuelis Philae
Carmina inedita, ed. A. Martini (1900) ; Manuelis Philae Carmina
ed. E. Miller (1855-1857). See also C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der
byzantinischen Liiteratur (1897).

PHILETAS of Cos, Alexandrian poet and critic, flourished
in the second half of the 4th century B.C. He was tutor to the
son of Ptolemy I. of Egypt, and also taught Theocritus and the
grammarian Zenodotus. His thinness made him an object of
ridicule; according to the comic poets, he carried lead in his
shoes to keep himself from being blown away. O^er-study of
Megarian dialectic subtleties is said to have shortened his life.
His elegies, chiefly of an amatory nature and singing the praises
of his mistress Battis (or Bittis), were much admired by the
Romans. He is frequently mentioned by Ovid and Propertius,
the latter of whom imitated him and preferred him to his rival
Callimachus, whose superior mythological lore was more to the
taste of the Alexandrian critics. Philetas was also the author
of a vocabulary called "Atclkto., explaining the meanings of rare

37^

PHILIDOR— PHILIP (KINGS OF MACEDONIA)

and obscure words, including words peculiar to certain dialects;
and of notes on Homer, severely criticized by Aristarchus.

Fragments edited by N. Bach (1828), and T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici
graeci; see also E. W. Maass, De tribus Philetae carminibus (1895).

PHILIDOR, FRANCOIS ANDRfi DANICAN (1726-1795),
French composer and chess-player, was born at Dreux, on the
7th of September 1726, of a musical family. The family name
was Danican, but that of Philidor, added in the middle of the
17th century, eventually supplanted the older name. Francois
Andre received a musical education as a member of the corps
of pages attached to the orchestra of the king; and subsequently
he earned his living by giving lessons and copying music. Much
of his time was, however, devoted to chess, at which he soon
became an expert. He spent many years in travelling on the
Continent and in England, meeting and defeating the most
noted players of the time, and is regarded as the strongest player
and greatest theoretician of the 18th century. Returning to
France in 1754, he resolved to devote himself seriously to musical
composition, and after producing several works of minor im-
portance brought out at Paris, in the year 1759, his successful
light opera, Blaise le Savetier, which was followed by a' number
of others, notably Le Soldat magicien (1760), Le Jardinier et son
seigneur (1761), Le S order (1762), and Tom Jones (1764). He
died in London on the 31st of August 1795.

PHILIP (Gr. "KAmtttoj, fond of horses, from 4>i\elv, to love,
and wnros, horse; Lat. Philippus, whence e.g. M. H. Ger. Philippes,
Dutch Filips, and, with dropping of the final s, It. Filippo, Fr.
Philippe, Ger. Philipp, Sp. Felipe), a masculine proper name,
popularized among the Christian nations as having been that
of one of the apostles of Christ. Notices of distinguished men
who have borne this name are arranged below in the following
order: (1) Biblical; (2) Kings of Macedonia, France, Germany
and Spain; (3) other rulers.

PHILIP, one of the twelve apostles, mentioned fifth in all
the lists (Matt. x. 3; Mark iii. 18; Luke vi. 14; Acts i. 13). He
is a mere name in the Synoptists, but a figure of some prominence
in the Fourth Gospel. There he is said to have been " of Beth-
saida, the city of Andrew and Peter," and to have received his
call to follow Jesus at Bethany, having previously been, it would
seem, a disciple of the Baptist (John i. 43, 44; cf. 28). Philip
was at that time the means of bringing Nathanael to Jesus
(John i. 45), and at a later date he, along with Andrew, carried
the request of the inquiring Greeks to the Master (John xii. 22).
Philip and Andrew alone are mentioned by name in connexion
with the feeding of the five thousand (John vi. 5, 7), and Philip
is also one of the few interlocutors in John .xiv. Slight though
these references are, all agree in presenting Philip as of an inquir-
ing and calculating character, slow to take the initiative, but,
when convinced of the path of duty, thoroughly loyal in following
it. After the resurrection he was present at the election of
Matthias as successor to Judas, but he does not again appear
in the New Testament history; it is, however, implied that he
still continued in Jerusalem after the outbreak of the first
persecution.

Little reliance can be placed on the traditional accounts of
Philip, owing to the evident confusion that had arisen between
him and the evangelist of the same name, who appears in the
book of Acts (see below). According to Polycrates, bishop of
Ephesus, in his controversial letter written to Victor of Rome
towards the end of the 2nd century (ap. Euseb. H. E., iii. 31,
v. 24), the graves of Philip "of the twelve apostles," and of
his two aged virgin daughters were in (the Phrygian) Hierapolis;
a third daughter, " who had lived in the Holy Ghost," was buried
at Ephesus. With this may be compared the testimony of
Clement of Alexandria, who incidentally (Strom, iii. 6) speaks
of " Philip the Apostle " as having begotten children and as
having given daughters in marriage. On the other hand,
Proclus, one of the interlocutors in the " Dialogue of Caius," a
writing of somewhat later date than the letter of Polycrates,
mentions (ap. Euseb. H. E., iii. 31) " four prophetesses, the
daughters of Philip at Hierapolis in Asia, whose tomb and that
of their father are to be seen there," where the mention of the

daughters prophesying identifies the person meant with the
Philip of Acts (cf. Acts xxi. 8). The reasons for setting aside
this latter identification, and for holding that the Philip who lived
at Hierapolis was the Apostle are clearly stated by Lightfoot,
Colossians (2) note 3, p. 45 seq., and fresh confirmation of his view
has recently been afforded by the discovery of an inscription
at Hierapolis, showing that the church there was dedicated to
the memory " of the holy and glorious apostle and theologian
Philip " (Ramsay, Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia, vol. i.,
pt. ii. p. 552). .

See also Corssen, " Die Tochter des Philippus " in the Zeitschrift
fur die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft (1901), p. 289 sqq. The othei
view, that the Philip of Hierapolis is the Philip of Acts, is taken by
Zahn, Forschungen zur Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons
(1900), vi. 158 sqq.

A later stage of the tradition regarding Philip appears in
various late apocryphal writings which have been edited by
Tischendorf in his Acta apostolorum apocrypha, and in his
Apocalypses apocryphae. According to the Acta Philippi, a
work belonging at the earliest to the close of the 4th century
(see Zahn, op. cit. p. 18 sqq.), Philip, with Bartholomew and his
own sister Mariamne, exercised a widespread missionary activity,
preaching not only throughout Asia Minor, but also in Hellas
the city of the Athenians, in Scythia, and in Gaul, &c. According
to one account he died a natural death; according to another
he was hanged or crucified, head downwards. An apocryphal
gospel, which describes the progress of the soul through the next
world, bears his name (Hennecke, Neutestamentliche Apokryphen,
1904, p. 40 seq.).

Since the 6th century Philip has been commemorated in the
West, along with St James the Less, on the 1st of May, their
relics being deposited in the same church in Rome; in the Eastern
Church Philip's day is the 14th of November, and that of James
the Less the 23rd of October.

PHILIP, " the evangelist," is first mentioned in the Acts
(vi. 5) as one of " the seven " who were chosen to attend to
certain temporal affairs of the church in Jerusalem in conse-
quence of the murmurings of the Hellenists against the Hebrews.
After the martyrdom of Stephen he went to " the city of
Samaria," where he preached with much success, Simon Magus
being one of his converts. He afterwards instructed and baptized
the Ethiopian eunuch on the road between Jerusalem and Gaza;
next he was " caught away " by the Spirit and " found at Azotus "
(Ashdod), whence " passing through he preached in all the cities
till he came to Caesarea " (Acts viii.). Here some years after-
wards, according to Acts xxi. 8, 9, where he is described as " the
evangelist " (a term found again in the New Testament only
in Eph. iv. 11; 2 Tim. iv. 5), he entertained Paul and his com-
panion on their way to Jerusalem; at that time " he had four
daughters which did prophesy." At a very early period he
came to be confounded with the apostle Philip (see above) ; the
confusion was all the more easy because, as an esteemed member
of the apostolic company, he may readily have been described
, as an apostle in the wider sense of that word (see further Salmon,
Inlrod. to the New Testament, 7th ed., p. 3 13 sqq.) . A late tradition
describes him as settling at Tralles in Asia Minor, where he be-
came the overseer or ruler of the church. " Philip the deacon "
is commemorated on the 6th of June.

PHILIP I., king of Macedonia, a semi-legendary prince, son
of Argaeus, was, according to Herodotus (viii. 137-139) and
Thucydides (ii. 100), the third of the Macedonian kings. In the
texts of Dexippus and Eusebius he ranks sixth, Caranus, Coenus
and Thurimas (or Turimmas) being there regarded as the pre-
decessors of Perdiccas I., whom Herodotus and Thucydides
regard as the first king of Macedonia. Eusebius and Dexippus
assign to Philip I. a reign of 38 and 35 years respectively. There
is, however, no real evidence for his existence. (E. E. B.)

PHILIP II. (382-336 B.C.), king of Macedonia, the son of
Amyntas II., and the Lyncestian Eurydice, reigned 359-336.
At his birth the Macedonian kingdom, including the turbulent
peoples of the hill-country behind, was very imperfectly con-
solidated. In 370 Amyntas died, and the troubled reign of

PHILIP (KINGS OF MACEDONIA)

377

Philip's eldest brother, Alexander II., was cut short in 368 by
his assassination. His murderer, Ptolemy of Alorus, ruled as
regent for the young Perdiccas, Amyntas's second son. In 367
Philip was delivered as hostage to the Thebans, then the leading
power of Greece (by whom does not seem clear). During the
three years he spent at Thebes the boy no doubt observed and
learnt much. When he returned to Macedonia (364) Perdiccas
had succeeded in getting rid of Ptolemy; but he fell in 360-359
before an onset of the hill tribes instigated by the queen-mother
Eurydice, leaving only an infant son. Various pretenders sprang
up and the kingdom fell into confusion. Philip seized the throne
and drove back his rivals. He now began the great task of his
life — the creation of the Macedonian national army. The first
experiment he made with this new organism was brilliantly
successful. The hill tribes were broken by a single battle in 358,
and Philip established his authority inland as far as Lake
Ochrida. In the autumn of the same year he took the Athenian
colony, Amphipolis, which commanded the gold-mines of Mt
Pangaeus. Their possession was all-important for Philip, and
he set there the new city, called after him, Philippi. Athens
was temporarily pacified by assurances that Amphipolis would
be handed over to her later on. The work of fashioning the
Macedonian army occupied Philip for the next few years, whilst
his diplomacy was busy securing partisans within the states of
Greece. He avoided as yet a forward policy, and having taken
Pydna and Potidaea soon after Amphipolis, he made them over
to the Olynthian confederation (see Olynthus). His marriage
with the fierce witch-woman, Olympias, daughter of the Epirote
king, falls in this period, and in 356 she bore him his greater son,
Alexander. In 353 Philip was ready for strong action. He first
attacked Abdera and Maronea, on the Thracian sea-board, and
then took Methone, which belonged to Athens. An overt breach
with Athens was now inevitable. In the same summer he in-
vaded Thessaly, where the Aleuadae of Larissa ranged themselves
on his side against the tagus Lycophron," tyrant " of Pherae.
Pherae called in the help of the Phocian mercenaries, who had
profaned Delphi, and Philip met with a check. He had, however,
the advantage of now being able to present himself to the Greeks
as the champion of Apollo in a holy war, and in 352 the Mace-
donian army won a complete victory over the Pheraeans and
Phocians. This battle made Philip tagus of Thessaly, and he
claimed as his own Magnesia, with the important harbour of
Pagasae. Hostilities with Athens did not yet take place, but
Athens was threatened by the Macedonian party which Philip's
gold created in Euboea.

From 352 to 346 Philip did not again come south. He was
active in completing the subjugation of the Balkan hill-country
to the west and north, and in reducing the Greek cities of the
coast as far as the Hebrus (Maritza). For the chief of these,
indeed, Olynthus, he continued to profess friendship till its
neighbour cities were in his hands. Then, in 349, he opened war
upon it. Athens, to whom Olynthus appealed, sent no adequate
forces, in spite of the upbraidings of Demosthenes (see his
Olynthiacs) , and in the spring of 347 Olynthus fell. Philip razed
it to the ground (see Olynthus). Macedonia and the regions
adjoining it having now been securely consolidated, Philip
celebrated his " Olympian " games at Dium. In 347 Philip
advanced to the conquest of the eastern districts about the
Hebrus, and compelled the submission of the Thracian prince
Cersobleptes. Meanwhile Athens had made overtures for peace
(see the 'De falsa legatione of Demosthenes), and when Philip,
in 346, again moved south, peace was sworn in Thessaly. The
time was come for Philip to assert himself in Greece, and the
Phocians, who still dominated Delphi and held Thermopylae,
could furnish a pretext to the champion of Pan-Hellenism and
Apollo. The Phocian mercenaries at Thermopylae were bought
off and Philip crossed into central Greece. Here he made Thebes
his ally and visited the Phocians with crushing vengeance.
The Pythian games of 346 were celebrated at the delivered
Delphi under Philip's presidency. Pan-Hellenic enthusiasts
already saw Philip as the destined captain-general of a national
crusade against Persia (Isocrates, Philippus, about 345). And

such a position Philip had determined to secure: the Macedonian
agents continued to work throughout the Greek states, and in
the Peloponnesus Sparta soon found herself isolated. Euboea,,
too, submitted to Macedonian influence, and even received some
garrisons. But more work had to be done in the Balkan high-
lands. In 344, or one of the following years, the Macedonian
arms were carried across Epirus to the Adriatic. In 342 Philip
led a great expedition north " comparable to nothing in antiquity
since Darius' famous march to Scythia." In 341 his army was
still campaigning in eastern Thrace, when Philip felt compelled
to show his presence in Thessaly. During these years, although
Athens had not overtly broken the peace of 346, there had been
various diplomatic bickerings and hostile intrigues between the
two powers (cf. the Philippics of Demosthenes). Athens had
even sent emissaries to the Persian court to give warning of the
proposed national crusade. She now egged on the cities of the
Propontis (Byzantium, Perinthus, Selymbria). who felt themselves
threatened by Philip's Thracian conquests, to declare against
him. The sieges of Perinthus and Byzantium (340, 339) ended
in Philip's meeting with a signal check, due in some measure to
the help afforded the besieged cities by Athens and her allies.
Philip's influence all over Greece was compromised. But before
marching south he led another expedition across the Balkans
into the country now called Bulgaria, and returned to Pella with
much spoil but severely wounded in the thigh. In 338 he once
more crossed into central Greece. The pretext was the con-
tumacy shown by the Locrian town Amphissa to the rulings
of the Amphictyonic Council. Philip's fortification of Elatea
filled Athens with alarm. Thebes was induced to join Athens;
so were some of the minor Peloponnesian states, and the allies
took the field against Philip. This opposition was crushed by
the epoch-making battle of Chaeroneia, which left Greece at
Philip's feet. In the following year (337) Philip was in the
Peloponnesus, and a congress of the Greek states at the Isthmus
(from which, however, Sparta held sullenly aloof) recognized
Philip as captain-general for the war against Persia. Philip
returned to Macedonia to complete his preparations ; an advanced
force was sent into Asia in the spring of 336. But Philip's plans
were suddenly blasted by his assassination in the same year
during the marriage festival of his daughter at Aegae, the old
capital of Macedonia. He left, however, in the Macedonian
army a splendid instrument which enabled his son within ten
years to change the face of the world.

Philip stands high among the makers of kingdoms. Restless
energy, determination, a faculty for animating and organizing
a strong people, went with unscrupulous duplicity and a full-
blooded vehemence in the pleasures of sense. Yet Philip was not
untouched by ideal considerations, as is proved by the respect,
no doubt sincere, which he showed for Hellenic culture, by the
forbearance and deference with which he treated Athens, the
sacred city of that culture and his mortal foe. A special interest
belongs to the Macedonian kingdom as it was shaped by Philip,
since it forestalls a system which was not to find the time ripe
for it in European history till many centuries later — the national
kingdom quickened with the culture developed by the ancient
city-states. The national kingdoms founded by the Northern
races, after the fall of the Roman Empire, under the influence
of the classical tradition, are the beginnings of the modern
European system; Philip of Macedon foreshadows Theodoric,
Charlemagne and William the Conqueror. But this first national
kingdom within the sphere of Greek culture could not ultimately
live between the surge of the Northern barbarians and the
Roman power.

See the authorities under Greece: History. A vivid and masterly
sketch of Philip's personality and work is given in D. G. Hogarth's
Philip and Alexander (1897). (E. R. B.)

PHILIP III. [Arrhidaeus], king of Macedonia, was the
feeble-minded son of Phiiip II. of Macedonia by a Thessalian
wife. He was chosen by the Macedonian army at Babylon in
323 to be nominal king conjointly with the infant Alexander,
and was killed in Macedonia by order of Olympias (317).
(See Macedonian Empire.)

378 PHILIP (KINGS OF MACEDONIA)— PHILIP II. (FRANCE)

PHILIP IV., king of Macedonia, was the son of Cassander,
king of Macedonia: he reigned only one year (297-296).

PHILIP V., king of Macedonia, son of Demetrius II. and
Chryse'is, was an infant at his father's death in 230-229. His
cousin, Antigonus Doson, administered the kingdom as regent
till his death in 221-220, when Philip was eighteen years old.
Philip now ascended the throne and reigned till 179. His
reign was occupied in the vain struggle to maintain the old
Macedonian supremacy in the Balkan Peninsula, which became
hopeless after the intervention of Rome and the decisive
battle of Cynoscephalae (197). See Rome: History, § II.
" The Republic " (period B, § b). (E. R. B.)

PHILIP I. (1052-1108), king of France, eldest son of Henry I.
of France and Anne, daughter of Jaroslav I. (d. 1054), grand
duke of Kiev, came to the throne, when a child of eight, by the
death of his father on the 4th of August 1060. He had been
crowned at Reims, in the presence of a number of magnates,
on the 23rd of May 1059. Philip passed most of his early years
in and around Paris, where the castles of lawless barons, such
as that of Montlhery, threatened even his personal safety. His
minority came to an end in 1066. In the long reign that fol-
lowed he showed no great ability or energy, and a looseness of
morals which embroiled him with the Church. Before he was
fifty years of age he became " fond of nothing but good cheer
and sleep." But he increased the lands of his house around
Paris, maintained order in them, and held his own against
William I. and William II. of England, whose power in France
far exceeded his own. This he accomplished for the most part
by taking advantage of the quarrels among his vassals. When
Baldwin VI. of Flanders died, in 1070, his son Ar'nulf was
attacked by his uncle Robert the Frisian, count of Holland.
Philip interfered, at the prayer of Arnulf's mother, Richildis;
but the allies were defeated near Cassel on the 22nd of February
107 1 and Arnulf slain. After a second war peace was sealed,
apparently, by the marriage of Philip to Robert's step-daughter
Bertha, daughter of Gertrude of Saxony and Florence, count
of Holland. In 1074 a new rupture led to Philip seizing Corbie,
part of the dower of his aunt Adele, who had married Baldwin IV.
of Flanders. By this he secured a sort of outpost in the direction
of Flanders. The other main episodes of his reign were the
quarrel over the Angevin inheritance and his wars with the dukes
of Normandy. In the struggle between Fulk Rechin and his
brother Geoffrey the Bearded for the inheritance of their uncle,
Geoffrey Martel (d. 1060), count of Anjou, Philip received from
Fulk in 1069, as the price of his neutrality, Chateau Landon
and the Gatinais. This acquisition linked the county of Sens,
acquired in 1055, with the rest of the domain round Paris,
Melun and Orleans. War with William I. was chronic but
intermittent. In 1076 Philip forced him to raise the siege of
Dol in Brittany. Peace was made in 1077, and in December
1079 they together besieged Robert Curthose in the castle of
Gerberoy. On the 8th of May 1080 the siege was raised and
peace made. War with William began again in 108 1 over the
county of Vexin, which Philip had seized on the retirement of
its count, Simon of Valois, to a monastery in 1076. William
demanded reparation for the raid of Philip's vassals and the
cession of Pontoise, Chaumont-en-Vexin and Mantes, but died
after sacking Mantes in the same year. In 1098 there was war
between Philip and William Rufus in both Maine and the Vexin.
William came in person from Maine to lead the attack in the
Vexin in September, and crossed the Seine, penetrating to
within 30 m. of Paris on the west; but the campaign brought no
results. In his last years Philip left the duty of repelling the
attacks of his Norman and other enemies to his son Louis,
associating him with himself, as " king-designate," some time
between the 24th of May 1098 and the 25th of September 1100.
It was his second marriage which was the cause of Philip's
greatest difficulties. On the 15th of May 1092 he carried off
Bertrada, daughter of Simon, baron de Montfort, wife of Fulk
Rechin, and prepared to marry her, though his wife Bertha was
still living. The bishops, headed by Ivo, bishop of Chartres,
refused to attend the ceremony of marriage, but one was found

to perform it. Philip's open simony had long been a cause of
friction with the papacy. When he added bigamy and adultery,
Urban II. excommunicated him. The bishop of Chartres, in
consequence, refused to bring his vassals to help Philip's ally,
Robert, duke of Normandy, against his brother William in 1094.
Bertha died in that year, but Fulk was still living, and the
sentence was renewed at the council of Autun on the 15th of
October. Philip replied by summoning the bishops to Paris
to try Ivo of Chartres for treason. He gained a respite from
the papal sentence by promises of submission, but the sentence
was renewed by Urban at the council of Clermont in 1095, in
1096, and in 1097, and at Poitiers in 1101, despite the protest
of William IX., count of Poitiers, who entered the church with
his knights to prevent his suzerain from being excommunicated
on his lands. Philip was reconciled with the Church in 1104, and
took an oath not to have any converse or society with Bertrada
except in the presence of " non-suspect " persons. But they
seem to have gone on living together, and even visited Fulk
Rechin (Bertrada's husband) in company on the 15th of October
1 106. Philip died at the end of July 1108.

His reign is chiefly remarkable for the steady growth of the
royal domain. In addition to the gains mentioned, he bought
in 1 101 a large slice of territory, including Bourges and Dun-le-
Roi, from Eudes Arpin, viscount of Bourges, who was going
on the crusade; and toward the end of his reign took Montlhery,
whose lord beset the southern approach to Paris. By his first
queen he had four children: Louis VI., who succeeded him; Henry,
who died young; Charles; and Constance, who married Hugh I.,
count of Champagne, and later Bohemund I., prince of Antioch.
By Bertrada de Montfort he had three children: Philip, count of
Montes; Fleury or Florus, who married the heiress of Nangis;
and Cecilia, who married, first Tancred, prince of Galilee and
Antioch, and secondly Pons de Saint Gilles, count of Tripoli.

The materials for the reign of Philip I. are in the Recueil des
historiens des Gaules et de la France, vols. xi. to xvi. See especially
the critical examination by Dom Brial of the historians who have
spoken of Philip I. at the beginning of vol. xvi Consult also
E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, iv., passim, and William Rufus,
ii. 165-302; A. Luchaire, Louis le Gros (Paris, 1890), and " Les
Premiers Capetiens " in E. Lavisse's Histoire de France (II. ii., pp.
168-175). More recent is the Recueil des actes de Philippe I., edited
by M. Pron (1908), and B. Monod's Essai sur les rapports de Pascal II.
avec Philippe I. (Paris, 1907). For notices of the principal chronicles
of the time see A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France (II.,
esp. p. 307 et seq.).

PHILIP II. (1165-1223), known as Philip Augustus, king of
France, son of Louis VII. and Adela, daughter of Theobald II.,
count of Champagne, was born on the 21st of August 1165.
On the 1st of November n 79 he was associated with his father
as king by being crowned at Reims, and at once his father's
illness threw the responsibility of government on him, the death
of Louis on the 19th of September 1180 leaving him sole king.

The boy-king found himself and his kingdom in a difficult
and humiliating position. His long strip of royal domain was
hemmed in by the Angevin Empire on the west and by the kingdom
of Aries on the south-east. Henry II. of England was feudal
lord of the greater part of France, practically all west of a line
which began at Dieppe and ended at the foot of the Pyrenees
more than half-way across to the Mediterranean, while at one
point it nearly touched the Rhone. Philip's predecessors had
consolidated the Capetian power within these narrow limits, but
he himself was overshadowed by the power of his uncles, William,
archbishop of Reims; Henry I., count of Champagne; and Theo-
bald V., count of Blois and Chartres. He secured an ally against
them, and an addition to the royal domain, by marrying, on the
28th of April 1 180, Isabella or Elizabeth, daughter of Baldwin V.,
count of Hainaut, and of Marguerite, sister of Philip of Alsace,
the reigning count of Flanders, who ceded Arras, St Omer, Aire
and Hesdin, and their districts, as Isabella's dowry, a district
afterwards called Artois. On the 28th of June 1180 Philip made
a treaty with Henry II. at Gisors, and his reign thus opened
auspiciously. But from 1181 to 1185 he had to struggle against
a feudal league of his Champagnard uncles and other great

PHILIP II. (FRANCE)

379

barons, whose most active member was Stephen I., count of
Sancerre (1152-1191). Though attacked from both north and
south, the king's activity enabled him to compel the count of
Sancerre to implore peace in 1181. On the death of Isabel of
Vermandois, wife of Count Philip of Flanders, in 1182, Philip
claimed Vermandois and seized Chaune and St Quentin, and
forced his father-in-law, Baldwin of Hainaut, to support him
by threatening to divorce Queen Isabel. The count of Flanders
was obliged to sign the treaty of Boves in July 1185, which gave
the king, in addition to the expectation of Artois, his wife's
dower, sixty-five castles in Vermandois and the town of Amiens.
By 1 1 86 Hugh, duke of Burgundy, the only member of the
coalition not yet subdued, was forced to submit. Then, secure
at home, the king turned against Henry II., and by the truce of
Chateauroux in June 1187, gained Issoudun and the seigniory of
Freteval in the Vendomois. Though the truce was for two years,
Philip assembled an army in 1188 to invade Normandy, demand-
ing Gisors and the conclusion of the marriage which had been
arranged between his sister Alice and Richard of England, who
had meanwhile deserted his father. But the news came that
Saladin had taken Jerusalem and Richard took the cross.
Shortly afterwards Philip took advantage of a rising against his
quondam friend Richard, who was duke of Aquitaine, to seize
the county of Berry. At a conference at Bonmoulins on the
1 8th of November Richard again abandoned his father, and after
a second conference at La Ferte Bernard, Philip invaded Maine
and forced Henry II. to conclude the treaty of Azay on the 4th of
July 1 189, by which the English king did homage and sur-
rendered the territories of Gracy and Issoudun. Henry died two
days later. Pledges of mutual good faith and fellowship were
renewed between Philip and Richard of England on the 30th of
December 1189, and they both prepared to go on the crusade.
Before setting out Philip arranged for the government of
France during his absence by his famous testament of 1190, by
which he proposed to rule France as far as possible from Palestine.
The power of the regents, Adela, the queen-mother, and William,
archbishop of Reims, was restricted by a council composed mostly
of clerks who had the king's confidence. An annual report on
the state of the kingdom was to be sent him. On the way to
Palestine the two kings quarrelled. At the siege of Acre Philip
fell ill, and on the 22nd of July, nine days after its fall, he an-
nounced his intention of returning home. He. reached Paris at
Christmas 1191, having concluded on his way an alliance with
the emperor Henry VI. against Richard, despite his pledges not
to molest his lands. When Leopold I., duke of Austria, took
Richard prisoner and delivered him to the emperor, Philip did
his utmost by offers of money to prolong his captivity, and,
allied with the English king's brother John, attacked Richard's
domains, but upon Richard's return the Normans rallied enthusi-
astically to his aid. Philip was defeated at Freteval on the 3rd
of July 1 194, but he continued the war, generally with ill success,
for the next five years. Again a formidable coalition was formed
against him, including Baldwin IX., count of Flanders and Hain-
aut, Renaud of Dammartin, count of Boulogne, Louis, count of
Blois, and Raymond VI. , count of Toulouse. In Germany, Otto
of Brunswick, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., allied himself
with Richard, while Philip was supported by Otto's rival, Philip
of Swabia. Richard's death, in April 1199, removed his arch-
enemy, and Richard's successor, John, concluded the treaty of
Le Goulet with Philip on the 22nd of May 1200, ceding to him
the county of Evreux, Gracy and Issoudun, and the suzerainty
of Berry and Auvergne. John renounced his suzerainty over
Brittany and the guardianship of his nephew, Arthur; he engaged
not to aid the count of Flanders or Otto IV. without Philip's
consent, paid him a relief of 20,000 marks, and recognized himself
as his vassal for his continental fiefs. Philip's son Louis, after-
wards Louis VIIL, married Blanche of Castile, John's niece.
But in 1 202 the war was renewed, John having seized some castles
from the family of Lusignan, whose head was the count of La
Marche, and taken for his queen a prospective bride, Isabelle
Taillefer, from Hugh, son of Hugh IX., count of La Marche. At
an interview at Le Goulet on the 25th of March, Philip demanded

the cession of Anjou, Poitou and Normandy to his ward, Arthur.
John refused; he was summoned to Paris before the royal
judges, and failing to appear was sentenced at the end of April
1202 to lose all his fiefs. Brittany, Aquitaine and Anjou were
conferred on Arthur. Philip invaded Normandy, took Lyons-
la-Foret and Eu, and, establishing himself in Gournay, besieged
Arques. But John, joined by William des Roches and other
lords of Maine and Poitou, jealous at the increase of Philip's
power, defeated and took Arthur prisoner at Mirebeau. Philip
abandoned the siege of Arques in a fit of fury, marched to the
Loire, burning everywhere, and then returned to Paris. But
John soon alienated the Poitevin barons, and William des
Roches signed a treaty with Philip on the 22nd of March 1203.
Then Philip continued his great task, the conquest of Normandy,
capturing the towns around the fortress of Chateau-Gaillard which
Richard had built to command the valley of the Seine. Pope
Innocent III. tried to bring about peace, but Philip was obdurate,
and after murdering Arthur of Brittany John took refuge in
England in December 1203. The fall of Chateau-Gaillard, after
a siege which lasted from September 1203 to April 1204, decided
the fate of Normandy. Rouen, bound by ties of trade to Eng-
land, resisted for forty days; but it surrendered on the 24th ol
June 1 204. The conquest of Maine, Touraine, Anjou and Poitou
in 1204 and 1205 was little more than a military promenade,
though the castles of Loches and Chinon held out for a year.
Philip secured his conquest by lavishing privileges on the con-
vents and towns. He left the great lords, such as William des
Roches, in full possession of their feudal power. In 1206 he
marched through Brittany and divided it amongst his adherents.
A truce for two years was made on the 26th of October 1 206 by
which John renounced all claims in Normandy, Maine, Brittany,
Touraine and Anjou, but it did not last six months. Then
Poitou was thoroughly subdued, and another truce was made in
1208, little more than southern Saintonge and Gascony being
left in the hands of John. Philip had reduced to a mere remnant
the formidable continental empire of the Angevins, which had
threatened the existence of the Capetian monarchy. 1

Philip then undertook to invade England. In the assembly
of Soissons on the 8th of April 12 13 he made every preparation
for carrying out the sentence of deposition pronounced by the
pope against John. He had collected 1 500 vessels and summoned
all his barons when Innocent III., having sufficiently frightened
John, sent Pandulf with the terms of submission, which John
accepted on the 13th of May.

Disappointed of his hopes of England, Philip turned his arms
against Ferdinand, count of Flanders. Ferdinand, son of
Sancho I., king of Portugal, owed his county to Philip, who,
hoping to find him a docile protege^, had married him to Jeanne,
heiress of Flanders, daughter of Count Baldwin IX., who became
emperor of the East, using the weak Philip of Namur, her guar-
dian, to accomplish that end. They were married in January 1 2 1 2.
On the morrow of the marriage Louis, afterwards Louis VIIL,
seized Aire and St Omer in right of his mother, Isabella, and
on this account Ferdinand refused his feudal duty in the English
expedition. Moreover, the trade interests of his subjects, who
got their raw wool from England, drew him to an alliance with
England. Philip's attack brought this about on the 22nd of
May 1 2 13. He invaded Flanders and took the chief towns
within a week ; but he had part of his fleet burned by the English
at Damme, and had to burn the rest to save it from falling into
their hands. He returned to Paris, and Ferdinand retook most
of the towns which had been taken by the king. A war of fire
and pillage began, in which Philip and his son Louis burned their
way through Flanders, and Ferdinand did the same through
Artois.

In 1214 came the great crisis of Philip's life. All the forces
against which he had been struggling united to overwhelm him.
Paris was to be attacked from Flanders and Guienne at the same
time. A league including his rebel vassals, Renaud of Dammartin,
count of Boulogne, and Ferdinand, count of Flanders, with the
emperor Otto IV. and a number of German princes of the Rhine
region, had been formed in the north-east, while John of England

3 8o

PHILIP II. (FRANCE)

made one more attempt to recover his heritage at the head of an
army of mercenaries aided by the fickle baronage of Poitou.
John landed at La Rochelle on the 16th of February 12 14, and
was at first successful. On the 19th of June he laid siege to La
Roche-aux-Moines, the fortress which defended Angers and com-
manded the Loire valley; but on the approach of a royal army
under Prince Louis on the 2nd of July his Poitevin barons
refused to risk a pitched battle, and he fled hastily to La Rochelle.
The Angevin Empire in France was lost. Meanwhile Philip
himself won his greatest victory at the bridge of Bouvines, among
the morasses of Flanders. At first taken by surprise, he turned
the abortive attack into a complete rout. Renaud and Ferdinand
were taken prisoner, and Otto IV. fled from the battlefield.
The army of the allies was utterly destroyed (July 27, 12 14).
Nothing shows the progress of the Capetian monarchy more
than the enthusiasm and joy of the people of France, as described
by William the Breton, over this crowning victory. The battle
of Bouvines, a decisive battle for the history of Germany as well
as for France and England, sealed the work of Philip Augustus.
The expedition of his son Louis to conquer England can hardly
be considered as an incident of his reign, though he was careful
to safeguard the rights of the French Crown. More important
was the Albigensian crusade, in which he allowed Louis to take
part, though he himself, preoccupied with the king of England,
had refused time after time to do anything. He treated Simon
de Montfort as if he were a royal bailli; but it was not in virtue
of any deep-laid scheme of his that in the end Amaury de Mont-
fort, Simon's son, resigned himself to leave his lands to the Crown
of France, and gave the Crown a power it had never before
possessed in Languedoc.

Even more than by his conquests Philip II. marks an epoch
in French history by his work as an organizer and statesman. He
surrounded himself with clerks and legists of more or less humble
origin, who gave him counsel and acted as his agents. His
baillis, who at first rather resembled the itinerant justices of
Henry II. of England, were sent into the royal domain to super-
vise the conduct of the privdts and hear complaints, while in the
newly acquired lands in the south local feudal magnates were
given similar powers with the title of senechal. Feudal service
was more and more compounded for by a money payment,
while additional taxes were raised, all going to pay the mercen-
aries with whom he fought Richard I. and John. The extension
of the system of sauvegarde, by which abbeys, towns or lay
vassals put themselves under the special protection of the king,
and that of pariage, by which the possessor surrendered half the
interest in his estate to the king in return for protection or some
further grant, increased the royal power. The small barons
were completely reduced to submission, whilst the greater
feudatories could often appoint a castellan to their own castles
only after he had taken an oath to the king. Philip supported
the clergy against the feudal lords, and in many cases against
the burgesses of the towns, but rigidly exacted from them the
performance of their secular duties, ironically promising to aid
the clergy of Reims, who had failed to do so, " with his prayers
only " against the violence of the lords of Rethel and Roucy.
He clung to his right of regale, or enjoyment of the revenues of
bishoprics during their vacancy, though it was at times com-
muted for a fixed payment. The attempt to raise a tithe for
the crusade in n 89 failed, however, before a general resistance
owing to an unfair assessment.

It has been said with some justice that Philip II. was the first
king of France to take the bourgeoisie into partnership. He
favoured the great merchants, granting them trade privileges
and monopolies. The Jews he protected and plundered by turns,
after the fashion of medieval kings. Amongst the subject towns
administered by prevdts a great extension of the " custom of
Lorris " took place during his reign. But it is as the ally and
protector of the communes that he takes his almost unique place
in French history. Before him they were resisted and often
crushed; after him they were exploited, oppressed, and finally
destroyed. In the case of Senlis he extended the jurisdiction
of the commune to all crimes committed in the district. It is

true that he suppressed some communes in the newly conquered
fiefs, such as Normandy, where John had been prodigal of
privileges, but he erected new communes in his own private
domain, quite contrary to the custom of other kings. He seems
to have regarded them as a kind of garrison against feudal
unruliness, while the rents they furnished increased his financial
resources. He created no new types of commune, however,
except Peronne, which received a maximum of political inde-
pendence, the twenty-four electors, who named the juris and
other officers, being elected by the corps de metiers.

The newly organized powers of the Crown were in evidence
everywhere, interfering in the family affairs of the great feuda-
tories and taking advantage of minorities, such as that of
Theobald IV. of Champagne. The great feudatories accepted
his legislation on dower in 12 14 and 1219 and the Uablissemenl
of 1 209 making co-heirs of fiefs hold direct from the king and not
from one of their number. The Tournois was substituted for
the Angevin money in Normandy after 1204. The army which
safeguarded this active monarchy consisted chiefly of mercenaries.
The old feudal ost was but rarely convoked. The communes,
though they appear as taking part in the battle of Bouvines, com-
pounded for their service by a money payment as early as n 94.
Philip's policy of building up a strong monarchy was pursued
with a steadiness of aim which excluded both enthusiasm and
scruple. But he seems to have prided himself on a certain human-
ity , or even generosity of temper, which led him to avoid putting his
enemies to death, though he did not scruple to condemn Renaud
of Dammartin to the most inhuman of imprisonments. He was
impulsive and could display extraordinary activity at times, but
he possessed also a certain coldness and caution. He shrank
from no trickery in carrying out his ends, and had no room for
pity. He could not even trust his own son with any power,
and was brutal in his relations with his queen, Ingeborg. He is
described by Paien Gatineau as " a well-knit, handsome man,
bald (from his illness at Acre), of agreeable face and ruddy
complexion, loving good cheer, wine and women. Generous to
his friends, he was miserly to those who displeased him; very
skilled in the art of the engineer, catholic in his faith, far-seeing,
obstinate in his resolution. His judgment was sound and quick.
He was also quick in his anger, but easily appeased." As the
result of his steadiness of aim and patient sagacity, at the end of
his reign the Crown was victorious over the feudal nobility and
the royal domain extended to the frontiers along with royal
authority. Artois, the Amienois, Valois, Vermandois, the greater
part of the Beauvaisis, Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and
an important part of Poitou and Saintonge, were added to the
domain during his reign. The number of privotes was increased
from thirty-eight to ninety-four, and the royal revenue increased
from 19,000 livres a month to 1200 livres a day.

Philip Augustus died on the 14th of July 1223. He was thrice
married. His first wife, Isabella, by whom he had one son,
Louis, died in 1189 or 1190. After her death he married Ingib-
jorg or Ingeborg (q.v.), daughter of Valdemar I. of Denmark.
This unlucky marriage was negotiated, it is said, chiefly to acquire
the old claims of Denmark over England, to be used as a weapon
against Richard I. However that may be, he soon repudiated
this Danish princess, for whom he seems to have conceived an
unconquerable aversion on the very morrow of his marriage to
her, and in 1196, in defiance of the pope, who had refused to
nullify his union with Ingeborg, married Agnes, daughter of
Bertold IV., duke of Meran. This led to his excommunication
and brought the interdict upon France, and did more to weaken
him than any other act of his. In 1 200 he was forced to put away
Agnes and to recognize Ingeborg as his lawful wife, but he kept
her in prison until 12 13. By Agnes (d. 1201) he had a son Philip,
called " Hurepel," count of Clermont, and a daughter Mary, who
married Philip, count of Namur (d. 1213), and then Henry II.,
duke of Brabant. Ingeborg lived until 1236.

See A. Luchaire in E. Lavisse's Histoire de France, tome iii.
83-284 (Paris, 1904), and literature there indicated; L. Deslisle,
Catalogue des actes de Philippe Auguste (Paris, 1856 and 1901);
A. Cartellieri, Philip II. August, Bd. I. Bis zum Tode Ludwigs VII.

PHILIP III.— IV. (FRANCE)

381

(Leipzig, 18991, Bd. II. Der Kreuzzug (1906); and W. H. Hutton,
Philip August-os (in the Foreign Statesmen series, London, 1896).
A. Molinier, Les Sources de Vhistoire de France (tome iii. pp. 1-38),
gives a complete bibliography of the sources for Philip's reign,
including the history of the Third Crusade.

PHILIP III. (1245-1285), surnamed "the Bold " (le Hardi),
king of France, son of Louis IX. and Margaret, daughter of
Raymond -Berenger IV., count of Provence, was born on the
3rd of April 1245. His funeral monument at St Denis depicts
a man with beardless, square-cut features, but lacking character
and animation. The authenticity of this effigy is fairly well
borne out by what is known of him from other sources. He had
many of the virtues of St Louis, but neither decision of character
nor devotion to duty. He was pious, charitable, of unimpeach-
able morality, quick-tempered but placable, no great scholar,
and only energetic as a hunter. The absence in him of the qualities
that fit a man to rule made his court the arena of intriguing
factions, which in reality ruled France during his reign of fifteen
years. Matthew of Vendome, abbot of St Denis, an old servant
of Louis IX., acted as Philip's counsellor, so the chroniclers state,
throughout the reign; but he is only a shadowy figure, and it is
difficult to reconcile the statement that " everything was done
according to his will " with the known facts. It was probably
with administration, and not policy, that Matthew was chiefly
concerned. In one instance at least his advice was openly
flouted. Coming to the throne by the death of his father on the
25th of August 1270, Philip began his reign by falling entirely
under the influence of Pierre de la Brosse, who had been surgeon
and valet-de-chambre to his father, upon whom he lavished
lands and honours, making him lord (sieur) of Langeais, Chatillon-
sur-Indre and Damville. Even Edward I. of England and William
Dampierre, count of Flanders, strove to win his favour by gifts.
But his fall was assured when Philip, who in 1271 lost his first
wife, Isabella, daughter of James I., king of Aragon, married
in 1274 Marie, daughter of Henry III., duke of Brabant. She
was young and beautiful, and supplied a centre round which
those who wished the downfall of the favourite grouped them-
selves. In June 1278 he was charged with various crimes,
including one of poisoning the king's eldest son, and hanged at
Montfaucon. His death left the parties of Marie, the queen, and
Margaret, the queen-mother, to struggle for the mastery. The
first subject of dispute was the inheritance of the count of
Provence, Raymond-Berenger IV., father of Margaret and of
Eleanor, wife of Henry III. of England. Upon his death, in 1245,
his youngest daughter, Beatrice, wife of Charles of Anjou, the
king's uncle, succeeded to his lands, to the exclusion of her elder
sisters, who claimed some portion of them for themselves. In
1 281 war nearly broke out on this question. Margaret and her
friends formed the league of Macon against Charles of Anjou,
but the king managed to keep them at peace. The settlement of
the claims of the king of England in Aquitaine by the treaty of
Amiens in 1279 was a victory for the party of Margaret.

Agenais and southern Saintonge, which fell to the Crown by
the death of Alfonse of Poitiers in 1276, as part of his vast
possessions in Aquitaine and Languedoc, were ceded to Edward
I. of England in accordance with the treaty of Paris 1259.
Another portion of the heritage of Alfonse, the Venaissin, was
ceded to the papacy to redeem an old promise. In general the
strong will of Charles of Anjou directed Philip's policy. He
secretly urged his nephew's candidature for the imperial crown,
left vacant by the death of Richard of Cornwall, king of the
Romans, in 1272, but without success. In May 1275 the party
of Marie secured for Philip, the king's second son, the hand of
Jeanne, the heiress of Navarre and Champagne, along with the
guardianship of the kingdom of Navarre during the minority of
Jeanne. But early in 1276 Jeanne's mother, Blanche, the widow
of Henry III. of Navarre and Champagne, married Edmund,
first earl of Lancaster, brother of Edward I.; and she and her
English husband kept Champagne until, in 1284, Jeanne came
of age.

An expedition of Philip against Castile in aid of the children
of his sister, Blanche, proved abortive. Regardless of this
warning, he was induced in 1284 to take up the quarrel of his

uncle Charles in Sicily, after the Sicilian Vespers in 1282. Two
assemblies of barons and prelates were held at Bourges in Novem-
ber 1283 and February 1284 to deliberate on the question. This
was a mere matter of form; Marie of Brabant and her party had
decided the matter beforehand, and the crown of Aragon, which
the French pope Martin IV. had declared forfeited by Peter, was
accepted for Charles of Valois, Philip's third son. The project
was strongly opposed by Matthew of Venddme, who was in
correspondence with the king of England on the subject. It was
the first warlike expedition undertaken by the house of Capet
outside France. It proved a disastrous failure. The French
army laid siege to Gerona on the 26th of June 1285. The town
surrendered on the 7th of September, but disease and the defeat
of the fleet by the Aragonese navy at Las Farmiguas Islands led
to a retreat, during which, on the 5th of October, the king died.
In the same month the garrison placed at Gerona surrendered.
It is typical of Philip's character and career that he should die
thus, in an expedition undertaken against the interests of his
kingdom, at the instigation of his ambitious uncle.

Philip was twice married. On the 28th of May 1262 he
married Isabella, daughter of James I., king of Aragon, who died
in 1 271. By her he had four children: Louis, who died in 1276;
Philip, born in 1268; Charles of Valois, born on the 12th of March
1270; and Robert, who died young. By his second wife, Marie
(d. 1322), daughter of Henry III. of Brabant, whom he married
in 1274, he had three children: Louis, count of Evreux; Margaret,
who married in 1299 Edward L, king of England; and Blanche,
who married Rudolph III., duke of Austria.

See Ch. V. Langlois, Le Regne de Philippe le Hardi (Paris, 1887);
and in E. Lavisse's Histoire de France, tome iii., ii. 113-117 (Paris,
1901); Fr. Walter, Die Politik der Kurie unter Gregor X. (Berlin,
1894); Registers of Gregory X. and Nicholas III., published by the
French school at Rome; R. Sternfeld, Ludwigs des Heiligen Kreuzzug
nach Tunis und die Politik Karls I. von Sizilien (1896) ; P. Fournier,
Le Royaume d'Arles (Paris, 1891). For complete bibliography of
sources see A. Molinier, Les Sources de Vhistoire de France, tome
iii. 171-187 (Paris, 1903).

PHILIP IV. (1268-1314), called " le Bel " or " the Fair," king
of France, was the son of Philip III. and his wife, Isabella of
Aragon. His reign, which began in October 1285, is one of
the most momentous in the history of medieval Europe, yet
it belongs rather to the history of France and to that of the
papacy than to the biography of the king. Little is known of the
personal part played by Philip in the events associated with his
name, and later historians have been divided between the view
which regards him as a handsome, lethargic nonentity and that
which paints him as a master of statecraft who, under a veil of
phlegmatic indifference and pious sentiment, masked an inflexible
purpose, of which his ministers were but the spokesmen and
executors. The first view seems to be borne out by the language
of contemporary chroniclers. To his enemy, Bernard Saisset, he
was neither man nor beast, but a statue, " the handsomest man
in the world, but unable to do anything but stare fixedly at people
without saying a word." Guillaume de Nogaret, his minister,
draws a far more flattering picture, enlarging on his charm, his
amiability, his modesty, his charity to all men, and his piety;
and the traits of this over-coloured portrait are more or less
repeated by Yves, a monk of St Denis. There is, however, no
word of any qualities of will or initiative. All of which suggests
a personality mentally and physically phlegmatic, a suggestion
strengthened by the fact that Bartholomaeus de Neocastro
(quoted by Wenck) describes him as corpulent in 1290.

Yet this was the king who with equal implacability brought
the papacy under his yoke, carried out the destruction of the
powerful order of the Temple, and laid the foundations of the
national monarchy of France. In this last achievement Professor
Finke finds the solution of a problem which Langlois had declared
to be insoluble. In 1302, in the midst of a hostile assembly,
Philip cursed his sons should they consent to hold the Crown of
any one but God 1 ; and in this isolated outburst he sees the key
to his character. " Philip was not a man of violent initiative,
the planner of daring and fateful operations; otherwise there
1 Wenck, p. 49.

3 82

PHILIP V. (FRANCE)

would have been some signs of it. His personality was that of a
well-instructed, outwardly cold, because cool and calculating
man, essentially receptive, afire for only one idea: the highest
possible development of the French monarchy, internally and
externally, as against both the secular powers and the Church.
His merit was that he carried through this idea in spite of dangers
to himself and to the state. A resolution once arrived at he
carried out with iron obstinacy." Certainly he was no roi
faineant. His courage at the battle of Mons-en-Pevele was the
admiration of friend and foe alike. It was against the advice of
his tutor, Aegidius Colonna, that on coming to the throne he
chose as his counsellors men of the legal class, and the names
of his great ministers — Guillaume de Nogaret, Enguerrand de
Marigny, Pierre Flotte (d. 1302) — attest the excellent quality
of his judgment. He was, too, one of the few monarchs who have
left to their successors reasoned programmes of reform for the
state.

The new materials from the Aragonese archives, published by
Finke, give the same general impression of " uncanny " reticence
on Philip's part; when other contemporary kings would have
spoken he keeps silence, allowing his ministers to speak for him.
Isolated passages in some of the Aragonese letters included in
the collection, however, throw a new light on contemporary
estimate of his character, describing him as all-powerful, as
" pope and king and emperor in one person." x

The reign of Philip IV. is of peculiar interest, because of the
intrusion of economic problems into the spheres of national
politics and even of religion. The increased cost of government
and the growing wealth of the middle class, rather than the
avarice of the king and the genius of his ministers, were respon-
sible for the genesis and direction of the new order. The greatest
event of the reign was the struggle with Pope Boniface VIII.
(q.v.). The pope, in his opposition to the imposition of royal
taxation upon the clergy, went so far in the bull Clericis laicos
of 1296 as to forbid any lay authority to demand taxes from the
clergy without his consent. When Philip retaliated by a decree
forbidding the exportation of any coin from France, Boniface
gave way to save the papal dues, and the bulls issued by him in
1297 were a decided victory for the French king. Peace between
the two potentates followed until 1301. After the arrest, by
Philip's orders, of Bernard Saisset (q.v.), bishop of Pamiers, in
that year, the quarrel flamed up again: other causes of difference
existed, and in 1302 the pope issued the bull Unam sanctam, one
of the most extravagant of all statements of papal claims. To
ensure the support of his people the king had called an assembly
of the three estates of his kingdom at Paris in April 1302; then
in the following year Guillaume de Nogaret seized the person of
the pope at Anagni, an event immortalized by Dante. Boniface
escaped from his captors only to die (October n), and the short
pontificate of his saintly successor, Benedict XL, was occupied in
a vain effort to restore harmony to the Church. The conclave
that met at Perugia on his death was divided between the parti-
sans of the irreconcilable policy of Boniface VIII. and those of a
policy of compromise with the new state theories represented by
France. The election was ultimately determined by the diplo-
macy and the gold of Philip's agents, and the new pope, Clement
V., was the weak-willed creature of the French king, to whom he
owed the tiara. When in 1309 the pope installed himself at
Avignon, the new relation of the papacy and the French
monarchy was patent to the world. It was the beginning of
the long " Babylonish captivity " of the popes. The most
notable of its first-fruits was the hideous persecution of
the Templars (q.v.), which began with the sudden arrest of the
members of the order in France in 1307, and ended with
the suppression of the order by Pope Clement at the council of
Vienne in 13 13.

It is now tolerably clear that Philip's motives in this sinister
proceeding were lack of money, and probably the deliberate

1 Finke, ii. no. 78, p. 122. Anon, to the commanderies of
Gardeyne and Ascho: " Pus el es rey et papa et emperador ! Car
toe lo mon sap, quel papa no es negun et que el fa tot go ques vol
del papa et de la esglea."

wish to destroy a body which, with its privileged position and
international financial and military organization, constituted a
possible menace to the state. He had already persecuted and
plundered the Jews and the Lombard bankers, and repeated
recourse to the debasing of the coinage had led to a series of small
risings. But under his rule something was done towards
systematizing the royal taxes, and, as in England, the financial
needs of the king led to the association of the people in the work
of government.

In 1294 Philip IV. attacked Edward I. of England, then busied
with the Scottish War, and seized Guienne. Edward won over
the counts of Bar and of Flanders, but they were defeated and
he was obliged to make peace in 1297. Then the Flemish cities
rose against the French royal officers, and utterly defeated the
French army at Courtrai in 1302. The reign closed with the
French position unimproved in Flanders, except for the transfer
to Philip by Count Robert of Lille, Douai and Bethune, and their
dependencies. Philip died on the 29th of November 1314. His
wife was Jeanne, queen of Navarre (d. 1304), through whom that
country passed under the rule of Philip on his marriage in 1284;
three of his sons, Louis X., Philip V. and Charles IV., succeeded
in turn to the throne of France, and a daughter, Isabella, married
Edward II. of England.

See the Chronique of Geoffrey of Paris, edited by M. Bouquet, in
vol. xxii. of the Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France. Of
modern works see E. Boutaric, La France sous Philippe le Bel
(1861); G. Digard, Philippe le Bel et le Saint-Siege (1900); C. V.
Langlois in E. Lavisse's Histoire de France, vol. iii. (1901) ; K. Wenck,
Philipp der Schone von Frankreich (Marburg, 1905) ; H. Finke,
Papsttum und Untergang des Templerordens, 2 vols. (Mtinster i.
W. 1907), esp. I. ch. ii.

PHILIP V. (c. 1294-1322), " the Tall," king of France, second
son of Philip the Fair and Jeanne of Navarre, received the county
of Poitiers as an appanage, and was affianced when a year old
to Jeanne, daughter and heiress of Otto IV., count of Burgundy.
The marriage took place in 1307 when he was thirteen years of
age. When his elder brother, Louis X., died, on the 5th of July
1316, leaving his second wife, Clemence of Hungary, with child,
Philip was appointed regent for eighteen years by the parliament
of Paris, even in the event of a male heir being born. Clemence's
son, born on the 15th of November, lived only four days, and
Philip immediately proclaimed himself king, though several of
the great barons declared that the rights of Jeanne, daughter of
Louis X. by his first wife, Margaret of Burgundy, ought to be
examined before anything else was done. The coronation at
Reims, on the 9th of January 1317, took place with the gates of
the city closed for fear of a surprise. The states-general of the
2nd of February 13 17, consisting of the nobles, prelates, and the
burgesses of Paris, approved the coronation of Philip, swore to
obey him, and declared that women did not succeed to the Crown
of France. The university of Paris approved this declaration,
but its members did not take the oath. The Salic law was not
involved, and it was later that the lawyers of the 14th century
tried to connect this principle to an article of the Salic law, which
accords inheritance in land (i.e. property) to males. In the
Frankish law the article refers to private property, not to public
law. The death of Philip's son Louis, in 1317, disarmed the
opposition of Charles, count of La Marche, who now hoped to
succeed to the Crown himself. Odo or Eudes IV., duke of Bur-
gundy, was married to Jeanne, Philip's daughter, and received
the county of Burgundy as her dower. The barons all did homage
except Edward II. of England, and Philip's position was secured.
The war with Flanders, which had begun under Philip IV. the
Fair, was brought to an end on the 2nd of June 1320. The revolt
of the Pastoureaux who assembled at Paris in 1320 to go on a
crusade was crushed by the seneschal of Carcassonne, whither
they marched. One of the special objects of their hatred,
the Jews, were also mulcted heavily by Philip, who extorted
150,000 livres from those of Paris alone. He died at Long-
champ on the night of the 2nd of January 1322.

Philip was a lover of poetry, surrounded himself with Provencal
poets and even wrote in Provencal himself, but he was also one
of the most hard-working kings of the house of Capet. The

PHILIP VI. (FRANCE)— PHILIP (OF SWABIA)

383

insecurity of his position made him seek the support of national
assemblies and of provincial estates. His reign in some ways
resembled that of Edward I. of England. He published a series
of ordinances organizing the royal household and affecting the
financial administration, the " parlement " and the royal forests.
He abolished all garrisons in the towns except those on the frontier
and provided for public order by allowing the inhabitants of his
towns to arm themselves under the command of captains. He
tried hard to procure a unification of coinage and weights and
measures, but failed owing to the opposition of the estates, who
were afraid of the new taxation necessary to meet the loss
involved in raising the standard of the coinage, and who held
to their local measures and currency partly from conservatism,
partly as a relic of local liberty. Philip as a reformer was in
many ways before his time, but his people failed to understand
him, and he died under the reproach of extortion.

See P. Lehugeur, Histoire de Philippe le Long (Paris, 1897); E.
Lavisse, Histoire de France (Tome III, 2); and sources indicated
in A. Molinier, Repertoire des sources de I'histoire de France (Paris,
1903)-

PHILIP VI. (1 293-1350), king of France, was the son of Charles
of Valois, third son of Philip III., the Bold, and of Margaret of
Sicily, and was thus the nephew of Philip IV., the Fair, whose
sons, Louis X., Philip V. and Charles IV., died successively without
leaving male heirs. He succeeded to the throne on the death
of his cousin, Charles IV., in 1328. Before his accession Philip
had enjoyed considerable influence, for he was count of Valois,
Anjou, Maine, Chartres and Alencon. He had married in
1313 Jeanne (d. 1348), daughter of Robert II. of Burgundy, a
determined woman who was long known as the real ruler of
France. An expedition to Italy in 1319-20 against Gal6as
Visconti brought him little glory; he was more successful in a
small expedition to Guienne, undertaken against a revolted
vassal who was supported by the English.

When Charles IV. died, in February 1328, his wife was enceinte,
and it became necessary to appoint a regency until the birth of
the child, who would, if a son, succeed to the throne. At the
assembly of barons called to choose a regent, Edward III. of
England, the nephew and nearest male relation of Charles IV.,
put in a claim. Edward III., however, descended from the
royal house of France by his mother Isabel, and the barons,
probably actuated by an objection to the regency of an English
king, decided that neither a woman, " nor by consequence her
son, could succeed to the kingdom of France," and Philip oi
Valois, in spite of his belonging to a junior branch of the family,
was elected regent. On the birth of a girl to the queen widow
the regency naturally led to the throne of France, and Philip was
crowned at Reims on the 29th of May 1328. Navarre had not
accepted the regency, that kingdom being claimed by her husband
for Jeanne, countess of Evreux, the eldest daughter of Louis X.,
the count of Evreux himself being, like Philip of Valois, a
grandson of Philip the Bold. The new king secured the friendship
of the count by allowing Jeanne's claim to Navarre, in return
for a renunciation of any right to Champagne. Edward III. of
England, after more than one citation, tendered verbal homage
for part of Guienne at Amiens in 1329, but he declined to place
his hands between those of Philip VI., and thus formally to
acknowledge him as his liege lord. Two years later, however,
he forwarded the acknowledgment by letters patent. Mean-
while Philip VI. had won a victory, which he turned into a
massacre, at Cassel (August 23, 1328) over Bruges and the
other towns of West Flanders, which under the leadership of
Jakob van Artevelde had thrown off the authority of their
count, Louis of Nevers. The count of Flanders was reinstated,
and maintained his authority by a reign of terror.

Much harm was done to Philip VI. 's authority by the scandal
arising out of the prosecution of Robert of Artois, count of
Beaumont, who was the king's brother-in-law. The count had
presented to the parlement of Paris forged deeds in support of
his claim to the county of Artois, held by his aunt, Mahaut,
countess of Burgundy. The sudden death of Mahaut, and of
her daughter and heiress, Jeanne, widow of Philip V., lent colour

to other suspicions, and Robert was driven from France and his
goods confiscated. He found refuge, first in Brabant and then
at the English court, where he was received as a relative and a
victim of false accusations.

Philip VI. enjoyed powerful alliances. In Italy he was allied
with his uncle, Robert of Anjou, king of Sicily, and with his
former enemy, Galeas Visconti; in the north with the duke of
Brabant and the princes of the Netherlands; on the east with the
reigning princes of Lorraine and Savoy; with the king of Bohemia
and with Pope John XXII. at Avignon, and his successor,
Benedict XII. In 1336 it seemed that the Crusade, for which
Philip VI. had long been preparing, would at last start; but the
relations with Edward III. of England, which had always been
strained, became worse, and within a year France was embarked
on the struggle of the Hundred Years' War. The causes which
led to war, the conflict for commercial supremacy in Flanders,
disputed rights in Guienne, the help given by France to the
Scots, arid the unnatural situation of an English king who was
also a vassal of the French Crown are dealt with elsewhere (see
France: History). The immediate rupture in Flanders was
due chiefly to the tyranny of the count of Flanders, Louis of
Nevers, whom Philip VI. had reinstated. Edward III. had won
over most of Philip's German and Flemish allies, and the English
naval victory at Sluys (June 24, 1340), in which the French
fleet was annihilated, effectually restored English preponderance
in Flanders. A truce followed, but this was disturbed after
a short duration by the disputed succession to the duchy of
Brittany. Edward III. supported John of Montfort; Philip IV.
his own nephew, Charles of Blois. A truce made at Malestroit in
1343 at the invitation of the pope, was rudely broken by Philip's
violence. Olivier de Clisson, who with fourteen other Breton
gentlemen, was suspected of intrigue with Edward III., was
invited to a great tournament in Paris. On their arrival they
were seized by Philip's orders, and without form of trial beheaded.
Then followed Edward III.'s invasion of Normandy and the
campaign of Crecy (q.v.). Philip's army was destroyed ; he
himself was wounded and fled from the field. He sought in
vain to divert Edward from the siege of Calais by supporting
the Scots in their invasion of England; but eventually a truce
was arranged, which lasted until 1351. Philip VI. died at
Nogent-le-roi on the 12th of August 1350.

Philip VI. met his necessities by the imposition of the hated
gabelle or salt tax, which was invented by his legal advisers.
The value of the coinage fluctuated continuously, to the great
hindrance of trade; and although at a meeting of the States-
General it was asserted that the king could levy no extraordinary
taxes without the consent of the estates, he obtained heavy
subsidies from the various provinces. Towards the close of his
reign he acquired from Humbert II., comte de Vienne, the pro-
vince of Dauphine, and Montpellier from the king of Majorca.
These acquisitions made the ultimate annexation of Provence a
certainty. Philip married a second wife, Blanche of Navarre.
By his first wife he left two sons — his successor, John II., and
Philip of Orleans, count of Valois.

See Continuations de la chronique de Guillaume de Nangis edited
in 1843 by Geraud for the Soc. de I'hist. de France; Grandes chroniques
de Saint Denis, vol. v. (1837), edition by Paulin Paris; E. Deprez,
Les Preliminaires de la guerre de cent ans, 1328-1342 (Paris, 1902),
based on texts from the English Record Office and the Vatican;
Paul Viollet, Histoire des institutions politiques de la France vol. ii.
(Paris, 1898); and E. Lavisse, Hist, de France, vol. iv. pt. i. (1902),
by A. Colville. Further references will be found, in Nos. 3095-31 12
and 3165-3240 of A. Molinier's Sources de I'histoire de France, vol. iv.
(Paris, 1904).

PHILIP (c. 1177-1208), German king and duke of Swabia, the
rival of the emperor Otto IV., was the fifth and youngest son.
of the emperor Frederick I. and Beatrix, daughter of Renaud III.,
count of Upper Burgundy, and consequently brother of the
emperor Henry VI. He entered the church, was made provost
of Aix-la-Chapelle, and in 1190 or 1191 was chosen bishop of
Wurzburg. Having accompanied his brother Henry to Italy
in 1 1 91, Philip forsook his ecclesiastical calling, and, travelling
again to Italy, was made duke of Tuscany in n 95 and received

3«4

PHILIP I.— II. (SPAIN)

an extensive grant of lands. In 1196 he became duke of Swabia,
on the death of his brother Conrad; and in May 1197 he married
Irene, daughter of the eastern emperor, Isaac Angelus, and widow
of Roger II., king of Sicily, a lady who is described by Walther
von der Vogelweide as " the rose without a thorn, the dove
without guile." Philip enjoyed his brother's confidence to a very
great extent, and appears to have been designated as guardian
of the young Frederick, afterwards the emperor Frederick II.,
in case of his father's early death. In 1197 he had set out to
fetch Frederick from Sicily for his coronation when he heard of
the emperor's death and returned at once to Germany. He
appears to have desired to protect the interests of his nephew
and to quell the disorder which arose on Henry's death, but
events were too strong for him. The hostility to the kingship
of a child was growing, and after Philip had been chosen as
defender of the empire during Frederick's minority he con-
sented to his own election. He was elected German king at
Muhlhausen on the 8th of March 1198, and crowned at Mainz
on the 8th of September following. Meanwhile a number of
princes hostile to Philip, under the leadership of Adolph, arch-
bishop of Cologne, had elected an anti-king in the person of
Otto, second son of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony. In the war
that followed, Philip, who drew his principal support from south
Germany, met with considerable success. In n 99 he received
further accessions to his party and carried the war into his
opponent's territory, although unable to obtain the support of
Pope Innocent III., and only feebly assisted by his ally Philip
Augustus, king of France. The following year was less favourable
to his arms; and in March 1201 Innocent took the decisive step
of placing Philip and his associates under the ban, and began to
work energetically in favour of Otto. The two succeeding years
were still more unfavourable to Philip. Otto, aided by Ottakar I . ,
king of Bohemia, and Hermann L, landgrave of Thuringia, drove
him from north Germany, thus compelling him to seek by
abject concessions, but without success, reconciliation with
Innocent. The submission to Philip of Hermann of Thuringia
in 1 204 marks the turning-point of his fortunes, and he was soon
joined by Adolph of Cologne and Henry I., duke of Brabant.
On the 6th of January 1205 he was crowned again with great
ceremony by Adolph at Aix-la-Chapelle, though it was not till
1 207 that his entry into Cologne practically brought the war to a
close. A month or two later Philip was loosed from the papal
ban, and in March 1208 it seems probable that a treaty was
concluded by which a nephew of the pope was to marry one of
Philip's daughters and to receive the disputed dukedom of
Tuscany. Philip was preparing to crush the last flicker of the
rebellion in Brunswick when he was murdered at Bamberg, on the
21st of June 1208, by Otto of Wittelsbach, count palatine in
Bavaria, to whom h^ had refused the hand of one of his
daughters. He left no sons, but four daughters; one of whom,
Beatrix, afterwards married his rival, the emperor Otto IV.
Philip was a brave and handsome man, and contemporary
writers, among whom was Walther von der Vogelweide, praise his
mildness and generosity.

See W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit,
Bd. V. (Leipzig, 1888) ; E. Winkelmann, Philipp von Schwaben
und Otto IV. von Braunschweig (Leipzig, 1873-1878) ; 0. Abel,
Konig Philipp der Hohenstaufen (Berlin, 1852); Regesta imperii. V.,
edited by J. Ficker (Innsbruck, 1881); R. Schwemer, Innocenz III.
und die deulsche Kirche wahrend des Thronstreites von 1198-1208
(Strassburg, 1882) ; and R. Riant, Innocent III., Philippe de Souabe,
el Bontface de Montferrat (Paris, 1875).

PHILIP I., the Handsome (1478-1506), king of Spain, son of
the emperor Maximilian I., and husband of Joanna the Mad,
daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, was the founder of the
Habsburg dynasty in Spain, and was born at Bruges on the
22nd of July 1478. In 1482 he succeeded to the Burgundian
possessions of his mother Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold,
under the guardianship of his father. In 1496 he married Joanna.
The marriage was one of a set of family alliances with Austria
and Portugal designed to strengthen Spain against France.
The death of John, the only son of Ferdinand and Isabella,
opened the succession to the Spanish Crown to Joanna. In

1502 she and her husband received the homage of the cortes
of Castile and of Aragon as heirs. Philip returned to Flanders
before the close of the year. His life with Joanna was rendered
extremely unhappy by his infidelity and by her jealousy, which,
working on a neurotic temperament, precipitated her insanity.
The princess gave way to paroxysms of rage, in which she was
guilty of acts of atrocious violence. Before her mother's death,
in 1504, she was unquestionably quite insane, and husband and
wife lived apart. When Isabella died, Ferdinand endeavoured
to lay hands on the regency of Castile, but the nobles, who
disliked and feared him, forced him to withdraw. Philip was
summoned to Spain, where he was recognized as king. He
landed, with his wife, at Corunna on the 28th of April 1506,
accompanied by a body of German mercenaries. Father and
son-in-law had interviews at Remesal, near Pueblo de Senabria,
and at Renedo, the only result of which was an indecent family
quarrel, in which Ferdinand professed to defend the interests
of his daughter, who he said was imprisoned by her husband.
A civil war would probably have broken out between them;
but Philip, who had only been in Spain long enough to prove
his incapacity, died suddenly at Burgos, apparently of typhoid
fever, on the 25th of September 1506. His wife refused for long
to allow his body to be buried or to part from it. Philip was
the father of the emperors Charles V. and Ferdinand I.

PHILIP II. (1527-1598) king of Spain, was born at Valladolid
on the 21st of May 1527. He was the son of the emperor
Charles V., and of his wife Isabella of Portugal, who were first
cousins. Philip received his education in Spain. His tutor,
Dr Juan Martinez Pedernales, who latinized his name to Siliceo,
and who was also his confessor, does not appear to have done
his duty very thoroughly. The prince, though he had a good
command of Latin, never equalled his father as a linguist.
Don Juan de Zufiiga, who was appointed to teach him the use
of arms, was more conscientious; but he had a very poor pupil.
From his earliest years Philip showed himself more addicted to
the desk than the saddle and to the pen than to the sword.
The emperor, who spent his life moving from one part of his
wide dominions to another and in the camps of his armies,
watched his heir's education from afar. The trend of his letters
was to impress on the boy a profound sense of the high destinies
to which he was born, the necessity for keeping his nobles apart
from all share in the conduct of the internal government of his
kingdom, and the wisdom of distrusting counsellors, who would
be sure to wish to influence him for their own ends. Philip
grew up grave, self-possessed and distrustful. He was beloved
by his Spanish subjects, but utterly without the power of '
attracting men of other races. Though accused of extreme
licentiousness in his relations with women, and though he lived
for years in adultery with Dona Maria de Osorio, Philip was
probably less immoral than most kings of his time, including his
father, and was rigidly abstemious in eating and drinking. His
power of work was unbounded, and he had an absolute love of
reading, annotating and drafting despatches. If he had not
become sovereign of the Low Countries, as heir of Mary of Bur-
gundy through his father, Philip would in all probability have
devoted himself to warfare with the Turks in the Mediterranean,
and to the conquest of northern Africa. Unhappily for Spain,
Charles, after some hesitation, decided to transmit the Nether-
lands to his son, and not to allow them to go with the empire.
Philip was summoned in 1548 to Flanders, where he went un-
willingly, and was ill regarded. In 1551 he was back in Spain,
and intrusted with its government. In 1 543 he had been married
to his cousin Mary of Portugal, who bore him a son, the unhappy
Don Carlos, and who died in 1545. In 1554, when Charles was
meditating his abdication, and wished to secure the position of
his son, he summoned Philip to Flanders again, and arranged the
marriage with Mary, queen of England, who was the daughter
of his mother's sister, in order to form a union of Spain, the
Netherlands and England, before which France would be power-
less. The marriage proved barren. The abdication of his father
on the 16th of January 1556 constituted Philip sovereign of
Spain with its American possessions, of the Aragonese inheritance

PHILIP III.— IV. (SPAIN)

385

in Italy, Naples and Sicily, of the Burgundian inheritance — the
Netherlands and Franche Comt6, and of the duchy of Milan,
tfhicb his father separated from the empire for his benefit. It
was a legacy of immense responsibilities and perils, for France
was bound in common prudence to endeavour to ruin a power
which encircled her on every side save the sea and threatened
her independence. France was for a time beaten at the battles
of St Quentin and Gravelines, and forced to make the Peace of
Cateau Cambresis (April 2, 1559)- But the death of Mary of
England on the 17th of November 1558 had deprived Philip
of English support. The establishment of Elizabeth on the
English throne put on the flank of his scattered dominions
another power, forced no less than France by unavoidable
political necessities to be his enemy. The early difficulties of
Elizabeth's reign secured him a deceitful peace on that side for a
time. His marriage with Elizabeth of Valois on the 22nd of
June 1550, and the approach of the wars of religion, gave him a
temporary security from France. But the religious agitation
was affecting his own Flemish possessions, and when Philip
went back to Spain, in August 1559, he was committed to a life-
long struggle in which he could not prove victorious except by
the conquest of France and England.

If Philip II. had deserved his name of the Prudent he would
have made haste, so soon as his father, who continued to inter-
vene in the government from his retreat at Yuste in Estremadura,
was dead, to relieve himself of the ruinous inheritance of the
Low Countries. It was perhaps impossible for him to renounce
his rights, and his education, co-operating with his natural
disposition, made it morally impossible for him to believe that he
could be in the wrong. Like the rest of his generation, he was
convinced that unity of religion was indispensable to the mainten-
ance of the authority of the State and of good order. Family
pride, also, was carried by him to its highest possible pitch.
Thus external and internal influences alike drove him into con-
flict with the Netherlands, France and England; with the first
because political and religious discontent combined to bring
about revolt, which he felt bound in duty to crush; with the second
and third because they helped the Flemings and the Hollanders.
The conflict assumed the character of a struggle between Pro-
testantism and Roman Catholicism, in which Philip appeared
as the champion of the Church. It was a part he rejoiced to play.
He became, and could not but become, a persecutor in and out of
Spain; and his persecutions not only hardened the obstinacy of
the Dutch, and helped to exasperate the English, but they
provoked a revolt of the Moriscoes, which impoverished his
kingdom. No experience of the failure of his policy could shake
his belief in its essential excellence. That whatever he did was
done for the service of God, that success or failure depended
on the inscrutable will of the Almighty and not on himself, were
his guiding convictions, which he transmitted to his successors.
The " service of God and his majesty " was the formula which
expressed the belief of the sovereign and his subjects. Philip
must therefore be held primarily responsible for the insane
policy which brought Spain to ruin. He had a high ideal of his
duty as a king to his own people, and had no natural preference
for violent courses. The strong measures he took against
disorderly elements in Aragon in 1591 were provoked by extreme
misconduct on the part of a faction. When he enforced his
claim to the crown of Portugal (1 570-1 581) he preferred to placate
his new subjects by paying attention to their feelings and their
privileges. He even made dangerous political concessions to
secure the support of the gentry. It is true that he was ready to
make use of assassination for political purposes; but he had been
taught by his lawyers that he was " the prince," the embodied
state, and as such had a right to act for the public good, legibus
solulus. This was but in accordance with the temper of the times.
Coligny, Lord Burghley and William the Silent also entered into
murder plots. In his private life he was orderly and affectionate
to his family and servants. He was slow to withdraw the confi-
dence he had once given. In the painful episode of the imprison-
ment and death of his firstborn son, Don Carlos, Philip behaved
honourably. He bore the acute agony of the disease which
xxi. 13

killed him with manly patience, and he died piously at the
Escorial on the 13th of September 1598.

As an administrator Philip had all the vices of his type, that ol
the laborious, self-righteous man, who thinks he can supervise
everything, is capable of endless toil, and jealous of his authority,
and who therefore will let none of his servants act without his
instructions. He set the example of .the unending discussions in
committee and boundless minute writing which finally choked
the Spanish administration.

The Histoire de Philippe II. of M. H. Forneron (Paris, 1881),
contains many references to authorities and is exhaustive, but the
author has some violent prejudices. Philip II., by Martin Hume
(London, 1897), is more just in its treatment of Philip's personal
character, and gives a useful bibliography. The main sources for
the political history are the Documentos Ineditos para la historia de
Espana (Madrid, 1842, &c), vols, i., iii., vi., vii., xv., xxi., xxiv.,
xl., xcviii., ci., ciii., ex., cxi. and others; L. P. Gachard, Actes des
etats generaux des Pays Bas, 1576-1585 (Brussels, 1861-1866); and
the Calendars of State Papers, Foreign Series, Elizabeth (London,
1863-1901). See also Martin Hume, Two English Queens and
Philip (1908).

PHILIP III. (1578-1621), king of Spain, son of Philip II. and
his fourth wife, Anne, daughter of the emperor Maximilian II.,
was born at Madrid on the 14th of April 1578. He inherited the
beliefs of his father, but no share of his industry. The old king
had sorrowfully confessed that God had not given him a son
capable of governing his vast dominions, and had foreseen that
Philip III. would be led by his servants. This calculation was
exactly fulfilled. The new king put the direction of his govern-
ment entirely into the hands of his favourite, the duke of Lerma,
and when he fell under the influence of Lerma's son, the duke of
Uceda, in 1518, he trusted himself and his states to the new
favourite. The king's own life was passed amid court festivities,
on which enormous sums of money were wasted, or in the practice
of childish piety. It was said that he was so virtuous as hardly
to have committed a venial sin. He cannot be justly blamed for
having been born to rule a despotic monarchy, without even
the capacity which would have qualified him to manage a small
estate. He died at Madrid on the 31st of March 1621. The
story told in the memoirs of the French ambassador Bassom-
pierre, that he was killed by the heat of a brasero (a pan of hot
charcoal), because the proper official to take it away was not at
hand, is a humorous exaggeration of the formal etiquette of the
court.

R. Watson and W. Thompson, History of Philip III. (1786),
give the most available general account of his reign; see also the
continuation of Mariana's History of Spain by Minana (Madrid,
1817-1822).

PHILIP IV. (1605-1665), king of Spain, eldest son of Philip
III. and his wife Margaret, sister of the emperor Ferdinand II.,
was born at Valladolid on the 8th of April 1605. His reign,
after a few passing years of barren successes, was a long story
of political and military decay and disaster. The king has been
held responsible for the fall of Spain, which was, however, due
in the main to internal causes beyond the control of the most
despotic ruler, however capable he had been. Philip certainly
possessed more energy, both mental and physical, than his father.
There is still in existence a translation of Guicciardini which
he wrote with his own hand in order to qualify himself for
government by acquiring a knowledge of political history. He
was a fine horseman and keen hunter. His artistic taste was
shown by his patronage of Velasquez, and his love of
letters by his favour to Lope de Vega, Calderon, and other
dramatists. He is even credited, on fairly probable testimony,
with a share at least in the composition of several comedies.
His good intentions were of no avail to his government. Coming
to the throne at the age of sixteen, he did the wisest thing he
could by allowing himself to be guided by the most capable man
he could find. His favourite, Olivares, was a far more honest
man than the duke of Lerma, and was more fit for the place of
prime minister than any Spaniard of the time. But Philip IV.
had not the strength of mind to free himself from the influence of
Olivares when he had grown to manhood. The amusements
which the favourite had encouraged became the business of the

11

386

PHILIP V. (SPAIN)— PHILIP THE BOLD

king's life. When, in 1643, the disasters falling on the monarchy
on all sides led to the dismissal of Olivares, Philip had lost the
power to devote himself to hard work. After a brief struggle
with the task of directing the administration of the most ex-
tensive and the worst organized monarchy in Europe, he sank
back into his pleasures and was governed by other favourites.
His political opinions were those he had inherited from his
father and grandfather. He thought it his duty to support
the German Habsburgs and the cause of the Roman Catholic
Church against the Protestants, to assert his sovereignty over
Holland, and to extend the dominions of his house. The utter
exhaustion of his people in the course of a hopeless struggle with
Holland, France and England was seen by him with sympathy,
but he considered it an unavoidable misfortune and not the result
of his own errors, since he could not be expected to renounce
his rights or to desert the cause of God and the Church. In
public he maintained a bearing of rigid solemnity, and was seen
to laugh only three times in the course of his life. But in private
he indulged in horseplay and very coarse immorality. His
court was grossly vicious. The early death of his eldest son,
Baltasar Carlos, was unquestionably due to debauchery
encouraged by the gentlemen entrusted by the king with his
education. The lesson shocked the king, but its effect soon
wore off. Philip IV. died broken-hearted on the 17th of
September 1665, expressing the hope that his surviving son,
Carlos, would be more fortunate than himself.

The best accounts of Philip IV. will be found in the Estudios del
reinado de Felipe IV., by Don A. Canovas del Castillo (Madrid,
1889), and in the introduction by Don F. Silvela to his edition of
the Cartas de Sor Maria de Agreda y del rey Felipe IV. (Madrid,
1885-1886).

PHILIP V. (1683-1746), king of Spain, founder of the present
Bourbon dynasty, was the son of the Dauphin Louis and his
wife, Maria Anna, daughter of Ferdinand Maria, elector of
Bavaria. He was born at Versailles on the 19th of December
1683. On the extinction of the male line of the house of Habs-
burg in Spain he was named heir by the will of Charles H. He
had shared in the careful education given to his elder brother,
Louis, duke of Burgundy, by Fenelon, and was himself known
as duke of Anjou. Philip was by nature dull and phlegmatic.
He had learnt morality from Fenelon's teaching, and showed
himself throughout his life strongly adverse to the moral laxity
of his grandfather and of most of the princes of his time. But
his very domestic regularity caused him to be entirely under the
influence of his two wives, Maria Louisa of Savoy, whom he
married in 1702, and who died in February 1714, and Elizabeth
Farnese of Parma, whom he married in December of the same
year, and who survived him. He showed courage on the field
of battle, both in Italy and Spain, during the War of the Spanish
Succession, and was flattered by his courtiers with the title of
El Animoso, or the spirited. But he had no taste for military
adventure. If he had a strong passion, it was to provide for his
succession to the throne of France, if his nephew, Louis XV.,
should die, and he indulged in many intrigues against the house
of Orleans, whose right to the succession was supposed to be
secured by Philip's solemn renunciation of all claim to the
French throne, when he became king of Spain. It was in
pursuit of one of these intrigues that he abdicated in 1724 in
favour of his son Louis. But Louis died in a few months,
and Philip returned to the throne. At a later period he tried
to abdicate again, and his wife had to keep him in a species of
disguised confinement. Throughout his life, but particularly
in the later part of it, he was subject to prolonged fits of melan-
cholia, during which he would not even speak. He died of
apoplexy on the 9th of July 1746.

The best account of Philip's character and reign is still that given
by Coxe in his Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon
(London, 1815).

PHILIP THE BOLD (1342-1404), duke of Burgundy, fourth
son of John II. of France and Bonne of Luxemburg, was born
on the 15th of January 1342. He earned his surname by his
bravery while fighting by his father's side on the field of Poitiers.
After the defeat of King John he accompanied him into captivity

in England. In 1360 he received the title of duke of Touraine,
and in June 1363 was entrusted with the government of Burgundy,
which John had united to the crown at the death of the last
duke of the Capetian family, Philip of Rouvre, in 1361. In
September 1363 John bestowed on Philip the title of duke of
Burgundy, together with that of first peer of France. John
was anxious not to displease the Burgundians, who were accus-
tomed to their independence; and, moreover, with Philip as
duke of Burgundy he was in a better posture to resist the king
of Navarre, Charles the Bad, who laid claim to the duchy. The
donation, which was at first kept secret in spite of a request
made in 1363 for its confirmation by the emperor Charles IV.,
was ratified at the accession of Charles V. of France; but in
consequence of Philip's preoccupation with the Grand Com-
panies, which had invaded France, it was not until November
1364 that he definitely took possession of the duchy. Charles
continued to show favour to his brother, appointing him (in 1366)
his lieutenant in Champagne and marrying him to Margaret,
daughter and heiress of Louis of Male, count of Flanders,
and widow of Philip of Rouvre. Edward III. of England was
negotiating for the marriage of this princess with his son Edmund,
earl of Cambridge; but Charles prevailed upon Pope Urban V.
to refuse the dispensation necessary on grounds of kinship, and
even consented to give up Lille, Douai and Orchies to Flanders
on condition that Margaret should marry his brother. Philip
eventually won the day, thanks to the support of the late
count's mother, and the marriage took place with high revel
at Ghent on the 19th of June 1369.

During the succeeding years Philip proved a faithful ally
to Charles. He took part in the almost bloodless campaign
against the duke of Lancaster, who had landed at Calais; in
1377 he took several towns in French Flanders from the English;
and in 1379 relieved Troyes, which had been besieged by the
English. On Charles's death Philip found himself, with his
brothers, the dukes of Anjou and Berry, in charge of the govern-
ment of France in the name of Charles VI., who was a minor;
and in the absence of the duke of Anjou, who left France in
1382 to conquer the kingdom of Naples, Philip occupied the
most powerful position in the realm. He persuaded the young
king to intervene in Flanders, where the citizens of Ghent,
whose rebellious spirit had necessitated Philip's intervention
in 1379, had again revolted under Philip van Artevelde and had
expelled Louis of Male. On the 27th of November 1382 the
Franco-Burgundian chivalry crushed the rebels at Rosebecke,
and on his return the duke of Burgundy took part in repress-
ing the popular movements which had broken out in Paris and
other French towns. In 1383 an insurrection in Flanders
supported by England gave rise to another French expedition;
but in January 1384 the death of Louis of Male made Philip
master of the countships of Flanders, Artois, Rethel and
Nevers; and in the following year the citizens of Ghent decided
to submit. At this period Philip sought to ingratiate himself
with the emperor, who was a near neighbour, and of whom he
held a part of his dominions, by giving two of his daughters
in marriage to two princes of the house of Bavaria; he also
took an important part in bringing about the marriage of a
princess of the same family, Isabel, to King Charles VI.

Hostilities, however, were renewed between France and
England. A formidable expedition was prepared under the
direction of the duke of Burgundy, and a fleet of 1400 sail
assembled at Sluys; but the enterprise failed owing to the
dilatoriness ofthe duke of Berry. The fatiguing and inglorious
expedition in the Netherlands, into which the duke dragged
Charles for the purpose of supporting his kinswoman, Joan of
Brabant, against the duke of Gelderland, shook Philip's credit
with his nephew, who on his return declared himself of age and
confided the government to the ancient councillors of his father,
the " Marmousets." The king's madness (1392) restored his
uncles to power, and particularly Philip, who after assuring
peace by treating with the duke of Brittany and by concluding a
truce of twenty-eight years with England, made strenuous efforts
to put an end to the Great Schism, visiting Pope Benedict XIII.

PHILIP THE GOOD

387

at Avignon in 1395 in the hope of obtaining a voluntary
resignation from him. But the growing influence of the king's
brother, Louis of Orleans, who was on terms of great intimacy
with Queen Isabel and was accused of being her lover, was a
serious obstruction. Discord broke out in the council, and but
for the intervention of the dukes of Berry and Bourbon the two
princes would have come to an open struggle. For a brief
period Philip was dispossessed of authority, but he regained
it in 1402 and kept it till his death, which took place on the
27th of April 1404. The cathedral of St Benigne at Dijon
contains his remains, and his tomb (formerly in the Chartreuse
of Dijon) is now in the museum in the H6tel-de-ville.

Although he had to curb the independent spirit of the seigneurs
of Franche-Comte, and in spite of frequent collisions with his
vassals in Flanders and with the citizens of Besancon (who in
1386 extracted from him a promise to respect their privileges),
Philip appears to have governed his territories with sagacity
and a certain moderation, and he was particularly successful in
employing the resources of France in the interests of Burgundy.
He granted numerous privileges to the inhabitants of Dijon, and
created in 1386 two chambres des comptes, one at Dijon and the
other at Lille. He was, in the phrase of a contemporary,
" kindly and amiable to high and low and those of middle rank,
liberal as an Alexander, noble and pontifical, in court and state
magnificent." But his liberality and his love of display in-
volved him in enormous expense, and he left so many debts that
his widow was compelled to renounce her personal estate to avoid
the responsibility of discharging them. By his wife Margaret
(d. 1405) he had a numerous family: John the Fearless, who
succeeded him; Charles and Louis, who both died in infancy;
Anthony, count of Rethel, and Philip, count of Nevers, both
killed at Agincourt; Margaret, who married William of Bavaria,
count of Ostrevant; Catherine, wife of Leopold, duke of
Austria; Mary, wife of Amadeus VIII. of Savoy; and Bonne,
who was betrothed to John of Bourbon and died young.

(R. Po.)

PHILIP THE GOOD (1396-1467), duke of Burgundy, son of
John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, and Margaret of Bavaria,
was born at Dijon on the 13th of June 1396, and succeeded his
father on the 10th of September 1419. The natural outcome of
the assassination of John the Fearless (q.v .) was to drive his suc-
cessor to the English side. In 1419 Philip signed with Henry V.
of England the treaty of Arras, by which he recognized Henry
as regent and future heir of the kingdom of France, and in 1420
gave his adherence to the treaty of Troyes. Early in December
1420 Philip entered Paris with the king of England, and sub-
sequently took part in the defeat of the French at Mons-en-
Vimeu. By a treaty concluded by Philip at Amiens in April
1423 with the dukes of Brittany and Bedford, John, duke of
Bedford, married Philip's sister Anne, and Arthur of Brittany,
earl of Richmond, became the husband of Philip's sister Mar-
garet. A few years later discord arose among the allies. When
the duke of Bedford besieged Orleans the inhabitants offered
to surrender, but to the duke of Burgundy; whereupon Bedford
retorted that " he did not beat the bushes for others to take the
birds." When this speech reached Philip's ears he withdrew
his troops in dudgeon, and concluded a truce with France
(1429). Bedford, however, succeeded in conciliating him by
promises and presents, and in 1430 Philip took part in the
campaign against Compiegne.

But another conflict arose between the duke of Burgundy
and the English. Jacqueline, countess of Hainaut, the divorced
wife of the duke of Brabant and the heiress of Holland and
Zeeland, had married the duke of Gloucester, who attempted
to take forcible possession of his wife's territories. Philip,
however, himself claimed Brabant as having been bequeathed
to him by his cousin Philip, the late duke, with the result that
the Burgundians repulsed the troops of the duke of Gloucester,
and Jacqueline was forced to recognize the duke of Burgundy
as her lieutenant and heir. Moreover, the duchess of Bedford
had died in 1433. Charles VII., who in spite of the efforts of
the cardinal of Ste-Croix and the conferences held by him at

Auxerre and Semur had hitherto refused to return to France,
finally decided to take part in the conferences which were
opened at St Vaast d' Arras on the 6th of August 1435, and to
which the whole of Christendom attached very high import-
ance, all the princes of Europe and the pope and the council
of Basel being represented. Philip consented to a reconcilia-
tion with the king of France, and agreed to recognize him as
his legitimate sovereign on condition that he should not be
required to pay him homage during his lifetime. Charles, on
his part, solemnly craved pardon for the murder of John the
Fearless through the mouth of the dean of the church in Paris,
and handed over to the duke the counties of Macon, Auxerre,
Bar-sur-Seine and Ponthieu, and the towns on and near the
Somme (Roye, Montdidier, Peronne), reserving the option of
redeeming the Somme towns for 400,000 gold crowns. Philip
proved a faithful ally of the king, aiding him in re-entering Paris
and preparing an expedition against Calais, which, however,
failed through the ill-will of his Flemish subjects (1436). In
1440 he paid the ransom of Charles of Orleans (the son of his
father's old enemy), who had been a prisoner in England since
the battle of Agincourt; received him with great honour at
Gravelines; and married him to Mary of Cleves, upon whom he
bestowed a handsome dowry. In 1442 Philip entered into a
conspiracy to give the duke of Orleans a larger share in the
affairs of the kingdom. To Rene of Anjou, the duke of Lor-
raine, he showed himself less generous, setting up another
claimant to the duchy of Lorraine in the person of Anthony of
Vaudemont, and taking Rene prisoner in 143 1; it was not until
1436 that he consented definitively to release Rene on con-
dition that he should abandon several strong places and pay an
enormous ransom. In 1445, at the conferences of Chalons-sur-
Marne, the duchess of Burgundy renounced these claims in her
husband's name in order to assure the execution of the treaty
of Arras.

Philip was frequently disturbed by the insubordination of
the Flemish communes. He had to quell seditions at Liege
(1430), Ghent (1432) and Antwerp (1435). In 1438 he was
driven with the duchess out of Bruges by the revolted citizens,
a revolt which he repressed with great severity. In 1448 the
citizens of Ghent rose in rebellion, but, disappointed of French
support, they were defeated at Ruppelmonde and in 1453
were overwhelmed at the battle of Gavre, where they left
20,000 dead on the field. At a banquet shortly afterwards
Philip vowed that he would lead a crusade against the Turks,
who had seized Constantinople, and the knights of his court
swore to follow his example. 1 The expedition, however, did not
take place, and was but a pretext for levying subsidies and for
knightly entertainments. In 1459 Philip sent an embassy
under the duke of Cleves into Italy to take part in the con-
ferences preparatory to a fresh expedition against the Turks,
but this enterprise likewise fell to the ground. In 1456 the
duke of Burgundy had given an asylum to the Dauphin Louis
(afterwards Louis XL), who had quarrelled with his father
and had been forced to leave France. The " fox who would
rob his host's hen-roost," as the old king called Louis, repaid
his protector by attempting to sow discord in the ducal family
of Burgundy, and then retired to the castle of Genappe in
Brabant. At Charles VII. 's death, however, Philip was one of
the first to recognize the new king, and accompanied him to
Paris. During the journey Louis won over the seigneurs of
Croy, the principal counsellors of the duke of Burgundy,
and persuaded Philip to allow him to redeem the Somme
towns for the sum stipulated in the treaty of Arras. This
proceeding infuriated Philip's son Charles, count of Charo-
lais, who prevailed upon his father to break his pledge and
declare war on the king of France. On the 12th of April 1465
Philip handed over to his son the entire administration of his

1 This was the singular vow known as " the vow of the pheasant,"
from the fact that Philip placed his hand solemnly on a pheasant,
which had been brought to him by his herald, and vowed that
he would fight the Turks and challenge their sultan to single
combat.

3 88

PHILIP (OF HESSE)

estates. The old duke died at Bruges on the 15th of June
1467, and was buried at Dijon.

Philip was a great lover of pomp and luxury and a friend of
letters, being the patron of Georges Chastelain, Olivier de la
Marche and Antoine de la Salle, and the founder of the col-
lection of MSS. known as the " Bibliotheque de Bourgogne "
(now at Brussels), and also of the university of D61e (1421).
He administered his estates wisely; promoted commerce and
industry, particularly in Flanders; and left his son a well-
lined treasury. He was thrice married: in 1409 to Michelle
(d. 1422), daughter of Charles VI. of France; in 1424 to Bonne
of Artois (d. 1425); and in 1429 to Isabel (d. 1472), daughter of
John I., king of Portugal. On the occasion of his third marriage
Philip founded the order of the Golden Fleece. He was succeeded
by Charles, afterwards known as Charles the Bold, his only sur-
viving son by Isabel. He had several illegitimate children,
among them being Corneille, called the Grand Bastard, who was
killed in 1452 at the battle of Ruppelmonde.

(R. Po.)
PHILIP, Landgrave of Hesse (1504-1567), son of the
landgrave William II., was born at Marburg on the 13th of
November 1504. He became landgrave on his father's death
in 1509, and having been declared of age in 1518, was married
in 1523 to Christina, daughter of George, duke of Saxony
(d. 1539). In 1522 and 1523 he assisted to quell the rising of
Franz von Sickingen (q.v.), who had raided Hesse five years
previously, and in 1525 he took a leading part in crushing the
rebellion of the peasants in north Germany, being mamly
responsible for their defeat at Frankenhausen. About this
time Philip adopted the reformed faith, of which he was after-
wards the zealous and daring defender. Indifferent to theo-
logical, or even to patriotic, considerations, his plans to protect
the reformers rested upon two main principles — unity among the
Protestants at home and military aid from abroad. The
schemes he put forward as one of the heads of the league of
Schmalkalden, aimed primarily at overthrowing the house of
Habsburg; to this end aid was sought from foreigner and
native, from Protestant and Catholic alike. Envoys were sent
repeatedly to France, England and Denmark; Turkey and
Venice were looked to for assistance; the jealousy felt towards
the Habsburgs by the Bavarian Wittelsbachs was skilfully
fomented; and the German Protestants were assured that
attack was the best, nay the only, means of defence. Before
the formation of the league of Schmalkalden Philip was very
intimate with Zwingli, and up to the time of the reformer's
death, in 1531, he hoped that material aid would be forthcoming
from his followers. In 1526 he had aided John the Constant,
elector of Saxony, to form an alliance of reforming princes;
and in 1529 he called together the abortive conference at Mar-
burg, hoping thus to close the breach between Lutherans and
Zwinglians. More aggressive was his action in 1528. De-
ceived by the forgeries of Otto von Pack (q.v.), he believed in
the existence of a conspiracy to crush the reformers, and was
only restrained from attacking his enemies by the influence of
John of Saxony and Luther. He succeeded, however, in com-
pelling the archbishop of Mainz and the bishops of Wurzburg
and Bamberg to contribute to the cost of his mobilization.
Philip was freely accused of having employed Pack to concoct
the forgery; and, although this charge is doubtless false, his
eager acceptance of Pack's unproved statements aroused con-
siderable ill-feeling among the Catholics, which he was not slow
to return. In 1529 the landgrave signed the "protest " which
was presented to the diet at Spires, being thus one of the original
" Protestants; " in 1530 he was among the subscribers to the
confession of Augsburg; and the formation of the league of
Schmalkalden in the same year was largely due to his energy.
His next important undertaking, the restoration of Ulrich,
duke of Wurtemberg (q.v.) to his duchy, was attended with
conspicuous success. Wurtemberg had passed into the posses-
sion of the Habsburgs, but after Philip's brief and victorious
campaign in 1534 the humiliation of Charles V. and his brother,
the German king, Ferdinand I., was so complete that it was

said the landgrave had done more for Protestantism by this
enterprise than a thousand of Luther's books would do. After
this victory Philip entertained the idea of coming to terms
with Charles V. on the basis of extensive concessions to the
Protestants; but he quickly returned to his former plans for
leading a general attack on the Habsburgs. The Concord of
Wittenberg, made in 1536, was favourable for these schemes,
but after five years spent in assiduous preparation war was
prevented by the serious illness of the landgrave and the
lukewarmness of his allies. Recovering from his malady, he
had returned to his intrigues when an event happened which
materially affected the fortunes of the Reformation. His union
with Christina was not a happy one, and having fixed his
affections upon Margaret von der Saal (d. 1566), he obtained
an opinion from Protestant theologians that bigamy was not
forbidden by Holy Writ. Luther and Melancthon at length
consented to the marriage, but stipulated that it should be
kept secret, and it was celebrated in March 1540. The marriage,
however, became known, and a great outcry arose against
Philip, whose friends quickly deserted him. He objected to
Luther's counsel to deny the existence of a second marriage;
abused John Frederick, elector of Saxony, for not coming to
support him; and caused bigamy to be publicly defended.
Alarmed, however, by the strength of his enemies, and by
their evident determination to punish him as a bigamist, he
in June 1541 made a treaty with Charles V. at Regensburg.
In return for a general pardon he undertook to break off
relations with France and England and loyally to support the
emperor.

During these years Philip had been forwarding the progress
of the Reformation in Hesse. This was begun about 1526, when
an important synod was held at Homburg; the university of
Marburg was founded in the interests of the reformers in 1527;
and after the diet of Spires in 1529 the work was conducted with
renewed vigour. The Catholic worship was suppressed, and the
secularized church revenues supplied an endowment of the new
university.

The peace between the emperor and the landgrave was soon
broken. In 1542 Philip persuaded the league of Schmalkalden
to attack Henry II., duke of Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel, ostensibly
in the interests of the Protestant towns of Brunswick and Goslar.
The duchy was quickly overrun, and Henry — a Catholic prince —
driven out; but the good understanding between the emperor
and the landgrave was destroyed, and the relations between
Protestants and Catholics became worse than before. Nor was
the fissure in the Protestant ranks closed, and Charles took
advantage of this disunion to conquer Gelderland and to mature
his preparations for overthrowing the league of Schmalkalden.
Unlike John Frederick of Saxony, Philip divined, or partly
divined, the emperor's intentions, and urged repeatedly that the
forces of the league should be put in order. This advice passed
unheeded, and when Charles suddenly showed his hand, and in
July 1 546 issued the imperial ban against the landgrave and the
elector, it was seen that the two princes were almost isolated.
Fighting began along the upper Danube, and when indecision
and want of funds had ruined the league's chances of success,
Philip returned to Hesse and busied himself with seeking help
from foreign powers; while in April 1547 John Frederick was
captured at Miihlberg. After this defeat the landgrave was
induced to surrender to Charles in June by his son-in-law,
Maurice, now elector of Saxony, and Joachim II., elector of
Brandenburg, who promised Philip that he should be pardoned,
and were greatly incensed when the emperor refused to assent
to this condition. There is, however, no truth in the story that
the word einiges was altered by an imperial servant into ewiges,
thus making the phrase " without any imprisonment " in the
treaty of surrender to read " without perpetual imprisonment."
Philip was sentenced to detention for fifteen years, and as he was
heartily disliked by Charles his imprisonment was a rigorous
one, and became still more so after he had made an attempt to
escape. His acceptance of the Interim in 1 548 did not bring him
freedom; but this came in consequence of the humiliation of

PHILIP, J.— PHILIP, K.

389

Charles V. at the hands of Maurice in 1552; and after the con-
clusion of the peace of Passau in this year he returned to Hesse.
Although less active than formerly, the landgrave did not cease
to intrigue on behalf of the Protestants while continuing the work
of reforming and organizing the Church in Hesse. In 1562
he aided the Huguenots with troops, and he was frequently in
communication with the insurgents in the Netherlands; but his
efforts to form a union of the Protestants were fruitless. Philip,
who is sometimes called the Magnanimous, died at Cassel on the
31st of March 1567. By Christina he had four sons and five
daughters, and according to his directions the landgraviate was
partitioned at his death between his sons. He had also by
Margaret von der Saal seven sons, who were called counts of
Dietz, and one daughter.

See Ch. von Rommel, Philipp der Grossmiithige (Giessen, 1830);
Briefwechsel Landgraf Philipps mit Bucer, edited by M . Lenz (Leipzig,
1881-1890); Politisches Archiv des Landgrafen Philipp, edited by
F. Kiich (Leipzig, 1904) ; L. G. Mogen, Historia captivitatis Philippi
Magnanimi (Frankfort, 1766); W. Falckenheiner, Philipp der
Grossmiithige im Bauernkriege (Marburg, 1887) ; H. Schwarz,
Landgraf Philipp von Hessen und die Packschen Handel (Leipzig,
1 881) ; J. Wille, Philipp der Grossmiithige von Hessen und die Resti-
tution Ulnchs von Wiirttemberg (Tubingen, 1882); W. W. Rockwell
Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp von Hessen (Marburg, 1904) ;
A. Heidenhain, Die Unions politik Philipps von Hessen (Halle, 1890);
K. Varrentrapp, Landgraf Philipp von Hessen und die Universitdt
Marburg (Cassel, 1904) ; Von Drach and Konnecke, Die Bildnisse
Philipps des Grossmuligen (Cassel, 1905) ; Festschrift zum Ge-
ddchtnis Philipps, published by the Verein fur hessische Geschichte
und Landeskunde (Cassel, 1904) ; and Philipp der Grossmiltige,
Beitrdge zur Geschichte seines Lebens und seiner Zeit, published by the
Historischer Verein fur das Grossherzogtum Hessen (Marburg, 1904).

PHILIP, JOHN (1775-1851), British missionary in South
Africa, was born on the 14th of April 1775, at Kirkcaldy, Fife, the
son of a schoolmaster in that town. After having been apprenticed
to a linendraper, and for three years a clerk in a Dundee business
house, he entered the Hoxton (Congregational) Theological
College, and in 1804 was appointed to a Congregational chapel
in Aberdeen. In 1818 he joined the Rev. John Campbell in his
second journey to South Africa to inspect the stations of the
London Missionary Society, and reported that the conduct of the
Cape Colonists towards the natives was deserving of strong
reprobation. In 1822 the London Missionary Society appointed
him superintendent of their South African stations. He made
his headquarters at Cape Town, where he also established and
undertook the pastorate of the Union Chapel. His indignation
was aroused by the barbarities inflicted upon the Hottentots
and Kaffirs (by a minority of the colonists), and he set himself to
remedy their grievances; but his zeal was greater than his
knowledge. He misjudged the character both of the colonists
and of the natives, his cardinal mistake being in regarding the
African as little removed from the European in intellect and
capacity. It was the period of the agitation for the abolition
of slavery in England, where Philip's .charges against the
colonists and the colonial government found powerful support.
His influence was seen in the ordinance of 1828 granting all free
coloured persons at the Cape every right to which any other
British subjects were entitled. During 1826-1828 he was in
England, and in the last-named year he published Researches
in South Africa, containing his views on the native question.
His recommendations were adopted by the House of Commons,
but his unpopularity in South Africa was great, and in 1830 he
was convicted of libelling a Cape official. The British govern-
ment, however, caused the Cape government to conform
to the views of Philip, who for over twenty years exercised
a powerful, and in many respects unfavourable, influence over
the destinies of the country. One of Philip's ideals was the
curbing of colonial " aggression " by the creation of a belt of
native states around Cape Colony. In Sir Benjamin D'Urban
Philip found a governor anxious to promote the interests of the
natives. When however at the close of the Kaffir War of 1834-35
D'Urban annexed the country up to the Kei River, Philip's
hostility was aroused. He came to England in 1836, in company
with a Kaffir convert and a Hottentot convert, and aroused
public opinion against the Cape government. His views

triumphed, D'Urban was dismissed, and Philip returned to the
Cape as unofficial adviser to the government on all matters
affecting the natives. For a time his plan of buffer states was
carried out, but in 1846 another Kaffir rising convinced him of
the futility of his schemes. The Kaffir chief who had accom-
panied him to England joined the enemy; and many of his
converts showed that his efforts on their behalf had effected no
change in their character. This was a blow from which he did
not recover. The annexation of the Orange River Sovereignty
in 1848 followed, finally destroying his hope of maintaining
independent native states. In 1849 he severed his connexion
with politics and retired to the mission station at Hankey, Cape
Colony, where he died on the 27th of August 1851.

See South Africa : History ; G. M'C. Theal's History of SouthAfrica
since iJq$ (London, ed. 1908); Missionary Magazine (1836-1851);
R. Wardlaw's Funeral Sermon, 1852.

PHILIP, KING (c. 1639-1676), chief sachem of the Wam-
panoag Indians in America, and the son of Massasoit (d. 1662) —
as the English, mistaking this title (great chief) for a proper
name, called Woosamequin (Yellow Feather) — who for forty
years was the friend and ally of the English colonists at
Plymouth. To Massasoit's two sons, Wamsutta and Metacomet,
the English gave the names respectively of Alexander and
Philip. Alexander succeeded his father as sachem, and in the
same year, while in Marshfield, whither he had gone to explain
certain alleged unfriendly acts toward the English, was taken
ill; he died on his way home. Philip, who succeeded Alexander,
suspected the English of poisoning his brother. The English
had grown stronger and more numerous, and had begun to meddle
in the internal affairs of the Indians. In 1667 one of Philip's
Indians accused him to the English of attempting to betray them
to the French or Dutch, but this charge was not proved. In
1671 the Plymouth authorities demanded that the Wampanoags
should surrender their arms; Philip consented, but his followers
failed to comply, and measures were taken to enforce the promise.
Philip thereupon went before the general court, agreed to pay an
annual tribute, and not to sell lands or engage in war with other
Indians without the consent of the Plymouth government. In
1674, when three Wampanoags were executed at Plymouth for
the alleged murder of Sassamon, an Indian convert who had
played the part of informer to the English, Philip could no
longer hold his followers in check. There were outbreaks in the
middle of June 1675, and on the 24th of June the massacre of
whites began. There was no concerted movement of the various
tribes and the war had not been previously planned. The
Nipmuck Indians rose in July; the tribes along the Connecticut
river in August; those in the present states of Maine and New
Hampshire in September and October, and the Narragansets
in December, when (on the 19th) they were attacked and seriously
crippled, in what is now the township of South Kingstown,
Rhode Island, by the English (under Governor Josiah Winslow
of Plymouth), who suspected their loyalty.

The colony of Connecticut took quick measures of defence,
guarded its frontier, maintained its alliance with the Mohegans,
and suffered little injury. Massachusetts and Plymouth were
slower in acting and suffered great loss. Rhode Island raised
no troops, and suffered severely. Early in the autumn Philip
^ went nearly as far west as Albany in an unsuccessful attempt to
get aid from the French and the Mohawks and supplies from the
Dutch traders. At Deerfield on the 18th of September about
60 English were killed and the settlement was abandoned. In
the spring of 1676 it became evident that the Indian power was
waning. The warriors had been unable to plant their crops;
they were weaker numerically and more poorly armed than the
English, and the latter had also made an alliance with the friendly
Naticks and the Niantiqs. On the 1st of August 1676 Philip's
wife and nine-year old son were captured, and on the nth of
August an Indian traitor guided the English to the sachem's
hiding place in a swamp at the foot of Mount Hope (in what is
now the township of Bristol, Rhode Island), where early the next
morning he was surprised, and while trying to escape was killed
by an Indian. The head of Philip was sent to Plymouth and set

39°

PHILIPPA OF HAINAUT— PHILIPPIANS

on a pole in a public place, where it remained for a quarter of a
century; his right hand was given to his slayer, who preserved it
in rum and won many pennies by exhibiting it in the New
England towns. The struggle was now over in southern New
England, but it continued along the north-eastern frontier till
the spring of 1678, and nearly every settlement beyond the
Piscataqua was destroyed. In the colonies of Plymouth,
Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut six hundred
men (or about 9% of the fighting population),' besides many
women and children, had been killed; thirteen settlements had
been completely destroyed, and about forty others were partly
burned. Plymouth had incurred a debt greater than the value
of the personal property of her people. The Indians suffered
even worse: in addition to the large number of men, women and
children slain, great numbers, among them the wife and son of
Philip, were sold into slavery in the Spanish Indies and the
Bermudas. Many others migrated from New England to New
York ; and the few remaining Indians, feeble and dispirited, were
no longer a power to be reckoned with. Philip was an Indian
patriot and statesman, not a warrior; he united the tribes in their
resistance to the colonists, but was not a great leader in battle.

See George M. Bodges, Soldiers in King Philip's War (Leo-
minster, Mass. ; 1896); John Gorham Palfrey, History of New
England, vol. iii. (Boston, 1864); and especially George W. Ellis
and John E. Morris, King Philip's War (New York, 1906). See
also Entertaining Passages Relating to King Philip's War (Boston,
1716; new edition, edited with notes by H. M. Dexter, Boston,
1865), the account by Colonel Benjamin Church (1639-1718), one of
the principal leaders of the English, of the warfare in south-eastern
New England, in which he took part; it is one of the most famous
and realistic accounts of early Indian warfare.

PHILIPPA OF HAINAUT (c. 1314-1369), queen of the English
king Edward III., was the daughter of William the Good, count
of Holland and Hainaut, and his wife Jeanne de Valois, grand-
daughter of Philip III. of France. Edward visited the court of
Count William in 1326 with his mother Isabella, who immediately
arranged a marriage between him and Philippa. After a dispen-
sation had been obtained for the marriage of the cousins (they
were both descendants of Philip III.) Philippa was married by
proxy at Valenciennes in October 1327, and landed in England
in December. She joined Edward at York, where she was
married on the 30th of January 1328. Her marriage dower had
been seized by the queen dowager Isabella to pay a body of
Hainauters, with whose help she had compassed her husband's
deposition. The alliance ensured for Edward in his French wars
the support of Philippa's influential kindred; and before starting
on his French campaign he secured troops from William the
Good, as well as from the count of Gelderland, the count of
Julick, and the emperor Louis the Bavarian. Her mother
Jeanne de Valois, visited her in 1331 and further cemented the
community of interests between England and Flanders. Before
1335 Philippa had established a small colony of Flemish weavers
at Norwich, and she showed an active interest in the weaving
trade by repeated visits to the town. She also encouraged coal-
mining on her estates in Tynedale. Her eldest son, Edward the
Black Prince, was born in 1330, and she subsequently bore six
sons and five daughters. In November 1342 she became guardian
of John of Gaunt and her younger children, with their lands.
Her agents are said to have shown great harshness in collecting
the feudal dues with which to supply her large household. The
anecdotes of her piety and generosity which have been preserved
are proof, however, of her popularity. She interceded in 133 1
with the king for some carpenters whose careless work on a
platform resulted in an accident to herself and her ladies, and on
a more famous occasion her prayers saved the citizens of Calais
from Edward's vengeance. There is a generally accepted story,
based on the chronicles of Jehan le Bel and Froissart, that she
summoned the English forces to meet the Scottish invasion of
1346, and harangued the troops before the battle of Neville's
Cross. She certainly exercised considerable influence over her
husband, whom she constantly accompanied on his campaigns;
and her death on the 15th of August 1369 was a misfortune for
the kingdom at large, since Edward from that time came under

the domination of the rapacious Alice Perrers. Philippa was the
patron and friend of Froissart, who was her secretary from 1361
to 1366. Queen's College, Oxford, was not, as is stated in
Skelton's version of her epitaph, founded by her, but by her
chaplain, Robert of Eglesfield. Her chief benefactions were
made to the hospital of St Katharine's by the Tower, London.

See Agnes Strickland, Lives of the Queens of England, vol. i.
In addition to the account given in his Chroniques, Froissart wrote
a formal eulogy of her, which has been lost.

PHILIPPEVILLE, a seaport of Algeria, chief town of an
arrondissement in the department of Constantine, and 54 m.
N. by E. of that city, on the Bay of Stora, in 36° 53' N. 6° 54' E.
It is connected by railway with Constantine, Batna and Biskra.
The town derives its importance from being the port of Constan-
tine. The harbour works, with every vessel in port, having
been destroyed by a storm in 1878, a more commodious harbour
was built, at a cost of about £1,200,000. From Cape Skikda, on
the east a mole or breakwater projects 4592 ft. to the W.N.W.,
while from Chateau Vert on the west another mole runs out
13 1 2 ft. to the north, leaving an entrance to the port about 656 ft.
wide. The protected area comprises an outer and an inner
basin. The depth of water at the entrance is about 33 ft., along-
side the quays about 20 ft. The quays are faced with blocks
of white marble brought from the quarries at Filfila, 16 m.
distant. Pop. (1906), of the town 16,539, of the commune 26,050,
of the arrondissement, which includes 12 communes, 147,607.

Philippeville occupies the site of successive Phoenician and
Roman cities. By the Romans, under whom it attained a high
state of prosperity, it was named Rusicada. In the middle ages
the town ceased to be inhabited. The site was purchased from
the Arabs by Marshal Valee in 1838 for £6. Some parts of the
Roman theatre remain, but the stones of the amphitheatre,
which stood without the walls of the modern town, and which the
French found in an almost perfect state of preservation, were
used by them for building purposes, and the railway was cut
through the site. On a hill above the town are the Roman
reservoirs, which have been restored and still supply the town
with water. They are fed by a canal from the Wadi Beni Meleh.
The Roman baths, in the centre of the modern town, serve as
cellars for military stores.

PHILIPPI (Turk. Filibejik), a city of ancient Macedonia, on a
steep hill near the river Gangites (mod. Angista), overlooking
an extensive plain and at no great distance from the coast of the
Aegean, on the highway between Neapolis (Kavalla) and Thessa-
lonica. Originally called Crenides (Fountains), it took its
later name from Philip II. of Macedon, who made himself master
of the neighbouring gold mines of the Hill of Dionysus, and
fortified the city as one of his frontier-towns. In 42 B.C., after
the victory gained over the senatorial party by Octavius and
Antony, it became a Roman colony, Colonia Julia Philippensis,
which was probably increased after the battle of Actium {Col.
Aug. Julia Phil.). The inhabitants received the Jus Italicum,
and Philippi was one of the specially designated " first cities "
(Acts xvi. 12; see Marquardt, Rom. Staatsverwaltung. i. 187).
The city was twice visited by St Paul, whose Epistle to
the Philippians was addressed to his converts here. The site,
now uninhabited, is marked by ruins — the substructions of an
amphitheatre, parts of a great temple — which have furnished
interesting inscriptions. A little to the east is the huge stone
monument of C. Vibius, known to the Turks as Dikelitashlar and
to the Greeks as the Manger of Bucephalus.

See Heuzey and Daumet, Mission arch, en Macedoine, Paris (1865),
and other authorities in bibliography of Macedonia ; Corp. Inscr.
Lat. iii. 1. (J. D. B.)

PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, a book of the New Testa-
ment. Communications had already passed between the Chris-
tians of Philippi and Paul, not only when he was at Thessalonica
(iv. 15-16), but at some subsequent period (iv. 18), when Epaph-
roditus had brought him a present of money from them. It is
possible that this gift was accompanied by a letter. At any rate
the extant epistle is the answer to one received from the Philippian
Christians, who had evidently desired information about the

PHILIPPIANS

39 1

apostle's health and prospects (i. 12), assured him of their prayers
(i. 19), and wondered whether he, their pride and glory (nauxruxa),
would return to them (i. 25 seq.).

After a brief greeting (i. 1, 2), Paul assures them of his loving
interest in their present attainments and future progress in the
faith of the gospel (i. 3-1 1); then, relieving their anxiety about his
own prospects, he expresses the confident hope that he will be
released and thus be able to return to them (i. 12-26). Meantime
they were to avoid any pride or factiousness which might break
their unity 1 as a church (i. 27-ii. 18), and they are promised a visit
from two of Paul's coadjutors, 2 who are well known to them (ii. 19-30).
At this point the letter suddenly swerves 3 into a passionate warning
against some errorists of Judaism (iii. i-iv. 1), after which the
appeal for unity at Philippi is reiterated (iv. 2-9),* and the epistle
closes with some personal details (iv. 10—23).

Paul is a prisoner when he writes, and the place of composition
may therefore be Caesarea or Rome (Acts xxviii. 16, 30-31).
The evidence upon the whole seems to point to the latter. The
phrase olda Kaiaapos (iv. 22) suits Rome better than Caesarea,
and, while irpaiTupiov (i. 13) does not necessarily imply the
capital, it is most naturally understood of Rome. 5 But the
whole tone of the epistle suggests that Paul expected a speedy
end to his case. Now at Caesarea this was out of the question.
His appeal to Caesar involved a protracted process, and it is
very difficult to put expressions like those e.g. of ii. 23 into such
a situation. The critical outlook of Philippians does not corre-
spond with the position of the apostle at Caesarea, nor can the
latter town be said to have been a centre of vigorous Christian
propaganda (i. 17). Finally, the contention that no visit of
Timothy to Rome is known is an argument from silence which
is of little more weight than the plea of Spitta that the cupidity
of Felix (Acts xxiv. 26) was excited by the arrival of the money
from Philippi (Phil. iv. 16).

A further examination of the epistle shows that it must have
been written towards the close of the Surla ohy of Acts xxviii. 30,
not in the earlier part of the Roman captivity. Paul is on
the edge and eve of the great decision. Behind him (i. 12-13)
lies a period during which considerable progress has been made
in the local preaching and extension of the gospel, nor does the
language of the apostle suggest that this fresh departure in the
propaganda was stimulated by the mere novelty of his arrival.
Furthermore, the relations between the Philippians and himself
presuppose, on any fair estimate, an interval of time which
cannot be crushed into a few months. News of his arrival must
have reached them; money was collected (ii. 25, iv. 18) and then
forwarded by Epaphroditus, who fell sick after he reached the
capital; news of this again floated back to Philippi, and subse-
quently Paul heard of the Philippians' concern (ii. 26). Not till
then did he compose this letter.

Philippians is thus the last extant letter we possess from Paul,
unless some of the notes embedded in the pastoral epistles are
to be dated subsequent to its composition. It unites the close
of his career in Rome with the beginning of his mission work in
Europe (iv. 15; cf. Acts xvi. 12), and illustrates not merely the
situation of the apostle at Rome, but the terms of exceptional
affection which existed from first to last between him and the

1 For the strong Christian consciousness of solidarity, presupposed
in the Philippians, see Von Dobschutz's Christian Life in the Primitive
Church (1904), pp. 93 seq.

2 The touch of acerbity in ii. 21 (after i. 14) is probably to be
explained by the fact that " Paul had found some of the brethren
reluctant to undertake a journey to Macedonia, or to perform some
other service which he desired, and the words only express the
momentary disappointment of a man who was imprisoned and ready
to die for the gospel " (Drummond). Cf. Renan's Antichrist (Eng.
trans, p. 48).

3 The so-called logion in (Justin's?) De resurrect. 9: dpriatv kv
ovpavu) 7-qv haTo'iK-qatv vTrapxeiv, seems a mere echo of iii. 20.

4 On iv. 8 Yon Soden notes {History of Early Christian Literature,
p. 114) that " it is as if we heard the ripple of the waves at the
meeting of the two streams which have their source in Zion and the
Parthenon."

5 If the expression meant {a) the praefecti praetorio or officials
charged with the care of prisoners under trial, i.e. the supreme
imperial court, or (b) the praetorian guard, or (c) their barracks,
this would almost follow. But conceivably it might mean the
palace, i.e. of Herod (Acts xxiii. 35). The balance of probabilities
falls, however, in favour of the court hypothesis.

Macedonian churches. The main argument for putting it earlier
is derived from the admitted affinities between it and Romans,
the Colossian and Ephesian epistles containing, it is held, a more
advanced christology (so Lightfoot especially, and Hort, Judaistic
Christianity, pp. 11 5-1 29). But such considerations are not
decisive. Paul wrote from time to time, not in the execution
of a literary plan, but as different objects or interests called out
his powers. The Philippians did not require, and therefore did
not receive, the same elaborate warnings as the Asiatic churches.
Hence on the one hand it is unreal to lay stress on coincidences
with Romans, as if these necessarily implied that both epistles
must have been composed shortly after one another, while again
the further stage of thought on Christ and the Church, which is
evident in Colossians, does not prove that the latter must have
followed the former. Upon the whole, the internal evidence of
the epistle strongly favours its position as the last of the captivity
epistles.

The attempts made during the 19th century to disprove the
Pauline authorship now possess merely an historic interest, nor
have the various hypotheses of more or less extensive inter-
polation won any serious support. 6 More significance attaches
to the view that the epistle is made up of two separate notes,
written to Philippi at different times. The fusion of the two is
found in the abrupt hiatus of iii. 1, and evidence is led from
supposed inconsistencies between the earlier and the latter parts
of the epistle. But the flexibility of a letter-writer, under
different moods of feeling, which would naturally lead to rapid
transitions, may be adduced as some explanation of the latter
phenomena. The exegesis does not absolutely necessitate a parti-
tion of the epistle, which (so Heinrichs and Paulus) would make
iii. i-iv. 20 a special letter addressed to some inner circle of the
apostle's friends (in spite of iv. 10 seq.), or take iii.-iv. (Hausrath,
History of N. T. Times, iv. 162 seq. and Bacon, Story of St Paul,
pp. 367 seq.) as earlier than i.-ii. Besides, as Pfleiderer points out,
the hypothesis is shipwrecked on the difficulty of imagining that
" each of the epistles had but one essential part: the first, in
particular, lacking an expression of thanks for the gift from the
Philippians, which must nevertheless, according to ii. 25, have
already taken place." In his letter to the Philippians (iii. 2)
Poly carp indeed observes that Paul wrote lirtCToXas to them;
but, even if the plural could not be taken as equivalent to a
single despatch, it would not necessarily support the partition
theory of the canonical Philippians. Polycarp may have known
of more than one Pauline note to Philippi, no longer extant, or
he may be referring loosely to 2 Thessalonians, which was ad-
dressed to a neighbouring Macedonian church. The exegetical
arguments are, in short, the final court of appeal, and their verdict
tells rather in favour of the epistle's integrity. The simplest
account of iii. 1 is to suppose that Paul started afresh to complete
or supplement what he had already written, possibly because
some fresh tidings from Philippi had reached him in the interval.
Psychologically the change from ii. 19 seq., with its note of fare-
well, to the impassioned outburst of iii. 2 seq., is not incredible in
an informal letter from a man like Paul. The hiatus is striking,
but it cannot be held to necessitate an editorial dovetailing of
two separate epistles. It is doubtful, therefore, if the ingenious
attempts to analyse Philippians have proved much more con-
vincing than the similar movement of literary criticism upon the
first Philippic of Demosthenes, where research has swung back
in the main to a conservative position (cf. A. Baron in Wiener
Studien, 1884, 173-205).

The first clear echoes of the epistle are heard in Polycarp,
though it was probably known to Clement of Rome and Ignatius
(cf. the evidence tabulated in The New Testament in the Apostolic
6 To the details furnished in the present writer's Historical New
Testament (2nd ed., 1901, pp. 634-635) may be added references to
Volter's Paulus u. seine Briefe (1905), pp. 286-323, Belser's Einlei-
tung in der N. T. (2nd ed., 1905), pp. 555 seq., and Schmiedel's
paragraphs in Ency. Bib. (3147-3148). Pfleiderer (Primitive
Christianity, i. 254 seq.) now hesitates on ii. 6 seq. alone like
Bruckner and Schmiedel. The objections to Paul's authorship
on the score of style and grammar are finally set aside by the
philologist N'igeli in Der Wortschatz des Apostels Paulus 1905),
pp. 80-82.

392

PHILIPPICS— PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

Fathers, 1905, pp. 53 seq., 71 seq., 94 seq., with R. J. Knowling's
Testimony of St Paul to Christ, pp. 1 1 1 seq. and Gregory's Canon
and Text of N. T., 1907, pp. 205-206).

Bibliography. — The ablest among recent editions of the Greek
text are those of R. A. Lipsius (Hand-Commentar zum N. T., 2nd ed.,
1892), E. Haupt (in Meyer' sKommentar, 1902) and H. A. A. Kennedy
(Expositor's Greek Testament, 1903), to which may be added the
older commentaries of C. J. Ellicott (5th ed., 1888), J. B. Lightfoot
(6th ed., 1 891) and A. Klopper (1893), which in some respects are
not yet superseded. Other modern editions by M. R. Vincent
{Internal. Crit. Commentary, 1897), H. C. G. Moule {Cambridge
Greek Testament, 1897) and J. M. S. Baljon (1904) are worthy of
notice, as well as the Roman Catholic commentaries by P. Beelen
(Louvain, 1852) and A. Bisping (1866). The earlier work on the
epistle is adequately summarized by B. Weiss in his Der Philipper-
brief ausgelegt u. die Geschichte seiner Auslegung kritisch dargestellt
(1859). There are brief popular commentaries in German by A.
Neander (Eng. trans., 1 85 1, Edinburgh), K. Braune (in Lange's Bibel-
Werk, 2nd ed., 1875), Von Soden (1890), K. J. Miiller (1899) and
W. Lueken (in Die Schriflen des N. T., 1906); in English by C. J.
Vaughan, M. F. Sadler (1889), J. Agar Beet, G. C. Martin {Century
Bible) and Principal Drummond (Internat. Handbooks to N. T.,
1899). In addition to the literature cited in the course of this
article, consult the general studies by M. Hasselmann (Analyse
pragmatique de Vipitre aux Phil., 1862) ; A. Sabatier (Encycl. des
sciences relig. x. 569-573) ; J. Gibb (Hastings's Diet. Bible, iii.
840-844); Sir W. M. Ramsay (St Paul the Traveller, ch. x., xv.
§ 4) and R. R. Smith (The Epistle of St. Paul's First Trial, Cam-
bridge, 1899) ; besides the older essays of Rettig (Quaesliones philip-
pienses, Giessen, 1831) and C. Miiller (Comment, de locis quibusdam
epistolae ad Phil., 1844). The case against the Pauline authorship
was stated most fully by F. C. Baur (Paulus, Eng. trans., ii. 45 seq.
and in Theol. Jahrb., 1849, pp. 501 seq., 1852, pp. 133 seq.) ; E. Hinsch
(Zeitschrift fur wiss. Theol., 1873, pp. 59 seq.); S. Hoekstra (Theol.
Tijdschrift, 1875, pp. 416 seq.); J. P. Straatman (De Gemeente te
Rome, 1878, pp. 201 seq.); C. Holsten (Jahrb. fur protest. Theologie,
1875, pp. 425 seq. 1876, pp. 58 seq., 282 seq.); and Van Manen
(Handeleiding voor de oudchrist. Letterkunde, 1900, pp. 49-51, 82-84;
also in Ency. Bib., 3703-3713). The most thorough replies have been
those of Lunemann (Pauli ad Philipp. epistola contra Baurium
defensa, 1847); Ernesti (Studien und Kritiken, 1848, pp. 858-924,
1851, pp. 591-632); B. Bruckner (Epistola ad Phil. Paulo auctori
vindicata contra Baurium, 1848); A. Resch (De V Authent. de Vipitre
aux Ph., 1850); Grimm (Zeitschrift fitr wiss. Theologie, 1873, pp. 33
seq.); Hilgenfeld (ibid., 1884, pp. 498 seq.); C. Weizsacker (Apostolic
Age, i. 218 seq., 279 seq., ii. 131) and Clemen (Paulus, i. 130-138).
The religious ideas of the epistle are best stated in English by
Principal Rainy (Philippians, Expositor's Bible) and H. C. G. Moule
(Philippian Studi-es, 1897). Of the numberless monographs on
ii. 6 seq., the most full is Tholuck's Disputatio chrislologica de loco
Pauli, Phil. ii. 6-g; and discussions of special excellence may be
found in A. B. Bruce, The Humiliation of Christ (3rd ed., 1889,
pp. 15 seq., 357 seq.); Weiffenbach's Zur Auslegung d. Stelle Phil,
ii. 5-11 (Karlsruhe, 1884); and E. H. Gifford, The Incarnation
(reprinted from the Expositor, 1896). (J. Mt.)

PHILIPPICS, in classical literature, a series of orations
delivered by Demosthenes against Philip of Macedon. The
name was applied to the speeches of Cicero against Mark
Antony, and " Philippic " has passed into general use in the
sense of an impassioned invective or declamation.

PHILIPPICUS, East Roman emperor, 71 1-7 13, was the son of
the patrician Nicephorus, and became distinguished as a soldier
under Justinian II. His proper name, which indicates his
Armenian origin, was Bardanes. Relying on the support of the
Monothelite party, he made some pretensions to the throne on
the outbreak of the first great rebellion against Justinian; these
led to his relegation to Cephalonia by Tiberius Absimarus, and
subsequently to his banishment, by order of Justinian, to
Cherson. Here Bardanes, taking the name of Philippicus,
successfully incited the inhabitants to revolt, and on the assas-
sination of Justinian he at once assumed the purple. Among his
first acts were the deposition of Cyrus, the orthodox patriarch
of Constantinople, in favour of John, a member of his own sect,
and the summoning of a conciliabulum of Eastern bishops, which
abolished the canons of the sixth general council. Meanwhile
Terbelis, king of the Bulgarians, plundered up to the walls of
Constantinople, and shortly afterwards the Saracens made similar
inroads from the Asiatic side. The reign of Philippicus was
brought to a close through a conspiracy headed by two of his
generals, who caused him to be blinded.

See Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury,
London, 1896), v. 183-184.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, or The Philippines, an archipelago
belonging to the United States of America, situated about 500 m.
off the S.E. coast of Asia between 4° 40' and 21 10' N. and
between 116° 40' and 126 34' E. It is bounded W. arid N. by
the China Sea, E. by the Pacific Ocean, and S. by the Celebes Sea
and the coastal waters of Borneo. Of the large islands, Luzon
(40,969 sq. m.) is the most northerly, and Mindanao (36,292
sq. m.), the most southerly. Between Luzon and Mindanao are
Samar (5031 sq. m.), Negros (4881 sq. m.), Panay (4611 sq. m.),
Mindoro (3851 sq. m.), Leyte (2722 sq. m.), Cebu (1762 sq. m.),
Bohol (1441 sq. m.) and Masbate (1236 sq. m.). Farther west
and separated from the southern portion of this chain is the long
narrow island of Palawan or Paragua (4027 sq. m.). The total
land area of the Philippines is about 115,026 sq. m., and 92% of
this is included in the eleven islands named above. There are
twenty others, which have an area ranging from 106 sq. m. to
682 sq. m., and the total number of islands enumerated within
the archipelago is 3141; of these 2775 contain less than 1 sq. m.
each.

Physical Features. — The islands are mainly of volcanic origin, and
their surface is much broken by hills, isolated volcanoes and
mountain ranges, trending north and south, north-west and south-
east, or north-east and south-west. Extending for 350 m. along
the east coast of central and northern Luzon is the Sierra Madre
range, rising in occasional peaks to more than 4500 ft. and seldom
less than 3500 ft. On the west coast are the Caraballos Occidentales
north from the Gulf of Lingay6n and the Zambales southward from
that gulf to Manila Bay. The Caraballos Occidentales range is
very complex; the central ridge is in some parts a rolling plateau,
but it rises in Mt Data to 7364 ft., and numerous lofty spurs project
from it. Much of the Zambales range has an average height of
4000 ft. or more, and several peaks are more than 5000 ft. high.
Between the Sierra Madre and Caraballos Occidentales is the valley
of the Cagayan river, about 50 m. wide, and east of the Zambales
range is a lowland basin, about 150 m. long and 50 m. wide, and
not more than 100 ft. above the sea except near its centre, where
the extinct volcano of Arayat rises to 3564 ft. The greater part
of southern Luzon is occupied by isolated volcanoes and irregular
masses of hills and mountains. Mt Mayon (7916 ft.), near the
south-eastern extremity, is an active volcano with an almost
perfect cone. Of less prominence are Mt Banajao (7382 ft.), Mt
lsarog (6634 ft.) and Mt Masaraga (5244 ft.). The island of Min-
danao is traversed north to south by mountain ranges, which
rise in their summits to heights exceeding 4000 ft. That along
the east coast is longest and least broken, and between it and the
next range inland is the level valley of the Agusan river, from 40
to 50 m. wide. Farther west and south-west is the valley of the
Rio Grande Mindanao, the largest river on the island, and between
the lower course of this river and the south coast is a mountain
range with a north-west and south-east trend. On the east border
of the south portion of the basin of the Rio Grande Mindanao is
Mt Apo (10,312 ft.), an extinct volcano and the highest elevation
in the archipelago.

Each of the larger islands between Luzon and Mindanao, except
Samar and Bohol, is traversed longitudinally by a single mountain
range with occasional spurs. In Leyte there are several isolated
volcanic cones, two of which, in the north part, exceed 4000 ft.
In Mindoro the range is broad, extending from coast to coast,
and it culminates in Mt Halcon (about 8800 ft.). In Negros is
Mt Canlaon (8192 ft.), a volcano, and several summits exceeding
6000 ft. In Panay is Mt Madiaas (7264 ft.) and several other peaks
exceeding 4000 ft. The highest peaks in Masbate are about 2500 ft.
high, and in Cebii not much more than 2000 ft. In Samar there
are irregular masses of hills. The southern portion of Bohol is
very hilly, but the northern portion is more level. Palawan, 275 m.
long and about 15 m. wide, is traversed throughout its length
by a range of mountains with an average height of 4000 to 5000 ft.
and a few summits about 6000 ft. high. Submarine mountain
ranges connect not only the islands within the archipelago, but also
the archipelago itself with Borneo and Celebes, so that only shallow
channels connect the interior waters with the Pacific Ocean and the
China Sea. The coast-line of the Philippines, more than 11,000 m.
in length, is fringed with coral reefs and broken by numerous gulfs
and bays.

The Cagayan river, in north Luzon, is the largest in the archi-
pelago. It is about 220 m. long and drains to the northward
about 10,000 sq. m., or nearly one-fourth of the island. The Rio
Grande de Mindanao (known in its upper course as the Rio Pulangua)
drains to the south and west a larger area in central and southern
Mindanao and is second in size. It and the Agusan, which drains
to the northward the mountain valley in east Mindanao, are each
over 200 m. in length. The principal rivers of the lowland basin
of central Luzon are the Pampanga and the Agno. The Pampanga
rises in the highlands on the north-east border, flows south by west,
and discharges through several channels into Manila Bay. The

(\\ oajTIG'n tf ' G Longitude East 122° of Greenwich T)

Emery Walker K.

v *o /.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

393

Agno rises in the mountains on the north border, flows south,
south-west and north-west, and discharges through several channels
into the Gulf of Lingayen. Each of these has a great number of
small tributaries, and along the coast of this lowland basin are
many small tide water stieams. The Pasig is a short but commer-
cially important stream connecting Laguna de Bay with Manila Bay.
The Rio Bicol, which rises in Lake Bato and flows N.N.W. into San
Miguel Bay, is the principal river of south Luzon. Samar, Panay,
Negros, Leyte, Bohol and Cebu are drained by many streams, and a
few of those in Samar, Panay and Negros are of considerable size.

In the lowland basin of central Luzon, 6 m. inland from Manila
Bay, is Laguna de Bay, the largest body of fresh water in the
Philippines. It is 32 m. long from north-west to south-east
and its coast-line, broken on the north by two hilly peninsulas, is
108 m. long. Lake Taal, a few miles south-west of Laguna de Bay,
occupies the crater of a great volcano. It 1 is 17! m. long and
12 m. wide. The country rises gently to it on all sides, and on an
island near its centre is the active volcano of Taal, 1050 ft. high.
In north Luzon is Lake Cagayan. In Mindanao there are lakes
Lanao, Liguasan and Buluan in the west-central portion and
lakes Mainit, Pinaya, Dagun, Sadocum and Linao in the valley
of the Agusan. There are small lakes in some of the other islands.
Geology. — The Philippines appear to be the remnants of a some-
what complex system of mountain arcs, which from their similarity
of form and direction seem to be in some way connected with the
mountain ranges of Annam. The oldest rocks exposed are gneiss,
talc-schist and serpentine, with intrusive masses of gabbro and
diabase. These are overlaid by a limestone, upon which rests con-
formably a series of sandstones with coal seams. The age of these
beds is unknown. In some of the islands nummulitic limestone
(Eocene) occurs. Coral limestones, probably of Middle Tertiary
age, are also found, sometimes 4000 ft. above the sea, and marine
deposits of a very late geological period occur near the coast and in
the low-lying depressions. Volcanic rocks of modern date cover
extensive areas, especially in the southern part of Luzon and in
Mindanao. In Luzon trachytic tuffs are sometimes interstratified
with nummulitic limestone, thus showing that the eruptions had
already begun in the Eocene period.

Volcanoes and Earthquakes. — There are twelve active volcanoes in
the archipelago. They are Babuyan Claro, Camiguin de Babuyanes
and Didicas in the Babuyanes Islands off the north coast of Luzon;
Cagua or Caua in north Luzon,; Taal, Mayon and Bulusan in south
Luzon; Canlaon and Magaso in Negros; Camiguin de Mindanao in
the island of Camiguin, off the north coast of Mindanao; and Apo
and Calayo in Mindanao. Only a few eruptions have been recorded
of any of these, however, except Taal and Mayon, and there has
been no great eruption of Taal since 1754. But there were 26
eruptions of Mayon in the 19th century, and those of 1814 and
1897 were of great violence. That of 1897 began practically without
warning on the 23rd of June, became alarming on the 24th and
destructive on the 25th, and ceased on the 30th. Streams of lava
completely destroyed several villages and injured others, as well as
the town of San Fernando. The lava flow extended more than
7 m. eastward, and a rain of ashes extended 100 m. to the east and
75 m. to the west. There are eight other volcanoes, which although
extinct or dormant have well-preserved cones. They are Arayat,
Banajao, San Cristobal, Isarog and Malinao in south Luzon, and
Macaturin and Matutum in Mindanao.

Earthquakes are frequent and occasionally violent. In the
seven years 1902-1908 the microseismograph at Manila recorded
796 local earthquakes. In the 47 years ending March 1909 the
various regions of the archipelago were visited by about 60 strong
earthquakes; 16 of these, in ten different regions, occurred in the
decade from 1890 to 1900. There were 8 in the year 1897 alone, and
one of these ruined the town of Zamboanga in west Mindanao and
caused considerable loss of life by falling buildings and immense
sea waves. A new island appeared at this time off the coast of
Borneo, near Labuan. The principal centres of disturbance are
in the valley of the Agusan, in the region of Mayon volcano, in
the region of Taal volcano, on Masbate Island, and along the north
shore of Luzon. The islands of Cebu, Bohol, Negros and Palawan
are rarely shaken.

Fauna.— The Philippines, politically speaking, and the Philip-
pines, zoologically speaking, are not identical areas; Balabac,
Palawan and the Calamianes being characterized by the occurrence
of numerous Bornean forms which are conspicuously absent from
the remaining islands. Although the Philippines are commonly
held to form an eastern extension of the Indo-Malayan sub-region,
there is a large amount of specialization in the fauna of the islands
eastward of the Palawan group. Mammals are scarce. No mar-
supials occur. The edentates are represented by the pangolin
(Manis sp.?) of the Palawan group. In the seas are found the
dolphin, cachalot and dugong. Wild hogs of at least two species
occur. The beautiful axis deer of Sulu has apparently been brought
there by man. Red or brown deer occur in Basilan, Mindanao,
Leyte, Samar and the Calamianes Islands. The number of species
and their respective ranges have not been satisfactorily determined.
In Masbate, Panay, Guimaras and Negros there is a dark-coloured
species marked with buff spots. Deer are absent in Palawan,
Tawi Tawi, Tablas, Romblon, Sibvyan and Siquijor. Humped

cattle are raised on most of the islands. They are killed for their
flesh, hides and horns, and little attention is paid to their milk-
giving properties. The water-buffalo, or caraboa, occurs in a
wild state in Luzon, Mindoro, the Calamianes group, Masbate,
Negros and Mindanao, but the wild herds are believed to have
originated from domesticated animals. The domesticated water-
buffalo is sluggish in its movements, and will not work through
the heat of the day; but it is a wonderful swimmer, and makes
its way through the worst quagmire with ease. It is universally
used as a draught animal and beast of burden. The most inter-
esting of the ruminants is the timarau (Bubalus mindorensis, Heude),
peculiar to Mindoro. Unlike the water-buffalo, it does not bathe
in water or wallow in mud. It is extremely wild, feeding by night
and sleeping by day in the densest jungle. It sometimes charges
the hunter without provocation, and is very dangerous when
wounded. It attacks and kills the much larger wild buffalo. All
attempts to domesticate it have failed. A chevrotain is found
in Balabac. The house rat, introduced by man, is a common
nuisance, and mice occasionally seriously damage sugar-cane and
rice. Squirrels are confined to the eastern chain of islands from
Basilan to Samar and to the Palawan-Calamianes group. In the
southern islands there is a tiny species, the size of a mouse. Very
large flying-squirrels are found in Palawan and Mindanao. Squirrel-
shrews occur in the Palawan-Calamianes group, and true shrews
at various points in the archipelago. Among the Carnivores
are the binturong 'and an otter, both found in the Palawan-
Calamianes group; two civet cats, which range throughout the
archipelago, and a wild cat of small size, which has been found
in Palawan, Panay, Negros and Luzon. Bats are very numerous,
and a number of the species are peculiar to the Philippines.
Galeopithecus and Tarsius range from Basilan to Samar; the former
occurs also in Bohol. In spite of all .that has been said to the
contrary, but one species of monkey (Macacus philippinensis,
Geoff.) has been discovered in the Philippines. It occurs on every
island of any importance. Its flesh is occasionally eaten by the
natives. Albino specimens of this monkey are not uncommon,
but the pure white monkeys, not albinos, said to inhabit Mindanao,
are mythical. The large fruit bats (Pteropus) occur in immense
colonies, and are sometimes eaten by the natives.

Especial importance attaches to the unexpected discovery by
Whitehead of a new and peculiar mammalian fauna, inhabiting
a small plateau on the top of Mt Data, in north Luzon, at an altitude
of more than 7000 ft. Specimens of 15 species were obtained,
embracing 5 new genera {Calaemomys, Chrotomys, Rhynchomys,
Batomys and Carpomys). Eight of the species were new and
strikingly peculiar. Their zoological relationships are probably
with Celebes and with Australia. Other discoveries include a few
new squirrels and bats, and the occurrence of a lemur (Nyclicebus
tardigradus) in Tawi Tawi.

The islands are as rich in birds as they are poor in mammals, the
total number of species recorded up to 1906 being 693, of which
about one-half are peculiar to the Philippines. A study of their
geographical distribution has demonstrated that the islands may
be divided into fairly well-marked groups, in each of which the
birds show a degree of specialization closely correlated with
diversity of environment and completeness and probable duration
of separation from adjacent groups. Balabac, Palawan and the
Calamianes show a very strong Bornean element. Mindoro stands
by itself. Luzon and the small neighbouring islands have 51 peculiar
forms. A close relationship exists between the birds of the entire
eastern chain of islands. Numerous genera and some families
which are absent from the central islands range from Luzon to
Basilan. These genera usually have distinct representative species
in Luzon, Samar and Leyte, Mindanao, and in some cases in Basilan
also. The greatest differences occur between Luzon and Samar
and Leyte. The latter islands have 22 peculiar species.

Sulu and Tawi Tawi belong zoologically to the Philippines, but
have 12 well-marked peculiar species, and many of the character-
istic Mindanao-Basilan forms are lacking. Panay, Guimaras,
Negros and Masbate constitute a sharply defined area, characterized
not only by the occurrence of 30 peculiar species, but by the absence
of important genera, and even whole families represented in the
eastern islands. Most of the mammals characteristic of the latter
region are lacking. It is a curious fact that Cebu stands quite
by itself, although the deep channel separating it from Negros
narrows at one point to about 4 m. Cebu possesses 9 striking
species of birds not known to exist elsewhere, and lacks many of
the characteristic forms of the central and eastern islands. The
zoological position of Bohol has not been satisfactorily determined,
but all existing evidence indicates that it must be grouped with
Samar and Leyte.

Among the more interesting birds may be mentioned the " mound
builder ' {Megapodius cumingi, Dillwyn), which buries its large
eggs in the soft sand along the sea beach, or under great mounds of
earth and dead leaves, often at a depth of three or more feet below
the surface. The young are forced to dig their way out and shift
for themselves. The eggs are highly prized by the natives. The
jungle fowl abounds. There are 35 species of pigeons and doves.,
many of them most beautifully coloured and all edible. Snipe, ,
plover, turnstones and other shore birds are abundant durinc

394

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

the cool season, and herons, bitterns and ducks at all times. The
birds of prey, 45 species, of which 22 are peculiar to the group,
vary in size from a tiny falcon not larger than a sparrow (Micro-
hierax) , to an immense monkey-catching eagle (Pithecophaga
gefferyi, Grant), which is strong enough to seize monkeys as they
leap from tree to tree. There are 21 species of kingfishers, 15
being peculiar. Of the 12 species of hornbills not one occurs
outside of the Philippines. Frog-mouths, bee-birds, night-hawks
and swifts are found in considerable variety. One of the last
{Collocalia troglodytes, Gray) constructs the edible nests so highly
prized by the Chinese. The best nests are obtained on the precipi-
tous sides of the Perion de Coron, between Culion and Busuanga.

There may also be mentioned 21 cuckoos, I cockatoo, 20 parrots
and parakeets, 20 woodpeckers, barbets, broadbills, starlings,
orioles, weaver-finches, larks, nuthatches, 28 beautifully coloured
sun-birds, and 23 flower-peckers, titmice, shrikes, swallow-shrikes,
tailor-birds, thrushes, fruit-thrushes, fairy blue-birds, fire-birds,
42 fly-catchers, 4 swallows, and 5 species of most beautifully coloured
ant-thrushes, as well as a large number of birds for which English
names cannot be readily supplied.

Reptiles and batrachians are abundant, but have been little
studied. Pythons occur throughout the group, and sometimes
attain enormous size. There are numerous venomous serpents,
but the mortality from snake-bite is low. Geckoes may be seen
on the walls and ceilings of any house. Flying lizards abound
in the forests. Large iguanas are numerous. Their eggs are prized
by the natives, and the flesh of one species, known as ibit or pelubid,
is highly esteemed. Crocodiles are extremely numerous in many
of the streams, and are occasionally found in the sea along the
coasts. Specimens have been obtained measuring 18 ft. in length.
Land turtles of small size are common. Very large sea turtles
arc often captured by the fishermen, and their flesh is highly appre-
ciated as an article of food. A considerable business is done in
tortoise-shell. Frogs occur in great variety. One small species
appears in immense numbers with the oncoming of the rainy season,
and at night the noise of its outcry almost deadens other sounds.

Fishes, especially marine fishes, are numerous and varied. About
500 species of food fishes have been found, and common among
them are the bangos or milkfish, the banak or mullet, mackerel,
herring, anchovies, groupers, snappers, pompano, tarpon and
bonito. The " dalag," which is found in the paddy-fields during
the wet season, is a favourite with the natives.

The Philippines are famous for the variety, beauty and abun-
dance of their land molluscs. Fresh-water and marine molluscs
are also very numerous. While most of the species are of interest
chiefly to the conchologist, there are a number of edible forms.
The shells of Placuna placenta, L., split into thin flat plates and,
cut into small squares, are almost universally used in place of
window glass. The valves of the giant clam (Tridachna) some-
times attain a length of 5 ft. and weigh hundreds of pounds. Pearl-
oysters are abundant in the southern waters of the archipelago.
Pearl-fishing is an important industry in the Sulu Islands. The
shells of the pearly nautilus are commonly used by the Visayans
for drinking cups. From the great opercula of certain marine
forms bracelets and other ornaments are carved, while the hard
serrated edges of other species are sometimes employed in place
of knives for harvesting rice. The land molluscs have been
thoroughly classified, but much still remains to be done with the
marine species.

Arthropoda are very abundant and as yet little known. Shrimps,
crabs and lobsters form an important source of food supply. Mos-
quitoes are numerous in the wet lowlands. Bees are abundant,
and wild honey and wax are gathered in considerable quantities.
The number of species of ants is very large. Some of them infest
dwelling-houses and swarm over the food. The termites, or so-
called " white ants," inflict great damage on wooden buildings.
Plagues of locusts occasionally, during a drought, ruin growing
crops ; in damp wet weather these insects are destroyed by a fungus
growth (Empusa gryllae) within their bodies.

Land-leeches swarm in the damp lowland forests. The coral
beds of Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago are of unsurpassed
beauty, and Guimaras, Cebii and Siquijor are completely covered
with a thick cap of coral limestone.

Flora. — The rich and varied flora of the Philippines is essentially
Malayan, intermixed with Chinese and Australian elements, but
with sufficient individuality to constitute a sub-region, there being
at least 769 species peculiar to the archipelago. More than two-
thirds of the land surface is covered with forests. In the lowlands
and on the lower mountain slopes the forests are composed chiefly
of broad-leaved trees, common among which are the bamboo, the
coco and other palms, and the banyan tree; but on the higher
mountain slopes pines are most abundant. About 750 species of
wood are of commercial or local value, among them are woods
well suited for structural purposes, inside finishing, cabinet work
and carriage making. Plants valuable for their fibre number
about 300, and among them is the abaca. (Musa texilis), from the
leaves of which Manila hemp is made. There are gutta-percha,
india-rubber and other trees and plants yielding gums, the banana,
mango, and many other trees and plants yielding fruits; and various
trees and plants yielding nuts, spices, oils and medicines.

Climate. — A uniformly high temperature, excessive humidity,
heavy rainfalls and violent tropical storms, known as typhoons or
bagiiios, are characteristic of the Philippine climate. At Manila
the mean annual temperature is about 8o° F., the range of mean
monthly temperature 6-48°, from 77 in January to 83-48° in May;
and the range of extremes (during the period from 1881 to 1902)
39-96° from 60-08° in January 1881 to 100-04° in May 1889. In
accordance with the monthly variations in temperature at Manila
the year is divided into three seasons: temperate (November,
December, January and February), hot (April, May and June) and
intermediate (March, July, September and October). Throughout
the archipelago the mean annual temperature varies much more
with the altitude than with the latitude, but the range in mean
monthly temperatures increases from 3-96° F. at Davao, Mindanao,
in 7° 1' N. to 12-6° at Santo Domingo, Batan Islands, in 20° 28'
N. The equability of the temperature also decreases appre-
ciably from the sea-coast to the interior. The maximum
daily range of temperature at Manila varies from 13-8° in June to
17-7° in December. At Manila the monthly average of relative
humidity ranges from 70-7° in April to 85-5° in September, and the
annual average is 79-4°. The mean annual rainfall in this city is
about 76 in., and nearly three-fourths of it is from the middle of
June to the middle of October, when the winds blow from the
south-west. During the period from 1865 to 1902 the annual rain-
fall varied from 35-6 in. in 1885 to 117-3 m - i n I ^(>7 when in the
month of September alone there was a fall of 57-8 in. In July,
August and September two-thirds of the days are rainy, but in
February, March and April only one-tenth of them are rainy. On
the Pacific coast of Luzon, Samar, Leyte and Mindanao the rainy
season is from November to May, when the winds blow from the
east or the north-east. In the year ending August 1903 the amounts
of rainfall at 41 observation stations widely distributed throughout
the archipelago varied from 16-2 in. at Zamboanga in west Mindanao
to 152 in. at Masinloc, on the west coast of central Luzon. The
Philippines are visited on the average by twenty or more typhoons
annually. About one-fifth of them occur in September. During
January, February, March and April they are rare; in May, June
and July they become increasingly common, and in August there
is a falling off in the number, L which reaches its maximum in
September, gradually decreasing in October, November and De-
cember. In the famous typhoon of the 20th of October 1882, the
vortex of which passed over Manila, an immense amount of damage
was done in the city. Two thousand persons lost their lives in
Samar and Leyte during the great storm of 1897. The typhoon
warnings sent out from the Manila observatory annually save
heavy loss of life and property.

Soil. — The soil, usually of a reddish-brown colour, is for the most
part disintegrated lava mixed with decayed vegetation; occasion-
ally there is also a mixture of disintegrated coral limestone.

Agriculture. — Agriculture is the principal industry. In 1903
about 40 % of the working population were engaged in agricultural
pursuits. The industry is, however, in a primitive condition.
The native farmers are lazy and slow to appreciate the advantages
of the methods recommended by the Americans. Only 9-5 % of
all the land in the archipelago was included in " farms " in 1903,
and less than one-half of the farm land was under cultivation.
La Laguna, Luzon, was the only province in which more than
50 % of the land was included in " farms," and Cebu the only island
in which more than 25 % of the land was included in farms; in the
large island of Mindanao only 1-4 %, in Masbate only 1-6 %, and
in Mindoro only 3-9 %. There were 815,453 " farms " or individual
holdings, but more than one-fifth of these were small parcels or
gardens containing less than an acre each ; about one-half contained
less than 2\ acres each, and the average size was 8-57 acres. More
than four-fifths of them were worked by owners, and the remainder
chiefly by share tenants. The principal crops are hemp (abaca),
sugar, tobacco, coco-nuts and rice. Most of the hemp (538,200
acres in 1902) is grown in south Luzon and in Samar and Leyte,
but smaller crops are produced in Cebii, Mindoro, Marinduque,
north Mindanao and south Negros; the crop became of commercial
importance about 1855, and in 1907 the yield for export amounted
to 112,895 tons. About two-thirds of the sugar is produced in
Negros, but it is an important crop in the provinces of Pampanga
and Tarlac, within the lowland basin of Luzon, also in the province
of Batangas on the south coast of Luzon, in the south and east of
Panay, and in Cebu. The production increased from about 6000
tons in 1855 to 300,000 tons in 1893, and for many years prior to
1887 it was a more important crop than hemp, but since the American
occupation the crop has been smaller. The total acreage in 1902
was 177,620 acres, and in 1907 the yield for export was 118,395
tons. Approximately one-half of the tobacco, 77,'632 acres yielding
37,485 lb in 1902, is grown in the valley of the Cagayan river,
and most of the remainder, which is of inferior quality, in the
neighbouring provinces of Union, Ilocos Norte and Abra, and in
Panay, Cebu, Masbate and Negros. The natives chew betel nuts
instead of tobacco, and to the production of these nuts they devote
more than 60,000 acres. The rich soil of the lowlands of the pro-
vince of Laguna is especially well adapted to the culture of the
coco-nut palm, and since the American occupation considerable
land in this province that had formerly been devoted to sugar

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

395

has been planted with these trees. They thrive well also in most
low districts along the coasts; in 1902 about 375,000 acres were
devoted to the culture of them.

Rice is the staple food of the natives. When the Philippines
were discovered by the Spaniards it was the only cultivated crop
of importance, and until the 19th century it was the chief article
of export, but as the culture of the more profitable crops of hemp,
sugar and coco-nuts was extended it became an article of import.
As late as 1902, however, about one-half of the land under cultiva-
tion was sown to rice. It is grown most extensively in the lowlands
of the south half of Luzon, in north Panay and in Negros, but the
culture of either the lowland or the upland varieties for local con-
sumption is very general. In some districts Indian corn is the
staple food instead of rice, and the production of this cereal in small
quantities for livestock is general. It is grown most extensively
in the valley of the Cagayan river, in 1902 the total acreage in the
archipelago was about 254,470. For several years prior to 1891,
coffee, grown principally in the provinces of Cavite, Batangas
and Lepanto-Bontoc, Luzon, was nearly as important a crop as
tobacco, but between 1891 and 1898 most of the coffee plantations
were destroyed by insects and disease. A small quantity of coffee
is grown in the province of Benguet, Luzon, and is of superior
quality. Cotton, the cultivation of which was discouraged by the
Spanish government as a means of increasing the cultivation of
tobacco, is a very small crop, except in the provinces of Ilocos
Norte, and Ilocos Sur on the west coast of north Luzon; in 1902
there were in these provinces about 5525 acres of cotton. Many
tropical fruits grow wild but their quality is often inferior; those
cultivated most extensively are mangoes and bananas. Grapes,
blackberries, figs and strawberries have been introduced from the
United States and are grown successfully in the province of Benguet.
The natives oare little for the garden vegetables common to Europe
and America, but in the vicinity of Manila and other large centres
of population the Chinese grow many of these for consumption by
European and American inhabitants.

With the exception of the water-buffalo, which is indispensable
for agricultural purposes, the domestic animals are very inferior
in quality and few in numbers. The horses, which are of Mexican,
Spanish and Chinese origin, are small and poorly cared for; some
American horses have been introduced for the purpose of improving
the breed. The neat cattle, which are of Australian and Indian
origin, are raised chiefly for beef, their hides and their horns;
about nine-tenths of them were destroyed by the rinderpest and
the war at the close of the 19th century. Swine are numerous but
they are of a kind known in the United States as " razorbacks."
There are many goats but only a few. sheep. In one district
near Manila duck-raising is of considerable importance, but
the principal branch of the poultry industry consists in the
raising of game-cocks for cock-fighting, which is the national
sport.

Mineral Resources. — Numerous mineral deposits have been
discovered, but little has been determined with respect to their
value. Sub-bituminous coal is widely distributed. That near the
surface is generally poor in quality and the difficulties of deep mining
may be great because of folds and faults in the rocks. There are,
however, promising fields near Danao, in Cebu; on the island of
Polillo, off the east coast of Luzon; in the south part of Mindoro;
on Batan Island, off the south-cast coast of Luzon; on Dinagat
Island, off the north coast of Mindanao; and in the north-east
corner of Negros. Gold has been found in small quantities in nearly
all the provinces. There is some rude gold mining by the natives.
As the result of favourable indications extensive gold-mining
operations have been instituted in the provinces of Benguet and
Ambos Camarines in Luzon, and on the island of Masbate. Copper
is scarcely less widely distributed than gold, but the production
of it awaits smelters and better facilities for transportation. There
are extensive deposits of iron ore (magnetite and hematite) in the
province of Bulacan, Luzon. Iron ore has been found in other
provinces of Luzon and in the islands of Cebu, Panay and Marin-
duque. There are outcrops of lead in Marinduque and Cebu, and
in Marinduque considerable silver is associated with the lead.
Among other minerals are sulphur, lime, gypsum and phosphate.

Manufactures. — The manufacturing industry consists mainly in
preparing agricultural products for market, and in the production
by the natives of wearing apparel, furniture, household utensils, and
other articles required to supply their primitive wants. The most
important factories are those for the manufacture of cigars and
cigarettes, but most cigars and some of the cigarettes are made by
hand. In the manufacture of sugar most of the mills in use extract
only about three-fourths of the juice from the cane; in 1902 about
73 % of it was manufactured by 528 mills operated by steam ;
'7 % by 470 mills operated by hand or by a carabao; and 10 % by
77 mills operated by water-power. In the principal rice-producing
districts the rice is threshed and cleaned by machines, but in other
districts more primitive methods are employed. Most of the cloth
which the natives wear the women weave in their own homes.
There are three principal varieties: sinamay, which is made from
selected hemp fibres and is worn by both men and women ; jusi,
which is made from a mixture of hemp and pineapple-plant fibres
with or without the addition of some cotton and silk and is used

for making women's dresses and men's shirts; pina, which is made
from the fibres in the leaf of the pineapple-plant and is used for
making women's garments, handkerchiefs and scarfs. Nipa, made
from the fibre of the agave or maguey plant and worn by women,
is less common. Hats are made of palm leaves, alaca leaves, banana
leaves, split bamboo and various grasses. Mats, rugs and carpets
are made principally of split bamboo; chairs and beds of balinag
and other woods and of rattan. Alcohol is distilled from nipa,
coco-nuts, buri {Corypha umbraculifera) , cauong (Caryota onusta),
pugahan {Caryota urens) and Indian corn. Other manufactures
of the natives include vehicles of various kinds, harnesses, indigo,
coco-nut oil, soap, salt and lime.

Communications and Commerce. — The first railway in the Philip-
pines was the line from Manila to Dagnpan (120 m.) which was built
by an English corporation under a guaranty of the Spanish govern-
ment and was opened in 1892. There was no further construction
for ten years. But in 1902 and 1903 the Philippine government,
as established in 1902 by an act of the Congress of the United
States, granted franchises for the extension of the Manila-Dagupan
railway to Cabanatuan (55 m.) and to Antipolo (24 m.). The first
of these branches was completed in 1905, the second in 1906. In
February 1905 Congress authorized the Philippine government
to aid and encourage the construction of railways by guaranteeing
4 % interest on bonds ; the duty on imported materials used in the
construction of railways and the internal revenue on Philippine
forest products used for that purpose have also been removed.
With this assistance the Manila Railroad Company, organized
under the laws of the state of New Jersey, agreed to construct
about 600 m. of railway in Luzon; and the Philippine Railroad
Company, organized under the laws of the state of Connecticut,
agreed to construct about 300 m. in Panay, Cebu and Negros.
In 1909 there were in operation more than 300 m. in Luzon, 60 m.
in Cebii and 50 m. in Panay. At the beginning of the American
occupation the roads were very bad and in many of the islands
there were none; but in 1909 there were at least 400 m. of good
roads. The Cagayan river, which is navigable for native boats
160 m. from its mouth, and for rafts 40 m. farther up, is an important
highway of commerce in north Luzon. Many miles of inland
water communication with small boats or bamboo rafts are afforded
by the Pampanga, Agno, Abra, Pasig and Bicol rivers in Luzon, and
by the Agusan and Rio Grande de Mindanao in Mindanao. There
are few harbours which admit vessels drawing more than 15 ft. of
water, but many which admit smaller vessels, and at the close of
1909 there were 151 steamboats and 424 sailboats engaged in the
coasting trade. Manila is the principal port of entry, and since
the American occupation Manila harbour has been made accessible
to vessels drawing 30 ft. of water. Cebu in Cebu and Iloilo in Panay
are ports of entry second and third in rank, although small in com-
parison with Manila ; there are others of minor importance.

The foreign commerce of the Philippines consists chiefly in
the exportation of Manila hemp, dried coco-nut meat (copra), sugar
and tobacco, both in the leaf and in cigars and cigarettes; and in
the importation of cotton goods, rice, wheat-flour, fresh beef,
boots and shoes, iron and steel, illuminating oil, liquors, paper and
paper goods. The value of the exports increased from $19,751,068
in the year ending the 30th of June 1900 to $32,816,567 in the year
ending the 30th of June 1908, and the value of the imports increased
during the same period from $20,601,436 to $30,918,357. A very
large part of the trade is with the United States and Great Britain.
The imports from Great Britain exceed those from the United States,
but the exports to the United States are much greater than those
to Great Britain, and the total trade with the United States is
greater than that with any other country. In 1909 8-05 % of the
imports were from the United States and 17-8 % of the exports
were to the United States; in 1908 16-4 % of the imports were
from the United States and 31-4 % of the exports were to the
United States. In 1909 free trade was established between the United
States and the Philippines in all goods which are the growth, product
or manufacture of these countries, with the exception of rice, except
that a limit to the free importation from the Philippines to the
United States in any one year is fixed on cigars at 15,000,000;
on wrapper tobacco and on filler tobacco, when mixed with more
than 15 % of wrapper tobacco, at 300,000 lb; on filler tobacco at
1 ,000,000 lb and on sugar at 300,000 gross tons. In the case of
manufactures the law provides that only those articles which do
not contain more than 20 % in value of foreign materials shall be
admitted free. 1 ,

Population. — The total population of the archipelago as
enumerated in the census of 1903 was 7,635,426. Of this
number 6,987,868 were classed as civilized and 647,740 as wild;
7,579,288 or 99-2% were native-born and 56,138 were foreign-
born; 7,539,632 were of the Malayan or brown race, 42,097 were
of the yellow race, 24,016 were of the black race, 14,271 were of
the white race, and 15,419 were of mixed races. Of the black
race 23,511, or 97-8%, were Negritos, who are believed to be the
aborigines of the Philippines. Nearly all of them live in a
primitive state in the interior of Luzon, Panay, Mindanao and

39 6

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

Negros. They are very short of stature, 4 ft. 10 in. being about
the average height of a full-grown man, and the women are
shorter. Their colour is black, their skull decidedly round, their
hair thick and frizzly, their legs thin and almost without calves,
and their toes so prehensile that they can use them nearly as well
as their fingers. They tattoo themselves and wear very little
clothing, usually only a geestring. They have no fixed abodes
but roam about in groups of a few families. They are skilful
with the bow and in throwing stones, and they can easily kindle
a fire, even in the wet season, by rubbing together two pieces
of dry bamboo. Their food consists principally of game, roots
and wild fruits. The women, who do all the work, collect wax
and honey, which are their principal staples in trade. Few
Negritos live to be fifty years of age. The brown race, which
came from the south in successive waves of immigration beginning
in prehistoric times, is composed of twenty-three distinct tribes
varying widely in culture, language and appearance; their
languages however belong to one common stock and there is a
general resemblance in physical features and in quality of mind.
The great bulk of the population, approximately 90%, is included
in seven Christian tribes as follows: Visayan, 3,219,030; Tagalog,
1,460,695; Ilocano, 803,942; Bicol, 566,365; Pangasinan, 343,686;
Pampangan, 280,984; and Cagayan, 159,648. The Visayans are
the principal inhabitants of the islands in the central part of the
archipelago (Panay, Cebii, Negros, Leyte, Bohol, Samar, Masbate
and Paragua) and on the north and east coasts of Mindanao ;
they were perhaps the most civilized people in the archipelago
when discovered by the Spaniards, by whom they were originally
called Pintados because they were in the habit of painting their
bodies; but since then their progress has been less rapid than
that of the Tagalogs — who constitute the bulk of the population
of Manila and central Luzon and the majority of the population
of Mindanao — who are now the most cultured of the brown races
in the Philippines. Most of the Ilocanos are in the western half of
north Luzon; most of the Bicols in south Luzon; most of the
Pangasinans in the province of Pangasinan, which borders on the
Gulf of Lingayen; most of the Pampangans in the province of
Pampanga, which borders the north share of Manila Bay; and
most of the Cagayans in the valley of the Cagayan river. More
than three-fourths of the wild population is included in the Moro,
Igorot and Negrito tribes. The Igorots (197,938 wild and
13,582 civilized) are the chief representatives of the early Malay
immigration to the archipelago. They are the principal inhabi-
tants of the provinces of Lepanto-Bontoc and Benguet in north
Luzon and are numerous in the mountain districts of neighbour-
ing provinces. Among the wildest of them head-hunting is still
a common practice; but the majority are industrious farmers
laying out their fields on artificial terraces and constructing
irrigation canals with remarkable skill. The Moros (275,224
wild and 2323 civilized) were the last of the Malays to migrate
to the islands; they came after their conversion to the Mahom-
medan religion, and their migration continued until the Spanish
conquest. More than one-half of them are in Mindanao and they
are the principal inhabitants of the small islands of Jolo, Basilan,
Siassi and Tawi Tawi south-west of Mindanao. Slavery is
common among them. They are generally miserably poor,
cruel and haughty. Nearly three-fourths of the foreign-born
and 97-5% of the representatives of the yellow race come from
China. The mixture of the races is principally that of the Chinese
with the Malays or the Spaniards with the Malays. More than
half the representatives of the white race (1903) were Americans.
Most of the inhabitants five in groups of villages. In 1903 there
were 13,400 villages and nearly three-fourths of them contained
fewer than 600 inhabitants each. Laoag in north Luzon with a
population of 19,699, Iloilo in Panay with a population of 19,054,
Cebu with a population of 18,330, and Nueva Caceres in south
Luzon (10,201), were the only towns with a population exceed-
ing 10,000; and Manila (219,928) was the only city. After the
1903 census many towns were enlarged by annexation of suburbs.
Government. — At .the beginning of the American occupation,
in August 1898, a purely military government was established;
but in May 1899 the military authorities began the re-establish-

ment of civil courts, and in July of the same year they began the
organization of civil municipal governments. To continue the
work of organizing and establishing civil government the president
of the United States appointed in February 1900 a Philippine
Commission of five members, with William H. Taft as chairman.
On the 1st of September 1900 this body assumed the legislative
functions of the central government at Manila; on the 4th of
July 1901 the executive authority was, by order of the president,
transferred from the military governor to Judge Taft, whom he
had appointed civil governor; on the 6th of September 1901 the
Philippine Commission, by authority of the president, established
the four executive departments, of interior, commerce and
police, finance and justice, and public instruction; and on the
29th of October 1901 the president appointed a vice-governor.
The Congress of the United States, in an act approved on the
1st of July 1902, ratified and confirmed the government as
thus established, but required that future appointments by the
president of the governor, vice-governor, members of the com-
mission and heads of the executive departments should be made
with the consent of the Senate. The organic act contained a
bill of rights, provided for the establishment of a popular
assembly two years after the completion of a census of the
Philippines, and more definitely provided for the organization
of the judiciary. The first popular assembly, of 80 members,
was opened at Manila on the 16th of October 1907, and since then
the legislature has been composed of two branches, the Philippine
Commission (five Americans and four, formerly three, Filipinos),
and the Philippine Assembly. The members of the Assembly
are elected by districts (the population of which is approximately
equal) for a term of two years. A voter must be twenty-three
years of age, must have been a resident of the municipality for six
months, must not be a citizen or subject of any foreign country,
and must possess at least one of the following qualifications:
have been an office-holder under Spanish rule, own real estate
worth 500 pesos, pay taxes amounting annually to 30 pesos,
or be able to speak, read and write either Spanish or English.
The legislature meets annually; a regular session is limited to
90 days, and a special session to 30 days.

Justice is administered principally by a supreme court, courts
of first instance, and courts of justices of the peace. The supreme
court consists of seven members, four Americans and three
Filipinos; and the chief justice and associate justices of the
supreme court are appointed by the president of the United States
with the consent of the Senate. The judges of the courts of first
instance are appointed by the governor with the consent of the
Philippine Commission. A judgment of the supreme court of
the Philippines which affects any statute, treaty, title, right or
privilege of the United States may be reversed, modified or
affirmed by the Supreme Court of the United States; an appeal
to the Supreme Court of the United States may also be had
in any cause in which the value in controversy exceeds $25,000.
The most common form of provincial government is that by a
governor, who is elected biennially by the municipal councillors
in convention, and a secretary, a treasurer, a supervisor, and a
fiscal or prosecuting attorney, who are appointed by the Philip-
pine Commission. Each municipality is governed by a president,
a vice-president, and a municipal council, all of whom are elected
biennially by the qualified electors of the municipality. The
Philippine " municipality " is an administrative area, often
sparsely settled, is often called a town, and may be compared to
a New England township; the municipalities are the units into
which the provinces are divided. Each municipality is made up
of barrios or small villages (about 13,400 in the entire archipelago)
and of one, or more, more thickly peopled areas, each called a
poblacion, and resembling the township " centre " of New
England.

Education. — The establishment of an efficient system of elementary
schools has been an important part of the work of the American
administration. Under Spanish rule the Church established
colleges and seminaries for training priests, but the Spanish system
of secular schools for elementary instruction, established in 1863,
accomplished little; the schools were taught by unqualified native
teachers and the supervision of them was very lax. The American

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

397

system, established by the Philippine Commission in 1901, provides
a course of instruction (in the English language) for 11 years:
4 primary, 3 intermediate and 4 secondary. In the intermediate
and secondary departments there is a choice of six courses; general,
teaching, farming, toolwork, housekeeping and household arts and
business. The administrative head of the system Is the director
of education, who is appointed by the commission, and who arranges
the course of study, approves the plans for school houses, determines
in what towns secondary schools shall be established and in what
towns American teachers shall teach, divides the archipelago into
school divisions .and appoints a division superintendent in each,
and supervises the examination of teachers and the application
of insular school funds. Associated with him is an advisory board
also appointed by the commission. In each school division, of
which there were 35 in 1908, the division superintendent appoints
the native teachers, prepares for the municipal councils estimates
of school expenses, and approves all expenditures from municipal
school funds. In each municipality there is a school board con-
sisting of the president of the municipality and from four to six
other members as the division superintendent shall determine :
one-half of them are elected by the municipal council and one-half
are appointed by the division superintendent. In 1902 there were
928 American teachers employed in the Philippine schools; the
employment of American teachers is only a temporary policy,
however, and by 1908 the number has been reduced to 795. In
1910 there were more than 6000 Filipino teachers who were teaching
English to more than 500,000 pupils. The total number of children
of school age in the islands probably reaches 2,000,000. The
insular government also makes annual appropriations for the
maintenance of Filipino students at educational institutions in the
United States ; in 1908 the number so provided for was 130. Besides
the elementary schools there are at Manila the Philippine Normal
School, the Philippine School of Arts and Trades, the Philippine
School of Commerce and the school for the instruction of the
deaf and blind, and in 1908 the Philippine legislature passed an
act for the establishment of a university of the Philippines.

Finance. — Revenue is derived largely from customs duties and
internal revenue taxes. In 1909 the receipts were $22,739,000,
the expenditure $23,337,000, and the total bonded indebtedness
$16,000,000. (N. D. M.)

History. — The Philippine Islands were discovered by Magellan
in March 1 5 2 1 . The first island on which he landed was Malhou,
between Samar and Dina&at. Then sailing south he touched
at Mindanao, from which he sailed north-west, past Bohol to
Cebu. Here he found a good harbour in the bay on which the
city of Cebu now stands. He made an alliance with the natives,
who undertook to supply him with provisions. With his new
allies he crossed to the little island of Mactan, where he was killed
in a skirmish. A Portuguese by birth, he had been sailing in the
employ of King Charles I. of Spain (the emperor Charles V.),
with the object of proving that the Moluccas lay within that part
of the world which Pope Alexander VI. and the treaty of Torde-
sillas (June 7, 1494) had given to Spain and not to Portugal.
Magellan named his discovery the Archipelago of San Lazarus.
The Spaniards, however, called the group the Islas de Ponienle
(Western Islands). The Portuguese called them the Islas de
Oriente. The distinction was not accidental. To the Portuguese
they constituted the eastern boundary of their world. From the
Spanish point of view the islands were on the extreme western
verge of the national domain. In 1529, by the treaty of Zara-
gosa, Spain relinquished to Portugal all claims to the Moluccas and
agreed that no Spaniard should trade or sail west of a meridian
drawn 297 leagues east of the Moluccas. This was a plain
renunciation of any rights over the Philippines, which lie several
degrees west of the Moluccas. This fact, however, was ignored
and in 1542 an attempt to conquer the Philippines was made by
Ruy Lopez de Villabos (c. 1500-1544). Villabos chose to honour
the heir-apparent of the Spanish throne by naming some of the
islands which he discovered, west and north of Magellan's
discovery, the Islas Filipinas. After the accession of Philip II.
(1555-1598) a much more important expedition was fitted out on
the Mexican coast, under the direction of the distinguished
conquistador, Miguel Lopez de Legaspi (1524-1572). In the
sailing directions, issued in 1561, for the use of this expedition
the phrase " las Islas Filipinas " was used as applying to the
entire archipelago. Starting on the 2nd of November 1564,
from Navidad, with four ships built and equipped on the spot,
Legaspi began an enterprise which entitles him to a place among
the greatest of colonial pioneers. He was accompanied by five
Augustinian friars and four hundred men. In 1565 he founded,

on the island of Cebu, San Miguel, the first permanent Spanish
settlement in the islands, destined to become the Villa de Santf-
simo Nombre de Jesus, later the city of Cebu. In 1571 the city
of Manila was founded and became the insular capital. Legaspi's
conquest of the islands was facilitated by the fact that there were
no established native states, but rather a congeries of small
clan-like groups, the headship of which was hereditary. Legaspi
was reinforced from time to time by small contingents of troops
and friars. Although he encountered enormous obstacles,
including famine and mutiny, the hostility and treachery of the
natives and of foreigners, and the neglect of the home govern-
ment, he laid a sure foundation for permanent Spanish occupation.
By a combination of tact, courage and resourcefulness he won the
hearts of the natives, repelled the Portuguese and, notwithstand-
ing the great distance from Spain, established the new colony
on a practical basis. Before his death in 1572 he had explored
and pacified a large part of the island territory, had established
trade, and had arrested the progress of Mahommedanism.

The conquest of the Philippines was essentially a missionary
conquest. Inspired by apostolic zeal the friars braved the
terrors of life in the remote villages, raised the natives The Friars
from barbarianism and taught them the forms of and the
Christianity. As a result of their labours the Chris- oftlcia,s -
tian Filipinos stand unique as the only large mass of Asiatics
converted to Christianity in modern times. The friars promoted •
the social and economic advancement of the islands, cultivated
the native taste for music, introduced improvements in agricul-
ture and imported Indian corn and cacao from America. Tobacco
was introduced by the government.

The colonial government was patterned on that of Spanish
America. The powers of the governor-general were limited
only by the audiencia or supreme court, of which he was presi-
dent, and by the residencia or official investigation at the expira-
tion of his term. The islands were subdivided into provinces
under alcaldes majores who exercised both executive and judicial
functions. The favouritism and corruption that honeycombed
the civil service of Spain frequently resulted in placing in respon-
sible positions persons who were entirely unfit. Hairdressers
were made into alcaldes, and sailors were transformed into
gobernadors by the miraculous grace of royal decrees. The
provinces were subdivided into pueblos, each under a native
gobernadorcillo, elected annually. The permanent offices could
be bought, sold and inherited. The mistake was made of paying
very low salaries to the officials, who took this as a justification
for illegal exactions. The difficulty of securing proper officials
gradually resulted in the more important civil functions being
handed over to the friars, who frequently exercised a benevolent
despotism. In more than half of the twelve hundred villages
there was no other Spaniard beside the priest. The Spanish
language was practically unknown. It was far easier for the
monks to learn the native dialects than to teach their parishioners
Spanish. For two centuries and a half after the conquest there
is little narrative history worth recording. There were border
wars with rebellious savage tribes, attacks made by Chinese
pirates seeking plunder or refuge, volcanic eruptions, earth-
quakes, tornadoes and the periodical visits of marauders from
the southern islands.

In 1762, however, as an incident of the war between Spain and
England, a British fleet of thirteen ships, under the command of
Admiral Samuel Cornish (d. 1770) and Brigadier- British
General William Draper (1721-1787), was sent to Occupation
the Philippines. The available Spanish army con- »t Manila.
sisted of about 600 men, while the attacking force numbered
6830. After a bombardment, Manila fell and on the 5th of
October the British entered the city. By the terms of the
capitulation the whole of the archipelago was surrendered to
the British and an indemnity of 4,000,000 pesos was to be paid.
As there was no governor-general at the time, the British were
obliged to treat with the acting-governor, the Archbishop Manuel
Antonio Rojo; but his authority was set aside by a war-party who
rallied around Simon Anda y Salazer, a member of the audiencia.
Anda proclaimed himself governor-general and practically

39»

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

succeeded in confining the British to Manila. At the close of
the war the Philippines were returned to Spain. Manila was
evacuated in March 1764.

For the first quarter of a century after the Spanish conquest
the islands were allowed free trade. Then came the familiar
Economic restrictions, limiting commerce to a fixed amount
Develop- annually, and effectively checking economic develop-
m « ,t ment. In r59i direct trade between the Philippines

and South America was prohibited. In 1593 trade between the
Philippines and Mexico, the only route open between the colony
and Spain, was limited to two ships annually, the ships not to
exceed 300 tons burden. The result was that the command of
the Acapulco galleon was rarely worth less than $50,000. The
passenger fare from Manila to Acapulco, at the end of the 18th
century, was $1000. This monopoly lasted until the Mexican
War of Independence forced the Spanish government to regard
the Philippines as being in the East instead of the West. Spain's
colonial policy was not based on an exaltation of the commercial
ideal. However much the administrators may have fallen short
in actual practice, the Spanish ideal was to preserve and civilize
the native races, rather than to establish lucrative trading posts
where the natives might be easily exploited. In America the
laws which provided elaborate safeguards for the protection of
the Indians were, to a large degree, nullified by the lust for gold
and silver and the consequent demand for labourers in the mines.
In the Philippines the humane policy of the home government
had no such powerful obstacles to contend with. Business was
not developed. The natives were allowed to live the indolent life
of the tropics. Compared with the results of English or Dutch
colonization the conversion and civilization of the Filipinos is a
most remarkable achievement. Notwithstanding the undeniable
vices, follies and absurd illiberalities of the Spanish colonial
regime, the Philippines were the only group in the East Indies
that improved in civilization in the three centuries following
their discovery. The chief defect in the Spanish Philippine
policy was that while it made converts it did not make citizens.
Self-reliance, free-thought and mental growth were not encour-
aged. Progress in scientific knowledge was effectively blocked
by the friars. Their presses confined their activities to the
production of catechisms, martyrologies and handbooks in the
native languages after the fashion of the presses of Mexico. Five
hundred such works were printed and distributed in Manila
alone before 1800. To reach the masses, unfamiliar with
Spanish, manuals of devotion and outlines of Christian doctrine
were translated into the various native languages. Of the Bible
itself, no part was translated or published. A knowledge of
reading and writing was generally diffused throughout the group.
The era of discontent may be said to have begun in 1825 when
the loss of her colonies on the mainlandof America caused Spain
to take a more immediate interest in the Philippines,
Discontent. an d increased emigration to the islands. Between
1840 and 1872 thirty newspapers were founded. The
introduction of secular books and papers, more or less surrepti-
tiously, helped to spread the seeds of sedition. In 1852 the
Spanish Filipino Bank was established. In 1856 foreign trade,
hitherto confined to Manila, was permitted to enter the port of
Iloilo, and foreign traders were allowed to open branch houses
outside of the capital. The change in Spain's economic policy,
including an attempt to exploit the coalfields and to encourage
both agriculture and commerce, helped to awaken hitherto
dormant elements. In 1601 the Jesuits had opened a college
in Manila for the education of Spanish youth. In 1768 they
had been expelled. In 1859 they were permitted to return
on the understanding that they were to devote themselves to
education.

The Spanish Revolution of 1868 caused a further influx of
Spaniards and also the introduction of the pernicious " spoils
system." With every change of ministry in Madrid came a new
lot of hungry politicians anxious to fill even the more humble
colonial offices. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, followed
by the establishment of direct steam communication between
Spain and the Philippines, sounded the death knell of the peaceful

Rlzal.

missionary era and brought about the definite entry of the
islands into the world of commerce and progress.

The friars, by perpetuating medieval conditions in a country
that was now being opened to contact with the civilized world,
increased the feeling of discontent. The natural result was a
violent conflict. The more advanced Filipinos desired the fulfil-
ment of the decrees of the Council of Trent whereby the incum-
bencies in Christianized towns and villages should be held by
regular clergy and not by friars. Filipinos had, for generations
been ordained into priesthood although not received into
monastic orders. This measure was really aimed at the political
and economic supremacy of the Spanish-born friars, who had
by this time acquired 400,000 acres of agricultural land, more
than half of it in the vicinity of Manila. The agrarian question
added to the growing discontent. All the revolutions began in
the province of Cavite, where the friars owned 125,000 acres.
In 1872 the secret agents of the friars induced the native garrison
at Cavite to mutiny and thus give the friars an excuse to press for
vigorous action. The mutiny was not successful, but Father
Burgos, the leader of the reform party, was publicly garrotted
with three other native priests; and the native clergy were
declared to be incompetent to have the cure of souls. Several
of the richest and best educated Filipinos were convicted of
treason and banished.

With the increased facilities for European travel Filipinos
began to visit Europe and return with new and broader notions
of life. The most distinguished of the travellers was
Jose Rizal (1 861-1896). Born in Calainha, in the
province of Luzon, of pure Tagalog parentage, he attended
the newly reopened Jesuit university in Manila. He was then
sent to Europe to complete his studies, first in Madrid, where he
became a doctor of medicine, and later in Germany, where he
received the degree of Ph.D. He came into touch with advanced
methods of scientific research, acquired great ability as a writer,
keen perception of truth and an unflinching realization of the
defects of his own people, and the unpleasant but essential fact
that to have better government they must first deserve it. His
propaganda, aimed at the small body of Filipinos who had suffi-
cient education to appreciate political satire, was very effective.
His most famous novel, Noli me tangere, was published in 1886.
In this he drew a masterly picture, not only of the life and
immorality of the friars but also of the insolent Filipino chiefs
or caciques, subservient to the powers above, tyrannical to those
below, superstitious, unprogressive and grasping. Caciquism
or " bossism," government by local aristocrats, was the prime
feature of village life in the islands during the entire period
of Spanish rule and existed long before their arrival.

The campaign of Rizal, Marcelo del Pilar, Graciano Lopez
Jaena and Apolinario Mabini, the leaders in the "Young
Filipino Party," was a protest against both the domination
of the friars and economic and administrative _.
caciquism. To escape the vengeance of the friars, Fuipiaa
Rizal was obliged to flee to Europe. In 1892 he •
returned to the islands on the assurance of the governor, Eulogio
Despujols y Dusay, that he might live there in peace. His
enemies, however, succeeded in having him arrested on a charge
of treason. Meanwhile he had organized a reform party under
the title of Liga Filipina. Its object had been to procure, by
pacific means, several reforms in the government of the islands,
the chief of which were the expulsion of the friars, and the with-
drawal of the governor-general's arbitrary power to deport
Filipinos. The friars importuned Despujols for Rizal's life but
he persistently refused their demand, and met the case half-way
by banishing Rizal to Mindanao. Incensed by the failure of their
plot, the friars obtained the recall of Despujols.

The new governor, Ramon Blanco, was like Despujols and
many of his predecessors, humane at heart, but he could do little
more than hold in check the tyrannical schemes of
the clergy. The banishment of Rizal convinced the Katiaunan
reform party that peaceful endeavour was futile.
A secret organization, the Katipunan, was therefore started
to secure reforms by force of arms. It was founded by An4re?

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

399

Bonifacio, a schoolmaster of Cavite. In 1895-1896 the friars
acting as spies for the government, obtained the banishment
of many hundreds of natives.

On the day after the Katipunan conspiracy had been brought
prematurely to light by a traitor, three hundred prominent
Filipinos were lodged in prison. This precipitated
1896 ' ° tne revolt- The insurrectos attacked the civil guard
outside the city, but were unsuccessful. A week later
some hundreds of insurgents attacked the powder magazine at
San Juan del Monte, but were completely routed. Four of their
chiefs were taken prisoners and executed in Manila. Ten days
after the plot was discovered Manila and five other provinces
were officially proclaimed in a state of siege. The insurrectos
concentrated all their energies upon Cavite province. Several
villages fell into their hands. The insurgent commander-in-chief
was Emilio Aguinaldo. He was born in 1869 in Cavite, son of a
native farmer of considerable ability, and of a half-caste mother
whose father was a Chinaman. After attending the Tagalog
school at Cavite he entered the Jesuit College in Manila but did
not graduate. In 1893 he became municipal alcalde of Cavite,
and later joined the Katipunan.

The government was in a difficult position. General Blanco
had extremely few European troops at his disposal, and it was
doubtful how far native troops could be trusted. Reinforce-
ments were on the way from Spain, but the demands of Cuba had
already depleted the Peninsula of the best fighting material.
Blanco, blamed for not acting at once, was recalled. In
December 1896 General Camilo Garcia de Polavieja (b. 1838)
arrived as his successor, with General Jose Lachambre (b. 1846)
as chief of staff. Before Blanco left he had released Rizal and
allowed him to go to Spain, but the friars caused his arrest and
he was sent back to Manila, where he was executed by Polavieja's
orders in December 1896.

Lachambre took the field in Cavite with energy and succeeded
in quelling the rebellion in that province. He was then despatched
north. Numerous small battles were fought with Aguinaldo
and the insurgents, who were repeatedly defeated only to re-
appear in other places. Polavieja's demand for more troops
having been refused, he resigned, and was succeeded in the spring
of 1897 by General Fernando Primo de Rivera. Hostilities
continued, but the wet season set in, making operations extremely
difficult. Before Primo de Rivera could make much headway
against the insurgents affairs in Cuba became so serious that the
Spanish government cabled him that pacification was most
urgently desired. As a result he suspended operations and signed
the treaty of Biacabato (Dec. 12, 1897), by which Aguinaldo
and thirty-five of his chief followers were allowed to retire to
Hongkong with a cash indemnity of 400,000 pesos. The Madrid
government refused to confirm the terms of peace, and the peace
rejoicings in Manila were followed by the persecution of all
those who were known to have sympathized with the movement.
On the 15th of February 1898 in Havana harbour, the U.S.S.
" Maine " was blown up. On the 15th of March Primo de
Spanish- Rivera, learning that theAmerican Commodore George
American Dewey was mobilizing his fleet in the harbour of
War - Hongkong, called a council at which the Spanish

Admiral Patricio Montojo (b. 1839) stated that, in the event of
a conflict, his own fleet would be inevitably destroyed. Primo
de Rivera was now recalled and General Basilio Augusti (b. 1840)
took his place. With a new governor-general all plans had to be
reconsidered. Before' suitable defences could be made, word
came from Hongkong that Dewey had started for Manila and
Montojo hurriedly sailed from Subig Bay to Cavite, barely in
time to anchor before Dewey arrived. Few among his crew
understood handling a gun properly, and owing to the poor care
which his vessels had received they were actually inferior to
the individual vessels of the American squadron. Commodore
Dewey arrived in the Bay of Manila on the 1st of May, and totally
destroyed or disabled the Spanish fleet. The surrender of the
city was refused. The Americans occupied Cavite. The battle
of Manila Bay and the defeat of the Spanish fleet destroyed the
prestige of Spain throughout the islands. Insurrections began

in nearly every province. Aguinaldo and his friends were
allowed to come to Cavite in an American transport. With the
approval of Commodore Dewey, who allowed arms to be supplied
him, Aguinaldo successfully renewed his campaign against the
Spaniards until practically all Luzon, except the city of Manila
and suburbs, was in his control. Reinforcements arrived, and
on the 13th of August Manila was taken by the Americans, under
General Wesley Merritt (b. 1836).

The refusal of General Merritt to permit Aguinaldo's troops
to enter Manila created resentment on the part of the Filipinos.
A so-called constitutional convention was held at Malolos, and
a constitution was adopted. At the same time the Visayan
Republic was organized, and it professed allegiance to Aguin-
aldo's government. Neither Aguinaldo's government nor the
Visayan government was able to maintain order, and the whole
country v/as subject to the looting of robber bands/ The treaty
of peace between the United States and Spain, by which the
Philippine Islands passed into the hands of the former, was
signed in Paris on the 10th of December 1898, but it was not
confirmed by the Senate until the 6th of February 1899. During
this period the Filipino army remained under arms. On the 4th
of February hostilities broke out between the Americans and
the Filipinos. The latter were defeated on the 5th, at Paco,
with heavy loss. The American troops, now under General
E. S. Otis (b. 1838), following up the enemy, drove Revolt
them out of Malolos and then withdrew to against the
Manila to await reinforcements, which brought AmerlcaBS -
the total American force up to about 60,000 men. It is
unnecessary to trace in detail the gradual conquest of the
islands, or the hundreds of engagements, often small, between
the rebels and the Americans. Owing to the nature of the
country, and the hope of securing independence from a possible
overthrow of the Republican party in the United States, the
war was prolonged for two or three years. With the capture
of Aguinaldo on the 23rd of March 1901, the resistance became
little more than that of guerrillas.

Civil government was introduced as fast as possible. During
1899 the Schurman commission, headed by Dr Jacob G.
Schurman of Cornell University, was sent by The Taft
President McKinley to report on the state of affairs. Commis-
In February 1900 a second and more powerful slon -
commission was appointed, consisting of Judge W. H. Taft,
Professor D. C. Worcester (b. 1866), General L. E. Wright
(b. 1846), Mr H. C. Ide (b. 1844), and Professor Bernard Moses
(b. 1846). Under the presidency of Mr Taft it began to exercise
a legislative jurisdiction in September 1900. Its first act was
to appropriate $1,000,000 for the construction and improve-
ment of roads. It next provided for the improvement of
Manila harbour, which involved an expenditure of $3,000,000.
The fifth act extended to the islands the benefits of a civil
service based on merit. In 1901 a general school law was
passed under which 1000 American school teachers were intro-
duced. They were scattered among 500 towns, to teach 2500
Filipino teachers English and modern methods of school
teaching. Other legislation provided for the organization of
a judiciary, a supreme court, the enactment of a code of civil
procedure, the establishment of a bureau of forestry, a health
department, and an agricultural bureau and a bureau of con-
stabulary, made up of native soldiers officered by white men.
Ladronism was very widely distributed under Spanish rule,
and the old guardia civil committed outrages almost equal
to those of the brigands themselves. The new constabulary
has been eminently successful in maintaining law and order.
Great progress has been made in the scientific mapping of the
islands.

On the 4th of July 1901 the office of military governor was
abolished, the military forces being largely recalled, and the
part remaining being made henceforth subordinate civil
to the civil authorities. Mr Taft became governor- Govern-
general. A general amnesty was granted to all «•*<•
rebels and political prisoners who would take the oath of
allegiance to the United States. On the 1st of July 1902 President

4-00

PHILIPPOPOLIS— PHILIPPSBURG

Roosevelt signed an act establishing the civil government
of the Philippines and providing for a new legislative body.
A census was authorized and was taken in 1903. The act of
1902 also authorized the purchase of land belonging to the
friars. Although among such an ignorant and diversified body
as that of the Filipinos public opinion can hardly be said
to exist, there is no doubt that the hatred of the friars was
practically universal. When the revolution came the members
of the four orders had to flee for their lives, although the people
who killed or imprisoned those they could catch were generally
good Catholics. As the insular government could not safely
allow the friars to return to their parishes the friars' lands
were bought for $7,000,000. Mr Taft managed the delicate task
of conducting negotiations with the Vatican without arousing
the hostility of either Catholics or Protestants. On the 1st of
February 1904 General L. E. Wright became governor. He
was succeeded in 1905 by Mr H. C. Ide, who was succeeded
by General James T. Smith in 1906. The elections for the
first Philippine Assembly were held on the 30th of July 1907,
and 31 Nationalists, 16 Progressists, 33 Independents and others
were elected. The total vote cast was about 100,000. In
many districts the Nationalists' candidates promised that if
they were returned immediate independence would follow.
When the Assembly met it became apparent that the great
majority were more anxious to act as a dignified branch of the
legislature than to maintain consistency with their pre-election
declarations. The legislature convened for its second session
on the 1st of February 1909. During this session 72 laws were
passed, of which 23 had been introduced by the Commission
and 49 by the Assembly. Among the acts was one providing
for the continuance of Spanish as the official language of the
courts until 1913; an act providing for bankruptcy; and an
act fixing the age of majority at 21 years.

Governor Smith left the islands in May 1909 and was suc-
ceeded by W. Cameron Forbes. On the 6th of August 1909
the Payne and Colton bills became law, greatly promoting trade
between the Islands and the United States (see Communications
and Commerce). On the 2nd of November 1909 delegates
were elected for the second Philippine Assembly. (H. Bi.)

Bibliography. — See, in general, A. P. C. Griffin, A List of Books
on the Philippine Islands in the Library of Congress (Washington,
1903), with references to periodicals; T. H. Pardo de Tavera,
Biblioteca filipina (ibid. 1903); W. E. Retana, Aparato biblio-
grdfico de la historia general de Filipinas (3 vols., Madrid, 1906) ;
idem. Archivo de bibliofilo filipino (Madrid, 1895); J. A. Robertson,
Bibliography of the Philippine Islands (Cleveland, Ohio, 1908). For
statistics, general description and material on administration, see
Census of the Philippine Islands in 1903 (4 vols., Washington,
1905); Pronouncing Gazetteer and Geographical Dictionary of the
Philippine Islands (VVashington, 1902) ; Ethnological Survey Publi-
cations of the Department of the Interior (Manila, 1904 sqq.) ;
Reports of the Philippine Commission (Washington, 1901 sqq.) ;
Sir John Bowring, A Visit to the Philippine Islands (London,
1859); D. C. Worcester, The Philippine Islands and their People
(New York, 1898); F. W. Atkinson, The Philippine Islands (Boston,
'905) ; C. H. A. F. Lindsay, The Philippines under Spanish and
American Rules (Philadelphia, 1906); A. H. S. Landor, The Gems
of the East (New York, 1904); M. A. Hamm, Manila and the Philip-
pines (London, 1898); J. A. LeRoy, Philippine Life in Town and
Country (ibid. 1905); J. B. Devins, An Observer in the Philippines
(Boston, 1905); R. R. Lala, Philippine Islands (New York, 1899);
H. C. Potter, The East To-day and To-morrow (ibid. 1902); F.
Blumentritt, Die Philippinen (Hamburg, 1900); H. P. Willis,
Our Philippine Problem, a Study of American Colonial Policy
(New York, 1905) ; Edith Moses, Unofficial Letters of an Official's
Wife (ibid. 1908); W. B. Freer, The Philippine Experiences of an
American Teacher (ibid. 1906); J. G. Schurman, Philippine Affairs
(ibid. 1902) ; W. H. Taft, Civil Government in the Philippines (ibid.
1902) ; and Special Report to the President on the Philippines (Wash-
ington, 1908) ; and R. C. McGregor, Manual of Philippine Birds
(New York, 1909). For the history of the islands, see E. H. Blair
and J. A. Robertson, The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898 (55 vols.,
Cleveland, 1903-1909); J. Montero y Vidal, Histona general de Fili-
pinos (3 vols., Madrid, 1887-1895); Juan de la Concepcion
(1 724-1787), Historia general de Philipinas (14 vols., Manila,
1788-1792); Gaspar de San Agustin (1650-1724), Conquistas de
las islas Philipinas (2 vols., Valladolid, 1890); Le Gentil,
Voyage dans les mers de I'Inde (Paris, 1781); F. Colin Labor
evangelica, ministerios apostolicos de los obreros de la compaHia
de Jesus, fundacion. y progressos de su provincia en islas Filipinas

(3 vols., Barcelona, 1900-1902) ; J. Martinez de Zuniga, Historia de
las islas Philipinas (Sampaloc, 1803; Eng. trans., London, 1814):
J. J. Delgado, Historia general sacro-profana, politica y natural des
islas del Poniente, llamadas Filipinas (Manila, 1892) ; E. G. Bourne,
Discovery, Conquest and Early History of the Philippine Islands
(Cleveland, 1907); F. Combes (1620-1665), Historia de Mindanao
y Jolo (Madrid, 1897); J. M. Castillo y Jimenez, El Katipunan 6 el
filibusterismo en Filipinas (Madrid, 1897); E. R. Delmas, La In-
surrection de Filipinas en 1896 y 1897 (2 vols., Barcelona, 1899);
F. D. Millet, The Expedition to the Philippines (London, 1899) \
and J. Pellicena y Lopez, La Verdad sobre Filipinas (Manila, 1900).

PHILIPPOPOLIS (Bulgarian, Plovdiv; Turkish, Felibe), the
capital of Eastern Rumelia, and of the department of Philip-
popolis, Bulgaria; situated in the midst of picturesque granite
eminences on the right bank of the river Maritza, 96 m. E.S.E.
of Sofia and 97 m. W.N.W. of Adrianople. Pop. (1906) 45,572,
of whom a large majority are Bulgarians, and the remainder
chiefly Turks, Greeks, Jews, Armenians or gipsies. Philip-
popolis is on the main railway from Vienna to Constantinople,
via Belgrade and Sofia. The Maritza is navigable up to this
point, and as the city has communication by rail both with the
port of Dedeagatch on the Mediterranean and that of Burgas
on the Black Sea, and is situated in a remarkably fertile country,
it has become the chief commercial centre of southern Bulgaria,
and is the seat of both Greek and Bulgarian archbishops.
The residences of the richer Greeks and Bulgarians occupy the
slopes of the largest eminence, the Jambaz-tepe, in the centre
of the city; between it and the Nobtet-tepe, from the summit
of which there is a magnificent view of the city, is the Armenian
quarter; near the bridge over the Maritza is the poorer Turkish
quarter; and south-west of the Jambaz-tepe there is a suburb
of villas. On the Bunari-tepe a monument has been erected
by the Russians in commemoration of the war of 1877, and near
this is the new palace of the king of Bulgaria. The Sahub-
tepe is crowned by a clock-tower. Not far from it are the
beautiful Exhibition Park laid out in 1892 and the fine Journaia-
Jami Mosque. Near the Maritza are the remains of the ancient
konak (palace) of the Turkish pashas, the public park formed
by the Russians in 1877, the gymnasium, and the new Greek
cathedral. The city has a large commerce in rice, attar of roses,
and cocoons; other exports being wheat, wine, tobacco, alcohol
and hides.

Eumolpia, a Thracian town, was captured by Philip of
Macedon and made one of his frontier posts; hence its name
of Phtiippopolis, or " Philip's City." Under the Romans
Philoppopolis or Trimontium became the capital of Thracia;
md, even after its capture by the Goths, when 100,000 persons
are said to have -been slain, it continued to be a flourishing
city till it was again sacked by the Bulgarians in 1205. It
passed under Turkish rule in 1363; in 1818 it was destroyed by
an earthquake; and in 1846 it suffered from a severe con-
flagration. During the war of 1877-78 the city was occupied
by the Russians (see also Bulgaria: History).

PHILIPPSBURG, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of
Baden, situated on a sluggish arm of the Rhine, 15 m. N. of
Karlsruhe, on the railway Bruchsal-Germersheim. Pop. (1905)
2625. It has manufactures of tobacco and cigars, and some
trade in cattle and hops. Philippsburg, formerly an important
fortress, originally belonged to the ecclesiastical principality
of Spires, and was named Udenheim. In 1338 it was surrounded
with walls by bishop Gerhard. A later bishop of Spires,
Philipp Christoph von Sotern, made the place his residence early
in the 17th century, strengthened the fortifications, and renamed
it Philippsburg after himself. At the peace of Westphalia in
1648 the French remained in possession of the town, but in
1679 it was restored to Germany, and though again captured
by the French in 1688 it was once more restored in 1697. In
1734 the dilapidated fortress fell an easy prey to the French
under Marshal Berwick, who, however, lost his life beneath
its walls. It was restored to Germany in 1735, and was again
besieged by the French in 1799. The town was assigned to
Baden in 1803.

See Nopp, Geschichte der Stadt Philippsburg (Philippsburg, 1881).

PHILIPPUS, M. J.— PHILISTINES

401

PHILIPPUS, MARCUS JULIUS, Roman emperor a.d. 244
to 249, often called " Philip the Arab," was a native of Bostra
in Arabia Trachonitis. Having entered the Roman army, he
rose to be praetorian praefect in the Persian campaign of Gordian
III., and, inspiring the soldiers to slay the young emperor, was
raised by them to the purple (244). Of his reign little is known
except that he celebrated the secular games with great pomp
in 248, when Rome was supposed to have reached the thousandth
year of her existence. A rebellion broke out among the legions
of Moesia, and Decius, who was sent to quell it, was forced by
the troops to put himself at their head and march upon Italy.
Philip was defeated and slain in a battle near Verona. Accord-
ing to Christian writers, he was a convert to Christianity.

See Aurelius Victor, Caesares, 28; Eutropius, ix. 3; Zonaras,
xii. 19.

PHILIPS, AMBROSE (c. 1675-1749), English poet, was born
in Shropshire of a Leicestershire family. He was educated at
Shrewsbury school and St John's College, Cambridge, of which
he became a fellow in 1699. He seems to have lived chiefly
at Cambridge until he resigned his fellowship in 1708, and his
pastorals probably belong to this period. He worked for Jacob
Tonson the bookseller, and his Pastorals opened the 6th volume
of Tonson 's Miscellanies (1709), which also contained the
pastorals of Pope. Philips was a stanch Whig, and a friend
of Steele and Addison. In Nos. 22, 23, 30 and 32 (1713) of the
Guardian he was injudiciously praised as the only worthy suc-
cessor of Spenser. The writer of the papers, who is supposed to
have been Thomas Tickell, pointedly ignored Pope's pastorals.
In the Spectator Addison applauded him for his simplicity, and for
having written English eclogues unencumbered by the machinery
of classical mythology. Pope's jealousy was roused, and he
sent an anonymous contribution to the Guardian (No. 40) in
which he drew an ironical comparison between his own and
Philip's pastorals, censuring himself and praising Philips's worst
passages. Philips is said to have threatened to cane Pope with
a rod he kept hung up at Button's coffee-house for the purpose.
It was at Pope's request that Gay burlesqued Philips's pastorals
in his Shepherd's Week, but the parody pleased by the very
quality of simplicity which it was intended to ridicule. Samuel
Johnson describes the relations between Pope and Philips as a
" perpetual reciprocation of malevolence." Pope lost no
opportunity of scoffing at Philips, who figured in the Bathos
and the Dunciad, as Macer in the Characters; and in the " In-
structions to a porter how to find Mr Curll's authors " he is a
" Pindaric writer in red stockings." In 17 18 he started a Whig
paper, The Freethinker, in conjunction with Hugh Boulter, then
vicar of St Olave's, Southwark. He had been made justice of
the peace for Westminster, and in i7r7 a commissioner for the
lottery, and when Boulter was made archbishop of Armagh,
Philips accompanied him as secretary. He sat in the Irish
parliament for Co. Armagh, was secretary to the lord chan-
cellor in 1726, and in 1733 became a judge of the prerogative
court. His patron died in 1742, and six years later Philips
returned to London, where he died on the 18th of June 1749.

His contemporary reputation rested on his pastorals and
epistles, particularly the description of winter addressed by him
from Copenhagen (1709) to the earl of Dorset. In T. H. Ward's
English Poets, however, he is represented by two of the simple
and charming pieces addressed to the infant children of Lord
Carteret and of Daniel Pulteney. These were scoffed at by
Swift as " little flams on Miss Carteret," and earned for Philips
from Henry Carey the nickname of " Namby-Pamby."

Philips's works are an abridgment of Bishop Hacket's Life of
John Williams (1700); The Thousand and One Days; Persian Tales

(1722), from the French of F. Petis de la Croix ; three

plays: The Distrest Mother (17 12), an adaptation of Racine's Andro-
maque; The Briton (1722); Humfrey, duke of Gloucester (1723).
Many of his poems, which included some translations from Sappho,
Anacreon and Pindar, were published separately, and a collected
edition appeared in 1748.

PHILIPS, JOHN (1676-1708), English poet and man of letters,
son of Dr Stephen Philips, archdeacon of Shropshire, was born
at his father's vicarage at Bampton, Oxfordshire, on the 30th of
December 1676. He was educated at Winchester and Christ

Church, Oxford. He was a careful reader of Virgil and of Milton.
In 1 701 his poem, The Splendid Shilling, was published without
his consent, and a second unauthorized version in 1705 induced
him to print a correct edition in that year. The Splendid Shilling,
which Addison in The Taller called " the finest burlesque poem
in the British language," recites in Miltonic blank verse the
miseries consequent on the want of that piece of money. Its
success introduced Philips to the notice of Robert Harley and
Henry St John, who commissioned him to write a Tory counter-
blast to Joseph Addison's Campaign. Philips was happier in
burlesquing his favourite author than in genuine imitation of
a heroic theme. His Marlborough is modelled on the warriors
of Homer and Virgil; he rides precipitate over heaps of fallen
horses, changing the fortune of the battle by his own right arm.
Cyder (1708) is modelled on the Georgics of Virgil. Cerealia,
an Imitation, of Milton (1706), although printed without his
name, may safely be ascribed to him. In all his poems except
Blenheim he found an opportunity to insert a eulogy of tobacco.
Philips died at Hereford on the 15th of February 1708/9. There
is an inscription to his memory in Westminster Abbey.

See The Whole Works of . . . John Philips . . . To which is
prefixed his life, by Mr [G.] Sewell (3rd ed., 1720); Johnson, Lives
of the Poets ; and Biographia Britannica.

PHILIPS, KATHARINE (1631-1664), English poet, daughter
of John Fowler, a merchant of Bucklersbury, London, was born
on the 1st of January 1631. Her father was a Presbyterian,
and Katharine is said to have read the Bible through before she
was five years old. On arriving at years of discretion she broke
with Presbyterian traditions in both religion and politics,
became an ardent admirer of the king and his church policy,
and in 1647 married James Philips, a Welsh royalist. Her
home at the Priory, Cardigan, became the centre of a "society
of friendship," the members of which were known to one another
by fantastic names, Mrs Philips being " Orinda," her husband
" Antenor," Sir Charles Cotterel " Poliarchus." The " match-
less " Orinda, as her admirers called her, posed as the apostle
of female friendship. That there was much solid worth under her
affectations is proved by the respect and friendship she inspired.
Jeremy Taylor in 1659 dedicated to her his " Discourse on the
Nature, Offices and Measures of Friendship," and Cowley, Henry
Vaughan the Silurist, the earl of Roscommon and the earl of
Cork and Orrery all celebrated her talent. In 1662 she went
to Dublin to pursue her husband's claim to certain Irish estates,
and there she completed a translation of Corneille's Pompie,
produced with great success in 1663 in the Smock Alley Theatre,
and printed in the same year both in Dublin and London. She
went to London in March 1664 with a nearly completed transla-
tion of Corneille's Horace, but died of smallpox on the 22nd of
June. The literary atmosphere of her circle is preserved in the
excellent Letters of Orinda to Poliarchus, published by Bernard
Lintot in 1705 and 1709. " Poliarchus " (Sir Charles Cotterel)
was master of the ceremonies at the court of the Restoration, and
afterwards translated the romances of La Calprenede. Mrs
Philips had two children, one of whom, Katharine, became the
wife of Lewis Wogan of Boulston, Pembrokeshire. According
to Mr Gosse, this lady may have been " Joan Philips," the
author of a volume of Female Poems . . . written by Ephelia,
which are in the style of Orinda, and display genuine feeling
with very little reserve.

See E. W. Gosse, Seventeenth Century Studies (1883). Poems,
By the Incomparable Mrs K. P. appeared surreptitiously in 1664
and an authentic edition in 1667. Selected Poems, edited with an
appreciation by Miss L. I. Guiney, appeared in 1904; but the best
modern edition is in Saintsbury's Minor Poets of the Caroline Period
(vol. i., 1905).

PHILISTINES, 1 the general name for the people of Philistia
(Ass. Palastu, Pilistu; Eg. p-r-s-t), a district embracing the rich
lowlands on the Mediterranean coast from the neighbourhood

1 " Philistine," as a term of contempt, hostility or reproach,
appears first in English, in a sense equivalent to " the enemy,"
as early as the beginning of the 17th century, and later as a slang
term for a bailiff or a sheriff's officer, or merely for drunken or
vicious people generally. In German universities the townsfolk

402

PHILISTINES

of Jaffa (Joppa) to the Egyptian desert south of Gaza (on the
subsequent extension of the name in its Greek form Palaestina,
see Palestine).

i. Egyptian Evidence. — The name is derived from the Purasati,
one of a great confederation from north Syria, Asia Minor and
the Levant, which threatened Egypt in the XXth Dynasty. They
are not among the hordes enumerated by Rameses II. or Mer-
neptah, but in the eighth year of Rameses III. (c. 1200-1190) the
Purasati hold a prominent place in a widespread movement
on land and sea. The Syrian states were overwhelmed and the
advance upon Egypt seemed irresistible. Rameses, however,
collected a large fleet and an army of native troops and mer-
cenaries and claimed decisive victories. The Egyptian monu-
ments depict the flight of the enemy, the heavy ox-carts with
their women and children, and the confusion of their ships.
But the sequel of the events is not certain. Even if the increas-
ing weakness of the Egyptian Empire did not invite a repetition
of the incursion, it could have allowed the survivors to settle
down, and about a century later one of the peoples formerly
closely allied with the Purasati is found strongly entrenched
at Dor, and together with the more northerly port of Byblos
treats with scant respect the traditional suzerainty of Egypt. 1
That some definite political changes ensued in this age have been
inferred on other grounds, and the identification of the Purasati
with the Philistines may permit the assumption that the latter
succeeded in occupying the district with which they have always
been associated.

The Egyptian monuments represent the Purasati with a very
distinctive feather head-dress resembling that of the Lycians
and Mycenaeans. Their general physiognomy is hardly Cilician
or Hittite, but European. Their arms comprise two short
swords, a longer spear, a round shield, and they sometimes wear
a coat of mail; a curious feature is their tactics of fighting in a
circle of protecting shields. The chariots resemble the Hittite
with two crossed receptacles for the weapons, but obviously
these were not used by the Purasati alone. On archaeological
grounds the Purasati have been connected with the people of
Keftiu, i.e. Mycenaeans of Crete, although a wider application
of this term is not to be excluded.

See further, G. Maspero,. Struggle of the Nations, pp. 461 sqq.;
W. M. Miiller, Asien u. Europa, pp. 354 sqq. ; Mitteil. d. vorderasiat.
Gesell. pp. 1-42 (1900), pp. 113 sqq. (1904); H. R. Hall, British
School of Athens, viii. 157 sqq., x. 154 sqq.; Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch.
xxxi. (1909) passim; R. Weill, Rev. archeol., i. 52 sqq. (1904);
R. Dussaud. Rev. de I'hist. des relig., ii. 52 sqq. (1905). More re-
cently, A. Wiedemann, Orient, lit. Zeit. (1910), cols. 49 sqq. dis-
putes the identification of Keft with Crete.

2. History. — Biblical tradition, too, has recognized the
Philistines as immigrants from Caphtor (Amos ix. 7). They
appear in the pre-Mosaic age (Gen. xxi. 32, 34, xxvi.), at the
Exodus of the Israelites (Ex. xiii. 17, xv. 14), and the invasion
of Palestine. They are represented as a confederation of five
cities (Ashdod, Ascalon [Ashkelon], Ekron, Gath and Gaza)
which remained unconquered (Joshua xiii. 2 seq., Judges iii. 3;
contrast Joshua xv. 45-47, xix. 43). The institution of the
Hebrew monarchy (c. 1000 B.C.) follows upon periods of Philistine
oppression (Judges iii. 31, x. 7, n, xiii. 1-5; see Samson; Eli;
Samuel; Saul; David). The subjugation of them is ascribed

were called by the students Philister; they were "outsiders," the
enemy of the chosen people. It is supposed that this use arose
in 1693 in Jena after a " town and gown " row in which a student
had been killed and a sermon preached on the text " the Philistines
be upon you, Samson " (see Quarterly Review, April 1899, 438, note,
quoted in the New English Dictionary). " Philistine " thus became
the name of contempt applied by the cultured to those whom they
considered beneath them in intellect and taste, and was first so
used in English by Cariyle, and Matthew Arnold (Essays in Criticism,
" Heinrich Heine," 1865) gave the word its vogue and its final
connotation, as signifying " inaccessible to and impatient of
ideas." — [Ed.]

1 So the Papyrus first published by W. GoKnischeff (Rec. de
travaux, xxi. 74 sqq.), on which see A. Erman, Zeit. f. aegypt.
Sprache, pp. 1-14 (1900); W. M. Miiller, Mitteil. d. vorderasiat.
Gesell. pp. 14 sqq. (1900); J. H. Breasted, Hist, of Eg. pp. 513 sqq.;
Historical Records, iv. 274 sqq. ; H. W. Hogg, in the Theolog. Series I.
of the publications of university of Manchester, p. 90 seq.

to Samuel (1 Sam. vii. 13), Saul (xiv. 47), and David (2 Sam.
viii. 1; for Solomon see 1 Kings x. 20); but they evidently
recovered their independence, and we find that twice within a
short time the northern Israelites laid siege to the border fortress
of Gibbethon (1 Kings xv. 27, xvi. 15). Although this place
has not been identified, it is mentioned in a list of Danite cities
with Aijalon, Ekron, Eltekeh and Timnah (Joshua xix. 44, xxi.
23), names of importance for the history. Somewhat later the
evidence becomes fuller, and much valuable light is thrown upon
the part which the Philistine coast played in the political history
of Palestine. Gaza, the most southerly and famous of the
Philistine towns, was the terminus of the great caravan-route
from Edom and south Arabia, with whose Bedouin it was
generally on good terms. It was " the outpost of Africa, the
door, of Asia " (G. A. Smith), the stepping-off point for the
invasion of Egypt, and the fortress which, next in importance
to Lachish, barred the maritime road to Phoenicia and Syria. 2
It is necessary to realize Gaza's position and its links with trading
centres, since conditions in the comparatively small and half-
desert land of Judah depended essentially upon its relations with
the Edomites and Arabian tribes on the south-east and with
the Philistines on the west. 3 Jehoshaphat's supremacy over
Philistines and Arabians (2 Chron. xvii, n, partly implied in
1 Kings xxii. 47) is followed by the revolt of Libnah (near
Lachish) and Edom against his son Jehoram (2 Kings viii. 20, 22).
The book of Chronicles mentions Philistines and Arabians, and
knows of a previous warning by a prophet of Mareshah (east
of Lachish; 2 Chron. xx. 37, xxi. 16). In like manner, the
conquests of Uzziah over Edom and allied tribes (2 Kings xiv.
22, see 2 Chron. xxvi. 7) and over Gath, Ashdod and Jabneh
(ibid. v. 6) find their sequel in the alliance of Samaria and Damas-
cus against Ahaz, when Edom recovered its independence (so read
for " Syria " in 2 Kings xvi. 6), and the Philistines attacked
Beth-shemesh, Aijalon, Timnath, &c. (2 Chron. xxviii. 17 seq.). 4
These notices at least represent natural conditions, and the
Assyrian inscriptions now are our authority. Tiglath-pileser
IV. (734 B.C.) marched down and seized Gaza, removing its gods
and goods. Its king Hanun had fled to Musri, but was pursued
and captured; Ascalon, Judah and Edom appear in a list of
tributaries. Musri was entrusted to the care of the Arabian
Idibi'il (of the desert district), but continued to support anti-
Assyrian leagues (see Hoshea), and again in 720 (two years after
the fall of Samaria) was in alliance with Gaza and north Palestine.
Assyria under Sargon defeated the southern confederation at
Rapihi (Raphia on the border of Egypt) and captured Hanun;
the significance of the victory is evident from the submission
of the queen of Aribi (Arabia), the Sabaean Itamara, and Musri.
This Musrj appears to have been a district outside the limits of
Egypt proper, and although tribes of the Delta may well have
been concerned, its relations to Philistia agree with the inde-
pendent biblical account of the part played previously by Edom
and Arabian tribes (see Mizraim). But the disturbances con-
tinued, and although desert tribes were removed and settled in
Samaria in 715, Musri and Philistia were soon in arms again.
Ashdod (see Isa. xx.) and Gath were taken and sacked, the
people removed, and fresh colonies were introduced. Judah,
Edom and Moab were also involved, but submitted (711 B.c.L
Scarcely ten years passed and the whole of Palestine and Syria
was again torn with intrigues. Sennacherib (Sargon's suc-
cessor in 705) marched to the land of the " Hittites," traversed

2 See G. A. Smith, Hist. Geog. of the Holy Land, chs. ix. seq. ;
and M. A. Meyer, History of the City of Gaza (New York, 1907).
For the traditions associating Gaza with Crete, see the latter,
Index, s.v. Minos; the resemblance between the Minaeans of South
Arabia and Cretan Minos has afforded grounds for all kinds of
speculations, ancient (Pliny vi. 157) and modern.

3 Between the central Judaean plateau and the latter lay the
" lowlands " (Shephelah), a district open equally to Judaeans and
Philistines alike.

4 Cf. Gaza and Edom against Judah in Amos i. 6, and, for the
part played by Damascus, the later vicissitudes under the Nabat-
aeans (Josephus, Ant. xiii. 13. 3). It is difficult to date the alliance
of Syria and Philistia against Israel in Isa. ix. 11 seq. (on the text,
see the commentaries).

PHILISTINES

403

the coast and, descending from Sidon, took Jaffa, Beth-dagon,
Beneberak, Ekron and Timnah (all in the district ascribed to the
southern Dan). At Eltekeh (also in Dan) the allies were defeated.
Farther south came the turn of Ascalon, Lachish and Libnah;
Judah under Hezekiah suffered severely, and its western cities
were transferred to the faithful vassals of Ekron, Ashdod and
Gaza. The immediate subsequent events are obscure (see
further Hezekiah). In the 7th century Gaza, Ascalon, Ashdod
and Ekron were Assyrian vassals, together with Judah, Moab
and Edom — in all, twenty-two kings of the " Hittites " — and
the discovery of Assyrian contract-tablets at Gezer (c. 650)
may indicate the presence of Assyrian garrisons. But as the
Assyrian power declined Egyptian monarchs formed plans of
aggrandizement. Herodotus mentions the Scythian invasion
and sack of the temple of Aphrodite Urania (Astarte) at Ascalon,
also the prolonged siege of Ashdod by Psammetichus, and the
occupation of Kadytis (? Gaza) by Necho (i. 105, ii. 157 sqq.,
iii. 5). But the Babylonian Empire followed upon traditional
lines and thrust back Egypt, and Nabonidus (553 B.C.) claims
his vassals as far as Gaza. The Persians took over the realm
of their predecessors, and Gaza grew in importance as a seat of
international commerce. Nehemiah speaks not of Philistines,
but of Ashdodites (iv. 7), speaking an " Ashdodite " dialect
(xiii. 24) ; just as Strabo regards the Jews, the Idumaeans, the
Gazans and the Ashdodites as four cognate peoples having the
common characteristic of combining agriculture with commerce.
In southern Philistia at least, Arabian immigration became
more pronounced. In the time of Cambyses Arabs were settled
at Jenysos south of Gaza (Herod, iii. 5), and when Alexander
marched upon Egypt, Gaza with its army of Arabs and Persians
offered a strenuous resistance. Recent discoveries near Tell
Sandahannah (or Mareshah) have revealed the presence of
North Arabian (Edomite) names about the 2nd century B.C. 1
On the history of the district see further Jews; Maccabees;
Palestine.

3. Philistine Traditions. — The interdependence of the south
Palestinian peoples follows from geographical conditions which
are unchangeable, and the fuller light thrown upon the last
decades of the 8th century B.C. illuminates the more fragmentary
evidence elsewhere. 2 Hence the two sieges of the Philistine
Gibbethon by the Israelites (above) obviously have some signifi-
cance for Judaean history, but the Judaean annals unfortunately
afford no help (see Asa). Again, the Aramaean attack upon
Israel by Hazael of Damascus leads to the capture of Gath
(2 Kings xii. 17), and this, together with the statement that he
took " the Philistine " from Jehoahaz of Israel (ibid. xiii. 22,
Lucian's recension), bears upon Judah, but the statements are
isolated. Somewhat later, the Assyrian king Adad-nirari IV.
claimed tribute from Edom, Philistia and Beth-Omri (the
Israelite kingdom) ; the curious omission of Judah has suggested
that it was then included with the second or third of these (see
Jews, § 12). The Philistines naturally had a prominent place
in popular tradition, and the story of Isaac and the Philistine
Abimelech (Gen. xxvi., cf. xxi. 32) is of great interest for its
unbiased representation of intercourse, enmity, alliance and
covenant. But it is important to notice that a parallel story
(xx.) is without this distinctively Philistine background, and
this variation is significant. One account of the Israelite
invasion conceived a conquest of earlier giant inhabitants
(Anakim) who survived in Gaza, Gath and Ashdod (Joshua xi.
21 seq., contrast xiii. 3), but were driven out from Hebron by
Caleb (Joshua xv. 14, cf. Num. xiii. 22, 28). The Philistines
themselves are called the remnant of the Anakim (Jer. xlvii. 5,
so the Septuagint), or as Caphtorlm replace the earlier Avvim

1 Peters and Thiersch, Painted Tombs in the Necropolis of Marissa
(I905)-

2 Thus, the capture of Gezer by Egypt (1 Kings ix. 16) was pre-
sumably only part of some more extensive operations, but their
relation to Shishak's great Palestine campaign is uncertain; see
A. Alt, Israel u. Aegypten, pp. 19-38 (Leipzig, 1909). It would
be unsafe to infer much from the Eg. reference to the " messenger
(wpty, meaning ambiguous)" of Canaan and Philistia (Bull. Mus.
Cairo, i. 98).

(Deut. ii. 23, see Joshua xiii. 3). Samuel's great defeat of the
Philistines leads to " peace between Israel and the Amorites "
(1 Sam. vii. 14); and the migration of the Danites is placed after
Samson's conflicts with the Philistines (Judges xviii. seq.), or is
due to the pressure of Amorites (i. 34). Even in David's fights
with the Philistines in Judah, Jerusalem is Jehusite, neighbour-
ing non-Israelite cities are Hivite or Amorite (Joshua ix. 7,
2 Sam. xxi. 2), and his strange adversaries find a close parallel in
the semi-mythical sons of Anak (2 Sam. xxi. 16, 18, 20, 22).
This fluctuation, due partly to the different circles in which the
biblical narratives took shape, and partly to definite reshaping
of the traditions of the past, seriously complicates all attempts
to combine the early history of Israel with the external evi-
dence. The history of the Philistine district goes back long
before the time of the Purasati (c. 1200 B.C.), and if the
references to Philistines in pre-Mosaic times are treated as
anachronisms, those which can be applied to the i2th-nth
century do not at once acquire an historical value. 3 The refer-
ences of the time of the Exodus, the Invasion and the " Judges "
— whatever chronological scheme be adopted — must be taken
in connexion with a careful examination of all the evidence.
It is inherently not improbable that a recollection has been
preserved of Philistine oppressions in the nth century, but it
is extremely difficult to sketch any adequate sequence of events,
and among the conflicting traditions are situations equally
applicable to later periods of hostility. Biblical history has
presented its own views of the Israelite and Judaean monarchies;
Israel has its enemies who come pouring forth from the south
(1 Sam. xiii. 17, 18), while the founder of the Judaean dynasty
has intimate relations with a Philistine king Achish (or Abime-
lech, Ps. xxxiv.), or, from another point of view, clears the
district of a prehistoric race of giants. In the stories of Samson
and Samuel, the Philistines are located in the maritime plain,
whereas, in the oldest traceable account of Saul's rise (apparently
shortly before 1000 B.C.) they hold Israel (1 Sam. ix. 16, xiii. 3 seq.,
7, xiv. 1, n, 21). But there is no historical continuity between
the two situations, and the immediate prelude to the achieve-
ments of Saul and Jonathan is lost. The biblical evidence does
not favour any continued Philistine domination since the time
of Rameses III., who indeed, later in his reign, made an expedi-
tion, not against the Purasati, but into North Syria, and, as
appears from the Papyrus Harris, restored Egyptian supremacy
over Palestine and Syria. Upon the (incomplete) external
evidence and upon a careful criticism of the biblical history of
this period, and not upon any promiscuous combination of the
two sources, must depend the value of the plausible though
broad reconstructions which have been proposed. 4

Considerable stress is often laid upon Goliath's armour of
bronze and his iron weapon, but even David himself has heimet,
sword and coat-of-mail at his disposal (1 Sam. xvii.), and suits
of armour had already been taken from Mesopotamia by Teth-
mosis III. Chariots of iron are ascribed to theCanaanites (Joshua
xvii. 16, 18, Judges i. 19, iv. 3); but if early references to iron
are treated as unhistorical (Gen. iv. 22, Num. xxxi. 22,xxxv. 16,
Deut. iv. 20, viii. 9, xix. 5, xxvii. 5, xxviii. 48, xxxiii. 25, Joshua
vi. 19, 24) Goliath's iron spear-head must be judged together
with the whole narrative in the light of a consistent historical
criticism. 6

3 The inhabitants of Ascalon besieged by Rameses II. are repre-
sented as Hittites. For an attempt to treat the pre-Mosaic refer-
ences as historical, see A. Noordtzij, De Filistijnen (Kampen, 1905).

4 See on these, W. M. Muller, Mitteil. d. vorderasiat. Gesell.
p. 39 seq.; G. F. Moore, Ency. Bib., art. " Philistines," col. 3720
seq., and cf. H. W. Hogg, op. cit. p. 91. For the suggestion that
the " Philistines " have in certain cases taken the place of another
ethnic, see S. A. Cook, Crit. Notes on 0. T. History, pp. 43 seq.,
127 seq., 131 seq., 136 seq., 144; cf., from another point of view,
T. K. Cheyne, Decline and' Fall of Kingdom of Judah (1908), pp. xx. sqq.

6 The introduction of iron has been ascribed to about 1000 B.C.
(Macalister, Quart. Statem. p. 321 [1905], as against p. 122 [1904];
H. Vincent, Canaan d'apres V exploration recente, p. 235 seq.). It
need hardly be said that the height and might of Goliath must be
regarded in the same way as Num. xiii. 32; Deut. ii. n. The men
of the heroic age are giants, as were the 'Ad and Thamud to the
later Arabs.

404

PHILISTUS

4. Conclusions. — The Philistines appear in the Old Testament
as a Semitic or at least a thoroughly Semitized people. Their
proper names show that before and even during the Persian
age their languages differed only dialectically from Hebrew.
Among the exceptions must be reckoned Achish (Sept. &kxovs),
with which has been compared Ikausu, a king of Ekron (7th
century) and the "Keftian" name Akashau of the XlXth
Egyptian dynasty. Names in -ath (Goliath; Ahuzzath, Gen.
xxvi.) are not restricted to Philistines, and Phicol (ibid.) is
too obscure to serve as evidence. The religion is not novel.
The male god Dagon has his partner Astarte (qg.v.), and
Baal-zebub, a famous oracle of Ekron (2 Kings i.) finds
a parallel in the local " baals " of Palestine. 1 Even when
the region seems to be completely Hellenized after the
Persian age, it is not so certain that Greek culture pervaded
all classes (see G. F. Moore, Ency. Bib. col. 3726), although
a certain amount of foreign influence probably made itself
felt upon the coast-towns at all times. The use of the
term aXh6<j>vkoi in Maccabaean and later writings (cf. the
contemptuous hatred of Ben Sira, Ecclesiasticus 1. 26, and the
author of Jubilees xxiv. 30 sqq.) correctly expresses the con-
ditions of the Greek age and the Maccabaean wars, and naturally
any allusion to the situations of many centuries previously is
quite unnecessary. Similarly, the biblical evidence represents
the traditions in the form which they had reached in the writer's
time, the true date of which is often uncertain. Antagonism
between Philistines and Israelites was not a persisting feature,
and, although the former are styled " uncircumcised " (chiefly
in the stories in the book of Samuel), the term gained new force
when the expulsion of uncircumcised aliens from the sanctuary
of Jerusalem was proclaimed in the writings ascribed to Ezekiel
(ch. xliv.). 2

In fact the question arises whether the history of the Philistines
is not that of a territorial designation, rather than that of the
lineal descendants of the Purasati, who, if one of the peoples
who took part in the events of the XXth Dynasty, may well have
bequeathed their name. The Mediterranean coast-land was
always exposed to incursions of aliens, and when Carians appear
as royal and temple guards at Jerusalem (2 Kings xi. 4), it is
sufficient to recall old Greek traditions of a Carian sea-power
and relations between Philistia and Greek lands. 3 Even the
presence of Carians and Ionians in the time of Psammetichus I.
may be assumed, and when these are planted at Defneh it is
noteworthy that this is also closely associated with a Jewish
colony (viz. Tahpanhes, Jer. xliii. seq.). Although the Purasati
appear after the i5th-i4th centuries, now illuminated by the
Amarna tablets, their own history is perhaps earlier. 4 But there
is no reason at present to believe that their entrance caused any
break in the archaeological history. The apparently " Aegean "
influence which enters into the general " Amarna " period seems
to begin before the age of the Amarna tablets (at Lachish), and
it passes gradually into later phases contemporary with the

1 See further, F. Schwally, Zeit. Wissens. Theol. xxxiv. 103-108.
A few Hebrew words have been regarded as Philistine loan-words,
so notably pillegesh, " concubine " (xaXXa/ci), iraWads, Lat. pellex),
and seren (rbpavvos) the title applied to the five lords of the Philistine
confederation; seren otherwise means "axle," and may have been
applied metaphorically like the Arab. £o?6 (W. R. Smith). On the
other hand, a common origin in Asia Minor is also possible for
these words.

2 In the prophetical writings the Philistines are denounced
(with Ammon, Moab and Edom) for their vengeance upon Judah
(Ezek. xxv. 15-17). With Tyre and Sidon they are condemned for
plundering Judah, and for kidnapping its children to sell to the
Greeks (Joel iii. 4-8; cf. Amos i. 6-12; 1 Mace. iii. 41). They are
threatened with a foe from the north (Jer. xxv. 20; Isa. xiv. 29-31 ;
see Zephamah), as also is Phoenicia (Jer. xlvii. 2-7) upon whom
they depend (cf. Zech. ix. 3-8). Judah is promised reprisals
(Zeph. ii. 7; Obad. 19), and a remnant of the Philistines may become
worshippers of Yahweh (Zech. ix. 7). The historical backgrounds of
these passages are disputed.

3 See J. L. Myres, Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxvi. 84 sqq.
(1906); especially pp. 108, 127 sqq.

4 This is suggested by the recent discovery at Phaestos in Crete
of a disk with evidence for a native script; see A. J. Evans, Scripla
Minoa (Oxford, 1909), pp. 22 sqq.; E. Meyer, Sizungsberichte of
the Berlin Academy for the 21st of October 1909.

Israelite monarchy. There is a fairly continuous intercourse
with external culture (Cypriote, early and late Greek), and, if
Gath be identified with Tel es-Safi, Bliss and Macalister, who
excavated it, found no trace of any interruption in its history.
Only at Gezer — perhaps Philistine, 2 Sam. v. 25 — has there
been found evidence for a strange race with several distinctive
features. Bricked vault tombs were discovered containing
bodies outstretched (not contracted); the deposits were of an
unusually fine character and comprised silve , alabaster and
even iron. The culture appears to find Carian and Lydian
parallels, and has been ascribed provisionally to the i3th-ioth
centuries. So far, however, of the cities lying within or im-
mediately exposed to Philistine influence, the discoveries at
Gezer are unique. 6

According to the biblical traditions the Philistines are the
remnant of Caphtor (Jer. xlvii. 4, Amos ix. 7), and the Caphtorim
drove out the aboriginal Avva from Gaza and district, as the
Horites and Rephaim were displaced by Edom and Ammon
(Deut. ii. 23). These Caphtorim, together with Ludim (Lydians)
and other petty peoples, apparently of the Delta, are once
reckoned to Egypt (Gen. x. 14) . 6 By Caphtor the Septuagint
has sometimes understood Cappadocia, which indeed may be
valid for its age, but the name is to be identified with the
Egyptian K(a)ptar, which in later Ptolemaic times seems to
mean Phoenicia, although Keftiu had had another connotation.
The Cherethites, associated with the Philistine district (1 Sam.
xxx. 14, 16, Ezek. xxv. 16, Zeph. ii. 5 seq.), are sometimes recog-
nized by the Septuagint as Cretans, and, with the Pelethites
(often taken to be a rhyming form of Philistines), they form
part of the royal body-guard of Judaean kings (2 Sam. viii. 18,
xv. 18. xx. 7, 1 Kings i. 38, 44; in 2 Sam. xx. 23 the Hebrew text
has Carites). However adequate these identifications may
seem, the persistence of an independent clan or tribe of Chere-
thites-Cretans to the close of the 7th century would imply an
unbroken chain of nearly six hundred years, unless, as is in-
herently more probable, later immigrations had occurred within
the interval. But upon the ethnological relations either of the
south Palestinian coast or of the Delta it would be unsafe to
dogmatize. So far as can be ascertained, then, the first mention
of the Philistines belongs to an age of disturbance and change
in connexion with movements in Asia Minor. Archaeological
evidence for their influence has indeed been adduced, 7 but it is
certain that some account must be taken also of the influence
by land from North Syria and Asia Minor. The influences,
whether from the Levant or from the north, were not confined
to the age of Rameses III. alone, and the biblical evidence,
especially, while possibly preserving some recollection of the
invasion of the Purasati, is in every case late and may be shaped
by later historical vicissitudes. It is impossible that Palestine
should have remained untouched by the external movements
in connexion with the Delta, the Levant and Asia Minor, and
it is possible that the course of internal history in the age immedi-
ately before and after 1000 B.C. ran upon lines different from
the detailed popular religious traditions which the biblical
historians have employed. (See further Palestine: History.)

For older studies, see F. Hitzig, Vrgeschichte der Philister (1845),
with the theory of the Pelasgic origin of the Philistines; K. Stark,
Gaza u. d. philist. Kiiste (1852), and (with special reference to earlier
theories) W. Robertson Smith's art. in Ency. Brit., 9th ed.

(S. A. C.)

PHILISTUS, Greek historian of Sicily, was born at Syracuse
about the beginning of the Peloponnesian War (432 B.C.). He
was a faithful supporter of the elder Dionysius, and commander

6 See R. A. S. Macalister, Quarterly Stat, of the Palestine Explor.
Fund, pp. 319 sqq. (1905), pp. 197 sqq. (1907), and J. L. Myres,
ibid. pp. 240 sqq. (1907). On the other hand, H. Thiersch would
connect the painted pottery of Tel es-§an, &c., with the Philistines
(Jahrbuch d. Arch. Inst. col. 378 sqq., Berlin, 1908); cf. also H. R.
Hall, Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch. xxxi. 235.

6 v. 13 seq. may be a secondary addition " written from specially
intimate acquaintance with the (later ?) Egyptian geography
(J. Skinner, Genesis, p. 214).

7 See D. G. Hogarth, Ionia and the East, pp. 28 seq. (Oxford,
1909) ; Evans, Scripta Minoa, pp. 77 sqq.

PHILLAUR— PHILLIPS, A.

405

of the citadel. In 386 he excited the jealousy of the tyrant
by secretly marrying his niece, and was sent into banishment.
He settled at Thurii, but afterwards removed to Adria, where
he remained until the death of Dionysius (366). He was then
recalled by the younger Dionysius, whom he persuaded to
dismiss Plato and Dion. When Dion set sail from Zacynthus
with the object of liberating Syracuse from the tyrannis, Philistus
was entrusted with the command of the fleet, but he was defeated
and put to death (356). During his stay at Adria, Philistus
occupied himself with the composition of his St/ceXua, a history
of Sicily in eleven books. The first part (bks. i.-vii.) comprised
the history of the island from the earliest times to the capture
of Agrigentum by the Carthaginians (406); the second, the
history of the elder and the younger Dionysius (down to 363).
From this point the work was carried on by Philistus's fellow
countryman Athanas. Cicero (ad. Q. Fr. ii. 13), who had a
high opinion of his work, calls him the miniature Thucydides "
(pusillus Thucydides). He was admitted by the Alexandrian
critics into the canon of historiographers, and his work was
highly valued by Alexander the Great.

See Diod. Sic. xiii. 103, xiv. 8, xv. 7, xvi. n, 16; Plutarch, Dion,
11-36; Cicero, Brutus, 17, De oratore, ii. 13; Quintilian, Instil.
x. 1 , 74 ; fragments and life in C. W. M tiller, Fragmenta historicorum
graecorum, vol. i. (1841); C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium
der alien Geschichte (1895); E. A. Freeman, History of Sicily (1891-
1894); A. Holm, Geschichte Siciliens im Altert. (1870-1898).

PHILLAUR, a town of British India, in Jullundur district,
Punjab, on the north bank of the river Sutlej, 8 m. N. of
Ludhiana. Pop. (1001), 6986. Founded by the Mogul emperor
Shah Jahan, it was long of importance as commanding the
crossing of the Sutlej. At the Mutiny in 1857 the fort contained
the siege train, which was sent safely to Delhi; but the sepoy
regiment in the cantonment shortly afterwards mutinied and
escaped. The fort is now occupied by the police training school
and the central bureau of the criminal identification department.

PHILLIMORE, SIR ROBERT JOSEPH (1810-1885), English
judge, third son of a well-known ecclesiastical lawyer, Dr Joseph
Phillimore, was born at Whitehall on the 5th of November 1810.
Educated at Westminster and Christ Church, Oxford, where a life-
long friendship with W. E. Gladstone began, his first appointment
was to a clerkship in the board of control, where he remained
from 1832 to 1835. Admitted as an advocate at Doctors'
Commons in 1839, he was called to the bar at the Middle Temple
in 1841, and rose very rapidly in his profession. He was engaged
as counsel in almost every case of importance that came before
the admiralty, probate or divorce courts, and became success-
ively master of faculties, commissary of the deans and chapters
of St Paul's and Westminster, official of the archdeaconries of
Middlesex and London,and chancellor of the dioceses of Chichester
and Salisbury. In 1853 be entered parliament as member for
Tavistock. A moderate in politics, his energies were devoted
to non-party measures, and in 1854 he introduced the bill for
allowing viva voce evidence in the ecclesiastical courts. He sat
for Tavistock until 1857, when he offered himself as a candidate
for Coventry, but was defeated. He was appointed judge of
the Cinque Ports in 1855, Queen's Counsel in 1858, and advocate-
general in admiralty in 1862, and succeeded Dr Stephen Lushing-
ton (1782-1873) as judge of the court of arches five years later.
Here his care, patience and courtesy, combined with unusual
lucidity of expression, won general respect. In 1875, in accordance
with the Public Worship Regulation Act, he resigned, and was
succeeded by Lord Penzance. When the Judicature Act came
into force the powers of the admiralty court were transferred
to the High Court of Justice, and Sir Robert Phillimore was
therefore the last judge of the historic court of the lord high
admiral of England. He continued to sit as judge for the new
admiralty, probate and divorce division until 1883, when he
resigned. He wrote Ecclesiastical Law of the Church of England,
a book which still holds its ground, Commentaries on International
Law, and a translation of Lessing's Laocoon. He married, in
1844, Charlotte Anne, daughter of John Denison of Ossington
Hall, Newark. He was knighted in 1862, and created a baronet
in 1881. He died at Shiplake, near Henley-on-Thames, on

the 4th of February 1885. His eldest son, Sir Walter G. F.
Phillimore (b. 1845), also distinguished as an authority on
ecclesiastical and admiralty law, became in 1897 a judge of
the high court.

PHILLIP, JOHN (1817-1867), Scottish painter, was born at
Aberdeen, Scotland, on the 19th of April 181 7. His father, an
old soldier, was in humble circumstances, and the son became
an errand-boy to a tinsmith, and was then apprenticed to a
painter and glazier. Having received some technical instruction
from a local artist named William Mercer, he began, at the age
of about fifteen, to paint portraits. In 1834 he made a very
brief visit to London, About this time he became assistant to
James Forbes, an Aberdeen portrait-painter. He had already
gained a valuable patron. Having been sent to repair a window
in the house of Major P. L. Gordon, his interest in the works of
art in the house attracted the attention of their owner. Gordon
brought the young artist under the notice of Lord Panmure,
who in 1836 sent him to London, promising to bear the cost of
his art education. At first Phillip was placed under T. M. Joy,
but he soon entered the schools of the Royal Academy. In 1839
he figured for the first time in the royal academy exhibition with
a portrait and a landscape, and in the following year he was
represented by a more ambitious figure-picture of " Tasso in
Disguise relating his Persecutions to his Sister." For the next
ten years he supported himself mainly by portraiture and by
painting subjects of national incident, such as " Presbyterian
Catechizing," " Baptism in Scotland," and the " Spaewife."
His productions at this period, as well as his earlier subject-
pictures, are reminiscent of the practice and methods of Wilkie
and 'the Scottish genre-painters of his time. In 1851 his health
showed signs of delicacy, and he went to Spain in search of a
warmer climate. He was brought face to face for the first time
with the brilliant sunshine and the splendid colour of the south,
and it was in coping with these that he first manifested his
artistic individuality and finally displayed his full powers. In
the " Letter-writer of Seville " (1854), commissioned by Queen
Victoria at the suggestion of Sir Edwin Landseer, the artist is
struggling with new difficulties in the portrayal of unwonted
splendours of colour and light. In 1857 Phillip was elected an
associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1859 a full member. In
1855 and in i860 further visits to Spain were made, and in each
case the painter returned with fresh materials to be embodied
with increasing power and subtlety in the long series of works
which won for him the title of " Spanish Phillip." His highest
point of execution is probably reached in " La Gloria " (1864)
and a smaller single-figure painting of the same period entitled
" El Cigarillo." These Spanish subjects were varied in i860
by a rendering of the marriage of the princess royal with the
crown prince of Prussia, executed by command of the queen,
and in 1863 by a picture of the House of Commons. During his
last visit .to Spain Phillip occupied himself in a careful study of
the art of Velazquez, and the copies which he made fetched large
prices after his death, examples having been secured by the royal
and the royal Scottish academies: The year before his death he
visited Italy and devoted attention to the works of Titian. The
results of this study of the old masters are visible in such works
as " La Loteria Nacional, " left uncompleted at his death. During
this period he resided much in the Highlands, and seemed to be
returning to his first love for Scottish subjects, painting several
national scenes, and planning others that were never completed.
He died in London on the 27th of February 1867.

His works were collected in the International Exhibition of
1873, and many of them are engraved by T. Oldham Barlow. In
addition to the paintings already specified the following are among
the more important: " Life among the Gipsies of Seville " (1853),
" El Paseo " (1855), " Collection of the Offertory in a Scotch Kirk "
(1855), " A Gipsy Water-carrier in Seville " (1855), " The Prayer
of Faith shall save the Sick " (1856), " The Dying Contrabandist "
(1856), " The Prison Window " (1857), " A Huff " (1859), " Early
Career of Murillo " (1865), " A Chat round the Brasero " (18&6).

PHILLIPS, ADELAIDE (1833-1882), American contralto
singer, was born at Stratford-on-Avon, England, her family
emigrating to America in 1840. Her mother taught dancing,

4-o6

PHILLIPS, E.— PHILLIPS, S.

and Adelaide began a career o& the Boston stage at ten years
old. But in 1850 her talent for singing became evident, and
through Jenny Lind and others she was sent to London and to
Italy to study. In 1855 she returned to America an accom-
plished vocalist; and for many years she was the leading
American contralto, equally successful in oratorio and on the
concert platform. She died at Carlsbad on the 3rd of October
1882.

PHILLIPS, EDWARD (1630-1696), English author, son of
Edward Phillips of the crown office in chancery, and his wife
Anne, only sister of John Milton, the poet, was born in August
1630 in the Strand, London. His father died in 1631, and Anne
Phillips eventually married her husband's successor in the crown
office, Thomas Agar. Edward Phillips and his younger brother,
John, were educated by Milton. Edward entered Magdalen
Hall, Oxford, in November 1650, but left the university in 1651
to be a bookseller's clerk in London. Although he entirely
differed from Milton in his religious and political views, and
seems, to judge from the free character of his Mysteries of Love
and Eloquence (1658), to have undergone a certain revulsion
from his Puritan upbringing, he remained on affectionate terms
with his uncle to the end. He was tutor to the son of John
Evelyn, the diarist, from 1663 to 1672 at Sayes Court, near
Deptford, and in 1677-1679 in the family of Henry Bennet,
earl of Arlington. The date of his death is unknown but his
last book is dated 1696.

His most important work is Theatrum poetarum (1675), a list of
the chief poets of all ages and countries, but principally of the English
poets, with short critical notes and a prefatory Discourse of the
Poets and Poetry, which has usually been traced to Milton's hand.
He also wrote A New World in Words, or a General Dictionary
(1658), which went through many editions; a new edition of Baker's
Chronicle, of which the section on the period from 1650 to 1658 was
written by himself from the royalist standpoint; a supplement
(1676) to John Speed's Theatre of Great Britain; and in 1684
Enchiridion linguae latinae, said to have been taken chiefly from
notes prepared by Milton. Aubrey states that all Milton's papers
came into Phillips's hands, and in 1694 he published a translation
of his Letters of State with a valuable memoir

His brother, John Phillips (1631-1706), in 1652 published
a Latin reply to the anonymous attack on Milton entitled Pro
Rege et populo anglicano. He appears to have acted as un-
official secretary to Milton, but, disappointed of regular political
employment, and chafing against the discipline he was under,
he published in 1655 a bitter attack on Puritanism entitled a
Satyr against Hypocrites (1655). In 1656 he was summoned
before the privy council for his share in a book of licentious
poems, Sportive Wit, which was suppressed by the authorities
but almost immediately replaced by a similar collection, Wit
and Drollery. In Montelion (1660) he ridiculed the astrological
almanacs of William Lilly. Two other skits of this name, in
1661 and 1662, also full of course royalist wit, were probably by
another hand. In 1678 he supported the agitation of Titus Oates,
writing on his behalf, says Wood, " many lies and villanies."
Dr Oates's Narrative of the Popish Plot indicated was the first
of these tracts. He began a monthly historical review in 1688
entitled Modem History or a Monthly Account 0} all considerable
Occurrences, Civil, Ecclesiastical and M Hilary, followed in 1690 by
The Present State of Europe, or a Historical and Political Mercury,
which was supplemented by a preliminary volume giving a
history of events from 1688. He executed many translations
from the French, and a version (1687) of Don Quixote.

An extended, but by no means friendly, account of the brothers
is given by Wood, Athen. oxon. (ed. Bliss, iv. 764 seq.), where a
long list of their works is dealt with. This formed the basis of
William Godwin's Lives of Edward and John Phillips (1815), with
which is reprinted Edward Phillips's Life of John Milton.

PHILLIPS, JOHN (1800-1874), English geologist, was born
on the 25th of December 1800 at Marden in Wiltshire. His
father belonged to an old Welsh family, but settled in England
as an officer of excise and married the sister of William Smith,
the " Father of English Geology." Both parents dying when
he was a child, Phillips came under the charge of his uncle; and
after being educated at various schools, he accompanied Smith on
his wanderings in connexion with his geological maps. In the

spring of 1824 Smith went to York to deliver a course of lectures
on geology, and his nephew accompanied him. Phillips accepted
engagements in the principal Yorkshire towns to arrange their
museums and give courses of lectures on the collections contained
therein. York became his residence, where he obtained, in
1825, the situation of keeper of the Yorkshire museum and
secretary of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. From that
centre he extended his operations to towns beyond the county;
and in 1 83 1 he included University College, London, in the sphere
of his activity. In that year the British Association for the '
Advancement of Science was founded at York, and Phillips was
one of the active minds who organized its machinery. He
became in 1832 the first assistant secretary, a post which he held
until 1859. In 1834 he accepted the professorship of geology
at King's College, London, but retained his post at York. In
1834 he was elected F.R.S.; in later years he received hon.
degrees of LL.D. from Dublin and Cambridge, and D.C.L. from
Oxford; while in 1845 he was awarded the Wollaston Medal by
the Geological Society of London. In 1840 he resigned his charge
of the York museum and was appointed on the staff of the
geological survey of Great Britain under De la Beche. He spent
some time in studying the Palaeozoic fossils of Devon, Cornwall
and West Somerset, of which he published a descriptive memoir
(1841); and he made a detailed survey of the region of the
Malvern Hills, of which he prepared the elaborate account that
appears in vol. ii. of the Memoirs of the Survey (1848). In 1844 he
became professor of geology in the university of Dublin. Nine
years later, on the death of H. E. Strickland, who had acted as
substitute for Dean Buckland in the readership of geology in
the university of Oxford, Phillips succeeded to the post of deputy,
and at the dean's death in 1856 became himself reader, a post
which he held to the time of his death. During his residence
in Oxford he took a leading part in the foundation and arrange-
ment of the new museum erected in 1859 (see his Notices of Rocks
and Fossils in the University Museum, 1863; and The Oxford
Museum, by H. W. Acland and J. Ruskin, 1859; reprinted with
additions 1893). Phillips was also keeper of the Ashmolean
museum from 1854-1870. In 1859-1860 he was president of
the Geological Society of London, and in 1865 president of the
British Association. He dined at All Souls College on the 23rd
of April 1874, but on leaving he slipped and fell down a flight
of stone stairs, and died on the following day.

From the time he wrote his first paper " On the Direction of the
Diluvial Currents in Yorkshire " (1827), down to the last days of
his life, Phillips continued a constant contributor to the literature
of science. The pages of the Philosophical Magazine, the Journal
of the Geological Society, the Geological Magazine and other publica-
tions contain valuable essays by him. He was also the author
of numerous separate works, which were of great benefit ,in extend-
ing a sound knowledge of geology. Among these may be specially
mentioned : Illustrations of the Geology of Yorkshire (in two parts, 1 829
and 1836; 2nd ed. of pt. 1 in 1835, 3rd ed., edited by R. Etheridge,
in 1875); A Treatise on Geology (1837-1839); Memoirs of William
Smith (1844); The Rivers, Mountains and Sea-Coast of Yorkshire
(1853); Manual of Geology, Practical and Theoretical (1855); Life
on the Earth: its Origin and Succession (i860); Vesuvius (1869);
Geology of Oxford and the Valley of the Thames (1871). To these
should be added his Monograph of British Belemnitidae (1865),
for the Palaeontographical Society, and his geological map of the
British Isles (1847).
' See Biographical Memoir, with portrait, in Geol. Mag. (July 1870).

PHILLIPS, SAMUEL (1814-1854), English journalist, the son
of a Jewish tradesman in London, was born on the 28th of
December 1814. He was educated at University College,
London, and then at Gottingen. Having renounced the Jewish
faith, he returned to England and entered Sidney Sussex College,
Cambridge, with the design of taking orders. His father's death,
however, prevented this, and in 1841 he took to literary work.
He wrote a novel, Caleb Slukely (1862), and other tales, and
about 1845 began a connexion with The Times as literary critic.
In the following year he purchased the John Bull newspaper,
and edited it for a year. Two volumes of his Essays from The
Times appeared in 1852 and 1854. Phillips took an active part
in the formation of the Crystal Palace Company, and wrote
their descriptive guides. In 1852 the university of Gottingen

PHILLIPS, S.— PHILLIPS, WENDELL

407

conferred upon him the honorary degree of LL.D. He died
at Brighton on the 14th of October 1854.

PHILLIPS, STEPHEN (1868- ), British poet and dramatist,
■a-as born on the 28th of July 1868 at Somertown near Oxford,
the son of the Rev. Stephen Phillips, precentor of Peterborough
Cathedral. He was educated at Stratford and Peterborough
Grammar Schools, and entered Queen's College, Cambridge;
but during his first term at Cambridge, when F. R. Benson's
dramatic company visited the town, he joined it, and for six
years played various small parts. In 1890 a slender volume of
verse was published at Oxford with the title Primavera, which
contained contributions by him and by his cousin Laurence
Binyon and others. In 1894 he published Eremus, a long poem
of loose structure in blank verse of a philosophical complexion.
In 1896 appeared Christ in Hades, forming with a few other
short pieces one of the slim paper-covered volumes of Elkin
Mathews's " Shilling Garland." This poem arrested the at-
tention of watchful critics of poetry, and when it was followed
by a collection of Poems in 1897 the writer's position as a new
poet of exceptional gifts was generally recognized. This volume
contained a new edition of " Christ in Hades," together with
" Marpessa," " The Woman with the Dead Soul," " The Wife "
and shorter pieces, including the fine lines " To Milton, Blind."
The volume won the prize of £100 offered by the Academy news-
paper for the best new book of its year, ran through half a dozen
editions in two years, and established Mr Phillips's rank as poet,
which was sustained by the publication in the Nineteenth Century
in 1898 of his poem " Endymion." George Alexander, the
actor-manager, moved perhaps by a certain clamour among the
critics for a literary drama, then commissioned Mr Phillips to
write him a play, the result being Paolo and Francesca (1900),
a drama founded on Dante's famous episode. Encouraged by
the great success of the drama in its literary form, Mr Alexander
produced the piece at the St James's Theatre in the course of
1901. In the meantime, Mr Phillips's next play, Herod: a
Tragedy, had been produced by Beerbohm Tree on the 31st of
October 1900, and was published as a book in 1901 ; Ulysses, also
produced by Beerbohm Tree, was published in 1902; The Sin of
David, a drama on the story of David and Bathsheba, translated
into the times and terms of Cromwellian England, was published
in 1904; and Nero, produced by Beerbohm Tree, was published
in 1906. In these plays the poet's avowed aim was, instead of
attempting to revive the method of Shakespeare and the Eliza-
bethans, to revitalize the method of Greek drama. Paolo and
Francesca (which admitted certainly one scene on an Elizabethan
model) was the most successful, the subject being best adapted
to the lyrical cast of Mr Phillips's poetical temperament ; but all
contained fine poetry, skilfully stage-managed by a writer who
had practical experience of stage craft.

See the section on Stephen Phillips in Poets of the Younger Genera-
tion, by William Archer (1902); also the articles on "Tragedy and
Mr Stephen Phillips," by William Watson, in the Fortnightly Review
(March 1898); " The Poetry of Mr Stephen Phillips," in the Edin-
burgh Review (January 1900) ; " Mr Stephen Phillips," in the Century
(January 1901), by Edmund Gosse; and " Mr Stephen Phillips,"
in the Quarterly Review (April 1902), by Arthur Symons.

For bibliography up to July 1903, see English Illustrated Magazine
new series, vol. xxix. p. 442.

PHILLIPS, THOMAS (1770-1845), English portrait and
subject painter, was born at Dudley in Warwickshire on the
18th of October 1770. Having acquired the art of glass-
painting at Birmingham he visited London in 1790 with an
introduction to Benjamin West, who found him employment
on the windows in St George's Chapel at Windsor. In 1792
Phillips painted a view of Windsor Castle, and in the next two
years he exhibited the " Death of Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury,
at the Battle of Castillon," " Ruth and Naomi," " Elijah re-
storing the Widow's Son," " Cupid disarmed by Euphrosyne,"
and other pictures. After 1796, however, he mainly con-
fined himself to portrait-painting. It was not long before
he became the chosen painter of men of genius and talent,
notwithstanding the rivalry of Hoppner, Owen, Jackson and
Lawrence; and he left behind portraits of nearly all the illus-

trious characters of his day. In 1804 he was -elected associate
and in 1808 member of the Royal Academy. In 1824 Phillips
succeeded Fuseli as professor of painting to the Royal Academy,
an office which he held till 1832. During this period he de-
livered ten Lectures on the History and Principles of Painting,
which were published in 1833. He died on the 20th of April
1845-

PHILLIPS, WENDELL (1811-1884), American orator and
reformer, was born in Boston on the 29th of November 181 1.
His father, John Phillips (1770-1823), a man of wealth
and influence, graduated at Harvard College in 1788, and
became successively " town advocate and public prosecutor,"
and in 1822 first mayor of Boston, then recently made into a city.
Wendell Phillips himself attended the public Latin school,
entered Harvard College before he was sixteen, and graduated
in 183 1 in the same class with the historian John Lothrop
Motley. He graduated at the Harvard law school in 1834,
and was admitted to the bar in Boston. He soon came under
the influence of the anti-slavery movement, witnessing in 1835
the mobbing, in Boston, of William Lloyd Garrison. On the
8th of December 1837 a meeting was held at Faneuil Hall to
express the sentiments of the people on the murder of Elijah P.
Lovejoy, at Alton, Illinois, for defending his press from a pro-
slavery mob. In the course of the meeting a speech was made
in opposition to its general current by James T. Austin (1784-
1870), attorney-general of the state, who said that Lovejoy
had died " as the fool dieth," and compared his murderers to
the men who threw the tea into Boston harbour just before the
War of Independence. The speech seemed likely to divide the
audience, when Wendell Phillips took the platform. " When
I heard," he said, " the gentleman lay down principles which
placed the murderers of Alton side by side with Otis and Han-
cock, with Quincy and Adams, I thought these pictured lips
(pointing to their portraits) would have broken into voice to
rebuke the recreant American, the slanderer of the dead." This
appeal not merely determined the sentiment of the meeting,
it gave Wendell Phillips his first fame and determined his
career. Although loving his profession, and this especially
for the opening it gave in the direction of public life, he prac-
tically stepped outside the sphere dearest to young Americans,
and lived henceforth the life of an agitator, or, like his father,
that of a " public prosecutor." Accepting unhesitatingly the
leadership of Garrison, and becoming like him gradually a
disunionist, he lived essentially a platform life, interested in a
variety of subjects, but first and chiefly an abolitionist. In
1865, however, after the Civil War, he broke with Garrison
over the question of discontinuing the Anti-Slavery Society,
and from that date until the society was disbanded in 1870 he,
instead of Garrison, was its president. He was not, moreover,
like his great leader, a non-resistant, nor was he, on the other
hand, like John Brown, borne on by irresistible necessity to
overt action. Nor did he find, like his fellow-worker, Theodore
Parker, the leisure to keep up his scholarship and lead in part
the life of a student. Early study and travel had indeed fur-
nished him with abundant material for rhetorical illustration;
and he was also a great reader of newspapers, but he used to
say that he knew in his whole life but one thing thoroughly,
namely, the history of the English Civil War, and there were
few occasions when he could not draw from it the needful illus-
tration. His style of eloquence was direct and brilliant, but
eminently self-controlled. He often surprised his hearers by
the quietness of his beginnings, and these were very often the
speeches which turned out most brilliant and most irresistible
ere the close. He may be said to have introduced the direct
and colloquial manner upon the American public platform, as
distinct from the highly elaborated and often ornate style
which had been established by Edward Everett; nor has there
ever been a reversion since his day to the more artificial
method. He was capable at times, nevertheless, of highly
sonorous periods with superb climaxes; yet his favourite
style was the conversational. His logic, while never obtruded,
was rarely at fault; but he loved the flash of the rapier, and

4 o8

PHILLIPS, W.— PH1LLPOTTS

was never happier than when he had to face down a mob and
utterly foil it by sheer superiority in fencing. The two volumes
of his speeches, as edited by James Redpath, were fortunately
made from verbatim reports, and they wisely enclose in paren-
theses those indications of favour or dissent from the audience
which transformed so many of his speeches into exhibitions of
gladiatorial skill. He was a tribune of the people, associated
unflinchingly not merely with the unpopular but with the
unpolished; always carrying about him not merely a certain
Roman look, but a patrician air. After slavery had fallen
Phillips associated himself freely with reformers occupied in
other paths, herein separating himself from the other patrician
of the movement, Edmund Quincy, who always frankly said
that after slavery was abolished there was nothing else
worth fighting for. Among other things, Phillips contended,
during his later years, for prohibition, woman suffrage and
various penal and administrative reforms. He was not always
the best judge of character, and was sometimes allied in these
movements with men who were little more than demagogues.
But the proof he gave by his transfer of energies that the work
of reform was never quite finished — this was something of
peculiar value, and worth the risk of some indiscretions. The
life of a reformer did not in itself make him thoroughly
happy; he chafed more and more under its fatigues, and he
always felt that his natural place would have been among
senators or ambassadors; but he belonged essentially to the
heroic type, and it may well have been of him that Emerson
was thinking when he wrote those fine words: " What forests
of laurel we bring and the tears of mankind to him who stands
firm against the opinion of his contemporaries." His domestic
life was most happy, though his wife was a confirmed invalid,
seldom quitting her room. She was a woman of heroic nature
and very strong convictions. Her husband used to say that
she first made him an abolitionist. They had no children, but
adopted an orphaned daughter of Mrs Eliza Garnaut, a friend,
and this young girl (afterwards the wife of George W. Smalley),
brought much light and joy into the household. Their worldly
circumstances were easy, though they were always ready to
impoverish themselves for the sake of others. Wendell Phillips
died in Boston on the 2nd of February 1884.

See Lorenzo Sears, Wendell Phillips, Orator and Agitator (New
York, 1909) HT. W. H.)

PHILLIPS, WILLIAM (1775-1828), British mineralogist and
geologist, son of James Phillips, printer and bookseller in
London, was born on the 10th of May 1775. He early became
interested in mineralogy and geology, and was one of the
founders of the Geological Society of London (1807). His
Outlines of Mineralogy and Geology (181 5) and Elementary Intro-
duction to the Knowledge of Mineralogy (1816) became standard
textbooks. His digest of English geology, A selection of Facts from
the Best Authorities, arranged so as to form an Outline of the Geo-
logy of England and Wales (1818), formed the foundation of the
larger work undertaken by Phillips in conjunction with W. D.
Conybeare, of which only the first part was published, entitled
Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales (1822). This
volume made an era in geology. As a model of careful original
observation, of judicious compilation, of succinct description
and of luminous arrangement it has been of the utmost service
in the development of geology in Britain. In this work Phillips
reprinted his admirable description of the chalk cliffs of Dover
and other parts of East Kent, published in 1819 in Trans. Geol.
Sac. vol. v. Phillips was a member of the Society of Friends.
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1827. He
died on the 2nd of April 1828.

His brother, Richard Phillips (1778-1851), was distin-
guished as a chemist, and became F.R.S. in 1822. He was
appointed chemist and curator to the Museum of Economic
(afterwards Practical) Geology, then situated in Craig's Court
(1839). He was the author of papers published in the Annals
of Philosophy and Philosophical Magazine. In 1796 the two
brothers, together with William Allen and Luke Howard, took
part in forming the Askesian Society.

PHILLIPSBURG, a town of Warren county, New Jersey,
U.S.A., on the Delaware river, opposite Easton, Pennsylvania,
and about 51 m. N.N.W. of Trenton, N.J. Pop. (1900) 10,052,
of whom 990 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 13,903.
Served by the Central of New Jersey and other railways, the
town is situated in the river bottom and on a bluff which
commands beautiful views. The river is spanned here by
several bridges. The town has railway shops and various manu-
factures. In 1905 the value of the factory products was
$6,684,173 (45-8 % more than in 1900). Phillipsburg was settled
about 1750. It was only a straggling village when the Morris
Banking and Canal Company was chartered in 1824, but its
growth was accelerated by the canal (no longer used), by the
establishment in 1848 of an iron furnace, and by the completion
of the Central Railroad of New Jersey to this point in 1852;
the town was incorporated in 1861.

PHILLIPSITE, a mineral of the zeolite group; a hydrated
potassium, calcium and aluminium silicate, approximating
to (K 2 , Ca) Al2(SiOs)4-4H20. It varies somewhat in composition,
and a variety (" pseudophillipsite ") containing rather less
silica has the formula (K 2 , Ca) 2 Al 4 Si 5 Oi8-9H20. Crystals are
monoclinic, but only complex cruciform twins are known, these
being exactly like twins of harmotome (q.v.). Crystals of
phillipsite are, however, usually smaller and more transparent
and glassy than those of harmotome. Spherical groups with
a radially fibrous structure and bristled with crystals on the
surface are not uncommon. The hardness is 45, and the
specific gravity 2-2. The species was established by A. Levy
in 1825 and named after William Phillips. French authors
use the name christianite (after Christian VIII. of Denmark),
given by A. Des Cloizeaux in 1847.

Phillipsite is a mineral of secondary origin, and occurs with
other zeolites in the amygdaloidal cavities of basic volcanic
rocks: e.g. in the basalt of the Giant's Causeway in County
Antrim, and near Melbourne in Victoria; and in lencitite near
Rome. Small crystals of recent formation have been observed
in the masonry of the hot baths at Plombieres and Bourbonne-
les-Bains, in France. Minute spherical aggregates embedded
in red clay were dredged by the " Challenger " from the bottom
of the Central Pacific, where they had been formed by the
decomposition of lava. (L. J. S.)

PHILLPOTTS, HENRY (1778-1869), English bishop, was born
at Bridgwater on the 6th of May 1778, and was educated at
Gloucester College school and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford.
He became a fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1795, took
orders in 1802, and was select university preacher in 1804.
In 1805 he received the living of Stainton-le-Street, Durham, and
in addition was appointed to Bishop Middleham, Durham, in the
succeeding year. For twenty years he was chaplain to Shute
Barrington, bishop of Durham. He was appoined vicar of
Gateshead in 1808, prebendary of Durham in 1809, and vicar
of St Margaret, Durham, in 1810. After holding the rich living
of Stanhope, Durham from 1820, and the deanery of Chester
from 1828, he was consecrated bishop of Exeter in 1831,
holding with the see a residentiary canonry at Durham. His
published works include numerous speeches and pamphlets,
including those connected with his well-known Roman Catholic
controversy with Charles Butler (1750-1832). He was an
energetic supporter of the Tory party, even when it acted
contrary to his views in passing the Roman Catholic Emancipa-
tion Act of 1829. He died on the 18th of September 1869.
" Henry of Exeter," as he was commonly called, was one of the
most striking figures in the English Church of the 18th century.
His intellect was strong rather than broad, his position being
that of the traditional High Churchman, with little sympathy
either with the Evangelicals or with the Tractarians. On the
one hand the famous Gorham judgment was the outcome of his
refusal to institute to the livinp of Brampford Speke a clergyman
George Cornelius Gorham (1787-1857-), who had openly dis-
avowed his belief in baptismal regeneration; on the other he
denounced the equally famous Tract XC. in his episcopal
charge of 1843. As bishop he was a strict disciplinarian, and

PHILO

409

did much to restore order in a diocese of which the clergy
had become extraordinarily demoralized. Though accused of
avarice and pluralism, Phillpotts was generous in his gifts to
the church, founding the theological college at Exeter and
spending large sums on the restoration of the cathedral.

PHILO, Jewish Hellenist, and author of an epic poem in
Greek hexameters on the history of Jerusalem. Alexander
Polyhistor (c. 105-35 B.C.) quotes several passages of the poem,
and is the source of the extracts in Eusebius (Praeparalio
evangelica, ix. 20, 24, 37). This is probably the Philo who is
mentioned by Clemens Alexandrinus {Strom, i. 21, 141) and
by Josephus {Contra Apionem, i. 23), who calls him " the elder."

See M. Philippson's work on the Jewish poets Ezechiel and Philo
(Berlin, 1830).

PHILO, often called Philo Judaeus, Jewish philospher,
appears to have spent his whole life at Alexandria, where he
was probably born c. 20-10 B.C. His father Alexander was
alabarch or arabarch (that is, probably, chief farmer of taxes
on the Arabic side of the Nile), from which it may be concluded
that the family was influential and wealthy (Jos. Ant. xviii.
8, 1). Jerome's statement {De vir. ill. n) that he was of
priestly race is confirmed by no older authority. The only
event of his life which can be actually dated belongs to a.d. 40,
when Philo, then a man of advanced years, went from Alexandria
to Rome, at the head of a Jewish embassy, to persuade the
emperor Gaius to abstain from claiming divine honour of the
Jews. Of this embassy Philo has left a full and vivid account
{De legalione ad Gaium). Various fathers and theologians
of the Church state that in the time of Claudius he met St Peter
in Rome; 1 but this legend has no historic value, and probably
arose because the book De vita contemplativa, ascribed to Philo,
in which Eusebius already recognized a glorification of
Christian monasticism, seemed to indicate a disposition towards
Christianity.

Though we know so little of Philo's own life, his numerous
extant writings give the fullest information as to his views of
the universe and of life, and his religious and scientific aims,
and so enable us adequately to estimate his position and impor-
tance in the history of thought. He is quite the most important
representative of Hellenistic Judaism, and his writings give
us the clearest view of what this development of Judaism
was and aimed at. The development of Judaism in the
diaspora {q.v .) differed in important points from that in Palestine;
where, since the successful opposition of the Maccabee age to
the Hellenization which Antiochus Epiphanes had sought to
carry through by force, the attitude of the nation to Greek
culture had been essentially negative. In the diaspora, on
the other hand, the Jews had been deeply influenced by the
Greeks; they soon more or less forgot their Semitic mother-
tongue, and with the language of Hellas they appropriated
much of Hellenic culture. They were deeply impressed by that
irresistible force which was blending all races and nations into
one great cosmopolitan unity, and so the Jews too on their
dispersion became in speech and nationality Greeks, or rather
" Hellenists." Now the distinguishing character of Hellenism
is not the absolute disappearance of the Oriental civilizations
before that of Greece but the combination of the two with a
preponderance of the Greek element. So it was with the Jews,
but in their case the old religion had much more persistence
than in other Hellenistic circles, though in other respects they
too yielded to the superior force of Greek civilization. This we
must hold to have been the case not only in Alexandria but
throughout the diaspora from the commencement of the Hellen-
istic period down to the later Roman Empire. It was only after
ancient civilization gave way before the barbarian immigrations
and the rising force of Christianity that rabbinism became
supreme even among the Jews of the diaspora. This Hellenistico-
Judaic phase of culture is sometimes called " Alexandrian," and
the expression is justifiable if it only means that in Alexandria
it attained its highest development and flourished most. For

1 Euseb., H. E. ii. 17, 1; Jer. ut supra; Phot. Bill. Cod. 105;
Sui'd., s.v. " &i\asr."

here the. Jews began to busy themselves with Greek literature
even under their clement rulers, the first Ptolemies, and here
the law and other Scriptures were first translated into Greek;
here the process of fusion began earliest and proceeded with
greatest rapidity; here, therefore, also the Jews first engaged
in a scientific study of Greek philosophy and transplanted that
philosophy to the soil of Judaism. We read of a Jewish philo-
sopher Aristobulus in the time of Ptolemy VI. Philometor, in
the middle of the 2nd century B.C., of whose philosophical
commentary on the Pentateuch fragments have been preserved
by Clement of Alexandria and Eusebius. So far as we can
judge from these, his aim was to put upon the sacred text a
sense which should appeal even to Greek readers, and in par-
ticular to get rid of all anthropomorphic utterances about
God. Eusebius regards him as a Peripatetic. We may suppose
that this philosophical line of thought had its representatives
in Alexandria between the times of Aristobulus and Philo, but
we are not acquainted with the names of any such. Philo
certainly, to judge by his historical influence, was the greatest
of all these Jewish philosophers, and in his case we can follow
in detail the methods by which Greek culture was harmonized
with Jewish faith. On one side he is quite a Greek, on the other
quite a Jew. His language is formed on the best classical
models, especially Plato. He knows and often cites the great
Greek poets, particularly Homer and the tragedians, but his
chief studies had been in Greek philosophy, and he speaks of
Heraclitus, Plato, the Stoics and the Pythagoreans in terms of
the highest veneration. He had appropriated their doctrines
so completely that . he must himself be reckoned among the
Greek philosophers; his system was eclectic, but the borrowed
elements are combined into a new unity with so much originality
that at the same time he may fairly be regarded as representing
a philosophy of his own, which has for its characteristic feature
the constant prominence of a fundamental religious idea.
Philo's closest affinities are with Plato, the later Pythagoreans
and the Stoics. 2 Yet with all this Philo remained a Jew, and a
great part of his writings is expressly directed to recommend
Judaism to the respect and, if possible, the acceptance of the
Greeks. He was not a stranger to the specifically Jewish
culture that prevailed in Palestine; in Hebrew he was not pro-
ficient, but the numerous etymologies he gives show that he
had made some study of that language. 3 His method of exegesis
is in point of form identical with that of the Palestinian scribes,
and in point of matter coincidences are not absolutely rare. 4
But above all his whole works prove on every page that he felt
himself to be thoroughly a Jew, and desired to be nothing else.
Jewish "philosophy" is to him the true and highest wisdom;
the knowledge of God and of things divine and human which
is contained in the Mosaic Scriptures is to him the deepest and
the purest.

If now we ask wherein Philo's Judaism consisted we must
answer that it lies mainly in the formal claim that the Jewish
people, in virtue of the divine revelation given to Moses, possesses
the true knowledge in things religious. Thoroughly Jewish
is his recognition that the Mosaic Scriptures of the Pentateuch
are of absolute divine authority, and that everything they
contain is valuable and significant because divinely revealed.
The other Jewish Scriptures are also recognized as prophetic,
i.e. as the writings of inspired men, but he does not place them
on the same lines with the law, and he quotes them so Seldom
that we cannot determine the compass of his canon. The

2 The fathers of the Church have specially noticed his Platonism
and Pythagoreanism ; an old proverb even says, with some
exaggeration, f) IIX&tmc ^uXwcifet fi *iXwp ifKaruvliu (Jerome, Photius
and Suidas, ut supra). Clement of Alexandria directly calls him a
Pythagorean. Eusebius {H. E. ii. 4, 3) observes both tendencies.
Recent writers, especially Zeller, lay weight also on his Stoic affinities,
and with justice, for the elements which he borrows from Stoicism
are as numerous and important as those derived from the other
two schools.

3 See the list of these in Vallarsi's edition of Jerome (iii. 731-734),
and compare Siegfried, " Philonische Studien," in Merx's Archiv. ii.
143-163 (1872).

4 See Siegfried, Philo, pp. 142-159.

4-io

PHILO

decisive and normative authority is to him the " holy laws "
of Moses, and this not only in the sense that everything they
contain is true but that all truth is contained in them. Every-
thing that is right and good in the doctrines of the Greek
philosophers had already been quite as well, or even better,
taught by Moses. Thus, since Philo had been deeply influenced
by the teachings of Greek philosophy he actually finds in the
Pentateuch everything which he had learned from the Greeks.
From these premises he assumes as requiring no proof that the
Greek philosophers must in some way have drawn from Moses,
a view indeed which is already expressed by Aristobulus.
To carry out these presuppositions called for an exegetical
method which seems very strange to us, that, namely, of the
allegorical interpretation of Scripture. The allegorical method
had been practised before Philo's date in the rabbinical schools
of Palestine, and he himself expressly refers to its use by his
predecessors, nor does he feel that any further justification
is requisite. With its aid he discovers indications of the pro-
foundest doctrines of philosophy in the simplest stories of the
Pentateuch. 1

This merely formal principle of the absolute authority of
Moses is really the one point in which Philo still holds to
genuinely Jewish conceptions. In the whole substance of his
philosophy the Jewish point of view is more or less completely
modified — sometimes almost extinguished — by what he has
learned from the Greeks. Comparatively speaking, he is most
truly a Jew in his conception of God. The doctrine of mono-
theism, the stress laid on the absolute majesty and sovereignty
of God above the world, the principle that He is to be worshipped
without images, are all points in which Philo justly feels his
superiority as a Jew over popular heathenism. But only over
popular heathenism, for the Greek philosophers had long since
arrived at least at a theoretical monotheism, and their influence
on Philo is nowhere more strongly seen than in the detailed de-
velopment of his doctrine of God. The specifically Jewish (i.e.
particularistic) conception of the election of Israel, the obligation
of the Mosaic law, the future glory of the chosen nation, have
almost disappeared; he is really a cosmopolitan and praises the
Mosaic law just because he deems it cosmopolitan. The true
sage who follows the law of Moses is the citizen not of a particular
state but of the world. A certain attachment which Philo still
manifests to the particularistic conceptions of his race is meant
only " in majorem Judaeorum gloriam." The Jewish people
has received a certain preference from God, but only because
it has the most virtuous ancestry and is itself distinguished for
virtue. The Mosaic law is binding, but only because it is the
most righteous, humane and rational of laws, and even its out-
ward ceremonies always disclose rational ideas and aims. And
lastly, outward prosperity is promised to the pious, even on
earth, but the promise belongs to all who turn from idols to the
true God. Thus, in the whole substance of his view of the
universe, Philo occupies the standpoint of Greek philosophy
rather than of national Judaism, and his philosophy of the world
and of life can be completely set forth without any reference
to conceptions specifically Jewish.

His doctrine of God starts from the idea that God is a Being
absolutely bare of quality. All quality in finite beings has
limitation, and no limitation can be predicated of God, who is
eternal, unchangeable, simple substance, free, self-sufficient,
better than the good and the beautiful. To predicate any
quality (ttocottjs) of God would be to reduce Him to the sphere
of finite existence. Of Him we can say only that He is, not what
He is, and such purely negative predications as to His being
appear to Philo, as to the later Pythagoreans and the Neo-
platonists, the only way of securing His absolute elevation
above the world. At bottom, no doubt, the meaning of these
negations is that God is the most perfect being; and so,
conversely, we are told that God contains all perfection, that
He fills and encompasses all things with His being.

A consistent application of Philo's abstract conception of

1 For details, see Gfrorer, Philo, i. 68 seq. ; Zeller, Phil, der Gr.
(3rd ed., vol. iii., pt. ii., pp. 346-352); Siegfried, Philo, pp. 160 seq.

God would exclude the possibility of any active relation of God
to the world, and therefore of religion, for a Being absolutely
without quality and movement cannot be conceived as actively
concerned with the multiplicity of individual things. And so in
fact Philo does teach that the absolute perfection, purity and
loftiness of God would be violated by direct contact with imper-
fect, impure and finite things. But the possibility of a connexion
between God and the world is reached through a distinction
which forms the most important point in his theology and cos-
mology; the proper Being of God is distinguished from the
infinite multiplicity of divine Ideas or Forces: God himself is
without quality, but He disposes of an infinite variety of divine
Forces, through whose mediation an active relation of God to
the worl4 is brought about. In the details of his teaching as
to these mediating entities Philo is guided partly by Plato and
partly by the Stoics, but at the same time he makes use of the
concrete religious conceptions of heathenism and Judaism.
Following Plato, he first calls them Ideas or ideal patterns of
all things; they are thoughts of God, yet possess a real existence,
and were produced before the creation of the sensible world,
of which they are the types. But, in distinction from Plato,
Philo's ideas are at the same time efficient causes or Forces
(8vvafias) , which bring unformed matter into order conformably
to the patterns within themselves, and are in fact the media
of all God's activity in the world. This modification of the
Platonic Ideas is due to Stoic influence, which appears also
when Philo gives to the ideal, or Swa^tis the name of \byoi, i.e.
operative ideas — parts, as it were, of the operative Reason.
For, when Philo calls his mediating entities X6701, the sense
designed is analogous to that of the Stoics when they call God
the Logos, i.e. the Reason which operates in the world. But
at the same time Philo maintains that the divine Forces are
identical with the " daemons " of the Greeks, and the " angels "
of the Jews, i.e. servants and messengers of God by means of
which He communicates with the finite world. All this shows how
uncertain was Philo's conception of the nature of these media-
ting Forces. On the one hand they are nothing else than Ideas
of individual things conceived in the mind of God, and as such
ought to have no other reality than that of immanent existence
in God, and so Philo says expressly that the totality of Ideas,
the Kdcrfios vorirbs, is simply the Reason of God as Creator (deov
X670S fiSrj KoafioiroiovvTos). Yet, on the other hand, they are
.represented as hypostases distinct from God, individual entities
existing independently and apart from Him. This vacillation,
however, as Zeller and other recent writers have justly remarked,
is necessarily involved in Philo's premises, for, on the one hand, it
is God who works in the world through His Ideas, and therefore
they must be identical with God; but, on the other hand, God
is not to come into direct contact with the world, and therefore
the Forces through which He works must be distinct from Him.
The same inevitable amphiboly dominates in what is taught as
to the supreme Idea or Logos. Philo regards all individual
Ideas as comprehended in one highest and most general Idea or
Force — the unity of the individual Ideas — which he calls the
Logos or Reason of God, and which is again regarded as operative
Reason. The Logos, therefore, is the highest mediator between
God and the world, the firstborn son of God, the archangel who
is the vehicle of all revelation, and the high priest who stands
before God on behalf of the world. Through him the world
was created, and so he is identified with the creative Word of
God in Genesis (the Greek X670S meaning both " reason " and
" word "). Here again, we see, the philosopher is unable to
escape from the difficulty that the Logos is at once the immanent
Reason of God, and yet also an hypostasis standing between
God and the world. The whole doctrine of this mediatorial
hypostasis is a strange intertwining of very dissimilar threads;
on one side the way was prepared for it by the older Jewish
distinction between the Wisdom of God and God Himself, of
which we find the beginnings even in the Old Testament (Job
xxviii. 12 seq.; Prov. viii., ix.), and the fuller development in the
books of Ecclesiasticus and Wisdom, the latter of which comes
very near to Philo's ideas if we substitute for the term " wisdom "

PHILO

411

that of (divine) " Reason." In Greek philosophy, again, Philo,
as we have seen, chiefly follows the Platonic doctrines of Ideas
and the Soul of the World, and the Stoic doctrine of God as the
X670S or Reason operative in the world. In its Stoic form the
latter doctrine was pantheistic, but Philo could adapt it to his
purpose simply by drawing a sharper distinction between the
Logos and the world.

Like his doctrine of God, Philo's doctrine of the world and
creation rests on the presupposition of an absolute metaphysical
contrast between God and the world. The world can be ascribed
to God only in so far as it is a cosmos or orderly world; its
material substratum is not even indirectly referable to God.
Matter (CX17, or, as the Stoics said, ovala) is a second principle,
but in itself an empty one, its essence being a mere negation of all
true being. It is a lifeless, unmoved, shapeless mass, out of
which God formed the actual world by means of the Logos and
divine Forces. Strictly speaking, the world is only formed, not
created, since matter did not originate with God.

Philo's doctrine of man is also strictly dualistic, and is mainly
derived from Plato. Man is a twofold being, with a higher and
a lower origin. Of the pure souls which fill airy space, those
nearest the earth are attracted by the sensible and descend into
sensible bodies; these souls are the Godward side of man. But
on his other side man is a creature of sense, and so has in him a
fountain of sin and all evil. The body, therefore, is a prison, a
coffin, or a grave for the soul which seeks to rise again to God.
From this anthropology the principles of Philo's ethics are
derived, its highest maxim necessarily being deliverance from
the world of sense and the mortification of all the impulses of
sense. In carrying out this thought, as in many other details
of his ethical teaching, Philo closely follows the Stoics. But he
is separated from Stoical ethics by his strong religious interests,
which carry him to very different views of the means and aim
of ethical development. The Stoics cast man upon [his own
resources; Philo points him to the assistance of God," without
whom man, a captive to sense, could never raise himself to walk
in the ways of true wisdom and virtue. And as moral effort
can bear fruit only with God's help, so too God Himself is the
goal of that effort. Even in this life the truly wise and virtuous
is lifted above his sensible existence, and enjoys in ecstasy the
vision of God, his own consciousness sinking and disappearing
in the divine light. Beyond this ecstasy there lies but one
further step, viz. entire liberation from the body of sense and
the return of the soul to its original condition; it came from God
and must rise to Him again. But natural death brings this
consummation only to those who, while they lived on earth,
kept themselves free from attachment to the things of sense; all
others must at death pass into another body; transmigration of
souls is in fact the necessary consequence of Philo's premises,
though he seldom speaks of it expressly.

Philo's literary labours have a twofold object, being directed either
to expound the true sense of the Mosaic law, i.e. the philosophy
which we have just described, to his Jewish brethren, or to convince
heathen readers of the excellence, the supreme purity and truth,
of the Jewish religion, whose holy records contain the deepest and
most perfect philosophy, the best and most humane legislation.
Thus as a literary figure Philo, in conformity with his education and
views of life, stands between the Greeks and the Jews, seeking to
gain the Jews for Hellenism and the Greeks for Judaism, yet always
taking it for granted that his standpoint really is Jewish, and just
on that account truly philosophical and cosmopolitan.

The titles of the numerous extant writings of Philo present at
first sight a most confusing multiplicity. More than three-fourths
of them, however, are really mere sections of a small number of
larger works. Three such great works on the Pentateuch can be
distinguished.

I. The smallest of these is the Ztittj para Kal \vaeis (Quaeshones
et solutwnes), a short exposition of Genesis and Exodus, in the
form of question and answer. The work is cited under this title
by Eusebius (H. E. ii. 18, 1, 5; Praep. Ev. vii. 13), and by later
writers, but the Greek text is now almost wholly lost, and only
about one-half preserved in an Armenian translation. Genesis
seems to have occupied six books. 1 Eusebius tells us that Exodus
filled five books. In the Armenian translation, first published by
the learned Mechitarist, J. Bapt. Aucher, in 1826, are preserved four

1 See, especially Mai, Scriptt. vett. nov. coll. vol. vii.
106, 108.

pt. 1. pp. 100,

books on Genesis and two on Exodus, but with lacunae. A Latin
fragment, about half of the fourth books on Genesis (Phil. Jud. CII.
quaestt. . . . super Gen.), was first printed at Paris in 1520. Of
the Greek we have numerous but short fragments in various
Flonlegia. 2 The interpretations in this work are partly literal and
partly allegorical.

II. Philo's most important work 'is the Nopuv lepuv aW-qyoplai
(Euseb. H. E. 11. 18, 1; Phot. Bibl. Cod. 103), a vast and copious
allegorical commentary on Genesis, dealing with chaps, ii.-iv.,
verse by verse, and with select passages in the later chapters. The
readers in view are mainly Jews, for the form is modelled on the
rabbinic Midrash. The main idea is that the characters which
appear in Genesis are properly allegories of states of the soul ( T pb-woi.
rfjs i/<ux»js). All persons and actions being interpreted in this
sense, the work as a whole is a very extensive body of psychology
and ethics. It begins with Gen. ii. 1, for the De mundi opificio,
which treats of the creation according to Gen. i., ii., does not belong
to this series of allegorical commentaries, but deals with the
actual history of creation, and that under a quite different literary
form. With this exception, however, the Nbpwv dXAiryopieu includes
all the treatises in the first volume of Mangey's edition, viz. —
Nbpcov lepS>v aXX-qyopiaL xpfirai tSiv pera ti)v Qa.-op.tpov (Legum alle-
goriarum,\\b. i., M. i. 43-65), on Gen. ii. 1-17. (2) Nop. Up. dXA. Sevrepai
(Leg. all. lib. 11., M. i. 66-86), on Gen. ii. 18— iii. la. (3)N6p.. Up. dXX.
rpiroi (Leg. all. lib. iii., M. i. 87-137), on Gen. iii. 8b-ia. The
commentaries on Gen. iii. ib-8a, 20-23 are lost. (4) Ilepi t&v xepovfilp.
Kal T?js <f>\oyivT]s pop<f>aias Kal rod KTiadevros irpwrov e£ avBpairov Kaiv
(De cherubim et flammeo gladio, M. i. 138-162), on Gen. iii. 24 and
iv. I. (5) Ilepi Siv lepovpyovo-iv "A0eA re Kal Kaiv (De sacriftciis Abelis
et Caini, M. i. 163-190), on Gen. iv. 2-4. The commentaries on
Gen. iv. 5-7 are lost. (6) Ilepi tov to xetpov 1"$ Kpelrrovi. <j>i\eiv
tmriSeoticu. (Quod deterius potiori insidiari soleat, M! i. 191-225), on
Gen. iv. 8-15. (7) Ilepi tSiv tov boK-qaia6<j>ov Kaiv eyybvav Kal as
peravaar-qs yiverai (De poster itate Caini, &c, M. i. 226-261), on Gen. iv.
16-25; this book, which is wanting in editions prior to Mangey's, is
incorrectly given by him, but much more correctlv by Tischendorf,
Philonea, pp. 84-143. None of the preceding is 'mentioned by its
special^ title by Euseb. H.E. ii. 18, while he cites all that follow
by their titles. The reason must be that all up to this point, and
no further, are included by him in the Nbpuv Upav aWriyoplai ; agree-
ing with this we find that these, and these only, are cited under that
general title in the Florilegia, especially the so-called Johannes
Monachus ineiitus (see Mangey's notes before each book). We may
therefore conclude with confidence that Philo published the con-
tinuous commentaries on Gen. ii.-iv. under the title Allegories of
the Sacred Laws, and the following commentaries on select passages
under special titles, though the identity of literary character entitles
us to regard the latter as part of the same great literary plan
with the former. (8) Ilepi yiyavrav (De gigantibus, M. i. 262-272),
on Gen. vi. 1-4. (9) "On arpewTov to deXov (Quod Deus sit immutabilis,
M. i. 272-299), on Gen. vi. 4-12. (10) Ilepi yeapyias (De agricultura,
M. 1. 300-328), on Gen. ix. 20a. (n) Ilepi QvTovpyias Nue t6 devTepov
(De plantahone Noe, M. i. 329-356), on Gen. ix. 20b. (12) Ilepi pWris
(De ebrietate, M. i. 357-391), on Gen. ix. 21; the introduction shows
that this book was preceded by another which put together the
views of the philosophers about drunkenness. (13) Ilepi toD tlev^eNSe
(De sobrietate, M. i. 392-403), on Gen. ix. 24. (14) Ilepi avy X vo-eas
diaXeKTiov (Dc confusione linguarum, M. i. 404-435), on Gen. xi. 1-9.
(1 5) Ilepi aivoiKlas (De migratione Abrahami, M. i. 436-472) , on Gen. xii.
1-6. (16) Ilepi tov rls 6 twv Beiav wpaypaToiv K\-qpovbpos (Quis
rerum divinarum haeres sit, M. i. 473-518), on Gen. xv. 1-18.
(17) Ilepi rijs els -ra irpo-jra.i5tip.aTa cvvbSov (De congressu quaerendae
eruditionis causa, M. i. 519-545), on Gen. xvi. 1-6. (18) Ilepi <t>vyabuv
(De profugis, M. 1.^ 546-577). on Gen. xvi. 6-14. (19) Ilepi t&v
lieTovop.aiop.evav Kal Siv iveKa peTovopa^ovTat (De -mutatione nominum,
M. i. 578-619), on Gen. xvii. 1-22 ; in this work Philo mentions that
he had written two books, now wholly lost, Ilepi SiaB-nK&v (M. i. 586).

(20) Ilepi tov BeoTrepiTTovs elvai. tovs bveipovs (De somniis, lib. i., M. i.
620-658), on the two dreams of Jacob, Gen. xxviii. and xx'xi!

(21) Book ii. of the same (M. i. 659-699), on the dreams of Joseph,
the chief butler, the chief baker, and Pharaoh, Gen. xxxvii. and
xl., xli. Eusebius makes Philo the author of five books on dreams;
three, therefore, are lost.

III. A work of a very different kind is the group of writings
which we may call " An Exposition of the Mosaic law for Gentiles,"
which, in spite of their very various contents, present on nearer
examination indubitable marks of close connexion. In them Philo
seeks to give an orderly view of the chief points of the Mosaic
legislation in the Pentateuch, and to recommend it as valuable to
Gentile readers. The method of exposition is somewhat more
popular than in the allegorical commentaries, for, though that
method of interpretation is not wholly excluded, the main object
is to give such a view of the legislation as Philo accepted as his-
torical. This work has three main divisions: (a) an Account of
t he creation (Kocrpoiroua) wh ich Moses put first to show that his

2 See Opp., ed. Mangey, ii. 648-680; Mai, op. cit., vol. vii. pt. i.
96 seq.; Euseb. Praep. Ev. vii. 13. A fragment on the cherubim,
Exod. xxv. 18, has been published by Mai, Class. Auctt. iv. 430 seq.,
by Grossmann (1856) and by Tischendorf (p. 144 seq.).

412

PHILO

legislation was conformed to the will of nature, and that therefore
those who followed it were true cosmopolitans; (b) the Biographies
of the Virtuous — being, so to speak, the living unwritten laws which,
unlike written laws, present the general types of moral conduct;
(c) Legislation Proper, in two subdivisions — (a) the ten principal
chapters of the law, (0) the special laws belonging to each of these
ten. An appendix adds a view of such laws as do not fall under
the rubrics of the decalogue, arranged under the headings of certain
cardinal virtues.

The treatises which belong to this work are the following: (i) Uepl
ttjs Muweus Koopoirouas (De mundi opificio, M. i. I -42). This work
does not fall within the number of the allegorical commentaries.
On the other hand, the introduction to the treatise De Abrahamo
makes clear its immediate connexion with the De mundi opificio.
The position of the De mundi opificio at the head of the allegorical
commentaries, which is at present usual in the editions, seems indeed
to go back to a very early date, for even Eusebius cites a passage
from it with the formula kirb rod rpirrov tu>v els rbv vbpov (Praep. Ev.
viii. 12 fin., ed. Gaisford). The group of the Biot oo<j>S>v is headed
by (2) Bios <ro<pov rod Kara oiSaoTcaXiaJ' TeXeucdevros r\ irepl vbp^v aypa<j)wv
[d], o iari irepl 'Afipaa/i (De Abrahamo, M. ii. 1-40). Abraham
is here set forth as the type of SiSoo-xaXtKi) aperf), i.e. of virtue as a
thing learned. This biography of Abraham was followed by that
of Isaac as a type of ipvauci/ aper-q, i.e. of innate or natural virtue,
which in turn was succeeded by that of Jacob as representing dcr/op-iKi)
aperq, i.e. virtue acquired by practice; but both these are now iost.
Hence in the editions the next treatise is (3) Bios iroXirmbs birep fori
irepl 'Io>ari<p (De Josepho, M. ii. 41-79), where Joseph is taken as the
pattern of the wise man in his civil relations. The Biographies of
the Virtuous are followed by (4) Uepl tuv bena "kayUav a /cc^dXaia
vbpav elai (De decalogo, M. ii. 180—209) an d (5) Uepl t&v avatpepopivwv
ev elbei vbpu>v els ra ovvrelvavra KetfiaXaia rwv oe/ca Xbywv (De
specialibus legibus ; the unabridged title is given by Eusebius, H.E. ii.
18, 5). Here under the rubrics of the ten commandments a system-
atic review of the special laws of the Mosaic economy is given; for
example, under the first and second commandments (divine worship)
a survey is taken of the entire legislation relating to priesthood
and sacrifice; under the fourth (i.e. the Sabbath law, according to
Philo's reckoning) there is a survey of all the laws about feasts;
under the sixth (adultery) an account of matrimonial law; and so
on. According to Eusebius the work embraced four books, which
seem to have reached us entire, but in the editions have been
perversely broken up into a considerable number of separate
tractates, (a) The first book (on the first and second command-
ments) includes the following: De circumcisione (M. ii. 210-212);
De monorchia, lib. i. (ii. 213-222) ; De monorchia, lib. ii. (ii. 222-232) ;
De praemiis sacerdotum (ii. 232-237) ; De victimis (ii. 237-250) ;
De sacrificantibus, or De viclimas offerentibus (ii. 251-264) ; De
mercede meretricis non accipienda in sacrarium (ii. 264-269).
(b) The second book (on the third, fourth and fifth commandments,
i.e. on perjury, Sabbath observance, and filial piety) is incomplete
in Mangey (ii. 270-298), the section De seplenario (on the Sabbath
and feasts in general) being imperfect, and that De colendis parentibus
being entirely wanting. Mai to a large extent made good the defect
{De cophini festo el de colendis parentibus, Milan, 1818), but Tischen-
dorf was the first to edit the full text (Philonea, pp. 1-83). (c) The
third book relates to the sixth and seventh commandments (adultery
and murder; M. ii. 299-334). (d) To the fourth book (relating to
the last three commandments) belongs all that is found in Mangey,
ii. 335-374, that is to say, not merely the tractates Dejudice (ii. 344-
348) and De concupiscentia (ii. 348-358), but also those De juslilia
(ii. 358-361) and De creatione principum (ii. 361-374). The last-
named is, properly speaking, only a portion of the De justilia,
which, however, certainly belongs to the fourth book, of which the
superscription expressly bears that it treats also irepl biKauxriivi\s.
With this tractate begins the appendix to the work De specialibus
legibus, into which, under the rubric of certain cardinal virtues,
such Mosaic laws are brought together as could not be dealt with
under any of the decalogue rubrics. The continuation of this
appendix forms a book by itself. (6) Ilepi rpi&v aperwv fjroi irepl
avbpelas /cat <j>i\av8puirlas nai fieravolas (De fortitudine, M. ii. 375*"
383; De caritate, ii. 383-405; De poenitentia, ii. 405-407). Finally,
in less intimate connexion with this entire work is another treatise
still to be mentioned, (7) Uepl &6\aiv nal ivinnlwv (De praemiis et
poenis, M. ii. 408-428) and Ilepi dpfie (De execrationibus, M. ii.
429-457), two parts which constitute a single whole and deal with
the promises and threatenings of the law.

IV. Besides the above-named three great works on the Penta-
teuch, Philo was the author of a number of isolated writings, of
which the following have reached us either in their entirety or in
fragments. (1) Uepl Piov Mu<-4«j (Vita Mosis, lib. i.-iii., M. ii.
80-179). It is usual to group this, as being biographical in its
character, with the Bioi <ro<pu>v, and thus to incorporate it imme-
diately after the De Josepho with the large work on the Mosaic
legislation. But, as has been seen, the Bioi o-ocj><bv are intended to
represent the general types of morality, while Moses is by no means
so dealt with, but as a unique individual. All that can be said is
that the literary character of the Vita Mosis is the same as that of
the larger work. As in the latter the Mosaic legislation, so in the
former the activity of the legislator himself, is delineated for the

benefit of Gentile readers. (2) Uepl toO ravra airovbalov elvai eXebdepov
(Quod omnis probus liber, M. ii. 445-470). In the introduction
to this treatise reference is made to an earlier book which had for
its theme the converse proposition. The complete work was
still extant in the time of Eusebius (H. E. ii. 18, 6) : Uepl roO bovXor
elvai iravra<t>aiiXov, £> k^fjs iorlvb irepl ToD iravra oirovbalov eXeWepov elvai.
The genuineness of the writing now possessed by us is not undis-
puted: but see Lucius, Der Essenismus (1881), pp. 13-23. (3)
Els $\Slkkov (Adversus Flaccum, M. ii. 517-544) and (4) Uepl kperSiv
Ktd Trpea fielas irpbs Taiov (De legatione ad Gaium, M. ii. 545^600).
These two works have a very intimate connexion. In the first
Philo relates how the Roman governor Flaccus in Alexandria,
towards the beginning of the reign of Caligula, allowed the Alex-
andrian mob, without interference, to insult the Jews of that city
in the grossest manner, and even to persecute them to the shedding
of blood. In the second he tells how the Jews had been subjected
to still greater sufferings through the command of Caligula that
divine honours should be everywhere accorded to him, and how
the Jews of Alexandria in vain sought relief by a mission to Rome
which was headed by Philo. But both together were only parts of
a larger work, in five books, of which the first two and the last
have perished. For it is clear from the introduction to the Adversus
Flaccum that it had been preceded by another book in which the
Jewish persecutions by Sejanus, under the reign of Tiberius, were
spoken of, and the Chronicon of Eusebius (ed. Schoene, ii.
150, 151) informs us that these persecutions of Sejanus were
related in the second book of the work now under discussion. But
from the conclusion of the Legatio ad Gaium, which we still possess,
we learn that it was also followed by another book which exhibited
the iraXivqbla, or change of Jewish fortunes for the better. Thus
we make out five books in all — the number actually given by
Eusebius (H.E. ii. 5, 1). (5) Uepl irpovolas (De providentia) . This
work has reached us only in an Armenian translation, which has
been edited, with a Latin translation, by Aucher (see below), 1822.
It is mentioned by its Greek title in Eusebius (H.E. ii. 18, 6; Praep.
Ev. vii. 20 fin., viii. 13 fin., ed. Gaisford). The Armenian text
gives two books, but of these the first, if genuine at all, at any
rate appears only in an abridged and somewhat revised state. 1
Eusebius (Praep. Ev. viii. 14) quotes from the second book to an
extent that amounts to a series of excerpts from the whole. The
short passage in Praep. Ev. vii. 21, is also taken from this book;
and it appears that Eusebius knew nothing at all about the first.

(6) 'AXeijaeopos fj irepl rod Xbyov exeiv ra aXoya £G>a(De Alexandro et quod
propriam rationem muta animalia habeant; so Jerome, De Vir. III. c.
11) ; the Greek title is given in Euseb. H.E. ii. 18, 6. This also now
exists only in an Armenian translation, which has been edited by
Aucher. Two small Greek fragments occur in the Florilegium
of Leontius and Johannes (Mai, Scr. vet. nov. coll. vii. 1, pp. 99, 100a).

(7) 'TirooeriKa, a writing now known to us only through fragments
preserved in Euseb. Praep. Ev. viii. 6, 7. The title, as Bernays 2
has shown, means " Counsels," " Recommendations," the reference
being to such laws of the Jews as can be recommended also to non-
Jewish readers. (8) Ilepi 'lovSaLov, a title met with in Euseb. H.E. ii.
18, 6. The writing is no doubt the same as 'H birep' lovbalav airoXoyla,
from which a quotation is given in Euseb. Praep. Ev. viii. 11. To
this place also, perhaps, belongs the De nobilitate (M. ii. 437-444),
which treats of that true noblesse of wisdom in which the Jewish
people also is not wanting. 3

V. The doubtful treatises: (1) Uepl (llov BeupijriKov i) lueruv
aperay (De vita contemplative). This contains the sole original
account of an ascetic community known as the Therapeutae (q.v.)
having their home on the shores of Lake Mareotis. These were
held by Eusebius and many other Christian writers to be the earliest
Christian monks, which of course could not be the case if it was a
genuine work of Philo. On this account, amongst others, it was
held to be spurious by Graetz and P. E. Lucius; and this view
gradually received the assent of most modern scholars. Latterly,
however, L. Massebieau has shown with great thoroughness that
in language and thought alike it is essentially Philonic, and the
genuineness of the book has also been affirmed by P. Wendland,
and especially by F. C. Ccnybeare. (2) Uepl tupBapolas Kbapov
(De incorruptibilitate mundi), declared unauthentic by Z. Frankel
and J. Bernays, has been successfully defended by F. Cumont.

(3) Xlepl Kbanov (De mundo). It is generally agreed that, in L.
Cohn's words, this is " nothing but a compilation from various
portions of the irepl b4$apalas nbo-fiov and other Philonic works."

(4) Two discourses, De Sampsone and De Iona, extant only in Armen-
ian, and certain other writings of the same kind. These appear
only to have been imputed to Philo by chance, and certainly cannot
claim to be his work. (5) Uepl rov iravra oirovbaiov elvai iXevBepov
(Quod omnis probus liber sit) has been questioned by Z. Frankel
and R. Ansfeld; but their arguments would rather point to its being
an early work of Philo, which P. Wendland believes to be the case.
(6) Uepl irpovolas (De providentia), which we possess as a whole

^ee Diels, Doxographi Graeci, 1879, pp. 1-4; Zeller, Phil. d. Gr.
iii. 2, p. 340 (3rd ed).

2 Monatsb. d. Berl. Akad. (1876), pp. 580-609.

3 This conjecture is Dahne's, Theol. Stud. u. Krit. (1S33), pp. 990,
1037.

PHILO OF BYZANTIUM— PHILODEMUS

only in an Armenian version, consists of two books, the first of which
appears to be in a Christian recension, but there is no reason for
denying its Philonic origin.

Editions.— Till recent days the best edition was that of Mangey
(2 vols., London, 1742) ; the handiest the Holtze duodecimo (Leipzig,
1 yy u l are ' very useful > but for scholars they will be super-
d e , , ,iV . e enlar g ed ar >d critical edition of Leopold Cohn and
£aul Wendland (Berlin, 1896-1902). See also papers by Cohn in
Hermes , xxxvin. (1903) and xliii. (1908). There is an English trans-
lation of the old text by C. D. Yonge (4 vols., London, 1854).

Literature.— The best special studies of Philo will be found in
Siegtried, Philo von Alex. (Jena, 1875); Drummond, Philo- Judaeus
(London, 1888). For his place in philosophy, see Zeller, Phil, der
Griechen (1881). For his relation to Palestinian speculation, B.
Kitter, Philo und die Halacha (Leipzig, 1879). An excellent" general
account will be found in Schurer, The Jewish People in the time of
Jesus -Christ (Eng. trans., 1891), or in Dr Edersheim's article
on Fnilo in the Dictionary of Christian Biography. For the question
1 genuineness and historical value of the De vita contemplativa
S ?i < Ma^ebieau, in Revue de I'histoire des religions, vol. xvi. (Paris
a I ' >: L - Con ybeare, Philo: About the Contemplative Life (Oxford,
1095); G. Fayot, Etudes sur les therapeutes (Geneve, 1880) • P E
Lucius, Die Jherapeuten (Strassburg, 1880); P. Wendland, Die
1 herapeuten (Leipzig, 1896). Also F. Cumont, Philo, de aet. mundi
(1891); j. Bernays in the Abhand. der k. Akad. der Wiss. (1876)

(E. S.*; C. Bi.)
PHILO OF BYZANTIUM, Greek writer on mechanics,
flourished during the latter half of the 2nd century B.C. (according
to some, a century earlier). He was the author of a large work
Mijxami? avvrafc), of which the fourth and (in epitome)
fifth books are extant, treating of missiles, the construction of
fortresses, provisioning, attack and defence (ed. R. Schone, 1893,
with German translation in H. Kochly's Griechische Kriegs-
schriftslelkr, vol. i. 1853; E. A. Rochas d'Aiglun, Poliorcltique
des Grecs, 1872). Another portion of the work, on pneumatic
engines, has been preserved in the form of a Latin translation
(De mgeniis spiritualibus) made from an Arabic version (ed.
W. Schmidt, with German translation, in the works of Heron of
Alexandria, vol. i., in " Teubner Series," 1899; with French
translation by Rochas, La Science des philosophies . . . dans
Vantiquite, 1882).

A little treatise On the Seven Wonders of the World, wrongly
attributed to Philo, probably belongs to the 6th century a.d. It
is printed in R. Hercher's Aelian (1858).

PHILO OF LARISSA, Greek philosopher of the first half of
the 1st century b.c. During the Mithradatk wars he left
Athens and took up his residence in Rome. He was a pupil of
Clitomachus, whom he succeeded as head of the Third or New
Academy. According to Sextus Empiricus, he was the founder
of the Fourth Academy, but other writers refuse to admit the
separate existence of more than three academies (see Academy,
Greek). In Rome he lectured on rhetoric and philosophy, and
collected around him many eminent pupils, amongst whom
Cicero was the most famous and the most enthusiastic. None
of his works is extant; our knowledge of his views is derived
from Numenius, Sextus Empiricus and Cicero. In general, his
philosophy was a reaction against the sceptic or agnostic position
of the Middle and New Academy in favour of the dogmatism of
Plato.

See Grysar, Die A kademiker Philo undAntiochus (1849) ; Hermann.
De Fhilone Lanssaeo (Gottingen, 1851 and 1855).

PHILO, HERENNIUS, of Byblus, Greek grammarian, was
born, according to Suidas, in a.d. 42. He lived into the reign
of Hadrian, of which he wrote a history, now lost. He was the
author of various works: On the Acquisition and Choice of Books;
On Cities and their Famous Men, epitomized by the grammarian
Aehus Serenus, and one of the chief authorities used by
Hesychius and Stephanus of Byzantium; On Synonyms, of which
there <s extant an epitome by Ammonius Grammaticus. But he
is chiefly known for his translation of the Phoenician history of
Sanchuniathon, who was said to have lived before the Trojan
war Of this work considerable fragments have been preserved,
chiefly by Eusebius in the Praeparatio evangelica (i. 9, 10; iv. 16).
They present a euhemeristic Hchaufe of Phoenician theology
and mythology, which is represented as translated from the
original Phoenician. Sanchuniathon is probably an imaginary
personage, whose name is formed from that of the Phoenician
god Sanchon.

413

Editions of the fragments by J. C. Orelli (1826) and C. Muller
Frag. hist, graec. vol. iii. In 1836 F. Wagenfeld brought out what
claimed to be a complete translation by Philo (from a MS. discovered
in a convent in Portugal, now considered spurious). There are
English translations by I. P. Cory (1828) and Bishop R. Cumberland

PHILOCHORUS, of Athens, Greek historian during the 3rd
century B.C., was a member of a priestly family. He was a seer
and interpreter of signs, and a man of considerable influence.
He was strongly anti-Macedonian in politics, and a bitter oppo-
nent of Demetrius Poliorcetes. When Antigonus Gonatas, the
son of the latter, besieged and captured Athens (261),
Philochorus was put to death for having supported Ptolemy
Philadelphus, who had encouraged the Athenians in their
resistance to Macedonia. His investigations into the usage?
and customs of his native Attica were embodied in an Atthis,
in seventeen books, a history of Athens from the earliest times
to 262 b.c. Considerable fragments are preserved in the
lexicographers, scholiasts, Athenaeus, and elsewhere. The work
was epitomized by the author himself, and later by Asinius
Pollio of Tralles (perhaps a freedman of the famous Gaius
Asinius Pollio). Philochorus also wrote on oracles, divination
and sacrifices; the mythology and religious observances of the
tetrapolis of Attica; the myths of Sophocles; the lives of Euri-
pides and Pythagoras; the foundation of Salamis. He compiled
chronological lists of the archons and Olympiads, and made a
collection of Attic inscriptions, the first of its kind in Greece.

Fragments and life in C. W. Muller, Fragmenta historicorum
graecorum, vol. 1. (1841); A. Bockh, Gesammelte kleine Schriften, vol
YaA 18 ? 1 )' on the P lan of the work; J. Strenge, Quaestiones philochoreae
(Gottingen, 1868); C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium der
alten Geschwhte (1895).

PHILOCTETES, in Greek legend, son of Poeas king of the
Malians of Mt Oeta, one of the suitors of Helen and a celebrated
hero of the Trojan War. Homer merely states that he was
distinguished for his prowess with the bow; that he was bitten
by a snake on the journey to Troy and left behind in the island
of Lemnos; and that he subsequently returned home in safety.
These brief allusions were elaborated by the " cyclic " poets,
and the adventures of Philoctetes formed the subject of tragedies
by Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. In the later form of
the story Philoctetes was the friend and armour-bearer of
Heracles, who presented him with his bow and poisoned arrows
as a reward for kindling the fire on Mt Oeta, on which the hero
immolated himself. Philoctetes remained at Lemnos till the
tenth year of the war. An oracle having declared that Troy
could not be taken without the arrows of Heracles, Odysseus
and Diomedes (or Neoptolemus) were sent to fetch Philoctetes.
On his arrival before Troy he was healed of his wound by
Machaon, and slew Paris; shortly afterwards the city was
taken. On his return to his own country, finding that a revolt
had broken out against him, he again took ship and sailed for
Italy, where he founded Petilia and Cremissa. He fell fighting
on the side of a band of Rhodian colonists against some later
immigrants from Pallene in Achaea. His tomb and sanctuary
were shown at Macalla, on the coast of Bruttium.

Of the Aeschylean and Euripidean tragedies only a few fragments
remain; of the two by Sophocles, one is extant, the other, dealing
with the fortunes of Philoctetes before Troy, is lost. Some light is
thrown upon the lost plays by Dio Chrysostom, who in one of his
discourses (52) describes his reading of the three tragedies, and in
another (59) gives a prose version of the opening of the Philoctetes
ot Lunpides. Philoctetes was also the subject of tragedies by
Achaeus of Eretna, Euphorion of Chalcis and the Roman tragedian
Accius. According to F. Marx (Neue Jahrbucher fur das klassische
Altertum, 1904, p. 673-685), Philoctetes did not appear in the original
legend of Troy. He is a form of the Lemnian Hephaestus, who
alighted on the island when flung out of Olympus by Zeus. Like
him he is lame and an outcast for nine years; like him, he is brought
back in time of need. His connexion with the fall of Troy indicates
that the fire-god himself set fire to the city; in like manner no other
than the fire-god was thought worthy to kindle the pyre of Heracles.

See Homer, Iliad 11. 718, Odyssey, iii. 190, viii. 219; Sophocles,
Philoctetes, and Jebb s Introduction; Diod. Sic. iv. 38; Philostratus,
Heroica, 6; Strabo vi. 254; Hyginus, Fab. 36, 102.

PHILODEMUS, Epicurean philosopher and poet, was born
at Gadara in Coele-Syria early in the 1st century B.C., and

4-H

PHILOLAUS— PHILOLOGY

settled in Rome in the time of Cicero. He was a friend of
Calpurnius Piso, and was implicated in his profligacy by Cicero
(in Pisonem, 29), who, however, praises him warmly for his
philosophic views and for the elegans lascivia of his poems
(cf. Horace, Satires, 1. 2. 120). The Greek anthology contains
thirty-four of his epigrams. From the excavations of the
villa at Herculaneum (q.v.) there have been recovered thirty-
six treatises attributed to Philodemus, and it has been suggested
that the villa was actually owned by him; but this is generally
denied. These works deal with music, rhetoric, ethics, signs,
virtues and vices, and defend the Epicurean standpoint against
the Stoics and the Peripatetics.

The Rhetoric has been edited by Sudhaus (1892-1895) ; the De
Ira and the De Pietate by Gomperz (1864 to 1865) ; the De Musica
by Kempke (1884) ; De Vitiis by Ussing (1868) ; De Morte by Mekler
(1886). See Hercul. Volum. (Oxford, 1824 and 1861); Mayor on
Cicero's De Natura deorum (1871).

PHILOLAUS (b. c. 480), Greek philosopher of the Pytha-
gorean school, was born at Tarentum or at Crotona l (so Diog.
Laert. viii. 84). He was said to have been intimate with
Democritus, and was probably one of his teachers. After the
death of Pythagoras great dissensions prevailed in the cities of
lower Italy. According to some accounts, Philolaus, obliged
to flee, took refuge first in Lucania and then at Thebes, where
he had as pupils Simmias and Cebes, who subsequently, being
still young men (veavlaKoi) , were present at the death of Socrates.
Before this Philolaus had returned to Italy, where he was the
teacher of Archytas. He entered deeply into the distinctively
Pythagorean number theory, particularly dwelling on the
properties inherent in the decad — the sum of the first four
numbers, consequently the fourth triangular number, the tetractys
(see Vit. Pythag. ap. Phot. Bibl. p. 712) — which he called great,
all-powerful, and all-producing. The great Pythagorean oath
was taken by the sacred tetractys. The discovery of the regular
solids is attributed to Pythagoras by Eudemus, and Empedocles
is stated to have been the first who maintained that there are
four elements. Philolaus, connecting these ideas, held that the
elementary nature of bodies depends on their form, and assigned
the tetrahedron to fire, the octahedron to air, the icosahedron
to water, and the cube to earth; the dodecahedron he assigned
to a fifth element, aether, or, as some think, to the universe
(see Plut. de PL Ph. ii. 6, e/c di rod dcadeKOtSpov rr/v tov tvovtos
<j<t>aipav and Stob. Eel. Phys. i. 10, 6 ras ofyalpas oXkos). This
theory, however superficial from the standpoint of observation,
indicates considerable knowledge of geometry and gave a great
impulse to the study of the science. Following Parmenides,
Philolaus regarded the soul as a " mixture and harmony " of
the bodily parts; he also assumed a substantial soul, whose
existence in the body is an exile on account of sin.

Philolaus was the first to propound the doctrine of the motion
of the earth; some attribute this doctrine to Pythagoras, but
there is no evidence in support of their view. Philolaus supposed
that the sphere of the fixed stars, the five planets, the sun, moon
and earth, all moved round the central fire, which he called the
hearth of the universe, the house of Zeus, and the mother of
the gods (see Stob. Eel. Phys. i. 488) ; but as these made up
only nine revolving bodies he conceived, in accordance with his
number theory, a tenth, which he called counter-earth, avrixOwv.
He supposed the sun to be a disk of glass which reflects the light
of the universe. He made the lunar month consist of 295 days,
the lunar year of 354, and the solar year of 365I days. He was
the first who published a book on the Pythagorean doctrines,
a treatise of which Plato made use in the composition of his
Timaeus. This work of the Pythagorean, to which the mystical
name BaKxcu is sometimes given, seems to have consisted
of three books: (1) Hepl Koafioo, containing a general account
of the origin and arrangement of the universe; (2) Ilepi cbvo-eois,
an exposition of the nature of numbers; (3) Ilept foxy*! on
the nature of the soul.

1 Boeckh places his life between the 70th and 95th Olympiads
(496-396 B.C.). He was a contemporary of Socrates and Democritus,
but senior to them, and was probably somewhat junior to Empe-
docles, so that his birth may be placed at about 480.

See Boeckh, Philolaus des Pythagoreers Lehren nebst den Bruch-
stilcken seines Werkes (Berlin, 1819); Schaarschmidt, Die angebliche
Schriftstellerei des Philolaus (1864); also Fabricius, Bibliotheca
graeca; Zeller, History of Greek Philosophy; Chaignet, Pythagore
et la philosophie pythagoricienne, contenant les fragments de Philolaus
et d'Architas (1873); Th. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers (Eng. trans.
(1901), i. 123 sqq., 543 sqq. and authorities there quoted; also art.
Pythagoras. For fragments see Ritter and Preller, Hist. Philosoph.
ch. ii.

PHILOLOGY, the generally accepted comprehensive narne
for the study of the word (Gr. Xoyos), or languages; it designates
that branch of knowledge which deals with human speech, and
with all that speech discloses as to the nature and history of
man. Philology has two principal divisions, corresponding
to the two uses of " word " or " speech," as signifying either
what is said or the language in which it is said, as either the
thought expressed — which, when recorded, takes the form of
literature — or the instrumentality of its expression: these
divisions are the literary and the linguistic. Not all study of
literature, indeed, is philological: as when, for example, the
records of the ancient Chinese are ransacked for notices of
astronomical or meteorological phenomena, or the principles of
geometry are learned from the textbook of a Greek sage; while,
on the other hand, to study Ptolemy and Euclid for the history
of the sciences represented by them is philological more than
scientific. Again, the study of language itself has its literary
side: as when the vocabulary of a community (say of the ancient
Indo-Europeans or Aryans) is taken as a document from which
to infer the range and grade of knowledge of its speakers, their
circumstances and their institutions. The two divisions thus
do not admit of absolute distinction and separation, though
for some time past tending toward greater independence. The
literary is the older of the two; it even occupied until recently
the whole field, since the scientific study of language itself has
arisen only within the 19th century. Till then, literary philology
included linguistic, as a merely subordinate and auxiliary part,
the knowledge of a language being the necessary key to a know-
ledge of the literature written in that language. When, there-
fore, instead of studying each language by itself for the sake
of its own literature men began to compare one language with
another, in order to bring to light their relationships, their
structures, thei r histories, the name " comparative philology "
naturally enough suggested itself and came into use for the new
method; and this name, awkward and trivial though it may be,
has become so firmly fixed in English usage that it can be only
slowly, if at all, displaced. European usage (especially German)
tends more strongly than English to restrict the name philology
to its older office, and to employ for the recent branch of know-
ledge a specific term, like those that have gained more or less
currency with us also; as glottic, glossology, linguistics, linguistic
science, science of language, and the like. It is not a question
of absolute propriety or correctness, since ihe word philology
is in its nature wide enough to imply all language-study of
whatever kind; it is one, rather, of the convenient distinction
of methods that have grown too independent and important
to be any longer well included under a common name.

I. — The Science of Language in general.
Philology, in all its departments, began and grew up as
classical; the history of our civilization made the study of
Greek and Latin long the exclusive, still longer the
predominant and regulating, occupation of secular ^s™ e „ f ce
scholarship. The Hebrew and its literature were held
apart, as something of a different order, as sacred. It was not
imagined that any tongue to which culture and literature
did not lend importance was worthy of serious attention from
scholars. The first essays in comparison, likewise, were made
upon the classical tongues, and were as erroneous in method
and fertile in false conclusions as was to be expected, considering
the narrowness of view and the controlling prejudices of those
who made them; and the admission of Hebrew to the comparison
only added to the confusion. The change which the past
century has seen has been a part of the general scientific move-
ment of the age, which has brought about the establishment

PHILOLOGY

4i5

of so many new branches of knowledge, both historical and
physical, by the abandonment of shackling prejudices, the
freedom of inquiry, the recognition of the dignity of all know-
ledge, the wide-reaching assemblage of facts and their objective
comparison, and the resulting constant improvement of method.
Literary philology has had its full share of advantage from this
movement; but linguistic philology has been actually created
by it out of the crude observations and wild deductions of
earlier times, as truly as chemistry out of alchemy, or geology
out of diluvianism. It is unnecessary here to follow out the
details of the development; but we may well refer to the decisive
influence of one discovery, the decisive action of one scholar.
It was the discovery of the special relationship of the Aryan
or Indo-European languages, depending in great measure upon
the introduction of the Sanskrit as a term in their comparison,
and demonstrated and worked out by the German scholar Bopp,
that founded the science of linguistic philology. While there
is abundant room for further improvement, it yet appears that
the grand features of philologic study, in all its departments,
are now so distinctly drawn that no revolution of its methods,
but only their modification in minor respects, is henceforth
probable. How and for what purposes to investigate the
literature of any people (philology in the more proper sense),
combining the knowledge thus obtained with that derived from
other sources; how to study and set forth the material and
structure and combinations of a language (grammar), or of a
body of related languages (comparative grammar) ; how to
co-ordinate and interpret the general phenomena of language,
as variously illustrated in the infinitely varying facts of different
tongues, so as to exhibit its nature as a factor in human history
and its methods of life and growth (linguistic science) — these
are what philology teaches.

The study of language is a division of the general science of
anthropology (q.v.), and is akin to all the rest in respect to its
Relation to objects and its methods. Man as we now see him
Aothropo- is a twofold being: in part the child of nature, as
logy. £ jjjg capacities and desires, his endowments of

mind and body; in part the creature of education, by train-
ing in the knowledge, the arts, the social conduct, of which
his predecessors have gained possession. And the problem
of anthropology is this: how natural man has become
cultivated man; how a being thus endowed by nature should
have begun and carried on the processes of acquisition which
have brought him to his present state. The results of his
predecessors' labours are not transmuted for his benefit into
natural instincts, in language or in anything else. The, child
of the most civilized race, if isolated and left wholly to his own
resources, aided by neither the example nor the instruction of
his fellows, would no more speak the speech of his ancestors
than he would buDd their houses, fashion their clothes, practise
any of their arts, inherit their knowledge or wealth. In fact,
he would possess no language, no arts, no wealth, but would
have to go to work to acquire them, by the same processes
which began to win them for the first human beings. One
advantage he would doubtless enjoy: the descendant of a
cultivated race has an enhanced aptitude for the reception of
cultivation; he is more cultivable; and this is an element that
has to be allowed for in comparing present conditions with past,
as influencing the rate of progress, but nothing more. In all
other respects it is man with the endowments which we now
find him possessed of, but destitute of the gradually accumulated
results of the exercise of his faculties, whose progress we have
to explain. And it is, as a matter of necessity, by studying
recent observable modes of acquisition, and transferring them,
with due allowance for different circumstances, to the more
primitive periods, that the question of first acquisition or origin
is to be solved, for language as for tools, for arts, for family
and social organization, and the rest. There is just as much
and just as little reason for assuming miraculous interference
and aid in one of these departments as in another. If men
have been left to themselves to make and improve instruments,
to form and perfect modes of social organization, by implanted

powers directed by natural desires, and under the pressure of
circumstances, then also to make and change the signs that
constitute their speech. All expressions, as all instruments, are
at present, and have been j through the known past, made and
changed by the men who use them; the same will have been the
case in the unknown or prehistoric past. And we command
now enough of the history of language, with the processes of
its life and growth, to determine with confidence its mode of
origin — within certain limits, as will appear below.

It is beyond all question, in the first place, that the desire
of communication was the only force directly impelling men
to the production of language. Man's sociality, cause of
his disposition to band together with his fellows, Language-
for lower and for higher purposes, for mutual help makia S-
and for sympathy, is one of his most fundamental character-
istics. To understand those about one and to be understood
by them is now, and must have been from the very beginning,
a prime necessity of human existence; we cannot conceive of
man, even in his most undeveloped state, as without the recogni-
tion of it. Communication is still the universally recognized
office of speech, and to the immense majority of speakers the
only one; the common man knows no other, and can only with
difficulty and imperfectly be brought to see that there is any
other; of the added distinctness and reach of mental action
which the possession of such an instrumentality gives him he
is wholly unconscious: and it is obvious that what the compara-
tively cultivated being of to-day can hardly be made to realize
can never have acted upon the first men as a motive to action.
It may perhaps be made a question which of the two uses of
speech, communication or the facilitation of thought is the
higher; there can be no question, at any rate, that the former
is the broader and the more fundamental. That the kind and
degree of thinking which we do nowadays would be impossible
without language-signs is true enough; but so also it would be
impossible without written signs. That there was a time
when men had to do what mental work they could without
the help of writing, as an art not yet devised, we have no diffi-
culty in realizing, because the art is of comparatively recent
device, and there are still communities enough that are working
without it; it is much harder to realize that there was a time
when speaking also was an art not yet attained, and that men
had to carry on their rude and rudimentary thinking without
it. Writing too was devised for conscious purposes of com-
munication only; its esoteric uses, like those of speech, were
at first unsuspected, and incapable of acting as an inducement;
they were not noticed until made experience of, and then only
by those who look beneath the surface of things. There is no
analogy closer and more instructive than this between speech
and writing. But analogies are abundant elsewhere in the
history of human development. Everywhere it is the lower
and more obvious inducements that are first effective, and that
lead gradually to the possession of what serves and stimulates
higher wants. All the arts and industries have grown out of
men's effort to get enough to eat and protection against cold and
heat— just as language, with all its uses, out of men's effort to
communicate with their fellows. As a solitary man now would
never form even the beginnings of speech, as one separated from
society unlearns his speech by disuse and becomes virtually
dumb, so early man, with all his powers, would never have
acquired speech, save as to those powers was added sociality
with the needs it brought. We might conceive of a solitary
man as housing and dressing himself, devising rude tools, and
thus lifting himself a step from wildness toward cultivation;
but we cannot conceive of him as ever learning to talk. Recogni-
tion of the impulse to communication as the efficient cause of
language-making is an element of primary importance in the
theory of the origin of language. No one who either leaves it
out of account or denies it will, however ingenious and enter-
taining his speculations, cast any real light on the earliest
history of speech. To inquire under what peculiar circumstances,
in connexion with what mode of individual or combined action,
a first outburst of oral expression may have taken place, is, on

416

PHILOLOGY

the other hand, quite futile. The needed circumstances were
always present when human beings were in one another's society;
there was an incessant drawing-on to attempts at mutual
understanding which met with occasional, and then ever more
frequent and complete success. There inheres in most reasoning
upon this subject the rooted assumption, governing opinion even
when not openly upheld or consciously made, that conceptions
have real natural names, and that in a state of nature these will
somehow break forth and reveal themselves under favouring
circumstances. The falsity of such a view is shown by our
whole further discussion.

The character of the motive force to speech determined the
character of the beginnings of speech. That was first signified
Beginnings which was most capable of intelligible signification,
of Speech not that which was first in order of importance,
ana Writing. as j u< jg e d by any standard which we can apply to it,
or first in order of conceptional development. All attempts to
determine the first spoken signs by asking what should have
most impressed the mind of primitive man are and must be
failures. It was the exigencies and possibilities of practical
life, in conditions quite out of reach of our distinct concep-
tion, that prescribed the earliest signs of communication. So,
by a true and instructive analogy, the beginnings of writing
are rude depictions of visible objects; it is now thoroughly
recognized that no alphabet, of whatever present character,
can have originated in any other way; everything else is gradu-
ally arrived at from that — as, indeed, in the ingeniously shaping
hands of man, from any central body of signs, though but of
small extent, all else is attainable by processes of analogy and
adaptation and transfer. Now what is it that is directly
signifiable in the world about us? Evidently the separate
acts and qualities of sensible objects, and nothing else. In
writing, or signification to the eye, the first element is the rude
depiction of the outline of an object, or of that one of the sum
of its characteristic qualities which the eye takes note of and the
hand is capable of intelligibly reproducing; from that the mind
understands the whole complex object itself, and then whatever
further may in the circumstances of its use be suggested by it.
So, for example, the picture of a tree signifies primarily a tree,
then perhaps wood, something made of wood, and so on; that
of a pair of outstretched wings signifies secondarily flight, then
soaring, height, and whatever else these may lead to. No
concrete thing is signifiable in its totality or otherwise than by
a facile analysis of its constituent qualities and a selection of
the one which is both sufficiently characteristic in itself and
capable of being called up by a sign before the mind addressed.

And what quality shall be selected depends in great measure
upon the instrumentality used for its signification. Of such
Instrumen- instrumentalities men possess a considerable variety.
(aiiiiesof We must leave out of account that of depiction, as
Expression. j ust i nstance d ) because its employment belongs to
a much more advanced state of cultivation, and leads the
way to the invention not of speech but of the analogous and
auxiliary art of writing. There remain gesture, or changes of
position of the various parts of the body, especially of the
most mobile parts, the arms and hands; grimace, or the changes
of expression of the features of the countenance (in strictness,
a variety of the preceding); and utterance, or the production
of audible sound. It cannot be doubted that, in the first stages
of communicative expression, all these three were used together,
each for the particular purposes which it was best calculated
to serve. The nearest approach to such action that is now
possible is when two persons, wholly ignorant of one another's
speech, meet and need to communicate — an imperfect corre-
spondence, because each is trained to habits of expression and
works consciously, and with the advantage of long experience,
towards making himself understood; yet it is good for its main
purpose. What they do, to reach mutual comprehension, is
like what the first speechless men, unconsciously and infinitely
more slowly, learned to do: face, hands, body, voice, are all
put to use. It is altogether probable that gesture at first
performed the principal part, even to such extent that the

earliest human language may be said to have been a language
of gesture signs; indeed, there exist at the present day such
gesture-languages as those in use between roving tribes of
different speech that from time to time meet one another (the
most noted example is that of the gesture-language, of a very
considerable degree of development, of the prairie tribes of
American Indians); or such signs as are the natural resort of
those who by deafness are cut off from ordinary spoken inter-
course with their fellows. Yet there never can have been a
stage or period in which all the three instrumentalities were
not put to use together. In fact, they are still all used together;
that is even now an ineffective speaking to which grimace and
gesture (" action," as Demosthenes called them) are not added
as enforcers; and the lower the grade 6f development and culture
of a language, the more important, even for intelligibility, is
their addition. But voice has won to itself the Tbe Vo/
chief and almost exclusive part in communication,
insomuch that we call all communication " language " (i.e.
" tonguiness ") just as a race of mutes might call it "handiness"
and talk (by gesture) of a handiness of grimace. This is not
in- the least because of any closer connexion of the thinking
apparatus with the muscles that act to produce audible sounds
than with those that act to produce visible motions; not because
there are natural uttered names for conceptions any more than
natural gestured names. It is simply a case of " survival of
the fittest," or analogous to the process by which iron has become
the exclusive material of swords, and gold and silver of money:
because, namely, experience has shown this to be the material
best adapted to this special use. The advantages of voice are
numerous and obvious. There is first its economy, as employing
a mechanism that is available for little else, and leaving free
for other purposes those indispensable instruments the hands.
Then there is its superior perceptibleness: its nice differences
impress themselves upon the sense at a distance at which visible
motions become indistinct; they are not hidden by intervening
objects; they allow the eyes of the listener as well as the hands
of the speaker to be employed in other useful work; they are as
plain in the dark as in the light; and they are able to catch and
command the attention of one who is not to be reached in any
other way. We might add as the third advantage a superior
capability of variation and combination on the part of spoken
sounds; but this is not to be insisted on, inasmuch as we hardly
know what a gesture-language might have become if men's
ingenuity in expression had been expended through all time
upon its elaboration; and the superiority, however real, can
hardly have been obvious enough to serve as a motive : certainly,
there are spoken languages now existing whose abundance of
resources falls short of what is attainable by gesture. Oral
utterance is the form which expression has inevitably taken,
the sum of man's endowments being what it is; but it would be
a mistake to suppose that a necessity of any other kind is
involved in their relation. The fundamental conditions of
speech are man's grade of intellectual power and his social
instinct; these being given, his expression follows, availing
itself of what means it finds best suited to its purpose; if voice
had been wanting it would have taken the next best. So, in
certain well-known cases, a marked artistic gift on the part of
individuals deprived of the use of hands has found means of
exercise in the feet instead. But men in general have hands,
instruments of exquisite tact and power, to serve the needs of
their intellect; and so voice also, to provide and use the tools
of thought; there is no error in maintaining that the voice is
given us for speech, if only we do not proceed to draw from such
a dictum false conclusions as to the relation between thought
and utterance. Man is created with bodily instruments suited
to do the work prescribed by his mental capacities; therein
lies the harmony of his endowment.

It is through imitation that all signification becomes directly
suggestive. The first written signs are (as already noticed)
the depictions of visible objects, and could be j m i ta tj on<
nothing else; and, by the same necessity, the first
uttered signs were the imitations of audible sounds. To reproduce

PHILOLOGY

417

any sound of which the originating cause or the circumstances
of production are known, brings up of course before the con-
ception that sound, along with the originator, or circumstances
of origination, or whatever else may be naturally associated with
it. There are two special directions in which this mode of sign-
making is fruitful: imitation of the sounds of external nature
(as the cries of animals and the noises of inanimate objects
when in motion or acted on by other objects) and imitation of
human sounds. The two are essentially one in principle,
although by some held apart, or even opposed to each other, as
respectively the imitative or onomatopoetic and the exclamatory
or inter jectional beginnings of speech; they differ only in their
spheres of significance, the one being especially suggestive of
external objects, the other of inward feelings. There are natural
human tones, indicative of feeling, as there are natural gestures,
poses, modes of facial expression, which either are immediately
intelligible to us (as is the warning cry of the hen to the day-
old chicken), or have their value taught us by our earliest
experiences. If we hear a cry of joy or a shriek of pain, a laugh
or a groan, we need no explanation in words to tell us what it
signifies any more than when we see a sad face or a drooping
attitude. So also the characteristic cry or act of anything
outside ourselves, if even rudely imitated, is to us an effective
reminder and awakener of conception. We have no reason
to question that such were the suggestions of the beginnings
of uttered expression. The same means have made their con-
tributions to language even down to our own day; we call words
so produced "onomatopoetic" (i.e. "name-making"), after
the example of the Greeks, who could not conceive that actually
new additions to language should be made in any other way.
What and how wide the range of the imitative principle, and
what amount of language-signs it was capable of yielding, is a
subject for special investigation — or rather, of speculation, since
anything like exact knowledge in regard to it will never be
attained; and the matter is one of altogether secondary con-
sequence; it is sufficient for our purpose that enough could
certainly be won in this way to serve as the effective germs of
speech.

All the natural means of expression are still at our command,
and are put to more or less use by us, and their products are as
Language, intelligible to us as they have been to any generation
of our ancestors, back to the very first. They are
analogous also to the means of communication of the lower
animals; this, so far as we know, consists in observing and
interpreting one another's movements and natural sounds
(where there are such). But language is a step beyond this,
and different from it. To make language, the intent to signify
must be present. A cry wrung out by pain, or a laugh of
amusement, though intelligible, is not language; either of them,
if consciously reproduced in order to signify to another pain or
pleasure, is language. So a cough within hearing of any one
attracts his attention; but to cough, or to produce any other
sound, articulate or inarticulate, for the purpose of attracting
another's attention, is to commit an act of language-making,
such as in human history preceded in abundance the establish-
ment of definite traditional signs for conceptions. Here begins
to appear the division between human language and all brute
expression ; since we do not know that any animal but man ever
definitely took this step. It would be highly interesting to find
out just how near any come to it ; and to this point ought to be
especially directed the attention of those who are investigating
the communication of the lower animals in its relation to human
communication. Among the animals of highest intelligence
that associate with man and learn something of his ways, a
certain amount of sign-making expressly for communication
is not to be denied; the dog that barks at a door because he
knows that somebody will come and let him in is an instance of
it; perhaps, in wild life, the throwing out of sentinel birds from
a flock, whose warning cry shall advertise their fellows of the
threat of danger, is as near an approach to it as is anywhere
made.

But the actual permanent beginnings of speech are only
xxi. 14

reached when the natural basis is still further abandoned, and
signs begin to be used, not because their natural suggestive-
ness is seen in them, but by imitation, from the Language
example of others who have been observed to use Conven-
the same sign for the same purpose. Then for the t,oaal -
first time the means of communication becomes something
to be handed down, rather than made anew by each indi-
vidual; it takes on that traditional character which is the
essential character of all human institutions, which appears not
less in the forms of social organization, the details of religious
ceremonial, the methods of art and the arts, than in language.
That all existing speech, and all known recorded speech, is
purely traditional, cannot at all be questioned. It is proved
even by the single fact that for any given conception there are
as many different spoken signs as there are languages — say a
thousand (this number is rather far within than beyond the
truth), each of them intelligible to him who has learned to use
it and to associate it with the conception to which it belongs,
but unintelligible to the users of the nine hundred and ninety-
nine other signs, as these are all unintelligible to him; unless,
indeed, he learn a few of them also, even as at the beginning he
learned the one that he calls his own. What single sign, and
what set of signs ; any individual shall use, depends upon the
community into the midst of which he is cast, by birth or other
circumstances, during his first years. That it does not depend
upon his race is demonstrated by facts the most numerous and
various; the African whose purity of descent is attested by every
feature is found all over the world speaking just that language,
or jargon, into the midst of which the fates of present or former
slavery have brought his parents; every civilized community
contains elements of various lineage, combined into one by
unity of speech; and instances are frequent enough where whole
nations speak a tongue of which their ancestors knew nothing;
for example, the Celtic Gauls and the Germanic Normans of
France speak the dialect of a geographically insignificant district
in central Italy, while we ourselves can hardly utter a sentence
or write a line without bringing in more or less of that same
dialect. There is not an item of any tongue of which we know
anything that is " natural " expression, or to the possession of
which its speaker is brought by birth instead of by education;
there is even very little that is traceably founded on such
natural expression; everywhere devis or human attribution
reigns supreme, and the original <f>vcns or natural significance
has disappeared and is only to be found by theoretic induction
(as we have found it above). It seems to some as if a name like
cuckoo (one of the most striking available cases of onomatopoeia)
were a " natural " one; but there is just as much Btcris in it as
in any other name; it implies the observation of an aggregate of
qualities in a certain bird, and the selection of one among them
as the convenient basis of a mutual understanding when the bird
is in question; every animal conspicuous to us must have its
designation, won in one way or another; and in this case to
imitate the characteristic cry is the most available way. If
anything but convenience and availability were involved, all
our names for animals would have to be and to remain imitations
of the sounds they make. That the name of cuckoo is applied
also to the female and young, and at other than the singing
season, and then to related species which do not make the same
sound — all helps to show the essentially conventional character
of even this name. An analogous process of elimination of
original meaning, and reduction to the value of conventional
designation merely, is to be seen in every part of language
throughout its whole history. Since men ceased to derive their
names from signs having a natural suggestiveness, and began
to make them from other names already in use with an under-
stood value, every new name has had its etymology and its
historical occasion — as, for example, the name quarantine from
the two-score (quarantaine) of days of precautionary confine-
ment, or volume from its being rolled up, or book from a beech-
wood staff, or copper from Cyprus, or lunacy from a fancied
influence of the moon, or priest from being an older {irptcrfivTtpos)
person, or butterfly from the butter-yellow colour of a certain

11

4 i8

PHILOLOGY

common species: every part of our language, as of every other,
is full of such examples — but, when once the name is applied,
it belongs to that to which it is applied, and no longer to its
relatives by etymology; its origin is neglected, and its form may
be gradually changed beyond recognition, or its meaning so far
altered that comparison with the original shall seem a joke or an
absurdity. This is a regular and essential part of the process
of name-making in all human speech, and from the very begin-
ning of the history of speech: in fact (as pointed out above), the
latter can only be said to have begun when this process was
successfully initiated, when uttered signs began to be, what they
have ever since continued to be, conventional, or dependent
only on a mutual understanding. Thus alone did language gain
the capacity of unlimited growth and development. The sphere
and scope of natural expression are narrowly bounded; but there
is no end to the resources of conventional sign-making.

It is well to point out here that this change of the basis of
men's communication from natural suggestiveness to mutual
Brute understanding, and the consequent purely conven-
Speech tional character of all human language, in its every
and //uman part and particle, puts an absolute line of demarca-
Speech. ^ Qn between the latter and the means of communi-
cation of all the lower animals. The two are not of the same
kind, any more than human society in its variety of organi-
zation is of the same kind with the instinctive herding of
wild cattle or swarming of insects, any more than human
architecture with the instinctive burrowing of the fox and nest-
building of the bird, any more than human industry and accu-
mulation of capital with the instinctive hoarding of bees and
beavers. In all these cases alike the action of men is a result
of the adaptation of means at hand to the satisfaction of felt
needs, or of purposes dimly perceived at first, but growing
clearer with gradually acquired experience. Man is the only
being that has established institutions — gradually accumulated
and perfected results of the exercise of powers analogous in kind
to, but greatly differing in degree from, those of the lower
animals. The difference in degree of endowment does not
constitute the difference in language, it only leads to it. There
was a time when all existing human beings were as destitute of
language as the dog; and that time would come again for any
number of human beings who should be cut off (if that were
practicable) from all instruction by their fellows: only they
would at once proceed to recreate language, society and arts
by the same steps by which their own remote ancestors created
those which we now possess; while the dog would remain what
he and his ancestors have always been, a creature of very
superior intelligence, indeed, as compared with most, of
infinite intelligence as compared with many, yet incapable of
rising by the acquisition of culture through the formation and
development of traditional institutions. There is just the same
saltus existent in the difference between man's conventional
speech and the natural communication of the lower races as in
that between men's forms of society and the instinctive associa-
tions of the lower races; but it is no greater and no other; it 's
neither more absolute and characteristic nor more difficult to
explain. Hence those who put forward language as the distinc-
tion between man and the lower animals, and those who look
upon our language as the same in kind with the means of com-
munication of the lower animals, only much more complete and
perfect, fail alike to comprehend the true nature of language,
and are alike wrong in their arguments and conclusions. No
addition to or multiplication of brute speech would make
anything like human speech; the two are separated by a step
which no animal below man has ever taken; and, on the other
hand, language is only the most conspicuous among those
institutions the development of which has constituted human
progress, while their possession constitutes human culture.

With the question of the origin of man, whether or not
developed out of lower animal forms, intermediate to the
anthropoid apes, language has nothing to do, nor can its study
ever be made to contribute anything to the solution of that
question. If there once existed creatures above the apes and

below man, who were extirpated by primitive man as his especial

rivals in the struggle for existence, or became extinct in any
other way, there is no difficulty in supposing them to have
possessed forms of speech, more rudimentary and imperfect than
ours. At any rate, all existing human speech is one in the
essential characteristics which we have thus far noted or shall
hereafter have to consider, even as humanity is one in its
distinction from the lower animals; the differences are in non-
essentials. All speech is one in the sense that every human
being, of whatever race he may be, is capable of Language
acquiring any existing tongue, and of using it for and
the same purposes for which its present possessors Culture.
use it, with such power and effect as his individual capacity
allows, and without any essential change in the mental operations
carried on by means of speech — even as he may acquire any
other of the items of culture belonging to a race not his own.
The difference between employing one language and another is
like that between employing one instrument and another in
mechanical arts; one instrument may be better than another,
and may enable its user to turn out better work, but the human
ingenuity behind both is the same, and works in the same way.
Nor has the making of language anything whatever to do with
making man what he is, as an animal species having a certain
physical form and intellectual endowment. Being what he is
by nature, man has by the development of language and other
institutions become what he is by culture. His acquired culture
is the necessary result of his native endowment, not the
contrary. The acquisition of the first stumbling beginnings
of a superior means of communication had no more influence to
raise him from a simian to a human being than the present high
culture and perfected speech of certain races has to lift them up
to something more than human and specifically different from
the races of inferior culture. It cannot be too absolutely laid
down that differences of language, down to the possession of
language at all, are differences only in respect to education and
culture.

How long man, after he came into such being as he now is,
physically and intellectually, continued to communicate with
imitative signs of direct significance, when the Deve j 00 ,
production of traditional signs began, how rapidly went of
they were accumulated, and how long any traces of Language"
their imitative origin clave to them — these and the s « fls *
like questions it is at present idle to try to answer even conjec-
turally: just as it is to seek to determine when the first instru-
ments were used, how soon they were shaped instead of being
left crude, at what epoch fire was reduced to service, and so on.
The stages of development and their succession are clear enough;
to fix their chronology will doubtless never be found practicable.
There is much reason for holding, as some do, that the very first
items of culture were hardest to win and cost most time, the
rate of accumulation (as in the case of capital) increasing with
the amount accumulated. Beyond all reasonable question,
however, there was a positively long period of purely imitative
signs, and a longer one of mixed imitative and traditional ones,
the latter gradually gaining upon the former, before the
present condition of things was reached, when the production
of new signs by imitation is only sporadic and of the utmost
rarity, and all language-signs besides are traditional, their
increase in any community being solely by variation and
combination, and by borrowing from other communities.

Of what nature, in various respects, this earliest language-
material was is sufficiently clear. The signs, in the first place,
were of the sort that we call " roots." By this is
only meant that they were integral signs, significant T, e * oot '
in their entirety, not divisible into parts, of which
one signified one thing and another another thing, or of which one
gave the main significance, while another was an added sign of
kind or relation. In a language of developed structure like our
own, we arrive at such " roots " mainly by an artificial stripping-
off of the signs of relation which almost every word still has, or
can be shown to have once had. In un-cost-li-ness, for example,
cost is the centrally significant element; so far as English is

PHILOLOGY

419

concerned it is a root, about which cluster a whole body of forms
and derivatives; if we could follow its history no farther it
would be to us an ultimate root, as much so as bind or sing or
■mean. But we can follow it up, to the Latin compound con-sta,
a root sta with a prefixed formative element con. Then sta,
which in slightly varied forms we find in a whole body of related
tongues called " Indo-European," having in them all the same
significance " stand," is an Indo-European root, and to us an
ultimate one, because we can follow its history no farther; but
there always remains the possibility that it is as far from being
actually original as is the English root cost: that is to say, it is
not within our power ever to get back to the really primitive ele-
ments of speech and to demonstrate their character by positive
evidence. The reason for accepting a primitive root-stage of
language is in great part theoretical: because nothing else is
reconcilable with any acceptable view of the origin of language.
The law of the simplicity of beginnings is an absolute one for
everything of the nature of an institution, for every gradually
developed product of the exercise of human faculties. That an
original speech-sign should be of double character, one part of
it meaning this and another part that, or one part radical and
the other formative, is as inconceivable as that the first instru-
ments should have had handles, or the first shelters a front room
and a back one. But this theoretical reason finds all the
historical support which it needs in the fact that, through all the
observable periods of language-history we see formative elements
coming from words originally independent, and not from any-
thing else. Thus, in the example just taken, the -li- of costliness
is a suffix of so recent growth that its whole history is distinctly
traceable; it is simply our adjective like, worn down in both form
and meaning to a subordinate value in combination with certain
words to which it was appended, and then added freely as a
suffix to any word from which it was desired to make a derivative
adjective — or, later but more often, a derivative adverb. The
ness is much older (though only Germanic), and its history
obscurer; it contains, in fact, two parts, neither of them of
demonstrable origin; but there are equivalent later suffixes, as
ship in hardship and dom in wisdom, whose derivation from
independent words {shape, doom) is beyond question. The
un- of uncostliness is still more ancient (being Indo-European),
and its probably pronominal origin hardly available as an
illustration; but the comparatively modern prefix be-, of become,
belie, &c, comes from the independent preposition by, by the
same process as -ly or -li- from like. And the con which has
contributed its part to the making of the quasi-root cost is also
in origin identical with the Latin preposition cum, " with." By
all the known facts of later language-growth we are driven to
the opinion that every formative element goes back to some
previously existing independent word; and hence that in
analysing our present words we are retracing the steps of an
earlier synthesis, or following up the history of our formed words
toward the unformed roots out of which they have grown. The
doctrine of the historical growth of language-structure leads by
a logical necessity to that of a root-stage in the history of all
language; the only means of avoiding the latter is the assumption
of a miraculous element in the former.

Of what phonetic form were the earliest traditional speech-
signs is, so far as essentials are concerned, to be inferred with
Earliest reasonable certainty. They were doubtless articu-
Phonetic late: that is to say, composed of alternating conso-
Forms. nant and vowel sounds, like our present speech; and
they probably contained a part of the same sounds which we
now use. All human language is of this character; there are no
sounds in any tongue which are not learned and reproduced as
easily by children of one race as of another; all dialects admit a
like phonetic analysis, and are representable by alphabetic signs;
and the leading sounds, consonant and vowel, are even practi-
cally the same in all; though every dialect has its own (for the
most part, readily definable and imitable) niceties of their
pronunciation, while certain sounds are rare, or even met with
only in a single group of languages or in a single language.
Articulate sounds are such as are capable of being combined

with others into that succession of distinct yet connectable
syllables which is the characteristic of human speech-utterance.
The name " articulate " belongs to this utterance, as dis-
tinguished from inarticulate human sounds and cries and from
the sounds made by the lower animals. The word itself is
Latin, by translation from the Greek, and, though very widely
misunderstood, and even deliberately misapplied in some
languages to designate all sound, of whatever kind, uttered by
any living creature, is a most happily chosen and truly descrip-
tive term. It signifies " jointed," or broken up into successive
parts, like a limb or stem; the joints are the syllables; and the
syllabic structure is mainly effected by the alternation of closer
or consonant sounds with opener or vowel sounds. The simplest
syllabic combination (as the facts of language show) is that
of a single consonant with a following vowel; and there are
languages even now existing which reject any other. Hence
there is much plausibility in the view that the first speech-signs
will have had this phonetic form and been monosyllabic, or
dissyllabic only by repetition (reduplication) of one syllable,
such as the speech of very young children shows to have a
peculiar ease and naturalness. The point, however, is one of
only secondary importance, and may be left to the further
progress of phonetic study to settle, if it can; the root-theory,
at any rate, is not bound to any definite form or extent of root,
but only denies that there can have been any grammatical
structure in language except by development in connexion with
experience in the use of language. What particular sounds, and
how many, made up the first spoken alphabet is also a matter
of conjecture merely; they are likely to have been the closest
consonants and the openest vowels, medial utterances being of
later development.

As regards their significant value, the first language-signs
must have denoted those physical acts and qualities which are
directly apprehensible by the senses; both because Character
these alone are directly signifiable, and because it of Early
was only they that untrained human beings had Speech.
the power to deal with or the occasion to use. Such signs
would then be applied to more intellectual uses as fast as there
was occasion for it. The whole history of ' language, down
to our own day, is full of examples of the reduction of physical
terms and phrases to the expression of non-physical conceptions
and relations; we can hardly write a line without giving illustra-
tions of this kind of linguistic growth. So pervading is it, that
we never regard ourselves as having read the history of any
intellectual or moral term till we have traced it back to a physical
origin. And we are still all the time drawing figurative compari-
sons between material and moral things and processes, and
calling the latter by the names of the former. There has never
been any difficulty in providing for new knowledge and more
refined thought by putting to new uses the earlier and grosser
materials of speech.

As a matter of course, whatever we now signify by our simple
expressions for simple acts, wants, and the like, was intended to
be signified through the first speech-signs by the users of them.
But to us, with our elaborated apparatus of speech, the sentence,
composed of subject and predicate, with a verb or special
predicative word to signify the predication, is established as the
norm of expression, and we regard everything else as an abbrevi-
ated sentence, or as involving a virtual sentence. With a view
to this we must have " parts of speech ": that is, words held
apart in office from one another, each usable for such and such a
purpose and no other, and answering a due variety of purposes,
so that when they are combined they fit together, as parts
composing a whole, and the desired meaning is made clear.
Inflexions, too, lend their aid; or else auxiliary words of various
kinds answering the same purpose — namely, of determining the
relations of the members of the sentence. But all our success
in understanding the earliest stages of language depends upon
our power to conceive a state of things where none of these
distinctions were established, where one speech-sign was like
another, calling up a conception in its indefinite entirety, and
leaving the circumstances of the case to limit its application.

420

PHILOLOGY

Such a language is far below ours in explicitness; but it would
suffice for a great deal of successful communication; indeed (as
will be shown farther on) there are many languages even now
in existence which are little better off. So a look of approval
or disgust, a gesture of beckoning or repulsion, a grunt of assent
or inquiry, is as significant as a sentence, means a sentence, is
translatable into a sentence, and hence may even in a certain
way be called a sentence; and in the same way, but only so, the
original roots of language may be said to have been sentences.
In point of fact, between the holophrastic gesture Or uttered sign
and the sentence which we can now substitute for it — for example
between the sign of beckoning and the equivalent sentence, " I
want you to come here " — lies the whole history of development
of inflective speech.

What has been this history of development, how the first
scanty and formless signs have been changed into the immense
Develop- variety and fullness of existing speech, it is of course
meat of impossible to point out in detail, or by demonstration
Language { f ac t S) because nearly the whole process is hidden
in the darkness of an impenetrable past. The only way to cast
any light upon it is by careful induction from the change and
growth which are seen to have been going on in the recent periods
for which we have recorded evidence, or which are going on at
the present time. Of some groups of related languages we
can read the life for three or four thousand years back, and by
comparison can infer it much farther; and the knowledge thus
won is what we have to apply to the explanation of periods and
languages otherwise unknown. Nothing has a right to be
admitted as a factor in language-growth of which the action is
not demonstrable in recorded language. Our own family of
languages is the one of whose development most is known, by
observation and well-warranted inference; and it may be well
here to sketch the most important features of its history, by
way of general illustration. ^

Apparently the earliest class-distinction traceable in Indo-
European speech is that of pronominal roots, or signs of position,
Iniado- from the more general mass of roots. It is not a
European formal distinction, marked by a structural difference,
Speech. but, s0 f ar as can £, e se en, is founded only on the
assignment by usage of certain elements to certain offices.
Formal distinction began with combination, the addition of. one
element to another, their fusion into a single word, and the
reduction of the one part to a subordinate value, as sign of a
certain modification of meaning of the other. Thus, doubtless
by endings of pronominal origin, were made the first verb-
forms, or words used only when predication was intended (since
that is all that makes a verb), conveying at first a distinction
of persons only, then of persons and numbers, while the further
distinctions of tense and mode were by degrees added. To the
nouns, which became nouns by the setting up of the separate
and special class of verbs, were added in like manner distinctions
of case, of number, and of gender. With the separation of
noun and verb, and the establishment of their respective in-
flexion, the creative work of language-making is virtually done;
the rest is a matter of differentiation of uses. For the noun
(noun substantive) and the adjective (noun adjective) become
two parts of speech only by a gradually deepened separation of
use; there is no original or formal distinction between them;
the pronouns as a rule merely add the noun-inflexion to a special
set of stems ; adverbs are a part of the same formation as noun-
cases; prepositions are adverbs with a specialized construction,
of secondary growth; conjunctions are the products of a like
specialization; articles, where found at all, are merely weakened
demonstratives and numerals.

To the process of form-making, as exhibited in this history,
belong two parts: the one external, consisting in the addition
of one existing element of speech to another and their combina-
tion into a single word; the other internal, consisting in the adap-
tation of the compound to its special use and involving the
subordination of one element to the other. Both parts appear
also abundantly in other departments of language-change, and
throughout the whole history of our languages; nothing has to be

assumed for the earliest formations which is not plainly illustrated
in the latest. For example, the last important addition to the
formative apparatus of English is the common adverb-making
suffix -ly, coming, as already pointed out, from the independent
adjective like. There was nothing at first to distinguish a
compound like godly {godlike) from one like storm-tossed, save
that the former was more adaptable than the other to wider
uses; resemblance is an idea easily generalized into appurtenance
and the like, and the conversion of godlike to godly is a simple
result of the processes of phonetic change described farther
on. The extension of the same element to combination with
adjectives instead of nouns, and its conversion to adverb-
making value, is a much more striking case of adaptation, and
is nearly limited to English among the Germanic languages that
have turned like into a suffix. A similar striking case of com-
bination and adaptation is seen in the Romanic adverb-making
suffix mente or ment, coming from the Latin ablative mente,
" with mind." So, to make a Romanic future like donnerai,
■" I shall give," there was needed in the first place the pre-
existing elements, donner, " to give," and ai, " I have," and their
combination; but this is only a part; the other indispensable
part is the gradual adaptation of a phrase meaning " I have
[something before me] for giving " to the expression of simple
futurity, donabo. So far as the adaptation is concerned the
case is quite parallel to that of j'ai donnt, " I have given,"
&c. (equivalent phrases or combinations are found in many
languages) , where the expression of possession of something that
is acted on has been in like manner modified into the expression
of past action. Parallel in both combination and adaptation
is the past tense loved, according to a widely accepted theory,
from love-did, while we have again the same adaptation without
combination in the equivalent phrase did love.

That these are examples of the process by which the whole
inflective structure of Ind. -European language was built up admits
of no reasonable question. Our belief that it is so rests upon the
solid foundation that we can demonstrate no other process, and
that this one is sufficient. It is true that we can prove such an
origin for our formative elements in only a small minority of
instances; but this is just what was to be expected, considering
what we know of the disguising processes of language-growth.
No one would guess in the mere y of ably (for able-ly) the presence
of the adjective like, any more than in the altered final of sent
and the shortened vowel of led the effect of a did once added to
send and lead. The true history of these forms can be shown,
because there happen to be other facts left in existence to show it;
where such facts are not within reach we are left to infer by
analogy from the known to the unknown. The validity of our
inference can only be shaken by showing that there are forms
incapable of having been made in this way, or that there are and
have been other ways of making forms. Of the former there is
evidently but small chance; if a noun-form meaning, " with
mind " can become the means of conversion of all the adjectives
of a language into adverbs, and a verb meaning " have " (and,
yet earlier, " seize ") of signifying both future and past time,
there is obviously nothing that is impossible of attainment by
such means. As regards the latter, no one appears to have
even attempted to demonstrate the genesis of formative elements
in any other way during the historical periods of language; it
is simply assumed that the early methods of language-making
will have been something different from and superior in spon-
taneity and fruitfulness to the later ones; that certain forms,
or forms at certain periods, were made out-and-out, as forms;
that signs of formal distinction somehow exuded from roots
and stems; that original words were many-membered, and that
a formative value settled in some member of them — and the like.
Such doctrines are purely fanciful, and so opposed to the teach-
ings both of observation and of sound theory that the epithet
absurd is hardly too strong to apply to them. If the later races, of
developed intelligence, and trained in the methods of a fuller
expression, can only win a new form by a long and gradual pro-
cess of combination and adaptation, why should the earlier and
comparatively untrained generations have been able to do any

PHILOLOGY

421

better ? The advantage ought to be, if anywhere, on our side.
The progress of language in every department, accompanying
AH formal an d representing the advance of the race, on the
Elements whole, in the art of speaking as in other arts, is from
once the grosser to the more refined, from the physical

Material. t0 f^e moral and intellectual, from the material
to the formal. The conversion of compounds into forms, by the
reduction of one of their elements to formative value, is simply
a part of the general process which also creates auxiliaries and
form-words and connectives, all the vocabulary of mind, and all
the figurative phraseology that gives life and vigour to our
speech. If a copula, expressive of the grammatical relation of
predication, could be won only by attenuation of the meaning
of verbs signifying " grow," " breathe," " stand," and the like;
if our auxiliaries of tense and mode all go traceably back to
words of physical meaning (as have to " seize," may to "be great
or strong," shall to " be under penalty," and so on) ; if of comes
from the comparatively physical off, and for from " before, for-
ward "; if relative pronouns are specialized demonstratives and
interrogatives; if right means etymologically " straight," and
wrong means " twisted "; if spirit is " blowing," and intellect a
" picking out among," and understanding a " getting beneath,"
and development an "unfolding"; if an event takes place or
comes to pass, and then drops out of mind and is forgotten (opposite
of gotten) — then it is of no avail to object to the grossness of
any of the processes by which, in earlier language or in later,
the expression of formal relations is won. The mental sense of
the relation expressed is entirely superior to and independent
of the means of its expression. He who, to express the plural of
man, says what is equivalent to man-man or heap-man (devices
which are met with in not a few languages) has just as good a
sense of plurality as he who says men or homines; that sense is
no more degraded in him by the coarseness of the phrase he uses
to signify it than is our own sense of eventuality and of pastness
by the undisguised coarseness of take place and have been. In
short, it is to be laid down with the utmost distinctness and
confidence, as a law of language-growth, that there is nothing
formal anywhere in language which was not once material;
that the formal is made out of the material, by processes which
began in the earliest history of language and are still in action.

We have dropped here the restriction to our own or Indo-
European language with which we began, because it is evident
Laws of ' tnat what is true of this family of speech, one of the
Change and most highly organized that exist, may also be true of
Growth. tne rest — must be true of them, unless some valid
evidence be found to the contrary. The unity of human nature
makes human speech alike in the character of its beginnings and
in the general features of its after-history. Everywhere among
men a certain store of expression, body of traditional signs of
thought, being given, as used by a certain community, it is
capable of increase on certain accordant lines, and only on them.
In some languages, and under peculiar circumstances, borrowing
is a great means of increase; but it is the most external and least
organically important of all. Out-and-out invention (which, so
far as we can see, must be of the kind called by us onomato-
poetic) is found to play only a very insignificant part in the
historical periods of language — clearly because there are other
and easier modes of gaining new expression for what needs to be
expressed. In the course of phonetic change a word sometimes
varies into two (or more) forms, and makes so many words, which
are differently turned to account. Everything beyond this
must be the product of combination; there is no other way, so
far as concerns the externals of speech. Then, partly as accom-
panying and aiding this external growth, partly as separate from
and supplementing it, there is in all language an internal growth,
making no appearance in the audible part of speech, consisting
in multiplication of meanings, their modification in the way of
precision or comprehension or correctness, the restriction of
words to certain uses, and so on. Along with these, too, a con-
stant change of phonetic form constitutes an inseparable part
of the life of language. Speech is no more stable with respect to
the sounds of which it is composed than with respect to its

grammatical forms, its vocabulary, or the body of conceptions
signified by it. Even nearly related languages differ as much in
their spoken alphabets and the combinations of sounds they
admit, and in their uttered forms of words historically the same,
as in any other part; and the same is true of local dialects and
of class dialects within the same community. Phonetic change
has nothing whatever to do with change of meaning; the two
are the product of wholly independent tendencies. Sometimes,
indeed, they chance to coincide, as in the distinction of minute
" small," and minute " moment "; but it is only by chance, as
the spoken accordance of second in its two meanings (" next "
and " sixtieth of a minute ") shows; words that maintain their
identity of value most obstinately, like the numerals, are liable
to vary indefinitely in form (so four, fidvor, qualuor, recrcrap-es,
&c, from an original kwetwor-;five, quinque, whre, coic, &c, from
penkwe — while, on the other hand, two and three show as striking
an accordance of form as of meaning through all the same
languages); what is far the most common is that the word
becomes very unlike its former self in both respects, like priest
from the Greek irpecrfi vrepos (presbyter), literally " older man."
Human convenience is, to be sure, the governing motive in
both changes; but it is convenience of two different kinds: the
one mental, depending on the fact (pointed out above) that a
name when once applied belongs to the thing to which it is
applied, to the disregard of its etymological connexions, does not
need to be changed when the thing changes, and is ready for
new application to anything that can be brought into one class
with the latter; and the other physical, depending on the organs
of speech and their successive movements, by which the sounds
that make up the word are produced. Phonetic convenience is
economy of effort on the part of those organs ; and to no other law
than that of economy of utterance have any of the phenomena
of phonetic change been found traceable (though it is also to be
noted that some phenomena have not hitherto been successfully
brought under it, and that the way of effecting this is still
unclear). " Euphony," which used to be appealed to as explana-
tion, is a false principle, except so far as the term may be made
an idealized synonym of economy. The ear finds that agreeable
which the organs of utterance find facile. Economy in utterance
is no isolated tendency; it is the same that plays its part in all
other kinds of human action, and in language appears equally
in the abbreviation of the sentence by leaving out parts that can
be spared without loss of intelligibility. It is an insidious
tendency, always lying in wait, like gravitation, to pull down
what is not sufficiently held up — the holding-up force in lan-
guage being the faithfulness of tradition, or accurate repro-
duction by the learner and user of the signs which he has acquired.
No generation of men has any intention to speak otherwise than
as its predecessor has spoken, or any consciousness that it is
doing so; and yet, from generation to generation, words are
shortened, sounds are assimilated to one another, and one
element passes out of use while a new one is introduced. Abbre-
viation and assimilation are the most conspicuous depart-
ments of phonetic change, and those in which the nature of the
governing tendency is most plainly seen. Taken by itself,
one sound is as easy as another to the person who has accustomed
himself to it from childhood; and those which the young child
most easily acquires are not those which in the history of speech
are least liable to alteration; it is especially in the combinations
and transitions of rapid speaking that the tongue, as it were,
finds out for itself easier ways of performing its task, by dropping
and slurring and adapting. To trace out the infinitely varied
items of this change, to co-ordinate and compare them and
discover their reasons, constitutes a special department of
language-study, which is treated under the head of Phonetics.
It only needs to be pointed out here that phonetic change plays
a necessary part in the structural development of language,
by integrating compound words through fusion and loss of identity
of their component parts, and, what is of yet more importance,
by converting them into forms, through disguise of identity of
one of the parts and its phonetic subordination to the other part.
It is this that turns, for example, the compound god-like into

422

PHILOLOGY

the derivative godly, the compound love-did into the verbal
form loved. And yet one further result sometimes follows: an
internal change is wrought by phonetic influence in the body of
a word, which change then may in the further history of the
word be left as the sole means of distinction between one form
and another. It is thus that, in the most recent period, the
distinction of led from lead and met from meet and so on has been
made; the added auxiliary which originally made these preterites
induced a shortening of the root-vowel, and this was left behind
when the auxiliary disappeared by the usual process of abbrevia-
tion. It is in the same way that the distinctions of men from
man, of were from was, of set from sit, with all their analogues,
were brought about: by a modification of vowel-sound (Ger.
Umlaut) occasioned by the presence in the following syllable of an
i-vowel, which in the older stages of the language is still to be seen
there. And the distinctions of sing, sang, sung and song, of bind,
bound, band and bond, are certainly of the same kind, though they
go back so far in the history of our family of languages that their
beginnings are not yet clearly demonstrable; they were in their
origin phonetic accidents, inorganic, mere accompaniments
and results of external combinations which bore the office of
distinction of meaning and were sufficient to it; in some of our
languages they have been disregarded and effaced, in others they
have risen to prominent importance. To regard these internal
changes as primary and organic is parallel with assuming the
primariness of the formative apparatus of language in general;
like this, it ignores the positive evidence we have of the secondary
production of such differences; they are, like everything else in
linguistic structure, the outcome of combination and adaptation.
Borrowing, or the taking-in of material out of another language,
has been more than once referred to above as sometimes an
important element in language-history, though less
orMixin Z deep-reaching and organic than the rest. There is
*' nothing anomalous about borrowing; it is rather
in essential accordance with the whole process of language-
acquisition. All our names were adopted by us because they
were already in use by others; and a community is in the same
way capable of taking a new name from a community with which
it comes in contact as an individual from individuals. Not that
it seeks or admits in this way new names for old things; but it
accepts new things along with the names that seem to belong to
them. Hence any degree of intercourse between one community
and another, leading to exchange of products or of knowledge,
is sure to lead also to some borrowing of names; and there is
hardly a language in the world, except of races occupying
peculiarly isolated positions, that does not contain a certain
amount of foreign material thus won, even as our English has
elements in its vocabulary from half the other tongues in the
world. The scale of borrowing is greatly increased when one
people becomes the pupil of another in respect of its civilization:
hence the abundant classical elements in all the European
tongues, even the non-Romanic; hence the Arabic material in
Persian and Turkish and Malay; hence the Chinese in Japanese
and Corean; and, as a further result, even dead languages, like
the Greek and Latin and the Sanskrit, become stores to be drawn
upon in that learned and conscious quest of new expression
which in the school-stage of culture supplements or even in a
measure replaces the unconscious growth of natural speech.
So, in mixture of communities, which is a highly-intensified
form of contact and intercourse, there follows such mixture of
speech as the conditions of the case determine; yet not a mixture
on equal terms, through all the departments of vocabulary and
grammar; the resulting speech (just as when two individuals learn
to speak alike) is essentially that of the one constituent of the
new community, with more or less material borrowed from that
of the other. What is most easily taken in out of another
language is the names of concrete things; every degree of removal
from this involves additional difficulty— names of abstract
things, epithets, verbs, connectives, forms. Indeed, the borrow-
ing of forms in the highest sense, or forms of inflexion, is well-
nigh or quite impossible; no example of it has been demonstrated
in any of the historical periods of language, though it is some-

times adventurously assumed as a part of prehistoric growth.
How nearly it may be approached is instanced by the presence
in English of such learned plurals as phenomena and strata. This
extreme resistance to mixture in the department of inflexion is
the ground on which some deny the possibility of mixture in
language, and hence the existence of such a thing as a mixed
language. The difference is mainly a verbal one; but it would
seem about as reasonable to deny that a region is inundated so
long as the tops of its highest mountains are above water.
According to the simple and natural meaning of the term, nearly
all languages are mixed, in varying degree and within varying
limits, which the circumstances of each case must explain.

These are the leading processes of change seen at work in
all present speech and in all known past speech, and hence to
be regarded as having worked through the whole history of
speech. By their operation every existing tongue has been
developed out of its rudimentary radical condition to that
in which we now see it. The variety of existing languages
is well-nigh infinite, not only in their material but in their
degree of development and the kind of resulting structure.
Just as the earlier stages in the history of the use of tools are
exemplified even at the present day by races which have never
advanced beyond them, so is it in regard to language also —
and, of course, in the latter case as in the former, this state of
things strengthens and establishes the theory of a gradual
development. There is not an element of linguistic structure
possessed by some languages which is not wanting in

others; and there are even tongues which have no Languages%
formal structure, and which cannot be shown ever
to have advanced out of the radical stage. The most noted
example of such a rudimentary tongue is the Chinese, which
in its present condition lacks all formal distinction of the
parts of speech, all inflexion, all derivation; each of its
words (all of them monosyllables) is an integral sign, not
divisible into parts of separate significance; and each in
general is usable wherever the radical idea is wanted, with the
value of one part of speech or another, as determined by the
connexion in which it stands; a condition parallel with that
in which Indo-European speech may be regarded as existing
prior to the beginnings of its career of formal development
briefly sketched above. And there are other tongues, related
and unrelated to Chinese, of which the same description, or one
nearly like it, might be given. To call such languages radical
is by no means to maintain that they exhibit the primal roots
of human speech, unchanged or only phonetically changed, or
that they have known nothing of the combination of element
with element. Of some of them the roots are in greater or
less part dissyllabic; and we do not yet know that all dis-
syllabism, and even that all complexity of syllable beyond a
single consonant with following vowel, is not the result of
combination or reduplication. But all combination is not
form-making; it needs a whole class of combinations, with a
recognized common element in them producing a recognized
common modification of meaning, to make a form. The same
elements which (in Latin, and even to some extent in English
also) are of formal value in constant and pre-dict lack that
character in cost and preach; the same like which makes
adverbs in tru-ly and right-ly is present without any such value
in such and which (from so-like and who-like) ; cost and preach,
and such and which, are as purely radical in English as other
words of which we do not happen to be able to demonstrate
the composite character. And so a Chinese monosyllable
or an Egyptian or Polynesian dissyllable is radical, unless there
can be demonstrated in some part of it a formative, value; and
a language wholly composed of such words is a root-language.
Recent investigation goes to show that Chinese had at some
period of its history a formal development, since extinguished
by the same processes of phonetic decay which in English have
wiped out so many signs of a formal character and brought back
so considerable a part of the vocabulary to monosyllabism. In
languages thus constituted the only possible external alteration
is that phonetic change to which all human speech, from the

PHILOLOGY

423

Inflective.

very beginning of its traditional life, is liable; the only growth
is internal, by that multiplication and adaptation and improve-
ment of meanings which is equally an inseparable part of all
language-history. This may include the reduction of certain
elements to the value of auxiliaries, particles, form-words, such
as play an important part in analytical tongues like English, and
are perhaps also instanced in prehistoric Indo-European speech
by the class of pronominal roots. Phrases take the place of
compounds and of inflexions, and the same element may have
an auxiliary value in certain connexions while retaining its full
force in others, like, for instance, our own have. It is not easy
to define the distinction between such phrase-collocations and
the beginnings of agglutination; yet the distinction itself is
in general clearly enough to be drawn (like that in French
between donnerai and ai donnf) .when the whole habit of the
language is well understood.

Such languages, constituting the small minority of human
tongues, are wont to be called " isolating," i.e. using each
Aggiutl- element by itself, in its integral form. All besides
native Lan- are " agglutinative," or more or less compounded
guages. j nt0 wor( j s containing a formal part, an indicator

of class-value. Here the differences, in kind and degree,
are very great; the variety ranges from a scantiness hardly
superior to Chinese isolation up to an intricacy compared
with which Indo-European structure is hardly fuller than
Chinese. Some brief characterization of the various families
of language in this respect will be given farther on, in con-
nexion with their classification. The attempt is also made to
classify the great mass of agglutinating tongues under different
heads: those are ranked as simply "agglutinative" in which
there is a general conservation of the separate identity of root or
stem on the one hand, and of formative element, suffix or prefix,
on the other; while the name "inflective," used in a
higher and pregnant sense, is given to those that admit
a superior fusion and integration of the two parts, to the disguise
and loss of separate identity, and, yet more, with the develop-
ment of an internal change as auxiliary to or as substitute for
the original agglutination. But there is no term in linguistic
science so uncertain of meaning, so arbitrary of application, so
dependent on the idiosyncrasy of its user, as the term " inflec-
tive." Any language ought to have the right to be called in-
flective that has inflexion: that is, that not merely distinguishes
parts of speech and roots and stems formally from one another,
but also conjugates its verbs and declines its nouns; and the
name is sometimes so used. If, again, it be strictly limited to
signify the possession of inner flexion of roots and stems (as if
simply agglutinated forms could be called " exflective "), it
marks only a difference of degree of agglutination, and should
be carefully used as so doing. As describing the fundamental
and predominant character of language-structure, it belongs
to only one family of languages, the Semitic, where most of the
work of grammatical distinction is done by internal changes of
vowel, the origin of which thus far eludes all attempts at explana-
tion. By perhaps the majority of students of language it is, as
a generally descriptive title, restricted to that family and one
other, the Indo-European or Indo-Germanic; but such a classi-
fication is not to be approved, for, in respect to this character-
istic, Indo-European speech ranks not with Semitic but with
the great body of agglutinative tongues. To few of these can
the name be altogether denied, since there is hardly a body of
related dialects in existence that does not exhibit some items
of " inflective " structure; the Aryan is only the one among
them that has most to show. Outside the Semitic, at any rate,
one should not speak of inflective and non-inflective languages,
but only of languages more inflective and less inflective.

To account for the great and striking differences of structure
among human languages is beyond the power of the linguistic
student, and will doubtless always continue so. We
structure. are not likely to be able even to demonstrate a corre-
lation of capacities, saying that a race which has
done this and that in other departments of human activity
might have been expected to form such and such a language.

Every tongue represents the general outcome of the capacity
of a race as exerted in this particular direction, under the
influence of historical circumstances which we can have no
hope of tracing. There are striking apparent anomalies to
be noted. The Chinese and the Egyptians have shown them-
selves to be among the most gifted races the earth has
known; but the Chinese tongue is of unsurpassed jejune-
ness, and the Egyptian, in point of structure, little better,
while among the wild tribes of Africa and America we find
tongues of every grade, up to a high one, or to the highest.
This shows clearly enough that mental power is not measured
by language-structure. But any other linguistic test would
prove equally insufficient. On the whole, the value and rank
of a language are determined by what its users have made it
do. The reflex action of its speech on the mind and culture of
a people is a theme of high interest, but of extreme difficulty,
and apt to lead its investigators away into empty declamation;
taking everything together, its amount, as is shown by the
instances already referred to, is but small. The question is
simply one of the facilitation of work by the use of one set of
tools rather than another; and a poor tool in skilful hands can
do vastly better work than the best tool in unskilful hands —
even as the ancient Egyptians, without steel or steam, turned
out products which, both for colossal grandeur and for exquisite
finish, are the despair of modern engineers and artists. In such
a history of development as that of human speech a fortunate
turn may lead to results of unforeseen value; the earlier steps
determine the later in a degree quite beyond their own intrinsic
importance. Everything in language depends upon habit and
analogy; and the formation of habit is a slow process, while
the habit once formed exercises a constraining as well as a
guiding influence. Hence the persistency of language-struc-
ture: when a certain sum and kind of expression is produced,
and made to answer the purposes of expression, it remains
the same by inertia; a shift of direction becomes of extreme
difficulty. No other reason can at present be given why in
historical time there has been no marked development out of
one grade of structure into another; but the fact no more shakes
the linguistic scholar's belief in the growth of structure than the
absence of new animal species worked out under his eyes shakes
the confidence of the believer in animal development. The
modifying causes and their modes of action are clearly seen,
and there is no limit to the results of their action except what is
imposed by circumstances.

It is in vain to attempt to use dates in language-history,
to say when this or that step in development was taken, and how
long a period it cost, especially now that the changed views
as to the antiquity of man are making it probable that only
a small part of the whole history is brought within the reach
even of our deductions from the most ancient unity of
recorded dialects. At any rate, for aught that we Origin of
know or have reason to believe, all existing dialects Speech.
are equally old; every one alike has the whole immeasurable
past of language-life behind it, has reached its present
condition by advance along its own line of growth and
change from the first beginnings of human expression. Many
of these separate lines we clearly see to converge and unite,
as we follow them back into the past ; but whether
they all ultimately converge to one point is a question quite
beyond our power to answer. If in this immensity of time
many languages have won so little, if everywhere language-
growth has been so slow, then we can only differ as to whether
it is reasonably certain, or probable, or only possible, that there
should have been a considerable first period of human existence
without traditional speech, and a yet more considerable one
before the fixation of so much as should leave abiding traces in
its descendants, and that meanwhile the race should have
multiplied and scattered into independent communities. And
the mere possibility is enough to exclude all dogmatic assertion
of the unity of origin of human speech, even assuming unity of
origin of the human race. For to prove that identity by the
still existing facts of language is utterly out of the question;

424

PHILOLOGY

the metamorphosing effect of constant change has been too
great to allow it. In point of fact, taking languages as they
now exist, only those have been shown related which possess
a common structure, or have together grown out of the more
primitive radical stage, since structure proves itself a more
constant and reliable evidence than material. And this is
likely ever to be the case; at any rate, to trace all the world's
languages so far back toward their beginnings as to find in them
evidences of identity is beyond the wildest hope. We must
be content with demonstrating for those beginnings a unity of
kind as alike a body of formless roots. But, on the other hand,
since this unity is really demonstrated, since all structure is
the result of growth, and no degree of difference of structure,
any more than of difference of material, refuses explanation as
the result of discordant growth from identical beginnings, it is
equally inadmissible to claim that the diversities of language
prove it to have had different beginnings. That is to say, the
question of the unity of speech, and yet more that of the unity
of the race, is beyond the reach of the student of language;
the best view he can attain is the hypothetical one, that, if
the race is one, the beginnings of speech were perhaps one —
but probably not, even then. This negative conclusion is
so clearly established as to leave no excuse for the still oft-
repeated attempts to press language into service on either side
of the controversy respecting human unity of race.

That all making and changing of language is by the act of
its speakers is too obvious to call for discussion. No other
Unconscious fo rce capable of acting and of producing effects is
Growth either demonstrable or conceivable as concerned
through in the work. The doctrine that language is an
s " organism, growing by its own inherent powers,
exempt from the interference of those who use it, is simply
an indefensible paradox. Every word that is uttered is so
by an act of human will, at first in imitation of others, then
more and more by a formed and controlling habit ; it is acces-
sible to no change except by influences working in the speaker's
mind and leading him to make it otherwise. Not that he is
aware of this, or directs his action knowingly to that end. The
whole process is unconscious. If any implication of reflective
or intended action can be shown to inhere in any doctrine of
linguistic science, it vitiates that doctrine. The attitude of the
ordinary speaker towards his language is that of unreasoning
acceptance; it seems to him that his names for things are
their real names, and all others unintelligent nicknames; he
thinks himself to possess his speech by the same tenure as his
sight or hearing; it is " natural " to him (or, if he reasons about
it, he attributes it to a divine origin, as races beginning to
philosophize are wont to ascribe their various social institutions
to their gods); he knows nothing of its structure and relations;
it never occurs to him to find fault with it, or to deem it insuffi-
cient and add to or change it; he is wholly unaware that it
does change. He simply satisfies his social needs of communi-
cation by means of it ; and if he has anything to express that
is different from what has been expressed before, he takes the
shortest way to a provision for the need; while any relaxation
of the energy of utterance tends to a variation in the uttered
combinations; and thus changes come by his act, though with-
out his knowledge. His sole object is, on the basis of what
language he has, to make known his thought in the most con-
venient way to his fellow; everything else follows with and
from that. Human nature and circumstances being what they
are, what follows actually is, as already shown, incessant
growth and change. For it we have not to seek special disturb-
ing causes in the history of the speakers, although such may
come in to heighten and quicken the change; we know that
even in a small community, on a narrow islet, cut off from all
intercourse with other communities, the speech would grow
different — as certainly, if not as rapidly, as anywhere in the
world — and only by the action of its speakers: not that the
speakers of a language act in unison and simultaneously to
produce a, given change. This must begin in an individual,
or more or less accordantly in a limited number of individuals

and spread from such example through the community. Initia-
tion by one or a few, acceptance and adoption by the rest —
such is the necessary method of all linguistic change, and to be
read as plainly in the facts of change now going on among our-
selves as in those of former language. The doctrine of the
inaccessibility of language to other action than that of its
speakers does not imply a power in the individual speaker to
create or alter anything in the common speech, any more than
it implies his desire to do so. What he suggests by his example
must be approved by the imitation of his fellows, in order to
become language. The common speech is the common pro-
perty, and no one person has any more power over it than
another. If there are, for example, a thousand speakers of a
certain dialect, each one wields in general a thousandth part of
the force required to change it— with just so much more as may
belong to his excess of influence over his fellows, due to recog-
nized superiority of any kind on his part. His action is limited
only by their assent; but this is in effect a very narrow limita-
tion, ensuring the adoption of nothing that is not in near accor-
dance with the already existing; though it is also to be noted
that he is as little apt to strike off into startling change as they
to allow it; since the governing power of already formed habits
of speech is as strong in him as in them. That change to which
the existing habits naturally lead is easy to bring about; any
other is practically impossible. It is this tendency on the
part of the collective speakers of a language to approve or
reject a proposed change according to its conformity with
their already subsisting usages that we are accustomed to call
by the fanciful name " the genius of a language."

On the relation of the part played in language-change by
the individual to that by the community, in combination with
the inevitableness of change, rests the explanation of
the dialectic variation of language. If language were variti
stable there would of course be no divarication; but
since it is always varying, and by items of difference that proceed
from individuals and become general by diffusion, there can be
uniformity of change only so far as diffusion goes or as the
influences of communication extend. Within the limits of a
single community, small or large, whatever change arises spreads
gradually to all, and so becomes part of the general speech;
but let that community become divided into two (or more)
parts, and then the changes arising in either part do not spread
to the other, and there begins to appear a difference in linguistic
usage between them. It is at first slight, even to insignificance;
not greater than exists between the dialects of different localities
or ranks or occupations in the same community, without detri-
ment to the general unity of speech. This unity, namely, rests
solely on mutual intelligibility, and is compatible with no
small amount of individual and class difference, in vocabulary,
in grammar and in pronunciation; indeed, in the strictest
sense, each individual has a dialect of his own, different from
that of every other, even as he has a handwriting, a countenance,
a character of his own. And every item of change, as it takes
place, must have its season of existence as a local or class or
trade peculiarity, before it gains universal currency; some of
them linger long in that condition, or never emerge from it.
All these differences in the speech of different sub-communities
within the same community are essentially dialectic; they differ
not in kind, but only in degree, from those which separate the
best-marked dialects; they are kept down by general communi-
cation within the limit of general mutual intelligibility. Where
that restraining influence ceases the limit is gradually but
surely overpassed, and real dialects are the result. From
what we know of the life of language we can say positively
that continued uniformity of speech without continued com-
munity is not practicable. If it were possible to divide arti-
ficially, by an impassable chasm or wall, a people one foi
ages, and continuing to occupy the same seats, the language
of the divided parts would at once begin to be dialectically
different; and after sufficient time had elapsed each would have
become unintelligible to the other. That is to say, whenever
A community of uniform speech breaks up, its speech breaks

PHILOLOGY

425

up also; nor do we know of any other cause of dialectic
diversity.

In applying this explanation of dialectic growth we have
to allow for modifying circumstances of various nature, which
alter not indeed the fact but the rate and kind of divarication.
Some languages grow and change much more rapidly than
others, with a corresponding effect upon divarication, since
this is but a result of discordant growth. Usually, when there
is division of a community, the parts get into different external
circumstances, come in contact or mingle with different neigh-
bouring communities, and the like; and this quickens and
increases their divergence of speech. But the modifying factor
of by far the highest importance here, as elsewhere in the history
of language, is civilization. Civilization in its higher forms so
multiplies the forces of communication as to render it possible
that the widely-divided parts of one people, living in circum-
stances and under institutions of very different character,
should yet maintain a substantial oneness of speech; of this
there is no more striking example than the two great divisions
of the English-speaking people on opposite sides of the Atlantic.
On the other hand, a savage people cannot spread even a little
without dialectic disunity; there are abundant examples to be
met with now of mutually unintelligible speech between the
smallest subdivisions of a race of obviously kindred tongue —
as the different clusters of huts on the same coral islet. It is
with linguistic unity precisely as it is with political unity, and
for the same reasons. Before the attainment of civilization
the human race, whether proceeding from one centre of dis-
persion or from several, was spread over the earth in a state of
utter disintegration; but every centre of civilization becomes
also a centre of integration; its influences make for unity
of speech as of all other social institutions. Since culture
has become incontestably the dominant power in human
history, the unifying forces in language have also been stronger
than the diversifying; and with culture at its full height, and
spread equally to every land and race, one universal language,
like one universal community, is not an absurdity or theoretic
impossibility, but only a Utopian or millennial dream.

Dialectic variation is thus simply a consequence of the
movements of population. As the original human race or
races, so the divisions or communities of later formation, from
point to point through the whole life of man on the earth,
have spread and separated, but jostled and interfered, have
conquered and exterminated or mingled and absorbed; and
their speech has been affected accordingly. Hence something
of these movements can be read in the present condition of
languages, as in a faithful though obscure record — more, doubt-
less, than can be read in any other way, however little it may
be when viewed absolutely. Dialectic resemblances point
inevitably back to an earlier unity of speech, and hence of
community; from what we know of the history of speech,
they are not to be accounted for in any other way. The longer
the separation that has produced the diversity, the greater its
degree. With every generation the amount of accordance
decreases and that of discordance increases the common
origin of the dialects is at first palpable, then evident on examina-
tion, then to be made out by skilled research, then perhaps
no longer demonstrable at all; for there is plainly no limit to
the possible divergence. So long, now, as any
Speech. evidence of original unity is discoverable we call
the languages " related dialects," and combine them
into a " family." The term " family " simply signifies a group
of languages which the evidence thus far at command, as
estimated by us, leads us to regard as descended by the ordinary
processes of dialectic divarication from one original tongue.
That it does not imply a denial of the possibility of wider
relationship is obvious from what has been said above. That
there is abundant room for error in the classification repre-
sented by it is also clear, since we may take purely accidental
resemblances, or the results of borrowing, for evidence of common
descent, or may overlook or wrongly estimate real evidences,
which more study and improved method will bring to light.

Grouping into families is nothing more than the best classifi-
cation attainable at a given stage in the progress of linguistic
science; it is in no small part provisional only, and is always
held liable to modification, even sweeping, by the results of
further research. Of some families we can follow the history
by external evidences a great way back into the past; their
structure is so highly developed as to be traced with confidence
everywhere; and their territory is well within our reach: such
we regard with the highest degree of confidence, hardly allow-
ing for more than the possibility that some other dialect, or
group, or now-accepted family even, may sometime prove its
right to be added on. But these are the rare exceptions; in
the great majority of cases we have only the languages as they
now exist, and in more or less scanty collections, of every degree
of trustworthiness; and even their first grouping is tentative
and incomplete, and involves an adjournment of deeper ques-
tions to the day of more light. To complete and perfect
the work of classification by relationship, or the establish-
ment of families and their subdivisions, is the first object of
the comparative study of languages. No other classification
has a value in the least comparable' with it; that by grade of
structure is a mere recreation, leading to nothing; that by
absolute worth is of no account whatever, at any rate in the
present state of our knowledge. On genetic relationship, in
the first place, is founded all investigation of the historical
development of languages; since it is in the main the comparison
of related dialects, even in the case of families having a long
recorded history, and elsewhere only that, that gives us know-
ledge of their earlier condition and enables us to trace the
lines of change. In the second place, and yet more obviously,
with this classification is connected all that language has
to teach as to the affinities of human races; whatever aid
linguistic science renders to ethnology rests upon the proved
relationships of human" tongues.

That a classification of languages, to which we have now to
proceed, is not equivalent to a classification of races, and why
this is so, is evident enough from the principles
which have been brought out by our whole discussion f^f " "'
of languages, and which, in their bearing upon
this particular point, may well be recapitulated here. No
language is a race-characteristic, determined by the special
endowments of a race; all languages are of the nature of in-
stitutions, parallel products of powers common to all mankind
— the powers, namely, involved in the application of the fittest
available means to securing the common end of communica-
tion. Hence they are indefinitely transferable, like other
institutions — like religions, arts, forms of social organization,
and so on — under the constraining force of circumstances.
As an individual can learn any language, foreign as well as
ancestral, if it be put in his way, so also a community, which
in respect to such a matter is only an aggregate of individuals.
Accordingly, as individuals of very various race are often
found in one community, speaking together one tongue, and
utterly ignorant of any other, so there are found great com-
munities of various descent, speaking the dialects of one common
tongue, which at some period historical circumstances have
imposed upon them. The conspicuous example, which comes
into every one's mind when this subject is discussed, is that
of the Romanic countries of southern Europe, all using dialects
of a language which, 2500 years ago, was itself the insignificant
dialect of a small district in central Italy; but this is only the
most important and striking of a whole class of similar facts.
Such are the results of the contact and mixture of races and
languages. If language-history were limited to growth and
divarication, and race-history to spread and dispersion, it would
be a comparatively easy task to trace both backward toward
their origin; as the case is, the confusion is inextricable and
hopeless. Mixture of race and mixture of speech are coincident
and connected processes; the latter never takes place without
something' of the former; but the one is not at all a measure
of the other, because circumstances may give to the speech
of the one element of population a greatly disproportionate

426

PHILOLOGY

preponderance. Thus, there is left in French only an insig-
nificant trace of the Celtic dialects of the predominant race-
constituent of the French people; French is the speech of
the Latin conquerors of Gaul, mixed perceptibly with that
of its later Frankish conquerors; it was adopted in its integrity
by the Norse conquerors of a part of the land, then brought
into Britain by the same Norsemen in the course of their further
conquests, this time only as an element of mixture, and thence
carried with English speech to America, to be the language of
a still further mixed community. Almost every possible phase
of language-mixture is traceable in the history of the abundant
words of Latin origin used by American negroes. What events
of this character took place in prehistoric time we shall never
be able to tell. If any one chooses to assert the possibility that
even the completely isolated dialect of the little Basque commun-
ity may have been derived by the Iberian race from an intrusive
minority as small as that which made the Celts of Gaul speakers
of Latin, we should have to admit it as a. possibility — yet
without detriment to the value of the dialect as indicating the
isolated race-position of its speakers. In strictness, language
is never a proof of race, either in an individual or in a com-
munity; it is only a probable indication of race, in the absence
of more authoritative opposing indications; it is one evidence,
to be combined with others, in the approach towards a solution
of the confessedly insoluble problems of human history. But
we must notice, as a most important circumstance, that its
degree of probability is greatest where its aid is most needed,
in prehistoric periods and among uncultivated races; since it
is mainly civilization that gives to language a propagative force
disproportionate to the number of its speakers. On the whole,
the contributions of language to ethnology are practically far
greater in amount and more distinct than those derived from
any other source.

The genetical classification of languages, then, is to be taken
for just what it attempts to be, and no more: primarily as a
classification of languages only; but secondarily
ttoa. as casting light, in varying manner and degree, on

movements of community, which in their turn
depend more or less upon movements of races. It is what
the fates of men have left to represent the tongues of men
— a record imperfect even to fragmentariness. Many a family
once as important as some of those here set down has perhaps
been wiped out of existence, or is left only in an inconspicuous
fragment; one and another has perhaps been extended far
beyond the limits of the race that shaped it — which, we can
never tell to our satisfaction.

i. Indo-European (Indo-Germanic) Family. — To this family
belongs incontestably the first place, and for many reasons:
the historical position of the peoples speaking its dialects, who
have now long been the leaders in the world's history; the
abundance and variety and merit of its literatures, ancient and
modern, which, especially the modern, are wholly unapproached
by those of any other division of mankind; the period covered
by its records; and, most of all, the great variety and richness
of its development. These advantages make of it an illustra-
tion of the history of human speech with which no other family
can bear a moment's comparison as to value, however impor-
tant various other families may be in their bearing on one and
another point or department of history, and however necessary
the combination of the testimony of all to a solution of the
problems involved in speech. These advantages have made Indo-
European language the training-ground of comparative philology,
and its study will always remain the leading branch of that
science. Many matters of importance in its history have been
brought up and used as illustrations in the preceding discussion;
but as its constitution and ascertained development call for
a fuller and more systematic exposition than they have found
here, a special section is devoted to the subject (see Part II.
below ; also Indo-European Language) .

2. Semitic Family. — This family also is beyond all question
the second in importance, on account of the part which its
peoples (Hebrews, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Syrians, Arabs,

Abyssinians, &c.) have played in history, and of the rank of
its literatures. For a special treatment of it see Semitic
Languages. Some of the peculiarities of the language have
been alluded to above; in the monotony and rigidity of its
triliteral roots, and in the extended use which it makes of
internal vowel-change (" inflexion " in the special sense of
that term) for the purposes of grammatical distinction, it is
more peculiar and unlike all the other known families of lan-
guage than these are unlike one another. There are, and per-
haps will always be", those to whom the peculiarities just men-
tioned will seem original; but if the views of language and its
history taken above are in the main true, then that opinion
is untenable; Semitic language must have grown into its present
forms out of beginnings accordant in kind, if not identical
in substance, with those of other families; and the only question
remaining to be solved is, through what processes and under
what governing tendencies Semitic speech should have arrived
at its present state. And with this solution is most obviously
and incontestably bound up that of the other interesting and
much discussed question, whether the Semitic family can be
shown to be related with other families, especially with the
Indo-European. To some the possession in common of gram-
matical gender, or of the classification of objects in general as
masculine and feminine, is of itself enough to prove such rela-
tionship; but, though the fact is a striking one, and of no
small importance as an indication, this degree of value can by
no means be attributed to it in the present state of our know-
ledge — any more than to any other single item of structure
among the infinite variety of such, distributed among the
multitude of human tongues. Many others compare the Semitic
and Indo-European " roots " with one another, and believe
themselves to find there numerous indications of identity of
material and signification; but these also must pass for insuffi-
cient, until it shall prove possible by their aid to work out an
acceptable theory of how Semitic structure should have grown
out of such radical elements as underlie Indo-European struc-
ture, or out of the accordant initial products of a structural
growth that afterwards diverged into two so discordant forms.
To show that, both the material and the method have been
hitherto wanting, and any confident decision is at least pre-
mature; but present probabilities are strongly against the
solubility of the question. While many general considerations
favour the ultimate unity of these two great civilized and
civilizing white races of neighbouring homes, and no discordance
of speech (as was shown above) can ever be made to prove their
diversity of origin, it seems in a high degree unlikely that the
evidence of speech will ever be made to prove them one.

3. Hamitic Family. — The prominent importance of this
family (see Hamitic Languages) is due to a single one of its
members, the Egyptian. It occupies the north-eastern corner of
Africa, with the border-lands of that continent stretching west-
ward along the whole shore of the Mediterranean, and south-
ward to beyond the equator. It falls into three principal
divisions: (1) the ancient Egyptian, with its descendant, the
more modern Coptic (itself now for some centuries extinct;
see Egypt, Copts); (2) the Libyan or Berber languages of
northern Africa; (3) the Ethiopic languages of eastern Africa.
Its situation thus plainly suggests the theory of its intrusion
from Asia, across the isthmus of Suez, and its gradual spread
from that point; and the theory is strongly favoured by the
physical character of the Hamites, and the historical position,
especially of the Egyptians, so strikingly different from that of
the African races in general. Linguistic evidences of the
relationship of Hamite with Semite have also been sought,
and by many believed to be found; but the maintenance of
the two families in their separateness is an indication that those
evidences have not yet been accepted as satisfactory; and such
is indeed the case. The Egyptian is a language of extreme
simplicity of structure, almost of no structure at all.' Its radical
words are partly monosyllabic, partly of more than one syllable,
but not in the latter case any more than in the former showing
traceable signs of extension by formative processes from simpler

PHILOLOGY

427

elements. It has no derivative apparatus by which noun-stems
are made from roots; the root is the stem likewise; there is
nothing that can be properly called either declension or con-
jugation; and the same pronominal particles or suffixes have
now a subjective value, indicating use as a verb, and now a
possessive, indicating use as a noun. There is no method
known to linguistic science by which the relationship of such a
tongue as this with the highly and peculiarly inflective Semitic
can be shown, short of a thorough working out of the history
of development of each family taken by itself, and a retracing
in some measure of the steps by which each should have arrived
at its present position from a common starting-point; and this
has by no means been done. In short, the problem of the
relation of Semitic with Hamitic, not less than with Indo-
European, depends upon that of Semitic growth, and the two-
must be solved together. There are striking correspondences
between the pronouns of the two families, such as, if supported
by evidences from other parts of their material, would be taken
as signs of relationship; but, in the absence of such support,
they are not to be relied upon, not till it can be shown to be
possible that two languages could grow to be so different in
all other respects as are Egyptian and Hebrew, and yet retain
by inheritance corresponding pronouns. And the possession of
grammatical gender by Indo-European, Semitic and Hamitic
speech, and by them almost alone, among all human languages,
though an extremely noteworthy fact, is (as was pointed out
above) in the present condition of linguistic science quite too
weak a basis for a belief in the original identity of the three
families.

Egyptian is limited to the delta and valley of the Nile, and is
the only Hamitic language which has ancient records; of the
others the existing forms alone are known.

The Libyan or Berber division of the family occupies the
inhabitable part of northern Africa, so far as it has not been
displaced by intrusive tongues of other connexion — in later
times the Arabic, which since the Mahommedan conquest has
been the cultivated tongue of the Mediterranean coast, while
the earlier Vandal, Latin and Punic have disappeared, except
in the traces they may have left in Berber dialectic speech.
The principal dialects are the Kabyle, the Shilha and the
Tuarek or Tamashek, corresponding nearly to the ancient
Numidian, Mauretanian and Gaetulian respectively.

The third or Ethiopic division includes as its chief members
the Beja or Bisharin, the Saho, the Dankali, the Somali, and
the more inland Galla; the first two lying along the Red Sea
north of Semitic Abyssinia, the others south of it, to the equator.
By some authorities (Lepsius, Bleek) there is added to the
Hamitic family as a fourth division a group from extreme
southern Africa, the Hottentot and Bushman languages. The
ground of this classification is the possession by the Hottentot
of the distinction of grammatical gender, and even its designa-
tion by signs closely corresponding to those used in the Ethiopic
division. Others deny the sufficiency of this evidence, and
rank the Hottentot as a separate group of African dialects,
adding to it provisionally the Bushman, until better knowledge
of the latter shall show whether it is or is not a group by itself.
If the Hottentot be Hamitic, we shall have to suppose it cut
off at a very remote period from the rest of the family, and
forced gradually southward, while all the time suffering mixture
both of speech and of blood with the negro races, until the
physical constitution of its speakers has become completely
metamorphosed, and of its original speech no signs are left
save those referred to above; and while such exceptional
phonetic peculiarities have been worked out as the use of the
clicks or clucking sounds: and this must be regarded as at
least extremely difficult. -

4. Monosyllabic or South-eastern Asiatic Family. — This body
of languages may well enough be the next taken up; and here
again (as was the case with the preceding family) on account
of the prominent importance of one of its dialects and of the
people speaking it — the Chinese people and language. The
territory of the family includes the whole south-eastern corner

of Asia: Chivia on the north-east, Farther India in the south,
and the high plateau of Tibet, with the neighbouring Himalayan
regions, to the westward. The ultimate unity of all these
languages rests chiefly upon the evidence of their form, as being
all alike essentially monosyllabic and isolating, or destitute
of formal structure; the material correspondences among them,
of accordant words, are not sufficient to prove them related.
The Chinese itself can be followed up, in contemporary records,
to a period probably not far from 2000 B.C., and the language,
the people, and their institutions, are then already in the main
what they have ever since continued to be (see China) ; the
other leading tongues come into view much later, as they receive
culture and religion from China on the one hand (the Annamites) ,
or from India on the other (the Tibetans, Burmese, Siamese) ;
and the territory includes great numbers of wild tribes unknown
until our own times, whose race-relations and language-relations
are as yet very obscure. Current opinion tends to regard
the Annamites, Peguans and Cambodians (the Mon-Khmer
group) as forming a more nearly related group or division, and
as having been the earlier population of Farther India, in part
dispossessed and driven forward by the later intrusion from the
north of Siamese and Burmese, of whom the former are more
nearly related to the Chinese and the latter to the Tibetans.
The Mon-Khmer group is itself more nearly related to the
Kolarian and Malay- Polynesian.

The character of the languages of this family, especially
as instanced by its most important member, the Chinese, has
been pretty fully set forth in the general discussions above.
They are languages of roots: that is to say, there is not demon-
strable in any of their words a formative part, limiting the word,
along with others similarly characterized, to a certain office
or set of offices in the formation of the sentence. That the
words are ultimate roots, come down from the first period of
language-making, we have no reason whatever to believe;
and they may possibly have passed through processes of growth
which equipped them with some scanty supply of forms;
but no evidence to that effect has yet been produced. The
indications relied on to show an earlier polysyllabi-sm in the
family (though already in Chinese reduced to monosyllabism
before the earliest historical appearance of the language, some
4000 years ago) are the comparatively recent loss of certain
final mutes in Chinese words, and the presence on a consider-
able scale in Tibetan spelling of added initial and final
consonants, now silent in the literary dialect, but claimed to
be still uttered in some parts of the country. If the theory
connecting these phenomena be established, the Tibetan will
approve itself to be by far the most primitive of the dialects
of the family, furnishing the key to the history of the rest.

For further details respecting the various tongues of the
monosyllabic family, the articles on the different divisions of
its territory (Burma; China; Scam; Tibet, &c.) may be con-
sulted. The languages all alike show . an addition to the
resources of distinction possessed by languages in general, in
the use of tones: that is to say, words of which the alphabetic
elements are the same differ in meaning according as they are
uttered in a higher or a lower tone, with the rising or the falling
inflexion, and so on. By this means, for example, the mono-
■ syllabic elements of the literary Chinese, numbering but 500
as we should write them, are raised to the number of about
1500 words.

5. Ural-Altaic {Scythian, Turanian) Family. — China and
Tibet are bordered on the north and west by the eastern branches
of another immense family, which stretches through central
arid northern Asia into Europe, overlapping the European
border in Turkey, and reaching across it in Russia and Scan-
dinavia to the very shore of the Atlantic. Usage has not so
definitely determined as in the case of most other families by
what name it shall be called; Turanian is perhaps the com-
monest appellation, but also the most objectionable. Five
principal branches are generally reckoned as composing the
family. The two easternmost are the Tungusian, with the
Manchu for its principal division, and the Mongol (see Mongols)

428

PHILOLOGY

Of these two the language is exceedingly simple in structure,
being raised but little above the formlessness of the Chinese. The
Tungusian, however, some authorities would couple with Japanese
as a separate branch. The three others are: the Turkish or
Tatar, the dialects of which reach from the mouth of the Lena
(Yakut) to Turkey in Europe; the Samoyed, from the Altai
down to the arctic shore of Asia, and along this to the White
Sea — an unimportant congeries of barbarous tribes; and the
Finno-Hungarian, including the tongues of the two cultivated
peoples from which it takes its name, and also those of a great
part of the population of northern and central Russia, to beyond
the Ural Mountains, and finally the Lappish, of northern Scan-
dinavia. The nearer relation of the Samoyed is with the
Finno-Hungarian. The Turkish is a type of a well-developed
language of purely agglutinative structure: that is, lacking
that higher degree of integration which issues in internal change.
Whether this degree is wholly wanting in Finnish and Hun-
garian is made a question; at any rate, the languages named
have no reason to envy the tongues technically called " inflec-
tive." Of a value not inferior to that of inflective characteristics
is one that belongs to all the Ural-Altaic tongues, in varying
measure and form, and helps to bind them together into a single
family — the harmonic sequence of vowels, namely, as between
root and endings, or a modification of the vowels of the endings
to agree with that of the root or its final syllable.

While the physical race-characteristics known as Mongolian
are wanting in the speakers of the western dialects of this
family, they are conspicuously present in the people of Japan
and Korea; and hence the tendency of scholars to endeavour
to connect the languages of the two latter countries, since they
also are of agglutinative structure (see Japan and Korea) with
the family now under treatment, as also with one another.

Other languages of north-eastern Asia, too little known to
group, and too unimportant to treat as separate families, may
be mentioned here by way of appendix to their neighbours of
the most diversified and widespread Asiatic family. They are
the Aino, of Yezo and the Kurile Islands with part of the neigh-
bouring coast; the Kamchatkan; and the Yukagir and Tchukt-
chi of the extreme north-east. These are sometimes combined
with the Eskimo under the title of the Arctic or Hyperborean
languages.

The opinion has been held by many scholars that the agglu-
tinative dialects — Sumerain, Accadian, &c. — of the presumed
founders of Mesopotamian culture and teachers of the Assyrian
Semites (see Babylonia) belonged to the Ural-Altaic family,
and specifically to its Finno-Ugrian branch ; but the data for this
view are still very uncertain. The mere possession of an
agglutinative structure cannot be taken as proving anything
in the way of relationship.

6. Dravidian or South Indian Family. — This is an important
body of nearly and clearly related tongues, spoken by about
50,000,000 people, doubtless representing the main population
of all India at the time when the intrusive Indo-European tribes
broke in from the north-west, and still filling most of the southern
peninsula, the Deccan, together with part of Ceylon. They are
languages of a high grade of structure, and of great power and
euphony; and the principal ones have enjoyed a long cultiva-
tion, founded on that of the Sanskrit. As they obviously have no
Indo-European affinities, the attempt has been made to connect
them also with the Ural-Altaic or Turanian family, but altogether
without success, although there is nothing in their style of
structure that should make such connexion impossible.

7. Malay- Polynesian Family. — Not all the tribes that make
up the non-Indo-European population of India speak Dravidian
dialects. The Santals and certain other wild tribes appear to
be of another lineage. These are now generally known as
Kolarian, and are connected with the Malay-Polynesian family.

The islands, greater and smaller, lying off the south-eastern
coast of Asia and those scattered over the Pacific, all the way
from Madagascar to Easter Island, are filled with their own
peculiar families of languages, standing in a more or less distant
relationship to the languages of the Mon- Khmer group, and the

Kolarians on the mainland and the Nicobar islanders. The
principal one among them is the great Malay-Polynesian family.
It falls into two principal divisions, Malayan and Polynesian.
The Malayan includes, besides the Malay proper (see Malays),
which occupies the Malaccan peninsula (yet doubtless not as
original home of the division, but by immigration from the
islands), the languages also of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, &c, of
the Philippine Islands, of part of Formosa, and of Madagascar,
together with the coasts of Celebes and other islands occupied
in the interior by Papuans. The Polynesian division includes
most of the tongues of the remaining scattered groups of islands,
and that of New Zealand. Probably to these are to be added, as a
third division, the Melanesian dialects of the Melanesian Archi-
pelago, of which both the physical and the linguistic peculiari-
ties would in that case be ascribed to mixture with the black
Papuan races. All these languages are extremely simple in
phonetic form, and of a low grade of structure, the Polynesian
branch being in both respects the lowest, and some of the
Malayan dialects having reached a development considerably
more advanced. The radical elements are much oftener of
two syllables than of one, and reduplication plays an important
part in their extension and variation. Malay literature goes
back as far as to the 13th century, and there are Javan records
even from the early centuries of our era, the result of religion
and culture introduced into that island from Brahmanic India.
In recent years more active investigation has been carried
on with a view to tracing out the special laws of historical
development prevailing in the family.

8. Other Oceanic Families. — At least two other families, un-
connected with the preceding and with one another, are found
among the Pacific Islands, and only there. The continental
island of Australia, with its dependency Tasmania (where, how-
ever, the native tongue has now become extinct), has its own
body of probably related dialects, as its own physical type.
They have been but imperfectly investigated, their imoortanre,
except to the professed student of language, being nothing; but
they are not destitute of a rude agglutinative structure of their
own. Still less known are the Papuan or Negrito languages,
belonging to the black race with frizzled hair inhabiting most
of New Guinea, and found also in the interior of some of the other
islands, having been driven from the coasts by superior intruders
of the Malay race.

9. Caucasian Languages. — Of the existing languages of Asia
there remain to be mentioned only those of the Caucasian moun-
tains and highlands, between the Black and Caspian Seas, pressed
upon the north by Slavonians and Turks, upon the south by
Armenians and Kurds and Turks. Its situation makes of the
Caucasus a natural eddy in all movements of emigration between
Asia and Europe; and its linguistic condition is as if remnants
of many families otherwise extinct had been stranded and pre-
served there. The dialects north of the principal range — Cir-
cassian, Mitsjeghian, Lesghian, &c. — have not been proved to be
related either to one another or to those of the south. Among
the latter, the Georgian is much the most widespread and impor-
tant (see Georgia) and, alone among them all, possesses a
literature. The Caucasian dialects present many exceptional
and difficult features, and are in great part of so high a grade
of structure as to have been allowed the epithet inflective by
those who attach special importance to the distinction thus
expressed.

10. Remnants of Families in Europe. — The Basque people
of the western Pyrenees, at the angle of the Bay of Biscay, are
shown by their speech to be an isolated remnant of some race
which was doubtless once much more widely spread, but has
now everywhere else lost its separate identity; as such it is of
extreme interest to the ethnologist (see Basques). The Basque
language appears to be unrelated to any other on earth. It is of
a very highly agglutinative structure, being equalled in intricacy
of combination only by a part of the American dialects. Limited
as it is in territory, it falls into a number of well-marked dialects,
so that it also may not be refused the name of a " family."

The only other case of the kind worth noting is that of the

PHILOLOGY

429

Etruscan language of northern central Italy, which long ago
became extinct, in consequence of the conquest and absorption
of Etruria by Rome, but which still exists in numerous brief in-
scriptions (see Etruria). Many attempts have been made to
connect the language with other families, and it has even quite
recently been pronounced Aryan or Indo-European, of the
Italican branch, by scholars of high rank. But its supposed
Indo-European relationship was at once shown to be erroneous
when, in 1892, a small book which had been used to pack a
mummy was discovered in the museum at Agram, and published.
The probability of relationship with the ancient Lydian, as was
the opinion held in ancient times, has been increased by recent
research, and is likely soon to be verified or disproved by the
discovery of Lydian records.

In order to complete this review of the languages of the Old
World it only remains to notice those of Africa which have not
been already mentioned. They are grouped under two heads : the
languages of the south and those of the centre of the continent.

11. South African or Bantu Family. — This is a very extensive
and distinctly marked family (see Bantu Languages), occupy-
ing (except the Hottentot and Bushman territory) the whole
southern peninsula of the continent from some degrees north
of the equator. It is held apart from all other known families
of language by a single prominent characteristic — the extent
to which it makes use of prefixes instead of suffixes as the appar-
atus of grammatical distinction; its inflexion, both declensional
and conjugational, is by appended elements which precede the
stem or root. The most conspicuous part of this is the variety
of prefixes, different in singular and plural, by which the various
classes or genders (not founded on sex; the ground of classifica-
tion is generally obscure) of nouns are distinguished; these then
reappear in the other members of the sentence, as adjectives
and verbs and pronouns, which are determined by the noun,
thus producing an alliterative concord that runs through the
sentence. The pronominal determinants of the verb, both
subject and object, also come before it; but the determinants
of mode of action, as causative, &c, are mostly suffixed. The
language in general is rich in the means of formal distinction.
Those dialects which border on the Hottentots have, apparently
by derivation from the latter, the clicks or clucking-sounds
which form a conspicuous part of the Hottentot spoken alphabet.

12. Central African Languages.- — The remaining languages of
Africa form a broad band across the centre of the continent,
between the Bantu on the south and the Hamitic on the east
and north. The Bantu group, extending from north of the
equator to the Cape of Good Hope, with a vast variety of dialects,
is the most important of all African languages. To it belongs
Swahili, the language of Zanzibar, only less valuable as a means
of communication and trade than the Haussa of the Sudan, the
most important of the dialects under the influence of the Hamitic
languages. The African languages are by no means to be called
a family, but rather a great mass of dialects, numbering by
hundreds, of varying structure, as to the relations of which
there is great discordance of opinion even among the most recent
and competent authorities. It is no place here to enter into
the vexed questions of African linguistics, or even to report the
varying views upon the subject; that would require a space
wholly disproportioned to the importance of African speech
in the general sum of human language. There is no small
variety of physical type as well as of speech in the central belt;
and, partly upon the evidence of lighter tint and apparently
higher endowment, certain races are set off and made a separate
division of; such is the Nuba-Fulah division of F. M tiller,
rejected by Lepsius. The latter regarded all the varieties of
physical and linguistic character in the central belt as due to
mixture between pure Africans of the south and Hamites of the
north and east; but this is at present an hypothesis only, and
a very improbable one, since it implies modes and results of mix-
ture to which no analogies are quotable from languages whose
history is known; nor does it appear at all probable that the
collision of two races and types of speech should produce such
an immense and diverse body of transitional types. It is far

from impossible that the present prominence of the South
African or Bantu family may be secondary, due to the great
expansion under favouring circumstances of a race once having
no more importance than belongs now to many of the Central
African races, and speaking a tongue which differed from theirs
only as theirs differed from one another. None of the Central
African languages is a prefix-language in the same degree as the
Bantu, and in many of them prefixes play no greater part than
in the world's languages in general; others show special forms
or traces of the prefix structure; and some have features of an
extraordinary character, hardly to be paralleled elsewhere.
One group in the east (Oigob, &c.) has a gender distinction,
involving that of sex, but really founded on relative power
and dignity: things disparaged, including women, are put in one
class; things extolled, including men, are put in the other.
This is perhaps the most significant hint anywhere to be found
of how a gender-distinction like that in our own Indo-European
languages, which we usually regard as being essentially a dis-
tinction of sex, while in fact it only includes such, may have
arisen. Common among the African languages, as among many
other families, especially the American, is a generic distinction
between animate beings and inanimate things.

13. American Languages. — With these the case is closely
the same as with the Central African languages: there is an
immense number of dialects, of greatly varied structure (see
Indians, North American). Even among neighbouring
families like the Algonquin, Iroquois and Dakota, whose agree-
ment in style of structure (polysynthetic), taken in connexion
with the accordant race-type of their speakers, forbids us to regard
them as ultimately different, no material correspondence, agree-
ment in words and meanings, is to be traced; and there are
in America all the degrees of polysynthetism, down to the
lowest, and even to its entire absence. Such being the case,
it ought to be evident to every one accustomed to deal with this
class of subjects that all attempts to connect American languages
as a body with languages of the Old World are and must be
fruitless.

Literature. — Many of the theoretic points discussed above
are treated by the writer with more fulness in his Language and
the Study of Language (1867) and Life and Growth of Language
(1875). Other English works to consult are M. Miiller's Lectures
on the Science of Language; Farrar's Chapters on Language;
Wedgwood's Origin of Language (all more or less anti-
quated); Sayce's Principles of Philology and Introduction to
the Science of Language, &c; Sweet, The History of Language
(1900). In German, see Paul's Principien der Sprachgeschichte
(Halle, 1880); Delbriick's Einleitung in das Sprachstudium
(Leipzig, 1880; 4th ed., 1909; 5th ed., 1910; there is also
an English version); Brugmann and Delbriick's Grundriss
der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen
(1886-1900; a second edition of the first volume was pub-
lished in 1897, two parts of vol. ii., including the stem-
formation and declension of the noun and pronoun appeared
in 1906 and 1909) ; also the works of W. von Humboldt and of H.
Steinthal, the most important of whose linguistic works, Charak-
terislik der hauplsachlichsten Typen des Sprachbaues (1861),
was recast and brought up to date under the same title by F.
Misteli (1893). See also handy summaries covering the same
ground, but without bibliography, in F. N. Finck's Die Sprach-
stdmme des Erdkreises (1909) and Die Haupllypen des Sprach-
baus (1910). Many of the languages of India and Farther
India have been treated in the Linguistic Survey of India,
edited by Dr G. E. Grierson (a government publication still
in progress). A short popular account of the subject is given
in Porzczinski's Einleitung in die Sprachwissenschaft (1910),
a German translation of a Russian original. The Bantu
languages have been treated by Black, Torrand, and most recently
by Meinhof, whose Lautlehre der Bantu Sprachen (1910) is the
most complete handling of the subject. As to the classifica-
tion and relationships of languages, see Hovelacque's La Linguis-
tique (Paris, 1876) and F. Miiller's Grundriss der Sprachwissen-
schaft (Vienna, 3 vols. ; a fourth was left incomplete at the author's

43°

PHILOLOGY

Historical
Sketch.

death). Both works are already somewhat antiquated. As
to the history of the study, see Lersch's Sprochphilosophie der
Alten (1840); Steinthal's Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft bei
den Griechen und Romern (1863); Benfey's Geschichte der Sprach-
wissenschaft mid Orientalischen Philologie in Deutschland (1869);
Sandys's History of Classical Scholarship (3 vols., 1906-1908);
Vilh. Thomsen's Sprogardenskatens Historien Kortpattitfranckling
(1902). (W.D.W.)

II. — Comparative Philology of the Indo-European Languages.
The study of Indo-European comparative philology has from
its outset necessarily been in close connexion with the study of
Sanskrit, a language unparalleled amongst its cognates in
antiquity and distinctness of structure, and consequently the
natural basis of comparison in this field. It is therefore not
to be wondered at that we find no clear views of the mutual
relationship of the individual members of the Indo-European
family or their position with regard to other languages until
Sanskrit began to attract the attention of European philologists,
or that the introduction of Sanskrit as an object of study was
closely followed by the discovery of the original community
of a vast range of languages and dialects hitherto not brought
into connexion at all, or only made the objects of baseless
speculations. We meet with the first clear concep-
tion of this idea of an Indo-European community
of languages in the distinguished English scholar
Sir William Jones, who, as early as 1786, expressed himself
as follows: " The Sanskrit language, whatever may be its
antiquity, is of wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek,
more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than
either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in
the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could have
been produced by accident; so strong that no philologer could
examine all the three without believing them to have sprung
from some common source which, perhaps, no longer exists.
There is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for suppos-
ing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a
different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskrit." 1 But
neither Sir William Jones nor any of his older contemporaries
who had arrived at similar conclusions ever raised this important
discovery from a brilliant apercu into a valid scientific theory
through a detailed and systematic comparison of the languages
in question. To have achieved this is the undoubted merit of
the German, Franz Bopp (q.v.), the founder of scientific philology
of the Indo-European languages, and subsequently
jari" through this example also the founder of comparative
philology in general. Next to him Jacob Grimm {q.v.)
must be mentioned here as the father of historical grammar.
The first part of his famous Deutsche Grammatik appeared in
1819, three years after Bopp had published his first epoch-
making book, Ueber das Conjugationssystem der Sanskritsprache.
Bopp's results were here at once utilized, yet Grimm's whole
system was entirely independent of that of Bopp, and had no
doubt been worked out before Grimm knew of his illustrious
predecessor. In fact, their scientific aims and methods were
totally different. Bopp's interest was not concentrated in
comparison as such, but chiefly inclined towards the explanation
of the origin of grammatical forms, and comparison to him was
only a means of approaching that end.

In this more or less speculative turn of his interest Bopp
showed himself the true son of a philosophical period when
general linguistics received its characteristic stamp from the
labours and endeavours of men like the two Schlegels and Wilhelm
von lTumboldt. Jacob Grimm's aims were of a less lofty
character than those of Bopp, whose work, to his own mind,
was crowned by his theory of the origin of inflexion through
agglutination. In confining his task to a more limited range
than the vast field of Indo-European languages embraced in

1 For this quotation and the following historical sketch in general
see Th. Benfey, Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft, p. 438 (Munich,
1869). and especially B. Delbruck, Introduction to the Study of
Language, p. I (Leipzig, 1882; a fifth German edition appeared in
1909).

Beafey.

Bopp's researches, and thus fixing his attention on a group of
idioms exhibiting a striking regularity in their mutual relation-
ship, both where they coincide and where tihey differ, he made it
his foremost object to investigate and illustrate the continuous
progress, subject to definite laws, by which these languages had,
been developed from their common source. He thus raised
the hitherto neglected study of the development of sounds
to an equal level with the study of grammatical forms, which
had so far almost exclusively absorbed all the interest of linguistic
research. Grimm's discovery of the so-called " Lautverschie-
bung," or Law of the Permutation of Consonants in the Teutonic
languages (which, however, had been partly found and pro-
claimed before Grimm by the Danish scholar Rask), became
especially important as a stimulus for further investigation in
this line. Grimm's influence on comparative philology (which
is secondary only to that of Bopp, although he was never a
comparative philologist in the sense that Bopp was, and did not
always derive the benefit from Bopp's works which they might
have afforded him) is clearly traceable in the work of Bopp's
successors, amongst whom Friedrich August Pott (1802-1887)
is universally judged to hold the foremost rank. In his great
work, Etymologise he Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der indo-
germanischen Sprachen, mit besonderem Bezug auf die Lautum-
wandlung im Sanskrit, Griechischen, Lateinischen, Liltauischen ,
und Gothischen (Lemgo, 1833-1836), we find Indo-European
etymology for the first time based on a scientific investigation
of general Indo-European phonology. Amongst Pott's contem-
poraries Theodor Benfey deserves mention on account of his
Griechisches Wurzellexicon (Berlin, 1839), a work
equally remarkable for copiousness of contents
and power of combination, yet showing no advance on Bopp's
standpoint in its conception of phonetic changes.

A third period in the history of Indo-European philology
is marked by the name of August Schleicher, whose Com-
pendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indo- „ Wefc i er
germanischen Sprachen first appeared in 186 1. In
the period subsequent to the appearance of Pott's Elymologische
Forschungen, a number of distinguished scholars, too large to
be recorded here individually, 2 had devoted their labours to
the different branches of Indo-European philology, especially
assisted and promoted in their work by the rapidly progressing
Vedic (and Avestic) studies that had been inaugurated by Rosen,
Roth, Benfey, Westergaard, Miiller, Kuhn, Aufrecht and others.
Moreover, new foundations had been laid for the study of the
Slavonic languages by Miklosich and Schleicher, of Lithuanian
by Kurschat and Schleicher, of Celtic by Zeuss. Of the
classical languages Greek had found a most distinguished
representative in Curtius, while Corssen, Mommsen, Aufrecht,
Kirchhoff, &c, had collected most valuable materials towards

2 The extensive progress made in this period is best illustrated
by the foundation of two periodicals especially devoted to Indo-
European comparative philology, Kuhn's Zeitschrift fur verglei-
chende Sprachforschung (now 27 vols., Berlin, from 1851), and
Kuhn's Beitrage zur vergleichenden Sprachforschung (8 vols., Berlin,
from 1858). Benfey's school is more especially represented by the
contributors to Benfey's Orient und Occident (3 vols., Gottingen,
from 1862), and subsequently through Bezzenberger's Beitrage zur .
Kunde der indogermanischen Sprachen (30 vols., Gottingen, from
1877); this journal has now been amalgamated with Kuhn's Zeit-
schrift. The views of the " New Grammarians " — Leskien, Brug-
mann, Osthoff and their schools — are represented in Indogermanische
Forschungen (27 vols., since 1890). The Gottingen school has a
further representative in Glotta, now (1910) in its third volume.
The history of the meaning of words has a special periodical for itself,
Wbrter und Sachen, now in its second volume. Besides those
mentioned there are many journals, publications of academies, &c,
in Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, Italy, &c, which no serious student
of comparative philology can ignore. France possesses two periodi-
cals of the same kind, the Revue de Linguistique (Paris, from 1868)
and the Memoires de la Societe de Linguistique de. Paris (also from
1868), while England is represented by the Proceedings and Trans-
actions of the Philological Societies of London and Cambridge, the
Classical Review (23 vols., since 1887), and the Classical Quarterly
(4 vols., since 1907), and America by the Transactions of the American
Philological Association (from 1868), the American Journal of
Philology (30 vols., from 1880), Classical Philology (5 vols., from
1 906),' and other more specialist organs.

PHILOLOGY

43 1

the elucidation of Latin and the cognate Italic idioms. In
his Compendium Schleicher undertook and solved the difficult
task of sifting down the countless details amassed since the
days of Bopp and Grimm, and thus making the individual
languages stand out clearly on their common background,
while Bopp's attention had been especially occupied with what
was common to all Indo-European tongues. There are two
prominent features which characterize this part of Schleicher's
work — his assumption and partial reconstruction of a pre-
historic parent speech, from which the separate Indo-European
languages were supposed to have sprung, and the estab-
lishment of a long series of phonetic laws, regulating the
changes by which that development of the individual idioms
had taken place. On Schleicher's views of and contributions
towards general comparative philology (which he erroneously
proposed to consider as a branch of natural science) we need
not enter here. (See Evolution and the Science of Language in
Darwin and Modem Science, 1909, pp. 526 sqq.)

For some time after Schleicher's premature death (in 1868)
Indo-European philology continued in paths indicated by him
and Curtius, with the exception, perhaps, of the school founded
by Benfey, who had always stood on independent ground.
The difference between the two schools, however, was less
strikingly marked in their writings, because it chiefly concerns
general views of language and the Indo-European languages in
particular, although the characteristic task of the period alluded
to was that of working out the more minute details of com-
parison; but behind all this the general interest still clung to
Bopp's old glottogonic problems. In 1876, however, a new
Hew Lin- movement, inspired in the first instance by the
guistk works of W. D. Whitney, began, and a younger
School. school of linguists has sprung up who are united
in their opposition to many theories of the older generation,
yet often differ materially both with regard to method and
the solution of individual problems. In its present state this
younger school (often branded with the name of Neo-Gram-
marians, " Junggrammatiker," by its opponents real and
imaginary) is marked by certain distinct tendencies. In the
first place, they are inclined more or less, and the older members
of the school perhaps more than the younger, to abandon
glottogonic problems as insoluble, if not for ever, yet for the
present and with the scanty means that Indo-European philo-
logy alone can furnish for this purpose. In this they are in
opposition to the whole of the older school. In the second place,
they object to the use of all misleading metaphorical com-
parisons of processes in the history of language with processes
of organic development — comparisons used at all times, but
especially cherished by Schleicher. In the third place — and
this has been of the greatest practical importance — they hold
that our general views of language and our methods of com-
parison should be formed after a careful study of the living
languages, because these alone are fully controllable in every
minute detail, and can therefore alone give us a clear insight
into the working of the different motive forces which shape
and modify language, and that the history of earlier periods
of language, consequently, can only be duly illustrated by trac-
ing out the share which each of these forces has had in every
individual case of change. Of these forces two are found to
be especially prominent — phonetic variation and formation by
analogy. They generally work in turns and often in opposi-
tion to one another, the former frequently tending to differentia-
tion of earlier unities, the latter to abolition of earlier differences,
especially to restoration of conformity disturbed by phonetic
change. There are, however, other important differences in
the action of the two forces. Phonetic change
affects exclusively the pronunciation of a language
by substituting one sound or sound-group for
another. From this simple fact it is self-evident that
phonetic changes as such admit of no exceptions. Pro-
nunciation — that is, the use of certain sounds in certain
combinations — is perfectly unconscious in natural unstudied
speech, and every speaker or generation of speakers has

Phonetic
Change.

only one way of utterance for individual sounds or their
combinations. If, therefore, a given sound was once changed
into another under given circumstances, the new sound must
necessarily and unconsciously replace its predecessor in every
word that falls under the same rules, because the older sound
ceases to be practised and therefore disappears from the language.
Thus, for instance, the sound of the short so-called Italian a
in English has become exchanged for the peculiarly English
sound in man, hat, &c, which is so exclusively used and practised
now by English speakers that they feel great difficulty in pro-
nouncing the Italian sound, which at an earlier period was
almost as frequent in English as in any other language that has
preserved the Italian sound up to the present day. Again,
the sound of the so-called long English a in make, paper, &c,
although once a monophthong, is now pronounced as a diph-
thong, combining the sounds of the English short e and i, and
no trace of the old monophthong is left, except where it was
followed by r, as in hare, mare (also air, their, where, &c), where
the a has a broader sound somewhat approaching that of the
short a in hat. This last instance may at the same time serve
to illustrate the restrictions made above as to sounds changing
their pronunciation in certain groups or combinations, or under
given circumstances only. We may learn from it that phonetic
change need not always affect the same original sound in the
same way in all its combinations, but that neighbouring sounds
often influence the special direction in which the sound is
modified. The different sounds of the English a in make and
hare are both equivalents of the same Old English sound &
( = the Italian short a) in macian, hara. The latter sound has
been split in two, but this process again has taken place with
perfect regularity, the one sound appearing before r, the other
before all other consonants. It is easy to see that the common
practice of comprising the history of the Old English a in the
one rule — that it was changed into the sound of the & in make
except when followed by an r — can only be defended on the
practical ground that this rule is convenient to remember,
because the words exhibiting the former change are more
numerous than the instances of the latter; apart from this there
is nothing to justify the assumption that one of these changes
is the rule and the other the exception. The fact is, that we
have two independent cases of change, which ought to be stated
in two distinct and independent rules according to the different
positions in which the original & stood before the splitting
began. It is also easy to observe that the variety of modify-
ing influences may be much more manifold than in the present
instance of make and hare, and that the number of special
phonetic rules in such cases must be increased in proportion
to the progress made in the investigation of the said modifying
powers.

In truth, however, the study of phonetic laws falls into several
different stages, and the meaning attached to the phrase phonetic
law has varied at each of these stages. Moreover, the sweeping
nature of the original generalizations has become so hedged in
and contracted by limitations that a recent writer has been
compelled once more to formulate the question whether phonetic
laws actually exist. It must be admitted in the first place that
the word law has been ill chosen for use in this connexion. In
phonetic laws there is no element which can be identified as
coming under the definition of a law as propounded by a jurist
like John Austin. There is no authority which enunciates the
law, there is no penalty for the breach of it. But the philologists
who first used the term were not thinking of law in its strict
signification, but of its use in such metaphorical expressions as
scientific laws, for, as already mentioned, Schleicher and his
followers in the middle of the 19th century had taken a keen
interest in the development of the natural sciences, and had to
some extent assimilated their terminology to that employed in
those sciences. It was, however, soon recognized that the laws
of language and those of natural science were not really alike or
akin. A scientific " law " is only a brief method of expressing
the fact that universal experience shows that certain causes
universally produce certain effects. In chemistry two atoms of

432

PHILOLOGY

hydrogen and one of oxygen will make water, and they will make
nothing else at any time or at any place the world over. Phonetic
laws, however, do not hold true universally. They are often
curiously limited in the area to which they apply. In ancient
Greek, for example, the sound -s- between two vowels, which
had been handed down from the original language whence Greek
and the sister languages are derived, regularly disappears; in
Latin, on the other hand, it changes into -r-; thus an original
genitive of a neuter substantive we find represented in Greek by
ytve-os, a form which comparison with other languages shows
to be traceable to an earlier *genes-os, preceding the separation
of the languages, while the same original stem with a different
vowel in the ending appears in Latin as gener-is. Similarly an
early *euso appears in Greek as ewo, in Latin as uro. This
disappearance of original intervocalic s pervades all Greek
dialects — the apparent exceptions come under the heading of
analogical change; with a very few exceptions similarly explic-
able Latin intervocalic .y has become r. But Latin was originally
limited to a very small part even of Italy, and the next neigh-
bours of the Latins on the east and south— the Sabines, Cam-
panians and Samnites — retained this intervocalic 5 without
changing it into r. On the other hand, the neighbours to the
north-east — the Umbrians in and beyond the Apennines —
shared in this rhotacism. Yet the Celts, who bordered on the
Umbrians along the Po, and who spoke a language in many
respects very closely akin to the dialects of Italy, in this regard
agree rather with Greek than the Italic languages. In Latin,
again, the period of action of the law which changed intervocalic
s into r did not in all probability exceed the century from 450 B.C.
to 350 B.C. So unlike, indeed, are phonetic laws to the laws of
natural science in universality that an opponent of the dogma
which declares that phonetic laws have no exceptions has
compared them with the laws of fashion. The comparison is
not so outrageous as it may seem at first sight. For in language
there are two kinds of sound change, that which is unconscious,
universal at a given time and within a given area, and, on the
other hand, that which belongs only to a particular class or
clique, deviates consciously from the pronunciation of the
majority, is therefore not universal, and exercises no permanent
influence on the language. The second kind of sound change
corresponds exactly to the laws of fashion; it is in fact one of
them. Such sound changes are the pronunciation of the English
ending -ing as -in', which was fashionable in the middle of the
19th century. This had, though probably without the know-
ledge of those who used it, an historical justification in the earlier
forms from which most of the English words now ending in
-ing are descended, and which survive in numerous local dialects.
A similar conventional mispronunciation was the lisp affected
by some would-be artistic persons at a somewhat later period.
Belonging to an entirely different social stratum, and now
equally obsolete, was the London pronunciation of the first half
of the 19th century typified in Tony and Sam Weller's treatment
of v and w in the Pickwick Papers. This, however, made a much
nearer approach to being a genuine dialect peculiarity. It
undoubtedly pervaded the pronunciation of the lower classes
in London at one time; had it survived it might conceivably
have spread over a wider and wider area until it embraced the
whole population of England. A later change, that of the
diphthong ai into ei (so that day, daily are pronounced dy, dyly),
has spread from Essex and the East End of London over a large
part of London and of the adjacent counties, and is still widening
its range both geographically and socially. The history of these
sound changes has not yet been investigated in detail with the
thoroughness which it deserves.

There is, then, a part of sound change which is a matter of
fashion and which is conscious. This sound change app°ars
frequently in the pronunciation of individuals who have migrated
from one part of a country to another. In many parts of
Scotland, for example, the prepositions with and of appear in
dialect only in the forms wi' and 0', which were originally the
unaccented forms. In the conscious attempts tc pronounce
them as they appear in literary English, the educated Scotsman,

if he remains in his native place, as a rule pronounces them as
with (with the final sound unvoiced as it appears in the Scottish
legal preposition outwith) and as off, the final sound here also
being unvoiced. If he migrates to England or to Australia he
will probably in course of time adopt the pronunciation with a
voiced final sound. In the course of years habit will become
second nature, and in this respect the speaker's pronunciation
will become identical with that of his neighbours. It is clear,
however, that changes of this nature cannot take place on a large
scale. If a large number of persons migrate in a body and
continue to live in close intercourse with one another and but
little in contact with the outside world, changes such as take
place in the pronunciation of the individual emigrant do not
occur. There can be no imitation of alien sounds, for there are
none; no greater effort to be intelligible is required, for the audi-
ence has not changed. Hence it has been often remarked that
a population which history shows to have remained undisturbed
for very long periods in the same geographical situation manifests
but little change in its language. Thus in Arabia and Lithuania
the population has remained practically unmixed in the same
habitat for thousands of years, with the result that the languages
spoken there remain at the present day the most archaic members
of the linguistic families to which they respectively belong.

From what has been said it will be obvious that a phonetic
law is only an observed uniformity in the treatment of a sound
or a combination of sounds within a linguistic area at a given
time. In the definition the term linguistic area is a very variable
quantity. Thus it is a phonetic law that a sound of the original
Indo-European language, the precise pronunciation of which
cannot be determined, but which was at any rate a palatal sound
(k), appears in the Indo-European group (Sanskrit, Zend, Old
Persian, with their descendants), in Armenian, in Balto-Slavonic
and Albanian, in the form of a sibilant, while in Greek, the
Italic dialects, Germanic and Celtic, it appears as a &-sound (see
Indo-European Languages). Here the linguistic area is
extremely wide, and it is clear that the difference between the
two groups of languages must be dated back to a very early
period. Again, it is a phonetic law of Greek that the original
combination st- at the beginning of words is retained in Greek.
How then are we to explain the existence side by side of areyos
and rkyos ? The former apparently complies with the law, the
latter does not. The former has by its side the verb OTkyui,
while rkyos is supported only by the rare Tkyrj. Yet the forms
of the verb and substantive found in the Germanic languages
leave no doubt that the forms without 5- represent an extremely
old form, for the English thatch could not have changed its
original t- into th- if it had been preceded by s-, the law being as
strict for English as for Greek that initial st- remains unchanged.
On the other hand, a phonetic law may be limited to a very small
area. Thus in the dialect of Eretria, and nowhere else within
the area of the Ionic dialect of ancient Greek, do we find the
change of the sound which appears elsewhere in Greek as -a-
between vowels into -p-: airrjpiv for alm/aw (ace. sing.),
ira.pa@aLvwpiv for irapa^alvooaiv (3rd pi. subjunctive). Why
this change should take place here and nowhere else we do
not know, although it may be conjectured that the cause was a
mixture with immigrants speaking a different dialect, a mixture
which ancient tradition supported. Undoubtedly such mixtures
are the chief conditions of phonetic change, the effect of which is
universal. The manner in which the change takes place is that
the basis of articulation, the method in which the sound is
produced, becomes changed. Thus along the " Highland line "
in Scotland, where the English and Gaelic-speaking populations
had their linguistic frontier for centuries, the wh- of English, the,
Anglo-Saxon hw-, becomes universally /-, wha ? becoming fa ?
white, fite, &c.,/ being the sound which it was most easy to substi-
tute for the difficult hw-. The history of Spanish in the different
communities of South America excellently illustrates this point.
After the discovery of America there was a large influx of
Spaniards into Chile, who ultimately, and chiefly by intermar-
riage, incorporated amongst them a considerable element from
amongst the native Araucanian Indians. The result has been

PHILOLOGY

433

that the language of Chile is Spanish, pronounced not with the
genuine sounds of Spanish, but with the sounds of the Araucanian
language substituted for them. Elsewhere in Spanish America
the language of the conquerors remained comparatively pure,
because the Spaniards were much fewer in number, and had
therefore to maintain themselves as a caste apart. For the same
reason Latin has split up into the numerous branches which we
know as the Romance languages. The particular line of
development which, e.g. French followed as compared with
Spanish or with the language of the Rhaetian Alps was condi-
tioned by the nature of the sounds in the language which pre-
ceded it in the same area, and which was spoken by the ancient
Gauls who adopted Latin. The difficulty found in all of these
cases is precisely of the same kind as that which an adult at the
present day speaking one language finds in attempting to learn
the pronunciation of another language. On the one hand, it
is only with the greatest difficulty that muscles for many years
accustomed to perform one set of movements can be forced into
performing another set which are very similar but yet not
identical; on the other hand, to an untrained ear the difference
between the two sounds may remain unappreciated. The result
is that the new language is pronounced with the sounds of the
speaker's original language. If the new language is adopted by
a whole people to whom it was originally foreign, the children
naturally learn it from their parents with the sounds of the old
language which has now become obsolete. Thus the basis of
articulation is changed,, and if, as was the case with Latin, this
process be frequently repeated among peoples speaking languages
with articulation widely differing one from another, it is clear
that a series of different dialects of the adopted language has
been created. This kind of change is immediate and universal
throughout the whole area where linguistic change has taken
place.

Analogical change, on the other hand, does not affect the
pronunciation of a language as a whole in the way that phonetic
change does, but is confined to the formation, inflexion, syntax
and meaning of single words or groups of words, and therefore is
very apt to bear an entirely arbitrary and irregular character.
A few instances will be sufficient to illustrate this and also to
show how the apparently irregular phenomena of analogy may
be classified, (a) In Old English a certain number of substantives
formed their plurals by mutation of the root vowels, as fot, fit,
or boc, bee. In Modern English this system of inflexion has been
preserved in some cases, as in foot, feet, and altered in others, as
book, books. Now, while foot, feet and book are the regular
modern phonetic equivalents of the old fot, fit, boc, the plural
books can in no way be phonetically traced back to the old bee,
the phonetical equivalent of which in Modern English would be
*beech. The only possible explanation of a form like books is
that the older bee was at some date given up and replaced by an
entirely new formation, shaped after the analogy of the numerous
words with a plural in -5 without modification of the root-vowel.
Such changes, which are very numerous, exemplify the first kind
of analogy, which is generally termed formal analogy. Other
examples are the almost entire disappearance from the language
of the forms in er and en, which were earlier used as plurals in
English. That they were originally stem and not case suffixes
does not affect the point. In Middle English, as in Modern
English, oxen was spelt as a plural; oxen survives, but eyen, except
in such dialect forms as the Scotch e'en, has been replaced by the
form in -s: eyes. Similarly in Middle English the suffix -er
existed in many words which had been originally of the neuter
gender. Thus the plural of child was childer, of calf was calver,
traces of which, besides the survival in dialect of childer and of
calver (become by the 16th century in northern Scotch -car —
pronounced as cahr — which is still in common use), are to be
found in the place, and hence personal, names Childer-ley and
Calver-ley. The old plural of brother was brether, where the
suffix, however, contained an original -r, not -s changed into -r,
as did childer and calver. In Old English, alongside the form for
child making a plural childer, there had been a masculine form
making its plural in -s. It would not have been surprising there-

fore if in Modern English the plural of child had been childs. But
in spite of the common tendency to make the plural of all noun-
stems in -s, child has gone in the opposite direction and has not
only maintained its -r, but has added to it the -en of stems like
oxen and eyen. In Wiclif we find a similar plural to calf, calveren,
but here calves has long replaced in the literary language both
the earlier forms.

(b) Let us now take another instance from the English verb.
In Old English the different persons of the preterite indicative
in the so-called strong (irregular) verbs were generally distin-
guished by different root-vowels; ridan, " to ride," and bindan,
" to bind," for instance, form their preterities thus; ic rod, 5m
ride, he rod, we, ge, hie ridon, and ic band, 5u bunde, he band, we,
ge, hie bundon. In modern English this difference in the root-
vowels has been abandoned, and rode, bound now stand for all
persons, rode being the modern phonetic equivalent of the 1st
and 3rd sing, rod, while bound represents the u- form of bindan.
When one form or set of forms ousts other varying forms from
the same paradigm, the change is described variously as
material or logical analogy. Inasmuch as a similar process of
levelling to that seen in rode has been carried through in all
preterites of Modern English, regularity prevails even here, though
a few traces of the old conflict are still visible in such poetic
forms as sung for the preterite side by side with sang. But
when we look to its results in the individual verbs we soon find
that the choice amongst the different forms which might have
served as starting-points has been entirely arbitrary. It is
indeed impossible to say why the old singular form should have
been chosen as a model in one case, as in rode, and the old plural
form in another, as in bound. From these and numerous similar
instances we must draw the conclusion that it is beyond our
power to ascertain whence analogical changes start, and to
what extent they may be carried through when once begun.
All we can do is to classify carefully the single cases that come
under our observation, and in this way to investigate where
such changes are especially apt to take place and what is their
general direction. As to the latter points, it has been observed
before that levelling of existing differences is one of the chief
features in analogical change (as in the case of rode and bound).
As to the former, it must be borne in mind that, before any ana-
logical change can take place, some mental connexion must exist
between the words or forms serving as models and those which
are remodelled after the types suggested to the minds of the
speakers through the former. Of such natural mental combina-
tions two classes deserve special notice: the mutual relationship
in which the different, say inflexional, forms of the same word
stand to each other, and the more abstract analogies between
the inflexional system of word-groups bearing a similar character,
as, for instance, the different declensions of nouns and pronouns,
or the different conjugations of verbs. The instance of rode,
bound may serve to illustrate the former category, that of books
the latter. In the first case a levelling has taken place between
the different forms of the root-vowels once exhibited in the
different preterite forms of ridan or bindan, which clearly
constitute a natural group or mental unity in consequence of
their meaning. The form of rode as a plural has simply been
taken from the old singular rod, the long a of which has become
in Modem English 6, that of bound as a singular from the old
plural bundon, the u- sound of which has in Modern English come
to be pronounced as a diphthong. In the case of book, books for
boc, bee, this explanation would fall short. Although we might
say that the vowel of the singular here was carried into the plural,
yet this would not explain the plural -5. So it becomes evident
that the old declension of boc, bee was remodelled after the
declension of words like arm, arms, which had always formed
their plurals in -s. The changes indicated may generally be
shown by a proportion, the new analogical formation being the
unknown quantity to be ascertained. Thus in the case cited
above, arm: arms = book: *; and clearly the form to be
ascertained is books. Isolated words or forms which are no
part of natural groups or systems, inflexional, formative or syn-
tactical must be regarded as commonly safe from alterations

434

PHILOLOGY

through analogy, and are therefore of especial value with regard
to establishing rules of purely phonetic development.

(c) In syntactical analogy the mental ^connexion between the
two series of constructions between which the change takes
place is generally still more conspicuous. The connexion may
be one of similar or of contrasted meaning. In Latin, adjectives
of fullness, like other adjectives, no doubt originally were followed
by the genitive case; participles, on the other hand, were followed
by the instrumental ablative. Thus Plautus in the Aulularia
813 and elsewhere could say aulam auri plenum, " a pot full of
gold," or 802 aulam onustam auro, " a pot laden with gold."
From these the transition was easy to the construction aulam
onustam auri, as if in English one should say (as was possible
in Earlier English), " a pot laden of gold." In English, con-
trasted words often tend to assimilate their syntactical construc-
tions. Thus, the adjectives like and similar are followed by
the preposition to (though in Modern English like need have no
preposition), and upon the analogy of such words, different and
averse, with which correct speakers and writers couple from, are
by no means rarely followed by to. Nor is it uncommon to
hear or to see differ with instead of differ from, upon the analogy
of agree with. Curiously enough, Latin, from which differ is
descended, is found to follow the same analogy even in good
writers. Thus Cicero (Academica Pr. ii. 143 ) combines dissidere
with cum, as later does Seneca (Epistulae, 1 8. 1) .

(d) In the development of analogy in meaning, similarity of
sound is often the effective cause. Thus impertinent is properly
irrelevant, not to the point, and is still so used in legal language;
its more common signification of " saucy " arises from its
accidental resemblance in sound to pert, a word which curiously
enough has reversed its meaning, being now used in the sense
of mal-apert, while the Old French apert, aspert (a confusion of
Lat. apertus, " open," with experlus, " skilled "), meant both
" open " and " skilful." Thus from very early times the verbs
fly and flee have been confused, though they are of entirely
different origins. When Middle English began to lose its verb
endings in -en, it was very easy for the verb leren, " teach," and
lernen, " learn," to be confused. Hence frequently in Eliza-
bethan English learn stands side by side with teache in the same
signification. Cf . Tottell's Miscellany, p. 1 2 9 ( Arber) :

" I would not have it thought hereby

The dolphin swirame I meane to teache :
Nor yet to learn the Fawcon fiie :
I rowe not so farre past my reache."

It is true that the distinction between phonetic and analogical
change has always been acknowledged in comparative philology.
At the same time it cannot be denied that analogical changes
were for a long time treated with a certain disdain and contempt,
as deviations from the only course of development then allowed
to be truly " organic " and natural, namely, that of gradual
phonetic change (hence the epithet " false " so constantly
attached to analogy in former times). Amongst those who have
recently contributed most towards a more correct evaluation of
analogy as a motive power in language, Professor Whitney must
be mentioned in the first place. In Germany Professor Scherer
(Zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache, 1868) was the first to
apply analogy as a principle of explanation on a larger scale,
but in a wilful and unsystematic way. Hence he failed to
produce an immediate and lasting impression, and the merit of
having introduced into the practice of modern comparative
philology a strictly systematic consideration of both phonetic
and analogic changes as co-ordinate factors in the develop-
ment of language rests with Professor Leskien of Leipzig, and
a number of younger scholars who had more or less
School. experienced his personal influence. Amongst these
Brugmann, Osthoff and Paul rank foremost as the
most vigorous and successful defenders of the new method, the
correctness of which has since been practically acknowledged by
most of the leading philologists of all shades of opinion.

While the syntax of individual languages was one of the first
features which attracted the grammarians' attention, at any
rate in so far as particular authors differed from a given

standard, it is only in very recent times that syntax has
received methodical treatment from the comparative point of
view. It may indeed be said that almost the
whole fabric of the comparative syntax of the syntax.
Indo-European languages as it exists to-day has
been reared by one man— Professor Berthold Delbrtick of Jena.
In a series of brilliant studies beginning with a pamphlet on the
Locative, Ablative, and Instrumental, published in 1867, and
continued in his Syntactical Researches (Syntaktische Forsch-
ungen) in five volumes, comprising a treatment of the
■conjunctive and optative moods in Sanskrit and Greek (1871),
the theory of the Sanskrit tenses (1877), the order of words in
early Sanskrit prose (Catapatha Brahmana; 1878), the founda-
tions of Greek syntax (1879), and the syntax of the oldest San-
skrit (Altindische Syntax), dealing exclusively with the literature
of the Vedas and Brahmanas (1888), Professor Delbrtick laid
the foundations for his treatment of comparative syntax in
three volumes (1893, 1897, 1900), which has formed the
completion of Brugmann's Grundriss der vergleichenden
Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen. The only work
by another hand (on a large department of the subject)
which deserves to be mentioned by the side of Delbriick's
studies is the small treatise by Htibschmann on the theory
of the cases {Zur Casuslehre, 1875). For the comparative
neglect of this field of investigation there are several reasons.
The earlier philologists had so much to do in determining the
languages which should be included within the Indo-European
group, and in organizing the field of research as a whole, that
it is not to be wondered at if they were unable to devote much
attention to syntax. In the 'seventies, when attention began to
be more directed towards comparative syntax, the remarkable
discoveries made by Verner with regard to accentuation, and
by Brugmann, Collitz and others with regard to the phonology
of the Indo-European languages, again distracted attention
from the subject. Moreover, the research in itself is infinitely
more difficult than that into sounds and forms; for the latter
may be carried on by the help of grammars and dictionaries
with a comparatively small knowledge of the literature of any
individual language, while on the other hand the study of syntax
is impossible without a thorough and intimate knowledge of
the literature and modes of expression in each separate language.
It is not, therefore, matter for wonder that Delbrtick has confined
himself in the investigation of syntax to a part only of the lan-
guages whose sounds and forms are discussed by Brugmann
in the earlier volumes of the Grundriss. To cover the whole
ground is beyond the powers of a single man, and there is a
great lack of preliminary studies on the syntax of many of the
languages.

One of the most difficult problems connected with syntax,
but primarily, as it appears, a question of morphology, is the
origin of grammatical gender. It cannot be said to be an advan-
tage to the languages which possess it, while languages which,
like English, have dropped it except for an occasional metaphor,
suffer no loss. Nor is the problem confined to the history of
gender in the substantive. Even more perplexing is the intro-
duction of gender into the adjective. The pronouns of the first
and second persons, which are certainly very old, show no trace
of gender; the pronouns of the third person, which are more of
the nature of deictic adjectives, generally possess it. To the
question how grammatical gender arose in the substantive, the
answer was till comparatively recently supposed to be that
primitive man was given greatly to personification, endowing
inanimate things with life and attributing to them influences
benign or the reverse upon his own existence. The answer
is not quite sufficient, for though this tendency to personification,
which philologists have perhaps unduly decried or altogether
denied, might account for life being attributed to inanimate
objects, it hardly explains why some should be treated as mascu-
line and others as feminine. Nor is it true, as has also been
suggested, that in the case of the lower animals the generic name
for the larger and stronger animals is masculine and that for the
smaller or weaker feminine. In both Greek and Latin the wolf

PHILOLOGY

435

is masculine and the fox feminine, but the lamb or the chicken
which the fox robs from the fold or the henroost is rarely feminine,
generally masculine. Nor does this explanation account for
the mouse in those languages being of the masculine gender,
while the ferret or cat which caught them is feminine (ya\rj,
feles). An explanation which completes the theory of personifi-
cation, if it does not altogether drive it from the field, has been
put forward by Brugmann. 1 In its briefest form this explana-
tion is that gender was attached to certain suffixes because they
chanced to occur frequently in words which markedly implied
sex. In the Indo-European languages the commonest suffix
indicating feminine gender is a. According to this. theory it
had originally nothing to do with gender, but as some early words
for woman or wife ended with this sound it came to be identified
with feminine gender. Similarly the ending os in o-stems
occurred often in names connected with males and so became
identified with the masculine gender. But many stems indicate
either gender indifferently, and even the very old sex words
father and mother have the same ending. But when masculine
and feminine endings have been attached to certain suffixes in
this way, how comes it that in one series of stems the neuter should
be marked not by an absence of all suffix but by a separate
suffix in -m ? These are the o-stems, other forms of which have
been markedly identified with the masculine gender. As this
characteristic, like the others mentioned, goes back apparently
to a time before the separation of the Indo-European languages,
explanation can hardly pass beyond speculation. It is, however,
to be noted that the neuter form of the nominative is phonetic-
ally identical with the accusative form of the masculine, and
it has been ingeniously argued 2 that such forms were used
originally in the accusative, such neuters not forming the subject
to a verb. To the same writer the most plausible explanation
of the presence of gender in the adjective is due, viz. that gender
began with the deictic pronoun *so " that man," *sa " that
woman," and that hence it passed to the adjective with which
the pronoun was so frequently accompanied. If this explanation
be right, analogy has brought into the Indo-European languages
the useless multiplication of gender marks in such sentences as
the Latin hae pulcrae feminae caesae sunt, where the feminine
gender is indicated no less than four times without any obvious
gain over the English These fair women were slain, where
grammatical gender is no longer obviously indicated at all.

Closely related to this question is that of the history of the
neuter plural, which was first fully worked out by Professor
Johannes Schmidt of Berlin. 3 The curious construction, most
common in ancient Greek, whereby a neuter plural is combined
with a singular verb, is now demonstrated to be an archaic
survival from the time when the neuter plural was a collective
singular. Thus a word like the Latin iugum was a single yoke,
the plural iuga, however, which was earlier iuga, was a collection
of yokes, with the same final a as is found generally in feminine
substantives. The declension ought therefore to have been
originally: nominative iuga, genitive iugas, &c, like mensa, &c,
of the first declension. But as iuguum was used in the neuter
singular for both nominative and accusative, iuga when it was
felt as the corresponding plural was used for the accusative as
well as the nominative, while the other cases of the plural were
taken over from the masculine o-stems, with which the singular
neuter in -o-m was so closely connected. That collective words
should be used for the plural is not surprising; the English
youth, first an abstract, next a collective, and finally an
individual, is a case in point.

For the early history of the syntax of the verb Greek and
Sanskrit are important above all other languages, because in
them the original forms and the original usages are better pre-
served than they are elsewhere. And it is in the verb that the
great difficulty of comparative syntax present themselves. The
■ noun system is so well preserved in several languages that, when

1 Techmer's Internationale Zeitschrift fur Sprachwissenschaft, iv.
ioo.

2 B. I. Wheeler, Journal of Germanic Philology, ii. 528 sqq.
* Pluralbildungen der indogermanischen Neutra (1889).

the number of the original cases had once been determined, the
sifting of the pro-ethnic usages attaching to each case was
tolerably easy, for besides Sanskrit and (to a less extent) Latin,
Lithuanian and Slavonic have kept the pro-ethnic case system
almost complete. The ideas also which had to be expressed
by the cases were on the whole of a very concrete character, so
that here the problem was much simplified. On the other hand,
the ideas-expressed by the forms of the verb are of a much more
subtle nature, while the verb system in all languages except
Greek and Sanskrit has broken down earlier and more completely
than the noun. It is clear that the verb of the original Indo-
European language possessed two voices, and forms correspond-
ing to what we call the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Optative
moods, and to the Present, Imperfect, Future, Aorist, and Perfect
tenses. The imperative mood seems primitively to have been
confined to the second person singular, just as the vocative,
which, like the imperative is a stem form without suffix, was
confined to the singular. The infinitive, as is well known, is
in all languages of this system not originally a verbal but a
substantival form. The pluperfect, where it has developed,
seems to be a mixed form arising from the application of aorist
endings to a perfect stem. Thus far the history of the verb
system is tolerably clear. But when we attempt to define the
original meaning of the moods and of the tenses we pass into a
region where, in spite of assiduous investigation in many quarters
during recent years, the scanty amount of light thrown on the
problem has only served to make the darkness visible. As
regards the tenses, at least, it has been shown that without doubt
there is no difference in formation between present, future and
aorist stems, while the earliest meaning cf the perfect was that
of a special kind of present expressing either repeated or intensive
action or a state. It has also been proved that the original
meaning of the aorist is not past in time, and that in fact the
only element whereby these languages could express remoteness
in time was the augment. The augment seems to have been
originally a pronominal deictic particle. Thus, as there was no
original pluperfect, as neither perfect nor aorist originally
referred to past time, and as the future, except in Lithuanian
(with slight traces in Slavonic) and the Indo-Iranian group,
cannot be clearly distinguished from the aorist, the system as
a method of expressing time absolutely breaks down. The
tenses in fact did not originally express the times when the action
took place, but the type of action which took place. Thus the
present system in the main expressed continued or durative
action, the aorist only the fact that the action had taken place.
The action indicated by the aorist might have been of consider-
able duration, or it might have been begun and ended in a moment;
its characteristics in this respect are not in any way indicated
by the aorist form, which intimates only that the action is
viewed as a completed whole and not as a continuous process.
The present system, however, is built up in a great variety of
ways (thirty-two according to Brugmann's enumeration). It
is a priori unlikely that such a multiplicity of formations had
not originally some reason for its existence, and Delbriick thinks
that he has discovered a difference in syntactical value between
various forms. The reduplicated present forms of the type seen
in Sanskrit jigali, Greek f>i5co,ui, &c, he regards as expressing
originally an action which consisted of repeated acts of the
same nature (iterative), though this iterative meaning frequently
passed into an intensive meaning. Presents of the type seen
in Sanskrit tr' syali, " is thirsty," and Greek x a 'P &, > " a m g' a d "
(for *xap#d), where the 1 (y) of the suffix has modified the first
syllable and disappeared, he regards as cursive — i.e. they express
continuous action without reference to its beginning or end.
Verbs which have regard to the beginning or end of the action
he calls terminative, and finds them represented (a) in verbs
with -»- suffixes, Sanskrit rnoli, 6pvwn, " sets in motion,"
Hyvv/XL, " break to pieces "; (b) in verbs with the suffix -sko~,
Sanskrit gdchati, " goes " (to a definite destination), Greek
fia.o:ia>), &c. The roots he classifies as momentary (punktuell)
or non-momentary, according as they do or do not express an
I action which is begun and ended at once.

436

PHILOLOGY

This method of classification was no doubt suggested in the
first instance by the characteristics of the Slavonic verb system.
In this system a clear distinction is drawn in nearly all verbs
between those which express a process (durative verbs) and those
which express a completed action (perfective verbs). When
perfective and durative verbs are formed from the same root, the
perfective are distinguished from the durative forms (a) by having
a preposition prefixed, or (b) by having a different stem forma-
tion. Thus in the Old Bulgarian (Old Ecclesiastical Slavonic) to-
strike (hit) and- to strike dead are expressed by the same verb, but
in the latter meaning a preposition is found which does not appear
in the former, biti (infinitive), "to strike"; u-biti, "to strike
dead." To strike is durative; to strike dead is perfective. As an
example of difference of stem formation expressing this difference
of meaning, we may quote sesti, " to sit down " (perfective),
sedlei, " to sit " (durative). Verbs with a suffix in -n- have
often a perfective meaning: cf. the Sanskrit and Greek verbs
quoted above. The perfective verbs correspond in meaning
to the Greek aorist, and are to be carefully distinguished from
perfect forms. The same distinction of meaning is often achieved
in other languages also by means of prepositions, e.g. in Latin
(Seneca, Epp. xciii. 10), Quid autem ad rem perlinet, quamdiu
vites, quod evitare non possis? " What does it matter how long
you go on avoiding [durative] what you cannot escape [perfec-
tive]." From this example, however, it is clear that, though
the means employed to make the distinction are different, there
is no difference in meaning between such perfective verbs and
those classified by Delbriick as terminative. Here, as in many
other parts of this study, the ideas are new, and grammatical
terminology has not yet sufficiently crystallized, and still leaves
something to be desired both in clearness and in precision.

As regards the moods, the difficulty has been to find any
criterion whereby the functions of one mood should be differen-
tiated from those of the others. It has long been recognized
that the difference between indicative and subjunctive is one
of meaning and not one of formation; that, e.g., in Sanskrit
bharati (3rd sing. pres. indie), "bears," is morphologically
identical with hanati, "may slay" (3rd sing. pres. subj.), and
that the latter is described as a subjunctive only because of
the meaning, and because there exists a dissyllabic form, hanti,
which makes the indicative " slays." Similarly in Greek it is
impossible to distinguish morphologically between irabaoi, " I
shall check" (fut. indie.) and xavaca, " let me check" (1st aor.
subj.). Moreover, in the earliest forms of the languages which
preserve the moods best (Greek and Sanskrit), the connexion
syntactically between the indicative and the subjunctive forms
is closest. Not only does the future express futurity, but also
the determination of the subject to carry out the action expressed,
which, in Delbriick's discussion of the moods, is precisely the
point chosen as characteristic of the subjunctive. On the other
hand, the present optative differs from the present (and future)
indicative and present subjunctive in having a special mood
suffix, and in having secondary while they have primary personal
endings. Nevertheless its meaning overlaps that of the other
forms, and some excellent authorities, like Professor W. W.
Goodwin, see in future indicative, subjunctive and optative
only different degrees of remoteness inthe future, the remoteness
being least in the future and greatest in the optative. Delbriick,
however, abides, with slight modifications, by the distinction
which he propounded in 187 1 that the subjunctive expresses
Will and the optative Wish. Here again the problem has not
been solved, and it is doubtful how far any definite solution is
likely to be arrived at, since there are so many gaps in our know-
ledge of mood forms. These gaps, owing to the break-up of the
system at so early a period, it is hardly probable we shall ever
be able to fill. It is possible, however, to do a great deal more
than has yet been done even in the most familiar languages.
In Latin, for instance, even now, the facts for the uses of the
moods within the two centuries of the classical period are very
imperfectly known, and it is no exaggeration to say that more
has been done in the last hundred years for Sanskrit than has been
done in two thousand years of continuous study for Latin or Greek.

A still later addition to the domain of Philology — the study
of meaning — presents fewer difficulties, but until recent years
has been equally neglected. The study is so recent that the
literature of the subject is still extremely small. The only
attempts to deal with it on a large scale are M. Breal's JEssai de
Simantique (1897), now translated into English under the title
of Semantics (1900), with a valuable introduction and appendix
by Dr Postgate, and M. de la Grasserie's Essai d'une Simantique
integrate (1908), a work which deserves mention for its attempt
to make a thorough classification and a corresponding termino-
logy for semantic phenomena, but the value of which is much
diminished by hasty compilation and imperfect knowledge of
many of the languages quoted. From the practical point of view
many of the phenomena have been classified in works on rhetoric
under the headings of Metaphor, Synecdoche and Metonymy.
The psychological principle behind this superficial classification
is that of association of ideas. Here, as elsewhere, changes proceed
not by accident, but according to definite principles. Here,
as elsewhere in language, in history, and the other moral sciences,
the particular principle in operation can be ascertained only
by beginning with the result and working back to the cause.
In the development of meaning much more than in phonetics is
this necessarily the case. In phonetics all speakers of the same
dialect start with approximately the same sound. But the same
combination of sounds which we call a word does not recall the
same idea to all persons who use that word. The idea that the
phrase railway station calls up in the mind of a Londoner is very
different from that which occurs to the mind of a child acquainted
only with a wayside station serving the wants of a country
village of a few hundred inhabitants. The word herring suggests
one idea or train of ideas to the fisherman who catches the fish,
another to the merchant who purchases it from the fisherman,
a third to the domestic who cooks it, and so on. To members
of the same family the same word may often have widely different
associations, and, if so, the metaphors for which the word will
be employed will differ in each case.

For the history of meaning it is necessary to have regard to
all the forms of association of ideas which psychology recognizes.
These are contiguity in place or in time, resemblance and contrast.
Contrast, however, as J. S. Mill and Bain have shown, is not a
simple form of association, but is evolved partly from contiguity,
partly from resemblance. An artificial hollow generally implies
also an artificial height made of the materials excavated from
the hollow. Hence in most languages some words occur with
the two contrasted meanings. Thus in English we find dyke
in use both for a ditch and for a mound fronted by a ditch, the
word ditch being, in fact, but a dialectal form of dyke. In
Scotland, on the other hand, where earthen mounds and stone
walls form more frequent boundaries between fields than in
England, the word dyke is now practically limited to elevated
boundaries, while ditch is limited to excavated boundaries.
Thus the proverb, " February fill dyke," which in England
implies that the February rains will fill the ditches, is often under-
stood in Scotland to mean that in February the snow will be
level with the tops of the stone or turf walls. Similarly in
Latin Tacitus can say fossas proruere, which can only apply to
levelling raised mounds; while in Greek Xenophon also talks
of the ditch (trench) thrown up (Taxfrpos a.va.fitfikqij.k.vri). It
is only natural, therefore, that other words with several mean-
ings should be used similarly: moat, originally a mound of earth
or peat, has come to mean a big ditch; while, conversely, soldiers
in trenches are not so much in ditches, as the word ought to
signify, as behind breastworks. Sometimes, when two actions
opposed to one another are contiguous, a word seems to change
to the exact opposite of its original meaning. Thus the English
verb wean, which meant originally to accustom (to cooked food),
has been transferred to the necessary preliminary, to dis-
accustom to the breast.

Resemblances may be (i.) genuine, and (a) of external appear-
ance, or (b) of other characteristics; or (ii.) fanciful or analogical.
From resemblance in the external appearance of the object, the
word gem, which in Latin (gemma) usually means a bud, has

PHILOLOGY

437

come to mean first a pearl and then by extension of the meaning
any precious stone. From the concentric coats which appear
in both, the Latin word for a pearl (unio, ace. unionem) appears
in English as onien. Examples where the characteristics are
not of external appearance are such as the German kaiser and
the Russian tsar, which are descended from Julius Caesar, while
the Lithuanian word for king — karalius — is Carolus, i.e. Charle-
magne. So in modern Persian, Xusrev, " Lord," comes from
the Zend proper name Husravah (Chosroes). As already pointed
out, the resemblances which have established a connexion
between pert and impertinent (properly irrelevant) are in sound
only. The same is true of the supposed relation of the verb
cut to cutlass, cutler and cutlet. While train oil really means
oil in drops like tears (cf. German Thrdne), most people connect
it with railway trains. The resemblance in some cases is merely
in function. Thus, though the fir and the oak have no resem-
blance one to the other, the word fir is now generally identified
with the Latin quercus in etymology (cf. four and quattuor),
in the same way as the Latin fagus, " beech," is with the Greek
4>r]y6s, " oak," the users of the word having, in the course of their
migrations, passed from a land with oaks to a land with firs in
the one case, and from a land of beeches to a land of oaks in the
other. Resemblance as the basis of metaphor has a very widely
extended influence on language.

The most numerous and most varied forms of change in mean-
ing depend, however, upon the law of contiguity. Perhaps the
commonest of all forms of contiguity is that where the word
indicating some accompanying feature or condition replaces
the word for the object referred to. In the countries that border
the Mediterranean the heat of midday is accompanied and
intensified by the dying away of the wind, a characteristic
remarked upon by Aeschylus (Agam. 565): " What time upon
his noonday couch, windless and waveless sank the sea to rest."
From the Greek word KaOjua, " burning heat," arises through
Late Latin the English calm, where the absence of wind is the
only idea present, that of heat having altogether disappeared.
Again, in bugle, which is abbreviated for buglehorn, the word
which survives properly means wild ox, and the originally more
important element is lost. In a combination like silver bugle the
word has gone a stage further; the original meaning of horn
has also disappeared. There is no longer any thought of an
animal's horn; the only idea that survives is that of a musical
instrument. From the cope or cloak (capella) of St Martin,
which was preserved as a sacred relic by the Frankish kings, comes
the word chapel. The word was first transferred from the
cloak to the holy place .wherein it was kept, and thence to
similar shrines, and ultimately to any place, not being a church,
where prayers were said. A jig was originally not the dance,
but the fiddle which supplied the music for the dance. The
names of liquors are often replaced by some accompaniment
as of the place, port, sherry, champagne, or by a qualifying adjec-
tive as in brandy, properly " burnt," from the Dutch brande-
wijn; or, again, only the less important element of the word is
retained as in whisky, literally " water," for the older usque-
baugh, a corruption of Gaelic words meaning the " water of life "
{aqua vitae). Replacement of substantives by their accompany-
ing adjectives is common in most languages. One of the most
commen methods of coining a name for a new article is to give
it the name of the place or people whence it comes. Thus we
have arras, lawn (from Laon), cravat (Croat), coach from Kocs
in Hungary, bilboes (both fetters and swords) from the iron
mines of Bilboa in Spain. Equally common are the names of
inventors — pinchbeck, tontine, silhouette, guillotine, derrick.
In the word cash, which comes indirectly from Latin capsa, " a
box," the thing contained has taken its name from the container.
Similarly mortar, " cement," derives its name from the mortar
in which it was mixed, while in box the material (boxwood, Lat.
buxus, Greek, iru|oj) has usurped the place of the article made.
In leper the disease (Lat. lepra, the rough disease, from Greek,
X«7rpd voaos) has been made into the name of the sufferer, who
was earlier called a leprous man. As a consequence, a new
substantive leprosy has to be taken from the adjective to

indicate the disease. The various changes in meaning, which are
classed together as synecdoche, have their origin in contiguity.
Thus we have the species for the genus; the butcher, who pro-
perly kills goats only (Old French boc), has ousted the flesher.
But we have also the genus for the species; corn, as a rule,
means in England wheat; in Scotland oats; in America, maize.
The individual becomes collective as in corps, navy, body (of
men); the collective becomes individual when Latin racemus,
" bunch of grapes," passes into English " raisin." Here would
come the so-called meliorative and pejorative developments in
word-meaning, whereby, e.g. steward, " the sty-ward," becomes
the title of a great officer of the realm and the name of a line of
kings; or, on the other side, sou (Latin solidus) passes from the
name of a gold coin to that of one of proverbially insignificant
value. Here, too, would come many euphemistic uses which are,
for the most part, applications of more general terms to avoid the
mention of some specific act or object which is unpleasant, as
death, murder, bankruptcy, debt, &c, while metaphorical terms
for the same things come under resemblance. These examples
do not exhaust the forms of contiguity which appear in language,
but they are enough to show how far-reaching the effect of this
type of association of ideas is upon language, and how extensive
the field is which still calls for investigation before the study of
meaning attains the same development as the investigation of
the other branches of the history of language.

Authorities (since 1885). — For methods of Linguistic Study:
Paul, Principien der Sprachgeschichte (3rd ed., 1898); Von der
Gabelentz, Die Sprachwissenschaft (2nd ed., 1901) ; Strong, Logeman
& Wheeler, The History of Language ( 1 89 1 ) , an adaptation of the ideas
of Paul's Principien, with many excellent examples ; van Ginneken,
Principes de Linguistique psychologique (1907). For the Con-
troversy regarding Phonetic Laws : Curtius, Zur Kritik der neuesten
Sprachforschung; Brugmann, Zum heutigen Stand der Sprachwissen-
schaft; Schuchardt, tlber die Lautgesetze: gegen die Junggrammatiher
(all in 1885) ; Tarbell, " Phonetic Law," in Transactions of American
Philological Association for 1886, pp. I sqq.; Wechssler, " Giebt es
Lautgesetze?" (1900), Sonderabzug aus Forschungen zur romanis-
chen Philologie: Festgabe fiir Hermann Suchier; Wundt, Die
Volkerpsychologie (1900), vol. i. ; Oertel, Lectures on the Study of
Language (1901), lecture iv. For Analogy: Wheeler, "Analogy
and the Scope of its Application in Language " (1887), Cornell
University Studies in Classical Philology. For the Classification of
Languages: Misteli, Characteristik der hauptsdchlichsten Typen des
Sprachbaues (1893). For the Phonology, Morphology and Syntax
of the Indo-European Languages: Brugmann and Delbriick,
Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen
Sprachen (1886-1900) ; a new edition of the Phonology by Brugmann
in 1897, °f the stem-formations and inflexion of Nouns, Adjectives,
Pronouns and Numerals in two parts (1906, 1909) ; the first edition
of the Phonology and Morphology, translated into English in four
volumes by Wright, Conway and Rouse. For Discussion of Con-
tested Points: Bechtel, Die Hauptprobleme der indo-germanischen
Lautlehre (1892). For Syntax: Delbriick, in the works mentioned,
in the text. For Semantics : besides Breal and Postgate, see Wundt,
Die Volkerpsychologie, vol. i. pt. 2, and articles by John Grote in
the Journal of Philology, vols. iv. and v. A bibliography of the
works which have appeared since 1890 will be found in the Anzeiger
fiir indogermanische Sprach- und Altertumskunde : Beiblatt zu den indo-
germanischen,F orschungen redigiert, by W. Streitberg. (P. Gl. ; E. Si.)

Summary or Philological Articles

In addition to the genetic classification of languages given
above (on pp. 426-429), some further guidance as to the actual
headings under which the philological section is arranged may
be of service to the student.

The pivot of the whole section is the article Alphabet,
which traces the history of language and writing to the earliest
stages, embodying the results of archaeological studies in all
countries, together with the general conclusions based thereon.
In this article (with further details under Crete) will be found
an account of the controversy regarding the Cretan discoveries
of Dr A. J. Evans. Supplementary to this comparative survey
are the articles Palaeography, Inscriptions, Writing and
Phonetics. The first two deal with ancient documents of all
kinds: Palaeography with those specimens of ancient writing,
literary, economic or legal, which were committed to codices,
tablets or rolls by the use of the stilus, the reed or the pen;
Inscriptions with documents engraved on stone or metal.

438

PHILOLOGY

Writing deals, chiefly from the anthropological standpoint,
with primitive attempts to record ideas in an intelligible form,
e.g. with " knot-signs," " message-sticks," picture-writing and the
like. Phonetics covers the whole subject of speech sounds and
pronunciation, the organs of speech and national sound systems.

Supplementary, from another point of view, to the article
Alphabet is a complete series of articles on the letters of the
English alphabet. In these articles the history of the individual
letters is traced from the Phoenician through Aramaic, Greek
and Roman to modern times. All these articles may be read
in connexion with a comparative table in the article Alphabet
(ad fin.), which shows in parallel columns the earliest equivalents
of the modern English letters, i.e. Brahmi, Kharosthi, oldest
^thiopic, Sabaean, Nashki, Tema,Sindjirli, the Moabite stone,
Phoenician, Greek, Latin, Cyrillic and Glagolitic. Another
important comparative table of written signs is contained in the
article Slavs, showing the various Cyrillic, Glagolitic and Latin
letters used by the Slav peoples.

Passing from articles dealing with the method and general
subject-matter of philology, the student will find articles
on the great families of languages, each with its subordinate
articles on special languages and dialects.

i. Indo-European Languages. — Of articles on language-families,
the most important is that under the heading Indo-European
Languages. This great division, which is dealt with from the
comparative standpoint in the second part of the article
Philology, is under its own heading treated in detail. The
article begins with a sub-classification into two main groups —
the so-called (A) centum and (B) satem groups — each of which is
further divided into four sections. In accordance with this
classification there are separate articles on the individual ancient
and modern languages and dialects.

A. (i) Greek Language (supplemented by sections under
Homer, Dorians, &c); (2) Latin Language (with Osca
Lingua, Iguvium, &c, and articles on the Italic tribes and
places, e.g. Veneti, Caere); (3) Celtic, s.v. Celt (with subsidiary
articles); and (4) Teutonic, s.v. Teutonic Languages, Scandi-
navian Languages, and the like.

The modern descendants of these languages are all further
treated separately. Thus following Latin Language is the
article Romance Languages, which traces the development of
the Latin tongue during its gradual differentiation into Italian,
French, Spanish, Rumanian, &c. ; while a more detailed account
of these will be found under Italian Language; French
Language; Spain: Language; Rumania: Language. There
is also a special article Provencal Language, dealing with the
Romanic speech of southern France. The Teutonic languages
are similarly dealt with in detail under English Language (in-
cluding Anglo-Saxon); Dutch Language; German Language.
Scandinavian Language itself includes Icelandic, Norwegian,
Swedish, Danish. *

B. In the satem group of the Indo-European family the four
divisions are as follows: —

(1) Indo-Iranian or Aryan. This division may be sub-
divided into (a) Indo-Iranian, treated mainly in the article
Persia: Language and Literature (including Zend, Old, Middle
and New Persian, and the modern dialects), and (b) Indian.
The Indian languages ,are discussed primarily under Indo-
Aryan Languages, which describes the relations of Pisaca,
Sanskrit, Prakrit, and gives a paradigm of the various languages
of ; the three great divisions of India. This central article refers
to the separate articles Pisaca, Sanskrit and Prakrit, which
in turn are supplemented by a number of articles on particular
languages. Of these reference may be made to Bengali;
Bihari; Gujarati and Rajasthani; Hindostani; Kash-
miri; Marathi; Pali. The gipsy languages, which may
probably be assigned to the Indo-Iranian division, are described
■under Gipsies.

(2) The account of Armenian will be found under Armenian
Language and Literature.

(3) The Balto-Slavonic Languages. Of these the three
comprised in the Baltic group, viz. Lithuanian, Lettic and Old

Prussian, are described under the heading Lithuanians and
Letts. For the Slavonic group, the chief article is Slavs:
Language, which deals with the elements common to all the
Slavonic tongues, with their early history and differentiation.
It contains a comparative table of alphabets. It is supple-
mented by an article Old Slavonic, and by further information
under the headings Russia, Bulgaria, Servia, Poland,
Bohemia, Croatia-Slavonia, Slovaks, Slovenes, Sorbs,
Kashubes, Polabs.
(4) The Albanian dialects are treated under Albania.

2. Semitic Languages. — At the heading of this section stands
the article Semitic Languages, supplemented by Hebrew
Language, Aramaic Languages, and linguistic sections under
Phoenicia, Ethiopia, and the like.

3. Hamitic Languages. — The central article in this family
is Hamitic Languages, which is supplemented, so far as the
Cushitic or Ethiopian group is concerned, by further information
in the articles Egypt; Ethiopia; Abyssinia; Somaliland; and,
so far as the Libyan group is concerned, by the articles Berbers
and Kabyles.

4. The chief feature of the Monosyllabic family is the section
Language under China, supplemented again by similar sections
in articles on other countries of south-eastern Asia, and by the
article Tibeto-Burman Languages. There is also a language
section under Japan which discusses the affinities between
Chinese, Korean and Japanese.

5. The Ural-Altaic family is described in outline in the
article Ural-Altaic, which gives the general relationships of
Turkish, Finno-Ugrian, Mongol and Manchu, and of minor sub-
divisions such as Syryenian, Mordvinian and Votyak. Turkish
is discussed in the article Turks: Language, which deals with
Osmanli proper and the Tatar-Turkish languages generally. The
article Finno-Ugrian is a comparative survey dealing with the
language of the Finns, Lapps, Samoyedes, &c. ; while Magyar is
treated separately in Hungary : Language. Under Mongols there
is a special section Language, discussing the three groups of East
Mongol, West Mongol (including Kalmuck) and Buriat.

6. The principal languages of southern India, e.g. Tamil,
Malayalam, Kanarese, Telugu, &c, are dealt with generally
under the heading Dravidian; while there is a separate article
Tamils, containing a section on their language; and brief notes
under the headings Brahui, Telugu, Malayalam, &c.

7 and 8. The scattered languages of the Malay-Polynesian
family and other Oceanic peoples are treated principally in the
article Malays, which further information is given under the
headings Polynesia; Samoa; Java; Negritos, Battas, &c.

9. The Caucasian family is described chiefly in the article
Georgia: Ethnology. Further information will be found in
Caucasia: Ethnology.

10. Of the remaining European languages only two need
special. mention: Basque, which is treated in a special section
under the heading Basques; and the lost Etruscan, which is
treated under Etruria and Latin Language.

11. The principal languages of southern and central Africa
are treated fully under Bantu Languages. There is a brief
account of the Bushman language under Bushmen, and of the
Hottentot languages under Hottentots.

12. Intermediate African Languages. — Among the numerous
languages spoken by the people of the great central belt of the
African continent, the most important is the Hausa, described
under that heading.

13. America. — The whole question of the languages of the
North American Indians is dealt with in the article Indians,
North American, which contains an elaborate linguistic
paradigm.

Bibliographical information will be found in practically all the
above headings. In addition to the most modern authorities there
quoted, there will be found in the article Dictionary a very full
list of older lexicographical works.

The above summary does not purport to present dogmatically a
rigid philological classification. It disregards many problems, and
is intended solely to enable the student readily to find the material
of which he may be in search.

+4-0

PHILOSOPHY

The more certain writings of Philoponus consist of commentaries
on Aristotle. These include works on the Physica, the Prior and the
Posterior Analytics, the Meteorologica, the De anima, the De genera-
tions animalium, the De generatione et interitu and the Metaphysica.
These have been frequently edited and are interesting in connexion
with the adoption of Anstotelianism by the Christian Church.
They seem to have embodied the lectures of Ammonius with addi-
tions by Philoponus, and are remarkable rather for elaborate care
than for originality and insight. He wrote also an attack on Proclus
(De aeternitate mundi). Two treatises on mathematics are ascribed
to him: A Commentary on the Mathematics of Nicomachus, edited
by Hoche (1864 and 1867), and a Treatise on the Use of the Astrolabe,
published by Hase. The latter is the most ancient work on this
instrument, and its authenticity is rendered almost certain by its
reference to Ammonius as the master of the author.

PHILOSOPHY (Gr. <j>l\os, fond of, and <ro<£ia, wisdom), a
general term whose meaning and scope have varied very con-
siderably according to the usage of different authors and different
ages. It can best be explained by a survey of the steps by
which philosophy differentiated itself, in the history of Greek
thought, from the idea of knowledge and culture in general.
These steps may be traced in the gradual specification of the
term. The tradition which assigns the first employment of
the Greek word <f>iKoffo<t>ia to Pythagoras has hardly any claim to
be regarded as authentic; and the somewhat self-conscious
modesty to which Diogenes Laertius attributes the choice of
the designation is, in all probability, a piece of etymology
crystallized into narrative. It is true that, as a matter of fact,
the earliest uses of the word (the verb <f>ikoo-o<t>etv occurs in
Herodotus and Thucydides) imply the idea of the pursuit of
knowledge; but the distinction between the <ro<£6s, or wise man,
and the <j>ik6aro<t>os, or lover of wisdom, appears first in the
Platonic writings, and lends itself naturally to the so-called
Socratic irony. The same thought is to be found in Xenophon,
and is doubtless to be attributed to the historical Socrates.
But the word soon lost this special implication. What is of
real interest to us is to trace the progress from the idea of the
philosopher as occupied with any and every department of
knowledge to that which assigns him a special kind of knowledge
as his province.

A specific sense of the word first meets us in Plato, who defines
the philosopher as one who apprehends the essence or reality of
things in opposition to the man who dwells in appearances and
the shows of sense. The philosophers, he says, " are those who
are able to grasp the eternal and immutable"; they are "those
who set their affections on that which in each case really exists "
(Rtp. 480). In Plato, however, this distinction is applied
chiefly in an ethical and religious direction; and, while it defines
philosophy, so far correctly, as the endeavour to express what
things are in their ultimate constitution, it is not yet accompanied
by a sufficient differentiation of the subsidiary inquiries by
which this ultimate question may be approached. Logic, ethics
and physics, psychology, theory of knowledge and metaphysics
are all fused together by Plato in a semi-religious synthesis. It
is not till we come to Aristotle — the encyclopaedist of the ancient
world— that we find a demarcation of the different philosophic
disciplines corresponding, in the main, to that still current.
The earliest philosophers, or " physiologers," had occupied
themselves chiefly with what we may call cosmology; the one
question which covers everything for them is that of the under-
lying substance of the world around them, and they essay to
answer this question, so to speak, by simple inspection. In
Socrates and Plato, on the other hand, the start is made from a
consideration of man's moral and intellectual activity; but
knowledge and action are confused with one another, as in the
Socratic doctrine that virtue is knowledge. To this correspond
the Platonic confusion of logic and ethics and the attempt to
substitute a theory of concepts for a metaphysic of reality.
Aristotle's methodic intellect led him to separate the different
aspects of reality here confounded. He became the founder
of logic, psychology, ethics and aesthetics as separate sciences;
while he prefixed to all such (comparatively) special inquiries
the investigation of the ultimate nature of existence as such, or
of those first principles which are common to, and presupposed
in, every narrower field of knowledge. For this investigation

Aristotle's most usual name is " first philosophy " or, as a modern
might say, " first principles "; but there has since been appro-
priated to it, apparently by accident, the title " metaphysics."
" Philosophy," as a term of general application, was not, indeed
restricted by Aristotle or his successors to the disciplines just
enumerated. Aristotle himself includes under the title, besides
mathematics, all his physical inquiries. It was only in the
Alexandrian period, as Zeller points out, that the special sciences
attained to independent cultivation Nevertheless, as the mass
of knowledge accumulated, it naturally came about that the
name ".philosophy " ceased to be applied to inquiries concerned
with the particulars as such. The details of physics, for example,
were abandoned to the scientific specialist, and philosophy
restricted itself in this department to the question of the relation
of the physical universe to the ultimate ground or author of
things. This inquiry which was long called " rational cosmo-
logy," may be said to form part of the general subject of meta-
physics, or at all events a pendant to it. By the gradual sifting
out of the special sciences philosophy thus came to embrace
primarily the inquiries grouped as " metaphysics " or " first
philosophy." These would embrace, according to the Wolffian
scheme long current in philosophical textbooks, ontology proper,
or the science of being as such, with its three-branch sciences of
(rational) psychology, cosmology and (rational or natural)
theology, dealing with the three chief forms of being — the soul,
the world and God. Subsidiary to metaphysics, as the central
inquiry, stand the sciences of logic and ethics, to which may be
added aesthetics, constituting three normative sciences —
sciences, that is, which do not, primarily, describe facts, but
rather prescribe ends or set forth ideals. It is evident, however,
that if logic deals with conceptions which may be considered
constitutive of knowledge as such, and if ethics deals with the
harmonious realization of human life, which is the highest
known form of existence, both sciences must have a great deal
of weight in the settling of the general question of metaphysics.

In sum, then, we may say that " philosophy " has come to be'
understood at least in modern times as a general term covering
the various discipb'nes just enumerated. It has frequently
tended, however, and still tends, to be used as specially con-
vertible with the narrower term " metaphysics." This is not
unnatural, seeing that it is only so far as they bear on the one
central question of the nature of existence that philosophy
spreads its mantle over psychology, logic or ethics. The
particular organic conditions of perception and the associative
laws to which the mind, as a part of nature, is subjected, are
facts in themselves indifferent to the philosopher; and therefore
the development of psychology into an independent science,
which took place during the latter half of the 19th century and
may now be said to be complete, represents an entirely natural
evolution. Similarly, logic, so far as it is an art of thought or a
doctrine of fallacies, and ethics, so far as it is occupied with a
natural history of impulses and moral sentiments, do neither of
them belong, except by courtesy, to the philosophic province.
But, although this is so, it is perhaps hardly desirable to deprive
ourselves of the use of two terms instead of one. It will not be
easy to infuse into so abstract and bloodless a term as " meta-
physics " the fuller life (and especially the inclusion of ethical
considerations) suggested by the more concrete term "philosophy."

We shall first of all, then, attempt to differentiate philosophy
from the special sciences, and afterwards proceed to take up one
by one what have been called the philosophical sciences, with the
view of showing how far the usual subject-matter of each is
really philosophical in its bearing, and how far it belongs rather
to the domain of " science " strictly so called. The order in
which, for clearness of exposition, it will be most convenient to
consider these disciplines will be psychology, epistemology or
theory of knowledge, and metaphysics, then logic, aesthetics and
ethics. Finally, the connexion of the last-mentioned with
politics (or, to speak more modernly, with jurisprudence and
sociology), with the philosophy of history and the philosophy of
religion, will call for a few words on the relation of these sciences
to general philosophy.

PHILOMEL— PHILOPONUS

439

PHILOMEL (Fr. Philomele; Ger. Philomele or Stahlgeige),
a musical instrument similar to the violin, but having four steel,
wire strings. The philomel has a body with incurvations similar
to those of the guitar; therefore, without corner blocks, the out-
line of the upper lobe forms a wavy shoulder reminiscent of
the viols but more ornate and fanciful. The peg-box sometimes
terminates in a fancy head instead of a scroll. The philomel,
never used in the orchestra, is the instrument of the dilettanti,
frequently played in Germany with the bowed zither. The
accordance of the philomel is the same as for the violin; the
timbre is shrill and crystal-like. There is also an alto philomel
corresponding to the viola. The bowed melodion is similar
to the philomel, and has four steel strings of the same accordance
as the violin, but arranged in inverse order; instead of being
held like the violin and philomel, under the chin, it is placed
on the knees of the performer, so that a hook under the finger-
board rests against the table. (K. S.)

PHILON, Athenian architect of the 4th century B.C., is known
as the planner of two important works — the portico of the great
Hall of the Mysteries at Eleusis and an arsenal at Athens. Of
the last we have exact knowledge from an inscription. E. A.
Gardner {Ancient Athens, p. 557) observes that it " is perhaps
known to us more in detail than any other lost monument of
antiquity." It was to hold the rigging of the galleys; and was
so contrived that all its contents were visible from a central
hall, and so liable to the inspection of the Athenian democracy.
(See Athens.)

PHILOPATRIS, the title of a dialogue formerly attributed
to Lucian, but now generally admitted to be spurious. Its date
and purport have long formed the subject of discussion. The
scene is laid at Constantinople. A certain Triephon, who has
been converted to Christianity by a bald, long-nosed Galilaean,
who was carried up through the air into the third heaven (an
evident allusion to St Paul), meets a friend, Critias, who is in a
state of great excitement. Triephon inquires the reason, and
the invocation of Zeus by Critias leads to a discussion on pagan-
ism and Christianity, in which all the gods proposed by Critias
are rejected by Triephon, who finally suggests that Critias should
swear by the Trinity. (The sub-title, fj SidacTKOfievos, refers to
this " instruction " of Critias in matters relating to Christianity.)
Critias goes on to relate how he had been introduced to a gather-
ing of pessimists, who predicted all kinds of disturbances in
the empire and defeat at the hands of its enemies. In the mean-
time a third person appears on the scene, with the news that
the imperial armies have obtained a glorious victory. The
hope is expressed that Babel (Bagdad, the chief city of the caliphs)
may soon be destroyed, Egypt subdued (that is, reconquered
from the Arabs), and the attacks of the Scythians (Russians
or Bulgarians) repulsed. The whole concludes with thanks
to the unknown god of Athens that they have been permitted
to be the subjects of such an emperor and the inhabitants of
such an empire. The Philopatris was for a long time regarded
as an attack upon Christianity, and assigned to the time of
Julian the Apostate (emperor 361-363). Chronological indica-
tions (e.g. the allusion to a massacre of women in Crete) led
Niebuhr to ascribe it to the reign of Nicephorus Phocas (963-
969), and this view is now generally supported. There being
at that time no pagans in Constantinople, the " pessimists "
referred to must be Christians — either monks, especially the
intimate friends of the patriarch of Constantinople, who, ag-
grieved at the measures taken by Phocas in regard to the
property of the Church, were ready to welcome the defeat of
the imperial arms and the ruin of the empire; or harmless vision-
aries, who claimed to predict the future by fasting, prayer and
vigil. In any case, the author, whether he was a sophist com-
missioned by Phocas to attack the monks, or some professor
who hoped to profit by singing the imperial praises, represents
the views of the " patriotic " (as the title shows) as opposed to
the " unpatriotic " party. According to another view, which
assigns the dialogue to the time of Heraclius (610-641), the
author was a Christian fanatic, whose object was to make known
the existence of a conventicle of belated pagans, the enemies

alike of the Christian faith and the empire; it is doubtful,
however, whether such a pagan community, sufficiently numer-
ous to be of importance, actually existed at that date. The
object of the first and longer portion of the dialogue was to
combat the humanism of the period, which threatened a revival
of polytheism as a rival of Christianity.

Bibliography. — Editions by J. M. Gesner (1715) and C. B. Hase
in the Bonn Corpus scriptorum hist. byz. (1828), vol. xi. ; also included
in Jacobitz's edition of Lucian (1839). See R. Crampe, Philo-
patris. Ein heidnisches Konventikel des siebenten Jahrhunderts zu
Constantinopel (1894) ; R. Garnett, " Alms for Oblivion " in CornhiU
Magazine (May, 1901); C. Stach, De Philopatride (Cracow, 1894),
who shows its late origin by linguistic tests; S. Reinach in Revue
arcMologique (1902), vol. i. ; B. G. Niebuhr, " Ueber das Alter des
Dialogs Philopatris " in his Kleine historische Schriften (1843), v °l- "•
and, for further authorities, article by Von Dobschutz in Herzog-
Hauck's Realencyklopadie fiir protestantische Theologie (1904).

PHILOPOEMEN (253-184 B.C.), Greek general, was born at
Megalopolis, and educated by the academic philosophers
Ecdemus and Demophanes or Megalophanes, who had dis-
tinguished themselves as champions of freedom. Avoiding
the fashionable and luxurious gymnasia, he devoted himself
to military studies, hunting and border forays. In 233-2
Philopoemen skilfully evacuated Megalopolis before the attack
of Cleomenes III., and distinguished himself at Sellasia (222).
The next eleven years he spent as a condottiere in Crete.
Elected commander of the League's cavalry on his return, he
reorganized that force and defeated the Aetolians on the Elean
frontier (210). Appointed to the chief command two years
later, he introduced heavy armour and close formation for the
infantry, and with a well-trained army beat Machanidas of
Sparta, near Mantinea. The new " liberator " was now so
famous that Philip V. of Macedon attempted to poison him.
In 202-1 Philopoemen drove Nabis, the Spartan tyrant, from
Messene and routed him off Tegea. After another long sojourn
in Crete he again received the command against Nabis. Though
unsuccessful at sea, he almost annihilated Nabis's land force
near Gythium, but was prevented by the Roman Flamininus
from taking Sparta. In 190 Philopoemen protected Sparta,
which meanwhile had joined the League and thereupon seceded,
but punished a renewed defection so cruelly as to draw the
censure of Rome upon his country. At Messene he likewise
checked a revolt (189), but when that city again rebelled, in 184,
he was captured in a skirmish and promptly executed. His
body was recovered by the Achaeans and buried with great
solemnity.

Philopoemen's great merit lies in his having restored to his
compatriots that military efficiency without which the Achaean
League for all its skilful diplomacy could never stand. Towards
Rome he advocated a courteous but independent attitude. In
politics he was a democrat, and introduced reforms of a popular
character (see Achaean League).

Polybius' Histories (x.-xxiii.) are our chief authority. These and
a special treatise on Philopoemen (now lost) were used by Plutarch
(Philopoemen), Pausanias (viii. 49-51), Livy (xxxi.-xxxviii.), and
indirectly by Justin (xxx.-xxxiv.).

PHILOPONUS, JOANNES (John the Grammarian), Greek
philosopher of Alexandria, lived in the later part of the 5th and
the beginning of the 6th century of our era. The surname Gram-
maticus he assumed in virtue of his lectures on language and
literature; that of Philoponus owing to the large number of
treatises he composed. He was a pupil of Ammonius Hermiae,
and is supposed to have written the life of Aristotle sometimes
attributed to his master. To Philoponus are attributed a large
number of works on theology and philosophy. It is said that,
though he was a pupil of Ammonius, he was at first a Christian,
and he has been credited with the authorship of a commentary
on the Mosaic Cosmogony in eight books, dedicated to Sergius,
patriarch of Constantinople, and edited by Balthasar Corderius
in 1630. Other authorities maintain that this, as well as the
Disputatio de paschale, was the work of another author, John
the Tritheist. It was perhaps this Philoponus who tried to save
the Alexandrian library from the caliph Omar after Amu's
victory in 639.

PHILOSOPHY

441

Philosophy and Natural Science. — In distinguishing philosophy
from the sciences, it may not be amiss at the outset to guard
against the possible misunderstanding that philosophy is con-
cerned with a subject-matter different from, and in some obscure
way transcending, the subject-matter of the sciences. Now
that psychology, or the observational and experimental study
of mind, may be said to have been definitively included among
the positive sciences, there is not even the apparent ground
which once existed for such an idea. Philosophy, even under
its most discredited name of metaphysics, has no other subject-
matter than the nature of the real world, as that world lies
around us in everyday life, and lies open to observers on every
side. But if this is so, it may be asked what function can remain
for philosophy when every portion of the field is already lotted
out and enclosed by specialists? Philosophy claims to be the
science of the whole; but, if we get the knowledge of the parts
from the different sciences, what is there left for philosophy to
tell us ? To this it is sufficient to answer generally that the
synthesis of the parts is something more than that detailed
knowledge of the parts in separation which is gained by the man
of science. It is with the ultimate synthesis that philosophy
concerns itself; it has to show that the subject-matter which we
are all dealing with in detail really is a whole, consisting of
articulated members. Evidently, therefore, the relation existing
between philosophy and the sciences will be, to some extent,
one of reciprocal influence. The sciences may be said to furnish
philosophy with its matter, but philosophical criticism reacts
upon the matter thus furnished, and transforms it. Such trans-
formation is inevitable, for the parts only exist and can only be
fully, i.e. truly, known in their relation to the whole. A pure
specialist, if such a being were possible, would be merely an
instrument whose results had to be co-ordinated and used by
others. Now, though a pure specialist may be an abstraction
of the mind, the tendency of specialists in any department
naturally is to lose sight of the whole in attention to the particular
categories or modes of nature's working which happen to be
exemplified, and fruitfully applied, in their own sphere of investi-
gation ; and in proportion as this is the case it becomes necessary
for their theories to be co-ordinated with the results of other
inquirers, and set, as it were, in the light of the whole. This task
of co-ordination, in the broadest sense, is undertaken by philo-
sophy; for the philosopher is essentially what Plato, in a happy
moment, styled him, <tvvoittik6s, the man who takes a " synoptic "
or comprehensive view of the universe as a whole. The aim of
philosophy (whether fully attainable or not) is to exhibit the
universe as a rational system in the harmony of all its parts;
and accordingly the philosopher refuses to consider the parts
out of their relation to the whole whose parts they are. Philo-
sophy corrects in this way the abstractions which are inevitably
made by the scientific specialist, and may claim, therefore, to be
the only " concrete " science, that is to say, the only science
which takes account of all the elements in the problem, and the
only science whose results can claim to be true in more than a
provisional sense.

For it is evident from what has been said that the way in
which we commonly speak of " facts " is calculated to convey
a false impression. The world is not a collection of individual
facts existing side by side and capable of being known separately.
A fact is nothing except in its relations to other facts; and as
these relations are multiplied in the progress of knowledge the
nature of the so-called fact is indefinitely modified. Moreover,
every statement of fact involves certain general notions and
theories, so that the " facts " of the separate sciences cannot be
stated except in terms of the conceptions or hypotheses which
are assumed by the particular science. Thus mathematics
assumes space as an existent infinite, without investigating in
what sense the existence or the infinity of this Unding, as Kant
called it, can be asserted. In the same way, physics may be
said to assume the notion of material atoms and forces. These
and similar assumptions are ultimate presuppositions or working
' hypotheses for the sciences themselves. But it is the office of
philosophy, as a theory of knowledge, to submit such conceptions

to a critical analysis, with a view to discover how far they cen
be thought out, or how far, when this is done, they refute them-
selves, and call for a different form of statement, if they are to be
taken as a statement of the ultimate nature of the real. 1 The
first statement may frequently turn out to have been merely
provisionally or relatively true; it is then superseded by, or
rather inevitably merges itself in, a less abstract account. In
this the same " facts " appear differently, because no longer
separated from other aspects that belong to the full reality of
the known world. There is no such thing, we have said, as an
individual fact; and the nature of any fact is not fully known
unless we know it in all its relations to the system of the universe,
or, in Spinoza's phrase, sub specie aeternitatis. In strictness,
there is but one res completa or concrete fact, and it is the business
of philosophy, as science of the whole, to expound the chief
relations that constitute its complex nature.

The last abstraction which it becomes the duty of philosophy
to remove is the abstraction from the knowing subject which is
made by all the sciences, including, as we shall see, the science
of psychology. The sciences, one and all, deal with a world of
objects, but the ultimate fact as we know it is the existence of
an object for a subject. Subject-object, knowledge, or, more
widely, self-consciousness with its implicates — this unity in
duality is the ultimate aspect which reality presents. It has
generally been considered, therefore, as constituting in a special
sense the problem of philosophy. Philosophy may be said to be
the explication of what is involved in this relation, or, in Kantian
phraseology, a theory of its possibility. Any would-be theory
of the universe which makes its central fact impossible stands
self-condemned. On the other hand, a sufficient analysis here
may be expected to yield us a statement of the reality of things
in its last terms, and thus to shed a light backwards upon the true
nature of our subordinate conceptions.

Psychology, Epistemology and Metaphysics. — This leads to the
consideration of the main divisions of philosophy — Psychology
(q.v.), epistemology (theory of knowledge, Erkenntnisstheorie) ,
and metaphysics (ontology; see Metaphysic). A special relation
has always existed between psychology and systematic philo-
sophy, but the closeness of the connexion has been characteristic
of modern and more particularly of English thought. The
connexion is not difficult to explain, seeing that in psychology,
or the science of mind, we study the fact of intelligence (and
moral action), and have, so far, in our hands the fact to which
all other facts are relative. From this point of view we may
even see a truth in Jacobi's dictum as quoted by Sir W. Hamilton :
" Nature conceals God; man reveals God." Nature by itself,
that is to say, is insufficient. The ultimate explanation of things
cannot be given by any theory which excludes from its survey
the intelligence in which nature, as it were, gathers herself up.
But knowledge, or the mind as knowing, willing, &c, may be
looked at in two different ways. It may be regarded simply as a
fact; in which case the evolutions of mind may be traced and
reduced to laws in the same way as the phenomena treated by
the other sciences. This study gives us the science of empirical
psychology, or, as it is now termed, psychology sans phrase. In
order to give an adequate account of its subject-matter, psych-
ology may require higher or more complex categories than are
employed in the other sciences, just as biology, for example,
cannot work with mechanical categories alone, but introduces
the conception of development or growth. But the affinities of
such a study are manifestly with the sciences as such rather than
with philosophy; and the definitive establishment of psychology
as an independent science has already been alluded to. Since
it has been taken up by specialists, psychology is being estab-
lished on a broader basis of induction, and with the advantage,
in some departments, of the employment of experimental
methods of measurement. But it is not of mind in this aspect

1 The revisional office which philosophy here assumes constitutes
her the critic of the sciences. It is in this connexion that the mean-
ing of the definition of philosophy as " the science of principles "
can best be seen. This is perhaps the most usual definition, and.
though vague, one of the least misleading.

442

PHILOSOPHY

that such assertions can be made as those quoted above. Mind,
as studied by the psychologist — mind as a mere fact or pheno-
menon — grounds no inference to anything beyond itself. The
distinction between mind viewed as a succession of "states of
consciousness " and the further aspect of mind which philosophy
considers was very clearly put by Croom Robertson, who also
made a happy suggestion of two terms to designate the* double
point of view:

" We may view knowledge as mere subjective function, but it
has its full meaning only as it is taken to represent what we may
call objective fact, or is such as is named (in different circumstances)
real, valid, true. As mere subjective function, which it is to the
psychologist, it is best spoken of by an unambiguous name, and for
this there seems none better than Intellection. We may then say
that psychology is occupied with the natural function of Intellection,
seeking to discover its laws and distinguishing its various modes
(perception, representative imagination, conception, &c.) according
to the various circumstances in which the laws are found at work.
Philosophy, on the other hand, is theory of Knowledge (as that which
is known)." — " Psychology and Philosophy," Mind (1883), pp. 15, 16.

The confusion of these two points of view has led, and still
leads, to serious philosophical misconception. It is hardly an
exaggeration to say that, in the English school since Hume,
psychology superseded properly philosophical inquiry. And we
find even a thinker with a wider horizon like Sir W. Hamilton
encouraging the confusion by speaking of " psychology or meta-
physics," ' while his lectures on metaphysics are mainly taken
up with what belongs in the strictest sense to psychology proper,
with an occasional excursus (as in the theory of perception) into
epistemology. The distinction between psychology and theory
of knowledge was first clearly made by Kant, who repeatedly
insisted that the Critique of Pure Reason was not to be taken as a
psychological inquiry. He defined his problem as the quid juris
or the question of the validity of knowledge, not its quid facti or
the laws of the empirical genesis and evolution of intellection (to
use Croom Robertson's phraseology). Since Kant philosophy
has chiefly taken the form of theory of knowledge or of a criticism
of experience. Not, indeed, a preliminary criticism of our
faculties or conceptions such as Kant himself proposed to
institute, in order to determine the limits of their application;
such a criticism ab extra of the nature of our experience is essenti-
ally a thing impossible. The only criticism which can be applied
in such a case is the immanent- criticism which the conceptions
or categories exercise upon one another. The organized criticism
of these conceptions is realty nothing more than the full expli-
cation of what they mean and of what experience in its full
nature or notion is. This constitutes the theory of knowledge
in the only tenable sense of the term, and it lays down, in Kantian
language, the conditions of the possibility of experience. These
conditions are the conditions of knowledge as such, or, as it may
be put, of objective consciousness — of a self-consciousness of
a world of objects and through them conscious of itself. The
inquiry is, therefore, logical or transcendental in its nature, and
does not entangle us in any decision as to the conditions of the
genesis of such consciousness in the individual. When we inquire
into subjective conditions we are thinking of facts causing other
facts. But the logical or transcendental conditions are not
causes or even factors of knowledge; they are the statement of
its idea. Hence the dispute between evolutionist and transcen-
dentalist rest;s, in general, on an ignoratio elenchi; for the history
of the genesis of an idea (the historical or genetic method) does
not contain an answer to — though it may throw light on — the
philosophical question of its truth or validity. Speaking of this
transcendental consciousness, Kant goes so far as to say that it is
not of the slightest consequence " whether the idea of it be clear
or obscure (in empirical consciousness), no, not even whether
it really exists or not. But the possibility of the logical form of
all knowledge rests on its relation to this apperception as a faculty
or potentiality " (Werke, ed. Hartenstein, iii. 578 note). Or, if

1 It is true that he afterwards modifies this misleading identifica-
tion by introducing the distinction between empirical psychology
or the phenomenology of mind and inferential psychology or on-
tology, i.e. metaphysics proper. But he continues to use the terms
"philosophy," metaphysics," and "mental science" as synony-
mous.

we return to the distinction between epistemology and psychol-
ogy! by way of illustrating the nature of the former, we may
take the following summing up by Professor James Ward in a
valuable article on " Psychological Principles " in Mind (April
1883, pp. 166, 167): " Comparing psychology and epistemology,
then, we may say that the former is essentially genetic in its
method, and might, if we had the power to revise our existing
terminology, be called biology; the latter, on the other hand, is
essentially devoid of everything historical, and treats, sub specie
aeternitatis, as Spinoza might have said, of human knowledge,
conceived as the possession of mind in general."

Kant's problem is not, in its wording, very different from that
which Locke set before him when he resolved to " inquire into
the original, certainty and extent of human knowledge together
with the grounds and degrees of belief, opinion and assent."
Locke's Essay is undoubtedly, in its intention, a contribution
to the theory of knowledge. But, because time had not yet
made the matter clear, Locke suffered himself to digress in his
second book into the psychological question of the origin cf our
ideas; and his theory of knowledge is ruined by the failure to
distinguish between the epistemological sense of " idea " as
significant content and the psychological sense in which it ir
applied to a fact or process in the individual mind. The same
confusion runs through Berkeley's arguments and vitiates his
conclusions as well as those of Hume. But appearing with these
thinkers as the problem of perception, epistemology widens its
scope and becomes, in Kant's hands, the question of the possi-
bility of experience in general. With Hegel it passes into a
completely articulated " logic," which apparently claims to be
at the same time a metaphysic, or an ultimate expression of the
nature of the real.

This introduces us to the second part of the question we are
seeking to determine, namely the relation of epistemology to
metaphysics. It is evident that philosophy as theory of know-
ledge must have for its complement philosophy as metaphysics
(ontology) or theory of being. The question of the truth of our
knowledge, and the question of the ultimate nature of what we
know, are in reality two sides of the same inquiry; and therefore
our epistemological results have to be ontologically expressed.
But it is not every thinker that can see his way with Hegel to
assert in set terms the identity of thought and being. Hence
the theory of knowledge becomes with some a theory of human
ignorance. This is the case with Herbert Spencer's doctrine
of the Unknowable, which he advances as the result of epistemo-
logical considerations in the philosophical prolegomena to his
system. Very similar positions were maintained by Kant and
Comte; and, under the name of " agnosticism " (q.v.), the theory
has popularized itself in the outer courts of philosophy, and on
the shifting borderland of philosophy and literature. The truth
is that the habit of thinking exclusively from the standpoint
of the theory of knowledge tends to beget an undue subjectivity
of temper. And the fact that it has become usual for men to
think from this standpoint is very plainly seen in the almost
universal description of philosophy as an analysis of " experi-
ence," instead of its more old-fashioned designation as an inquiry
into " the nature of things." As it is matter of universal agree-
ment that the problem of being must be attacked indirectly
through the problem of knowledge, this substitution may be
regarded as an advance, more especially as it implies that the
fact of experience, or of self-conscious existence, is the chief fact
to be dealt with. But if so, then self-consciousness must be
treated as itself real, and as organically related to the rest of
existence. If self-consciousness be treated in this objective
fashion, then we pass naturally from epistemology to metaphysics
or ontology. (For, although the term " ontology " has been as
good as disused, it still remains true that the aim of philosophy
must be to furnish us with an ontology or a coherent and adequate
theory of the nature of reality.) But if, on the other hand,
knowledge and reality be ab initio opposed to one another — if
consciousness be set on one side as over against reality, and merely
holding up a mirror to it — then it follows with equal naturalness
that the truly real must be something which lurks unrevealed

PHILOSOPHY

443

behind the subject's representation of it. Hence come the differ-
ent varieties of a so-called phenomenalism. The upholders of
such a theory would, in general, deride the term '' metaphysics "
or " ontology "; but it is evident, none the less, that their position
itself implies a certain theory of the universe and of our own
place in it, and the establishment of this theory constitutes their
metaphysics.

Without prejudice, then, to the claim of epistemology to
constitute the central philosophic discipline, we may simply
note its liability to be pressed too far. The exclusive pre-
occupation of men's minds with the question of knowledge
during the neo-Kantian revival in the 'seventies of the last
century drew from Lotze the caustic criticism that " the continual
sharpening of the knife becomes tiresome, if, after all, we have
nothing to cut with it." Stillingfleet's complaint against Locke
was that he was " one of the gentlemen of this new way of
reasoning that have almost discarded substance out of the reason-
able part of the world." The same may be said with greater
truth of the devotees of the theory of knowledge; they seem to
have no need of so old-fashioned a commodity as reality. Yet,
after all, Fichte's dictum holds good that knowledge as know-
ledge — i.e. so long as it is looked at as knowledge — is, ipso facto,
not reality. The result of the foregoing, however, is to show that,
as soon as epistemology draws its conclusion, it becomes meta-
physics; the theory of knowledge passes into a theory of being.
The ontological conclusion, moreover, is not to be regarded as
something added by an external process; it is an immediate
implication. The metaphysic is the epistemology from another
point of view — regarded as completing itself, and explaining
in the course of its exposition that relative or practical separation
of the individual knower from the knowable world, which it is a
sheer assumption to take as absolute. This, not the so-called
assumption of the implicit unity of being and thought, is the
really unwarrantable postulate; for it is an assumption which
we are obliged to retract bit by bit, while the other offers the
whole doctrine of knowledge as its voucher.

Logic, Aesthetics and Ethics. — If the theory of knowledge
thus passes insensibly into metaphysics it becomes somewhat
difficult to assign a distinct sphere to logic (q.v.). Ueberweg's
definition of it as " the science of the regulative laws of thought "
(or " the normative science of thought ") comes near enough
to the traditional sense to enable us to compare profitably the
usual subject-matter of the science with the definition and end of
philosophy. The introduction of the term " regulative " or
" normative " is intended to differentiate the science from
psychology as the science of mental processes or events. In this
reference logic does not tell us how our intellections connect
themselves as mental phenomena, but how we ought to connect
our thoughts if they are to realize truth (either as consistency
with what we thought before or as agreement with observed
facts). Logic, therefore, agrees with epistemology (and differs
from psychology) in treating thought not as mental fact but as
knowledge, as idea, as having meaning in relation to an objective
world. To this extent it must inevitably form a part of the theory
of knowledge. But, if we desire to keep by older landmarks and
maintain a distinction between the two disciplines, a ground for
doing so may be found in the fact that all the main definitions
of logic point to the investigation of the laws of thought in a
subjective reference — with a view, that is, by an analysis of the
operation, to ensure its more correct performance. According
to the old phrase, logic is the art of correct thinking. Moreover
we commonly find the logician assuming that the process of
thought has advanced a certain length before his examination
of it begins; he takes his material full-formed from perception,
without, as a rule, inquiring into the nature of the conceptions
which are involved in our perceptive experience. Occupying
a position, therefore, within the wider sphere of the general
theory of knowledge, ordinary logic consists in an analysis of the
nature of general statement, and of the conditions under which
we pass validly from one general statement to another. But
the logic of the schools is eked out by contributions from a variety
of sources (e.g. from grammar on one side and from psychology

on another), and cannot claim the unity of an independent
science.

Aesthetics (q.v.) may be treated as a department of psychology
or physiology, and in England this is the mode of treatment that
has been most general. To what peculiar excitation of our
bodily or mental organism, it is asked, are the emotions due
which make us declare an object beautiful or sublime? And,
the question being put in this form, the attempt has been made
in some cases to explain away any peculiarity in the emotions
by analysing them into simpler elements, such as primitive
organic pleasures and prolonged associations of usefulness or
fitness. But, just as psychology in general cannot do duty for a
theory of knowledge, so it holds true of this particular application
of psychology that a mere reference of these emotions to the
mechanism and interactive play of our faculties cannot be re-
garded as an account of the nature of the beautiful. Perhaps by
talking of " emotions " we tend to give an unduly subjective
colour to the investigation; it would be better to speak of the
perception of the beautiful. Pleasure in itself is unqualified,
and affords no differentia. In the case of a beautiful object the
resultant pleasure borrows its specific quality from the presence
of determinations essentially objective in their nature, though
not reducible to the categories of science. Unless, indeed, we
conceive our faculties to be constructed on some arbitrary plan
which puts them out of relation to the facts with which they have
to deal, we have a prima facie right to treat beauty as an objective
determination of things. The question of aesthetics would then
be formulated — What is it in things that makes them beautiful,
and what is the relation of this aspect of the universe to its
ultimate nature, as that is expounded in metaphysics? The
answer constitutes the substance of aesthetics, considered as a
branch of philosophy. But it is not given simply in abstract
terms: the philosophical treatment of aesthetics includes also
an exposition of the concrete phases of art, as these have appeared
in the history of the world, relating themselves to different phases
of human culture.

Of ethics (q.v.) it may also be said that many of the topics
commonly embraced under that title are not strictly philosophical
in their nature. They are subjects for a scientific psychology
employing the historical method with the conceptions of heredity
and development, and calling to its aid, as such a psychology
will do, the investigations of all the sociological sciences. To
such a psychology must be relegated all questions as to the
origin and development of moral ideas. Similarly, the question
debated at such length by English moralists as to the nature of
the moral faculty (moral sense, conscience, &c.) and the contro-
versy concerning the freedom of the will belong entirely to
psychology. If we exclude such questions in the interest of
systematic correctness, and seek to determine for ethics a definite
subject-matter, the science may be said to fall into two depart-
ments. The first of these deals with the notion of duty, and
endeavours to define the good or the ultimate end of action; the
second lays out the scheme of concrete duties which are deducible
from, or which, at least, are covered by, this abstractly stated
principle. The second of these departments is really the proper
subject-matter of ethics considered as a separate science; but it
is often conspicuous by its absence from ethical treatises. How-
ever moralists may differ on first principles, there seems to be
remarkably little practical divergence when they come to lay
down the particular laws of morality. It may be added that,
where a systematic account of duties is actually given, the
connexion of the particular duties with the universal formula
is in general more formal than real. It is only under the head of
casuistry (q.v.) that ethics has been much cultivated as a separate
science. The first department of ethics, on the other hand, is
the branch of the subject in virtue of which ethics forms part of
philosophy. As described above, it ought rather to be called, in
Kant's phrase, the metaphysic of ethics. A theory of obligation
is ultimately found to be inseparable from a metaphysic of
personality. The connexion of ethics with metaphysics will be
patent as a matter of fact, if it be remembered how Plato's

philosophy is summed up in the idea of the good, and how

444

PHILOSOPHY

Aristotle also employs the essentially ethical notion of end as the
ultimate category by which the universe may be explained or
reduced to unity. But the necessity of the connexion is also
apparent, unless we are to suppose that, as regards the course of
universal nature, man is altogether an imperium in imperio, or
rather (to adopt the forcible phrase of Marcus Aurelius) an
abscess or excrescence on the nature of things. If, on the
contrary, we must hold that man is essentially related to what
the same writer calls " a common nature," then it is a legitimate
corollary that in man as intelligence we ought to find the key of
the whole fabric. At all events, this method of approach must
be truer than any which, by restricting itself to the external
aspect of phenomena as presented in space, leaves no scope for
inwardness and life and all that, in Lotze's language, gives
" value " to the world. The argument ex analogic, hominis
has often been carried too far; but if a " chief end of man " be
discoverable — 6.vQptinnvov ayadov, as Aristotle wisely insisted that
the ethical end must be determined— then it may be assumed
that this end cannot be irrelevant to that ultimate " meaning "
of the universe which, according to Lotze, is the quest of philo-
sophy. If " the idea of humanity," as Kant called it, has ethical
perfection at its core, then a universe which is really an organic
whole must be ultimately representable as a moral order or a
spiritual kingdom such as Leibnitz named, in words borrowed
from St Augustine, a city of God.

Philosophy of the State (Political Philosophy), Philosophy of
History, Philosophy of Religion.— In Plato and Aristotle ethics
and politics are indissolubly connected. In other words, seeing
that the highest human good is realizable only in a community,
the theory of the state as the organ of morality, and itself in its
structure and institutions the expression of ethical ideas or
qualities, becomes an integral part of philosophy. The difficulty
already hinted at, which individualistic systems of ethics experi-
ence in connecting particular duties with the abstract principle
of duty is a proof of the failure of their method. For the content
of morality we are necessarily referred, in great part, to the
experience crystallized in laws and institutions and to the un-
written law of custom, honour and good breeding, which has
become organic in the society of which we are members. Plato's
Republic and Hegel's Philosophie des Rechts are the most typical
examples of a fully developed philosophy of the state, but in the
earlier modern period the prolonged discussion of natural rights
and the social contract must be regarded as a contribution to
such a theory. Moreover, if philosophy is to complete its
constructive work, it must bring the course of human history
within its survey, and exhibit the sequence of events as an evolu-
tion in which the purposive action of reason is traceable. This
is the task of the philosophy of history, a peculiarly modern
study, due to the growth of a humanistic and historical point
of view. Lessing's conception of history as an " education of
the human race " is a typical example of this interpretation of
the facts, and was indeed the precursor which stimulated many
more elaborate German theories. The philosophy of history
differs, it will be observed, from the purely scientific or descriptive
studies covered by the general title of sociology. Sociology
conceives itself as a natural science elucidating a factual sequence.
The philosophy of history is essentially teleological; that is to
say, it seeks to interpret the process as the realization of an
immanent end. It may be said, therefore, to involve a complete
metaphysical theory. Social institutions and customs and the
different forms of state-organization are judged according to the
degree in which they promote the realization of the human
ideal. History is thus represented by Hegel, for example, as the
realization of the idea of freedom, or rather as the reconciliation
of individual freedom and the play of cultured interests with
the stable objectivity of law and an abiding consciousness
of the greater whole in which we move. So far as the course
of universal history can be truly represented as an approxi-
mation to this reconciliation by a widening and deepening
of both the elements, we may claim to possess a philosophy of
history. But although the possibility of such a philosophy
seems implied in the postulated nationality of the universe,

many would hold that it remains as yet an unachieved
ideal.

There only remains to be briefly noticed the relation of philo-
sophy to theology and the nature of what is called Philosophy
of Religion. By theology is commonly understood the syste-
matic presentation of the teaching of some positive or historical
religion as to the existence and attributes of a Supreme Being,
including his relation to the world and especially to man. But
these topics have also been treated by philosophers and religious
thinkers, without dependence on any historical data or special
divine revelation, under the title of Natural Theology. Natural
Theology is specially associated with the Stoic theories of provi-
dence in ancient times and with elaborations of the argument
from design in the 18th century. But there is no warrant for
restricting the term to any special mode of approaching the
problems indicated; and as these form the central subject of
metaphysical inquiry, no valid distinction can be drawn between
natural theology and general metaphysics. The philosophy of
religion, on the other hand, investigates the nature of the
religious consciousness and the value of its pronouncements on
human life and man's relation to the ground of things. Unity,
reconciliation, peace, joy, " the victory that overcometh the
world " — such, in slightly varying phrases, is the content of
religious faith. Does this consciousness represent an authentic
insight into ultimate fact, or is it a pitiful illusion of the nerves,
born of man's hopes and fears and of his fundamental ignorance?
The philosophy of religion assumes the first alternative. The
function of philosophy in general is the reflective analysis of
experience, and the religious experience of mankind is prima facie
entitled to the same consideration as any other form of conscious
activity. The certainties of religious faith are matter of feeling
or immediate assurance, and are expressed in the pictorial
language of imagination. It becomes the function of philosophy,
dealing with these utterances, to relate them to the results of
other spheres of experience, and to determine their real meaning
in the more exact terms of thought. The philosophy of religion
also traces in the different historical forms of religious belief and
practice the gradual evolution of what it takes to be the truth of
the matter. Such an account may be distinguished from what
is usually called the science of religion by the teleological or
metaphysical presuppositions it involves. The science of religion
gives a purely historical and comparative account of the various
manifestations of the religious instinct without pronouncing on
their relative truth or value and without, therefore, professing
to apply the idea of evolution in the philosophical sense. That
idea is fundamental in the philosophy of religion, which therefore
can be written only from the standpoint of a constructive meta-
physical theory.

It is, indeed, only from the standpoint of such a theory that
the definitions and divisions of the different philosophical
disciplines adopted in this article can be said to hold good. But
those who, like the positivists, agnostics and sceptics, deny the
possibility of metaphysics as a theory of the ultimate nature of
things, are still obliged to retain philosophy as a theory of
knowledge, in order to justify the asserted limitation or impo-
tence of human reason.

Bibliography — The best general histories of philosophy are by
I. E. Erdmann, Friedrich Ueberweg and W. Windelband, Windef-
band's being probably the freshest in its treatment and point of
view. Ed. Zeller's History of Greek Philosophy still holds the field
as the best continuous exposition of the subject,, but more recent
work in the early period is represented by H. Diels and J. Burnet,
while Zeller's view of Plato may be said to have been superseded by
the later researches of Lewis Campbell, H. Jackson and others.
T. Gomperz's Greek Thinkers is an able, if somewhat diffuse, survey
of the philosophical development in connexion with the general
movement of Greek life and culture. It does not go beyond Plato.
B. Haurfeu, A. Stockl and Karl Werner give the fullest and most
trustworthy histories of the medieval period, but the subject is
very carefully treated by Erdmann and Ueberweg, and a useful
compendium, written from a Roman Catholic standpoint, is Da
Wulf's History of Medieval Philosophy (1900; Eng. trans., 1907).
For modern times, in addition to the general histories already named,
the works of Kuno Fischer, R. Falckenberg and H. Hoffding, and
R. Adamson's Lectures on the Development of Modern Philosophy,

PHILOSTRATUS— PHILOXENUS

445

may be specially mentioned. Writers on the history of philosophy
generally prefix to their work a discussion of the scope of philosophy,
its divisions and its relations to other departments of knowledge,
and the account given by Windelband and Ueberweg will be found
specially good. The Introductions to Philosophy published by F.
Paulsen, O. Kiilpe, W. Wundt and G. T. Ladd, deal largely with
this subject, which is also treated by Henry Sidgwick in his Philo-
sophy, its Scope and Relations (1902), by Ernest Naville, La Definition
de la philosophic (1894) and by Wundt in the introduction to his
System der Philosophic (1889). A useful work of general reference
is J. M. Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology (3 vols.,
1902-1905). (A. S. P.-P.)

PHILOSTRATUS, the name of several, three (or four), Greek
sophists of the Roman imperial period — (1) Philostratus " the
Athenian" (c. 170-245), (2) his nephew (?) Philostratus "of
Lemnos " (born c. 190); (3) a grandson (?) of (2). Of these the
most famous is Philostratus " the Athenian," author of the Life
of Apollonius Tyana, which he dedicated to Julia Domna, wife of
Alexander Severus and mother of Caracalla (see Apollonius
of Tyana). 1 He wrote also Btot 'Socjuaroiv (Lives of the Sophists),
Gymnasticus and Epistolae (mainly of an erotic character). Very
little is known of his career. Even his name is doubtful. The
Lives of the Sophists gives the praenomen Flavius, which, however,
is found elsewhere only in Tzetzes. Eunapius and Synesius
call him a Lemnian; Photius a Tyrian; his letters refer to him
as an Athenian. It is probable that he was born in Lemnos,
studied and taught at Athens, and then settled in Rome (where
he would naturally be called atheniensis) as a member of the
learned circle with which Julia Domna surrounded herself. He
was born probably in 172, and is said by Suidas to have been
living in the reign of Philip (244-249). The fact that the author
of Apollonius is also the author of the Lives of the Sophists is
confirmed by internal evidence. The latter is dedicated to a
consul Antonius Gordianus, perhaps one of the two Gordians
who were killed in 238. The work is divided into two parts: the
first dealing with the ancient Sophists, e.g. Gorgias, the second
with the later school, e.g. Herodes Atticus.

The Lives are not in the true sense biographical, but rather pictur-
esque impressions of leading representatives of an attitude of mind
full of curiosity, alert and versatile, but lacking scientific method,
preferring the external excellence of style and manner to the solid
achievements of serious writing. The philosopher, as he says,
investigates truth ; the sophist embellishes it, and takes it for granted.
The Gymnasticus contains interesting matter concerning the Olympic
games and athletic contests generally. The Letters breathe the spirit
of the New Comedy and the Alexandrine poets; portions of Letter 33
are almost literally translated in Ben Jonson's Song to Celia, " Drink
to me only with thine eyes." The 'Hpojucos, formerly attributed to
Philostratus the Athenian, is probably the work of Philostratus the
Lemnian. It is a popular disquisition on the heroes of the Trojan
War in the form of a conversation between a Thracian vine-dresser
on the shore of the Hellespont and a Phoenician merchant who
derives his knowledge from the hero Protesilaus, Palamedes is
exalted at the expense of Odysseus, and Homer's unfairness to him
is attacked. It has been suggested that Philostratus is here de-
scribing a series of heroic paintings in the palace of Julia Domna.
His other work is the Eikoj-m (Imagines), ostensibly a description
of 64 pictures in a Neapolitan gallery. Goethe, Welcker, Brunn,
E. Bertrand and Helbig, among others, have held that the descrip-
tions are of actually existing works of art, while Heyne and Frieder-
ichs deny this. In any case they are interesting as showing the way
in which ancient artists treated mythological and other subjects,
and are written with artistic knowledge and in attractive language.
This work is imitated by the third Philostratus (or by some later
sophist) of whose descriptions of pictures 17 remain.

There is great difficulty, due to a confused statement- of Suidas,
in disentangling the works and even the personalities of these
Philostrati. Reference is there made to Philostratus as the son of
Verus, a rhetorician in Nero's time, who wrote tragedies, comedies
and treatises. Suidas thus appears to give to Philostratus the
Athenian a life of 200 years! We must be content to assume two
Lemnian Philostrati, both sophists, living in Rome. See further a full
discussion by K.Miinscher, in Philologus (1907), suppl. x., pp. 469-557.
Of works bearing the name Philostratus there is a collected edition
by C. F. Kayser (Zurich, 1844; Leipzig, 1870-1871), and another by
Westermann (Paris, 1849), with Latin translation; these supersede
those by F. Morel (Paris, 1608) and Olearius (Leipzig, 1709). There
are separate editions of the Eikones by Schenkl and Reisch (Leipzig,
1902); of the Gymnasticus by Mynas (1858), who discovered the
MS., _ Daremberg (Paris, 1858), Volckmar (Aurich, 1862), and
especially Julius Jtithner (1909), with introd., comments and Ger.

1 As Lemnos was an Athenian island, anv Lemnian eonld be
railed an Athenian.

trans.; of 73 epistles by Boissonade (Paris, 1842). The Life of
Apollonius was first published by Aldus (1502) ; a French translation
by Blaise de Vigenere appeared in 1596; an English translation of
the first two books was published in London (1680) by Charles
Blount, with some notes by Lord Herbert of Cherbury (prohibited
in England in 1693, it was reprinted on the Continent) ; a full transla-
tion appeared in 1903. Critical works on the Eikones are numerous:
K. Fnederichs, Die Philostratischen Bilder (i860); Goethe, " Philo-
strats Gemalde " in Complete Works (ed. Stuttgart, 1879); Brunn,
Die Philostratischen Bilder (i860); A. Bougot, Une Galerie antique
(1881); E. Bertrand, XJn Critique d'art dans I'antiquiti: Philostrate
et son ecole (1882); Bergk, " Die Philostrate " in Fiinf Abhandlungen
zur Geschichte der griechischen Philosophic und Astronomie (1883);
Schmid, Atticismus iv. 7, on the attribution of the works.

PHILOXENUS, of Cythera (435-380 B.C.), Greek dithyrambic
poet. On the conquest of the island by the Athenians he was
taken as a prisoner of war to Athens, where he came into the
possession of the dithyrambic poet Melanippides, who educated
him and set him free. Philoxenus afterwards resided in Sicily,
at the court of Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, whose bad verses
he declined to praise, and was in consequence sent to work in the
quarries. After leaving Sicily he travelled in Greece, Italy and
Asia, reciting his poems, and died at Ephesus. According to
Suidas, Philoxenus composed twenty-four dithyrambs and a
lyric poem on the genealogy of the Aeacidae. In his hands the
dithyramb seems to have been a sort of comic opera, and the
music, composed by himself, of a debased character. His
masterpiece was the Cyclops, a pastoral burlesque on the love
of the Cyclops for the fair Galatea, written to avenge himself
upon Dionysius, who was wholly or partially blind of- one eye.
It was parodied by Aristophanes in the Plutus (290). Another
work of Philoxenus (sometimes attributed to Philoxenus of
Leucas, a notorious parasite and glutton) is the Aelirvov (Dinner),
of which considerable fragments have been preserved by
Athenaeus. This is an elaborate bill of fare in verse, probably
intended as a satire on the luxury of the Sicilian court. The
great popularity of Philoxenus is attested by a complimentary
resolution passed by the Athenian senate in 393. The comic
poet Antiphanes spoke of him as a god among men; Alexander
the Great had his poems sent to him in Asia; the Alexandrian
grammarians received him into the canon; and down to the time
of Polybius his works were regularly learned and annually acted
by the Arcadian youth.

Fragments, with life, by G. Bippart (1843); T. Bergk, Poetae
lyrici graeci.

PHILOXENUS (Syriac, Aksenaya), of Mabbog, one of the
best of Syriac prose writers, and a vehement champion of Mono-
physite doctrine in the end of the 5th and beginning of the 6th
centuries. He was born, probably in the third quarter of the
5th century, at Tahal, a village in the district of Beth Garmai
east of the Tigris. He was thus by birth a subject of Persia, but
all his active life of which we have any record was passed in the
territory of the Greek Empire. The statements that he had been
a slave and was never baptized appear to be malicious inventions
of his theological opponents. He was educated at Edessa,
perhaps in the famous " school of the Persians," which was after-
wards (in 489) expelled from Edessa 2 on account of its connexion
with the Nestorian heresy. The years which followed the Council
of Chalcedon (451) were a stormy period in the Syrian Church.
Philoxenus soon attracted notice by his strenuous advocacy of
Monophysite doctrine, and on the expulsion of Calandio (the
orthodox patriarch of Antioch) in 485 was ordained bishop of
Mabbog 3 by his Monophysite successor Peter the Fuller (Bar-
hebraeus, Chron. eccl. i. 183). It was probably during the earlier
years of his episcopate that Philoxenus composed his thirteen
homilies on the Christian life. Later he devoted himself to the
revision of the Syriac version of the Bible, and with the help of
his chorepiscopus Polycarp produced in 508 the so-called Philo-
xenian version, which was in some sense the received Bible of the
Monophysites during the 6th century. Meantime he continued
his ecclesiastical activity, working as a bitter opponent of

2 According to Barhebraeus (Chron. eccl. ii. 55) through the efforts
of Philoxenus himself.

3 Hierapolis of the Greeks, Manbij of the Arabs, a few miles west
i of the Euphrates about latitude 36J .

44-6

PHILTRE— PHLEBITIS

Flavian II., who had accepted the decrees of the Council of
Chalcedon and was patriarch of Antioch from 498 to 512. The
Monophysites had" the sympathy of the emperor Anastasius,
and were finally successful in ousting Flavian in 512 and replacing
him by their partisan Severus. Of Philoxenus's part in the
struggle we possess not too trustworthy accounts by hostile
writers, such as Theophanes and Theodorus Lector. We know
that in 498 he was staying at Edessa 1 ; in or about 507, according
to Theophanes, he was summoned by the emperor to Constanti-
nople; and he finally presided at a synod at Sidon which was the
means of procuring the replacement of Flavian by Severus. But
the triumph was short-lived. Justin I., who succeeded Anasta-
sius in 518, was less favourable to the party of Severus and
Philoxenus, and in 519 they were both sentenced to banishment.
Philoxenus was sent to Philippopolis in Thrace, and afterwards to
Gangra in Paphlagonia, where he met his death by foul play in 523.
Apart from his redoubtable powers as a controversialist, Phil-
oxenus deserves commemoration as a scholar, an elegant writer,
and an exponent of practical Christianity. Of the chief monument
of his scholarship — the Philoxenian version of the Bible — only the
Gospels and certain portions of Isaiah are known to survive (see
Wright, Syr. Lit. 14). It was an attempt to provide a more accurate
rendering of the Greek Bible than had hitherto existed in Syriac,
and obtained recognition among the Monophysites until superseded
by the still more literal renderings of the Old Testament by Paul of
Telia and of the New Testament by Thomas of Harkel (both in
616-617), of which the latter at least was based on the work of
Philoxenus. There are also extant portions of commentaries on the
Gospels from his pen. Of the excellence of his style and of his
practical religious zeal we are able to judge from the thirteen homilies
on the Christian life and character which have been edited and
translated by Budge (London, 1894). In these he holds aloof for
the most part from theological controversy, and treats in an admir-
able tone and spirit the themes of faith, simplicity, the fear of God,
poverty, greed, abstinence and unchastity. His affinity with his
earlier countryman Aphraates is manifest both in his choice of
subjects and his manner of treatment. As his quotations from
Scripture appear to be made from the Peshi^ta, he probably wrote
the homilies before he embarked upon the Philoxenian version. 2
Philoxenus wrote also many Controversial works and some liturgical
pieces. Many of his letters survive, and at least two have been
edited. 3 Several of his writings were translated into Arabic and
Ethiopic. (N. M.)

PHILTRE (Lat. phillrum, from Gr. <j>1\tpov, <j>i\eiv, to love),
a drug or other medicinal drink supposed to have the magical
property of exciting love.

PHINEUS, in Greek legend, son of Agenor, the blind king of
Salmydessus on the coast of Thrace. He was skilled in the art
of navigation, and Apollo had bestowed upon him the gift of
prophecy. His blindness was a punishment from the gods for
his having revealed the counsels of Zeus to mortals, or for his
treatment of his sons by his first wife Cleopatra. His second
wife having accused her stepsons of dishonourable proposals,
Phineus put out their eyes, or exposed them to the wild beasts,
or buried them in the ground up to their waists and ordered
them to be scourged. Zeus offered him the choice of death or
blindness. Phineus chose the latter, whereupon Helios (the
sun-god), offended at the slight thus put upon him, sent the
Harpies to torment him. In another story, the Argonauts
(amongst whom were Calais and Zetes, the brothers of Cleo-
patra), on their arrival in Thrace found the sons of Phineus
half -buried in the earth and demanded their liberation. Phineus
refused, and a fight took place in which he was slain by Heracles,
who freed Cleopatra (who had been thrown into prison)
and her sons, and reinstated them as rulers of the kingdom.
Tragedies on the subject of Phineus were written by Aeschylus
and Sophocles. These would directly appeal to an Athenian
audience, Phineus's first wife having been the daughter of
Orithyia (daughter of Erechtheus, king of Athens), who had
been carried off by Boreas to his home in Thrace. The punish-
ment of Phineus would naturally be regarded as a just retribu-

1 Chronicle of Joshua Stylites, ch. 30.

2 On these and other points see Budge's introduction to his second
volume, which contains also a list of the other works of Philoxenus
and a number of illustrative extracts.

8 One by Martin (in Grammatica chrestomathia et glossarium
linguae syriacae) and one by Guidi {La Lettera di FUosseno ai
monaci di TeU 'Adda).

tion for the insult put upon a princess of the royal house of
Athens.

Apollodorus i. 9, 21, iii. 15, 3; Sophocles, Antigone, 966, with
Jebb's notes; Diod. Sic. iv. 43, 44; Servius on Aeneid iii. 209;
Schol. on Apollonius Rhodius ii. 178.

PHIPS (or Phipps), SIR WILLIAM (1651-1695), colonial
governor of Massachusetts, was born on the 2nd of February
1651, at Woolwich, Maine, near the mouth of the Kennebec
river. He was a shepherd until he was eighteen, and then a
ship carpenter's apprentice for four years; worked at his trade
in Boston for a year, at this time learning to read and write;
and with his wife's property established a ship-yard on the
Sheepscot river in Maine, but soon abandoned it because of
Indian disorders. In 1684-1686, with a commission from the
British Crown, he searched vainly for a wrecked Spanish
treasure ship of which he had heard while on a voyage to the
Bahamas; he found this vessel in 1687, and from it recovered
£300,000. Of this amount much went to the duke of Albe-
marle, who had fitted out the second expedition. Phips re-
ceived £16,000 as his share, was knighted by James II., and was
appointed sheriff of New England under Sir Edmund Andros.
Poorly educated and ignorant of law, Phips could accomplish
little, and returned to England. In 1689 he returned to Massa-
chusetts, found a revolutionary government in control, and at
once entered into the life of the colony. He joined the North
Church (Cotton Mather's) at Boston, and was soon appointed by
the General Court commander of an expedition against the
French in Canada, which sailed in April j.690 and easily captured
Port Royal. A much larger expedition led by Phips in July
against Quebec and Montreal ended disastrously. Phips
generously bought at their par value, in order to give them
credit in the colony, many of the colony's bills issued to pay
for the expedition. In the winter of 1690 he returned to Eng-
land, vainly sought aid for another expedition against Canada,
and urged, with Increase Mather, the colonial agent, a restora-
tion of the colony's charter, annulled during the reign of
Charles II. The Crown, at the suggestion of .Mather, appointed
him the first royal governor under the new charter. On reaching
Boston in May 1692, Phips found the colony in a very dis-
ordered condition, and though honest, persevering and indis-
posed to exalt his prerogative at the expense of the people, he
was unfitted for the difficult position. He appointed a special
commission to try the witchcraft cases, but did nothing to
stop the witchcraft mania, and suspended the sittings of the
court only after great atrocities had been committed. In
defending the frontier he displayed great energy, but his
policy of building forts was expensive and therefore unpopular.
Having the manners of a 17th-century sea captain, he became
involved in many quarrels, and engaged in a bitter controversy
with Governor Benjamin Fletcher of New York. Numerous
complaints to the home government resulted in his being
summoned to England to answer charges. While in London
awaiting trial, he died on the 18th of February 1695.

See Cotton Mather's Life of His Excellency Sir William Phips
(London, 1697; republished in his Magnolia in 1702); Francis
Bowen's " Life of Sir William Phips," in Jared Sparks's American
Biography, 1st series, vol. vii. (New York, 1856); William Goold's
" Sir William Phips," in Collections of the Maine Historical Society,
series I, vol. ix. (Portland, 1887) ; Ernest Myrand's Sir William
Phipps devant Quebec (Quebec, 1893); Thomas Hutchinson's History
of Massachusetts (2 vols., Boston; 3rd ed., 1795) ; and J. G. Palfrey's
History of New England (5 vols., Boston, 1858-1890).

PHLEBITIS (from Gr. (j>\i\p, a vein), inflammation of a vein.
When a vein is inflamed the blood in it is apt to form a clot,
or thrombus, which, if loosened and displaced from its original
position, may be carried as an embolus towards the heart and
there be arrested; or it may pass through the cavities of the
heart into the lungs, there to lodge and to give rise to alarming
symptoms. If the thrombus is formed in the inflamed vein
of a pile it may pass as an embolus (see Haemorrhoids) into
the liver. If an embolus is carried through the left side of the
heart it may enter the large vessels at the root of the heck and
reach the brain, giving rise to serious cerebral disturbance or

PHLEGON— PHOCAEA

447

to a fatal paralysis. The thrombus may be formed in gout
and rheumatism, or in consequence of stagnation of the blood-
current due to slowing of the circulation in various wasting
diseases. When a thrombus forms, absolute rest in the re-
cumbent posture is to be strictly enjoined; the great danger
is the displacement of the clot. An inflamed and clotted vein,
if near the surface, causes an elongated, dusky elevation beneath
the skin, where the vein may be felt as a hard cord, the size,
perhaps, of a cedar pencil, or a pen-holder. Its course is marked
by great tenderness, and the tissue which was drained by the
branches of that vein are livid from congestion, and perhaps
boggy and pitting with oedema. If, as often happens, the
inflamed vein is one of those running conspicuously upwards
from the foot — a saphenous vein (cracks, distinct) — the patient
should be placed in bed with the limb secured on a splint in
order to protect it from any rough movement. Should the clot
become detached, it might give rise to sudden and alarming
faintness possibly even to a fatal syncope. Thus, there is
always grave risk with an inflamed and clotted vein, and modern
surgery shows that the safest course is, when practicable, to
place a ligature on the vein upon the heart-side of the clotted
piece and to remove the latter by dissection. When, as some-
times happens, the clot is invaded by septic organisms it is
particularly liable to become disintegrated, and if parts of it
are carried to various regions of the body they may there give
rise to the formation of secondary abscesses. In the ordinary
treatment of phlebitis, in addition to the insistence on perfect
rest and quiet, fomentations may be applied locally, the limb
being kept raised. Massage must not be employed so long as
there is any risk of a clot being detached. (E. O.*)

PHLEGON, of Tralles in Asia Minor, Greek writer and freed-
man of the emperor Hadrian, flourished in the 2nd century a.d.
His chief work was the Olympiads, an historical compendium
in sixteen books, from the 1st down to the 229th Olympiad
(776 B.C. to a.d. 137), of which several chapters are preserved
in Photius and Syncellus. Two small works by him are extant:
On Marvels, containing some ridiculous stories about ghosts,
prophecies and monstrous births, but instructive as regards
ancient superstitions ;-On Long-lived Persons, a list of Italians
who had passed the age of ioo, taken from the Roman censuses.
Other works ascribed to Phlegon by Suidas are a description of
Sicily, a work on the Roman festivals in three books, and a
topography of Rome.

Fragments in C. Mullor, Frag. hist, graec. iii. ; ofVthe Marvels and
Long-lived in O. Keller, Rerum naturalium scriptores, i. (1877);
see also H. Diels, " Phlegons Androgynenorakel " in Sibyllinische
Blatter (1890).

PHLOGOPITE, a mineral belonging to the group of
micas (<?.».). It is a magnesium mica, differing from biotite
in containing only a little iron; the chemical formula is
[H,K,(MgF)] 3 Mg3Al(Si04)3. It crystallizes in the monoclinic sys-
tem, but the crystals are roughly developed. There is a perfect
cleavage parallel to the basal plane; the cleavage flakes are not
quite so elastic as those of muscovite. Sometimes it is quite
colourless and transparent, but usually of a characteristic yellow-
ish-brown colour, and often with a silvery lustre on the cleavage
surfaces, hence the trade name " silver amber mica " for some
varieties. The name phlogopite is from Gr. 4>\oycoir6s (fiery-
looking), the mineral being sometimes brownish-red and coppery
in appearance. The hardness is 2^—3, and the specific gravity
2-78-2-85. The optic axial plane is parallel to the plane of
symmetry and the axial angle o°-io°. Phlogopite occurs
chiefly as scales and plates embedded in crystalline limestones
of the Archean formation. The mica mined in Canada and
Ceylon is mainly phlogopite, and is largely used as an insulator
for electrical purposes. In Canada it occurs with apatite in
pyroxene rocks which are intrusive in Laurentian gneisses and
crystalline limestones, the principal mining district being in
Ottawa county in Quebec and near Burgess in Lanark county,
Ontario. In Ceylon, the mineral forms irregular veins,
rarely exceeding one or two feet in width, traversing granu-
lite, especially near the coptact of this rock with crystalline
limestone. (L. J. S.)

PHLOX (Nat. Ord. Polemoniaceae), a genus of about 30
species, mostly perennial hardy plants of great beauty, natives
of North America (one occurs in Siberia), with entire, usually
opposite, leaves and showy flowers generally in termina clusters.
Each flower has a tubular calyx with five lobes, and a salver
shaped corolla with a long slender tube and a flat limb. The
five stamens are given off from the tube of the corolla at different
heights and do not protrude beyond it. The ovary is three-
celled with one to two ovules in each cell; it ripens into a three-
valved capsule. Many of the species and varieties are tall
herbs yielding a wealth of bloom throughout the summer and
early autumn. These require a deep, rich, and rather heavy
loam, and a cool, moist position to flourish.

The dwarf perennial species and varieties, the " moss pinks "
of gardens, are charming plants for the rockery and as edging
to beds and borders. They are trailing and tufted in habit,
the branches rooting at the nodes. They succeed in poorer
soil, and drier situations than the tall kinds. Seed is seldom
produced. Propagation is effected by cuttings in July and
early August, placed in a cold frame, and by division of the
plants, which should be lifted carefully, and cut into rooted
portions as required. The tufted kinds decay in patches in
winter if the situation is moist and the weather mild and wet.

Phlox Drummondii and its numerous varieties are half-hardy
annuals in Britain. It is a small-growing hairy plant, flowering
profusely during the summer months. For early flowering
it should be sown in heat in March and April and transferred
out of doors in June. It succeeds if sown out of doors in April,
but the flowering season is later and shorter.

The tall-growing border phloxes are divided into early and
late flowering kinds respectively, the former derived mainly
from P. glaberrima and P. suffrulicosa, and the latter from
P. maculata and P. paniculata. The salver-shaped flowers
with cylindrical tubes range from pure white to almost bright
scarlet in colour, passing through shades of pink, purple, magenta
lilac, mauve and salmon. New varieties are obtained by the
selection of seedlings. Owing to the frequent introduction
of new kinds, the reader is referred to the current lists published
by growers and nurserymen. The " moss pinks," P. subulqfa
and its varieties, are all worthy of a place in the alpine garden.

The varieties are relatively few. The following list includes
nearly all the best kinds: —

P. subulata, pink with dark centre ; Aldboroughensis, rose ; annulata,
bluish white, ringed with purple ; atrolilacina, deep lilac ; atropurpurea
purple-rose and crimson; Brightness, bright rose with scarlet eye;
compacta, clear rose; Fairy, lilac; G. F. Wilson, mauve; grandiflora,
pink, crimson blotch; Little Dot, white, blue centre; Nelsoni, pure
white; Vivid, rose, carmine centre; all these are about 4 in. high.
P. divaricata, lavender, height I ft. ; P. ovata, rose, 1 ft. ; P. reptans,
rose, 6 in.; and P. amoena, rose, 9 in., are also charming aipines.

P. Drummondii varieties come true from seed, but are usually
sown in mixture. $p

PHOCAEA (mod. Fokia or Fokha) an ancient city on the
western coast of Asia Minor, famous as the mother city of
Marseilles. It was the most northern of the Ionian cities, and
was situated on the coast of the peninsula which separates the
gulf of Cyme, occupied by Aeolian settlers, from the Hermaean
Gulf, on which stood Smyrna and Clazomenae. 1 Its position
between two good harbours, Naustathmus and Lampter (Livy
xxxvii. 31), led the inhabitants to devote themselves to
maritime pursuits. According to Herodotus the Phocaeans
were the first of all the Greeks to undertake distant voyages,
and made known the coasts of the Adriatic, Tyrrhenia and Spain.
Arganthonius, king of Tartessus in Spain, invited them to
emigrate in a body to his dominions, and, on their declining,
presented them with a large sum of money. This they employed
in constructing a strong wall around their city, a defence which
stood them in good stead when Ionia was attacked by Cyrus
in 546. Eventually they determined to seek a new home in
the west, where they already had flourishing colonies, e.g.

1 It was said to have been founded by a band of emigrants from
Phocis, under the guidance of two Athenian leaders, named Philo-
genes and Damon, but it joined the Ionian confederacy by accepting
the government of Athenian rulers of the house of Codrus.

4 4 8

PHOCAS— PHOCIS

Alalia in Corsica and Massilia (mod. Marseilles). A large part
of the emigrants proceeded only as far as Chios, returned to
Phocaea, and submitted to the Persian yoke.

Phocaea continued to exist under the Persian government,
but greatly reduced in population and commerce. Though it
joined in the Ionian revolt against Persia in 500 it was able to
send only three ships to the combined fleet which fought at
Lade. But a Phocaean took the supreme command. It never
again played a prominent part in Ionian history, and is rarely
mentioned. In the time of Timur Fujah was a fortress of
Sarukhan, but had been previously in Genoese hands. The
ruins still visible on the site bear the name of Palaea Fokia, but
they are of little interest. The modern town in the immediate
neighbourhood, still known as Fokia, was founded by the Genoese
in 142 1 on account of the rich alum mines in the neighbourhood.
It has a fair natural harbour, which is the nearest outlet of the
rich district of Menemen. About 1880, while the Gediz Chai
was throwing its silt unchecked into the Gulf of Smyrna and
gradually filling the navigable channel, there was talk of reviving
Fokia as a new port for Smyrna, and connecting it with the
Cassaba railway. But, in deference to Smyrniote protests, a new
estuary was cut for the Gediz. Fokia has acquired local impor-
tance however as a port of call for coasting steamers, and it is
used to some degree as a summer residence by Smyrniotes.

(D. G. H.)

PHOCAS, East Roman emperor (602-610), was a Cappadocian
of humble origin. He was still but a centurion when chosen by
the army of the Danube to lead it against Constantinople. A
revolt within the city soon afterwards resulted in the abdication
of the reigning emperor Maurice, and in the elevation of Phocas
to the throne, which seems to have been accomplished by one
of the circus factions against the wish of the troops. Phocas
proved entirely incapable of governing the empire. He con-
sented to pay an increased tribute to the Avars and allowed the
Persians, who had declared war in 604 under Chosroes II., to
overrun the Asiatic provinces and to penetrate to the Bosporus.
When the African governor Heraclius declared against him,
Phocas was deserted by the starving populace of Constantinople,
and deposed with scarcely a struggle (610). He died in the
same year on the scaffold.

See J. B. Bury, The Later Roman Empire (London, 1889), ii. 197-206.
PHOCION, Athenian statesman and general, was born about
402 B.C., 1 the son of a small manufacturer. He became a pupil
of Plato and in later life was a close friend of Xenocrates. This
academic training left its mark upon him, but it was as a soldier
rather than as a philosopher that he first came into notice.
Under Chabrias he distinguished himself in the great sea-fight
of Naxos (376), and in the subsequent campaigns loyally
supported his chief. He won the confidence of the allies by
his justice and integrity. In 3 5 1-349 2 he entered the Persian
service and helped to subdue a rebellion in Cyprus. Hence-
forward he always held a prominent position in Athens, and
although he never canvassed he was elected general forty-five
times in all. In politics he is known chiefly as the consistent
opponent of the anti-Macedonian firebrands, headed by Demos-
thenes, Lycurgus and Hypereides, whose fervent eloquence he
endeavoured to damp by recounting the plain facts of Athens's
military and financial weakness and her need of peace, even
when the arms of Athens seemed to prosper most. But although
he won the respect of his audience, his advice was frequently
discarded. Yet his influence was felt at the trial of Aeschines
in 343, whom he helped to defend, and after the disaster of
Chaeroneia (338), when he secured very lenient terms from
Philip. He also rendered good service in the field: in 348 he
saved the force operating against the philo-Macedonian tyrants
in Euboea by the brilliant victory of Tamynae. Under the
Macedonian predominance his reputation steadily increased.

1 Diodorus' statement that Phocion was 75 at his death (i.e. that
he became general at 30 and was elected 45 years in succession)
would give 394-393 as the date of birth; but he must have been
quite 25 as second-in-command at Naxos (376).

2 The chronology is uncertain : the dates given for this period are
Beloch's L&riechische Geschichte.

Though by no means inclined to truckle to the Macedonians,
as is shown by his protection of the refugee Harpalus and his
spirited campaign in defence of Attica in 322, he won the confi-
dence of the conquerors, and in the restricted democracy which
Antipater enforced he became the virtual ruler of Athens. Old
age, however, was telling on him; when Polyperchon by his
proclamation of " freedom " raised a new crisis in 318, Phocion's
dilatoriness was interpreted as active treason on Cassander's
behalf, and the people, incited by the restored democrats,
deposed him from office. Phocion fled to Polyperchon, but
was sent back by the latter to be tried at Athens. The assembly,
containing numerous slaves and all the city mob, shouted
Phocion down and condemned him to death unheard. Not
long after, the Athenians decreed a public burial and a statue
in his honour.

Phocion's character and policy were throughout inspired' by
his philosophic training, which best explains his remarkable
purity of character and his prudent councils. To the same
influence we may ascribe his reserve and his reluctance to
co-operate heartily either with the people or with the Macedonian
conquerors who put their trust in him : a greater spirit of energy
and enterprise might have made him the saviour of his country.
Phocion remained famous in antiquity for the pithy sayings
with which he used to parry the eloquence of his opponents.
Demosthenes called him " the chopper of my periods."

Plutarch {Life of Phocion) draws much good information from
Philochorus and Duris (who reproduces Hieronymus of Cardia);
his numerous anecdotes are repeated in other works of his and in
Aelian (Var. hist.). Diodorus (xvi.-xviii.) is likewise based on
Duris. See Holm. Gk. Hist. vol. iii. (Eng. trans., London, 1896).

(M. O. B. C.)

PHOCIS, an ancient district of central Greece (now a depart-
ment, pop. 62,246), about 625 sq. m. in area, bounded on the
W. by Ozolian Locris and Doris, on the N. by Opuntian Locris,
on the E. by Boeotia, and on the S. by the Corinthian Gulf.
The massive ridge of Parnassus (8068 ft.), which traverses the
heart of the country, divides it into two distinct portions.
Between this central barrier and the northern frontier range of
Cnemis (3000 ft.) is the narrow but fertile valley of the Cephissus,
along which most of the Phocian townships were scattered.
Under the southern slope of Parnassus were situated the two
small plains of Crisa and Anticyra, separated by Mt Cirphis,
an offshoot from the main range. Being neither rich in material
resources nor well placed for "commercial enterprise, Phocis was
mainly pastoral. No large cities grew- up within its territory,
and its chief places were mainly of strategic importance.

The early history of Phocis remains quite obscure. From
the scanty notices of Greek legend it may be gathered that an
influx of tribes from the north contributed largely to its popula-
tion, which was reckoned as Aeolic. It is probable that the
country was originally of greater extent, for there was a tradition
that the Phocians once owned a strip of land round Daphnus
on the sea opposite Euboea, and carried their frontier to Ther-
mopylae; in addition, in early days they controlled the great
sanctuary of Delphi. The restriction of their territory was due
to the hostility of their neighbours of Boeotia and Thessaly,
the latter of whom in the 6th century even carried their raids
into the Cephissus valley. Moreover the Dorian population
of Delphi constantly strove to establish its independence and
about 590 B.C. induced a coalition of Greek states to proclaim a
" Sacred War " and free the oracle from Phocian supervision.
Thus their influence at Delphi was restricted to the possession
of two votes in the Amphictyonic Council.

During the Persian invasion of 480 the Phocians at first
joined in the national defence, but by their irresolute conduct
at Thermopylae lost that position for the Greeks; in the cam-
paign of Plataea they were enrolled on the Persian side. In
4S7 an attempt to extend their influence to the head waters of
the Cephissus in the territory of Doris brought a Spartan army
into Phocis in defence of the " metropolis of the Dorians." A
similar enterprise against Delphi in 448 was again frustrated
by Sparta, but not long afterwards the Phocians recaptured
the sanctuary with the help of the Athenians, with whom they

PHOCYLIDES— PHOENICIA

449

had entered into alliance in 454. The subsequent decline of
Athenian land-power had the effect of weakening this new
connexion; at the time of the Peloponnesian War Phocis was
nominally an ally and dependent of Sparta, and had lost control
of Delphi.

In the 4th century Phocis was constantly endangered by
its Boeotian neighbours. After helping the Spartans to invade
Boeotia during the Corinthian War (395-94), the Phocians
were placed on the defensive. They received assistance from
Sparta in 380, but were afterwards compelled to submit to the
growing power of Thebes. The Phocian levy took part in
Epaminondas' inroads into Peloponnesus, except in the final
campaign of Mantinea (370-62), from which their contingent
was withheld. In return for this negligence the Thebans
fastened a religious quarrel upon their neighbours, and secured
a penal decree against them from the Amphictyonic synod
(356). The Phocians, led by two capable generals, Philomelus
and Onomarchus, replied by seizing Delphi and using its riches
to hire a mercenary army. With the help of these troops the
Phocian League at first carried the war into Boeotia and Thessaly,
and though driven out of the latter country by Philip of Macedon,
maintained itself for ten years, until the exhaustion of the
temple treasures and the treachery of its leaders placed it at
Philip's mercy. The conditions which he imposed — the obliga-
tion to restore the temple funds, and the dispersion of the
population into open villages — were soon disregarded. In
339 the Phocians began to rebuild their cities; in the following
year they fought against Philip at Chaeronea. Again in 323
they took part in the Lamian War against Antipater, and in
279 helped to defend Thermopylae against the Gauls.

Henceforth little more is heard of Phocis. During the 3rd
century it passed into the power of Macedonia and of the Aetolian
League, to which in 196 it was definitely annexed. Under the
dominion of the Roman republic its national league was dissolved,
but was revived by Augustus, who also restored to Phocis the
votes in the Delphic Amphictyony which it had lost in 346 and
enrolled it in the new Achaean synod. The Phocian League
is last heard of under Trajan.

See Strabo, pp. 401, 418, 424-425; Pausanias x. 1-4; E. Freeman,
History of Federal Government (ed. 1893, London), pp. 113-114; G.
Kazarow, De foederis Phocensium institulis (Leipzig, 1899); B. Head,
Historia numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 287-288.

(M. O. B. C.)

PHOCYLIDES, Greek gnomic poet of Miletus, contemporary
of Theognis, was born about 560 B.C. A few fragments of his
" maxims " have been preserved (chiefly in the Florilegium of
Stobaeus), in which he expresses his contempt for the pomps
and vanities of rank and wealth, and sets forth in simple language
his ideas of honour, justice and wisdom. A complete didactic
poem (230 hexameters) called Holr\na vovderiKov or yvSifiai,
bearing the name of Phocylides, is now considered to be the
work of an Alexandrian Christian of Jewish origin who lived
between 170 B.C. and a.d. 50. The Jewish element is shown in
verbal agreement with passages of the Old Testament (especially
the book of Sirach) ; the Christian by the doctrine of the immor-
tality of the soul and the resurrection of the body. Some
Jewish authorities, however, maintain that there are in reality
no traces of Christan doctrine to be found in the poem, and
that the author was a Jew. The poem was first printed at
Venice in 1495, and was a favourite school textbook during
the Reformation period.

See fragments and the spurious poem in T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici
graeci, ii. (4th ed., 1882); J. Bernays Vber das Phdkylideische
Gedicht (1858) ; Phocylides, Poem of Admonition, with introduction
and commentaries by J. B. Fenling, and translation by H. D. Good-
win (Andover, Mass., 1879); F. Susemihl, Geschichte der griechischen
Lilteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit, (1892), ii. 642; S. Krauss' (s.v.
" Pseudo- Phocylides ") in The Jewish Encyclopedia and E. Schurer,
Hist, of the Jewish People, div. ii., vol. iii., 313-316 (Eng. trans.,
1886), where full bibliographies are given. There is an English verse
translation by W. Hewett (Watford, 1840), The Perceptive Poem of
Phocylides.

PHOEBE, in astronomy, the ninth satellite of Saturn in
order of discovery, or the tenth and outermost now known in
xxi. i S

the order of distance. It was discovered by W. H. Pickering
in 1899 by photographs of the stars surrounding Saturn. It is
remarkable in that its motion around the planet is retrograde.
(See Saturn.)

PHOEBUS (Gr. for " bright," " pure,"), a common epithet
of Apollo (q.v.). Artemis in like manner is called Phoebe, and
in the Latin poets and their modern followers Phoebus and
Phoebe are often used simply for the sun and moon respectively.

PHOENICIA, in ancient geography, the name given to that
part of the seaboard of Syria which extends from the Eleutherus
(Nahr el-Kebir) in the north to Mt Carmel in the south, a
distance of rather more than two degrees of latitude. These
limits, however, were exceeded at various times; thus, north
of the Eleutherus lay Aradus and Marathus, and south of
Carmel the border sometimes included Dor and even Joppa.
Formed partly by alluvium carried down by perennial streams
from the mountains of Lebanon and Galilee, and fringed by
great sand-dunes which the sea throws up, Phoenicia is covered
with a rich and fertile soil. It is only at the mouth of the
Eleutherus and at Acre (' Akk&) that the strip of coast-land widens
out into plains of any size; there is a certain amount of open
country behind Beirut; but for the most part the mountains,
pierced by deep river-valleys, approach to within a few miles
of the coast, or even right down to the sea, as at Ras en-Nakura
(Scala Tyriorum, Jos. Bell. jud. ii. 10, 2) and Ras el-Abiad
(Pliny's Promunturium Album), where a passage had to be cut
in the rock for the caravan road which from time immemorial
traversed this narrow belt of, lowland. From the flanks of
Lebanon, especially from the heights which lie to the north of
the Qasimiyeh or Kasimiya (Litany) River, the traveller looks
down upon some of the finest landscape in the world; in general
features the scenery is not unlike that of the Italian Riviera,
but surpasses it in grandeur and a peculiar depth of colouring.
With regard to natural products the country has few worth
mentioning; minerals are found in the Lebanon, but not in any
quantity; traces of amber-digging have been discovered on the
coast; and the purple shell (murex trunculus and brandaris)
is still plentiful. The harbours which played so important a
part in antiquity are nearly all silted up, and, with the exception
of Beirut, afford no safe anchorage for the large vessels of
modern times. A few bays, facing towards the north, break
the coast-line, and small rocky islands are dotted here and there
just off the shore. Sidon, Tyre and Aradus, though now
connected with the mainland, were built originally upon islands;
the Phoenicians preferred such sites, because they were con-
venient for shipping and easily defended against attack.

The chief towns of ancient Phoenicia, as we know of them from
the Amarna tablets (15th century B.C.) and from Egyptian, Assyrian
and the Old Testament documents, were the following: Acco (now
Acre or 'Akka., Judg. i. 31), Achzib (now ez-Zib, ibid.), Ahlab (in
Assyrian Mahalhba, ibid.) — three towns on the coast south of Tyre,
Kanah (Josh. xix. 28), Tyre (Phoen. §6r, now Stir), Zarephath
or Sarepta (1 Kings xvii. 9 now Sarafand), Sidon (now Saida),
Berytus (Biruta in Egyptian, Biruna in the Amarna tablets, now
Beirut), Byblus (in Phoen. and Hebr. Gebal, now Jebeil), Arka, 80 m.
north of Sidon (Gen. x. 17, now 'Arka), Sin (Assyr. Siannu, ibid.)
Si my ra (Gen. x. 18, now Sumra), Marathus (now Amrit) not impor-
tant till the Macedonian period, Arvad or Aradus (in Phoen.
Arwad, now Ruad, Gen. x. 18; Ezek. xxvii. 8, n), the most
northerly of the great Phoenician towns, and always famous as a
maritime state.

Race and Language. — The Phoenicians were an early offshoot
from the Semitic stock, and belonged to the Canaanite branch
of it. Curiously enough in Gen. x. Sidon, the " first-born "
of Canaan, is classed among the descendants of Ham; but the
table of nations in Gen. x. is not arranged upon strict ethno-
graphic principles; perhaps religious antagonism induced the
Hebrews to assign to the Canaanites an ancestry different from
their own; at any rate the close connexion which existed from
an early date between the Phoenicians and the Egyptians may
have suggested the idea that both peoples belonged to the same
race. The Phoenicians themselves retained some memory of
having migrated from older seats on an eastern sea; Herodotus
(i. 1; vii. 89) calls it the "red sea," meaning probably the

/i

45°

PHOENICIA

Persian Gulf; the tradition, therefore, seems to show that the
Phoenicians believed that their ancestors came originally from
Babylonia. By settling along the Syrian coast they developed
a strangely un-Semitic love for the sea, and advanced on different
lines from the other Canaanites who occupied the interior.
They called themselves Canaanites and their land Canaan;
such is their name in the Amarna tablets, Kinahhi and Kinahni;
and with this agrees the statement assigned to Hecataeus
(Fr. hist. gr. i. 17) that Phoenicia was formerly called Xva,
a name which Philo of Byblus adopts into his mythology by
making " Chna who was afterwards called Phoinix " the eponym
of the Phoenicians (Fr. hist. gr. iii. 569). In the reign of
Antiochus IV. and his successors the coins of Laodicea of Libanus
bear the legend "Of Laodicea which is in Canaan"; 1 the Old
Testament also sometimes denotes Phoenicia and Phoenicians
by "Canaan" and "Canaanites" (Isa. xxiii. 11; Obad. 20;
Zeph. i. 11), though the latter names generally have a more ex-
tended sense. But " Sidonians " is the usual designation both in
the Old Testament and in the Assyrian monuments (Sidunnu) ;
and even at the time of Tyre's greatest ascendancy we read of
Sidonians and not Tyrians in the Old Testament and in Homer;
thus Ethbaal king of Tyre (Jos, Ant. viii. 13, 2) is called king
of the Sidonians in 1' Kings xvi. 31. In the Homeric poems we
meet with 2i56i'ioi, 'Si&ovbi (Od. iv. 618; //. vi. 290; Od. xiii.
285; //. vi. 291) and $oivuces, #otctKrj (Od. xiii. 272, xiv. 288
seq., &c), and both terms together (Od. iv. 83 seq., II. xxiii.
743 seq.) 2 And the Phoenicians themselves used Sidonians
as a general name; thus in the oldest Phoenician inscription
known (CIS. i. 5 — NSI., No. 11), Hiram II. king of Tyre in
the 8th century is styled " king of the Sidonians." But among
the Greeks " Phoenicians " was the name most in use, $oivui(s
(plur. of $oivt.£) for the people and ^otvUrj for the land (cf.
Phoenix). The former was probably the older word, and may
be traced to <t>oivos = " blood-red "; the Canaanite sailors were
spoken of as the " red men " on account of their sunburnt skin;
then the land from which they came was called after them;
and then probably the original connexion between <I>oTw£ and
4x>ivbs was forgotten, and new forms and meanings were
invented. Thus <j>divil- came to mean a " date-palm "; but
the date-palm is not in the least characteristic of Phoenicia,
and can hardly grow there; 0oin£ in this sense has no connexion
with the original meaning of Phoenician. A derivation has been
sought elsewhere, and the Egyptian Fenh proposed as the
origin of the name; but the word Fenh was apparently used of
Asiatic barbarians in general, without any special reference to the
Phoenicians (W. M. Muller, Asien u. Europa, p. 208 seq.). The
Lat. Poenus is of course merely an adaptation of the Greek form. 3
Language. — Inscriptions, coins, topographical names preserved
by Greek and Latin writers, names of persons and the Punic passages
in the Poenulus of Plautus, all show conclusively that the Phoenician
language belonged to the North-Semitic group, and to that sub-
division of it which is called the Canaanite and includes Hebrew and
the dialect of Moab. A comparison between Phoenician and Hebrew
reveals close resemblances both in grammatical forms and in vocabu-
lary ; in some respects older features have been preserved in Phoeni-
cian, others are later, others again are peculiar to the dialect ; many
words poetic or rare or late in Hebrew are common in Phoenician.
Hence we may conclude that the two languages developed indepen-
dently from a common ancestor, which can be no other, than the
ancient Canaanite, of which a few words have survived in the
Canaanite glosses to the Amarna tablets (written in Babylonian). 4
But in forming an estimate of the Phoenician language it must be
remembered that our material is scanty and limited in range; the
Phoenicians were in no sense a literary people; moreover, with one
exception (.CIS. i. 5), almost all the inscriptions are subsequent

1 Cooke, North-Semitic Inscriptions (elsewhere abbreviated
NSL), No. 149 B. 8.

2 In this passage " Phoenicians " is a general name for carriers
of commerce, not the inhabitants of a particular country. Similarly
" Sidonian " in //. vi. 209, is taken to mean Semites in general.
Elsewhere " Phoenicians " are merchants, kidnappers, &c, Sidon-
ians " are artists; to indicate nationality both names seem to be
used indifferently, e.g. Od. xiii. 272, xiv. 288, xv. 414.

* See especially Pietschmann, Gesch. d. Phonizier, 13 sqq., and
Winckler, Keilinschr. u. d. A. T., 3rd ed., 127.

4 A vocabulary is given in KAT.», 652 seq.; see further Bohl,
Die Sprache d. Amarnairiefe (1909).

to the 6th century B.C.; the majority belong to the 4th century
and later, by which time the language must have undergone a
certain amount of decay. 6 Indirectly, however, the Phoenicians
rendered one great service to literature; they took a large
share in the development and diffusion of the alphabet which
forms the foundation of Greek (Herod, v. 58) and of all European
writing. The Phoenician letters in their earlier types are practically
identical with those used by the Hebrews (e.g. the Siloam inscr.
NSI. No. 2), the Moabites (e.g the Mesha stone, ibid. No. 1), and the
Aramaeans of north Syria (e.g. the Zenjirli inscrr. ibid. Nos. 61-63).
They passed through various modifications in the course of time;
after leaving the mother country the script acquires a more cursive,
flowing style on the stones from Cyprus and Attica; the tendency
becomes more strongly marked at the Punic stage; until in the
neo-Punic, from the destruction of Carthage (146 B.C.) to the 1st
century A.D., both the writing and the language reached their most
degenerate form. As a rustic dialect the language lasted on in
North Africa till the 5th century A.D. In his sermons St Augustine
frequently quotes Punic words.

History.— The Phoenicians, in imitation of the Egyptians,
claimed that their oldest cities had been founded by the gods
themselves, and that their race could boast an
antiquity of 30,000 years (Africanus in Syncellus, Period.
p. 31). Herodotus quotes (ii. 44) a more moderate
tradition which placed the foundation of Tyre 2300 years before
his time, i.e., c. 2756 B.C. According to Justin (xviii. 3) the
Phoenicians, who had long been settled on the coast and occupied
Sidon, founded Tyre in the year before the fall of Troy; possibly
the date 1198 B.C., given byMenanderof Ephesus (in Jos. Ant.
viii. 3, 1 and c. Ap. i. 18) as that from which the era of Tyre
begins, may refer to the epoch which Justin mentions. Little
certainty, however, can be allowed to these traditional chrono-
logies. It is probable that in remote ages Babylonia exercised
a considerable influence upon Syria and its coast towns; but
Mr L.W.King has shown that the tradition, which was supposed
to connect Sargon I. (c. 3800 B.C.) with the western land and
sea, has been misunderstood; it was the sea in the east, i.e. the
Persian Gulf, which Sargon crossed (Chronicles concerning
Early Bab. Kings, vol. i. ch. 2, 1907).

The extension of the Egyptian empire in the direction of
Asia began about 1600 B.C. under Ahmosi (Aahmes, Amasis) I.,
the founder of the XVIIIth Dynasty, who carried Egyptian
his arms into Syria, and conquered at least Palestine Rule
and Phoenicia, the latter being the country called c. 1600-
Pa-hi on the Egyptian monuments (Muller, As. u. ti0 ° B ' c '
Eur. p. 181). Whether the campaign of Thothmes, (Tethmosis)
I. to the Euphrates produced any lasting results is doubtful;
it was Thothmes III. (1 503-1449) who repeated and consolidated
the earlier conquest, and established Egyptian suzerainty
over all the petty states of Syria and Phoenicia (see Egypt:
History, I.). For the geography and civilization of Canaan about
1400 B.C. we have valuable evidence in the Egyptian papyrus
Anastasi I., which mentions Kepuna (Gubna, Gebal-Byblus)
the holy city, and continues: " Come then to Berytus, to Sidon,
to Sarepta. Where is the ford of Nat-'ana (? Nahr el-Kasimiyeh,
or a town)? Where is 'Eutu (? Usu, Palaetyrus) ? Another
city on the sea is called a haven, D'ar (Tyre) is its name, water
is carried to it in boats; it is richer in fish than in sands." 6 But
the fullest information about the state of Phoenicia in the 15th
and 14th centuries B.C. comes from the Amarna tablets, among
which are many letters from the subject princes and the
Egyptian governors of Phoenicia to the Pharaoh. 7 It was a time
of much political disturbance. The Hittites (q.v.) were invading
Syria; nomads from the desert supported the invasion; and
many of the local chiefs were ready to seize the opportunity
to throw off the yoke of Egypt. The towns of Phoenicia were

B For the Phoen. inscrr. see Corpus inscriptionum semiticarum,
pt. i., brought up to date provisionally by Repertoire d'epigr.
sent. A selection is published by Lidzbarski, Handbuch d. nordsem.
Epigraphik (1898); Cooke, Textbook of North-Semitic Inscriptions
(1903), with translations and notes; Landau, Beitrdge z. Altertumsk.
d. Orients (1899-1906); Lidzbarski, Altsem. Texte (1907), pt. i.

6 See W. M. Muller, he. cit. pp. 57, 172 sqq., 184 sqq.; Jeremias,
Das A. T.im Lichie d. alt. Orients, p. 302 seq.; Records of the Past,
ii. 109 seq.

'Winckler, Tett-el-Am. Letters Nos. 37 sqq.; Petrie, Syria and
Egypt in the Tell el Am. Letters.

PHOENICIA

45i

divided; Aradus, Simyra, Sidon supported the rebellion; Rib-
habad, the vassal of Byblus, and Abi-melech, king of Tyre, held
out for Egypt; but while all the towns made professions of
fidelity, they were scheming for their own interests, and in the
end Egypt lost them all except Byblus. The tablets which
reveal this state of affairs are written in the language and script
of Babylonia, and thus show indirectly the extent to which
Babylonian culture had penetrated Palestine and Phoenicia;
at the same time they illustrate the closeness of the relations
between the Canaanite towns and the dominant power of
Egypt. After the reign of Amenophis IV. (1376-1366) that
power collapsed altogether; but his successors attempted to
recover it, and Ramses (Rameses) II. reconquered Phoenicia
as far as Beirut, and carved three tablets on the rock beside the
Nahr el-Kelb to commemorate his victories; under the XlXth
and XXth Dynasties this seems to have remained the northern
limit of the Egyptian Empire. But in the reign of Ramses III.
(c. 1200) great changes began to occur owing to the invasion
of Syria by peoples from Asia Minor and Europe, which ended
in the establishment of the Philistines on the coast near Ashkelon.
The successors of Ramses III. lost their hold over Canaan; the
XXIst Dynasty no longer intervened in the affairs of Syria;
but Sheshonk (Shishak), the founder of the XXIInd Dynasty,
about 928 B.C. endeavoured to assert the ancient supremacy of
Egypt (cf. 1 Kings xiv. 25 sqq.), but his successes were not
lasting, and, as we learn from the Old Testament, the power of
Egypt became henceforward practically ineffective. Not until
608 did a Pharaoh (Necho) lead an Egyptian army so far north,
and he was defeated by Nebuchadrezzar. During the period
which elapsed before the rise of the Assyrian power in Syria
the Phoenicians were left to themselves. This was the period
of their development, and Tyre became the leading city of
Phoenicia.

Between the withdrawal of the Egyptian rule in Syria and
the western advance of Assyria there comes an interval during
ladepen- which the city-states of Phoenicia owned no suzerain.
deaceof The history of this period is mainly a history of
Phoenicia. Tyre, which not only rose to a sort of hegemony
among the Phoenician states, but founded colonies beyond
the seas (below). From 970 to 772 B.C. the bare outline of
events is supplied by extracts from two Hellenistic historians,
Menander of Ephesus and Dius (largely dependent upon Menan-
der), which have been preserved by Josephus, Ant. viii. '$, 3
and c. Ap. i. 17, 18. From the data given in these passages
we learn that Hiram I., son of Abi-baal, reigned in Tyre from
970 to 936 B.C. He enlarged the island-town to the east, restored
and enriched the temples, built new ones to Heracles (i.e.
Melkarth or Melqarth) and Astarte, founded the feast of the
awakening of Heracles in the month Peritius, and reduced the
inhabitants of Utica to their allegiance. The Tyrian annals,
moreover, alluded to the connexion between Hiram and Solomon.
Before this time, indeed, the Phoenicians had no doubt lived
on friendly terms with the Israelites l (cf. Judges v. 17 ; Gen. xlix.
13); but the two nations seem to have drawn closer in the time
of Solomon. 2 Sam. v. n, which brings David and Hiram
together, probably antedates what happened in the following
reign. For Solomon's palace and temple Hiram contributed
cedar and fir trees as well as workmen, receiving in exchange
large annual payments of oil and wine, supplies which Phoenicia
must have drawn regularly from Israelite districts (1 Kings v. 9,
11; cf. Ezek. xxvii. 17; Ezr. iii. 7; Acts xii. 20; Jos. Ant. xiv. 10,
6) ; finally, in return for the gold which he furnished for the temple,
Hiram received the grant of a territory in Galilee (Cabul, 1 Kings
ix. 10-14). 2 This alliance between the two monarchs led to a

1 In Judges x. 12 (cf. i>. 6, iii. 3) the Sidonians are mentioned
among the oppressors of Israel ; but there is no record of any invasion
of Israel by the Phoenicians, and the statement is due to the post-
exilic editor who introduced generalizations of ancient history into
the book of Judges.

2 Jos. Ant. viii. 3, 1, dates the building of Solomon's temple in
the nth year of Hiram, and 420 years after the foundation of Tyre.
This gives a Tyrian era which began in 1198-1197 B.C., i.e. at the
time when the Philistines settled on the coast of Canaan, an event

joint expedition from Eziongeber on the Gulf of Akaba (strictly
Aqaba) to Ophir (? on the east coast of Arabia, see Ophir) for
purposes of trade. The list of Hiram's successors given by
Josephus indicates frequent changes of dynasty until the time
of Ithobal I. priest of Astarte, whose reign (887-855) marks a
return to more settled rule. In contrast to Hiram I., king of
Tyre, Ithobal or Ethbaal is styled in 1 Kings xvi. 31 " king of
the Sidonians," i.e. of the Phoenicians, showing that in the
interval the kings of Tyre had extended their rule over the other
Phoenician cities. Under Ethbaal further expansion is recorded;
Botrys north of Byblus and Aoza in North Africa are said to have
been founded by him ; the more famous Carthage owed its origin
to the civil discords which followed the death of Metten I. (820),
his next successor but one. According to tradition, Metten's
son Pygmalion (820-773) slew the husband of his sister Elissa
or Dido ; whereupon she fled and founded Carthage (q.v.) in Libya
(813; Justin xviii. 4-6). At this point Josephus's extracts
from Menander come to an end.

From the time of Ethbaal onwards the independence of
Phoenicia was threatened by the advance of Assyria. So far
back as 1100 B.C. Tiglath-pileser I. had invaded North Assyrian
Phoenicia, and in order to secure a harbour on the Rule, 876-
coast he occupied Arvad (Aradus); but no permanent 60s B.c.
occupation followed. In the 9th century, however, the system-
atic conquest of the west began. In 876 b.c. Assur-nazir-pal III.
" washed his weapons in the great sea," and exacted tribute
from the kings of Tyre, Sidon, Byblus and other cities, including
Arvad (Keilinschr. Bibliothek, i. 109). The inscriptions of
his son Shalmaneser II. mention the taking of tribute from the
Tyrians and Sidonians in 846 and again in 849; the Byblians
are included at the latter date, and among the kings defeated
at Karkar in 854 or 853 was Metten-baal, king of the Arvadites
(ibid. pp. 141, 143, 173). Thus Shalmaneser completed the
conquests of his predecessor on the Phoenician coast, and
established a supremacy which lasted for over a hundred years
and was acknowledged by occasional payments of tribute.
In 741 Tiglath-pileser III. mentions on his tribute-lists " Hirtim
of Tyre "; and here for the first time a piece of native evidence
becomes available. The earliest Phoenician inscription at
present known (CIS. i. s=NSI. No. 11) is engraved upon
the fragments of a bronze bowl dedicated by a certain governor
of Qarth-hadasht (or Karti-Hadasti, " New City," i.e. Citium),
" servant of Hiram king of the Sidonians to Baal of Lebanon."
It is to be noted that this Hiram II. was not only king
of Tyre, as the Assyrian inscription calls him, but of
Sidon too; and further, that by this time Tyre had established
a colony in Cyprus (q.v.). In Tiglath-pileser's Philistine
campaign of 734 Byblus and Aradus paid tribute, and an
Assyrian chief officer (the Rab-shakeh) was sent to Tyre
and extorted from the king, now Metten or Mattun, the
large sum of 150 talents of gold (KB. ii. 23). For
the period which follows a certain amount of information is
furnished by Menander (in Jos. Ant. ix. 14, 2). Elulaeus IX., in
Assyrian Lull, who ruled under the name of Pylas, was king of
Tyre, Sidon, and other cities at this time (c. 725-690), and at
the beginning of his reign suffered from an invasion by Shal-
maneser IV. or Salampsas (Jos.) ; this was probably the expedi-
tion against Hoshea of Samaria in 725; " the king of Assyria . . .
overran all Phoenicia, but soon made peace with them all
and returned back." In the reign of Sargon Phoenicia itself
seems to have been left alone; but the inhabitants of Citium
revolted, showing that the authority of Tyre in Cyprus had
grown weak; and Sargon received the submission of seven
Cyprian princes, and set up in Larnaca (probably in 709) the
triumphal stele now in the Berlin Museum (Schrader, Cuneif.
Inscr. and 0. T., 2nd ed., vol. ii. p. 87). But Elulaeus, according
to Menander, suppressed the revolt of Citium, and early in the
reign of Sennacherib joined the league of Philistia and Judah,

which had considerable effect upon the' cities of Phoenicia (above,
Justin xviii. 3). In the Tyrian annals (Jos. c. Ap. i. 18) the reference
was probably to the felling of timber in Lebanon for Hiram's temples ;
Josephus then .misinterpreted this by I Kings v. 6.

452

PHOENICIA

in alliance with Egypt and Ethiopia, which aimed at throwing
off the oppressive tyranny of Assyria; as usual, however, the
city-states of Phoenicia could not combine even against a
common foe, and several broke away from Tyre, so Menander
tells us, and sided with Assyria. In the great campaign of 701
Sennacherib came down upon the revolting provinces; he forced
Lull, king of Sidon, to fly for refuge to Cyprus, took his chief
cities, and set up Tuba'lu (Ethbaal) as king, imposing a yearly
tribute {KB. ii. 91). The blockade of Tyre by sea, signifi-
cantly passed over in Sennacherib's inscription, is described by
Menander. The island-city proved to be impregnable, but it
was the only possession left of what had been the extensive
kingdom of Elulaeus. Sennacherib, however, so far accomplished
his object as to break up the combination of Tyre and Sidon,
which had grown into a powerful state. 1 At Sidon the successor
of Ethbaal was Abd-milkath; in alliance with a Cilician chief he
rebelled against Esarhaddon about the year 678, with disastrous
consequences. Sidon was annihilated; Abd-milkath fell into
the hands of Esarhaddon, who founded a new Sidon on the
mainland, peopled it with foreigners, and called it after his own
name. The old name, however, survived in popular usage;
but the character of the city was changed, and till the time of
Cyrus the kingdom of Sidon ceased to exist {KB. ii. 125 seq.,
145; KAT? 88). Tyre also came in for its share of hardship.
Elulaeus was followed by Baal, who in 672 consented to join
Tirhaka, the Ethiopian king of Egypt, in a rebellion against
Assyria. Esarhaddon, on his way to Egypt for the second time,
determined to deal out punishment; he blockaded Tyre, and
raised earthworks on the shore and cut off the water-supply;
but he did not capture the city itself. His monument found at
Zenjirli represents the great king holding Baal of Tyre and
Tirhaka of Egypt by cords fastened in their lips; 2 there is no
evidence, however, that he actually took either of them prisoner.
Early in the reign of Assur-bani-pal Tyre was besieged again
(668), but Assur-bani-pal succeeded no better than his prede-
cessors. Nevertheless Baal submitted in the end, along with the
princes of Gebal and Arvad, Manasseh of Judah, and the other
Canaanite chiefs; in the island of Cyprus the Assyrians carried
all before them {KB. ii. 149 seq., 169, 173). On his return
from the Arabian campaign Assur-bani-pal severely punished
the rebellious inhabitants of Ushu (Palaetyrus) and Akko, and
transported the survivors to Assyria (ibid. 229). In Phoenicia,
as elsewhere, Assyrian rule created nothing and left nothing
behind it but a record of barbarous conquest and extortion.
An interesting sidelight is thrown upon this period by the list
of the Thalassocracies in the Chronicon of Eusebius (p. 226, ed.
Schoene), which places the 45 years of the sea-power of Phoenicia
at a date which, with much probability, may be conjectured
to lie between 709, when Cyprus submitted to Sargon, and 664,
when Egypt threw off the rule of Assyria. If this dating is
correct, and the Phoenician sea-power was at its height during
these years, we can understand why Tyre gave so much trouble
to the Assyrian kings. 3

In the last crisis of the dying power of Assyria the Egyptians
for a short time laid hands on Phoenicia; but after their defeat
rite Neo- at the battle of Carchemish (605), the Chaldaeans
Babylonian became the masters of western Asia. Jeremiah's
Period, 60S- allusion (xxv. 22) in 604 to the approaching downfall
B-C " of the kings of Tyre and Sidon and the coast-land
beyond the sea, i.e. the Phoenician settlements on the Mediter-
ranean, seems to imply that the Phoenician states recovered
some measure of independence; if they did it cannot have
lasted long. In 588 Apries (Pharaoh Hophra) made an attempt

1 The above interpretation of Menander and the Assyrian evidence
is based upon Ed. Meyer, Ency. Bib. col. 3755. For a different
explanation see Landau, Beilr. z. Altertumsk. d. Or. vol. i., followed by
Winckler, Altor. Forsch. ii. 65 sqq.; these scholars take Menander to
refer to the later war of Esarhaddon and Assur-bani-pal against
Baal of Tyre.

2 See the facsimile in Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli (Berlin, 1893),
and p. 17 for the above interpretation of it.

3 John L. Myres, Journ. Hell. Studies (1906), xxvi. 84 seq., criticiz-
ing Winckler, Der Alte Orient (1905), vol. vii. pt. 2.

to displace the Chaldaean supremacy; he defeated Tyre and
Sidon, and terrorized the other cities into submission (Herod,
ii. 161; Diod. Sic. i. 68). Some of the Phoenician chiefs, among
them Ithobal II., the new king of Tyre, while forced to yield to
a change of masters, were bold enough to declare their hostility
to the Babylonians. This state of affairs did not escape the
vigilance of Nebuchadrezzar. After the fall of Jerusalem he
marched upon Phoenicia; Apries withdrew his army, and the
siege of Tyre began. For thirteen years the great merchant
city held out (585-573; Jos. c. Ap. i. 21; cf. Ezek. xxvi: 1 seq.).
Ezekiel says that Nebuchadrezzar and his host had no reward
for their heavy service against Tyre, and the presumption is
that the city capitulated on favourable terms; for Ithobal's
reign ends with the close of the siege, and the royal family is
subsequently found in Babylon. The king appointed by
Nebuchadrezzar was Baal II. (574-564), after whose death a
republic was formed under a single suffete or " judge " {shojet).
Josephus {loc.cit.) is again our authority for the changes of govern-
ment which followed until the monarchy was revived. At
length under Hiram III. Phoenicia passed from the Chaldaeans
to the Persians (538), and at the same time Amasis (Ahmosi) II.
of Egypt occupied Cyprus (Herod, ii. 182). There seems to
have been no struggle; the great siege and the subsequent
civil disorders had exhausted Tyre, and Sidon took its place
as the leading state. About this time, too, Carthage made an
effort for independence under Hanno the Great (538-521), the
real founder of its fortunes; the old dependence upon Tyre was
changed for a mere relation of piety observed by the annual
sending of delegates {dewpol) to the festival of Melkarth (Arrian
ii. 24; Polyb. xxxi. 20, 12). The disasters and humiliations
which befell Tyre during this and the foregoing period might
suggest that its prosperity had been seriously damaged. But
Tyre always counted for more in commerce than in politics;
and in the year 586, just before the great siege, Ezekiel draws
a vivid picture (ch. xxvii.) of the extent and splendour of its
commercial relations. Even when cut off from its possessions
on the mainland the city itself was not captured; its seafaring
trade went on; and though by degrees the colonies were lost,
yet the ties of race and sentiment remained strong enough to
bind the Phoenicians of the mother-country to their kindred
beyond the seas.

Constitution.— At this point it is convenient to mention what
little is known about the constitution of the Phoenician states.
All Canaanite analogy speaks for kingship as the oldest form of Phoe-
nician government. In the native inscriptions the chief of the city
in Phoenicia itself and in Cyprus is always called king. The royal
houses claimed divine descent, 4 and the king could not be chosen
outside their members. His power, however, was limited by the
wealthy merchant families, who possessed great influence in public
affairs; thus it was possible for war or peace to be decided at Tyre
in the king's absence, or at Sidon against his will (Arrian ii. 15 and
16; Curtius iv. 1, 15). The priest of Melkarth at Tyre was the second
man in the kingdom. Associated with the prince was a council
of elders; such was the case at Gebal (Byblus) from the earliest times
to the latest (Ezek. xxvii. 9) ; at Sidon this council consisted of 100
members (Diod. xvi. 45), perhaps also at Tyre. 6 Inscriptions of the
3rd and 2rtd centuries B.C. mention a Rab (chief) in Sidon, Cyprus
and Gaulus (Gozo); what his position was it is difficult to say; in
the colonies he may hava been a district governor. During Nebu-
chadrezzar's time, as we have seen, a republic took the place of the
monarchy at Tyre, and the government was administered by a
succession of suffetes (judges) ; they held office for short terms, and
in one instance two ruled together for six years. Much later, in the
3rd century B.C., an inscription from Tyre mentions a suffete (NSI.
No. 8) without adding more to our knowledge. Carthage, of course,
was governed by two suffetes, and these officers are frequently named
in connexion with the Carthaginian colonies {NSI. p. 115 seq.);
but we must be careful not to draw the inference that Phoenicia
itself had any such magistrates. Under the Persians a federal bond
was formed comprising Sidon, Tyre and Aradus, whose duty it
was to contribute 300 triremes to the Persian fleet (Herod, vii. 89),

4 So the Babylonians, Canaanites (e.g. in the case of theNephilim,
Gen. vi. 2), Arabs, Greeks, traced the descent of heroic families to
the gods. W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage, p. 206; S. I. Curtis's
Primitive Sent. Rel. To-day (London, 1902), p. 112 seq.

6 An inscr. from Tyre may be read, " 'Abd ba'al chief of the
Hundred," NSI. p. 129; Clermont-Ganneau, Recueil d'arch. or.
ii. 294 seq.

PHOENICIA

453

the lesser towns being under^the command of the great cities. Aradus
presided over three subordinate townships (Arrian ii. 13) ; Berytus,
which had no king of its own, probably formed with Byblus a
single kingdom; while Tripolis consisted of a federation of three
cities separated by a stadium from each other, and provided a meet-
ing-place for the federal council, which was chiefly occupied in dealings
with the Persian government (Diod. xvi. 41). But federation on a
larger scale was never possible in Phoenicia, for the reason that no
sense of political unity existed to bind the different states together.
Commercial interests dominated everything else, and while these
stimulated a municipal life not without vigour, civil discipline and
loyalty were but feebly felt. On occasion the towns could defend
their independence with strenuous courage; the higher qualities
which make for a progressive national life the Phoenicians did not
possess.

Phoenicia now became part of the fifth satrapy of the Persian
Empire, and entered upon a spell of comparative peace and
The Persian growing prosperity. Favoured for the sake of
Period, 538- their fleet, and having common interests against
333 B.C. Greece, 1 the Phoenicians were among the most
loyal subjects of the empire. At this period Sidon occu-
pied the position of leading state; in the fleet her king
ranked next to Xerxes and before the king of Tyre (Herod.
viii. 67); her situation afforded advantages for expansion
which Tyre on its small and densely populated island could not
rival. The city was distinguished by its cosmopolitan character;
the satrap resided there when he came to Phoenicia, and the
Persian monarch had his paradise outside the walls. In the
first half of the 4th century Straton I. (in Phoen. x Abd-ashtart
or Bod-'ashlart) was king, c. 374-362. He cultivated friendly
relations with Athens, indicated in a decree of proxenia (Michel,
Rec. d'inscr. gr. No. 93 = CiG. No. 87); his court was famed
for its luxury; and the extent to which phil-Hellenic tendencies
prevailed at this time in Sidon is shown by the royal sarcophagi,
noble specimens of Greek art, which have been excavated in the
necropolis of the city. It was in the reign of Straton that Tyre
fell into the hands of Evagoras, king of Salamis, who had already
supplanted Phoenician with Greek civilization in Cyprus (Isocr.
Evag. 62, Paneg. 161 ; Diod. xv. 2). Straton made friends with
Nicocles, son of Evagoras, and with him came to an untimely
end through their implication in the great revolt of the satraps,
362 B.C. (see the story of Straton's death in Jerome, adv. Jovin.
i. 45). A new revolt of Sidon against the Persians took place
under King Tennes owing to the insults offered to the Sidonians
at the federal diet in Tripolis. With the aid of Nectanebus
of Egypt, who had grievances of his own to avenge, the Sidonians
carried the rest of Phoenicia with them and drove the satraps
of Syria and Cilicia out of the country. Tennes, however,
betrayed his people and opened the city to Artaxerxes III.;
the inhabitants to the number of 40,000 are said to have set
fire to their houses and perished; Tennes himself was executed
after he had served the ends of the great king (346 B.C.; Diod.
xvi. 41-45). The last king of Sidon was Straton II. ("Abd-
'ashtart, 346-332) before the Persian Empire came to an end. 2
Towards the close of the 5th century the Phoenician coins begin
to supplement our historical sources (see Numismatics). From the
time of Darius the Persian monarchs issued a gold coinage, and
reserved to themselves the right of doing so; but they allowed their
satraps and vassal states to coin silver and copper money at
discretion. Hence Aradus, Byblus, Sidon and Tyre issued a coinage
of their own, of which many specimens exist : the coins are stamped
as a rule with emblem or name of the city, sometimes with the
name of the ruler. 3 Thus from the coins of Byblus we learn the
names of four kings, "El-pa'al, 'Az-ba'al (between 360 and 340 B.C.),
Adar-melek, 'Ain-el; from the coins of the other cities it is difficult

1 The naval expeditions against Greece in 480-449 and Sparta
in 396-387 were mainly fitted out by Phoenicia. See Persia:
Ancient History, for the whole of this section.

2 Justin xviii. 3 tells a story about Tyre during this period:
the city, after being worn out though not defeated in long wars
with the Persians, was so enfeebled that it was seized by the slaves,
who rose and massacred their masters; one Straton alone escaped
and was afterwards made king. The reference to the Persians is
obviously incorrect; the story, if it can be taken seriously at all,
must refer to one of the sieges by the Assyrians or Chaldaeans, and,
as Meyer suggests (Ency. Bib. col. 3760), may be derived from the
story of Abdalonymus of Sidon mentioned below.

3 See especially E. Babelon, Les Perses Ach&minides, and cf.
NSI. No. 149.

to obtain much information. The native inscriptions, however,
now become available, though most of them belong to the period
which follows, and only a few have been discovered in Phoenicia
itself. One of the earliest of these is the inscription of Byblus
{CIS. i. i — NSI. No. 3), dating from the Persian period; it
records a dedication made by Yehaw-milk, king of Gebal, and
mentions the name of the king's grandfather, Uri-milk, but the
exact dates of their reign are not given.

When Alexander the Great entered Phoenicia after the battle
of Issus (333 B.C.), the kings were absent with the Persian fleet
in the Aegean; but the cities of Aradus, Byblus and Toe
Sidon welcomed him readily, the last-named showing Macedonian
special zeal against Persia. The Tyrians also offered Period,
submission, but refused to allow the conqueror 333 " 69 B - c -
to enter the city and sacrifice to the Tyrian Heracles. Alexander
was determined to make an example of the first who should
offer opposition, and at once began the siege. It lasted seven
months. With enormous toil the king drove out a mole from
the mainland to the island and thus brought up his engines;
ships from the other Phoenician towns and from Cyprus lent
him their aid, and the town at length was forced in July 332;
8000 Tyrians were slain, 30,000 sold as slaves, and only a few
notables, the king Azemilkos, and the festal envoys from Carthage
who had taken refuge in the sanctuary of Melkarth, were spared
(Diod. xvii. 40-46). It is not unlikely that Zech. ix. 2-4 refers
to this famous siege. For the time Tyre lost its political
existence, while the foundation of Alexandria presently changed
the lines of trade, and dealt a blow even more fatal to the
Phoenician cities.

During the wars of Alexander's successors Phoenicia changed
hands several times between the Egyptian and the Syrian
kings. Thus in 312 Tyre was captured from Antigonus by
Ptolemy I., the ally of Seleucus; in 287 it passed into the domin-
ion of Seleucus; in 275 again it was captured by Ptolemy II.
Philadelphus, and began to recover itself as an autonomous
municipality. From the year 275 " the people of Tyre "
reckoned their era (CIS. i. 7 = NSI. No. 9, cf. 10). The
Tyrian coins of the period, stamped with native, Greek and
Egyptian symbols, illustrate the traditional relations of the
city and the range of her ambitions. A special interest attaches
to these silver tetradrachms and didrachms (staters and half-
staters), because they were used by the Jews for the payment
of the temple tax as "shekels of the sanctuary " (NSI. pp.

35i. 44).

Among the Phoenician states we know most about Sidon
during this period. The kingship was continued for a long
time. The story goes that Alexander raised to the throne a
member of the royal family, Abdalonymus, who was living in
obscure poverty and working as a gardener (Justin xi. 10; Curt,
iv. 1; Diod. xvii. 47 wrongly connecting the story with Tyre).
In 312 Ptolemy, then master of Phoenicia, appointed his
general Philocles king of the Sidonians, and a decree in honour
of this king has been found at Athens (Michel, No. 387, cf. 1261);
but he cannot have reigned long. For at the end of the 4th
and the beginning of the 3rd century we have evidence of a
native dynasty in the important inscriptions of Tabnith, Esh-
mun-'azar and Bod-'ashtart, and in the series of inscriptions
(repeating the same text) discovered at Bostan esh-Shekh near
Sidon (NSI. Nos. 4, 5, 6 and App. i.). 4 The last-named texts
imply that the first king of this dynasty was Eshmun-'azar;
his son Tabnith succeeded him; then came Eshmun-'azar II.,
who died young, then Bod-'ashtart, both of them grandsons
of Eshmun-'azar I. With Bod-'ashtart, so far as we know,
the dynasty came to an end, say about 250 B.C.; and it is not
unlikely that the Sidonians reckoned an era of independence
from this event (NSI. p. 95 «.).

Of the other Phoenician cities something is known of the history
of Aradus. Its era began in 259 B.C., when it probably became a
republic or free city. While the rest of Phoenicia passed under the

4 The date of this dynasty has been much disputed ; but the
reference to " the lord of kings " in the great inscr. of Eshmun-
'azar (line 18) points to the Ptolemaic period, for the Persian monarch
is always styled " king of kings." The interpretation of many
details of the inscr. from Bostan esh-Shekh is still uncertain.

454

PHOENICIA

rule of Ptolemy II. and his successors between 281 and 197, Aradus
remained in the kingdom of the Seleucids, who greatly favoured the
city and increased its privileges (Strabo xvi. 2, 14; Polyb. v. 68).
But its subject-towns availed themselves of the political changes of
the period to throw off their allegiance; Marathus from 278 begins
to issue a coinage bearing the heads of the Ptolemies, and later on
Karne asserted its independence in the same way ; but in the end the
Aradians recovered their supremacy. Diodorus records a barbarous
attempt made by the Aradians, about 148 B.C. to destroy Marathus,
which was frustrated by the pity and courage of an Aradian fisher-
man (xxxiii. 5)._ At last in the time of Tigranes, the Armenian
holder of the kingdom of the Seleucids, or soon afterwards, the
coins of Marathus cease; the city was levelled to the ground, and its
land, with that of Simyra, was parcelled out among tha Aradians
(Strabo xvi. 2, 12). Akko issued coins of its own down to 267 B.C.,
if the reckoning was from the Seleucid era (312 B.C.); in 267 it was
converted into a Greek city by Ptolemy, and called Ptolemais
(Polyb. iv. 37; Strabo xvi. 2, 25; cf. Acts xxi. 7). Laodicea of
Libanus was founded by Seleucus Nicator on the plain south-east
of Hemesa (rjoms) in the region of the upper Orontes, and became
an important city; its coins of the 2nd century B.C. bear the interest-
ing legend in Phoenician, " Of Laodicea which is in Canaan " (NSI.
p. 349 seq.). Another Laodicea " by the sea " (ad mare), also of
Seleucid foundation, is probably to be identified with the ruined
site called Um'm el-'Awamid. near the coast between Tyre and Akko;
several Phoenician inscriptions have been found there (e.g. CIS.,
i. J = NSI. No. 9; Clermont Ganneau, Recueil, t. v.).

After the death of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes in 164 B.C.,
revolts and adventurers made their appearance in many parts
of Syria, heralding the collapse of the kingdom of the Seleucids.
Berytus was destroyed by the usurper Trypho in 140 B.C. Tyre
in 120 and Sidon in 11 1 received complete independence, and
inaugurated new eras from these dates. Byblus and Tripolis
fell into the hands of " tyrants " (Strabo xvi. 2, 18; Jos. Ant.
xiv. 3, 2), and Arab robbers plundered their territories from
strongholds in the Lebanon. From 83-69 B.C. the entire kingdom
was held by the Armenian Tigranes.

At last in 64 B.C. Pompey arrived upon the scene and established
order out of chaos. Phoenicia was incorporated into the Roman
province of Syria; Aradus, Sidon, Tyre and Tripolis
rule. were confirmed in their rights of self-government

and in the possession of their territories. In 14 B.C.
Augustus rebuilt Berytus as a Roman colony and stationed two
legions there; later on Ptolemais, Tyre and Sidon received
colonial status. Under the beneficent government of Rome the
chief towns prospered and extended their trade; but the whole
character of the country underwent a change. During the
Macedonian period Greek influences had been steadily gaining
ground in Phoenicia; relations with the Greek world grew closer;
the native language fell into disuse, and from the beginning of
the Roman occupation Greek appears regularly in inscriptions
and on coins, though on the latter Phoenician legends do not
entirely vanish till the 2nd century a.d.; while the extent to
which Hellenic ideas penetrated the native traditions and
mythologies is seen in the writings of Philo of Byblus. For the
purposes of everyday life, however, the people spoke not Greek,
but Aramaic. As elsewhere, the Roman rule tended to obliterate
characteristic features of national life, and under it the native
language and institutions of Phoenicia became extinct.

Navigation, Trade, Colonies. — The Phoenicians were essentially
a seafaring nation. Fearless and patient navigators, they
ventured into regions where no one else dared to go, and, always
with an eye to their monopoly, they carefully guarded the secrets
of their trade routes and discoveries, and their knowledge of
winds and currents. At the beginning of the 7th century B.C. a
Phoenician fleet is said to have circumnavigated Africa (Herod,
iv. 42). To the great powers Phoenician ships and sailors were
indispensable; Sennacherib, Psammetichus and Necho, Xerxes,
Alexander, all in turn employed them for their transports and
sea-fights. Even when Athens had developed a rival navy
Greek observers Doted with admiration the discipline kept on
board the Phoenician ships and the skill with which they were
handled (Xen. Oec. viii.';; all the Phoenician vessels from the
round merchant-boat (yavhos — after which the island of Gaulus,
now Gozo, near Malta was called) to the great Tarshish-ships,
the " East-Indiamen " of the ancient world, excelled those of
the Greeks in speed and equipment. As E. Meyer points out,

the war between the Greeks and the Persians was mainly a
contest between the sea-powers of Greece and Phoenicia. At
what period did Phoenicia first rise to be a power in the Mediter-
ranean? We are gradually approaching a solution of this
obscure problem. Recent discoveries in Crete (q.v.) have brought
to light the existence of a Cretan or " Minoan " sea-power of
remote antiquity, and it is clear that a great deal of what used
to be described as Phoenician must receive quite a different
designation. The Minoan sea-power was at last broken up by
invaders from the north, and a Carian rule became dominant
in the Aegean (Herod, i. 171; Thucyd. i. 4, 8). It was a time
of disorder and conflict due to the immigration of new races
into the ancient seats of civilization, and it synchronized with
the weakening of the power of Egypt in the countries which
bordered on the eastern Mediterranean. This was in the 12th
century B.C. The Tyrian trader saw that his opportunity was
come, and the Aegean lay open to his merchant vessels. Where
much is still obscure, all that seems certain is that the antiquity
of Phoenicia as a sea and trading power has been greatly
exaggerated both in ancient and in modern times; the Minoan
power of Cnossus preceded it by many centuries; the influence
of Phoenicia in the Aegean cannot be carried back much earlier
than the 12th century b.c, and, comparatively speaking, it was
" foreign, late, sporadic." 1

A vivid description of the Phoenicians' trade at the time of
Tyre's prosperity is given by Ezekiel (xxvii. 12-25), and it shows
how extensive were their commercial relations not only by sea,
but by land as well. It was they who distributed to the rest
of the world the wares of Egypt and Babylonia (Herod, i. 1).
From the lands of the Euphrates and Tigris regular trade-routes
led to the Mediterranean with trading-stations on the way,
several of which are mentioned by Ezekiel (xxvii. 23). In Egypt
the Phoenician merchants soon gained a foothold; they alone
were able to maintain a profitable trade in the anarchic times
of the XXIInd and XXIIIrd Dynasties (825-650 B.C.), when all
other foreign merchants were frightened away. Though there
were never any regular colonies of Phoenicians in Egypt, the
Tyrians had a quarter of their own in Memphis (Herod, ii. 112).
The Arabian caravan-trade in perfume, spices and incense passed
through Phoenician hands on its way to Greece and the West
(Herod, iii. 107); these articles of commerce were mainly pro-
duced not in Arabia, but in East Africa and India, and the trade
had its centre in the wealthy state of Sheba in Yemen. Between
Israel and Phoenicia the relations naturally were close; the
former provided certain necessaries of life, and received in
exchange articles of luxury and splendour (Ezek. xxvii. 16-18). 2
Israelite housewives sold their homespun to Phoenician pedlars
(Prov. xxxi. 24 R.V.M.); in Jerusalem Phoenician merchants
and money-lenders had their quarter (Zeph. i. n), and after
the Return we hear of Tyrians selling fish and all manner of ware
in the city (Neh. xiii. 16), and introducing other less desirable
imports, such as foreign cults (Isa. lxv. n). The Phoenician
words which made their way into Greek at an early period indi-
cate the kind of goods in which the Phoenicians traded with the
West, or made familiar through their commerce; the following
are some of them — xP V0 ~°s, X^v, fivtraos, bdbvr), fiiippa, vafiXa,
KVTrpos, 4>vkos, fiva, TraWads, PciitvXos. Another valuable
article of commerce which the Phoenicians brought into the
market was amber. They can hardly have fetched it themselves
from the Baltic or the North Sea; it came to them by two well-
marked routes, one from the Baltic to the Adriatic, the other
up the Rhine and down the Rhone. A deposit of amber has
also been found in the Lebanon, and perhaps the Phoenicians
worked this and concealed its origin.

1 Burrows, Discoveries in Crete (1907), 140 sqq. It may be noted
that the traditional or conjectural dates based upon the list of the
Thalassocracies preserved by Eusebius carry us back to the 12th
century B.C. See Professor John L. Myres's essay referred to above,
§ iii- (4)-

2 See Eupolemus (140-100 B.C.) quoted by Alexander Polyhistor,
who, in a supposed letter from Solomon to the king of Tyre,
mentions the food-supplies required by the Tyrians and promised
from Palestine (Fr. Hist. Gr. iii. 226).

PHOENICIA

455

The Phoenician colonies were all supposed to have been founded
from Tyre: with regard to the colonies in Cyprus and north
Africa this was undoubtedly true. Cyprus possessed resources
of timber and copper which could not fail to tempt the keen-eyed
traders across the water, who made Citium (from Kittim, the
name of the original non-Semitic inhabitants) their chief settle-
ment, and thence established themselves in Idalium, Tamassus,
Lapethus, Larnaka, Qarth-hadasht (Karti-hadasti) and other
towns. In the inscriptions of the 4th to 3rd centuries, the
Phoenician potentates in the island call themselves " kings of
Kition and Idalion " (NSI. pp. 55-89). But the Phoenician
rule was not so ancient as used to be supposed. At an early
period Greeks from the south coast of Asia Minor had settled
in Cyprus before the Phoenicians founded any colonies there;
and it is noticeable that in the Assyrian tribute-lists of the latter
half of the 7th century (KB. ii. pp. 149, 241) not one of the ten
Cyprian kings mentioned appears to be Phoenician by name.
Menander states (Jos. Ant. ix. 14, 2) that the kings of Tyre
ruled over Cyprus at the close of the 8th century; but a clear
proof that the Phoenician rule was neither ancient nor uninter-
rupted is given by the fact that the Cyprian Greeks took the
trouble to invent a Greek cuneiform character (Cypriote) modelled
on the Assyrian.

Homer represents the Phoenicians as present in Greek waters
for purposes of traffic, but not as settlers (II. xxiii. 744). They
occupied tradjng-stations on some of the Aegean islands and
on the Isthmus of Corinth. One of their objects was the collec-
tion of murex, of which an enormous supply was needed for the
dyeing industry; specially famous was the purple of the Laconian
waters, the isles of Elishah of Ezek. xxvii. 7. But a great deal
of what was formerly assigned to Phoenician influence in the
Aegean at an early period — pottery, ornaments and local myths
— must be accounted for by the vigorous civilization of ancient
Crete. In the Greek world the Phoenicians made themselves
heartily detested; their characteristic passion for gain (rd
<f>t,\oxpyfJ-a-Tov, Plato, Rep. iv. 435 E.) was not likely to in-
gratiate them with those who were compelled to make use of
their services while they suffered from their greed.

Farther west in the Mediterranean Phoenician settlements
were planted first in Sicily, on the south coast, at Heraclea or
Ras Melqarth; the islands between Sicily and Africa, Melita
(Malta) on account of its valuable harbour, Gaulus and Cossura
were also occupied (Diod. v. 12); and a beginning was made with
the colonization of Sardinia and Corsica; but farther west still,
and on the Atlantic coasts to the right and left of the straits,
more permanent colonies were established. It was the trade
with Tarshish, i.e. the region of Tartessus in south-west Spain,
which contributed most to the Phoenicians' wealth; for in this
region they owned not only profitable fisheries, but rich mines
of silver and other metals. The profits of the trade were
enormous; it was said that even the anchors of ships returning
from Spain were made of silver (Diod. v. 35).- From Gadeira
(Punic Gader, Lat. Gades, now Cadiz), the town which they built
on an island near the mouth of the Guadalquiver, the Sidonian
ships ventured farther on the ocean and drew tin from the mines
of north-west Spain or from the richer deposits in the Cassiterides,
i.e. the Tin Islands. These were discovered to be, not a part of
Britain as was imagined at first, but a separate group by them-
selves, now known as the Scillies; hence it is improbable that
the Phoenicians ever worked the tin-mines in Cornwall.

The rich trade with Spain led to the colonization of the West.
Strabo dates the settlements beyond the Pillars of Hercules soon
after the Trojan War (i. 3, 2), in the period of Tyre's first expan-
sion. Lixus in Mauretania, Gades and Utica, are said to have been
founded, one after the other, as far back as the 12th century B.C.
Most of the African colonies were no doubt younger; we have
traditional dates for Aoza (887-855) and Carthage (813). A
large part of North-west Africa was colonized from Phoenicia;
owing to these first settlers, and after them to the Carthaginians,
the Phoenician language became the prevailing one, just as
Latin and Arabic did in later times, and the country assumed
quite a Phoenician character.

In the days of Tyre's greatness her power rested directly on the
colonies, which, unlike those of Greece, remained subject to the
mother-city, and paid tithes of their revenues to its chief god,
Melqarth, and sent envoys annually to his feast. Then at the
beginning of the 8th century B.C. the colonial power of Tyre began
to decline ; on the mainland and in Cyprus the Assyrians gained
the upper hand; in the Greek islands the Phoenicians had already
been displaced to a great extent by the advancing tide of Dorian
colonization. But as Tyre decayed in power the colonies turned
more and more to Carthage as their natural parent and protector.
For effective control over a colonial empire Carthage had the
advantage of situation over far-away Tyre; the traditional
bonds grew lax and the ancient dues ceased to be paid, though
as late as the middle of the 6th century Carthage rendered tithes
to the Tyrian Melqarth. And the mother-country cherished
its claims long after they had lost reality; in the 2nd century
B.C., for example, Sidon stamped her coins with the legend,
" Mother of Kambe (i.e. Carthage), Hippo, Kition, Tyre "
(NSI. p. 352).

Manufactures, Inventions, Art. — From an early date the towns
of the Phoenician coast were occupied, not only with distributing
the merchandise of other countries but with working at industries
of their own; especially purple-dyeing and textile fabrics (II. vi.
289 sqq.), metal work in silver, gold and electrum (II. xxiii. 741 sqq.;
Od. iv. 615 sqq., xv. 458 sqq.), and glass-work, which had its seat at
Sidon. The iron and copper mines of Cyprus (not Sidon, as Homer
implies, Od. xv. 424) furnished the ore which was manufactured into
articles of commerce. 1 Egyptian monuments frequently mention the
vessels of gold and silver, iron and copper, made by the Dahi, i.e.
the Phoenicians (W. M. Miiller, As. u. Eur. 306) ; and in Cyprus and
at Nimrud bronze and silver paterae have been found, engraved
with Egyptian designs, the work of Phoenician artists (see table-
cases C and D in the Nimrud gallery of the Brit. Mus.). The inven-
tion of these various arts and industries was popularly ascribed, to
the Phoenicians, no doubt merely because Phoenician traders
brought the products into the market. But dyeing and embroidery
probably came from Babylon in the first instance; glass-making
seems to have been borrowed from Egypt ; the invention of arithmetic
and of weights and measures must be laid to the credit of the Baby-
lonians. The ancients believed that the Phoenicians invented the
use of the alphabet (e.g. Pliny, N.H. v. 13, cf. vii. 57; Lucan,
Bell. Civ. iii. 220 sen.) ; but it is unlikely that any genuine tradition on
the subject existed, and though the Phoenician theory has found
favour in modern times it is open to much question. The Phoeni-
cians cannot be said to have invented any of the arts or industries,
as the ancient world imagined; but what they did was something
hardly less meritorious: they developed them with singular skill,
and disseminated the knowledge and use of them.

The art of Phoenicia is characterized generally by its dependence
upon the art of the neighbouring races. It struck out no original
line of its own, and borrowed freely from foreign, especially Egyptian,
models. Remains of sculpture, engraved bronzes and gems, show
clearly the source to which the Phoenician artists went for inspira-
tion; for example, the uraeus-frieze and the winged disk, the ankh
or symbol of life, are Egyptian designs frequently imitated. It was
in the times of the Persian monarchy that Phoenician art raached
its highest development, and to this period belong the oldest sculp-
tures and coins that have come down to us. A characteristic
specimen of the former is the stele of Yehaw-milk, king of Gebal
(CIS. i. 1), in which the king is represented in Persian dress, and
the goddess to whom he is offering a bowl looks exactly like an
Egyptian Isis-Hathor; the inscription mentions the various objects
of bronze and gold, engraved work and temple furniture, which the
king dedicated. The whole artistic movement in Phoenicia may be
divided into two great periods: in the first, from the earliest times
to the 4th century B.C., Egyptian influence and then Babylonian
or Asiatic influence is predominant, but the national element is
strongly marked ; while in the second, Greek influence has obtained
the mastery, and the native element, though making itself felt,
is much less obtrusive. Throughout these periods works of art,
such as statues of the gods and sarcophagi, were imported direct
at first from Egypt and afterwards mainly from Rhodes. The
oldest example of native sarcophagi are copied from Egyptian
mummy-cases, painted with colours and ornamented with carvings
in low relief; towards and during the Greek period the contours of
the body begin to be marked more clearly on the cover. The finest
sarcophagi that have been found in the necropolis of Sidon (now in
the Imperial Museum, Constantinople) are not Phoenician at all,
but exquisite specimens of Greek art. The Phoenicians spent much
care on their burial-places, which have furnished the most important

1 Traces of ancient mining for iron have been found in the
Lebanon; cf. LXX. 1 Kings ii. 46c (ed. Swete), which has been taken
to refer to this quarrying in search of iron; Jer. xv. 12. , See
Benzinger on 1 Kings ix. 19.

456

PHOENICIA

monuments left to us. The tombs are subterranean chambers
of varied and often irregular form, sometimes arranged in two storeys,
sometimes in several rows one behind the other. While in early
times a mere perpendicular shaft led to these excavations, at a
later date stairs were constructed down to the chambers. The dead
were buried either in the floor (often in a sarcophagus), or, according
to later custom, in niches. The mouths of the tombs were walled
up and covered with slabs, and occasionally cippi (Phoen. masseboth)
were set up to mark the spot. The great sepulchral monuments,
popularly called magh&zti, t.e. " spindles," above the tombs near
Amrit, have peculiarities of their own; some of them are adorned
with lions at the base and with roofs of pyramidal shape. Besides
busts and figurines, which belong as a rule to the Greek period,
the smaller objects usually found are earthen pitchers and lamps,
glass-wares, tesserae and gems. Of buildings which can be called
architectural few specimens now exist on Phoenician soil, for the
reason that for ages the inhabitants have used the ruins as con-
venient quarries. Not a vestige remains of the great sanctuary
of Melqarth at Tyre ; a few traces of the temple of Adonis near Byblus
were discovered by Renan, and a peculiar mausoleum, Burj al-
Bezzaq , is still to be seen near Amrit ; recent excavations at Bostan
esh-Shekh near Sidon have unearthed parts of the enclosure or
foundations of the temple of Eshmun (NSI. p. 401); the conduits
of Ras el-'Ain, south of Tyre, are considered to be of ancient date.
With regard to the plan and design of a Phoenician temple, it is
probable that they were in many respects similar to those of the
temple at Jerusalem, and the probability is confirmed by the re-
mains of a sanctuary near Amrit, in which there is a cella standing
in the midst of a large court hewn out of the rock, together with
other buildings in an Egyptian style. The two pillars before the
porch of Solomon's temple (1 Kings vii. 21) remind us of the two
pillars which Herodotus saw in the temple of Melqarth at Tyre
(Herod, ii. 44), and of those which stood before the temples of
Paphos and Hierapolis (see W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sent. p. 468 seq.).

Religion. — Like the Canaanites of whom they formed a branch,
the Phoenicians connected their religion with the great powers and
processes of nature. 1 The gods whom they worshipped
17* . . belonged essentially to the earth ; the fertile field, trees
a "ds""" an< ^ mountains, headlands and rivers and springs, were
' believed to be inhabited by different divinities, who were

therefore primarily local, many in number, with no one in
particular supreme over the rest. It seems, however, that as time
went on some of them acquired a more extended character; thus
Ba'al and Astarte assumed celestial attributes in addition to
their earthly ones, and the Tyrian Melqarth combined a celestial
with a marine aspect. 2 The gods in general were called 'eloriim,
'elim; Plautus uses alonium valonuth for "gods and goddesses"
(Poen. v. I, 1). These plurals go back to the singular form 'El,
the common Semitic name for God ; but neither the singular nor the
plural is at all common in the inscriptions (NSI. pp. 24, 41, 51);
El by itself has been found only once; 3 the fem. 'Elath is also rare
(ibid. pp. 135, 158). The god or goddess was generally called the
Ba'al or Ba'alath of such and such a place, a title which was used not
only by the Canaanites, but by the Aramaeans (Be'el) and Babylo-
nians (Bel) as well. There was no one particular god called Baal;
the word is not a proper name but an appellative, a description of
the deity as owner or mistress; and the same is the case with Milk
or Melek, 'Adon, 'Amma, which mean king, lord, mother. The
god himself was unnamed or had no name. Occasionally we know
what the name was; the Baal of Tyre was Melqarth (Melkarth),
which again means merely " king of the city "; similarly among the
Aramaeans the Ba'al of Harran was the moon-god Sin. As each
city or district had its own Ba'al, the author of its fertility, the
" husband " (a common meaning of ba'al) of the land which he ferti-
lized, so there were many Ba'als, and the Old Testament writers
could allude to the Ba'alim of the neighbouring Canaanites. Some-
times the god received a distinguishing attribute which indicates
an association not with any particular place, but with some special
characteristic ; the most common forms are Ba'al-hamman, the chief
deity of Punic north Africa, perhaps " the glowing Ba'al," the god
of fertilizing warmth, and Ba'al-shamem, " Ba'al of the heavens." *
The latter deity was widely venerated throughout the North-
Semitic world ; his name, which does not appear in the Phoenician
inscriptions before the 3rd century B.C., implies perhaps a more
universal conception of deity than existed in the earlier days. 6

1 Cf. Hannibal's oath to Philip of Macedon; beside the named
deities he invokes the gods of " sun and moon and earth, of rivers
and meadows and waters " (Polyb. vii. 9).

2 This is well brought out by G. F. Hill, Church Quarterly Rev.
(April 1908), pp. 118-141, who specially emphasizes the evidence of
the Phoenician coins.

3 " To the lord 'El, which Ba'al-shillem . . . vowed," &c. ;
Clermont-Ganneau, Recueil, v. 376.

* Probably " the detested thing that causes horror " (oov ■ppv)
of Dan. xii. n , xi. 31 , &c, is an intentional disfigurement of ddb> 'rya,

6 The name has been found on an important Aramaic inscr.
from North Syria, dating c. 800 B.C., in which Zakir, king of
Hamath and La 'ash frequently speaks of his god Be'el-shamin
(Pognon, Inscr. sent, de la Syrie, 1908).

The worship of the female along with the male principk waft a
strongly marked feature of Phoenician religion. To judge from the
earliest evidence on the subject, the Ba'alath of Gebal or Byblus,
referred to again and again in the Amarna letters (Bilit ia Gubla,
Nos. 55-110), must have been the most popular of the Phoenician
deities, as her sanctuary was the oldest and most renowned. The
mistress of Gebal was no doubt 'Ashtart (Astarte in Greek, 'Ashtoreth
in the Old Testament, pronounced with the vowels of bosheth,
" shame "), a name which is obviously connected with the Babylon-
ian Ishtar, and, as used in Phoenician, is practically the equivalent
of " goddess." She represented the principle of fertility and genera-
tion; references to her cult at Gebal, Sidon, Ashkelon, in Cyprus
at Kition and Paphos, in Sicily at Eryx, in Gaulus, at Carthage,
are frequent in the inscriptions and elsewhere. The common
epithetsK&irpis and Ki>0epeia(of Kuthera in Cyprus) ,Cypria and Paphia,
show that she was identified with Aphrodite and Venus. Though
not primarily a moon-goddess, she sometimes appears in this
character (Lucian, Dea syr. § 4; Herodian v. 6, 10), and Herodotus
describes her temple at Ashkelon as that of the heavenly Aphrodite
(i. 105). We find her associated with Ba'al and called " the name of
Ba'al," i.e. his manifestation, though this rendering is disputed,
and some scholars prefer " 'Ashtart of the heaven of Ba'al " (NSI.
p. 37). Another goddess, specially honoured at Carthage, is Tanith
(pronunciation uncertain) ; nothing is known of her characteristics ;
she is regularly connected with Ba'al on the Carthaginian votive
tablets, and called " the face of Ba'al," i.e. his representative or
revelation, though again some question this rendering as too meta-
physical, and take " face of Ba'al " to be the name of a place, like
Peni'el (" face of 'El "). Two or three other deities may be men-
tioned here: Eshmun, the god of vital force and healing, worshipped
at Sidon especially, but also at Carthage and in the colonies, identi-
fied by the Greeks with Asclepius; Melqarth, the patron deity of
Tyre, identified with Heracles; Reshef or Reshuf, the " flame " or
" lightning " god, especially popular in Cyprus and derived originally
from Syria, whom trie Greeks called Apollo. A tendency to form a
distinct deity by combining the attributes of two produced such
curious fusions as Milk- 'ashtart, Milk-ba'al, Milk-'osir, Eshmun-
melqarth, Melqarth-resef, &c. As in the case of art and industries,
so in religion the Phoenicians readily assimilated foreign ideas. The
influence of Egypt was specially strong (NSI. pp. 62, 69, 148, 154);
thus the Astarte represented on the stele of Yehaw-milk, mentioned
above, has all the appearance of Isis, who, according to the legend
preserved by Plutarch (de Is. et Os. 15), journeyed to Byblus, where
she was called Astarte. The Phoenician settlers at the Peiraeus
worshipped the Assyrian Nergal, and their proper names are com-
pounded with the names of Babylonian and Arabian deities (NSI.
p. 101). Closer intimacy with the Greek world naturally brought
about modifications in the character of the native gods, which
became apparent when Ba'al of Sidon or Ba'al-shamem was identified
with Zeus, Tanith with Demeter or Artemis, 'Anath with Athena,
&c. ; the notion of a supreme Ba'al, which finds expression in the
Greek /9i)Xos and /3aaXr£s or /S^XSijs (the goddess of Byblus), was no
doubt encouraged by foreign influences. On the other hand, the
Phoenicians produced a considerable effect upon Greek and Roman
religion, especially from the religious centres in Cyprus and Sicily.
A great number of divinities are known only as elements in proper
names, e.g. Sakun-yathon (Sanchuniathon), 'Abd-sasom, Sed-yathon,
and fresh ones are continually being discovered. It was the custom
among the Phoenicians, as among other Semitic nations, to use the
names of the gods in forming proper names and thus to express devo-
tion or invoke favour; thus Hanni-ba'al, "Abd-melqarth, Hanni-
'ashtart, Eshmun- 'azar. The proper names further illustrate the
way in which the relation of man to God was regarded ; the common-
est forms are servant ('abd, e.g. 'Abd-'ashtart), member or limb bod,
e.g. Bod-melqarth), client or guest (ger, e.g. Ger-eshmun) ; the
religious idea of the guest of a deity had its origin in the social custom
of extending hospitality to a stranger and in the old Semitic right
of sanctuary. The interpretation of such names as 'Abi-ba'al
(father of Ba'al), Himilkath (brother of Milkath), Hiram (brother
of the exalted one) is not altogether certain, and can hardly be
discussed here. 6

Probably like other Canaanites the Phoenicians offered worship
" on every high hill and under every green tree " ; but to judge from
the allusions to sanctuaries in the inscriptions and else-
where, the Ba'al or 'Ashtart of a place was usually o??*?
worshipped at a temple, which consisted of a court or vyj^ht"
enclosure and a roofed shrine with a portico or pillared p '

hall at the entrance. In the court sometimes stood a conical stone,
probably the symbol of Astarte, as on the Roman coins of Byblus
(illustrated in Rawlinson, Phoenicia, 146, Perrot et Chipiez, Hist,
de I' art, iii. 60; see also Ohnefalsch-Richter, Cyprus, pi. lvi., the
temenos at Idalion). Stone or bronze images of the gods were set
up in the sanctuaries (NSI. Nos. 13 seq., 23-27, 30, &c.) ; and besides
these the baetylia (meteoric stones) which were regarded as symbols
of the gods. Pillars, again, had a prominent place in the court or be-
fore the shrine (nasab, ibid. pp. 102 seq.) ; but it is not known whether
the sacred pole ('asherah), an invariable feature of a Canaanite sanc-
tuary, was usual in a Phoenician temple (ibid. pp. 50 seq.). The

6 See Frazer, Adonis, Attis, Osiris, 44 seq.

PHOENIX

457

inscriptions mention altars of stone and bronze, and from the sacrificial
tariffs which have survived we learn that the chief types of sacrifice
among the Phoenicians were analogous to those which we find in
the Old Testament (ibid. p. 117). The ghastly practice of sacrificing
human victims was resorted to in times of great distress {e.g. at
Carthage, Diod. xx. 14), or to avert national disaster (Porphyry,
de Abstin, ii. 56); Philo gives the legend that Cronus or El sacrificed
his only son when his country was threatened with war (Fr. hist.
gr. iii. 570) ; it was regarded as a patriotic act when Hamilcar
threw himself upon the pyre after the disastrous battle of Himera
(Herod, vii. 167). The god who demanded these victims, and
especially the burning of children, seems to have been Milk, the
Molech or Moloch of the Old Testament. In this connexion may be
mentioned the custom of burning the chief god of the city in effigy,
or in the person of a human representative, at Tyre and in the Tyrian
colonies, such as Carthage and Gades; the custom lasted down to a
late time (see Frazer, loc. cit. ch. v.). Another horrible sacrifice was
regularly demanded by Phoenician religion: women sacrificed their
virginity at the shrines of Astarte in the belief that they thus pro-
pitiated the goddess and won her favour (Frazer, ibid. ch. iii.) ; licen-
tious rites were the natural accompaniment of the worship of the
reproductive powers of nature. These temple prostitutes are called
qedeshim qedeshoth, i.e. sacred men, women, in the Old Testament
(Deut. xxiii. 18; I Kings xiv. 24, &c). Other persons attached to a
temple were priests, augurs, sacrificers, barbers, officials in charge
of the curtains, masons, &c. (NSI. No. 20) ; we hear also of
religious gilds and corporations, perhaps administrative councils,
associated with the sanctuaries (ibid. pp. 94, 121, 130, 144 seq.).
No doubt the Phoenicians had their legends and myths to account
for the origin of man and the universe; to some extent these would
1 have resembled the ideas embodied in the book of
rf» im Genesis. Two cosmogonies have come down to us
"" m which, though they differ in details, are fundamentally
ous eas. j n a g reemen): The one; f Sidonian origin, is pre'
served by Damascius (de prim, principiis, 125) and received at
his hands a Neoplatonic interpretation; this cosmogony was
probably the writing which Strabo ascribes to a Sidonian philosopher,
Mochus, who lived before the Trojan times (xvi. 2, 24). The other
and more elaborate work was composed by Philo of Byblus (temp.
Hadrian) ; he professed that he had used as his authority the writings
of Sanchuniathon (q.v.), an ancient Phoenician sage, who again
derived his information from the mysterious inscribed stones
(innoweis = d - :ot, i.e. images or pillars of Ba'al-bamman) in
the Phoenician temples. Philo's cosmogony has been preserved,
at least in fragments, by Eusebius in Praep. evang. vol. i. (Fr. hist,
gr. iii. 563 sqq.). It cannot, however, betaken seriously as an account
of genuine Phoenician beliefs. For Sanchuniathon is a mere literary
fiction ; and Philo's treatment is vitiated by an obvious attempt to
explain the whole system of religion on the principles of Euhemerus,
an agnostic who taught the traditional mythology as primitive
history, and turned all the gods and goddesses into men and women ;
and further by a patriotic desire to prove that Phoenicia could outdo
Greece in the venerable character of its traditions, that in fact Greek
mvthology was simply a feeble and distorted version of the Phoeni-
cian. 1 At the same time Philo did not invent all the nonsense which
he has handed down; he drew upon various sources, Greek and
Egyptian, some of them ultimately of Babylonian origin, and in-
cidentally he mentions matters of interest which, when tested by
other evidence, are fairly well supported. He shows at any rate
that some sort of a theology existed in his day ; particularly interest-
ing is his description of the symbolic figure of Cronus with eyes before
and behind and six wings open and folded (Fr. hist. gr. iii. 569), a
figure which is represented on the coins of Gebal-Byblus (2nd cen-
tury B.C.) as the mythical founder of the city. It is evident that
the gods were regarded as being intimately concerned with the
lives and fortunes of their worshippers. The vast number of small
votive tablets found at Carthage prove this: they were all inscribed
by grateful devotees " to the lady Tanith, Face of Ba'al, and the
lord Ba'al-hamman, because he heard their voice." The care which
the Phoenicians bestowed upon the burial of the dead has been
alluded to above; pillars (masseboth) were set up to commemorate
the dead among the living (e.g. NSI. Nos. 18, 19, 21, 32); if there
were no children to fulfil the pious duty, a monument would be set
up by a man during his lifetime (ibid. No. 16; cf. 2 Sam. xviii. 18).
Any violation of the tomb was regarded with the greatest horror
(ibid. Nos. 4, 5). The grave was called a resting-place (ibid. Nos. 4,
5, 16, 21), and the departed lay at rest in the underworld with the
Refaim, the weak ones (the same word and idea in the Old Testa-
ment, Isa. xiv. 9, xxvi. 14, 19; Job xxvi. 5; Ps. lxxxviii. 11, &c).
The curious notion prevailed, as it did also among the Greeks and
Romans, that it was possible to communicate with the gods of the
underworld by dropping into a grave a small roll of lead (tabella
devotionis, NSI. No. 50), inscribed with the message, generally a
curse, which it was desired to convey to them.

Bibliography. — The principal works bearing on the subject
have been mentioned in the text and notes of this article. The

following may be added: Movers, Die Phonizier (1842-1856), to be
used with caution; Renan, Mission de Phenicie (1864); Schroder,
Die phonizische Sprache (1869); Stade in Morgenlandische Forsch-
ungen (1875); W. Baudissin, Studien zur semitischen Religions-
geschichte (1876, 1878) ; Baethgen, Beitrdge zur semitischen Religions-
geschichte (1888) ; Levy, Siegel und Gemmen (1869) ; J. L. Myres and
Richter, Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum (1899) ; G. F. Hill, Catalogue
of the Greek Coins of Cyprus (1904) ; V. Berard, Les PUniciens et
I'Odyssee (1902-1903); Lidzbarski, Ephemeris filr semitische Epi-
graphik (1902-1906); H. Winckler, Altorientalische Forschungen
(1893-1906); Freiherr von Landau, " Die Bedeutung der Phonizier
im Volkerleben " in Ex oriente lux (Leipzig, 1905), vol. i. ; Bruston,
Etudes Phin. (1903) ; the articles by Thatcher in Hastings's Diet. Bible
(1900) and by E. Meyer in the Ency. Bib. (1902). The articles by A.
von Gutschmid and Albrecht Socin in the Ency. Brit. (9th ed.) have
been to some extent incorporated in the present article. (G. A. C. *)

PHOENIX (Gr. cj)divi£), a fabulous sacred bird of the Egyptians.
The Greek word is also used for a date-palm, a musical in-
strument like a guitar, and the colour purple-red or crimson.
According to the story told to Herodotus (ii. 73), the bird
came from Arabia every 500 years, bearing his father embalmed
in a ball of myrrh, and buried him in the temple of the sun.
Herodotus, who had never seen the phoenix himself, did not
believe this story, but he tells us that the pictures of it represented
a bird with golden and red plumage, closely resembling an eagle
in size and shape. According to Pliny (Nat. hist. x. 2), there
is only one phoenix at a time, and he, at the close of his long life,
builds himself a nest with twigs of cassia and frankincense, on
which he dies; from his corpse is generated a worm which grows
into the young phoenix. Tacitus (Ann. vi. 28) says that the
young bird lays his father on the altar in the city of the sun, or
burns him there; but the most familiar form of the legend is that
in the Physiologus (q.v.), where the phoenix is described as an
Indian bird which subsists on air for 506 years, after which,
lading his wings with spices, he flies to Heliopolis, enters the
temple there, and is burned to ashes on the altar. Next day
the young phoenix is already feathered; on the third day his
pinions are full grown, he salutes the priest and flies away. The
period at which the phoenix reappears is very variously stated,
some authors giving as much as 1461 or even 7006 years, but
500 years is the period usually named; and Tacitus tells us that
the bird was said to have appeared first under Sesostris (Senwosri),
then under Amasis (Ahmosi) II., under Ptolemy III., and once
again in a.d. 34, after an interval so short that the genuineness
of the last phoenix was suspected. The phoenix that was shown
at Rome in the year of the secular games (a.d. 47) was universally
admitted to be an imposture. 2

The form and variations of these stories characterize them as
popular tales rather than official theology; but they evidently
must have had points of attachment in the mystic religion of
Egypt, and indeed both Horapollon and Tacitus speak of the
phoenix as a symbol of the sun. Now we know from the Book of
Ike Dead, and other Egyptian texts, that a stork, heron or egret

called the benu

was one of the sacred symbols of the worship

1 An excellent and critical account of Philo's work is given by
Lagrange, itudes sur les rel. sim (2nd ed., 1905), ch. xi.

of Heliopolis, and A. Wiedemann (" Die Phonix-Sage im alten
Aegypten " in Zeitschrift fur agyptische Sprache, xvi. 89) has
made it tolerably clear that the benu was a symbol of the rising
sun, whence it is represented as " self-generating " and called
" the soul of Ra (the sun)," " the heart of the renewed Sun."
All the mystic symbolism of the morning sun, especially in
connexion with the doctrine of the future life, could thus be
transferred to the benu, and the language of the hymns in which
the Egyptians praised the luminary of dawn as he drew near
2 Some other ancient accounts may be here referred to. That
ascribed to Hecataeus is, in the judgment of C. G. Gobet (Mnemosyne,
1883), stolen from Herodotus by a late forger. The poem of the
Jew Ezechiel quoted by Eusebius (Praep. ev. ix. 29, 30) appears
to refer to the phoenix. Here the sweet song is first mentioned—
a song which, according to the poem on the phoenix ascribed to
Lactantius, accompanies the rising sun. The bird is often spoken
of in Latin poetry, and is the subject of an idyll by Claudian. See
also Solinus, Collectanea, ch. xxxiii. II, with Salmasius's Exercita-
tiones; Tertullian, De resur. carnis, c. 13; Clemens Rom. Epp. ad
Corinthios, i. 25 and the (? Clementine) Apostolical Conshtutwns,
v. 7

45 8

PHOENIX— PHONETICS

from Arabia, delighting the gods with his fragrance and rising
from the sinking flames of the morning glow, was enough
to suggest most of the traits materialized in the classical pictures
of the phoenix. That the benu is the prototype of the phoenix
is further confirmed by the fact that the former word in Egyptian
means also " palm-tree," just as the latter does in Greek. The
very various periods named make it probable that the periodical
return of the phoenix belongs only to vulgar legend, materia-
lizing what the priests knew to be symbolic. Of the birds of the
heron family the gorgeous colours and plumed head spoken of
by Pliny and others would be least inappropriate to the purple
heron (Ardea purpurea), with which, or with the allied Ardea
cinerea, it has been identified by Lepsius and Peters (Alteste
Texte des Todtenbuchs, 1867, p. 51). But the golden and purple
hues described by Herodotus may be the colours of sunrise rather
than the actual hues of the purple heron. How Herodotus
came to think that the bird was like an eagle is quite unexplained ;
perhaps this is merely a slip of memory.

Many commentators still understand the word "?i't, chol, in Job
xxix. 18 (A.V. " sand ") of the phoenix. This interpretation is
perhaps as old as the (original) Septuagint, and is current with the
later Jews. Among the Arabs the story of the phoenix was confused
with that of the salamander; and the samand or samandal (Damiri,
ii. 36 seq.) is represented sometimes as a quadruped, sometimes as
a bird. It was firmly believed in, for the incombustible cloths
woven of flexible asbestos were popularly thought to be made of its
hair or plumage, and were themselves called by the same name
(cf. Yaqut i. 529, and Dozy, s.v.). The 'anka (Pers. simurgh), a
stupendous bird like the roc (rukh) of Marco Polo and the Arabian
Nights, also borrows some features of the phoenix. According to
Kazwini (i. 420) it lives 1700 years, and when a young bird is hatched
the parent of opposite sex burns itself alive. In the book of Kalila
and Dimna the simiir or 'anka is the king of birds, the Indian garuda,
on whom Vishnu rides!

PHOENIX, the capital of Arizona, U.S.A., and the county-
seat of Maricopa county, situated on the Salt river, in the
south central part of the state. Pop. (1890), 3152; (1900),
5544 (935 being foreign-born and 148 negroes); (1910) 11,134.
It is served by the Arizona Eastern and the Santa Fe,
Prescott & Phoenix railways, the former connecting at Mari-
copa (35 m. distant) with the Southern Pacific and the latter
connecting at Ash Fork, near Prescott (194 m. distant), with
the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe. The city is a popular winter
and health resort, with a fine dry climate. The city is the see of
a Protestant Episcopal bishopric. About 3 m. north of the city
is the Phoenix (non-reservation) boarding-school for Indians,
supported by the United States government, with an average
attendance of about 700 pupils. The city lies in a great plain,
in the centre of a region of pastures, gardens and orchards, the
largest and most beautiful farming district of Arizona, irrigated
with water stored by the great Roosevelt dam (about 70 m.
north-east of Phoenix). Local interests are almost entirely in
agriculture, stock-raising and fruit-growing. In the surrounding
region are several large ostrich farms and a small exhibition
ranch. Phoenix was settled in 1870, became the county-seat
on the organization of Maricopa county in 187 1, was incorporated
in 1 88 1, and became the capital of Arizona in 1889.

PHOENIX ISLANDS, a group of eight small islands in the
Pacific Ocean, about 3 S., and 172 W., belonging to Great
Britain. They have a land area about 16 sq. m. and a popula-
tion of 60. Their names are Phoenix, Gardner (Kemin), Hull,
Sydney, Birnie, Enderbury, Canton (Mary) and McKean. To
the north-west of the group (between the equator and i° N.)
lie two more islets — Baker and Howland. The islands were
annexed by Great Britain in 1889-1892.

PHOENIXVILLE, a borough of Chester county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the Schuylkill river at the mouth of French Creek,
about 28 m. north-west of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890), 8514;
(1900), 9196, of whom 2221 were foreign-born and 278 were
negroes; (1910 census), 10,743. If ls served by the Pennsylvania
(Schuylkill division) and the Philadelphia & Reading railways,
and by electric railway to Spring City (pop. in 1910, 2880),
5 m. north-west of Phoenixville on the Schuylkill. Phoenixville
is chiefly a manufacturing borough. Its blast-furnaces and iron
mills were long among the largest in the country, and the manu-

facture of steel is still the borough's predominant industry.
Phoenixville was settled in 1732, and was incorporated in 1849.

PHONETICS (Gr. <jx>ivq, voice), the science of speech-sounds
and the art of pronunciation. In its widest sense it is
the " science of voice," dealing .not only with articulate, but also
with the inarticulate sounds of animals as well as men. The
originally synonymous term, " phonology," is now restricted
to the history and theory of sound-changes. The most obvious
of the practical applications of phonetics is to the acquisition
of a correct pronunciation of foreign languages. But its applica-
tions to the study of the native language are not less important :
it is only by the help of phonetics that it is possible to deal
effectively with vulgarisms and provincialisms of pronunciation
and secure uniformity of speech; and it is only on a phonetic
basis that the deaf and dumb can be taught articulate speech.
From a more theoretical point of view phonetics is, in the first
place, the science of linguistic observation. Without phonetic
training the dialectologist, and the missionary who is confronted
with a hitherto unwritten language, can neither observe fully
nor record accurately the phenomena with which they have to
deal. These investigations have greatly widened the scope of
the science of language. The modern philologist no longer
despises colloquial and illiterate forms of speech. On the
contrary, he considers that in them the life and growth of
language is seen more clearly than in dead literary languages,
on whose study the science of comparative philology was at first
exclusively built up. It was not till philologists began to ask
what were the real facts underlying the comparisons of the written
words in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and the other Indo-European
languages, embodied in such generalizations as Grimm's Law,
that "letter-science" developed into "sound-science" (phono-
logy). The rise and decay of inflexions, and the development
of grammatical forms generally, are, from the formal point of
view, mainly phonetic problems; and phonetics enters more or
less into every department of historical and comparative
grammar.

Methods of Study and Investigation. — Phonetics is the science
of speech-sounds. But sounds may be 'considered from two
opposite points of view — the organic and the acoustic. From the
organic point of view a sound is the result of certain actions and
positions of the organs of speech, as when we define / as a lip-
teeth (dento-labial) consonant. This is the point of view of the
speaker of a language. To the hearer, on the other hand, / is
not a lip-teeth, but a hiss consonant similar to that denoted
by th. This is the acoustic point of view. Theoretically, the
organic study of phonetics is a branch of anatomy and physiology:
that part of these sciences which deals with the organs of speech
(see Mouth) and their functions (see Voice) ; ;while, from the
opposite point of view, the study of phonetics is based on that
branch of physical science known as acoustics (see Sound),
together with the anatomy and physiology of the organs of
Hearing (q.v.).

Unfortunately, this basis is still imperfect. The principles of
acoustics are well established, and we know much about the
anatomy of the ear. But how the ear transmits to the brain
the impression of sound is still a mystery. Again, although the
mechanism of the vowel is clear enough, there is still no generally
received acoustic theory of its formation. In fact, from the
physical science point of view there is as yet no science of
phonetics.

The real function of phonetics is philological and literary. The
only sound basis of a theoretical knowledge of phonetics is the
practical mastery of a limited number of sounds — that is to say,
of the sounds which are already familiar to the learner in his
own language. It is evident that the more familiar a sound is,
the easier it is to gain insight into its mechanism and to recognize
it when heard. It is indispensable to cultivate both the organic
and the acoustic sense. These processes we are continually
carrying out in ordinary conversation. All, therefore, that we
have to do in dealing with native sounds is to develop this
unconscious organic and acoustic sense into a conscious and
analytic one. The first step is to learn to isolate each sound: to

PHONETICS

459

pronounce it, as far as possible, apart from its context; and to
preserve it unchanged through every variation of length and
force, and in every combination of sounds. The next step is to
analyse its formation. Let the student, for instance, compare
the two consonants in such a word as five by isolating and
lengthening them till he can both hear and feel the voice-vibra-
tion in the second one. In the same way let him learn to feel the
changes in the position of the tongue and lips in passing from
one vowel to another. When the native sounds have been
thoroughly studied in this way, the learner will proceed to foreign
sounds, deducing each new sound from those which are already
familiar to him.

The natural method of learning sounds is mainly a subjective
one. We listen patiently till our ears are steeped, as it were, in
the sound ; and then, after repeated trials, we hit on the exact
position of the organs of speech by which we can reproduce the sound
to the speaker's satisfaction. But the natural method admits
also of objective control and criticism of the movements of the lips
and jaws by direct observation. The movements and positions of
the tongue and soft palate, and other modifications of the mouth
and throat passages are also more or less accessible to observation — ■
in the case of self-observation with the help of a small mirror held
in the hand. If the mirror is small enough to go into the mouth,
and is fixed obliquely to a handle, so that it can be held against
the back of the mouth at such an angle as to reflect a ray of light
down the throat, we have the laryngoscope. Laryngoscopy has
confirmed earlier results, and has also added to our knowledge
of the throat sounds. But, on the other hand, it has been a fruitful
source of error. There has been great discrepancy between the
results obtained by different observers; and many results which
were at first received with implicit confidence for their supposed
rigorously scientific and objective character have been found to
be worthless. It seemed at first as if Rontgen's discovery of the
so-called X-rays would meet the want of a means of direct observa-
tion of the positions' of the tongue, not lengthways, but from the
side, as also of the interior of the throat. But although the cheeks
are to a certain extent transparent to these rays, the shadow of the
tongue projected on the screen is too indistinct to be of any use.

But there are other methods besides those of direct observation
by which the positions of the tongue may be objectively determined
and measured with more or less accuracy. The interior of the
mouth may be explored by the fingers. If the little finger is held
against the gums -during the articulation of the vowels in it, ate, at,
the difference in the height of the tongue will at once become
apparent : in the formation of the first vowel the tongue is pressed
strongly against the artificial palate, while in that of the second
it only just touches it, and in that of the third it does not touch
at all.

Several forms of apparatus have been devised for a more accurate
determination of the positions of the tongue and the other movable
organs of speech. The best results hitherto as regards the vowel-
positions have been obtained by Grandgent, who uses disks of card-
board of various sizes fixed to silver wires. A full description of
this and other methods will be found in Scripture's Elements of
Experimental Phonetics.

There are other methods whose results are obtained only
indirectly. The simplest of these are the palatographs, by which
are obtained " palatograms " recording the contact of the tongue
with the palate. The apparatus most generally used consists of a
thin, shell-like artificial palate, which is covered with chalk and
placed in the mou\h; when the sound is made, the articulation
of the tongue is inferred from the contact-marks on the plate.
This method is evidently limited in its application. It, too, has
the drawback of not being applicable to the sounds formed in the
back of the mouth. The outlines of palatograms are much vaguer
than they appear in the published drawings of them; and it is a
question whether the thickness even of the thinnest plate does not
modify the record.

The methods hitherto considered are all comparatively simple.
They require no special knowledge or training, and are accessible
to all. But there are more ela'borate methods — with which the
name " experimental phonetics " is more specially connected —
involving special training in practical and theoretical physics and
mathematics, and requiring the help of often complicated and costly,
and not easily accessible, apparatus. The investigation of the
speech curves of phonograph and gramophone records is a typical
example. Good examples of these methods are afforded by E. A.
Meyer's investigations of vowel-quantity in English (Englische
Lautdauer, Uppsala, 1903). Their characteristic feature is their
delicacy, and the minuteness of their distinctions, which often go
beyond the range of the human ear. Although their results are
often of value, they must always be received with caution: the
sources of error are so numerous

The claims of instrumental phonetics have been so prominently
brought forward of late years that they can no longer be ignored, even
by the most conservative of the older generation of phoneticians.

But it is possible to go too. far the other way. Some of the
younger generation seem to think that the instrumental methods
have superseded the natural ones in the same way as the Arabic
superseded the Roman numerals. This assumption has had disas-
trous results. It cannot be too often repeated that instrumental
phonetics is, strictly speaking, not phonetics at all. It is only a
help : it only supplies materials which are useless till they have been
tested and accepted from the linguistic phonetician's point of view.
The final arbiter in all phonetic questions is the trained ear of a
practical phonetician: differences which cannot be perceived must
— or at least may be — ignored; what contradicts the trained ear
cannot be accepted.

Sound-Notation; Spelling Reform. — Next to the analysis of
the sounds themselves, the most important problem of phonetics
is their representation by means of written and printed symbols.
The traditional or " nomic " orthographies of most languages
are only imperfectly phonetic. And, unfortunately, of the
languages in most general use, two are exceptionally unphonetic
in their, orthographies, French showing the greatest divergence
between sound and symbol, while English shows the maximum
of irregularity and arbitrariness. The German orthography is
comparatively phonetic: it has hardly any silent letters, and it
generally has one symbol for each sound, each symbol having
only one value, the exceptions falling under a few simple rules,
which are easily remembered. There are other languages which
have still more phonetic orthographies, such as Spanish, Welsh
and Finnish. But even the best of them are not perfect: even
when they are not actually misleading, they are always inade-
quate. On the other hand, no system of writing is wholly
unphonetic. Even in French and English there are many words
whose spelling not even the most radical reformer would think
of altering. In fact, all writing which has once emerged from
the hieroglyphic stage is at first purely phonetic, as far as its
defective means will allow. The divergence between sound and
symbol which makes spelling unphonetic is the result of the
retention of phonetic spellings after they have become un-
phonetic through changes in the pronunciation of the words
themselves. Thus, such English spelling as knight and wright
were still phonetic in the time of Chaucer; for at that time the
initial consonants of these words were still pronounced, and the
gh still had the sound of ch in German ich. So also see and sea
are written differently, not by way of arbitrary distinction, but
because they were pronounced differently till within the last
few centuries — as they still are in Irish-English.

Where there is no traditional orthography, as when Old
English (Anglo-Saxon) was first written down in Latin letters,
spelling was necessarily phonetic; but where there is a large
literature and a class of professional scribes, the influence of
the traditional orthography becomes stronger, till at last the
invention of printing and the diffusion of one standard dialect
over a large area occupied originally by a variety of other dialects
make changes of spelling as inconvenient as they were once easy
and natural. The ideal orthography for printers is one which
is absolutely uniform over the whole territory of the language,
and absolutely unchangeable. In such orthographies as those
of the present English and French there is no longer any living
correspondence between sound and symbol: they are, in in-
tention at least, wholly unphonetic; they are preserved by
graphic, not by oral, tradition.

But unphoneticness has it^jractical limits. A purely un-
phonetic degradation of an originally phonetic system of writing
— one in which there is absolutely no correspondence between
sounds and letters — could not be mastered even by the most
retentive memory: it would be even more difficult than the
Chinese writing. Hence a phonetic reaction is inevitable. In
the middle ages the spelling was periodically readjusted in
accordance with the changes of pronunciation — as far, of course,
as the imperfections of the existing orthography would allow.
This adjustment went on even after the introduction of printing.
In fact, it is only within the last hundred years or so that the
orthographies of English and French have become fixed.

One result of this fixity is that any attempt to continue the
process of adjustment assumes a revolutionary character.
When, in 1849, the pioneers of the modern soelline-reform

460

PHONETICS

movement — A. J. Ellis and I. Pitman — brought out the Fonetic
Nuz, few of those who joined in the chorus of ridicule excited by
the new alphabet stopped to consider that this uncouthness was
purely the result of habit, and that the Authorized Version of
the Bible in the spelling of its first edition would seem to us not
less strange and uncouth than in the new-fangled phonotypy
of Messrs Ellis and Pitman. Nor did they stop to consider that
phonetics and phonetic spelling, so far from being innovations,
are as old as civilization itself. The Alexandrian grammarians
were not only phoneticians — they were spelling-reformers; they
invented the Greek accents for the purpose of making the pro-
nunciation of Greek easier to foreigners. The Romans, too, were
phoneticians: they learnt Greek by phonetic methods, and paid
great attention to niceties of pronunciation. The Sanskrit
grammarians were still better phoneticians.

As a matter of fact, English spelling was still phonetic as late
as the time of Shakespeare — in intention, at least. But although
people still tried to write as they spoke, the inherited imperfec-
tions of their orthography made it more and more difficult for
them to do so. Hence already in the 16th century a number of
spelling-reformers made their appearance, including classical
scholars such as Sir John Cheke, and A. Gill, who was head-master
of St Paul's School in London. Gill has left us extracts from
Spenser's Faerie Queene in phonetic spelling; but, strange to
say, nothing of Shakespeare's, although he and Shakespeare
were exact contemporaries. But Gill's and the other alphabets
proposed were too intricate and cumbrous for popular use.

Nevertheless, some important phonetic reforms were success-
fully carried through, such as getting rid of most of the super-
fluous final e's, utilizing the originally superfluous distinctions
in form between i and .;', u and v, by using i, u only as vowels,
;', v only as consonants, instead of at random — a reform which
seems to have begun in Italy. Another important reform was
the introduction of ea and oa, as in sea and boat, which had
hitherto been written with ee and 00, being thus confused with
see and boot.

All these were as much phonetic reforms as it would be to
utilize long s and tailed z ( \ , 5 ) to denote the final consonants in
fish and rouge respectively; a reform first suggested by A. J.
Ellis, who was himself the first to call attention to the works
of these early phoneticians and to utilize them in the investiga-
tions enshrined in his great work on Early English Pronunciation.
With all its defects, the present English spelling is still mainly
phonetic; we can still approximately guess the pronunciation
of the vast majority of words from their spelling. So when we
say that English spelling is unphonetic we merely mean that
it is a bad phonetic spelling; and all that spelling-reformers aim
at is to make this bad into a good phonetic spelling, that is, an
efficient and easy one. But the difficulties are great; and the
more we know of phonetics, and the more we experiment with
different systems of spelling, the more formidable do they appear.
One of the difficulties, however, that is commonly supposed to
stand in the way of spelling-reform is quite imaginary: namely,
that it would destroy the historical and etymological value of
the present system. Thus E. A. Freeman used to protest
against it as " a reckless wiping out of the whole history of the
language." Such critics fail to see that historical spelling, if
carried out consistently, would destroy the materials on which
alone history can be based; that these materials are nothing else
but a series of phonetic spellings of different periods of the
language, and that if a consistent historical and etymological
spelling could have been kept up from the beginning, there would
have been no Grimm's Law, no etymology; in short, no com-
parative or historical philology possible.

The advantages of beginning a foreign language in a phonetic
notation are many and obvious. In the first place, the learner
who has once mastered the notation and learnt to pronounce the
sounds the letters stand for, is able to read off at once any text
that is presented to him without doubt or hesitation, and without
having to burden his memory with rules of pronunciation and
spelling. Another advantage of phonetic spelling is that when
the learner sees the words written in a representation of their

actual spoken form he is able to recognize them at once when
he hears them. And if the learner begins with the phonetic
notation, and uses it exclusively till he has thoroughly mastered
the spoken language, he will then be able to learn the ordinary
spelling without fear of confusion, and quicker than he would
otherwise have done.

Spelling-reform may be carried out with various degrees of
thoroughness. After the failure of many schemes of radical
reform, an attempt was made to begin with those numerous
spellings which are both unphonetic and unhistorical, or are
against the analogy of other traditional spellings. Accordingly,
in 1 88 1 the Philological Society of London " aproovd (sic) of
certain partial corections (sic) of English spellings," which were
also approved of by the American Spelling-reform Association ;
and a list of them was issued jointly by the two bodies, and
recommended tor general adoption. A similar movement
has been started in France. But the general feeling appears to
be that it is better to keep the ordinary spelling unchanged, and
wait till it is possible to supersede it by one on a more or less
independent basis.

If the existing Roman alphabet is made the basis of the new
phonetic notation of any one language, the most obvious course
is to select one of the various traditional representations of each
sound, and use that one symbol exclusively, omitting, of course,
at the same time all silent letters. A. J. Ellis's English Glossic is
an example of such a phonetic spelling on a national basis. The
following is a specimen: —

Ingglish Glosik iz veri eezi too reed. Widh proper training a
cheild foar yeerz oald kan bee redili taut too reed Glosik buoks.

But a system which, like this, writes short and long vowels
with totally different symbols (i, ee) is only half phonetic: it is
phonetic on an unphonetic basis.

. A fully phonetic system, in which, for instance, long vowels
and diphthongs are expressed by consistent modifications or
combinations of the symbols of the short vowels, and in which
simple sounds are, as far as is reasonable and convenient, ex-
pressed by single letters instead of digraphs such as sh, must
necessarily discard any national basis. k The best basis on the
whole is obtained by giving the letters their original common
European sounds, i.e. by returning to the Late Latin pronuncia-
tion, with such modifications and additions as may be advisable.
As regards the vowels at least, this Latin basis is very well
preserved in German and Italian. In French, on the other hand,
the Latin tradition was greatly corrupted already in the earliest
period through the rapid changes which the language underwent.
Thus when the Latin u in luna assumed the sound it now has
in French lune, the symbol u was still kept ; and when the sound
u afterwards developed again out of the diphthong ou, this digraph
was used to denote the sound. So when the French system of
spelling came into use in England after the Norman Conquest
these unphonetic symbols were introduced into English spelling,
so that such a word as Old English and Early Middle English
hus, " house," was written hous in the Late Middle English of
Chaucer, although the sound was still that of Scotch hoos, ou (ow)
being also used to denote a true diphthong (ou) in such words as
knou, know, from Old English cnawan.

By returning, then, to the original values of the letters we
get the " Romic " or international (Continental) basis as opposed
to the Glossic or national basis. Thus the passage quoted above
appears as follows in Sweet's " Broad Romic " notation: —

i r) gli/ glosik iz veri iizi tu riid. wis prope treinirj 3 t/aild f oa jiaz
ould kan bii redili tat to riid glosik buks.

Another important general distinction is that between " broad "
and " narrow " systems of notation. A broad notation is one
which makes only the practically necessary distinctions in each
language, and makes them in the simplest manner possible,
omitting all that is superfluous. From a practical point of view
the necessary distinctions are those on which differences of
meaning depend. A distinction of sound which is significant
in one language may be unsignificant in another. Thus the
distinction between close i and open t, £ is significant in French,
as in picker, picker; so if in French phonetic writing the former

PHONETICS

461

is denoted by (e), it is necessary to find a new symbol (e) for the
open sound. But in languages such as English and German,
where the short e is always open, there is no practical objection
to using the unmodified (e) to denote the open sound, even if we
regard (e) as the proper symbol of the close sound. And in
those languages in which the short e is always open and the long
e always close it" is enough to mark the distinction of quantity,
and leave the distinction of quality to be inferred from it (e, ee).
In such a case as this it is, of course, possible to apply the prin-
ciple of ignoring superfluous distinctions in the opposite way: by
writing the long and short vowels in such a language (e, e),
leaving the quantity to be inferred from the quality. But the
former method is the more convenient, as it does not require
any new letter. The " broad " principle is especially convenient
in writing diphthongs. Thus in English Broad Romic we write
the diphthongs in high and how with the same vowel as ask (hai,
hau, aask), although all these (a)'s represent different sounds in
ordinary southern English pronunciation. But the pronuncia-
tion of these diphthongs varies so much in different parts of the
English-speaking territory, and the distinctions are so minute
that it would be inconvenient to express them in writing; and
as these distinctions are non-significant, it would be useless to
do so. (ai) and (au) are symbols, not of special diphthongs, but
of two classes of diphthongs: they can stand for any diphthongs
which begin with a vowel resembling the Italian a, and end with
approximations to i and u respectively. Theoretically it would
be just as correct in English and German to write these diphthongs
(ae, ao). But these notations are misleading, because they
suggest simple sounds.

In comparing the sounds of a variety of languages, or of dialects
of a language, and still more in dealing with sounds in general,
we require a " narrow," that is a minutely accurate, notation
covering the whole field of possible sounds. It is evident from
what has been said above that such a universal scientific alphabet
is not suited for practical work in any one language. But the
symbols of such a notation as Sweet's " Narrow Romic " are of
the greatest use as keys to the exact pronunciation of the vaguer
symbols of the Broad Romic notations of each language.

To prevent confusion between these two systems of notations
Broad Romic symbols are enclosed in ( ), Narrow Romic in [ ],
which at the same time serve to distinguish between phonetic
and nomic spellings. This in English i (i) = [*] means that
the English vowel in finny is the " wide " sound, not the
" narrow " one in French fini, although in the Broad Romic
notations of both languages (fini) is written for finny and fini
alike.

Narrow Romic was originally based on A. J. Ellis's " Palaeo-
type," in which, as the name implies, no new letters are employed.
The symbols of Palaeotype are made up, as far as possible, of
the letters generally accessible in printing-offices, the ordinary
Roman lowercase letters being supplemented by italics
and small capitals (i, i, 1) and turned letters (a,o), many
digraphs (th, sh) being also used. This notation was a reaction
from Ellis's earlier phonotopy, in which a large number of new
letters were used. Some of these, however, such as /=(sh),
5=(zh), were afterwards adopted into Broad and Narrow
Romic. In his Palaeotype Ellis also discarded diacritical
letters, which, as he rightly says, are from a typographical
point of view equivalent to new letters. In Narrow Romic a
certain number of diacritical letters are used, such as (fi, &),
most of which are already accessible. Palaeotype is a Roman-
value notation, the main difference as regards the values of the
symbols between it and the later systems ,being that it is more
complex and arbitrary. Ellis afterwards had the unhappy idea
of constructing a " Universal Glossic " on an English- values
basis, which is even more cumbrous and difficult to remember
than Palaeotype.

Sweet's Romic systems were made the basis of the " Inter-
national " alphabet used in Le Maltre Phonitique, which is the
organ of the International phonetic Association, directed by
P. Passy. Although this system is at the present time more
widely known and used than any other, and although it is

constructed on the international Romic principle, it is not really
an international system. It is rather an attempt to make a
special adaptation of the Romic basis to the needs of the French
language into a general notation for all languages. But the
phonetic structure of French is so abnormal, so different from
that of other languages, that the attempt to force a Broad
Romic French notation on such a language as English is even
more hopeless than it would be to reverse the process. Although
well suited for French, this alphabet must from a wider point of
view be regarded as a failure: it is too minute and rigid for
practical, and yet not precise enough for scientific purposes.
In short, although it has done excellent service, and has helped
to clear the way for a notation which shall command general
acceptance, it cannot be regarded as a final solution of the
problem.

Of the numerous other notations now in use, some still adhere
to the diacritic principle of Lepsius's Standard Alphabet (1855),
intended for missionary use, but found quite unfit for that
purpose because of the enormous number of new types required.
Most of them prefer to use new letters formed by more or less
consistent modifications of the existing italic letters. A, J.
Lundell's Swsdish dialect alphabet and O. Jespersen's Danish
dialect alphabet are good specimens of this tendency. In the
latter Roman letters are used for special distinctions, just as
italic letters are used in the Romic systems.

But in spite of all diversity, there is much agreement. As
regards the vowels, the following approximate values are now
pretty generally accepted: —

a as in father. i as in it.

ai ,, time. o „ beau (Fr.).

au ,, house. oe ,, peur (Fr.).

£E „ man. o „ fall.

e ,, ete (Fr.). oi ,, oil.

ei „ veil. ou ,, soul.

e ,, there. u „ full.

3 ,, further. y ,, une (Fr.).

Vowel-length is in some systems denoted by doubling (aa) f

in others by special marks (a: &c), the diacritic in a being used

only in the nomic orthographies of dead and oriental languages.

The only consonant-symbols that require special notice are

the following: —

c as in tyuk (Hung.). n as in sing.

c „ ich (German). J „ fish.

S „ then. {> „ thin.

j „ you. w ,, we.

J „ nagy (Hung.). x „ loch.

n ,, ogni (Ital.). 3 ,, rouge.

All the systems of phonetic notation hitherto considered
are based on the Roman alphabet. But although the Roman
alphabet has many advantages from a practical point of view,
it is evidently impossible to build up a consistent and systematic
notation on such an inadequate foundation of arbitrary signs.
What is wanted, for scientific purposes especially, is a notation
independent of the Roman alphabet, built up systematically —
an alphabet in which there is a definite relation between sound
and symbol.

This relation may be regarded either from the organic or the
acoustic point of view. The tendency of the earlier attempts at
an a priori universal alphabet was to symbolize the consonants
organically, the vowels acoustically, as in E. Briicke's Phonetische
Transscription (1863). It is now generally acknowledged that
the vowels as well as the consonants must be represented on a
strictly organic basis. This was first done in A. M. Bell's
Visible Speech (1867), which appeared again (1882) in a shorter
form and with some modifications under the title of Sounds and
their Relations. Bell's pupil, H. Sweet, gave a detailed criticism
of Visible Speech in a paper on Sound-notation (Trans, of Philo-
logical Society, 1880-1881), in which he described a revised form
of it called the Organic Alphabet, which he afterwards employed
in his Primer of Phonetics and other works. Sweet's Narrow
Romic notation already mentioned is practically a transcription
of the Organic Alphabet into Roman letters.

Such notations are alphabetic: they go on the general principle
of providing separate symbols for each simple sound. But as

462

PHONETICS

the number of possible shades of sounds is almost infinite, even
the most minutely accurate of them can do so only within certain
limits. The Organic Alphabet especially makes a large use of
" modifiers " — characters which are added to the other symbols
to indicate nasal, palatal, &c, modifications of the sounds repre-
sented by the latter, these modifiers being generally represented
by italic letters in the Narrow Romic transcription; thus (1«) =
nazalized (1).

In the Roman alphabet such symbols as /, v are arbitrary,
showing no connection in form either with one another or
with the organic actions by which they are formed; but in the
Organic symbol of v, for instance, we can see the graphic repre-
sentation of its components " lips, teeth, voice-murmur." By
omitting superfluous marks and utilizing various typographical
devices the notation is so simplified that the symbols, in spite of
their minute accuracy, are often simpler than in the correspond-
ing Roman notation. The simplicity of the system is shown
by the fact that it requires only about no types, as compared
with the 280 of Lepsius's very imperfect Standard Alphabet.

All the systems hitherto considered are also alphabetic in a
wider sense: they are intended for continuous writing, the more
cumbrous " narrow " notations being, however, generally
employed only in writing single words or short groups. An
" analphabetic " basis was first definitely advocated by Jespersen,
who represents each sound by a group of symbols resembling
a chemical formula, each symbol representing not a sound, but
an element of a sound: the part of the palate, tongue, &c,
where the sound is formed, the degree of separation (openness)
of the organs of speech, and so on. The two great advantages
of such a system are that it allows perfect freedom in selecting
and combining the elements and that it can be built up on the
foundation of a small number of generally accessible signs.

As regards Jespersen's scheme, it is to be regretted that he
has not worked it out in a more practical manner: that in his
choice of the thirty odd symbols that he requires he should have
gone out of his way to mix up Greek with Roman letters, together
with other characters which would be avoided by any one con-
structing even a scientific alphabetic notation. And his use
of these symbols is open to much criticism. In fact, it cannot
be said that the analphabetic principle has yet had a fair trial.

The Organs of Speech. — Most speech-sounds are formed with
air expelled from the lungs (voice-bellows) , which passes through
the two contractible bronchi or bronchial tubes into the also
contractible wind-pipe or trachea, on the top of which is fixed
the larynx (voice-box). Across the interior of the larynx are
stretched two elastic ledges or cushions called " the vocal
chords." They are inserted in front of the larynx at one end,
and at the other they are fixed to two movable cartilaginous
bodies " the aretynoids," so that the passage between them — •
the glottis — can be narrowed or closed at pleasure. The glottis
is, as we see, twofold, consisting of the chord glottis and the
cartilage glottis. The two can be narrowed or closed independ-
ently. The chords can also be tightened or relaxed, lengthened
and shortened in various degrees.

When the whole glottis is wide open, no sound is produced
by the outgoing breath except that caused by the friction
of the air. Sounds in whose formation the glottis is in this
passive state are called " breath " sounds. Thus (f) is the
breath consonant corresponding to the " voice " or " voiced "
consonant (v). In the production of voice, the chords are
brought close enough together to be set in vibration by the air
passing between them. In the " thick " register of the voice
(chest voice) the chords vibrate in their whole length, in the
" thin " register or falsetto only in part of their length. If the
glottis is narrowed without vibration, "whisper" is the result.
In the "weak whisper" there is narrowing the whole glottis;
in the " strong whisper," which is the ordinary form, the chord
glottis is entirely closed, So that the breath passes only through
the cartilage glottis. In what is popularly called " whisper " —
that is, speaking without voice— the breath sounds remain
unchanged, wfeile voiced sounds substitute whisper (in the
phonetic sense) for voice. Thus in whispering such a word as feel

the (f) remains unchanged, while the following vowel and con-
sonant are formed with the glottis only half closed. Whispered
sounds— both vowels and consonants — occur in ordinary loud
speech in many languages. Thus the final consonants in such
English words as leaves, oblige are whispered, except when
followed without a pause by a voiced sound, as in obliging,
where the (3) is fully voiced.

Above the glottis — still within the larynx — comes the " upper "
or " false " glottis, by which the passage can be narrowed. On
the top of the larynx is fixed a leaf-like body, the " epiglottis,"
which in swallowing, and sometimes in speech, is pressed down
over the opening of the larynx. The contractible cavity between
the larynx and the mouth is called the " pharynx." The roof
of the mouth consists of two parts, the " soft " and the " hard
palate." The lower pendulous extremity of the soft palate,
the " uvula," in its passive state leaves the passage into the
nose open. In the formation of non-nasal sounds, such as (b),
the uvula is pressed up so as to close the passage from the
pharynx into the nose. If (b) is formed with the passage open,
it becomes the corresponding nasal consonant (m). The other
extremity of the (hard) palate is bounded by the teeth, behind
which are the gums, extending from the teeth-rim to the arch-rim
— the projection of the teeth-roots or alveolars.

There is great diversity among phoneticians as regards the
mapping out — the divisions — of the palate and tongue, and
their names. Foreign phoneticians generally adopt very minute
distinctions, to which they give Latin names. Bell in his
Visible Speech makes a few broad fundamental divisions.
In the arrangement adopted here (mainly based on his) sounds
formed on the soft palate are called " back," and are subdivided
into " inner " = nearer the throat, and " outer " = nearer the
teeth, further subdivisions being made by the terms " innermost,"
" outermost," the position exactly half way between these two
last being defined as " intermediate back." Sounds formed
on the hard palate or teeth may be included under the common
term " forward," more accurately distinguished as " teeth "
(dental), " gum," " front " (palatal, afterwards called " top "
by Bell), which last is really equivalent to "mid-palatal,"
including the whole of the hard palate behind the gums. All
of these divisions are further subdivided into " inner," &c,
as with the back positions.

Of the tongue we distinguish the "back" (root), "front"
or middle, " point " (tip), and " blade," which includes the
point and the surface of the tongue immediately behind it. The
tongue can also articulate against the lips, which, again, can
articulate against the teeth. The lip passage can be closed,
or narrowed in various degrees. Sounds modified by lip-narrow-
ing are called " lip-modified " (labialized) or " round " (rounded),
the last being specially used in speaking of vowels.

Speech-sounds. — The most general test of a simple as opposed
to a compound sound (sound-group) is that it can be lengthened
without change. As regards place of articulation, no sound
is really simple: every sound is the result of the shape of the
whole configurative passage from the lungs to the lips; and the
ultimate sound-elements, such as voice, are never heard isolated.
The most indistinct voice-murmur is as much the result of the
shape of the superglottal passages as the clearest and most
distinct of the other vowels; and its organic formation is as
definite as theirs is, the only difference being that while in what
we regard as unmodified voice all the organs except the vocal
chords are in their passive, neutral positions, the other vowels
are formed by actively modifying the shape of the super-glottal
passages — by raising the tongue towards the palate, narrowing
the lips, &e.

The most important elements of speech-sounds are those which
are dependent on the shape of the glottis and of the mouth
passage respectively. It is on the relation between these two
factors that one of the oldest distinctions between sounds
is based: that of vowel and consonant. In vowels the element
of voice is the predominant one: a vowel is voice modified by
the different shapes of the superglottal passages. In consonants,
on the other hand, the state of the glottis is only secondary.

PHONETICS

4 6 3

Consonants are generally the result of audible friction, as in (f),
or of complete stoppage, as in (p). If the glottis is at the same
time left open, as in (f, p), the consonant is " breath " or
" voiceless " — if it is narrowed enough to make the chords vibrate,
as in (v, b), the consonant is " voice " or " voiced "; intermediate
positions producing the corresponding " whispered " consonants.
Vowels are characterized negatively by the absence of audible
friction or stoppage: if an (i) is formed with the tongue so close
to the palate as to cause buzzing, it becomes a variety of the
front consonant (j). There is, of course, no difficulty in forming
a vowel with the glottis in the position for breath and whisper.
Thus breath (i) may often be heard in French in such words as
ainsi at the end of a sentence, the result being practically a
weak form of the front-breath consonant (c). The division
between vowel and consonant is not an absolutely definite one.
As we see, the closer a vowel is— that is, the narrower its con-
figurative passage is — the more like it is to a consonant, and the
more natural it is to devocalize it. Some voice consonants,
on the other hand, have so little buzz that acoustically they
constitute a class between consonants and vowels — a class of
" vowel-like " or " liquid " consonants, such as n, m, 1).

The changes in sounds which result from active narrowing of
the passages admit of an important distinction as " sound-
modifying " and " sound-colouring," although the distinction
is not always definite. Nasality and rounding are examples
of sound-modifying processes. Thus we hear a certain resem-
blance between (b) and (m), (i) and (y) , but we regard all these
four as distinct and practically independent sounds. Con-
traction of the pharynx, on the other hand, as also of the false
glottis and windpipe, have only a sound-colouring effect: if a
vowel is formed with such contractions its quality (timbre)
is altered, but it still remains the same vowel. It follows from
the definition of speech-sounds that they admit of a twofold
classification: (i) organic and (2) acoustic. As already remarked,
the older phoneticians used to classify the consonants organi-
cally, the vowels mainly from the acoustic point of view. The
first to give an adequate organic classification of the vowels was
the author of Visible Speech. Bell gave at the same time an
independent acoustic classification of the consonants as well as
the vowels. His acoustic classification consists simply in arrang-
ing the sounds in the order of their " pitches " (tone-heights).
The pitches of the breath consonants are absolutely fixed in each
individual pronunciation, while those of spoken vowels can be
varied indefinitely within the compass of each voice by tightening
the vocal chords in various ways and shortening their vibrating
portions: the tighter and shorter the vibrating body, the quicker
its vibrations, and the higher the tone. But when a vowel
is whispered or breathed nothing is heard but the resonance
of the configurative passages, especially in the mouth, and the
pitches of these resonant cavities are as fixed as those of the
breath consonants; in other words, a whispered (or breathed)
vowel cannot be sung. Although the absolute pitches of voiceless
sounds may vary from individual to individual the relations
of the pitches are constant: thus in all pronunciations (c) and
whispered (i) are the highest, breath (w) in what and whispered
(u) nearly the lowest in pitch among consonants and vowels
respectively.

If phonetics were an ideally perfect science there would be
no occasion to discuss whether the acoustic or the organic study
of the vowels and the other speech-sounds is the more important :
a full description of each sound would necessarily imply (r) an
exact determination of its organic formation, (2) an acoustic
analysis of the sound itself, both from the objective physical
point of view and from the subjective one of the impression
received by the ear, and (3) an explanation of how (2) is the
necessary result of (1). Even this last question has already
been solved to some extent. In fact, the connection between
the organic formation and the acoustic effect is often self-evident.
It is evident, for instance, that (i) and (g) owe their clear sound
and high pitch to their being formed by short, narrow passages
in the front of the mouth, while (u) owes its low pitch to being
formed in exactly the opposite way, the sound being farther

muffled and the pitch consequently still more lowered by the
rounding.

One reason why it is impossible to classify the vowels exclu-
sively on acoustic principles is that two vowels formed in quite
different ways may have the same pitch. Thus the " high-
front-round" (y) and the "high-mixed" (i) have the same
pitch, the tongue-retraction of the mixed position of the
latter having the same effect as the rounding of the former.
It is evident, therefore, that the fundamental classification of
the vowels must, like that of the consonants, be purely organic.
And although for practical purposes it is often convenient to
classify sounds partly from the acoustic point of view, a full
scientific treatment must keep the two points of view strictly
apart, and make a special chapter of the relations between them.

Vowels. — The most obvious distinction between vowels is that
which depends on the share of the lips in their articulation. In
such non-round vowels as (i) and (a) the lips are passive, or even
separated and spread out at their corners, by which the vowels
assume a clearer resonance. If, on the other hand, the lips are
actively approximated, they become the round vowels (y) and
" open " (o) respectively.

Vowels are formed with different degrees of rounding. As a
general rule, the narrowness of the lip-passage corresponds to the
narrowness of the mouth-passage. Thus, in passing from the
vowel of too to those of no and saw the back of the tongue is pro-
gressively lowered, and the rounding is diminished in the same
proportion.

But there is also abnormal rounding. Thus, if we pronounce

(0) with the lips in the position they have in forming (u), the
resulting " over-rounded " vowel sounds half-way between (o) and
(u) ; the second element of the diphthong (ou) in go is' formed in this
way. Conversely, the (u) in put is " under-rounded " in the North
of England: the tongue position is kept, but the lips are only
brought together a little at the corners, as in (a).

The mouth positions of the vowels are the result of two factors:

(1) the height of the tongue — its nearness to the palate — and

(2) the degree of its retraction. Bell distinguishes three degrees
of height: in his system (u) is " high," the (o) of boy is " mid,"
and the (?) of saw is " low." He also has three degrees of retrac-
tion: in "back" vowels, such as (u), the root of the tongue is drawn
to the back of the mouth, and the whole tongue slopes down from
back to front. In " front " vowels, such as (i), the front of the
tongue is raised towards the hard palate, so that the tongue slopes
down from front to back.

Most of these slope-positions yield vowels of a distinct and clear
resonance. There is also a class of " flat " vowels, such as (a),
in which the tongue is in a more or less neutral position. If the
tongue is raised from the low-flat position of (93) in bird to the
high position, we get the (!) of North Welsh dyn " man," which, as
already observed, is acoustically similar to (y).

The flat vowels were called " mixed " by Bell, in accordance with
his view that they are the result of combining back and front articu-
lation. And although this view is now generally abandoned, the
term " mixed " is still retained by the English school of phoneticians.

In this way Bell mapped out the whole mouth by the following
cardinal points: —

high-front
mid-front
low-front

Tiigh-back
mid-back
low-back

high-mixed
mid-mixed
low-mixed

In this arrangement " high-back," &c, are fixed points like those of
latitude and longitude. Thus normal " high " means that the tongue
is raised as close to the palate as is possible without causing con-
sonantal friction, and " back " implies retraction of the same kind.
Intermediate positions are defined as " raised," " lowered," " inner,"
" outer."

The most original and at the same time the most disputed part
of Bell's vowel-scheme is his distinction of " primary " and " wide."
All vowels fall under one of these categories. Thus, the primary
French (i) and the corresponding English wide (»') are both high-
front-vowels, and yet they are distinct in sound : the English vowel
is a semitone lower in pitch. Bell explained the greater openness
of the wide vowels as the result of greater expansion of the
pharynx; and he considered the other class to be most nearly
allied to the consonants — whence their name "primary" — the
voice-passages in the formation of primary vowels being expanded
only so far as to remove all fricative quality. But alterations
in the shape of the pharynx have only a sound-colouring, not a
sound-modifying, effect; and Sweet showed that the distinction
depends on the shape of the tongue, and accordingly substituted
" narrow " for Bell's " primary." He also showed that the distinc-
tion applies to consonants as well as vowels: thus the narrow
French (w) in out is a consonantization of the narrow French (u)
in sou, while the English (w) preserves the wide quality of the («)
in put.

In forming narrow sounds there is a feeling of tension in that

464

PHONETICS

part of the tongue where the sound is formed, the tongue being
clenched or bunched up lengthwise, so as to be more convex than
in its relaxed or " wide " condition.

The distinction between narrow and wide can often be ignored
in practical phonetic writing, for it generally depends on quantity;
length and narrowness, shortness and wideness going together.
When the distinction is marked, wide vowels may be expressed by
italics, as in German (biina, bin).

Bell's category of " mixed-round " vowels had from the beginning
been a source of difficulty to students of Visible Speech. But it
was not till 1901 that Sweet showed that they are only mixed as
regards position: they are really the corresponding back-round
vowels moved forward into the middle of the mouth while pre-
serving the slope of back vowels, instead of having the tongue
flat as in the (unround) mixed vowels. They are " out-back "
vowels: there is an exaggeration of the outer back position of such
a back-round vowel as the English (m) compared with the full back
(u) in German muttre.

In the same way by moving the tongue backwards while forming
a front vowel another series of " in-front " vowels is obtained.

The "in-mixed" vowels are obtained by shifting the neutral
mixed positions into the full back position, keeping the tongue
flat, so that these vowels might also be called '' back-flat."

The out-back, in-front and in-mixed vowels are included under
the common designation of " shifted," as opposed to " normal "
vowels.

There is a large number of other vowel-schemes, of which a survey
will be found in W. Vietor's Elemente der Phonetik. Many of the
older ones are in the form of triangles, with the three chief vowels
a, i, u at the three corners, the other vowels being inserted between
these extremes according to their acoustic relations. Since the
appearance of Visible Speech many attempts have been made to
fit his new vowels into these older schemes.

Of all the vowel-schemes the one now most generally known is
perhaps that of the International Phonetic Association already
mentioned. In this scheme the distinction of narrow and wide,
though admitted and occasionally marked, is not an integral part
of the system, the vowels being classified first as " velar ' (back)
and " palatal " (front), and then according to openness as "close,"
" half-close," " medium," " half-open " and " open."

Consonants. — These are the result of audible friction or stoppage,
which may be accompanied either with breath, voice or whisper.

Consonants admit of a two-fold division (1) by form, and (2) by
place. Thus (p, b) are by place lip-consonants, while by form
they are stopped consonants or " stops."

If the mouth-stoppage is kept, and the nose-passage is opened,
the stop becomes the corresponding "nasal"; thus (b) with the
soft palate lowered becomes the nasal (m).

In " open " consonants the sound is formed by simply narrowing
the passage, as in the back-open-breath (x) in Scotch and German
loch. In some open consonants, such as the lip-teeth (f), there is
slight contact of the organs, but without impeding the flow of
breath.

In " divided " consonants there is central stoppage with open-
ings at the sides, as in the familiar point-divided (1). These con-
sonants are sometimes " unilateral " — with the opening on the side
only — the character of the sound not being sensibly modified
thereby.

When open and divided consonants are formed with the nose-
passage open they are said to be " nazalized." Thus (m) with
incomplete lip-closure becomes the nasalized lip-open- voice con-
sonant.

" Trills " (or rolled) consonants are a special variety of un-stopped
consonants resulting from the vibration of flexible parts against
one another, as when the lips are trilled, or against some firm
surface, as when the point of the tongue trills against the gums
in the Scotch (r), or the uvula against the back of the tongue, as in
the Northumbrian burred (r), and the French and German (r),
where— especially in German — the trill is often reduced to a mini-
mum or suppressed altogether.

As regards the place of consonants, there is, as already remarked,
great diversity among phoneticians, both in mapping out the palate
and tongue and in the names given to these divisions. The classi-
fication and nomenclature given here is, in the main, that of Bell.

By place, then, we distinguish seven main classes of consonants:
back, front, point, blade, fan, lip, and lip-teeth.

" Back " (guttural) consonants are formed between the root of
the tongue and the soft palate. In most languages the positions
of these consonants vary according to those of the accompanying
vowels : thus the back-stop and back-nasal in king are more forward
than in conquer.

"Front" (palatal) consonants are formed between the middle
of the tongue and the hard palate, the point of the tongue lying
passively behind the lower teeth. It is easy to make the front-
open- voice (j) in you into the corresponding stop (1) by narrowing
the passage till there is complete closure, as in Hungarian nagy
(naj) " world." In the same way the open breath (c) in German
ich may be made into the stop (c) = Hungarian ty. (}) nasalized
becomes (n) — Italian gn, Spanish fi, French en in vigne. The front-
divided- voice consonant is the Italian gl and Spanish 11. These are

all simple sounds, distinct from the (lj), (nj) in French and English
million and English onion.

" Point " consonants when formed against the teeth are called
" point-teeth " (dental). English (V>) in thin is the point-teeth-
open-breath consonant, (S) in then the corresponding voice con-
sonant. If (S) is modified by turning the tip of the tongue back
into the inner position — about on the arch-rim — it becomes the
untrilled (r) in English rearing, in which position the tongue is
easily trilled, the trilling becoming more and more difficult
the more the tongue is approximated to the point-teeth position.
In French and many other languages all the point consonants
(t, d, n, 1), &c, are formed on the teeth, except (r), which is always
more retracted than the other point consonants. If the tip of
the tongue is turned so far back as to articulate with its lower edge
against the arch of the palate — that is, farther back than for the
"inner" position — it is said to be "inverted." Inverted (r) is
frequent in the dialects of the south-west of England. The
opposite of inversion is " protrusion," in which the tip of the tongue
articulates against the upper lip.

" Blade " consonants are formed by the blade or flattened tip
of the tongue against the gums, as in English (s, z), or against the
teeth, as in the corresponding French sounds. If these consonants
are modified by turning the tongue a little back, so as to bring the
point more into play, they become the " blade-point " consonants
(/■ o), as in fish, measure. (J) is acoustically a dull (s). In some
languages, such as German, sounds similar to (/) and (z) are formed
partly by rounding, which lowers the pitch of the hiss in the same
way as retraction does, so that the tongue-articulation is only
imperfectly carried out. When the rounding is very marked
there is only a slight raising of the front of the tongue, as in some
Swedish dialects; and if the tongue-articulation is progressively
shifted back, and the rounding diminished in the same proportion,
(/) can at last develop into the pure back-open consonant (x), as
in the present pronunciation of Spanish x and j.

The English point consonants (t, d, n, 1) are formed on the gums
just behind the teeth, the point of the tongue being flattened, so
that they are almost blade consonants.

" Fan " (spread) consonants — the " emphatic " consonants of
Arabic — are modifications of point and blade consonants, in which
the sides of the tongue are spread out, so that the hiss of such a
consonant as (s) is formed partly between the sides of the tongue
and the back teeth, which gives a peculiar deep, dull quality to
these sounds.

" Lip " consonants, such as (p, m), and " lip-teeth " consonants,
such as (f, v), offer no difficulty. The simple lip-open-breath
consonant does not occur in English; it is the sound produced in
blowing out a candle. The corresponding voice sound is frequent
in German— especially in Middle Germany — in such words as
quelle.

If the lip-open consonants are modified by raising the back of the
tongue, they become the " lip-back " consonants (wh, w) in English
what, we, which may also be regarded as consonantized («). In
them the lip articulation predominates. In the " back-lip "
consonants, as in German auch, the reverse is the case.

This last is one of a large number of " lip-modified " consonants,
of which the already-mentioned German sch is a further example.

In a similar way consonants may be " front-modified." (1) is
peculiarly susceptible to such modifications. In French and other
languages it is formed with the tongue more convex than in English,
and consequently with a tendency to front-modification. Front-
modified (s) and point (r) may be heard in Russian in such words
as gusl " goose," tsari " emperor," where the final vowels are silent.
Some consonants are formed below the mouth.
When the glottis is sharply opened or closed on a passage of breath
or voice an effect is produced similar to that of a stop in the mouth,
such as (k). This " glottal stop " is the sound produced in hic-
cuping; and is an independent sound in some languages, such as
Arabic, where it is called " hamza." In German all words beginning
with a stressed (accented) vowel have a more or less distinct glottal
stop before the vowel.

Of the passages below the glottis, the bronchials and the wind-
pipe are both susceptible of contraction.

Spasmodic contraction of the bronchial passages is the main
factor in producing what is known as " the asthmatic wheeze."
If this contraction is regulated and made voluntary it results in
the deep hiss of the Arabic ha. If this sound is voiced, it causes
a peculiar intermittent vibration of voice, which is habitual with
some speakers, especially in Germany. If this effect is softened by
slightly expanding the bronchial passages, an (r)-like sound is
produced, which is that of the Arabic 'ain.

Contraction of the windpipe produces a sound similar to the
Arabic ha, but weaker, which when followed by a vowel has the
effect of a strong aspirate. When voiced it becomes a mere colourer
of the accompanying voice-murmur, or vowel, to which it imparts
a deep timbre.

Non-expiratory Sounds.— -All the sounds hitherto described
imply out-breathing or expiration. Many of them can also be
formed with in-breathing or inspiration. In English it is a not
uncommon trick of speech to pronounce no in this manner, to express
emphatic denial.

PHONETICS

4^5

Some consonants are formed without either in- or out-breathing,
but solely with the air in the throat or mouth. In forming " suction-
stops " or " clicks " the tongue or lips are put in, the position for a
stop, and the air is sucked out from between the organs in contact,
so that when the stop is loosened, a smacking sound is produced
by the air rushing in to fill the vacuum. Thus the point-click
is the interjection of impatience commonly written tut! In many
savage languages clicks are a part of ordinary speech.

Synthesis. — Besides analysing each sound separately, phonetics
has, to deal with the phenomena which accompany synthesis
or the combination of sounds. Although a sentence may consist
of a single word, and that word'of a single vowel, sounds mostly
occur only in combination with one another. The ordinary
division into sentences and words is logical, not phonetic: we
cannot mark off sentences and cut them up into words until
we know what they mean and are able to analyse them gram-
matically. But the logical division into sentences corresponds
to some extent with the phonetic division into " breath-groups,"
marked off by our inability to utter more than a certain number
of syllables in succession without pausing to take breath. With-
in each of these breath-groups there is no necessary pause
between the words, except when we pause for emphasis. The
only necessary phonetic divisions within the breath-group
are those into syllables, sounds and intervening " glides." But
before considering these last it will be necessary to say something
about the general factors of synthesis: quantity, stress and
intonation.

As regards quantity, it is enough for ordinary purposes to dis-
tinguish three degrees: long, half-long or medium and short. In
English what are called long vowels keep their full length when
stressed and before final voice consonants, as in see, broad; and
become half-long before voiceless consonants, as in cease, brought.
In most other languages full length is preserved alike before all
classes of consonants. The Romance languages have short final
stressed vowels, as in French si. Unstressed vowels tend to become
short in most languages. The distinctions of quantity apply to
consonants as well as vowels. Thus English tends to lengthen final
consonants after short stressed vowels, as in man compared with
German mann, where the final consonant is quite short. Consonants,
like vowels, tend to become short when unstressed. But in some
languages, such as Finnish and Hungarian, stress has no effect on
quantity, so that in these languages long vowels and double con-
sonants occur as frequently in unstressed as in stressed syllables.
Even in English we often lengthen final unstressed vowels in
exclamations, as in what a pity! Some languages, such as the
Romance languages and Russian, tend to level the distinctions of
vowel-quantity : most of their vowels are half-long.

Stress is, organically the result of the force with which the
breath is expelled from the lungs; while acoustically it produces the
effect of loudness, which is dependent on the size of the sound-
vibrations: the bigger the waves, the louder the sound, and the
greater the stress, of which we may distinguish infinite degrees.
If we distinguish only three, they are called weak, medium and
strong. The use of stress in different languages shows the same
variety as quantity. Some languages, such as French, make com-
paratively little use of its distinctions, uttering all the syllables
of words and sentences with a more or less jeven degree of force.
English, on the other hand, makes great use of minute distinctions
of stress both to distinguish the meanings of words and to mark
their relations in sentences.

With stress is closely connected the question of syllable-division.
A syllable is a group of sounds containing a " syllabic " or syllable-
former, which is, of course, able to constitute a syllable by itself.
The distinction between syllables and non-syllabics depends on
sonority, the more sonorous sounds being the voiced ones, while
of these again, the most open are the most sonorous, the most
sonorous of all being the vowels, among which, again, the openest
are the most sonorous. But these differences are only relative.
When a vowel and a consonant come together the sonorousness
of the vowel always overpowers that of the consonant, so that the
two together only constitute one syllable. But in such a word as
little the second (1) is so much more sonorous than the accompany-
ing voiceless stop that it assumes syllabic function, and the whole
group becomes dissyllabic to the ear. The beginning of a syllable
corresponds with the beginning of the stress-impulse with which it
is uttered. Thus in atone the strong stress and the second syllable
begin on the (t), and in bookcase on the second (k), the first (k)
belonging to the first syllable, so that the (kk) is here double, not
merely long, as in book (bukk) by itself.

Intonation or variation of tone (pitch) depends on the rapidity
of the sound-vibrations: the more rapid the vibrations, the higher
the pitch. Intonation is heard only in voiced sounds, as being the
only ones capable of variations of pitch.

In singing the voice generally dwells on each note without change
of pitch, and then leaps up or down to the next note as quickly

as possible, so that the intervening " glide " is not noticed — except
in what is called portamento. In speaking, on the other hand,
the voice hardly ever dwells on any one note, but is constantly glid-
ing upwards or downwards, so that an absolutely level tone hardly
ever occurs in speech. But in the rising and falling inflections of
speech we can distinguish between " voice-glides " (portamentos
or slurs) and " voice-leaps," although the distinction is not so definite
as in singing.

■ Of the three primary forms of intonation the level tone ( ) can be
approximately heard in well as an expression of musing — although it
really ends with a slight rise; the rising (') in the question well?;
the falling (') in the answer yes. There are besides compound tones
formed by uniting the two last in one syllable. The compound
rising tone (v) may be heard in lake caret the compound falling
tone («) in the sarcastic oh! All these tones may be varied according
to the intervals through which they pass. 1 he greater the interval,
the more emphatic the tone.' Thus a high rise, which begins high,
and consequently can only rise a little higher, expresses simple
question, while the same word, if uttered with a low rise extending
over an interval of between a fifth and an octave — or even more
— expresses various degrees of. surprise or indignation, as in the
emphatic what! compared with the simply interrogative what?

In English and most European languages, intonation serves to
modify the general meaning and character of sentences. This is
sentence-intonation. But some languages, such as Swedish and
Norwegian, and Chinese, have word-intonation, by which words
which would otherwise be identical in sound are distinguished.
The distinction between Gr. oikoi and oikoi was no doubt one of
intonation.

Glides. — Such a word as cat consists not only of the vowel
and the two consonants of which it is made up, but also of
" glides " or transitions between these sounds. The glide from
the initial consonant to the vowel consists of all the intermediate
positions through which the tongue passes on its way from the
(k)-position to the (ae)-position. The number of these
positions is infinite, but they are all implied by the mere juxta-
position of the symbols, for it is assumed that in all transi-
tions from one position to another the shortest way is taken.
Although the direction of a glide is dependent on the positions
of the two fixed points between which it lies, ; ts character may
be varied both by the shape of the configurative passages —
especially the glottis — and by stress and quantity.

In the word given above the " off-glides " from the consonants
are both breath-glides, the glottis being kept open during the
transition from the voiceless consonant to the following vowel,
or, as in the case of the final consonant, to silence. The " on-
glide " from the vowel to the (t) is, on the other hand, a voice-
glide, the closure of the glottis being maintained till the stop
is made.

In French and most of the languages of the south of Europe
voiceless consonants are followed by voice-glides. Thus in
French qui there is no escape of breath after the (k), as there
is in English Key. Other languages again have breath on-glides
before voiceless stops.

If an independent strong stress is put on the breath-glide of
English key, it is heard almost as a full independent consonant,
and becomes an " aspirate." Aspirated steps may be heard
in the Irish-English pronunciation of such words as tell, and also
in Danish, and in Sanskrit as pronounced in India. If the
voice-glide after a voice stop is emphasized in a similar way the
" sonant aspirates " of Sanskrit and its modern descendants
are produced, as in Sanskrit dhanu.

Glides are especially important from an acoustic point of view.
Acoustically speaking, indeed, voiceless stops are pure glide-
sounds, the stop itself being inaudible. In voice-stops, on the
other hand, the stop itself can be made audible as well as the
intervening glides. In English these latter are fully voiced
when they come between voice sounds, as in ago; but when
preceded by voiceless sounds or by a pause, as in go! they are
formed with imperfect vocality, full voice being heard only
just before the stop is loosened. So also initial English (z) as
in zeal is formed with imperfect vocality under the same
conditions, so that it sounds like (sz). In French and other
languages which have voice-glides after voiceless consonants
initial (g, z) &c. are fully voiced.

Consonant-glides may be further modified in various ways.
In the formation of " implosive " stops, such as occur in Saxon
German, Armenian and other languages, voiceless stops followed

4 66

PHONETICS

by voice-glides are modified by simultaneous closure of the
glottis, the larynx being raised by means of its muscles, so that
it acts like a plug, compressing the air between the closed glottis
and the mouth-stop, so that when the latter is released a
peculiar choky effect is given to the off-glide.

Rounded glides may be heard in Russian in such words as
komnata, where the rounding of the (o) is anticipated in the
preceding consonant, being heard, of course, only in the off-
glide^of the consonant. The acoustic effect is between that of
(kwo) and ordinary (ko).

Glideless consonant-combinations remain to be considered.
The general articulative principle of taking the shortest way
between sounds in juxtaposition necessarily results in certain
transitions being effected without any glide at all. This is
regularly the case when the consonants have the same place,
and differ only in form, as in (nd, dlt), where the point of the
tongue remains unmoved through the whole sound-group.
In such combinations as (mf) the very slight glide is often got rid
of entirely by assimilating the place of the first consonant to
that of the second, so that the (m) becomes a lip teeth consonant,
as in English nymph.

Even when consonants are formed in different parts of the
mouth it is often possible to join them without any glide. In
English such combinations as (kt, pt) are glideless, the point
of the tongue being brought into position before the preceding
stop is loosened. In French and most other languages such
consonants are separated by a breath-glide.

Combinations of stops and vowel-like consonants (tr, gl, kw)
are glideless in English and most other languages. In English
the breath-glide after a voiceless stop unvoices the beginning
of the following vowel-like consonant; thus try is almost (trh-

rai).

Vowel-glides. — Vowels are begun and ended in various ways.
In the " gradual beginning," which is the usual one in English
and French, the glottis is gradually narrowed while breath is being
emitted. In the " clear " beginning the breath is kept back till the
glottis is closed for voice, which begins without any " breathiness."
German favours the clear beginning, generally exaggerating it into a
glottal stop.

In the gradual as well as the clear beginning the stress begins
on the vowel. If in the former it is thrown back on the breath-
glide, the latter is felt as an independent element and becomes
the " aspirate " or (h), which in English and most other languages
is a glide not only in the throat but in the mouth as well, the tongue
and lips gradually moving up into the position for the following
vowel while the glottis is being closed.

There is also a " strong " aspirate, which occurs in Finnish
and other languages, in the formation of which the full vowel position
is assumed from the beginning of the aspiration, which is therefore
a voiceless vowel.

In most languages, when an aspirate comes between voiced sounds
it is formed with imperfect vocality, the contrast of which with the
full vocality of the other sounds is enough to produce the effect
of breath. Thus in English behold the voice runs on without
any actual break, the glottal closure being simply relaxed, not
fully opened for breath, as in the emphatic aha I In some languages,
such as Bohemian, this " voice-aspirate " is used everywhere,
initially as well as medially.

Vowels are finished analogously, either by a gradual opening of
the glottis, or by a cessation of aspiration while the glottis is still
closed for voice. If stress is put on the gradual ending it becomes
a distinct aspirate, as in the Sanskrit " visarga " in such a word as
manah-

Organic Basis. — Every language has certain general tendencies
which control the formation of its sounds, constituting its
" organic basis " or basis of articulation. The tendency of
the present English is to flatten and lower the tongue and draw
it back from the teeth, while the lips are kept as much as possible
in a neutral position. The flattening of the tongue makes our
vowels wide and favours the development of mixed vowels,
and gives the dull quality which is especially noticeable in our
(1) ; and its retraction is unfavourable to the development of
teeth sounds; while the neutrality of the lips eliminates front-
round vowels. In such a language as French everything is
reversed. The tongue is arched, and raised, and advanced, and
the lips articulate with energy. Hence French sounds tend
to narrowness, dentality and distinct rounding.
National Sound-systems. — Each language uses only a part of

the general phonetic material. Each one has only a limited
number of sounds; and each one makes only a limited use of
the synthetic distinctions of quantity, stress and intonation. As
we have seen, many of these differences between individual
languages are the result of, or may be referred to, differences
in their organic basis.

Just as cognate languages differ from each other in phonetic
structure, so also dialects of the same languages differ from each
other more or less. Thus the sound-system of Lowland Scotch —
which is, historically, a dialect of Northern English — differs
considerably from that of standard English. Standard English
itself was originally that mixture of the Midland and the Southern
dialect which was spoken in London in the middle ages, just as
standard French is, historically, the dialect of that district
of which Paris is the centre. Standard English, like standard
French, is now more a class-dialect than a local dialect: it is
the language of the educated all over Great Britain. But it
is not yet perfectly uniform. It is still liable to be influenced
by the local dialects in grammar and vocabulary, and still more
in pronunciation.

Again, English, like all other living languages, changes from
generation to generation. Pronunciations which are vulgar
in one century may become fashionable in the next. Sounds
which are distinct in one generation may be confounded in
another, and new distinctions may be made, new sounds may
arise. A spoken language is, therefore, necessarily a vague
and floating entity, and English is no exception to the rule.
The very fixity of its written form gives all the freer play to
the influences which cause change.

A standard spoken language is, strictly speaking, an abstrac-
tion. No two speakers of standard English pronounce exactly
alike. And yet they all have something in common in every
sound they utter. There are some divergencies, some peculiari-
ties of pronunciation, which pass unnoticed, while others, less
considerable perhaps in themselves, are at once felt as
archaisms, vulgarisms or provincialisms, as the case may be,
by the majority of educated speakers.

Sounds of English. — The following is a convenient classification
of the vowels of standard English : —

a a i e ae u o

aa aa ii ei uu ou, 3
ai, au oi

* ia ea ua
Here the vowels are in four rows: (i) normally short, or, more
correctly, monophthongic, (2) long, or half-diphthongic, (3) full
diphthongs, (4) murmur-diphthongs.

Those under (1) are often lengthened in monosyllables such as
ten, good, but they always remain absolutely monophthongic. The
only one in the next row that is always strictly monophthongic is
(so) : all the others, as we shall see, tend to become more or less
diphthongic, especially in the south of England, being often exagger-
ated into full diphthongs of the (ai) and (au)-type in vulgar speech.

(a), as in come up, is the short vowel corresponding to the (aa)
in calm, (aa) is the mid-back-wide vowel, and (a) differs from it
only in being narrow. Acoustically, (a) is a muffled or obscure (aa) :
and the same effect may be produced by advancing the tongue
from the mid-back to the corresponding out-back position, pre-
serving the wide articulation : this pronunciation of u is common
in the south of England. Historically, these sounds are the result
of unrounding and older (u).

(a), as in sofa, is a mixed vowel, tending to wideness and mid
position, which occurs only unstressed, (so) in turn, earth, is low-
mixed-narrow. It is the result of absorption of an older (r),
weakened into (a).

(ae), as in man, is low-front- wide, from older mid-back-wide.
(i) in it is high-front-wide. The long (ii) in eat is narrow in the
north of England, while in the south it is wide (i) followed by (j).

(e) in men is generally mid-front-wide, (ei) in mane is the same
vowel either narrow or wide, raised in its latter half towards (i).

(u) in good is high-back-wide-round. Narrow (uu) in too becomes
(aw) in southern English.

(o) in not is low-back-wide-round. In (ou), as in no, the mid-
back-round vowel, either narrow or wide, is over-rounded in its
latter half, (a), as in all, is low-back- narrow-round.

The full diphthongs (ai, au,oi),as in eye, now, oil, all end in lowered
high vowels. Their first elements are only roughly indicated by
the transcription, and vary in the mouths of different speakers.
That of (ai) is generally the out-mid-back-wide, that of (au) the
broader low-mixed-wide, that of (oi) the mid-back-wide-round.
The murmur-diphthongs (ia) as in here, (ea) as in air, (ua) as in

PHONOGRAPH

467

poor, all tend to broaden their first elements. That of (ea) is the
low-front-narrow vowel. The other two begin with lowered forms
of the wide (i) and (u) respectively. In (ua) the lowering is often
carried so far as to make poor almost, or completely, into pore (poa).
The following arrangement of the English consonants will show
their organic relations to one another;

j r; f>, 3 s, z; J , 5 wh, w;f, v
1 •

k,g t, d p, b

7j n m

The " aspirate " (h) may be regarded either as a throat-consonant
or as a breath-glide.

Characteristic features of the English consonant-system are the
large number of hisses and buzzes, the sharp distinction of breath
and voice, and, negatively, the absence of the open-back consonant's,
and of the voiceless forms of the vowel-like consonants (1, r) and the
nasals, most of which still existed in Old English.

Bibliography. — The most important general works are: H.
Sweet, A Primer of Phonetics (3rd ed., Oxford, 1906) ; E. Sievers,
Grundziige der Lautphysiologie (5th ed., Leipzig, 1901); W. Vietor,
Elemente der Pkonetik des Deutschen, Englischen und Franzosischen
(5th ed., Leipzig, 1904) ; O. Jesperson, Lehrbuch der Phonetik (Leipzig,
1904); M. Trautmann, Die Sprachlaute (Leipzig, 1884-1886);
Le Maitre Phonetique, organe de I' association phonetique internationale
(apply to Dr P. Passy, Bourg-la-Reine, France). For the laws of
sound-change, see the above-mentioned work of Sievers; H. Sweet,
A History of English Sounds (Oxford, 1888); P. Passy, Les Change-
ments phonetiques (Paris, 1890). For phonetics in language-teaching
see H. Sweet, The Practical Study of Languages (London, 1899);
O. Jesperson, How to Learn a Foreign Language (London, 1904). For
phonetic shorthand, H. Sweet, A. Manual of Current Shorthand
(Oxford, 1892). For the application of phonetics and phonetic
notation to the practical study of special languages, H. Sweet, A
Primer of Spoken English (2nd ed., Oxford, 1895) ; F. Beyer and
P. Passy, Elementarbuch des gesprochenen Franzosisch (2nd ed.,
Cothen, 1905) ; W. Vietor, Deutsches Lesebuch in Lautschrift (Leipzig,
1899). (H. Sw.)

PHONOGRAPH (Gr. 4>oivri, sound, ypafoiv, to write), an
instrument for imprinting the vibrations of sound on a moving
surface of tinfoil or wax in such a form that the original sounds
can be faithfully reproduced by suitable mechanism. Many
attempts had been made by earlier experimenters to obtain
tracings of the vibrations of bodies emitting sound, such as
tuning-forks, membranes, and glass or metallic disks. In 1807
Thomas Young (Lectures, i. 191) described a method of recording
the vibrations of a tuning-fork on the surface of a drum; his
method was fully carried out by Wilhelm Wertheim in 1842
(Recherches sur I'elasticite, i' T - mem). Recording the vibrations
of a membrane was first accomplished by Leon Scott in 1857 by
the invention of the " phonautograph," which may be regarded
as the precursor of the phonograph (Comptes rendus, 53, p. 108).
This instrument consisted of a thin membrane to which a delicate
lever was attached. The membrane was stretched over the
narrow end of an irregularly-shaped funnel or drum, while the
end of the lever or marker was brought against the surface of
a cylinder covered with paper on which soot had been deposited
from a flame of turpentine or camphor. The cylinder was
fixed on a fine screw moving horizontally when the cylinder
was rotated. The marker thus described a spiral line on the
blackened surface. When sounds were transmitted to the
membrane and the cylinder was rotated the oscillations of the
marker were recorded. Thus tracings of vibrations were
obtained. This instrument was much improved by Karl
Rudolph Konig, of Paris, who also made with it many valuable
observations. (See Nature, Dec. 26, 1001, p. 184). The
mechanism of the recording lever or marker was improved by
William Henry Barlow, in 1874, in an instrument called by him
the " logograph " (Trans. Roy. Soc, 1874). The next step
was Konig's invention of manometric flames by which the
oscillations of a thin membrane under sound-pressures acted
on a small reservoir of gas connected with a flame, and the
oscillations were viewed in a rotating rectangular mirror, accord-
ing to a method devised by Charles Wheatstone. Thus fame-
pictures of the vibrations of sound were obtained (Pogg. Ann.,
1864, cxxii. 242, 660; see also Quelques experiences d'acou-
stique, Paris, 1882). Clarence Blake in 1876 employed the drum-
head of the human ear as a logograph, and thus obtained tracings
similar to those made by artificial membranes and disks (Archiv.

fiir Ophthalmol., 1876, v. 1.). In the same year Sigmund
Theodor Stein photographed the vibrations of tuning-forks,
violin strings, &c. (Pogg. Ann., 1876, p. 142). Thus from
Thomas Young downwards successful efforts had been made
to record graphically on moving surfaces the vibrations of sounds,
but the sounds so recorded could not be reproduced. This
was accomplished by T. A. Edison in 1876, the first patent
being dated January 1877.

In the first phonograph a spiral groove was cut gn a brass drum
fixed on a horizontal screw, so that when the drum was rotated
it moved from right to left, as in the phonautograph. The recorder
consisted of a membrane of parchment or gold-beater's skin
stretched over the end of a short brass cylinder about 2 in.
in diameter. In the centre of the membrane there was a stout steel
needle having a chisel-shaped edge, and a stiff bit of steel spring
was soldered to the needle near its point, while the other end of
the spring was clamped to the edge of the brass cylinder over which
the membrane was stretched. The recorder was then so placed
beside the large cylinder that the sharp edge of the needle ran in
the middle of the spiral groove when the cylinder was rotated.
The cylinder was covered with a sheet of soft tinfoil. During rotation
of the cylinder, and while the membrane was not vibrating, the
sharp edge of the marker indented the tinfoil into the spiral groove ;
and when the membrane was caused to vibrate by sounds being
thrown into the short cylinder by a funnel-shaped opening, the
variations of pressure corresponding to each vibration caused the
marker to make indentations on the tinfoil in the bottom of the
groove. These indentations corresponded to the sound-waves.
To reproduce the sounds the recorder was drawn away from the
cylinder, and the cylinder was rotated backwards until the recorder
was brought to the point at which it started. The cylinder was
then rotated forwards so that the point of the recorder ran over
the elevations and depressions in the bottom of the groove. These
elevations and depressions, corresponding to the variations of
pressure of each sound-wave, acted backwards on the membrane
through the medium of the marker. The membrane was thus
caused to move in the same way as it did when it was made to
vibrate by the sound-waves falling upon it, and consequently move-
ments of the same general character but of smaller amplitude
were produced, and these reproduced sound-waves. Consequently
the sound first given to the phonograph was reproduced with con-
siderable accuracy. In 1878 Fleeming Jenkin and J. A. Ewing
amplified the tracings made on this instrument by the sounds of
vowels, and submitted the curves so obtained to harmonic analysis.
(Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. xxviii. 745). The marks on the tinfoil were
also examined by P. F. F. Griitzner, Mayer, Graham Bell, A. M.
Preece, and Lahr (see The Telephone, the Microphone, and the
Phonograph, by count du Moncel, London, 1884; also The Speaking
Telephone and Talking Phonograph, by G. B. Prescott, New York,
1878).

The tinfoil phonograph, however, was an imperfect instrument,
both as regards the medium on which the imprints were taken
(tinfoil) and the general mechanism of the instrument. Many
improvements were attempted. From 1877 to 1888 Edison
was engaged in working out the details of the wax-cylinder
phonograph. In 1885 A. G. Bell and S. Tainter patented the
" graphophone," and in 1887, Emile Berliner, a German domiciled
in America, patented the " gramophone," wherein the cylinder
was coated with lampblack, and the friction between it and
the stylus was made uniform for all vibrations. Incidentally
it may be mentioned that Charles Cross deposited in 1877 a
sealed packet with the Academie des Sciences, Paris, containing
a suggestion for reproducing sound from a Scott phonautograph
record. The improvements made by Edison consisted chiefly
(1) in substituting for tinfoil cylinders or disks made of a waxy
substance on which permanent records are taken; (2) in substi-
tuting a thin glass plate for the parchment membrane; (3) in
improving the mechanical action of the marker; and (4) in
driving the drum carrying the wax cylinder at a uniform and
rapid speed by an electric motor placed below the instrument.

In the first place, permanent records can be taken on the wax,
which is composed of stearin and paraffin. This material is brittle,
but it readily takes the imprints made by the marker, which is
now a tiny bit of sapphire. The marker, when used for recording,
is shod with a chisel-shaped edge of sapphire ; but the sapphire is
rounded when the marker is used for reproducing the sound. The
marker also, instead of being a stiff needle coming from the centre
of the membrane or glass plate, is now a lever, weighted so as to
keep it in contact with the surface of the wax. A single vibration
of a pure tone consists of an increase of pressure followed by a
diminution of pressure. When the disk of glass is submitted to
an increase of pressure the action of the lever is such that, while

4 68

PHONOGRAPH

the wax cylinder is rotating, the point of the marker is angled
downwards, and this cuts deeply into the wax; and when there is
diminution of pressure the point is angled upwards, so as to act less
deeply. In reproducing the sound, the blunt end of the marker
runs over all the elevations and depressions in the bottom of the
groove cut on the wax cylinder. There is thus increased pressure
transmitted upwards to the glass disk when the point runs over an
elevation, and less pressure when the point runs over a depression
on the wax cylinder. The glass disk is thus, as it were, pulled
inwards and thrust outwards with each vibration, but these pulls

Fig. la. — Exterior of Edison Phonograph.

and thrusts follow each other so rapidly that the ear takes no
cognizance of the difference of phase of the vibrations of the glass
plate in imprinting and in reproducing. The variations of pressure
are communicated to the glass plate, and
these, by the medium of the air, are trans-
mitted to the drum-head of the ear, and the
sound is reproduced with remarkable fidelity.
It is necessary for accurate reproduction
that the point of the marker be in the
centre of the groove. In the older phono-
graphs this required accurate adjustment
by a fine screw, but in newer forms a
certain amount of lateral oscillation is
allowed to the marker, by which it slips
automatically into the groove. Two other
improvements have been effected in the
construction of the instrument. A powerful
triple-spring motor has been substituted for
the electric motor, and the circumference
of the wax cylinder has been increased
from 6} in. to 15 in., whilst the disk is 12 in.
in diameter. The cylinders make about two
revolutions per second, so that with the
smaller cylinder the point of the marker
runs over nearly 14 in. in one second, while
with the larger it runs over about 30 in. The
marks corresponding to the individual
vibrations of tones of high pitch are there-
fore less likely to be crowded together
with the larger cylinder, and these higher
tones in particular are more accurately
reproduced. In a form of instrument
called the 200-thread machine motion of
the drum bearing the cylinder was taken
off a screw the thread of which was 50 to
the inch, and by a system of gearing the
grooves on the cylinder were 200 to the
inch, or ^ of an inch apart. It was somewhat difficult to keep
the marker in the grooves when they were so close together; and
the movement is now taken directly off a screw the thread of which is
100 to the inch, so that the grooves on the cylinder are T fo of an

inch apart. Thus with the large cylinder a spiral groove of over
300 yds. may be described by the recorder, and with a speed of
about two revolutions per second this distance is covered by the
marker in about six minutes. By diminishing the speed of revolu-
tion, which can be easily done, the time may be considerably
lengthened.

In the plate machine the disk is fixed to a table which is rotated
at a fixed speed of about 76 revolutions a minute. The speed of the
lateral movement of tHfe table is also uniform, and by a regular
progression brings the wax blank under the sound-box to the
sapphire cutting point, which detaches a fine unbroken thread of
wax as it cuts into the surface of the blank to a depth of 33- to 4-
thousandths of an inch, beginning at about half an inch from the
circumference and continuing the spiral groove to within a couple
of inches of the centre, according to the length of the music to be
recorded. The essential difference between the disk and. cylinder
machine is that in the former the waves are recorded by horizontal
motion over the disk, while in the latter the waves are recorded
as indentations.

The following is the modus operandi of making a record. The
person making the record sings or plays in front of a horn or funnel
used for the purpose of focusing the sound-waves upcn the
diaphragm. The artist and the funnel are on one side of a screen
and the recording apparatus in charge of an operator on the other.
The arrangement of the various instruments in the recording
room at proper relative distances from the horn is of the utmost
importance in order to preserve the balance of tone. At about
4 ft. from the horn are grouped the violins and the wood wind (flutes,
oboes and clarinets) ; behind the brass wind (horns, trumpets,
trombones and tubers), and right at the back the violoncellos and
double basses and the kettle-drums and other instruments of
percussion which may be required. On the other side of the screen
is the sound-box and the recording cylinder or disk.

Cylinder records are duplicated by taking a plaster cast, electro-
plating, and then using it as a matrix. The disk record admits
of similar treatment. After dusting with graphite it is electro-
plated to about 'g mm. thick. This forms the permanent or master
record, from which the working negatives are made by taking wax
impresses of it and obtaining copper electros in turn from them.
The matrix is then nickel-plated and polished and is ready for use
in pressing out the commercial records by means of an hydraulic
press, the material used being a tough and elastic substance contain-
ing shellac and other compounds such as wood charcoal, barium
sulphate, earthy colouring matters and cotton flock.

There is still a defect to be overcome in the gramophone, and
that is the hissing of the needle produced by friction both during
recording and intensified in reproduction. In one device for
remedying this the stylus acts like a stylographic pen, depositing
on a polished surface a fine stream of some liquid which solidifies
and hardens very rapidly, forming a sinuous ridge instead of a
groove in a wax blank. A negative is taken of the record and the
matrix is made from it in the usual way.

Mechanism of Edison Phonograph.

The auxeto-gramophone or auxetophone, patented by Short in
1898 and improved by the Hon. C. A. Parsons, is similar in scope
to the gramophone but attains its results in a different manner.
In the Parsons-Short sound-box there is no diaphragm, but a

PHONOGRAPH

469

column of compressed air is controlled by a delicately adjusted
grid-valve consisting of a metal comb rigidly connected to the
stylus bar, so that as the needle moves the metal comb moves
with it, following the lines of vibration fixed on the record and
opening or closing the slots in the valve seat. The column of
compressed air to which the valve gives access thus receives series
of minute pulsations identical with those which originally produced
the sounds recorded. In connexion with the sound-box is the
apparatus for supplying compressed air, consisting of a sixth-horse
power electric motor driving the compressor, an oil filter, a reservoir
and a dust collector to keep the air absolutely free from foreign
substances likely to interfere with the action of the valve.

The practical possibilities of the gramophone are being
realized in many countries. Matrices of the records of well-
known artists have been deposited at the British Museum
and at the Grand Opera in Paris. Austria established a public
phonogram record office in 1903, in which are collected folk-
songs and records of all kinds for enriching the department
of ethnography. The same idea is being carried out in Germany

A O

2 e
165 V.D.

c'
* 264 YD.

Fig. 2.

by private societies and by royal museums. In Hungary records
of the various dialects have been secured. The possibilities of
the gramophone as a teacher are far-reaching, not only in the
domain of music but in learning languages, &c.

To understand how the phonograph records and reproduces
musical tones, it is necessary to remember (1) that pilch or
frequency depends on the number of vibrations executed by the
vibrating body in a given period of time, or on the duration
of each vibration; (2) that intensity or loudness depends on the
amplitude of the movement of the vibrating body; and (3) that
quality, timbre or clang, first, depends on the form of the individual
vibrations, or rather on the power the ear possesses of appreci-
ating a simple pendular vibration producing a pure tone, or of
decomposing more or less completely a compound vibration into
the simple pendular vibrations of which it is composed. If
we apply this to the record of the phonograph, we find that,
given a constant and sufficiently rapid velocity of the record,
a note or tone of a certain pitch will be heard when the marker
runs over a number of elevations and depressions corresponding
to the frequency of that note. Thus if the note was produced
by 200 vibrations per second, and suppose that it lasted in
the music for -fo of a second, 20 marks, each made in -$$-$ of a
second, would be imprinted on the wax. Consequently, in
reproduction, the marker would run over the 20 marks in -fa>oi
a second, and a tone of that frequency would be reproduced.

The loudness would correspond to the depth of each individual
mark on the cylinder or the width on the disk. The greater
the depth of a series of successive marks produced by a loud
tone, the greater, in reproduction, would be the amplitude of
the excursions of the glass disk and the louder would be the tone
reproduced. Lastly, the form of the marks corresponding to
individual vibrations would determine the quality of the tone
or note reproduced, by which we can distinguish the tone of
one instrument from another, or the sensation produced by a
tone of pure and simple quality, like that from a well-bowed
tuning-fork or an open organ pipe, and that given by a trumpet
or an orchestra, in which the sounds of many instruments are
blended together. When the phonograph records the sound
of an orchestra it does not record the tones of each instrument,
but it imprints the form of impression corresponding to the very
complex sound-wave formed by all the instruments combined.
This particular form, infinitely varied, will reproduce backwards,
.as has been explained, A

9 10 11 12

152? w mm 2012 m ?%6w.

by acting on the glass
plate, the particular
form of sound-wave
corresponding to the
sound of the orchestra.
Numerous instruments
blend their tones to
make one wave-form,
and when one instru-
ment predominates, or
if a human voice is
singing to the accom-
paniment of the orches-
tra, another form of
sound-wave, or rather a
complex series of sound
waves, is imprinted.
When reproduced, the
wave-forms again exist
in the air as very com-
plex variations of pres-
sure; these act on the
drum-head of the human
ear, there is transmission
to the brain, and there
an analysis of the com-
plex sensation takes
place, and we distin-
guish the trombone from
the oboe, or the human
voice from the violin
obbligato.

Many efforts have been
made to obtain graphic
tracings of wave-forms
imprinted on the wax
phonograph records. Thus
J. G. M'Kendrick took
(1) celloidin casts of the p

surface, and (2) micro- ' 3'

photographs of a small portion of the cylinder (Journ. of Anat.
and Phys., July 1895). He also devised a phonograph recorder by
which the curves were much amplified (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.,
vol. xxxviii.; Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1896-1897, Opening Address;
Sound and Speech Waves as revealed by the Phonograph, London,
1897; and Schafer's Physiol., vol. ii., " Vocal Sounds," p. 1229). As
already mentioned, so long ago as 1878 Fleeming Jenkin and Ewing
had examined the marks on the tinfoil phonograph. Professor
Ludimar Hermann, of Konigsberg, took up the subject about 1890,
using the wax-cylinder phonograph. He obtained photographs of
the curves on the wax cylinder, a beam of light reflected from a
small mirror attached to the vibrating disk of the phonograph being
allowed to fall on a sensitive plate while the phonograph was slowly
travelling. (For references to Hermann's important papers, see
Schafer's Physiology, ii. 1222.) Boeke, of Alkmaar, has devised an
ingenious and accurate method of obtaining curves from the wax
cylinder. He measured by means of a microscope the transverse
diameter of the impressions on the surface of the cylinder, on
different (generally equidistant) parts of the period, and he infers

47°

PHONOGRAPH

from these measurements the depth of the impressions on the same
spot, or, in other words, he derives from these measurements the
curve of the vibrations of the tone which produced the impression

e 21
152 YD.

e 22
165 VD.

ff 25
198 VD.

c' 24
264 VD

Fig. 4.

(Archiv. f. d. ges. Physiol. Bonn, Bd. 1, S. 297; also Proc. Roy. Soc.
Edin., 1898).

From a communication to the Dutch Otorhinolaryngological
Society Dr Boeke has permitted the author to select the accom-
panying illustrations, which will give the reader a fair conception
of the nature of the marks on the wax cylinder produced by various
tones. Fig. 2 shows portions of the curves obtained by Hermann,
and enlarged by Boeke one and a half times. The numbers 1 to 4
refer to periods of the vowel A (as in " hard "), sung by Hermann
on the notes c e g c'. Numbers 5 to 8 show the curves of the vowel
(as in " go ") sung to the same notes. The number of vibrations
is also noted. Boeke measured the marks for the same vowels by
his method, from the same cylinder, and constructing the curves,
found the relative lengths to be the same. In fig. 3 we see the
indentations produced by the same vowels, sung by Hermann on
the notes c e g c', on the same phonograph cylinder, but delineated
by Boeke after his method. The curves are also shown in linear
fashion beside each group of indentations. From these measure-

ments the curves were calculated and reproduced, as in fig. 4.
Thus the curves of the same vowel sounds on the same Cylinder
are shown by two methods, that of Hermann and that of Boeke.

d e f g a, b C c'

A 1 c f a' a; b' e"

Fig. 5.
In fig. 5 we see the indentations on the vowel a, sung by Dr Boeke,
aged 55, on the notes cdefgabc', and near the frequencies of
128, 144, 160, 170-6, 192, 213-3, 2 4° ar >d 256. The numbers 33 to
40 show the marks produced by the same vowel, sung by his son,
aged 13. It will be seen that the boy sang the notes exactly an
octave higher. Fig. 6 shows the marks produced by some musical

427 ty.

Fig. 6.

sounds. Each shows on the right-hand side the curve deduced
from the marks, and under it a graphical representation of the results
of its harmonic analysis after the theorem of Fourier, in which the
ordinates represent the amplitude of the subsequent harmonic
constituents. No. 41 is the period of the sound of a pitch-pipe
giving a' (425 double vibrations per second), No. 42 the period of
a Dutch pitch-pipe, also sounding a' (424-64 double vibrations
per second). No. 43 is a record of the period of a sound produced
by blowing between two strips of indiarubber to imitate the vocal
cords, with a frequency of 453 double vibrations per second. No.
44 is that of a telephone pipe used by Hermann (503 double vibra-
tions per second). Nos. 45 and 46 show the marks of a cornet
sounding the notes a of = t 400 double vibrations per second, and
e of 300 double vibrations per second. In fig. 7 are shown' a number
of vowel curves for the vowels o, OE, A, E and 1. Each curve has
on the right-hand side a graphical representation of its harmonic
analysis. The curves are in five vertical columns, having on the

PHONOLITE— PHORMIUM

47i

left-hand side of each drawings, by Boeke's method, of two periods
of the marks of the vowel. The marks are shown for the Dutch,
German, English and French languages. The sounds of the vowels
are 0, like in " go "; oe, like 00 in " too "; u, like the German u
in " Fiihrer " ; o, like o in " hard " ; e, like a in " take " ; ij, not in
English words, but somewhat like e in " bell "; and i, like ee in
" beer." The first section contains only Dutch vowel sounds,
either sung or spoken by Boeke or members of his family. The
second section contains curves from the voice of Professor Hermann,
the third from the voice of the author from a cylinder sent by him
to Dr Boeke, and the fourth from the voice of Mons. H. Marichelle,
professeur de l'lnstitut des Sourds-Muets, also forwarded by him
to Dr Boeke. Thus curves and marks of the same vowel are shown
from the voices of men of four nationalities.

On the construction of the gramophone, see L. N. Reddie, Journ.
Soc. Arts (1908).

PHONOLITE (Gr. fyuvi), sound, and Xi#os, stone), in petrology,
a group of volcanic lavas containing much nepheline and sanidine
felspar. The term " clinkstone " was formerly given by geolo-
gists to many fine grained compact lavas, which split into thin
tough plates, and gave out a ringing sound when struck with the
hammer. Some of these clinkstones were phonolites in the
modern sense, but as the name clinkstone was used for a large
variety of rocks, many of which have no close affinities with one
another, it has been discarded and " phonolite " is substituted for
it. The group includes rocks which are rich in alkalis with
only a moderate percentage of silica; hence they contain no free
quartz but much alkali felspar (sanidine and anorthoclase) and
nepheline. Large plates of sanidine are often visible in the
rocks; the nepheline is usually not obvious to the unaided eye.
Most phonolites show fluxion structure, both in the orientation
of their phenocrysts and in the smaller crystals which make up
the ground-mass; and this determines to a large extent the platy
jointing. Although vitreous and pumiceous forms are known
they are rare, and in the great majority of cases these rocks are
finely crystalline with a dull or shimmering lustre in the ground-
mass. Marked characteristics are the readiness with which they
decompose, and the frequency of veins and cavities occupied by
natrolite, analcite, scolecite and other zeolites. Small black
grains of augite or hornblende and sometimes blue specks of
haiiyne may be seen in the rocks when they are fresh.

The dominant minerals are sanidine, nepheline, pyroxene,
amphibole, various felspathoids and iron oxides. The sanidine
is usually in two generations, the first consisting of large crystals
of flattened and tabular shape, while the second generation is
represented by small rectangular prisms arranged in parallel
streams in the ground-mass; these felspars are nearly always
simply twinned on the Carlsbad plan. They contain often as
much soda as potash. The nepheline takes the form of hexagonal
prisms with flat ends, and may be completely replaced by fibrous
zeolites, so that it can only be recognized by the outlines of its
pseudomorphs. In some phonolites it is exceedingly abundant

magnetite and zircon occur in the phonolites, and sphene is often
rather common. Another mineral which is more frequent in
phonolites than in many other rocks is brown melanite garnet.

The majority of the rocks of this group are of Tertiary or
Recent age, but in Scotland Carboniferous phonolites occur
in several localities, e.g. Traprain in Haddingtonshire, also
in the Eildon Hills and in Renfrewshire. In Brazil phonolites
belonging to the same epoch are also known. There are several
districts in Europe where Tertiary or Recent phonolites occur
in considerable numbers, as in Auvergne (Mont Dore), the Eifel,
and Bohemia. The Wolf Rock which lies off the south coast of
Cornwall, and is the site of a well-known lighthouse, is the only
mass of phonolite in England; it is supposed to be the remains
of a Tertiary lava or intrusion. The Canary Islands, Cape
Verde Islands, Sardinia, Aden, British East Africa and New
Zealand contain many types of phonolites; they are known also
in New South Wales, while in the United States phonolites
occur in Colorado (at Cripple Creek) and in the Black Hills of
South Dakota.

Leucite occurs in place of nepheline in a small group of phono-
lites (the leucite-phonolites) , known principally from Rocca
Monfina and other places near Naples. Blue haiiyne is rather
a conspicuous mineral in some of these rocks, and they also
contain a good deal of sphene. When sanidine, nepheline and
leucite all occur together in a volcanic rock it is classed among
the leucitophyres (see Petrology, Plate III. fig. 2).

The chemical analyses of phonolites given below show that these
rocks are very rich in alkalis and alumina with only a moderate
amount of silica, while lime, magnesia and iron oxides are present
only in small quantity. They have a close resemblance in these
respects to the nepheline-syenites of which they provide the effusive
types. (J. S. F.)

PHORCYS-(Phorctjs, Phorcyn), in Greek mythology, son of
Pontus (Sea) and Gaea (Earth), father of the Graeae, the Gorgons,
Scylla, and Ladon (the dragon that guarded the golden apples
of the Hesperides). In Homer {Odyssey, xiii. 96) he is an aged
sea-deity, after whom a harbour in Ithaca was named. Accord-
ing to Varro (quoted by Servius in Aeneid, v. 824) Phorcys was
a king of Corsica and Sardinia, who, having been defeated by
King Atlas in a naval engagement in the course of which he was
drowned, was subsequently worshipped as a marine divinity.

PHORMIUM, or New Zealand Flax (also called " New
Zealand hemp "), a fibre obtained from the leaves of Phormium
tenax (nat. ord. Liliaceae), a native of New Zealand, the Chatham
Islands and Norfolk Island. This useful plant is one of the
many which were discovered by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr
Solander who accompanied Captain Cook on his first voyage
of discovery. The seeds brought home by Banks in 1771 did
not succeed, but the plant was introduced by him to the Royal
Gardens at Kew in 1789, and was thence liberally distiibuted

Si0 2

A1 2 3

Fe 2 3

FeO

MgO

CaO

Na 2

K 2

H 2

I. Phonolite, Wolf Rock, Cornwall
II. Phonolite, Teplitzer Schlossberg, Bohemia
III. Leucite-phonolite, Rocca Monfina, Italy .

56-46
58-16

58-48

22-29

21-57
19-56

2-70

2-77

0-97
4-99

tr

1-26
0-53

1-47

2-OI
2-60

11-13
5-97
3-14

2-8l

6-57
10-47

2-05
2-03
0-24

in the ground-mass, and these rocks form transitions to the
nephelinites (nephelinitoid phonolites) (see Petrology, Plate III.
fig. 1); in others it is scarce and the rocks resemble trachytes
containing a little nepheline (trachytoid phonolites). The
felspathoid minerals, sodalite, haiiyne and nosean, which
crystallize in isometric dodecahedra, are very frequent compo-
nents of the phonolites; their crystals are often corroded or partly
dissolved and their outlines may then be very irregular. Small
rounded enclosures of glass are often numerous in them. The
pyroxenes may be pale green diopside, dark green aegirine-augite,
or blackish green aegirine (soda iron pyroxene), and in many
cases are complex, the outer portions being aegirine while the
centre is diopside. Fine needles of aegirine are often found in
the ground-mass. The commonest hornblende is dark brown
barkevicite. Biotite and olivine are not really frequent in
these rocks, and usually have been affected by resorption.
The ordinary accessory minerals of igneous rocks, apatite,

in Great Britain and the continent of Europe. It grows luxuri-
antly in the south of Ireland, where it was introduced in 1798,
and also flourishes on the west coast of Scotland, and is generally
cultivated as an ornamental garden plant in Europe. It has
been introduced for economic purposes into the Azores and
California. The name Phormium is from Gr. 4>opfws, a basket,
in allusion to one of the uses made of its leaves by the New
Zealanders.

In its native country the plant is generally found near the
coast. It has a fleshy rootstock, creeping beneath the surface
of the soil and sending up luxuriant tufts of narrow, sword-
shaped leaves, from 4 to 8 ft. long and from 2 to 4 in. in
diameter. The leaves are vertical, and arranged in two rows as
in the garden flag; they are very thick, stiff and leathery, dark
green above, paler below, with the margin and nerve reddish-
orange. From the centre of the tuft ultimately arises a tall
flower-bearing stem, 5 to 15 ft. high, bearing on its numerous

47.2

PHORONIDEA

branches a very large number of lurid red or yellow, somewhat
tubular flowers, recalling those of an aloe, and from i to 2 in.
long. After flowering the plant dies down, but increases by
new lateral growths from the rootstock. The plant will grow
in almost any soil, but best on light rich soil, by the side of
rivers and brooks, where sheltered from the wind.

Phormium has been treated as a cultivated plant in New
Zealand, though only to a limited extent; for the supplies of the
raw material dependence has been principally placed on th"e abund-
ance of the wild stocks and on sets planted as hedges and boundaries
by the Maoris. Among these people the fibre has always been an
article of considerable importance, yielding cloaks, mats, cordage,
fishing-lines, &c, its valuable properties having attracted the atten-
tion of traders even before colonists settled in the islands. The
leaves, for fibre-yielding purposes, come to maturity in about
six months, and the habit of the Maoris is to cut them down twice
a year, rejecting the outer and leaving the central immature leaves.
Phormium is prepared with great care by native methods, only the
mature fibres from the under-side of the leaves being taken. These
are collected in water, scraped over the edge of a shell to free them
from adhering cellular tissue and epidermis, and more than once
washed in a running stream, followed by renewed scraping till the
desired purity of fibre is attained. This native process is exceed-
ingly wasteful, not more than one-fourth of the leaf-fibre being there-
by utilized. But up till i860 it was only native-prepared phormium
that was known in the market, and it was on the material so care-
fully, but wastefully, selected that the reputation of the fibre was
built up. The troubles with the Maoris at that period led the
colonists to engage in the industry, and the sudden demand for
all available fibres caused soon afterwards by the Civil War in
America greatly stimulated their endeavours. Machinery was
invented for disintegrating the leaves and freeing the fibre, and at
the same time experiments were made with the view of obtaining
it by water-retting, and by means of alkaline solutions and other
chemical agencies. But the fibre produced by these rapid and
economical means was very inferior in quality to the product of
Maori handiwork, mainly because weak and undeveloped strands
are, by machine preparation, unavoidably intermixed, with the per-
fect fibres, which alone the Maoris select, and so the uniform quality
and strength of the material are destroyed. The New Zealand
government in 1893 offered a premium of £1750 for a machine
which would treat the fibre satisfactorily, and a further £250 for
a process of treating the tow; and with a view to creating further
interest in the matter a member of a commission of inquiry visited
England during 1897. The premium was again issued in 1899.
In 1903 it was stated that a German chemist had discovered a
method of working and spinning the New Zealand fibre. An idea
of the extent of the growth of the fibre may be gathered from the
fact that the exports for 1905 amounted to 28,877 bales at a value
of nearly £700,000.

Phormium is a cream-coloured fibre with a fine silky gloss,
capable of being spun and woven into many of the heavier textures
for which flax is used, either alone or in combination with flax.
It is, however, principally a cordage fibre, and in tensile strength
it is second only to manila hemp; but it does not bear well the
alternations of wet and dry to which ship-ropes are subject. The
fibre has come into use as a suitable material for binder-twine as
used in self-binding reaping machines.

PHORONIDEA, a zoological order, containing a single genus
Phoronis, which is known to be of practically world-wide dis-
tribution, while there are many records of its larva, Actinotrocha,
from localities where the adult has not been found. Phoronis is
often gregarious, the tubes which it secretes being sometimes
intertwined in an inextricable mass. These associations of
individuals can hardly be the result of the metamorphosis of
a corresponding number of larvae, but are probably due to a
spontaneous fragmentation of the adult animals, each such
fragment developing into a complete Phoronis (De Selys-Long-
champs). The animal is from a quarter of an inch to six inches
(P. australis) in length. The free end of the long vermiform
body ends in a horseshoe-shaped " lophophore," or tentacle-
bearing region (fig. 1, a), which strikingly resembles that of the
Phylactolaematous Polyzoa (see Polyzoa).

In some species (figs. 2, 3) the two ends of the lophophore are
rolled into spirals. An oral view of this region (fig. 2) shows:
the mouth (m), continuous on either side with the groove between
the two series of tentacles; the anus (o), in the middle line, at no
great distance from the mouth; a transversely elongated epistome
(ep), between the mouth and the anus; and, in the concavity of
the lophophore, the apertures of the nephridia (n.o.) which, accord-
ing to De Selys-Longchamps, open into the two large sensory or
glandular " lophophoral organs " the orifices of which are seen at
gl. The mouth leads into the oesophagus, which extends straight
down the body nearlv to the aboral end or " ampulla," where it

dilates into a stomach, from which the ascending limb of the
(J-shaped alimentary canal passes directly to the anus. The
coelomic body-cavity is divided by a transverse septum (fig. 3, s)
which lies near the bases of the tentacles. The praeseptal or lopho-
phoral coelom is continued into each of the tentacles and into the

Fig. i.-

(After Allman.)

-The Tentacular End of Phoronis, with most of the tentacles
removed.

a. The horseshoe-shaped lopho-
phore.
6, Mouth.

c, Optical section of the epistome

(seen immediately below the
end of the reference-line).

d, Oesophagus.

e, Intestine.

epistome. The postseptal coelom is partially divided by a ventral
mesentery which is attached along the entire length of the convex
side of the loop of the alimentary canal (a, a") and by two lateral
mesenteries (a') which further connect the oesophagus with the

/, Efferent vessel.

g, One of the two efferent lopho-
phoral vessels, uniting to
form /.

h, Dorsal or afferent vessel.

i, Body-wall.

k. Fused bases of the tentacles.

(After Benham.)
Fig. 2. — Dorsal View of Phoronis australis, showing the spirally

coiled ends of the lophophore.

a,

D,

ep,

?/,

i.t.,

Anus.

m.

Posterior surface.

n.o.

Epistome.

n.o.

Lophophoral organ.

o.t.,

Bases of inner tentacles.

V,

Position of the mouth.
Nephridial surface.
Nephridial opening.
Bases of outer tentacles.
Anterior surface.

body-wall. Each nephridium is provided with either one or two
funnels which open into the postseptal division of the coelom (ne.f).
The nervous system lies in the epidermis, externally to the basement-
membrane. A general nerve-plexus probably exists over con-
siderable parts of the skin, and there are special nervous concen-
trations in the region of the epistome and along a double crescent
(N) which follows the parietal attachment of the coelomic septum.
The part which lies at the base of the epistome is morphologically
dorsal in position. It is said by Schultz (11) to develop, in specimens
which are regenerating the lophophoral end, from an invagination
of the ectoderm; and in this condition is compared by hun with

PHORONIDEA

473

the hollow central nervous system of some Enteropneusta and of
Vertebrates. This comparison is not admitted by De Selys-
Longchamps. The vascular system contains numerous red blood-
corpuscles. The principal blood-channels are two longitudinal
vessels which run down the entire length of the body, and are
known as the " afferent " vessel (a/) and the " efferent " vessel
(ef) respectively, from their relation to the tentacles. According
to researches in 1907 by De Selys-Longchamps, the blood is driven
by the afferent vessel (af) to a crescentic lophophoral vessel (d.v.)
which supplies the tentacles. Each of these contains a single blindly

a,

a',
a",

«/.

an,

D,

d.v.

ef,

ep,

gl,
it,

TO,

a- ' ~~~ a,

(From Fowler, after Benham.)

Fig. 3. — Diagram of oral end of Phoronis australis,

seen from the left side.

Oesophageal (ventral) mesen- N, Post-oral nerve-tract

tery. base of lophophore.

at

Right lateral mesentery.

Intestinal mesentery.

Afferent vessel.

Anus.

Posterior surface.

Afferent lophophoral vessel.

Efferent vessel.

Epistome.

Lophophoral organ.

Bases of inner tentacles.

Mouth.

ne.d., Duct of nephridium.
ne.f., Larger nephridial funnel.
ne.o., External opening of ne-

phridium.
m, Oesophagus.
ot., Bases of outer tentacles. '
R, Intestine.
r.v., Right efferent lophophoral

vessel.
s, Coelomic septum.
V, Anterior side.

ending vessel which bifurcates at its base (see fig. 3). One of these
branches communicates with the afferent lophophoral vessel,
while the other one opens into the crescentic efferent lophophoral
vessel (r.v.). From this the blood passes into two lateral vessels
which pierce the coelomic septum (5.), the right vessel proceeding
on the anterior side of the oesophagus, as shown in fig. 3, to effect
a union with the left one, and thus to constitute the main efferent
vessel, which gives off numerous caecal branches as it passes down
the body. Hence the blood returns once more to the afferent
vessel through a splanchnic sinus which surrounds the stomach.
The circulation is maintained by the rhythmical contraction of
the afferent vessel and by less regular contractions of some of the
other vessels. The reproductive organs lie on the left side, near
the aboral end, both ovary and testis being present in the same
individual in some of the species. They are said to be developed
from the coelomic epithelium which covers the efferent vessel or
its caeca. The reproductive cells pass to the exterior by means
of the nephridia. Reproduction by budding does not occur,
although spontaneous fragmentation of the body, followed by
complete regeneration of each of the pieces, is known to take place.
Regeneration of the tentacular end of the animal is of frequent
occurrence.

Development and Affinities. — The eggs of Phoronis are small and
usually undergo their early development attached to the tentacles
of the adult. The attachment is probably effected (Masterman)
by the secretion of the lophophoral organs (fig. 2, gl.). After the
formation of an invaginate gastrula the larval form is rapidly
acquired. On quitting the shelter of the parent tentacles the embryo
becomes a pelagic larva, known as Actinotrocha (fig. 4) characterized
by the possession of a line of tentacles running obliquely round the
body. Locomotion is effected principally by means of a posterior
ring of cilia surrounding the anus. The mouth (0) is in front of
the tentacles, on the ventral side, and is overhung by a mobile
praeoral hood, in which is the principal part of the nervous system.

An oblique septum which follows the bases of the tentacles and
corresponds with that of the adult animal divides the body-cavity
into two portions. The postseptal division is a coelomic space,
partially subdivided by a ventral mesentery. The praeseptal
cavity is a vascular space, since it is in free communication with
the dorsal vessel of the larva, and it persists in part as the two
lophophoral vascular crescents of the adult. It contains two tufts
of peculiar excretory cells, described by Goodrich (5) as " soleno-
cytes," which surround the blind ends of a pair of nephridia.
These pass backwards through the septum and open to the exterior
ventrally. After the Actinotrocha has led a pelagic life for some
time it develops a large ventral invagination of its body-wall
(fig. 4, 2, iv.). At the metamorphosis, this sac is everted and the
alimentary canal is drawn into it in the form of a loop (fig. 4, 3, 4).
Most of the praetentacular region and the larval tentacles separate
off, being then taken into the alimentary canal, where they are
digested. The relations of the surfaces after the metamorphosis
are clearly very different from those which obtained in the larva.
The dorsal surface of the adult is the one between the mouth and the
anus, while the median ventral line is the one which corresponds
with the convexity of the alimentary canal. This view of the sur-
faces is, however, disputed by De Selys-Longchamps, who regards
the aboral extremity of the adult as the posterior end.

The development of Phoronis was supposed by Caldwell (2) to
furnish the explanation of the relations of the surfaces in Brachio-
poda, Polyzoa and perhaps the Sipunculoid Gephyrea, in which
the ontogenetic evidence is less clear. Caldwell's views were
accepted by Lankester (8) in the 9th edition of this work, the
Phylum Podaxonia being there instituted to include the groups
just mentioned, together with the Pterobranchia. The peduncle
of the Brachiopoda was supposed to correspond with the everted
ventral sac of Actinotrocha, but the question is complicated by the
want of any complete investigation of the development of the
Brachiopoda, and by the absence of the anus in the majority of
the genera. There is, however, a considerable amount of re-
semblance between the lophophore of Phoronis australis, with its
spirally twisted ends, and that of a. typical Brachiopod ; nor do the
structural details of the adult Brachiopods forbid the view that
they may be related to Phoronis. The comparative study of the
development does not support the hypothesis that the Polyzoa
(q.v.) are comparable with Phoronis. In Pedicellina, the only
Polyzoon in which the alimentary canal of the larva is known to
become that of the first adult individual, the line between the
mouth and anus is ventral in the larva ; and since there is no reversal
of the curvature of the digestive loop during the metamorphosis
it must be regarded as ventral in the adult. There are, indeed
remarkable similarities between the external characters of the
Phylactolaematous Polyzoa and the Phoronidea, and notably be-
tween their lophophores. The supposed occurrence of a pair of
nephridia in certain Phylactolaemata, in a position corresponding
with that of the nephridia of Phoronis, must also be mentioned,

Fig. 4. — Diagrams illustrating the Metamorphosis of Actinotrocha.

AB, Anteroposterior axis. 3, Commencement of the meta-

DV, Dorsoventral axis. morphosis.

1, 2, Actinotrocha. 4, Later stage in the metamor-

phosis: a, anus; iv, ventral
invagination; 0, mouth.

although it has been maintained that the " nephridia " of Phylac-
tolaemata are merely ciliated portions of the body-cavity and not
indeed nephridia at all. But a serious objection to the comparison
is that the development of Phylactolaemata can be explained by
supposing it to be a modification of what occurs in other Polyzoa,
while it appears to have no relation whatever to that of Phoronis.
Most observers consider that Actinotrocha is a highly modified
Trochosphere, and this would give it some claim to be regarded
as distantly related to the Entoproct Polyzoa and to other groups
which have a Trochosphere larva.

474

PHORORHACOS— PHOSPHATES

Phoronis has long been regarded as a possible ally of Rhabdopleura
(see Pterobranchia) ; and Masterman (10) has attempted to
demonstrate the existence in Actinolrocha of most of the structures
which occur in the Pterobranchia. According to his view the
praeoral hood of Actinolrocha (cf. fig. 4) corresponds with the
"proboscis" of Pterobranchia; the succeeding region, as far as
the bases of the tentacles, with the collar; and the post-tentacular
region with the metasome. Masterman's more detailed comparisons
have for the most part been rejected by other morphologists. One
of the most formidable difficulties in the way of the attempt to
reduce Actinolrocha to the Pterobranchiate type of structure is the
condition of the coelom in the former. There is indeed a perfectly
definite transverse septum which divides the body-cavity in the
region of the tentacle-bases. Even if it be admitted that the post-
septal space may be the metasomatic cavity, the praeseptal space
can hardly be regarded as coelomic in nature, since it is in continuity
with the vascular system; while Masterman's conclusion that the
cavity of the praeoral hood (the supposed proboscis-cavity) is
separated from that of the supposed collar has received no con-
firmation. In spite of these difficulties it must be conceded that
the dorsal flexure of the alimentary canal of the Pterobranchia
is very Phoronis-like. It has, moreover, been shown (see especially
Goodrich, 5) that shortly before its metamorphosis, Actinolrocha
develops a coelomic space which lies immediately in front of the
oblique septum, and gives rise later to the cavity of the lophophore
and tentacles. Regarding this as a collar-cavity, it becomes

Eossible to agree with Masterman that the region shown in fig. 4, I.
etween the tentacles and the praeoral hood, is really a collar
the coelom of which develops relatively late. It will be noticed
that the lophophore of Phoronis is, on this assumption, a derivative
of the collar just as it is in the Pterobranchia. The epistome of
the adult Phoronis cannot well be the proboscis since its cavity is
continuous with the lophophoral coelom, and because the praeoral
hood of Actinolrocha is entirely lost at the metamorphosis. It is
possible that this consideration will account for the want of an
anterior body-cavity in Phoronis. Since the proboscis is a purely
larval organ in this genus, it may be supposed that the coelomic
space which properly belongs to it fails to develop, but that the
praeoral hood itself is none the less the morphological representative
of the proboscis. In spite of the criticisms which have been made
on the conclusion that Phoronis is allied to the Pterobranchia, it
is thus possible that the view is a sound one, and that the Phoronidea
should take their place, with the Enteropneusta and the Ptero-
branchia, as an order of the Hemichordata.

Bibliography. — (1) Benham, Quart. Journ. Mic. Soc. xxx. 125
(1890); (2) Caldwell, Proc. Roy. Soc. xxxiv. 371 (1883); (3) Cori,
Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. li. 480 (1891); (4) Fowler, art. " Hemichorda,"
Ency. Brit. xxix. 249 (1902); (5) Goodrich, Quart. Journ. Mic. Soc.
xlvii. 103 (1904); (6) Harmer, Siboga Rep. xxvi. 114, bis (Ptero-
branchia), (1905); (7) Ikeda, J. Coll. Sci. Japan, xiii. 507 (1901);

(8) Lankester, art. " Polyzoa," Ency. Brit. xix. 430, 433 (1885);

(9) De Selys-Longchamps, Arch. Biol, xviii. 495 (1902); Wiss.
Meeresunt. (N. F.) vi. Abt. Helgoland (1903), Heft i. ; Mint, classe
sci. acad. belgique, vol. i. (1904); Fauna u. Flora G. v. Neapel,
30 Monogr. (1907) ; (10) Masterman, Quart. Journ. Mic. Soc. xl.
281 (1898); xliii. 375 (1900); (11) Schultz, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.
lxxv. 391, 473 (1903); (12) Shearer, Mitth. zool. Stat. Neapel,
xvii. 487 (1906) ; (13) Shipley, Cambr. Nat. Hist. ii. 450 (1896).

(S. F. H.)

PHORORHACOS, the best-known genus of the extinct
Patagonian Stereornithes (see Bird: Fossil). Among the bones
found in the strata of the Santa Cruz formation (now considered
as mainly of mid-Miocene date) was the piece of a mandible
which F. Ameghino described in 1887 as that of an edentate
mammal, under the name of Phorysrhacos longissimus {Bolet.
Mus. de la Plata,i. 24). In 1891 (Rev. Argent. Hist. Nat. i. 225)

(From life-size model in Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist.)

Skull of Phororhacos, longissimus.

he amended the name and recognized the bone as that of
a bird, Phororhacos, which with Brontornis and others con-
stituted the family Phororhacidae. About six species of the
type genus are now known, the most complete being Ph. inflatus,
with skull, mandible, pelvis, limbs and some of the vertebrae.

These birds were at first considered as either belonging to the
Ratitae, or at least related to them, until C. W. Andrews, after
much of the interesting material had been acquired by the British
Museum, showed the gruiform affinities of Phororhacos (Ibis,
1896, pp. 1-12), a conclusion which he was able to further cor-
roborate after the clearing of the adherent stony matrix from the
skulls (Tr. Z. S. 1001, xv. pp. 55-86, pis. 14-17). The skull
of Ph. longissimus is about 2 ft. long and 10 in. high; that
of Ph. inflatus is 13 in. long, and this creature is supposed
to have stood only 3 ft. high at the middle of the back. The
under jaw is slightly curved upwards and it contains a large
foramen as for instance in Psophia and in Mycteria. The
strongly hooked upper beak is very high, and very much com-
pressed laterally. The palate is imperfectly desmognathous,
as in Dicholophus, with an inconspicuous vomer. The quadrate
has a double knob for its articulation with the skull, and basip-
terygoid processes are absent. What little is known of the
shoulder-girdle (breastbone still unknown) points to a flightless
bird, and so do the short wing bones, although these are stout.
The pelvis has an ischiadic foramen. The hind limbs are dis-
tinctly slender, the tibia of Ph. inflatus being between 15 and
16 in. in length.

For further detail see F. Ameghino, " Sur les oiseaux fossiles de
la Patagonie," Bolet. inst. geogr. argentino, xv., chs. II and 12
(1895); F. P. Moreno and A. Mercerat, Catdlogo de los pdjaros
fosiles de la Republica Argentina, An. Mus. La Plata (1891; with
21 plates). (H. F. G.)

PHOSGENITE, a rare mineral consisting of lead chlorocar-
bonate, (PbCl) 2 C0 3 . The tetragonal (holosymmetric) crystals
are prismatic or tabular in habit, and are bounded by smooth,
bright faces: they are usually colourless and transparent, and
have a brilliant adamantine lustre. Sometimes the crystals
have a curious helical twist about the tetrad or principal axis.
The hardness is 3 and the specific gravity 6-3. The mineral is
rather sectile, and consequently- was early known as " corneous
lead " (Ger. Hornblei). The fanciful name phosgenite was
given by A. Breithaupt in 1820, from phosgene, the old name
of carbon oxychloride, because the mineral contains the elements
carbon, oxygen and chlorine. At Cromford, near Matlock, it
was long ago found in an old lead mine, being associated with
anglesite and matlockite (Pb 2 OCl2) in cavities in decomposed
galena : hence its common name cronf ortite. Fine crystals are also
found in galena at Monteponi near Iglesias in Sardinia, but the
largest are those recently found near Dundas in Tasmania.
Crystals of phosgenite, and also of the corresponding bromine
compound [PbBr] 2 C03, have been prepared artificially.

(L. J. S.)

PHOSPHATES, in chemistry, the name given to salts of
phosphoric acid. As stated under Phosphorus, phosphoric
oxide, P2O5, combines with water in three proportions to form
H 2 0-P 2 5 or HPO3, metaphosphoric acid; 2H 2 OP 2 5 or H4P2O7,
pyrophosphoric acid; and 3H 2 0-P 2 6 or H 3 P0 4 , orthophosphoric
or ordinary phosphoric acid. These acids each give origin to
several series of salts, those of ordinary phosphoric acid being
the most important, and, in addition, are widely distributed
in the mineral kingdom (see below under Mineral Phosphates).

Orthophosphoric acid, H3PO4, a tribasic acid, is obtained
by boiling a solution of the pentoxide in water; by oxidizing
red phosphorus with nitric acid, or yellow phosphorus under
the surface of water by bromine or iodine; and also by decompos-
ing a mineral phosphate with sulphuric acid. It usually forms
a thin syrup which on concentration in a vacuum over sulphuric
acid deposits hard, transparent, rhombic prisms which melt at
41-7°. On long heating the syrup is partially converted into pyro-
phosphoric and metaphosphoric acids, but on adding water and
boiling the ortho-acid is re-formed. It gives origin to three
classes of salts: M'H 2 P0 4 or M"H 4 P 2 8 ; M' 2 HP0 4 or M"HP0 4 ,
M' 3 P0 4 , M" 3 P 2 8 or M"'P0 4 , wherein M',M",M'" denote a mono-,
di-, and tri-valent metal. The first set may be called monometallic,
the second dimetallic, and the third trimetallic salts. Per-acid
salts of the alkalis, e.g. (K,Na,NH 4 )H 5 (P0 4 ) 2 , are also known;
these may be regarded as composed of a monometallic phosphate

PHOSPHATES

475

with phosphoric acid, thus M'H 2 P0 4 H3PO4. The three principal
groups differ remarkably in their behaviour towards indicators.
The monometallic salts are strongly acid, the dimetallic are
neutral or faintly alkaline, whilst the soluble trimetallic salts
are strongly alkaline. The monometallic salts of the alkalis
and alkaline earths may be obtained in crystal form, but those
of the heavy metals are only stable when in solution. The
soluble trimetallic salts are decomposed by carbonic acid into
a dimetallic salt and an acid carbonate. All soluble orthophos-
phates give with silver nitrate a characteristic yellow precipitate
of silver phosphate, Ag 3 P0 4 , soluble in ammonia and in nitric
acid. Since the reaction with the acid salts is attended by
liberation of nitric acid: NaH 2 P0 4 +3AgN0 3 = Ag 3 P0 4 +NaN0 3
+ 2HN0 3 , NaoHP0 4 +3AgN0 3 = Ag 3 P04+2NaN0 3 +HN0 3 , it
is necessary to neutralize the nitric acid if the complete pre-
cipitation of the phosphoric acid be desired. The three series
also differ when heated: the trimetallic salts, containing fixed
bases are unaltered, whilst the mono- and dimetallic salts yield
meta- and pyrophosphates respectively. If the heating be with
charcoal, the trimetallic salts of the alkalis and alkaline earths
are unaltered, whilst the mono- and di-salts give free phosphorus
and a trimetallic salt. Other precipitants of phosphoric acid
or its salts in solution are: ammonium molybdate in nitric
acid, which gives on heating a canary-yellow precipitate of
ammonium phosphomolybdate, i2[Mo0 3 ] (NH 4 ) 3 P0 4 , insoluble
in acids but readily soluble in ammonia; magnesium chloride,
ammonium chloride and ammonia, which give on standing in
a warm place a white crystalline precipitate of magnesium
ammonium phosphate, Mg(NH 4 )P0 4 -6H 2 0, which is soluble in
acids but highly insoluble in ammonia solutions, and on heating
to redness gives magnesium pyrophosphate, Mg 2 P 2 0?; uranic
nitrate and ferric chloride, which give a yellowish-white pre-
cipitate, soluble in hydrochloric acid and ammonia, but insoluble
in acetic acid; mercurous nitrate which gives a white precipitate,
soluble in nitric acid, and bismuth nitrate which gives a white
precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid.

Pyrophosphoric acid, H 4 P 2 07, is a tetrabasic acid which may be
regarded as derived by eliminating a molecule of water between
two molecules of ordinary phosphoric acid; its constitution may
therefore be written (HO) 2 OP-0-PO(OH) 2 . It may be obtained
as a glassy mass, indistinguishable from metaphosphoric acid,
by heating phosphoric acid to 213°. When boiled with water
it forms the ortho-acid, and when heated to redness the meta-
acid. After neutralization, it gives a white precipitate with
silver nitrate. Being a tetrabasic acid it can form four classes
of salts; for example, the four solium salts Na 4 P 2 C>7, Na 3 HP 2 7 ,
Na 2 H 2 P 2 07, NaH 3 P 2 7 are known. The most important is
the normal salt, Na 4 P 2 7 , which is readily obtained by heating
disodium orthophosphate, Na 2 HP0 4 . It forms monoclinic
prisms (with 10H0O) which are permanent in air. All soluble
pyrophosphates when boiled with water for a long time are
converted into orthophosphates.

Metaphosphoric acid, HP0 3 , is a monobasic acid which may be
regarded as derived from orthophosphoric acid by the abstraction
of one molecule of water, thus H 3 P0 4 — H 2 = HP0 3 ; its constitu-
tion is therefore (HO)P0 2 . The acid is formed by dissolving
phosphorus pentoxide in cold water, or by strongly heating
orthophosphoric acid. It forms a colourless vitreous mass,
hence its name " glacial phosphoric acid." It is readily soluble
in water, the solution being gradually transformed into the ortho-
acid, a reaction which proceeds much more rapidly on boiling.
Although the acid is monobasic, salts of polymeric forms exist of
the types (MP0 3 )„, where n may be 1, 2, 3, 4, 6. They may be ob-
tained by heating a monometallic orthophosphate of a fixed base,
or a dimetallic orthophosphate of one fixed and one volatile base,
e.g. microcosmic salt: MH 2 P0 4 = MP0 3 +H 2 0, (NH 4 ) NaHP0 4 =
NaP0 3 +NH 3 -f-H 2 0; they may also be obtained by acting
with phosphorus pentoxide on trimetallic orthophosphates:
Na 3 P0 4 +P205 = 3NaP0 3 . The salts are usually non-crystalline
and fusible. On boiling their solutions they yield orthophos-
phates, whilst those of the heavy metals on boiling with water
give a trimetallic orthophosphate and orthophosphoric acid:

3AgP0 3 +3H 2 = Ag 3 P0 4 +2H 3 P0 4 . On heating with an oxide
or carbonate they yield a trimetallic orthophosphate, carbon
dioxide being evolved in the latter case. Metaphosphoric acid
can be distinguished from the other two acids by its power
of coagulating albumen, and by not being precipitated by mag-
nesium and ammonium chlorides in the presence of ammonia.

(C.E.*)
Mineral Phosphates. — Those varieties of native calcium
phosphate which are not distinctly crystallized, like apatite (q.v.),
but occur in fibrous, compact or earthy masses, often nodular,
and more or less impure, are included under the general term
phosphorite. The name seems to have been given originally
to the Spanish phosphorite, probably because it phosphoresced
when heated. This mineral, known as Estremadura phosphate,
occurs at Logrossan and Caceres, where it forms an important
deposit in clay-slate. It may contain from 55 to 62 % of calcium
phosphate, with about 7% of magnesium phosphate. A some-
what similar mineral, forming a fibrous incrustation, with a
mammillary surface, and containing about 9% of calcium carbo-
nate, is known as staff elite, a name given by A. Stein in 1866
from the locality Staffel, in the valley of the Lower Lahn,
where (as also in the valley of its tributary the Dill) large deposits
of phosphorite occur. Dahllite is a Norwegian phosphorite,
containing calcium carbonate, named in 1888 by W. C. Brogger
and H. Backstrom after the Norwegian geologists T. and J.
Dahll. Osteolite is a white earthy phosphorite occurring in the
clefts of basaltic rocks, named in 1851 by J. C. Bromeis from
the Greek barkov, bone.

Phosphorite, when occurring in large deposits, is a mineral of
much economic value for conversion into the superphosphate
largely used as a fertilizing agent. Many of the impure sub-
stances thus utilized are not strictly phosphorite, but pass
under such names as " rock-phosphate," or, when nodular, as
" coprolite " (q.v.), even if not of true coprolitic origin. The
ultimate source of these mineral phosphates may be referred
in most cases to the apatite widely distributed in crystalline
rocks. Being soluble in water containing carbonic acid or
organic acids it may be readily removed in solution, and may
thus furnish plants and animals with the phosphates required
in their structures. On the decay of these structures the phos-
phates are returned to the inorganic world, thus completing
the cycle.

There are three sources of phosphates which are of importance
geologically. They occur (a) in crystalline igneous and meta-
morphic rocks as an original constituent, (b) in veins associated
with igneous rocks, and (c) in sedimentary rocks either as organic
fragments or in secondary concretionary forms.

The first mode of occurrence is of little significance practically,
for the crystalline rocks generally contain too little phosphate to
be valuable, though occasionally an igneous rock may contain
enough apatite to form an inferior fertilizing agent, e.g. the trachyte
of Cabo de Gata in south-east Spain, which contains 12-15% of
phosphoric acid. In many deposits of iron ores found in connexion
with igneous or metamorphic rocks small quantities of phosphate
occur. The Swedish, Norwegian, Ontario and Michigan mines
yield ores of this kind ; and though none of them can be profitably
worked as a source of phosphate, yet on reducing the ore it may
be retained in the slags, and thus rendered available for agriculture.
Another group of phosphatic deposits connected with igneous
rocks comprises the apatite veins of south Norway, Ottawa and
other districts in Canada. These are of pneumatolytic origin
(see Pneumatolysis), and have been formed by the action of vapours
emanating from cooling bodies of basic eruptive rock. Veins of
this type occur at Oedegarden in Norway and Dundret in Lapland.
From 1500 to 3500 tons of apatite are obtained yearly in Norway
from these veins. In Ontario apatite has been worked for a long
time in deposits of similar nature. The total output of Canada
in 1907 was only 680 tons.

The phosphatic rocks which occur among the sedimentary strata
are the principal sources of phosphates for commerce and agri-
culture. They are found in formations of all ages from the Cambrian
to those which are accumulating at the present day. Of the latter
the best known is guano (see Manures and Manuring).

Where guano-beds are exposed to rain their soluble constituents

are removed and the insoluble matters left behind. The soluble

phosphates washed out of the guano may become fixed by entering

into combination with the elements of the rock beneath. Many

I of the oceanic islets are composed of coral limestone, which in this

476

PHOSPHORESCENCE

way becomes phosphatized ; others are igneous, consisting of
trachyte or basalt, and these rocks are also phosphatized on their
surfaces but are not so valuable, inasmuch as the presence of iron
or alumina in any quantity renders them unsuited for the prepara-
tion of artificial manures.

The leached guanos and phosphatized rocks, which are grouped
with them for commercial purposes, have been obtained in great
quantities in many islands of the Pacific Ocean (such as Baker,
Howland, Jarvis and McKean Islands) between long. 150 to 180
VV. and lat. io° N. to 10 S. In the West Indies from Vene-
zuela to the Bahamas and in the Caribbean Sea many islands
yield supplies of leached guanos; the following are important in
this respect: Sombrero, Navassa, Aves, Aruba, Curacoa. Christmas
Island has been a great source of phosphates of this type; also
Jaluit Island in the Maldive Archipelago, Banaba or Ocean Island,
and Nauru or Pleasant Island. On Christmas Island the phosphate
has been quarried to depths of 100 ft. To these leached guanos
and phosphatized limestones the name sombrerite has been given.
It has been estimated that 500,000 tons of phosphate were obtained
in Aruba, 1,000,000 tons from Curacoa since the deposits were
discovered in 1870, and Christmas Island in 1907 yielded 290,000
tons.

In the older formations the phosphates tend to become more
and more mineralized by chemical processes. In whatever
form they were originally deposited they often suffer complete
or partial solution and are redeposited as concretionary lumps
and nodules, often called coprolites. The " Challenger " and
other oceanographic expeditions have shown that on the bottom
of the deep sea concretions of phosphate are now gathering
around the dead bodies of fishes lying in the oozes; consequently
the formation of the concretions may have been carried on
simultaneously with the deposition of the strata in which they
occur.

Important deposits of mineral phosphates are now worked
on a large scale in the United States, the annual yield far sur-
passing that of any other part of the world. The most active
operations are carried on in Florida, where the phosphate was
first worked in 1887 in the form of pebbles in the gravels of
Peace river. Then followed the discovery of " hard rock-
phosphate," a massive mineral, often having cavities lined
with nearly pure phosphorite. Other kinds not distinctly hard
and consisting of less rich phosphatic limestone, are known as
" soft phosphate ": those found as smooth pebbles of variable
colour are called " land pebble-phosphate," whilst the pebbles
of the river-beds and old river-valleys, usually of dark colour,
are distinguished as " river pebble-phosphate." The land
pebble is worked in central South Florida; the hard rock chiefly
between Albion and Bay City. In South Carolina, where
there are important deposits of phosphate, formerly more
productive than at present, the " land rock " is worked near
Charleston, and the " river rock " in the Coosaw river and other
streams near Beaufort. The phosphate beds contain Eocene
fossils derived from the underlying strata and many fragments
of Pleistocene vertebrata such as mastodon, elephant, stag,
horse, pig, &c. The phosphate occurs as lumps varying greatly
in size, scattered through a sand or clay; they often contain
phosphatized Eocene fossils (Mollusca, &c). Sometimes the
phosphate is found at the surface, but generally it is covered by
alluvial sands and clays. Phosphate mining began in South
Carolina in 1868, and for twenty years that state was the prin-
cipal producer. Then the Florida deposits began to be worked.
In 1892 the phosphates of Tennessee, derived from Ordovician
limestones, came into the market. From North Carolina,
Alabama and Pennsylvania, also, -phosphates have been obtained
but only in comparatively small quantities. In 1900 mining for
phosphates was commenced in Arkansas. In 1908 Florida
produced 1,673,651 tons of phosphate valued at 11 million
dollars. All the other states together produce less phosphate
than Florida, and among them Tennessee takes the first place
with an output of 403,180 tons.

Algeria contains important deposits of phosphorite, especially
near Tebessa and at Tocqueville in the province of Constantine.
Near Jebel Kouif, on the frontier between Algeria and Tunis,
there are phosphate workings, as also in Tunis, at Gafsa. The
deposits belong to the Lower Eocene, where it rests unconform-
ably upon the Cretaceous. The joint production of Tunis and

Algeria in 1907 was not less than a million tons. Phosphates
occur also in Egypt, in the desert east of Keneh and in the
Dakla oasis in the Libyan desert.

France is rich in mineral phosphates, the chief deposits being
the departments of the Pas-de-Calais, Somme, Aisne, Oise in
and Meuse, in the north-east, and another group in the depart-
ments of Lot, Tarn-et-Garonne and Aveyron, in the south-west:
phosphates occur also in the Pyrenees. The deposits near
Caylus and in Quercy occupy fissures and pockets in Jurassic
limestone, and have yielded a remarkable assemblage of the
relics of Tertiary mammals and other fossils. Phosphates
occur in Belgium, especially near Mons, and these, like those
of north-east France, are principally in the Upper Chalk. Two
varieties of phosphate rock are recognized in these districts,
viz. the phosphatic chalk and the phosphate sand, the latter
resulting from the decomposition of the former. Large and
valuable deposits of the sand have been obtained in sinks and
depressions on the surface of the chalk. The production is
on the whole diminishing in Belgium (180,000 tons in 1907),
but in France it is still large (375,000 tons in 1907).

In the Lahn district of Nassau (Germany) there are phosphate
beds in Devonian rocks. The deposits were rich but irregular
and local, and were much worked from 1866 to 1884, but are no
longer of economic importance. In northern Estremadura in
Spain and Alemtezo in Portugal there are vein deposits of
phosphate of lime. As much as 200,000 tons of phosphate have
been raised in these provinces, but in 1906 the total production
of Spain was only 1300 tons. Large deposits of phosphate
occur in Russia, and those in the neighbourhood of Kertch have
attracted some attention; it is said that the Cretaceous rocks
between the rivers Dniester and Volga contain very large
supplies of phosphate, though probably of low grade.

Phosphatic nodules and concretions, with phosphatized fossils
and their casts, occur at various geological horizons in Great Britain.
Bands of black nodules, highly phosphatic, are found at the top of
the Bala limestone in North Wales; beds of concretions occur in
the Jurassic series; and important deposits are known in the
Cretaceous strata, especially in the Lower Greensand and at the
base of the Gault. The Lower Greensand phosphates have been
worked, under the name of " coprolites," at Potton in Bedfordshire
and at Upware and Wicken in Cambridgeshire. The Cambridge
Greensand, rich in phosphatic nodules, occurs at the base of the
Chalk Marl. The chalk occasionally becomes phosphatized, as at
Taplow (Bucks) and Lewes (Sussex). At the base of the Red Crag
in East Anglia, and occasionally at the base of the other Pliocene
Crags, there is a " nodule bed, ' consisting of phosphatic nodules,
with rolled teeth and bones, which were formerly worked as " copro-
lites " for the preparation of artificial manure. Professor R. J.
Strutt has found that phosphatized nodules and bones are rich in
radioactive constituents, and has brought this into relation with
their geological age.

Bibliography. — For American phosphates see The Phosphates
of America, by Francis Wyatt (5th ed., New York and London,
1894); the Annual Reports on Mineral Resources of the U.S. (U.S.
Geol. Survey), including some valuable reports by C. W. Hayes,
also those in Rothwell's Mineral Industry; " Nature and Origin of
Deposits of Phosphate of Lime," by R. A. F. Penrose, Jun., Bull. U.S.
Geol. Survey, No. 46 (1888); Florida, South Carolina and Canadian
Phosphates, by C. C. Hoyer Miller (London, 1892); and The Non-
metallic Minerah, by G. P. Merrill (1904). Many of the above
include descriptions of mineral phosphates in other parts of the
world. For a general discussion of the origin of the phosphates,
see " The Natural History of Phosphate Deposits," by J. J. H. Teall,
Proc. Geol. Assoc, xvi. 369 (1900). Consult also Etude complete
sur les phosphates, by A. Deckers (Liege, 1894).

(J. S. F.;F. W.R.*)

PHOSPHORESCENCE, a name given to a variety of physical
phenomena due to different causes, but all consisting in the
emission of a pale, more or less ill-defined light, not obviously
due to combustion. The word was first used by physicists to
describe the property possessed by many substances of them-
selves becoming luminous after exposure to light. This property
has been noticed from early times. Pliny speaks of various
gems which shine with a light of their own, and Albertus Magnus
knew that the diamond becomes phosphorescent when moder-
ately heated. But the first discovery of this property which
apparently attracted scientific attention seems to have been
that of the Bologna stone (barium sulphide) , which was discovered

PHOSPHORESCENCE

477

by Vincenzo Cascariolo, a cobbler of Bologna, in about 1602.
This was followed by the discovery of a number of other sub-
stances which become luminous either after exposure to light
or on heating, or by attrition, and to which the general name of
" phosphori " (from <fiws and <(>6pos, bringing light) was given.
Among these may be mentioned Homberg's phosphorus (calcium
chloride), John Canton's phosphorus (calcium sulphide) and
Balduin's phosphorus (calcium nitrate). Of late years it has
been found convenient to limit the strict meaning of the word
" phosphorescence " to the case of bodies which, after exposure
to light, become self-luminous (even if only for a fraction of a
second). The general term "luminescence" has been proposed
by E. Wiedemann to include all cases in which bodies give off
light not due to ignition. This general term embraces several
subdivisions. Thus, fluorescence (g.v.) and phosphorescence
are included under the same heading, " photoluminescence,"
being distinguished from each other only by the fact that
fluorescent bodies emit their characteristic light only while
under the influence of the exciting illumination, while phos-
phorescent bodies are luminous for an appreciable time after
the exciting light is cut off.

Phosphorescence, in its restricted meaning as above explained,
is most strikingly exhibited by the artificial sulphides of calcium,
strontium and barium. If any of these substances is exposed for
some time to daylight, or, better, to direct sunlight, or to the light
of the electric arc, it will shine for hours in the dark with a soft
coloured light. The colour depends not only on the nature of the
substance, but also on its physical condition, and on its temperature
during insolation, that is, exposure to the sun's rays. Thus the
phosphorescent light emitted by calcium sulphide may be orange-
yellow, yellow, green or violet, according to the method of pre-
paration and the materials used. Balmain's luminous paint, a
preparation of calcium sulphide, shines with a white light. The
colour also depends on the temperature during exposure to light.
Thus A. E. Becquerel found that the light given by a specimen of
strontium sulphide changed from violet to blue, green, yellow and
orange, as the temperature during the corresponding previous
insolation was 20 , 40°, 70°, ioo° or 200° C. The duration of
phosphorescence varies greatly with different substances. It may
last for days or for only a fraction of a second.

As in the case of fluorescent bodies, the light produced by phos-
phorescent substances consists commonly of rays less refrangible
than those of the exciting light. Thus the ultra-violet portion of
the spectrum is usually the most efficient in exciting rays belonging
to the visible part of the spectrum. V. Klatt and Ph. Lenard
(Wied. Ann., 1889, xxxviii. 90), have shown that, the phosphorescence
of calcium sulphide and other phosphori depends on the presence
of minute quantities of other substances, such as copper, bismuth
and manganese. The maximum intensity of phosphorescent light
is obtained when a certain definite proportion of the impurity is
present, and the intensity is diminished if this proportion is increased.

It appears likely that when a phosphorescent body is exposed to
light, the energy of the light is stored up in some kind of strain
energy, and that the phosphorescent light is given out during a more
or less slow recovery from this state of strain. Klatt and Lenard
have shown that the sulphides of the alkaline earths lose the property
of phosphorescing when subjected to heavy pressure. Many
fluorescent solutions become briefly phosphorescent when rendered
solid by gelatin.

When the duration of phosphorescence is brief, some mechanical
device becomes necessary to detect it. The earliest and best-
known instrument for this purpose is Becquerel's phosphoroscope.
It consists essentially of a shallow drum, in whose ends two eccentric
holes, exactly opposite one another, are cut. Inside it are fixed
two equal metal disks, attached perpendicularly to an axis, and
divided into the same number of sectors, the alternate sectors of
each being cut out. One of these disks is close to one end of the
drum, the other to the opposite end, and the sectors are so arranged
that, when the disks are made to rotate, the hole in one end is open
while that in the other is closed, and vice versa. If the eye be
placed near one hole, and a ray of sunlight be admitted by the other,
it is obvious that while the sun shines on an object inside the drum
the aperture next the eye is closed, and vice versa. If the disks be
made to revolve with great velocity by means of a train of toothed
wheels the object will be presented to the eye almost instantly
after it has been exposed to sunlight, and these presentations succeed
one another so rapidly as to produce a sense of continuous vision.
By means of this apparatus we can test with considerable accuracy
the duration of the phenomenon after the light has been cut off.
For this purpose we require to know merely the number of sectors
in the disks and the rate at which they are turned.

Thermoluminescence. — Some bodies which do not emit light at
ordinary temperatures in a dark room begin to do so if they are
heated to a temperature below a visible red heat. In the case of

chlorophane, a variety of fluor-spar, the heat of the hand is sufficient
Many yellow diamond^ exhibit this form of luminescence. It
has been shown, however, that a previous exposure to light is always
necessary. Sir James Dewar found that if ammonium platino-
cyanide, Balmain's paint and some other substances are cooled to
the temperature of liquid air and exposed to light, they do not
phosphoresce, but as soon as they are allowed to warm up to the
ordinary temperature they emit a brilliant light. On the other
hand, some bodies, such as gelatin, celluloid, paraffin and ivory,
are phosphorescent at very low temperatures, but lose the property
at ordinary temperatures.

Triboluminescence (from rpipav, to rub) is luminescence excited
by friction, percussion, cleavage or such mechanical means. Calcium
chloride, prepared at a red heat, exhibits this property. If sugar
is broken in the dark, or two crystals of quartz rubbed together,
or a piece of mica cleft, a flash of light is seen, but this is probably
of electrical origin. Closely allied to this form of luminescence is
crystalloluminescence, a phosphorescent light seen when some
substances crystallize from solution or after fusion. This property
is exhibited by arsenious acid when crystallizing from solution in
hydrochloric acid.

Chemiluminescence is the name given to those cases in which
chemical action produces light without any great rise of temperature.
Phosphorus exposed to moist air in a dark room shines with a soft
light due to slow oxidation. Decaying wood and other vegetable
substances often exhibit the same property.

Electroluminescence is» luminescence due to electrical causes.
Many gases are phosphorescent for a short time after an electric
discharge has been passed through them, and some solid sub-
stances, especially diamonds and rubies, are strongly phosphorescent
when exposed to kathode rays in a vacuum tube.

See generally, Winkelmann, Handbuch der Physik, Bd. vi. (1906);
E. Becquerel, La Lumiere (1867). (J. R. C.)

Phosphorescence in Zoology.
The emission of light by living substance is a widespread
occurrence, and is part of the general metabolism by which the
potential energy introduced as food is transformed into kinetic
energy and appears in the form of movement, heat, electricity
and light. In many cases it is probably an accidental by-
product, and like the heat radiated by living tissues, is not
necessarily of use to the organism. But in other cases the
capacity to produce light is awakened on stimulation, as when
the wind ripples the surface of the sea, or when the water is
disturbed by the blade of an oar. It has been suggested that
the response to the stimulus may be protective, and that enemies
are frightened by the flash of light. In luminous insects and
deep-sea fish the power of emitting light appears to have a
special significance, and very elaborate mechanisms have been
developed. The pale glow of phosphorescence has a certain
resemblance to the light emitted by phosphorus, and it was an
early suggestion that the phenomenon in living organisms was
due to that substance. Phosphorus, however, and its luminous
compounds are deadly poisons to all living tissues, and never
occur in them in the course of natural metabolism, and the
phosphorescence of life cannot therefore be assigned to the oxi-
dation of phosphorus. On the other hand, it is certainly the
result of a process of oxidation, as the emission of light continues
only in the presence of oxygen. J. H. Fabre showed in 1855
that the luminous fungus, Agaricus, discharges more carbonic
acid when it is emitting light, and Max Schultze in 1865 showed
that in insects the luminous cells are closely associated with the
tracheae, and that during phosphorescence they withdraw
oxygen from them. In 1880 B. Radziszewski showed that
many fats, ethereal oils and alcohols emit light when slowly
combined with oxygen in alkaline fluids at appropriate tempera-
tures. Probably the phosphorescence of organisms is due to a
similar process acting on the many fats, oils and similar sub-
stances found in living cells. The colour varies much in different
organisms; green has been observed in the glow-sworm, fire-flies,
brittle-stars, centipedes and annelids; blue in the Italian fire-fly
(Luciola italica); blue and light green are the predominant
colours in the phosphorescence of marine organisms, but red
and lilac have also been observed. The Lantern-Fly (Fulgora
pyrorhynchus) is said to have a purple light, and E. H. Giglioli
has recorded that an individual Appendicularia appeared first
red, and then blue, and then green. P. Panceri, chiefly in the
case of Salps, and S. P. Langley and F. W. Very in the case of
Pyrophorus, have investigated the light spectroscopically, and

478

PHOSPHORITE— PHOSPHORUS

found that it consisted of a continuous band without separate
bright lines. The solar spectrum extends farther both towards
the violet and the red ends, but is less intense in the green when
equal luminosities are compared.

Many of the bacteria of putrefaction are phosphorescent, and the
light emitted by dead fish or molluscs or flesh is probably due in
every case to the presence of these. Under the miscroscope, the
individual bacteria appear as shining points of light. The phosphor-
escence of decaying wood is due to the presence of the mycelium of
Agaricus melleus, and various other species of Agaricus have been
found to be luminous. The great displays of phosphorescence in
sea-water are usually due to the presence of very large numbers
of small luminous organisms, either protozoa or protophyta. Of
these Noctiluca miliaris and species of Peridinium and Pyrocystis
are the most frequent, the two former near land and the latter in
mid-ocean.

In higher animals the phosphorescence tends to be limited to
special parts of the body which may form elaborate and highly
specialized luminous organs. Many coelenterates show the begin-
ning of such localization ; in medusae the whole surface may be lumin-
ous, but the light is brighter along the radial canals, in the ovaries,
or in the marginal sense-organs. In Pennatulids each polyp has
eight luminous bands on the outer surface of the digestive cavity.
Some Chaetopods (Chaetopterus and Tomopteris) have luminous
organs at the bases of the lateral processes of the body. Pyrosoma,
a colonial pelagic ascidian, is responsible for some of the most strik-
ing displays of phosphorescence in tropical seas ; it has two small
patches of cells at the base of each inhalent tube which on stimula-
tion discharge light, and the luminosity has been observed to spread
through the colony from the point of irritation.

Amongst the Crustacea, many pelagic Copepods are phosphor-
escent. W. Giesbrecht has shown that the light is produced by a
fluid secreted by certain dermal glands. A similar fluid in other
Copepods hardens to form a protective case, and it may be that the
display of light is in such cases an accidental by-product. Glands
in the labrum of the Ostracod Pyrocypris and on the maxillae of
the Mysid Gnathophausia similarly produce a luminous secretion.
In the Euphausiacea, on the other hand, phosphorescence is pro-
duced by elaborate luminous organs which are situated on the
thoracic appendages and the abdomen, and which were at first
believed to be ocular organs. The deep-sea Decapod Crustaceans
belonging to many families are luminous. A. Alcock observed
that in some of the deep-sea prawns a luminous secretion was dis-
charged at the bases of the antennae, but in most cases the luminous
organs are numerous eye-like structures on the limbs and body.

The rock-boring mollusc, Pholas, which Pliny knew to be phos-
phorescent, has luminous organs along the anterior border of the
mantle, two small triangular patches at the entrance of the anterior
siphon, and two long parallel cords within the siphon. The cells
of these organs have peculiar, granulated contents. W. E. Hoyle,
in his presidential address to the Zoological Section of the British
Association in 1907, brought together observations on the occur-
rence of luminous organs in no less than thirty-three species of
Cephalopods. In Heteroteuthis, Sepiola and Rossia the light is
produced by the secretion of a glandular organ on the ventral
side of the body behind the funnel. The secretion glows through
the transparent wall with a greenish colour, but, at least in the case
of Heteroteuthis, continues to glow after being ejected into the water.
In most cases the luminous organs are nonglandular and may be
simple, or possess not only a generator but a reflector, lens and
diaphragm. The different organs shine with different coloured
lights, and as the Cephalopods are for the most part inhabitants
of the depths of the sea, it has been suggested that they serve as
recognition marks.

Some centipedes (e.g. Geophilus electricus and G. phosphoreus)
are luminous, and, if allowed to crawl over the hand, are stated to
leave a luminous trail. Amongst insects, elaborate luminous
organs are developed in several cases. The abdomen of a Ceylonese
May-fly (Teleganodes) is luminous. The so-called New Zealand
" glow-worm " is the larva of the fly Boletophila luminosa, and some
gnats have been observed to be luminous, although the suggestion
is that in their case disease is present and the light emanates from
phosphorescent bacteria. An ant (Orya) and a poduran (Anuro-
phorus) are occasionally luminous. The so-called lantern flies are
Homoptera allied to the Cicadas, and the supposed luminous organ
is a huge projection of the front of the head, regarding the luminosity
of which there is some doubt. The glow-worms and true fire-flies
are beetles. Eggs, larvae and adults are in some cases luminous.
The organs consist of a pale transparent superficial layer which
gives the light, and a deeper layer which may act as a reflector.
They are in close connexion with the tracheae and the light is pro-
duced by the oxidation of a substance formed under the influence
of the nervous system, and probably some kind of organic fat.
In the females the phosphorescence is probably a sexual lure; in
the males its function is unknown.

Phosphorescent organs known as photophores are characteristic
structures in many of the deep-sea Teleostome fishes, and have
been developed in widely different families (Stomiatidae, Scopelidae.

Halosauridae and Anomalopidae) , whilst numerous simple luminous
organs have been detected in many species of Selachii. The number,
distribution and complexity of the organs vary much in different
fish. They are most frequent on the sides and ventral surface of
the anterior part of the body and the head, and may extend to the
tail. The simpler forms are generally arranged in rows, sometimes
metamerically distributed; the more complex organs are larger
and less numerous. In Opostomias micrionus there is a large
organ on a median barbel hanging down from the chin, others
below the eyes, and one on the elongated first ray of the pectoral
fin. In Sternoptyx diaphana there is one on the lower jaw, and in
many species one or two below the eyes. The luminous organs
appear to be specialized skin glands which secrete a fluid that
becomes luminous on slow oxidation. The essential part of the
organ remains a collection of gland cells, but in the more complex
types there are blood vessels and nerves, a protecting membrane,
an iris-like diaphragm, a reflector and lens. As the distribution
and probably the colour of the light varies with the species, these
organs may serve as recognition marks. They may also attract
prey, and from their association with the eyes in such a position
as to send light downwards and forwards it is probable that in
the higher types they are used by the fish actually as lanterns in the
dark abysses of the sea. (P. C. M.)

PHOSPHORITE, in mineralogy, the name given to impure
massive apatite (q.v.; see also Phosphates).

PHOSPHORUS (Gr. <j>&s, light, <ptpeiv, to bear), the name
originally given to any substance which possessed the property
of phosphorescence (q.v.), i.e. the power of shining in the dark,
but now generally restricted to a non-metallic element, which
was first known as Phosphorus mirabilis or igneus. This element
is very widely distributed in nature in combination, but is never
found free. In the mineral kingdom it is exceptionally abun-
dant, forming large deposits of phosphates (q.v.). It is also
necessary to animal and vegetable life (see Manure) . It occurs
in the urine, blood, tissues, and bones of animals, calcium
phosphate forming about 58% of bones, which owe their rigidity
to its presence.

The element appears to have been first obtained in 1669 by
Brand of Hamburg; Krafft bought his secret and in 1677
exhibited specimens in England, where it created an immense
sensation. Its preparation was assiduously sought for, and
Kunckel in 1678 and Boyle in 1680 succeeded in obtaining it
by the same process as was discovered by Brand, i.e. by evapora-
ting urine to dryness and distilling the residue with sand. This
method was generally adopted until 1775, when Scheele prepared
it from bones, which had been shown by Gahn in 1 769 to contain
calcium phosphate. Scheele treated bone ash with nitric acid,
precipitated the calcium as sulphate, filtered, evaporated and
distilled the residue with charcoal. Nicolas and Pelletier
improved the process by decomposing the bone-ash directly
with sulphuric acid; whilst Fourcroy and Vauquelin introduced
further economies. In modern practice degreased bones (see
Gelatin), or bone-ash which has lost its virtue as a filtering
medium, &c, or a mineral phosphate is treated with sufficient
sulphuric acid to precipitate all the calcium, the calcium sulphate
filtered off, and the filtrate concentrated, mixed with charcoal,
coke or sawdust and dried in a muffle furnace. The product is
then distilled from Stourbridge clay retorts, arranged in a galley
furnace, previously heated to a red heat. The temperature
is now raised to a white heat, and the product led by malleable
iron pipes into condensing troughs containing water, when it
condenses. The chemical reactions are as follows : the treatment
of the calcium phosphate with the acid gives phosphoric acid,
H3PO4, which at a red heat loses water to give metaphosphoric
acid, HP0 3 ; this at a white heat reacts with carbon to give
hydrogen, carbon monoxide and phosphorus, thus: 2HPO3+
6C = H 2 -r-6CO-l-P2.

Electrothermal processes are also employed. Calcium phos-
phate, mixed with sand and carbon, is fed into an electric
furnace, provided with a closely fitting cover with an outlet
leading to a condenser. At the temperature of the furnace the
silica (sand) attacks the calcium phosphate, forming silicate,
and setting free phosphorus pentoxide, which is attacked by
the carbon, forming phosphorus and carbon monoxide. As
phosphorus boils at 290° C. (554° F.), it is produced in the form
of vapour, which, mingled with carbon monoxide, passes to the

PHOSPHORUS

479

condenser, where it is condensed. It is then cast under water.
The calcium silicate remains in the furnace in the form of a
liquid slag, which may be run off, so that the action is practically
continuous. Kaolin may with advantage be used in addition
to or in part substitution for sand, because the double silicate
thus formed is more fusible than the single silicate of lime.
The alternating current is generally used, the action not being
electrolytic. One of the special advantages of the electrical
over the older process is that the distilling vessels have a longer
life, owing to the fact that they are not externally heated, and so
subjected to a relatively high temperature when in contact with
the corrosive slag formed in the process. The Readman-Parker
process (see Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1891, x. 445) appears to
be very generally adopted. Readman, experimenting with a
Cowles furnace in Staffordshire in 1888, patented his process,
and in the same year Parker and Robinson, working indepen-
dently, patented a similar one. The two inventors then co-
operated, an experimental plant was run successfully, and the
patents were taken over by the leading manufacturers. With
the object of obtaining a valuable by-product in place of the
slag produced in this furnace, several patentees (e.g. Hilbert
and Frank, Billaudot, Bradley and Jacobs, and others) have
sought to combine the manufacture of calcium carbide and
phosphorus by using only calcium phosphate and carbon,
effecting direct reduction by carbon at a high temperature.

The crude phosphorus is purified by melting under water and
then filtering through animal black and afterwards through
chamois leather, or by treating it, when molten, with chromic
acid or a mixture of potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid;
this causes the impurities to rise to the surface as a scum which
can be skimmed off. It is usually sent on the market in the
form of sticks, which were at one time prepared by sucking
*>he molten material up glass tubes; but the dangers to the
workmen and other disadvantages of this method have led to its
replacement by a continuous process, in which the phosphorus
leaves the melting-pot for a pipe surrounded by water, in which
it solidifies and can be removed as a continuous rod.

Properties. — When perfectly pure phosphorus is a white, trans-
parent, waxy solid, but as usually prepared it is yellowish owing
to the presence of the allotropic " red phosphorus," J. Boeseken
(Abs. Jour. Chem. Soc., 1907, ii. 343, 760) prepares perfectly
pure phosphorus by heating the crude product with chromic
acid solution, washing and drying in a vacuum, first at 40 ,
then at 8o°. It remains colourless in vacuum tubes in the dark,
but on exposure it rapidly turns yellow. At 25 to 30 C. it is
soft and flexible, but it hardens when strongly cooled, and can
then only be cut with. difficulty. The fracture is distinctly crys-
talline; large Crystals, either regular dodecahedra or octahedra,
may be obtained by crystallization from carbon bisulphide,
sulphur chloride, &c, or by sublimation. It is a non-con-
ductor of electricity. Its density at 0° is 1-836; this regularly
diminishes up to the melting-point, 44-3°, when a sudden drop
occurs. Molten phosphorus is a viscid, oily, highly refractive
liquid, which may be supercooled to 32° before solidification. It
boils at 200 , forming a colourless vapour which just about the
boiling-point corresponds in density to tetratomic molecules,
P 4 ; at 1500° to 1700 , however, Biltz and Meyer detected
dissociation into P 2 molecules. Beckmann obtained P4 mole-
cules from the boiling-point of carbon bisulphide solutions, and
Hertz arrived at the same conclusion from the lowering of the
freezing-point in benzene solution; E. Paterno and Nasini,
however, detected dissociation. Phosphorus is nearly insoluble
in water, but dissolves in carbon bisulphide, sulphur chloride,
benzene and oil of turpentine.

The element is highly inflammable, taking fire in air at 34
and burning with a bright white flame and forming dense white
clouds of the pentoxide; in perfectly dry air or oxygen, however,
Jt may be distilled unchanged, H. B. Baker showing that a trace
of water vapour was necessary for combination to occur. When
exposed to the air a stick of phosphorus undergoes slow combus-
tion, which is revealed by a greenish- white phosphorescence
when the stick is viewed in the dark. This phenomenon was

minutely studied by Boyle, who found that solutions in some
essential oils . (oil of cloves) showed the same character, whilst
in others (oils of mace and aniseed) there was no phosphorescence.
He also noticed a strong garlic-like odour, which we now
know to be due to ozone. Frederick Slare noticed that the
luminosity increased when the air was rarefied, an observation
confirmed by Hawksbee and Homberg, and which was possibly
the basis of Berzelius's theory that the luminosity depended on
the volatility of the element and not on the presence of oxygen.
Lampadius, however, showed that there was no phosphorescence
in a Torricellian vacuum; and other experimenters proved that
oxygen was essential to the process. It depends on the partial
pressure of the oxygen and also on temperature. In compressed
air at ordinary temperature there is no glowing, but it may be
brought about by heating. Again, in oxygen under ordinary
conditions there is no phosphorescence, but if the gas be heated
to 25° glowing occurs, as is also the case if the pressure be
diminished or the gas diluted. It is also remarkable that many
gases and vapours, e.g. CI, Br, I,NH 3 , N 2 0, NO2, H2S, SO2, CS2,
CH4, C2H4, inhibit the phosphorescence.

The theory of this action is not settled. It is certain that
the formation of hydrogen peroxide and ozone accompany the
glowing, and in 1848 Schonbein tried to demonstrate that it
depended on the ozone. E. Jungfleisch (Comptes renins, 1905,
140, p. 444) suggested that it is due to the combustion of an
oxide more volatile than phosphorus, a view which appears to
be supported by the observations of Scharff (Zeit. physik. Chem.,
1908, 62, p. 178) and of L. and E. Bloch {Comptes rendus, 1908,
147, p. 842).

The element combines directly with the halogens, sulphur
and selenium, and most of the metals burn in its vapour forming
phosphides. When finely divided it decomposes water giving
hydrogen phosphide; it also reduces sulphurous and sulphuric
acids, and when boiled with water gives phosphine and hypo-
phosphorous acid; when slowly oxidized under water it yields
hypophosphoric acid.

Allotropic Phosphorus. — Several allotropic forms of phos-
phorus have been described, and in recent years much work
has been done towards settling their identities. When the
ordinary form immersed in water is exposed to light, it gradually
loses its transparency and becomes coated with a thin film.
This substance was regarded as an allotrope, but since it is not
produced in non-aerated water it is probably an oxide. More
important is the so-called " red phosphorus," which is produced
by heating yellow phosphorus to about 230 for 24 hours in an
inert atmosphere, or in closed vessels to 300 , when the change
is effected in a few minutes. E. Kopp in 1844 and B. C. Brodie
in 1853 showed that a trace of iodine also expedited the change.
The same form is also produced by submitting ordinary phos-
phorus to the silent electric discharge, to sunlight or the ultra-
violet light. Since this form does not inflame until heated to
above 350 , it is manufactured in large quantities for consump-
tion in the match industry. The process consists in heating yellow
phosphorus in iron pots provided with air-tight lids, which,
however, bear a long pipe open to the air. A small quantity of
the phosphorus combines with the oxygen in the vessel, and
after this the operation is practically conducted in an atmosphere
of nitrogen with the additional safety from any risk of explosion.
The product is ground under water, and any unchanged yellow
form is eliminated by boiling with caustic soda, the product
being then washed and dried and finally packed in tin boxes.
The red variety is remarkably different from the yellow. It is
a dark red microcrystalline powder, insoluble in carbon bisul-
phide, oil of turpentine, &c, and having a density of 2-2. It is
stable to air and light, and does not combine with oxygen until
heated to above 350° in air or 260 in oxygen, forming the
pentoxide. It is also non-poisonous. When heated in a vacuum
to 530° it sublimes, and on condensation forms microscopic
needles.

Hittorf's phosphorus is another crystalline allotrope formed
by heating phosphorus with lead in a sealed tube to redness,
and removing the lead by boiling the product with nitric and

480

PHOSPHORUS

hydrochloric acid. It is also obtained by heating red phosphorus
under pressure to 580 . It forms a lustrous, nearly black
crystalline mass, composed of minute rhombohedra. G. E.
Linck and P. Moller (Ber., 1908, 41, p. 1404) have affirmed that
the product of the first process always contains lead. E. Cohen
and J. Olie, Jun. (Abs. Jour. Chem. Soc, 1909, ii. 998)
regard red phosphorus as a solid solution of the white in
Hittorf's, but this is contradicted by A. Stock (Ber., 1909, 42,
p. 4510), who points out that ordinary red phosphorus melts
at 6o5°-6io°, whilst Hittorf's melts at 620°; moreover, the
latter is less reactive than the former at high temperatures.

Another form was obtained by R. Schenck (Zeit. Elektrochem,
1905, ii. 117) as a scarlet amorphous powder by deposition of
solutions of phosphorus in the tri-iodide, tribromide or sulphide
(P4S3). It phosphoresces in ozone, but not in air, and is non-
poisonous; from its solution in alcoholic potash acids precipitate
the hydride Pi2H 6 , and when heated it is transformed into the
red modification. It has been used in combination with
potassium chlorate as a composition for matches to strike on
any surface. Finally a black phosphorus was described by
Thenard as formed by rapidly-cooling melted phosphorus.

Phosphine (phosphoretted hydrogen), PH3, a gas formed in the
putrefaction of organic matter containing phosphorus, was obtained
by Gengembre (CreU's Ann., 1789, i. 450) by the action of potash
upon phosphorus, the gas so prepared being spontaneously inflam-
mable. Some time later Davy, by heating phosphorous acid, obtained
a phosphoretted hydrogen which was not spontaneously inflammable.
These gases were considered to be distinct until Le Verrier (Ann,
chim. phys., 1835 [2], 60, p. 174) showed that the inflammability of
Gengembre's phosphine was due to small quantities of liquid
phosphoretted hydrogen, P 2 H 4 . Phosphine may be prepared by the
decomposition of calcium phosphide with water (P2H4 being formed
simultaneously) ; by the decomposition of phosphorous and hypo-
phosphorous acids when strongly heated; and by the action of solu-
tions of the caustic alkalis on phosphorus: P4-r-3NaOH-r-3H 2 =
PH 3 +3NaH 2 P02; hydrogen and P2H4 are produced at the same
time, and the gas may be freed from the latter substance by passing
into a hydrochloric acid solution of cuprous chloride, and heating
the solution, when pure phosphine is liberated (Riban, Comptes
renins, 58, p. 581). The pure gas may also be obtained by heating
phosphonium iodide with caustic potash (A. W. Hofmann, Ber.,
1 87 1, 4, p. 200); by the decomposition of crystalline calcium phos-
phide or of aluminium phosphide with water (H. Moissan, Bull,
soc. chim., 1899 (3), 21, p. 926; Mctignon. Comptes rendus. 1900, 130,
p. 1391); and by the reduction of phosphorous acid with nascent
hydrogen.

It is a colourless, extremely poisonous gas, possessing a character-
istic offensive smell, resembling that of rotting fish. It becomes
liquid at -oo° C, and solid at -133° C. (K. Olszewski, Monats., 1866,
7. P- 37 T )- It is only slightly soluble in water, but is readily soluble
in solutions of copper sulphate, hypochlorous acid, and acid
solutions of cuprous chloride. It burns with a brightly luminous
flame, and is spontaneously inflammable at about 100° C. When
mixed with oxygen it combines explosively if the mixture
be under diminished pressure, and is violently decomposed by
the halogens. It is also decomposed when heated with sulphur
or with most metals, in the latter case with the liberation of hydrogen
and formation of phosphide of the metal. It combines with the
halide derivatives of boron and silicon to form, e.g. PH 3 -2BF 3 ,
2PH»-SiCU (Besson, Comptes rendus, 1890, no, 80, pp. 240, 516;
1 891, 1 13, p. 78), with the halogen acids to form phosphonium salts,
PH4X (X = Cl,Br,I), and with sodammonium and potassammonium
to form PH 2 Na, PH 2 K (Joannis, Comptes rendus, 1894, 119, p. 557).
It oxidizes slowly in air, and is a reducing agent. It decomposes
when heated, hydrogen and red phosphorus being formed.

Liquid Phosphoretted Hydrogen, P2H4, first obtained by P. Thenard
(Comptes rendus, 1844, 18, p. 652) by decomposing calcium phos-
phide with warm water, the products of reaction being then passed
through a U tube surrounded by a freezing mixture (see also L.
Gattermann, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 1174). It is a colourless liquid
which boils at 57°-58 C. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in
alcohol and ether. It is very unstable, being readily decomposed
by heat or light. By passing the products of the decomposition of
calcium phosphide with water over granular calcium chloride, the
P2H4 gives a new hydride, Pi 2 H 6 and phosphine, the former being
an odourless, canary-yellow, amorphous powder. When heated
in a vacuum it evolves phosphine, and leaves an orange-red residue
of a second new hydride, P 9 H 2 (A. Stock, W. Bottcher, and W.
Lenger, Ber., 1909, 42, pp. 2839, 2847, 2853).

Solid Phosphoretted Hydrogen, P4H2, first obtained by Le Verrier
(loc. cit.) , is formed by the action of phosphorus trichloride on gaseous
phosphine (Besson, Comptes rendus, in, p. 972) ; by the action of
water on phosphorus di-iodide and by the decomposition of calcium
phosphide with hot concentrated hydrochloric acid. It is a yellow

solid, which is insoluble in water. It burns when heated to about
200° C. Oxidizing agents decompose it with great violence. When
warmed with alcoholic potash it yields gaseous phosphine, hydrogen
and a hypophosphite. It reduces silver salts.

Phosphonium Salts. — The chloride, PH 4 C1, was obtained as a crys-
talline solid by Ogier (Comptes rendus, 1879, 89, p. 705) by com-
bining phosphine and hydrochloric acid gas under a pressure of
from 14-20 atmospheres; it can also be obtained at --30° to -35° C.
under ordinary atmospheric pressure. It crystallizes in large trans-
parent cubes, but rapidly dissociates into its constituents on exposure.
The bromide, PmBr, was first obtained by H. Rose (Pogg. Ann.,
1832, 24, p. 151) from phosphine and hydrobromic acid; it also
results when phosphorus is heated with hydrobromic acid to 100-
120° C. in sealed tubes (Damoiseau, Bull. soc. chim., 1881, 35, p. 49).
It crystallizes in colourless cubes, is deliquescent, and often inflames
spontaneously on exposure to air. It is readily decomposed by water
and also by carbonyl chloride (Besson, Comptes rendus, 1896, 122,
p. 140) : 6PH 4 Br + 5COCI2 = 10HCI + 5CO + 6HBr + 2PH 3 +
P4H2. The iodide, PH 4 I, first prepared by J. Gay-Lussac (Ann.
chim. phys., 18 14, 91, p. 14), is usually obtained by the action of
water on a mixture of phosphorus and iodine (A. W. Hofmann,
Ber., 1873, 6, p. 286). It is also prepared by the action of iodine
on gaseous phosphine, or by heating amorphous phosphorus with
concentrated hydriodic acid solution to 160° C. It crystallizes in
large cubes and sublimes readily. It is a strong reducing agent.
Water and the caustic alkalis readily decompose it with liberation
of phosphine and the formation of iodides or hydriodic acid. It is
also decomposed by carbonyl chloride (Besson, loc. cit.).
4PHJ+8COCl 2 = i6HCl+8CO+P 2 l4+2P.

Just as the amines are derived from ammonia, so from phosphine
are derived the primary, secondary and tertiary organic phosphines
by the exchange of hydrogen for alkyl groups, and corresponding
to the phosphonium salts there exists a series of organic phospho-
nium bases. The primary and secondary phosphines are produced
when the alkyl iodides are heated with phosphonium iodide and
zinc oxide to 1 50° C. (A. W. Hofmann, Ber., 1 871, 4, pp. 430,
605), thus: 2 RI + 2 PH4I + ZnO = 2 R-PHrHI + Znl 2 + H 2 0,
2RI + PH4I + ZnO = R 2 -PH-HI + Znl 2 + H ; 0. The reaction
mixture on treatment with water yields the primary phosphine,
the secondary phosphine being then liberated from its hydriodide
by caustic soda. The tertiary phosphines, discovered by L. Thenard
(Comptes rendus, 1845, 21, p. 144; 1847, 25, p. 892), are formed
(together with the quaternary phosphonium salts) by heating alkyl
iodides with phosphonium iodide to 150-180° C. : PH4I+3CH3I =
P(CH 3 ) 3 HI + 3HI ; P(CH 3 ) 3 HI + CH 3 I = P(CH 3 ) 4 I + HI (see also
Fireman, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 1088). They are also formed by the
interaction of phosphorus trichloride and zinc alkyls (Cahours and
Hofmann, Ann., 1857, 104, p. 1): 2PCl 3 +3 Zn (C2H 6 )2=3ZnCl 2 +
2P(C 2 H 6 ) 8 .

The primary and secondary phosphines are colourless compounds,
and with the exception of methyl phosphine are liquid at ordinary
temperature. They possess an unpleasant odour, fume on exposure
to air, show a neutral reaction, but combine with acids to form salts.
They oxidize very rapidly on exposure, in many cases being spon-
taneously inflammable. On oxidation with nitric acid the primary
compounds give monoalkyl phosphinic acids, R-PO(OH) 2 , the
secondary yielding dialkyl phosphinic acids, R 2 PO(0H). The
primary phosphines are very weak bases, their salts with acids
being readily decomposed by water. The tertiary phosphines are
characterized by their readiness to pass into derivatives containing
pentavalent phosphorus, and consequently they form addition
compounds with sulphur, carbon bisulphide, chlorine, bromine,
the halogen acids and the alkyl halides with great readiness. On
oxidation they yield phosphine oxides, R 3 P-0. The quaternary
phosphonium salts resemble the corresponding nitrogen compounds.
They are stable towards aqueous alkalis, but on digestion with
moist silver oxide yield the phosphonium hydroxides, which are
stronger bases than the caustic alkalis. They differ from the organic
ammonium hydroxides in their behaviour when heated, yielding
phosphine oxides and paraffin hydrocarbons : R 4 P-OH = R 3 PO + RH.
The boiling-points of some members of the series are shown in the
table : —

Primary.

Secondary.

Tertiary.

Methyl . . .
Ethyl . . .
Isopropyl .
Isobutyl .
Isoamyl

— 14° C.
+ 25°C.

4 i°C.

62° C.
107° c.

25° G.

85° c.

n8°C.

153° C.

210-215° C.

40-42° C.
128° C.

215° c.
300° C.(?)

The alkyl phosphinic acids are colourless crystalline compounds
which are easily soluble in water and alcohol. They yield two
series of salts, viz. RHM-P0 3 and RM2PO3 (M = metal). The
dialkyl phosphinic acids are also colourless compounds, the majority
of which are insoluble in water. They yield only one series of salts.

Oxides. — Phosphorus forms three well-defined oxides, P4O6, P 2 4
and P2O5; two others, P4O and P 2 0, have been described.

Phosphorus suboxide, P4O, is said to be formed, mixed with the

PHOSPHORUS

481

other oxides, when the element is burnt in a limited supply of air
or in pure oxygen under reduced pressure (E. Jungfleisch, Abs.
Jour. Chent. Soc, 1907, ii. 761), and also when a solution of phos-
phorus in the trichloride or tribromide is exposed to light. It is a
yellow or red powder which becomes dark red on heating; it is stable
in air ; and can be heated to 300 without decomposition. Its ex-
istence, however, has been denied by A. St.ock (Abs. Jour. Chent.
Soc, 1910, ii. 121). The oxide P2O was obtained by Besson (Comptes
rendus, 1897, 124, p. 763; 1901, pp. 132, 1556) by heating a mixture
of phosphonium bromide and phosphorus oxychloride in sealed
tubes to 50°.

Phosphorus oxide, P t e , discovered by Sage in 1777, is a product
of the limited combustion of phosphorus in air. It may be con-
veniently prepared by passing a rapid current of air over burning
phosphorus contained in a combustion tube, and condensing the
product in a metal condenser, from which it may be removed by
heating the condenser to 50° — 60° (Thorpe and Tutton, Jour.
Chent. Soc, 1890, pp. 545, 632; 1891, p. 1019). Jungfleisch has
obtained it by carrying out the combustion with oxygen under
reduced pressure, or diluted with an inert gas. It forms crystals,
apparently monoclinic, which melt at 22-5 to a clear, colourless,
mobile liquid of boiling-point 173-1°. Its specific gravity is 2 -135 at 21°.
Vapour density and cryoscopic determinations point to the double
formula, PjO e . It is comparatively stable up to 200°, but when heated
in a sealed tube to 440° it gives phosphorus and the tetroxide P2O4.
It is unaffected by light when pure, but if phosphorus be present,
even in minute quantity, it turns yellow and ultimately dark red.
It oxidizes on exposure to air to the pentoxide, and with a brilliant
inflammation when thrown into oxygen at 5o°-6o°. It slowly
reacts with cold water to form phosphorous acid ; but with hot water
it is energetically decomposed, giving much red phosphorus or the
suboxide being formed with an explosive evolution of spontaneously
inflammable phosphoretted hydrogen; phosphoric acid is also formed.
With dilute alkalis phosphites are slowly formed, but with concen-
trated solutions the decomposition follows the same course as with
hot water. With chlorine it gives phosphoryl and " metaphos-
phoryl " chlorides, the action being accompanied with a greenish
flame; bromine gives phosphorus pentabromide and pentoxide
which interact to give phosphoryl and " metaphosphoryl " bromides;
iodine gives phosphorus di-iodide, P2I4, and pentoxide, P2O5; whilst
hydrochloric acid gives phosphorus trichloride and phosphorous
acid, which interact to form free phosphorus, phosphoric acid and
hydrochloric acid. It combines violently with sulphur at 160° to
form phosphorus fulphoxide, P 4 6 S4, which forms highly lustrous
tetragonal plates (after sublimation), melting at 102 and boiling
at 295°; it is decomposed by water into sulphuretted hydrogen and
metaphosphoric acid, the latter changing on standing into ortho-
phosphoric acid. Sulphur trioxide and sulphuric acid oxidize
phosphorus oxide, giving the pentoxide and sulphur dioxide, whilst
sulphur chloride, S2CI2, gives phosphoryl and thiophosphoryl
chlorides, free sulphur and sulphur dioxide. Ammonia also reacts
immediately, giving phosphorus diamide, P(OH)(NH2)2, and the
corresponding ammonium salt. Phosphorous oxide is very poisonous,
and is responsible for the caries set up in the jaws of those employed
in the phosphorus industries (see below). It is probable, however,
that pure phosphorous oxide vapour is odourless, and the odour of
phosphorus as ordinarily perceived is that of a mixture of the oxide
with ozone.

Phosphorus tetroxide, P2O4, was obtained by Thorpe and Tutton
by heating the product of the limited combustion of phosphorus
in vacuo as a sublimate of transparent, highly lustrous, orthorhombic
crystals. They are highly deliquescent, and form with water a mix-
ture of phosphorous and phosphoric acids: P20<+3H20 = H 3 POs-r-
H 3 P0 4 . The vapour density at about 1400° is 230, i.e. slightly less
than that required by P a Oi« (West, Jour. Chent. Soc, 1902, p. 923).

Phosphoric oxide, or phosphorus pentoxide, P4O10, formed when
phosphorus is burned in an excess of air or oxygen, or from dry
phosphorus and oxygen at atmospheric pressure (Jungfleisch, loc.
cit.), was examined by Boyle and named " flowers of phosphorus "
by Marggraf in 1740. It is a sqft, flocculent powder, which on
sublimation forms transparent, monoclinic crystals. It is extremely
deliquescent, hissing when thrown into water, with which it combines
to form phosphoric acid. It is reduced when heated with carbon
to phosphorus, carbon monoxide being formed simultaneously.
Its vapour density at 1400° points to the double formula (West,
Jour. Chent. Soc, 1896, p. 154).

Oxyacids. — Phosphorus forms several oxyacids: hypophosphorous
acid, H3PO2, and hypophosphoric acid, H4P2O6 or H2PO3, of which
the anhydrides are unknown ; phosphorous acid, H3PO3, derived from
P«0 6 ; monoperphosphoric acid, H 3 P0 5 ; perphosphoric acid, r^P^O?;
and meta-, pyro-, and ortho-phosphoric acids, derived from P4O10, for
which see Phosphates.

Hypophosphorous acid, HP(OH) 2 , discovered by Dulong in 1816,
and obtained crystalline by Thomson in 1874 (Ber., 7, p. 994), is
prepared in the form of its barium salt by warming phosphorus
with baryta water, removing the excess of baryta by carbon dioxide,
and crystallizing the filtrate. The acid may be prepared by evaporat-
ing in a vacuum the solution obtained by decomposing the barium
6alt with the equivalent amount of sulphuric acid. The acid forms a
white crystalline mass, melting at 17-4° and having a strong acid

XXI. 16

reaction. Exposure to air gives phosphorous and phosphoric
acids, and on heating it gives phosphine and phosphoric acid. A
characteristic reaction is the formation of a red precipitate of
cuprous hydride, CU2H2, when heated with copper sulphate solution
to 60°. It is a monobasic acid forming salts which are permanent
in air, but which are gradually oxidized in aqueous solution. On
heating they yield phosphine and leave a residue of pyrophosphate,
or a mixture of meta- and pyrophosphates, with a little phosphorus.
They react as reducing agents. On boiling with caustic potash
they evolve hydrogen, yielding a phosphate.

Phosphorous acid, P(OH) 3 , discovered by Davy in 1812, may be
obtained by dissolving its anhydride, P40 e , in cold water; by
immersing sticks of phosphorus in a solution of copper sulphate
contained in a well-closed flask, filtering from the copper sulphide
and precipitating the sulphuric acid simultaneously formed by
baryta water, and concentrating the solution in vacuo; or by
passing chlorine into melted phosphorus covered with water, the
first formed phosphorus trichloride being decomposed by the water
into phosphorous and hydrochloric acids. It may also be prepared
by leading a current of dry air into phosphorus trichloride at 60 "
and passing the vapours into water at o°, the crystals thus formed
being drained, washed with ice-cold water and dried in a vacuum.
The crystals melt at 70°. The acid is very deliquescent, and oxidizes
on exposure to air to phosphoric acid. It decomposes on heating
into phosphine and phosphoric acid. It is an energetic reducing
agent; for example, when boiled with copper sulphate metallic
copper is precipitated and hydrogen evolved. Although nominally
tribasic the commonest metallic salts are dibasic. Organic ethers,
however, are known in which one, two and three of the hydrogen
atoms are substituted (Michaelis and Becker, Ber., 1897, 30, p. 1003).
The metallic phosphites are stable both dry and in solution; when
strongly heated they evolve hydrogen and yield a pyrophosphate,
or, especially with the heavy metals, they give hydrogen and a
mixture of phosphide and pyrophosphate.

Hypophosphoric acid, H4P2O6 or H 2 P0 3 , discovered by Salzer in
1877 among the oxidation products of phosphorus by moist air,
may be prepared by oxidizing phosphorus in an aqueous solution
of copper nitrate, or by oxidizing sticks of phosphorus under water,
neutralizing with sodium carbonate, forming the lead salt and decom-
posing this with sulphuretted hydrogen (J. Cavalier and E. Cornee,
Abs. Jour. Chent. Soc, 1910, ii. 31). The aqueous solution may
be boiled without decomposition, but on concentration it yields
phosphorous and phosphoric acids. Deliquescent, rectangular
tablets of H4P2O62H2O separate out on concentrating a solution
in a vacuum, which on drying further give the acid, which melts
a t 55°i an d decomposes suddenly when heated to 70° into phosphor-
ous and metaphosphoric acids with a certain amount of hydrogen
phosphide. The solution is stable to oxidizing agents such as
dilute hydrogen peroxide and chlorine, but is oxidized by potassium

Cermanganate to phosphoric acid; it does not reduce salts of the
eavy metals. With silver nitrate it gives a white precipitate,
Ag4P20s. The sodium salt, Na4P20e-loH20, forms monoclinic prisms
and in solution is strongly alkaline; the acid salt, Na 3 HP20 6 -9H 2 0,
forms monoclinic tablets. The formula of the acid is not quite
definite. Cryoscopic measurements on the sodium salt points
to the double formula, but the organic esters appear to be derived
from H 2 P0 3 (see A. Rosenheim and M. Pritze, Ber., 1908, 41, 2708;
E. Cornee, A bs. Jour. Chent. Soc, 1910, ii. 121).

Monoperphosphoric and perphosphoric acids, H 3 P0 6 and H4P2OS,
were obtained by J. Schmidlin and P. Massini {Ber., 1910, 43, 1 162).
The first is formed when 30 % hydrogen peroxide reacts with phos-
phorus pentoxide or meta- or pyrophosphoric acids at low tempera-
tures and the mixture diluted with ice-cold water. The solution
is strongly oxidizing, even converting manganous salts to perman-
ganates in the cold, a property not possessed by monopersulphuric
acid. Perphosphoric acid is formed when pyrophosphoric acid is
treated with a large excess of hydrogen peroxide.

Halogen Compounds. — Phosphorus trifluoride, PF 3 , discovered by
Davy, may be obtained mixed with the pentafluoride ; by direct
combination of its elements; from the tribromide and arsenic trifluor-
ide (Maclvor) ; from the tribromide and zinc fluoride, and from dried
copper phosphide and lead fluoride (H. Moissan). It is a colourless,
non-fuming gas, which gives a colourless, mobile liquid at -io°
and 20 atmospheres; the liquid boils at -95° and solidifies at -160
(Moissan, Comptes rendus, 1904, 138, p. 789). It does not burn in air,
but explodes, under the action of a flame or the electric spark,
when mixed with half its volume of oxygen, giving the oxyfluoride,
POF3. It is slowly decomposed by water giving hydrofluoric and
phosphorous acids, or, in addition, fluorphosphorous acid, HPF4.
It has no action on glass in the cold, but when heated it gives phos-
phorus and silicon tetrafluoride. Phosphorus pentafluoride, PF5,
discovered by Thorpe (Proc. Roy. Soc, 1877, 25, p. 122), may be
obtained by burning the trifluoride in fluorine, from the penta-
chloride and arsenic trifluoride and from the trifluoride and bromine,
the first formed fluorobromide, PF 3 Br2, decomposing into the penta-
bromide and pentafluoride: 5PF 3 Br 2 = 3PF5+2PBr 6 . It is a
colourless gas 45 times heavier than air, and liquefies at 15° under
40 atmospheres, solidifying when the pressure is diminished. It is
incombustible and extinguishes flame. It fumes in moist air and
is quickly decomposed by water giving hydrofluoric and phosphoric

II

482

PHOSPHORUS

acids. It does not dissociate on heating as do the pentachloride
and pentabromide, thus indicating the existence of pentavalent
phosphorus in a gaseous compound; dissociation, however, into
the trifluoride and free fluorine may be brought about by induction
sparks of 150 to 200 mm. in length. It combines directly with
ammonia in the proportion 2PFs:5NH3, and with nitrogen peroxide
at -10° in the proportion PF 5 :N0 2 . Phosphorus trifluorodichloride,
PF3CI2, prepared from chlorine and the trifluoride, is a pungent-
smelling gas, which at 250 gives the pentachloride and fluoride.
The trifluorodibromide (see above) is an amber-coloured mobile liquid.
Phosphoryl trifluoride, POF3, may be obtained by exploding 2 volumes
of phosphorus trifluoride with I volume of oxygen (Moissan, 1886);
by heating 2 parts of finely-divided cryolite and 3- parts of phosphorus
pentoxide (Thorpe and Hambly, Jour. Chem. Soc, 1889, p. 759);
or from phosphoryl chloride and zinc fluoride at 40 to 50 . It is a
colourless fuming gas, which liquefies under ordinary pressure at
-50 , and under a pressure of 15 atmospheres at 16°; it may be
solidified to a snow-like mass. Water gives hydrofluoric and phos-
phoric acids. The corresponding sulphur compound, thiophosphoryl
fluoride, PSF3, obtained by heating lead fluoride and phosphorus
pentasulphide to 200 , is a colourless gas, which may be condensed
to a clear transparent liquid. It spontaneously inflames in air or
oxygen ; and when the gas is issuing from a jet into air the flame is
greyish green, with a faintly luminous and yellow tip; the flame
is probably one of the coldest known. The combustion probably
follows the equation PSF 3 +0 2 = PF3 + S0 2 , the trifluoride at
a higher temperature decomposing according to the equations:
loPFj+502 = 6PF 5 -r-2P 2 5 , 2PF 3 +0 2 = 2POF 3 , the complete re-
action tending to the equation: ioPSF 3 -f-i50 2 = 6PF 5 +2P 2 05-|-
loS0 2 . The gas dissolves in water on shaking; PSF 3 -r-4H 2 =
H 2 S+H 3 P04-r-3HF, but is more readily taken up by alkaline
solutions with the formation of fluoride and thiophosphate: PSF 3 -f-
6NaOH = Na 3 PS03+3NaF. Heated in a glass tube it gives silicon
fluoride, phosphorus and sulphur, PSF3 = PF 3 +S; 4PF 3 -f-3Si0 2 =
3SiF4+P4+ 30 2 . Electric sparks give at first free sulphur and the
trifluoride, the latter at a higher temperature splitting into the
pentafluoride and phosphorus. With dry ammonia it gives am-
monium fluoride and a compound P(NH 2 ) 2 SF.

Phosphorus trichloride or phosphorous chloride, PC1 3 , discovered by
Gay-Lussac and Thenard in 1808, is obtained by passing a slow
current of chlorine over heated red phosphorus or through a solution
of ordinary phosphorus in carbon disulphide (purifying in the latter
case by fractional distillation). It is a colourless, mobile liquid of
specific gravity 1-6128 at 0° and boiling-point 76°. With chlorine
it gives the pentachloride, PC1 5 , and with oxygen when heated phos-
phoryl chloride, POCI3. Water gives hydrochloric and phosphorous
acids, with separation of red phosphorus if the water be hot. When
led with hydrogen into liquid ammonia it gives NH:PNH 2 , which
on elevation of temperature gives P^NH)] (Joannis, Comptes rendus,
1904, 139, p. 364). By submitting a mixture of phosphorous chloride
and hydrogen to an electric discharge A. Besson and A. Fournier
(Comptes rendus, 1901, 150, p. 102) obtained phosphorus dichloride,
P 2 CU, as a colourless, oiiy, strongly fuming liquid, freezing at
-28 and boiling at 180° with decomposition. With water it gave
phosphorous acid and a yellow indefinite solid. It decomposes
slowly at ordinary temperatures. Phosphorus pentachloride, PCI5,
discovered by Davy in 1810 and analysed by Dulong in 1816, is
formed from chlorine and the trichloride. It is a straw-coloured
solid, which by fusion under pressure gives prismatic crystals. It
sublimes when heated, but under pressure it melts at 148 , giving
a normal vapour density, but on further heating it dissociates into
the trichloride and chlorine; this dissociation may be retarded by
vapourizing in an atmosphere of chlorine. It fumes strongly in
moist air, giving hydrochloric acid and phosphoryl chloride, P0C1 3 ;
with water it gives phosphoric and hydrochloric acids.

Phosphoryl trichloride or phosphorus oxychloride, P0C1 3 , correspond-
ing to phosphoric acid, (HO) 3 PO, discovered in 1847 by Wurtz,
may be produced by the action of many substances containing
hydroxy groups on the pentachloride; from the trichloride and
potassium chlorate; by leaving phosphorus pentoxide in contact
with hydrochloric acid: 2P 2 6 -r-3HCl = POCl3+3HP0 3 ; or by
heating the pentachloride and pentoxide under pressure: 3PCI5+
PsOj = 5POClj. It is a colourless liquid, boiling at 107-2 °, and
when solidified it melts at 0-8°. Water gives hydrochloric and
phosphoric acids; dilute alcohol gives monoethyl phosphoric acid,
C 2 H 5 -H 2 P04, whilst absolute alcohol gives triethyl phosphate,
(C 2 H 5 ) 3 PC>4. Pyrophosphoryl chloride, P 2 3 Cl4, corresponding to
pyrophosphoric acid, was obtained by Geuther and Michaelis
(Ber., 1 87 1, 4, p. 766) in the oxidation of phosphorus trichloride with
nitrogen peroxide at low temperature; it is a colourless fuming
liquid which boils at about 212 with some decomposition. With
water it gives phosphoric and hydrochloric acids. Thiophosphoryl
chloride, PSCU, may be obtained by the direct combination of sulphur
with the trichloride; from sulphuretted hydrogen and the penta-
chloride; from antimony trisulphide and the pentachloride; by heat-
ing the pentasulphide with the pentachloride; and by dissolving phos-
phorus in sulphur chloride and distilling the solution: 2P+3S 2 C1 2 =
4S+2PSCI3. It is a colourless mobile liquid, boiling at I25-I
and having a pungent, slightly aromatic odour. It is slowly decom-
posed by water giving phosphoric and hydrochloric acids, with

sulphuretted hydrogen; alkalis form a thiophosphate, e.g. PS(OK)»,
and a chloride.

Phosphorus tribromide, PBr 3 , prepared by mixing solutions of its
elements in carbon disulphide and distilling, is a transparent, mobile
liquid, boiling at 173° and resembling the trichloride chemically.
The pentabromide, PBrs, which results from phosphorus and an
excess of bromine, is a yellow solid, and closely resembles the penta-
chloride. The bromochloride, PCl 3 Br 2 , is an orange-coloured solid
formed from bromine and the trichloride, into which components
it decomposes at 35 . Phosphoryl tribromide, POBr 3 , is a solid,
melting at 45 and boiling at 195 . Thiophosphoryl bromide, PSBr 3 ,
obtained after the manner of the corresponding chloride, forms
yellow octahedra which melt at 38 °, and have a penetrating, aro-
matic odour. With water it gives sulphur, sulphuretted hydrogen,
hydrobromic, phosphorous and phosphoric acids, the sulphur and
phosphorous acid being produced by the interaction of the previously
formed sulphuretted hydrogen and phosphoric acid. Pyrophosphoryl
thiobromide, (PBr 2 S) 2 S, and metaphosphoryl thiobromide, PS 2 Br, are
also known.

Phosphorus forms three iodides. The subiodide, P4I, was ob-
tained by R. Bculough (Comptes rendus , 1905, 141, p. 256), who acted
with dry iodine on phosphorus dissolved in carbon disulphide;
with alkalis it gives P4(0H). The di-iodide and tri-iodide are formed
similarly ; the first is deposited as orange-coloured prisms which melt
at 1 10° -to a red liquid (see Doughty, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 1905,
27, p. 1444), whilst the second forms dark-red hexagonal plates
which melt at 55 °.

Sulphides and Thio-acids. — Phosphorus and sulphur combine
energetically with considerable rise of temperature to form sulphides.
The researches of A. Stock (Ber., 1908, 41, pp. 558, 657; 1909, 42, p.
2062; 1910, 43, pp. 150, 414) show that three exist, P4S1, P4S7, P 2 S 5 .
The first is prepared by heating red phosphorus with finely powdered
sulphur in a tube sealed at one end and filled with carbon dioxide.
The product is extracted with carbon disulphide and the residue
distilled in carbon dioxide. It forms light yellow crystals from
benzene, which melt at 1725 "and boil at 407 "-408 ° with slight decom-
position. Alkalis give hydrogen and phosphine. The second,
P4S7, is obtained by heating a mixture of red phosphorus and sulphur
in the proportions given by P4S7+5 % P4S 3 , and crystallizing from
carbon disulphide in which P4S 3 is readily soluble. It forms small,
slightly yellow prisms, which melt at 310 and boil at 523 . The
third, or pentasulphide, P2S5, was obtained as a substance resembling
flowers of sulphur by A. Stock and K. Thiel (Ber., 1905, 38, p. 2719;
1910, 43, p. 1223), who heated sulphur with phosphorus in carbon
disulphide solution with a trace of iodine to I20°-I30°. It exists
in two forms, one having the formula P4S10, and the other a lower
molecular weight. With liquid ammonia it gives P 2 S 3 -7NH 3 , which
is a mixture of ammonium iminotrithiophosphate, P(SNH4) 3 :NH,
and ammonium nitrilodithiophosphate, P(SNH 4 ) 2 iN. Water con-
verts the former into ammonium thiophosphate, PO(SNH4) 3 .H 2 0,
whilst the latter heated to 300 in a vacuum gives thiophosphoric
nitrite, N!P:S (Stock, ibid., 1906, 39, p. 1967).

Thiophosphates result on dissolving the pentasulphide in alkalis.
Sodium monothiophosphate, Na 3 PS0 3 -l2H 2 0, is obtained by adding
one P 2 S 6 to six NaOH, adding alcohol, dissolving the precipitate in
water and heating to 90 °. On cooling the salt separates as white
six-sided tablets. Sodium dithiophosphate, Na 3 PS 2 2 -uH 2 0, is
obtained by heating the above solution only to 50°-55°, cooling and
adding alcohol, which precipitates the dithio salt. On heating it
gives the monothio salt. Sodium trithiophosphate appears to be
formed when the pentasulphide acts with sodium hydrosulphide
at 20 . All thiophosphates are decomposed by acids giving sulphur-
etted hydrogen and sometimes free sulphur. They also act in many
cases as reducing agents.

Nitrogen Compounds. — Phosphorus pentachloride combines directly
with ammonia, and the compound when heated to redness loses
ammonium chloride and hydrochloric acid and gives phospham,
PN 2 H 4 , a substance first described by Davy in 181 1. It is a white,
infusible, very stable solid, which decomposes water on heating,
giving ammonia and metaphosphoric acid, whilst alkalis give
an analogous reaction. With methyl and ethyl alcohols it forms
secondary amines (Vidal, Comptes rendus, 189 1, 112, p. 950; 1892, 115,
p. 123). The diamide, PN 2 H4, was obtained by Hugot (ibid., 1905,
141, p. 1235) by acting with ammonia gas on phosphorus tribromide;
or tri-iodide at -70°; it is very unstable, and decomposes at -25 .
Phosphorus combines with nitrogen and chlorine to form several
polymeric substances of the general formula (PNC1 2 ) x, where x may
be 1,3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 11 ; they may be obtained by heating the penta-
chloride with ammonium chloride in a sealed tube and separating
the mixture by fractional distillation (H. N. Stokes, Amer. Chem. Jour.,
1898, 20, p. 740 ; also see Besson and Rosset, Comptes rendus, 1906, 37,
p. 143). The commonest form is P3N3CI6, a crystalline solid, insoluble
in water, but soluble in alcohol and ether. Several phosphoamides
have been described. The diamide, PO (NH 2 )(NH), results when the :
pentachloride is saturated with ammonia gas and the first formed
chlorophosphamide, PC1 3 (NH 2 ) 2 , is decomposed by water. The
triamide, PO(NH 2 )3, results from ammonia and phosphorus oxy-
chloride. Both these compounds on heating give phosphomonamide,
PON, of which a polymer (PON) 2 had been described by Oddo
(Gazz. chim. Ital., 1899, 29 (ii.), p. 330). Stokes (Amer. Chem. Jour.,

PHOTIUS

483

1893, 15, p- 198; 1894, 16, pp. 123, 154) has described PO(OH) 2 NH 2
and PO(OH)(NHj)», whilst the compound PO(OH)NH was obtained
by Schiff [Ann., 1857, 103, p. 168) by acting with ammonia on the
pentoxide. .Numerous other nitrogen compounds have been
obtained.

The atomic weight of phosphorus was determined by Berzelius,
Pelouze, Jacquelin, Dumas, Schrotter, Brodie and van der Plaats.
More recent are the investigations of G. Ter Gazarian {Compt. rend.,

1909, 148, p. 1397) on hydrogen phosphide, which gave the value
30906, and of G. P. Baxter and G. Jones (Journ. Amer. Chem Soc,

1910, 32, p. 298) on silver phosphate, which gave the value 31-04.
Therapeutics. — The phosphorus used in the British pharma-
copoeia is obtained from calcium phosphate, and is a waxlike
non-metallic substance soluble in oils and luminous in the dark.
There are various medicinal preparations. In young animals
phosphorus has a remarkable influence on the growth of bone,
causing a proliferation of the jelly-like masses and finally a
deposit in them of true bony material. Owing to this influence
it has been used in rickets and osteomalacia. , Its most effective
use, however, is as a nerve tonic in paralysis agitans, locomotor
ataxia, impotence and nervous exhaustion. In some skin
diseases such as psoriasis, chronic eczema and acne indurata,
phosphorus is very useful, and cases of diabetes mellitus and
lymphadenoma have improved under some of its compounds.
The hypophosphites have been recommended in pulmonary
affections, being said to act as free phosphorus without being
irritant, and the glycero-phosphates are certainly useful to
stimulate metabolism. Dilute phosphoric acid is used as a
gastric stimulant. It does not resemble phosphorus in its
physiological action and cannot be used to replace it.

Toxicology. — Poisonous amounts of phosphorus are frequently
taken or administered, criminally or accidentally, it being easily
accessible to the public in the form of matches or of vermin
pastes. They may have been swallowed several hours before
symptoms of acute poisoning show themselves, with nausea
and vomiting, and a burning in the oesophagus, stomach and
abdomen. The important thing is to prevent the absorption
of the poison, so emetics and purgatives should be given at once.
Sulphate of copper, in doses of 3 to 5 gr., freely diluted and
repeated every few minutes forms the harmless, black phosphide
of copper, which is rapidly eliminated by the kidneys. The
stomach may be washed out with warm water and then with a
2 % solution of permanganate of potash, an enema of the same
solution being given. The old French oil of turpentine is the
best antidote to use in phosphorus poisoning, delaying the toxic
effects; but ordinary oils are not only useless but harmful.
When some time has elapsed before treatment and the phos-
phorus has become absorbed, the organic degenerative changes
cannot be easily controlled. For the chronic form of industrial
poisoning in the manufacture of lucifer matches — a form of
necrosis, known in England as " phossy jaw " and in France as
" mat chimique," a localized inflammatory infection of the
periosteum, ending with the death and exfoliation of part of
the bone — see Match.

PHOTIUS (c. 820-891), patriarch of Constantinople (858-867
and 878-886). From his early years he displayed an extra-
ordinary talent and appetite for knowledge, and as soon as be had
completed his own education he began to teach with distinguished
success grammar, rhetoric, divinity and philosophy. The way
to public life was probably opened for him by the marriage of
his brother Sergius to the princess Irene, sister of Theodora, who,
upon the death of her husband Theophilus in 842, had assumed
the regency of the empire. Photius became captain of the guard
and subsequently first imperial secretary. The dissensions
between the patriarch Ignatius and Bardas, the uncle of the
youthful Emperor Michael III., brought promotion to Photius.
Ignatius was arrested and imprisoned (Nov. 858), and upon
refusing to resign his office was illegally deposed, while Photius,
although a layman, received all the necessary sacerdotal orders
within six days, and was installed as patriarch in his place.
Ignatius, continuing to refuse the abdication which could alone
have given Photius's elevation a semblance of legality, was
treated with extreme severity. His cause was subsequently
espoused by Pope Nicholas in a manner highly offensive to the

independent feeling of the Eastern Church. Photius felt himself
the champion of Eastern Christianity against Latin pretensions;
and when in 863 Nicholas finally anathematized and deposed
him, he replied by a counter-excommunication. Meanwhile, the
situation was suddenly changed by the murder of Photius's
patron, Bardas, by order of the emperor Michael, who was
himself assassinated by his colleague Basil in the following year
(,867). The fall of Photius immediately ensued; he was removed
from his office and banished about the end of September 867,
a few days after the accession of Basil, and Ignatius was
reinstated on the 23rd of November. About 876 Photius was
suddenly recalled to Constantinople and entrusted with the
education of Basil's children. On the death of Ignatius,
probably in October 878, Photius, after a decent show of reluc-
tance, again filled the patriarchal throne. He then proceeded
to obtain the formal recognition of the Christian world. In
November 879 a synod was convened at Constantinople. The
legates of Pope John VIII. attended, prepared to acknowledge
Photius as legitimate patriarch, a concession for which John
was much censured by Latin opinion. He stood firm, however,
on the other two points which had long been contested between
the Eastern and Western Churches, the ecclesiastical jurisdiction
over Bulgaria and the introduction of the " filioque " clause
into the creed. He disowned his legates, who had shown a
tendency to yield, again excommunicated Photius, and thus
aroused the open hostility which has never been appeased to
this day. Strong in the support of the council, Photius simply
ignored him. At the height of glory and success he was suddenly
precipitated from his dignity by another palace revolution.
After the death of Basil (886), his son and successor Leo, who
had formerly been devoted to Photius, but in recent years
displayed great hatred towards him, deprived him of his office
and banished him to the monastery of Bordi in Armenia. From
this time Photius disappears from history. No letters of this
period of his life are extant, which leads to the inference that his
imprisonment was severe. The precise date of his death is
not known, but it is said to have occurred on the 6th of February
891.

For long after Photius's death his memory was held in no special
honour by his countrymen. But when, in the crusading age, the
Greek Church and state were alike in danger from Latin encroach-
ments, Photius became a national hero, and is at present regarded
as little short of a saint. To this character he has not the least
pretension. Few men, it is probable, have been more atrociously
calumniated; but, when every specific statement to his prejudice
has been rejected, he still appears on a general review of his actions
worldly, crafty and unscrupulous. Yet he shows to no little advan-
tage as an ecclesiastical statesman. His firmness was heroic,' his
sagacity profound and far-seeing; he supported good and evil
fortune with equal dignity ; and his fall was on both occasions due
to revolutions beyond his control. In erudition, literary power,
and force and versatility of intellect he far surpassed every contem-
porary.

The most important of the works of Photius is his renowned
Bibliotheca or Myriobiblon (ed. I. Bekker, 1824-1825), a collection
of extracts from and abridgments of 280 volumes of classical authors
(usually cited as Codices), the originals of which are now to a great
extent lost. The work is specially rich in extracts from historical
writers. To Photius we are indebted for almost all we possess of
Ctesias, Memnon, Conon, the lost books of Diodorus Siculus, and the
lost writings of Arrian. Theology and ecclesiastical history are also
very futty represented, but poetry and ancient philosophy are almost
entirely ignored. It seems that he did not think it necessary to deal
with those authors with whom every well-educated man would
naturally be familiar. The literary criticisms, generally distin-
guished by keen and independent judgment, and the excerpts,
vary considerably in length. The numerous biographical notices
are probably taken from the work of Hesychius of Miletus. Thet
Lexicon (AQtoir Xvpaywyii), published later than the Bibliotheca, was
probably in the main the work of some of his pupils. It was intended
as a book of reference to facilitate the reading of old classical and
sacred authors, whose language and vocabulary were out of date.
The only MS. of the Lexicon is the Codex Galeanus, formerly in the
possession of Thomas Gale (q.v.), and now in the library of Trinity
College, Cambridge (ed. S. A. Naber, 1864, with introduction on the
authorities, critical commentary, and valuable indexes). His most
important theological work is the Amphilochia, a collection o( some
300 questions and answers on difficult points in Scripture, addressed
to Amphilochius, archbishop of Cyzicus (ed. Sophocles Oeconomus,
Athens, 1858). Other similar works are his treatise in four boohs

4 8 4

PHOTOCHEMISTRY

against the Manichaeans and Paulicians, and his controversy with
the Latins on the Procession of the Holy Spirit. His Epistles,
political and private, addressed to high church and state dignitaries,
are valuable for the light they throw upon the character and ver-
satility of the writer (ed. J. Valettas, London, 1864). A large
number of his speeches and homilies have been edited by S.
Aristarches (1900). The only complete edition is Bishop Malou's
in Migne's Patrologia graeca, ci.-cv. R. Reifzenstein (Der Anfang
des Lexikons des Photius, 1907) has published a hitherto unedited
MS. containing numerous fragments from various verse and prose
authors.

After the allusions in his own writings the chief contemporary
authority for the life of Photius is his bitter enemy, Nicetas the
Paphlagonian, the biographer of his rival Ignatius. The standard
modern work is that of Cardinal Hergenrother, Photius, Patriarch
von Constantinopel (1867-1869). As a dignitary of the Roman
Catholic Church, Cardinal Hergenrother is inevitably biased against
Photius as an ecclesiastic, but his natural candour and sympathy
with intellectual eminence have made him just to the man.
■ See also article by F. Kattenbusch in Herzog-Hauck's Real-
encyklopddie fur protestantische Theologie (1904), containing full
bibliographical details; J. A. Fabricius, Bibliotheca graeca, x. 670-
776, xi. 1-37 ; C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur,
PP- 73~79. 5 I 5~5 2 4 ( 2n d ed., 1897) ; J. E. Sandys, History of Classical
Scholarship (2nd ed., 1906).

PHOTOCHEMISTRY (Gr. <£&, light, and " chemistry "), in
the widest sense, the branch of chemical science which deals
with the optical properties of substances and their relations to
chemical constitution and reactions; in the narrower sense it is
concerned with the action of light on chemical change. The
first definition includes such subjects as refractive and dispersive
power, colour, fluorescence, phosphorescence, optical isomerism,
spectroscopy, &c— subjects which are treated under other
headings ; here we oL*y discuss the subject matter of the narrower
definition.

Probably the earliest photochemical investigations were
associated with the darkening of certain silver salts under the
action of light, processes which were subsequently utilized in
photography (q.v.). At the same time, however, it had been
observed that other chemical changes were regulated by the
access of light; and the first complete study of such a problem
was made by J. W. Draper in 1843, who investigated the combi-
nation of hydrogen and chlorine to form hydrochloric acid, a
reaction which had been previously studied by Gay-Lussac and
Thenard. Draper concluded that the first action of sunlight
consisted in producing an allotrope of chlorine, which sub-
sequently combined with the hydrogen. This was denied by
Bunsen and Roscoe in 1857; and in 1887 Pringsheim suggested
that the reaction proceeded in two stages : H 2 + Cl 2 = C1 2 + H 2 ,
2H 2 -r-Cl 2 = H 2 0-r-2HCl. This view demands the presence of
water vapour (H. B. Baker showed that the perfectly dry gases
would not combine), and also explains the period which elapses
before the reaction commenced (the " photochemical induction "
of Bunsen and Roscoe) as taken up by the formation of the
chlorine monoxide necessary to the second part of the reaction.
The decomposition of hydriodic acid into hydrogen and iodine
was studied by Lemoine in 1877, who found that 80% decom-
posed after a month's exposure; he also observed that the reac-
tion proceeded quicker in blue vessels than in red. A broader
investigation was published by P. L. Chastaing in 1878, who
found that the red rays generally oxidized inorganic compounds,
whilst the violet reduces them, and that with organic conjpounds
the action was entirely oxidizing. These and other reactions
suggested the making of actinometers, or instruments for
measuring the actinic effect of light waves. The most important
employ silver salts; Eder developed a form based on the
reaction between mercuric chloride and ammonium oxalate:
2HgCl 2 + (NH4) 2 C 2 04=2HgCl+2NH 4 Cl-r-2C0 2 , the extent
of the decomposition being determined by the amount; of
mercurous chloride or carbon dioxide liberated.

The article Photography (q.v.) deals with early investigations
on the chemical action of light, and we may proceed here to
modern work on organic compounds. That sunlight accelerates
the action of the halogens, chlorine and bromine, on such com-
pounds, is well known. John Davy obtained phosgene, COCl 2 ,
by the direct combination of chlorine and carbon monoxide in
sunlight (see Weigert, Ann. d. Phys., 1907 (iv.), 24, p. 55);

chlorine combines with half its volume of methane explosively
in sunlight, whilst in diffused light it substitutes; with toluene
it gives benzyl chloride, C 6 H 6 CH 2 C1, in sunlight, and chlortoluene,
C6H4(CH) 3 C1, in the dark; with benzene it gives an addition
product, C6H 6 C1 6 , in sunlight, and substitutes in the dark.
Bromine deports itself similarly, substituting and forming
addition products with unsaturated compounds more readily
in sunlight. Sometimes isomerization may occur; for instance,
Wislicenus found that angelic acid gave dibromangelic acid in
the dark, and dibromtiglic acid in sunlight. Many substances
decompose when exposed to sunlight; for example, alkyl iodides
darken, owing to the liberation of iodine; aliphatic acids (especi-
ally dibasic) in the presence of uranic oxide lose carbon dioxide;
polyhydric alcohols give products identical with those produced
by fermentation; whilst aliphatic ketones give a hydrocarbon
and an acid.

Among aromatic compounds, benzaldehyde gives a trimeric
and tetrameric benzaldehyde, benzoic acid and hydrobenzoin
(G. L. Ciamician and P. Silber, Atti. R. Accad, Lincei, 1909);
in alcoholic solution it gives hydrobenzoin; whilst with nitro-
benzene it is oxidized to benzoic acid, the nitrobenzene suffering
reduction to nitrosobenzene and phenyl-/3-hydroxylamine ; the
latter isomerizes to ortho- and para-aminophenol, which, in
turn, combine with the previously formed benzoic acid. Simi-
larly acetophenone and benzophenone in alcoholic solution give
dimethylhydrobenzoin and benzopinacone. With nitro com-
pounds Sach and Hilbert concluded that those containing a
•CH- side group in the ortho position to the -N0 2 group were
decomposed by light. For example, ortho-nitrobenzaldehyde in
alcoholic solution gives nitrosobenzoic ester and 22' azoxybenzoic
acid, with the intermediate formation of nitrobenzaldehyde-
diethylacetal, N0 2 -C 6 H 4 -CH(OC 2 H 6 ) 2 (E. Bamberger and F.
Elgar, Ann. 1910, 371, p. 319). Bamberger also investigated
nitrosobenzene, obtaining azoxybenzene as chief product,
together with various azo compounds, nitrobenzene, aniline,
hydroquinone and a resin.

For the photochemistry of diazo derivatives see Ruff and Stein,
Ber., 1961, 34, p. 1668, and of the terpenes see G. L. Ciamician and
P. Silber, Ber., 1907 and 1908.

Light is also powerful in producing isomerization and poly-
merization. Isomerization chiefly appears in the formation
of stable stereo-isomers from the labile forms, and more rarely
in inducing real isomerization or phototropy (Marckwald, 1899).
As examples we may notice the observation of Chattaway (Journ.
Chem. Soc. 1906, 89, p. 462) that many phenylhydrazones
(yellow) change into azo compounds (red), of M. Padoa and F.
Graziani (Atti. R. Accad. Lincei, 1909) on the /3-naphthylhydra-
zones (the a-compounds are not phototropic), and of A. Senier
and F. G. Shepheard (Journ. Chem. Soc, 1909, 95, p. 1943) on
the arylidene- and naphthylidene-amines, which change from
yellow to orange on exposure to sunlight. Light need not act
in the same direction as heat (changes due to heat may be
termed thcrmotropic). For example, heat changes the a form of
benzyl-/3-aminocrotonic ester into the /3 form, whereas light
reverses this; similarly heat and light have reverse actions with
a5-diphenyl ethylene, CH 2 :C(C6H 5 ) 2 (R. Stoermer, Ber., 1909, 42,
p. 4865); the change, however, is in the same direction with
Senier and Shepheard's compounds. With regard to polymeri-
zation we may notice the production of benzene derivatives
from acetylene and its homologues, and of tetramethylenes
from the defines.

Theory of Photochemical Action. — Although much work has
been done in the qualitative and quantitative study of photo-
chemical reactions relatively little attention has been given to
the theoretical explanation of these phenomena. That the
solution was to be found in an analogy to electrolysis was
suggested by Grotthuss in 1818, who laid down: (1) only those
rays which are absorbed can produce chemical change, (2) the
action of the light is analogous to that of a voltaic cell; and he
regarded light as made up of positive and negative electricity.
The first principle received early acceptance; but the develop-
ment of the second is due to W. D. Bancroft who, in a series of

PHOTOGRAPHY

48.5

papers in the Journal of Physical Chemistry for 1908 and 1909,
has applied it generally to the reactions under consideration.
Any electrolytic action demands a certain minimum electro-
motive force; this, however, can be diminished by suitable
depolarizers, which generally act by combining with a product
of the decomposition. Similarly, in some photochemical
reactions the low electromotive force of the light is sufficient to
induce decomposition, but in other cases a depolarizer must be
present. For example, ferric chloride in aqueous solution is
unchanged by light, but in alcoholic solution reduction to ferrous
chloride occurs, the liberated chlorine combining with the
alcohol. In the same way Bancroft showed that the solvent
media employed in photographic plates act as depolarizers.
The same theory explains the action of sensitizers, which may
act optically or chemically. In the first case they are substances
having selective absorption, and hence alter the sensitivity of
the system to certain rays. In the second case there are no
strong absorption bands, and the substances act by combining
with the decomposition products. Bancroft applied his theory
to the explanation of photochemical oxidation, and also to the
chlorination and bromination of hydrocarbons. In the latter
case it is supposed that the halogen produces ions; if the positive
ions are in excess side chains are substituted, if the negative the
nucleus.

Standard treatises are: J. M. Eder, Handbuch der Photographie,
vol. i. pt. 2 (1006) ; H. VV. Vogel, Photochemie (1906). An account of
the action of light on organic compounds is given in A. W. Stewart,
Recent Advances in Organic Chemistry (1908).

PHOTOGRAPHY (Gr. <£&, light, and ypafaiv, to write),
the science and art of producing pictures by the action of light
on chemically prepared (sensitized) plates or films.

History.
It would be somewhat difficult to fix a date when what we now
know as " photographic action " was first recorded. No doubt
the tanning of the skin by the sun's rays was what was first
noticed, and this is as truly the effect of solar radiation as is
the darkening of the sensitive paper which is now in use in
photographic printing operations. We may take it that K. W.
Scheele was the first to investigate the darkening action of
sunlight on silver chloride. He found that when silver chloride
was exposed to the action of light beneath water there was
dissolved in the fluid a substance which, on the addition of
lunar caustic (silver nitrate), caused the precipitation of new
silver chloride, and that on applying a solution of ammonia to
the blackened chloride an insoluble residue of metallic silver was
left behind. He also noticed that of the rays of the spectrum
the violet most readily blackened the silver chloride. In Scheele,
then, we have the first who applied combined chemical and
spectrum analysis to the science of photography. In 1782
J. Senebier repeated Scheele's experiments, and found that in
fifteen seconds the violet rays blackened silver chloride as much
as the red rays did in twenty minutes. 1 In 1798 Count Rumford
contributed a paper to the Philosophical Transactions entitled
" An inquiry concerning the chemical properties that have
been attributed to light," in which he tried to demonstrate that
all effects produced on metallic solution could be brought about
by a temperature somewhat less than that of boiling water.
Robert Harrup in 1802, however, conclusively showed in
Nicholson's Journal that, at all events, salts of mercury were
reduced by visible radiation and not by change of temperature.
In 1 801 we come to the next decided step in the study of
photographic action, when Johann Wilhelm Ritter (1 776-1810)
proved the existence of rays lying beyond the violet, and found
that they had the power of blackening silver chloride. Such a
discovery naturally gave a direction to the investigations of
others, and Thomas Johann Seebeck (1770-1831) (between
i8o2andi8o8) and, in 181 2, Jacques Etienne Berard (1789-1869)
turned their attention to this particular subject, eliciting valuable
information. We need only mention two or three other cases

1 It may here be remarked that had he used a pure spectrum he
would have found that the red rays did not blacken the material
in the slightest degree.

where the influence of light was noticed at the beginning of the
19th century. William Hyde Wollaston observed the conversion
of yellow gum guaiacum into a green tint by the violet rays, and
the restoration of the colour by the red rays — both of which are
the effect of absorption of light, the original yellow colour of
the gum absorbing the violet rays, whilst the green colour to
which it is changed absorbs the red rays. Sir Humphry Davy
found that puce-coloured lead oxide, when damp, became red
in the red rays, whilst it blackened in the violet rays, and that
the green mercury oxide became red in the red rays — again
an example of the necessity of absorption to effect a molecular
or chemical change in a substance. U. R. T. Le Bouvier
Desmorties in 1801 observed the change effected in Prussian
blue, and Carl Wilhelm Bockman noted the action of the two
ends of the spectrum on phosphorus, a research which John
William Draper extended farther in America at a later date. 1.

To England belongs the honour of first producing a photo-
graph by utilizing Scheele's observations on silver chloride.
In June 1802 Thomas Wedgwood (1771-1805) published in the
Journal of the Royal Institution the paper — " An account of a
method of copying paintings upon glass and of making profiles
by the agency of light upon nitrate of silver, with observations
by H. Davy." He remarks that white paper or white leather
moistened with a solution of silver nitrate undergoes no change
when kept in a dark place, but on being exposed to the daylight
it speedily changes colour, and, after passing through various
shades of grey and brown, becomes at length nearly black. The
alteration of colour takes place more speedily in proportion as
the light is more intense.

" In the direct beam of the sun two or three minutes are sufficient
to produce the full effect, in the shade several hours are required,
and light transmitted through different-coloured glasses acts upon
it with different degrees of intensity. Thus it is found that red
rays, or the common sunbeams passed through red glass, have very
little action upon it ; yellow and green are more efficacious, but blue
and violet light produce the most decided and powerful effects."

Wedgwood goes on to describe the method of using this
prepared paper by throwing shadows on it, and inferentially
by what we now call " contact printing." He states that he has
been unable to fix his prints, no washing being sufficient to
eliminate the traces of the silver salt which occupied the unex-
posed or shaded portions. Davy in a note states that he has
found that, though the images formed by an ordinary camera
obscura were too faint to print out in the solar microscope, the
images of small objects could easily be copied on such paper.

" In comparing the effects produced by light upon muriate of
silver (silver chloride) with those upon the nitrate it seemed evident
that the muriate was the more susceptible, and both were more
readily acted upon when moist than when dry — a fact long ago known.
Even in the twilight the colour of the moist muriate of silver, spread
upon paper, slowly changed from white to faint violet ; though under
similar circumstances no intermediate alteration was produced
upon the nitrate. . . . Nothing but a method of preventing the
unshaded parts of the delineations from being coloured by exposure
to the day is wanting to render this process as useful as it is elegant."

In this method of preparing the paper lies the germ of the
silver-printing processes of modern times, and it was only by the
spread of chemical knowledge that the hiatus which was to render
the " process as useful as it is elegant " was filled up — when
sodium thiosulphate (hyposulphite of soda), discovered by
Francois Chaussier in 1799, or three years before Wedgwood
published his paper, was used for making the print permanent.
Here we must call attention to an important observation by
Seebeck of Jena in 1810. In the Farbenlehre of Goethe he says: —

" When a spectrum produced by a properly constructed prism is
thrown upon moist chloride of silver paper, if the printing be con-
tinued for from fifteen to twenty minutes, whilst a constant position
for the spectrum is maintained by any means, I observe the following.
In the violet the chloride is a reddish brown (sometimes more violet,
sometimes more blue), and this coloration extends well beyond the
limit of the violet; in the blue the chloride takes a clear blue tint,
which fades away, becoming lighter in the green. In the yellow
I usually found the chloride unaltered ; sometimes, however, it had a
light yellow tint ; in the red and beyond the red it took a rose or lilac
tint. This image of the spectrum shows beyond the red and the
violet a region more or less light and uncoloured. This is how the
decomposition of the silver chloride is seen in this region. Beyond

4-86

PHOTOGRAPHY

[HISTORY

the brown band, . . . which was produced in the violet, the silver
chloride was coloured a grey-violet for a distanceof several inches.
In proportion as the distance from the violet increased, the tint
became lighter. Beyond the red, on the contrary, the chloride
took a feeble red tint for a considerable distance. When moist
chloride of silver, having received the action of light for a time,
is exposed to the spectrum, the blue and violet behave as above.
In the yellow and red regions, on the other hand, it is found
that the silver chloride becomes paler; . . . the parts acted upon
by the red rays and by those beyond take a light coloration."

This has been brought forward by J. M. Eder as being the first
record we have of photographic action lending itself to production
of natural colours. This observation of Seebeck was allowed to
lie fallow for many years, until it was again taken up and
published as a novelty.

The first to found a process of photography which gave
pictures that were subsequently unaffected by light was Nice-
phore de Niepce. His process, which he called provisionally
" heliographie, dessins, et gravures," consists in coating the
surface of a metallic plate with a solution of asphaltum in oil
of lavender and exposing it to a camera image. He recommends
that the asphaltum be powdered and the oil of lavender dropped
upon it in a wine-glass, and that it be then gently heated. A
polished plate is covered with this varnish, and, when dried, is
ready for employment in the camera. After requisite exposure,
which is very long indeed, a very faint image, requiring develop-
ment, is seen. Development is effected by diluting oil of
lavender with ten parts by volume of white petroleum. After
this mixture has been allowed to stand two or three days it
becomes clear and is ready to be used. The plate is placed in a
dish and covered with the solvent. By degrees the parts
unaffected by light dissolve away, and the picture, formed of
modified asphaltum, is developed. The plate is then lifted from
the dish, allowed to drain, and finally freed from the remaining
solvents by washing in water. Subsequently, instead of using
oil of lavender as the asphaltum solvent, Niepce employed an
animal oil, which gave a deeper colour and more tenacity to the
surface-film.

Later, Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre (1780-1851) and Niepce
used as a solvent the brittle residue obtained from evaporating
the oil of lavender dissolved in ether or alcohol — a transparent
solution of a lemon-yellow colour being formed. This solution
was used for covering glass or silver plates, which, when dried,
could be used in the camera. The time of exposure varied
somewhat in length. Daguerre remarked that "the time
required to procure a photographic copy of a landscape is from
seven to eight hours, but single monuments, when strongly
lighted by the sun, or which are themselves very bright, can be
taken in about three hours." Perhaps there is no sentence that
illustrates more forcibly the advance made in photography from
the days when this process was described. The ratio of three
hours to T^T tn of a second is a fair estimate of the progress made
since Niepce. The development was conducted by means of
petroleum-vapour, which dissolved the parts not acted upon by
light. As a rule silver plates seem to have been used, and
occasionally glass; but it does not appear whether the latter
material was chosen because an image would be projected
through it or whether simply for the sake of effect. Viewed in
the light of present knowledge, a more perfectly developable
image in half-tone would be obtained by exposing the film
through the back of the glass. The action of light on most
organic matter is apparently one of oxidation. In the case of
asphaltum or bitumen of Judaea the oxidation causes a hardening
of the material and an insolubility in the usual solvents. Hence
that surface of the film is generally hardened first which first
feels the influence of light. Where half-tones exist, as in a
landscape picture, the film remote from the surface first receiving
the image is not acted upon at all, and remains soluble in the
solvent. It is thus readily seen that, in the case of half-tone
pictures, or even in copying engravings, if the action were not
continued sufficiently long when the surface of the film farthest
from the glass was first acted upon, the layer next the glass would
in some places remain soluble, and on development would be
dissolved away, carrying the top layer of hardened resinous

matter with it, and thus give rise to imperfect pictures. In
carbon-printing development from the back of the exposed film
is absolutely essential, since it depends on the same principles
as does heliography, and in this the same mode of procedure is
advisable.

It would appear that Niepce began his researches as early as
1814, but it was not till 1827 that he had any success worth recount-
ing. At that date he communicated a paper to Dr Bauer of Kew,
the secretary of the Royal Society of London, with a view to its
presentation to that society. Its publication, however, was pre-
vented because the process, of which examples were shown, was a
secret one. In an authentic MS. copy of Niepce's " Memoire,"
dated " Kew, le 8 Decembre 1827," he says that "in his framed
drawings made on tin the tone is too feeble, but that by the use of
chemical agents the tone may be darkened." This shows that
Niepce was familiar with the idea of using some darkening medium
even with his photographs taken on tin plates.

Daguerreotype. — We have noticed in the joint process of
Daguerre and Niepce that polished silver plates were used, and
we know from the latter that amongst the chemical agents tried
iodine suggested itself. Iodine vapour or solution applied to a
silvered plate would cause the formation of silver iodide on those
parts not acted upon by light. The removal of the resinous
picture would leave an image formed of metallic silver, whilst
the black parts of the original would be represented by the darker
silver iodide. This was probably the origin of the daguerreotype
process. Such observers as Niepce and Daguerre, who had
formed a partnership for prosecuting their researches, would
not have thus formed silver iodide without noticing that it
changed in colour when exposed to the light. What parts
respectively Daguerre and Niepce played in the development
of the daguerreotype will probably never be known with
absolute accuracy, but in a letter from Dr Bauer to Dr J. J.
Bennett, F.R.S., dated the 7th of May 1830, the former says: —

"I received a very interesting letter from Mons. Isidore Niepce,
dated 12th March [about a month after the publication of the
daguerreotype process], and that letter fully confirms what I sus-
pected of Daguerre's manoeuvres with poor Nicephore, but Mr
Isidore observes that for the present that letter might be considered
confidential."

Dr Bauer evidently knew more of " poor Nicephore's " work
than most people, and at that early period he clearly thought
that an injustice had been done to Niepce at the hands of
Daguerre. It should be remarked that Nicephore de Niepce
died in 1833, and a new agreement was entered into between
his son Isidore de Niepce and Daguerre to continue the prosecu-
tion of their researches. It appears further that Niepce com-
municated his process to Daguerre on the 5th of December 1820.
At his death some letters from Daguerre and others were left
by him in which iodine, sulphur, phosphorus, &c, are
mentioned as having been used on the metal plates, and their
sensitiveness to light, when thus treated, commented upon.
We are thus led to believe that a great part of the success in
producing the daguerreotype is due to the elder Niepce; and
indeed.it must have been thought so at the time, since, on the
publication of the process, life-pensions of 6000 francs and 4000
francs were given to Daguerre and to Isidore Niepce respectively.
In point of chronology the publication of the discovery of the
daguerreotype process was made subsequently to the Talbot-
type process. It will, however, be convenient to continue the
history of the daguerreotype, premising that it was published on
the 6th of February 1839, whilst Talbot's process was given to
the world on the 25th of January of the same year.

Daguerreotype pictures were originally taken on silver-plated
copper, and even now the silvered surface thus prepared serves
better than electro-deposited silver of any thickness. An outline
of the operations is as follows. A brightly-polished silver plate is
cleaned by finely-powdered pumice and olive oil, and then by
dilute nitric acid, and a soft buff is employed to give it a brilliant
polish, the slightest trace of foreign matter or stain being fatal to
the production of a perfect picture. The plate, thus prepared, is
ready for the iodizing operation. Small fragments of iodine are
scattered over a saucer, covered with gauze. Over this the plate
is placed, face downwards, resting on supports, and the vapour
from the iodine is allowed to form upon it a surface of silver iodide.
It is essential to note the colour of the surface-formed iodide at its
several stages, the varying colours being due to interference colours

HISTORY]

PHOTOGRAPHY

487

caused by the different thicknesses of the minutely thin film of
iodide. The stage of maximum sensitiveness is obtained when
it is of a golden orange colour. In this state the plate is withdrawn
and removed to the dark slide of the camera, ready for exposure.
A plan frequently adopted to give an even film of iodide was to
saturate a card with iodine and hold the plate a short distance above
the card. Long exposures were required, varying in Paris from three
to thirty minutes. The length of the exposure was evidently a
matter of judgment, more particularly as over-exposure introduced
an evil which was called " solarization," but which was in reality
due to the oxidation of the iodide by prolonged exposure to light.
As a matter of history it may be remarked that the development
of the image by mercury vapour is said to be due to a chance dis-
covery of Daguerre. It appears that for some time previous to the
publication of the daguerreotype method he had been experimenting
with iodized silver plates, producing images by what would now be
called the "printing out " process. This operation involved so
long an exposure that he sought some means of reducing it by the
application of different reagents. Having on one occasion exposed
such a plate to a camera-image, he accidentally placed it in the dark
in a cupboard containing various chemicals, and found after the
lapse of a night that he had a perfect image developed. By the
process of exhaustion he arrived at the fact that it was the mercury
vapour, which even at ordinary temperatures volatilizes, that had
caused this intensification of the almost invisible camera-image.
It was this discovery that enabled the exposures to be very consider-
ably shortened from those which it was found necessary to give in
mere camera-printing.

The development of the image was effected by placing the exposed
plate over a slightly heated (about 75 C.) cup of mercury. The
vapour of mercury condensed on those places where the light had
acted in an almost exact ratio to the intensity of its action. This
produced a picture in an amalgam, the vapour of which attached
itself to the altered silver iodide. Proof that such was the case
was subsequently afforded by the fact that the mercurial image
could be removed by heat. The developing box was so constructed
that it was possible to examine the picture through a yellow glass
window whilst the image was being brought out. The next opera-
tion was to fix the picture by dipping it in a solution of hyposulphite
of soda. The image produced by this method is so delicate that it
will not bear the slightest handling, and has to be protected from
accidental touching.

The first great improvement in the daguerreotype process
was the resensitizing of the iodized film by bromine vapour.
John Frederick Goddard published his account of the use of
bromine in conjunction with iodine in 1840, and A. F. J. Claudet
(1797-1867) employed a combination of iodine and chlorine
vapottr in 1841. In 1844 Daguerre published his improved
method of preparing the plates, which is in reality based on the
use of bromine with iodine. That this addition points to
additional sensitiveness will be readily understood when we
remark that so-called instantaneous pictures of yachts in full
sail, and of large size, have been taken on plates so prepared — a
feat which is utterly impossible with the original process as
described by Daguerre. The next improvement in the process
was toning or gilding the image by a solution of gold, a practice
introduced by H. L. Fizeau. Gold chloride is mixed with
hyposulphite of soda, and the levelled plate, bearing a sufficient
quantity of the fluid, is warmed by a spirit-lamp until the re-
quired vigour is given to the image, as a consequence of which it
is better seen in most lights. Nearly all the daguerreotypes
extant have been treated in this manner, and no doubt their
permanence is in a great measure due to this operation. Images
of this class can be copied by taking electrotypes from them,
as shown by Sir W. R. Grove and others. These reproductions
are admirable in every way, and furnish a proof that the
daguerrean image is a relief.

Fox-Talbot Process. — In January 1839 Fox Talbot described
the first of his processes, photogenic drawing, in a paper to the
Royal Society. He states that he began experimenting in 1834,
and that in the solar microscope he obtained an outline of the
object to be depicted in full sunshine in half a second. He
published in the Philosophical Magazine full details of his
method, which consisted essentially in soaking paper in common
salt, brushing one side only of it with about a 12% solution of
silver nitrate in water, and drying at the fire. Fox Talbot
stated that by repeating the alternate washes of the silver and
salt— always ending, however, with the former — greater sensi-
tiveness was attained. This is the same in every respect as the
method practised by Wedgwood in 1802; but, when we come

to the next process, which he called " calotype " or " beautiful
picture," we have a distinct advance. This process Talbot
protected by a patent in 1841.

It may be briefly described as the application of silver iodide to a
paper support. Carefully selected paper was brushed over with a
solution of silver nitrate (100 grains to the ounce of distilled water),
and dried by the fire. It was then dipped into a solution of potas-
sium iodide (500 grains being dissolved in a pint of water), where it
was allowed to stay two or three minutes until silver iodide was
formed. In this state the iodide is scarcely sensitive to light, but
is sensitized by brushing " gallo-nitrate of silver " over the surface
to which the silver nitrate had been first applied. This "gallo-
nitrate " is merely a mixture, consisting of 100 grains of silver nitrate
dissolved in 2 oz. of water, to which is added one-sixth of its volume
of acetic acid, and immediately before applying to the paper an equal
bulk of a saturated solution of gallic acid in water. The prepared
surface is then ready for exposure in the camera, and, after a short
insolation, develops itself in the dark, or the development may be
hastened by a fresh application of the " gallo-nitrate of silver." The
picture is then fixed by washing it in clean water and drying slightly
in blotting paper, after which it is treated with a solution of potas-
sium bromide, and again washed and dried. Here there is no mention
made of hyposulphite of soda as a fixing agent, that having been
first used by Sir J. Herschel in February 1840.

In a strictly historical notice it ought to be mentioned that
development by means of gallic acid and silver nitrate was first
known to Rev. J. B. Reade. When impressing images in the solar
microscope he employed gallic acid and silver in order to render
more sensitive the silver chloride paper that he was using, and he
accidentally found that the image could be developed without the
aid of light. The priority of the discovery was claimed by Fox
Talbot; and his claim was sustained after a lawsuit, apparently on
the ground that Reade's method had never been legally published.
Talbot afterwards made many slight improvements in the process.
In one of his patents he recognizes the value of the proper fixing of
his photogenic drawings by hyposulphite of soda, and also the
production of positive prints from the calotype negatives. We
pass over his application of albumen to porcelain and its subsequent
treatment with iodine vapour, as also his application of albumen
in which silver iodide was held in suspension to a glass plate, since
in this he was preceded by Niepce de St Victor in 1848.

Albumen Process on Glass. — It was a decided advance when
Niepce de St Victor, a nephew of Nicephore de Niepce, employed
a glass plate and coated it with iodized albumen. The originator
of this method did not meet with much success. In the hands
of Blanquart fivrard it became more practicable; but it was
carried out in its greatest perfection by G. Le Gray.

The outline of the operations is as follows: The whites of five
fresh eggs are mixed with about one hundred grains of potassium
iodide, about twenty grains of potassium bromide and ten grains
of common salt. The mixture is beaten up into a froth and allowed
to settle for twenty-four hours, when the clear liquid is decanted off.
A circular pool of albumen is poured on a glass plate, and a straight
ruler (its ends being wrapped with waxed paper to prevent its edge
from touching the plate anywhere except at the margins) is drawn
over the plate, sweeping off the excess of albumen, and so leaving
an even film. The plate is first allowed to dry spontaneously, a
final heating being given to it in an oven or before the fire. The heat
hardens the albumen, and it becomes insoluble and ready for the
silver nitrate bath. One of the difficulties, is to prevent crystalliza-
tion of the salts held in solution, and this can only be effected by
keeping them in defect rather than in excess. The plate is sensitized
for five minutes in a bath of silver nitrate, acidified with acetic acid,
and exposed whilst still wet, or it may be slightly washed and again
dried and exposed whilst in its desiccated state. The image is
developed by gallic acid in the usual way.

After the application of albumen many ' modifications were
introduced in the shape of starch, serum of milk, gelatin, all of
which were intended to hold iodide in situ on the plate; and the
development in every case seems to have been by gallic acid.
At one time the waxed-paper process subsequently introduced
by Le Gray was a great favourite. Paper that had been made
translucent by white wax was immersed in a solution of potas-
sium iodide until impregnated with it, after which it was sensi-
tized in the usual way, development being by gallic acid. In
images obtained by this process the high lights are represented
by metallic silver, whilst the shadows are translucent. Such a
print is called a " negative." When silver chloride paper is
darkened by the passage of light through a negative, we get the
highest lights represented by white paper and the shadows by
darkened chloride. A print of this kind is called a " positive."

Collodion Process. .— - A great impetus was given to photography

4 88

PHOTOGRAPHY

[HISTORY

in 1850, on the introduction of collodion (q.v.), a very convenient
vehicle on account of the facility with which the plates are
prepared, and also because it is a substance as a rule totally
unaffected by silver nitrate, which is not the case with other
organic substances. Thus albumen forms a definite silver
compound, as do gelatin, starch and gum. The employment of
collodion was first suggested by Le Gray, but it remained for
Frederick Scott Archer of London, closely followed by P. W. Fry,
to make a really practical use of the discovery. When collodion is
poured on a glass plate it leaves on drying a hard transparent
film which under the microscope is slightly reticulated. Before
drying, the film is gelatinous and perfectly adapted for holding
in situ salts soluble in ether and alcohol. Where such salU
are present they crystallize out when the film is dried, hence
such a film is only suitable where the plates are ready to be
immersed in the silver bath. As a rule, about five grains of the
soluble gun-cotton are dissolved in an ounce of a mixture of
equal parts of ether and alcohol, both of which must be of low
specific gravity, -723 and -805 respectively. If the alcohol or
ether be much diluted with water the gun-cotton (pyroxylin)
precipitates, but, even if less diluted, it forms a film which is
" crapey " and uneven. Such was the material which Le Gray
proposed and which Archer brought into practical use. The
opaque silver plate with its one impression was abandoned; and
the paper support of Talbot,. with its inequalities of grain and
thickness, followed suit, though not immediately. When once
a negative had been obtained with collodion on a glass plate —
the image showing high lights by almost complete opacity and
the shadows by transparency (as was the case, too, in the calotype
process) — any number of impressions could be obtained by means
of the silver-printing process introduced by Fox Talbot, and they
were found to possess a delicacy and refinement of detail that
certainly eclipsed the finest print obtained from a calotype
negative. To any one who had practised the somewhat tedious
calotype process, or the waxed-paper process of Le Gray with
its still longer preparation and development, the advent of the
collodion method must have been extremely welcome, since it
effected a saving in time, money and uncertainty. The rapidity
of photographic action was much increased, and the production
of a different character of pictures thus became possible.

We give an outline of the procedure. A glass plate is carefully
cleaned by a detergent such as a cream of tripoli powder and spirits
of wine (to which a little ammonia is often added), then wiped with a
soft rag, and finally polished with a silk handkerchief or chamois
leather. A collodion containing soluble iodides and bromides is made
to flow over the plate, all excess being drained off when it is covered.
A good standard formula for the collodion is — 55 grains of pyroxylin,
5 oz. of alcohol, 5 oz. of ether; and in this liquid are dissolved 2 J
grains of ammonium iodide, 2 grains of cadmium iodide and 2 grains
of cadmium bromide. When the collodion is set the plate is
immersed in a bath of silver nitrate — a vertical form being that
mostly used in England, whilst a horizontal dish is used on the con-
tinent of Europe — a good formula for which is 350 grains of silver
nitrate with 10 oz. of water. The plate is steadily lowered into this
solution, and moved in it until all the repellent action between the
aqueous solution of the silver and the solvents of the collodion is
removed, when it is allowed to rest for a couple of minutes, after
which period it is taken out and placed in the dark slide ready for
exposure in the camera. After undergoing proper exposure the plate
is withdrawn, and in a room lighted with yellow light the developing
solution is applied, which originally was a solution of pyrogallic
acid in water restrained in its action by the addition of acetic acid.
One of the old formulae employed by P. H. Delamotte was 9 grains
of pyrogallic acid, 2 drachms of glacial acetic acid and 3 oz. of
water. The image gradually appears after the application of this
solution, building itself up from the silver nitrate clinging to the film,
which is reduced to the metallic state by degrees. Should the
density be insufficient a few drops of silver nitrate are added to the
pryogallic acid solution and the developing action continued.

In 1844 Robert Hunt introduced another reducing agent, which
is still the favourite, viz. ferrous sulphate. By its use the time of
necessary exposure of the plate is reduced and the image develops
with great rapidity. A sample of this developing solution is 20
grains of ferrous sulphate, 20 minims of acetic acid, with 1 oz. of
water. This often leaves the image thinner than is requisite for
the formation of a good print, and it is intensified with pyrogallic
acid and silver. Other intensifiers are used to increase the deposit
on a plate by means of mercury or uranium, followed by other
solutions to still further darken the double salts formed on the film.

Such intensifying agents have to be applied to the image after the
plate is fixed, which is done by a concentrated solution of hypo-
sulphite of soda or by potassium cyanide, the latter salt having been
first introduced by Martin and Marc Antoine Augustin Gaudin in
1853 (La Lumiere, April 23, 1853). Twenty-five grains of potassium
cyanide to one ounce of water is the strength of the solution usually
employed. The reaction of both these fixing agents is to form with
the sensitive salts of silver double hyposulphites or cyanides, which
are soluble in water and salt. The utility of bromides in the collodion
process seems to have been recognized in its earliest days, Scott
Archer (1852) and R. J. Bingham (1850) both mentioning it. We
notice this, since as late as 1866 a patent-right in its use was sought
to be enforced in America, the patent being taken, out by James
Cutting in July 1854.

Positive Pictures by the Collodion Process. — In the infancy
of the collodion process it was shown by Home that a negative
image could be made to assume the appearance of a positive
by whitening the metallic silver deposit. This he effected by
using with the pyrogallic acid developer a small quantity of
nitric acid. A better result was obtained by P. W. Fry with
ferrous sulphate and ferrous nitrate, whilst Hugh Diamond gave
effect to the matter in a practical way. F. Scott Archer used
mercuric chloride to whiten the image. To Robert Hunt,
however, must be rewarded the credit of noticing the action of
this salt on the image (Phil. Trans., 1843). The whitened picture
may be made to stand'out against black velvet, or black varnish
may be poured over the film to give the necessary black back-
ground, or, more recently, the positive pictures may be produced
on japanned iron plates (ferrotype plates) or on japanned leather.
This process is still occasionally practised by itinerant photo-
graphers.

Moist Collodion Process. — It is seen that for the successful
working of the collodion process it was necessary that the plate
should be exposed very shortly after its preparation; this was
a drawback, inasmuch as it necessitated taking a heavy equip-
ment into the field. In 1856, Sir William Crookes and J. Spiller
published in the Philosophical Magazine a process whereby they
were enabled to keep a film moist (so as to prevent crystallization
of the silver nitrate) several days, enabling plates to be prepared
at home, exposed in the field, and then developed in the dark
room. The plate was prepared in the usual way and a solution
of zinc nitrate and silver nitrate in water was made to flow over
it. The hygroscopic nature of the zinc salt kept sufficient
moisture on the plate to attain the desired end. Various
modifications in procedure have been made.

Dry Plates. — It would appear that the first experiments with
collodion dry plates were due to Marc Antoine Augustin Gaudin.
In La Lumiere of the 22nd of April and the 27th of May 1854
he describes his researches on the question; whilst in England
G. R. Muirhead, on the 4th of August 1854, stated that
light acts almost as energetically on a dry surface as on a
wet after all the silver has been washed away from the former
previous to desiccation. J. M. Taupenot, however, seems to
have been the first to use a dry-plate process that was really
workable. His original plan was to coat a plate with collodion,
sensitize it in the ordinary manner, wash it, cause a solution of
albumen to flow over the surface, dry it, dip it in a bath of silver
nitrate acidified with acetic acid, and wash and dry it again.
The plate was then in a condition to be exposed, and was to be
developed with pyrogallic acid and silver. In this method we
have a double manipulation, which is long in execution, though
perfectly effective.

A great advance was made in all dry-plate processes by the
introduction of what is known as the " alkaline developer,"
which is, however, inapplicable to all plates on which silver
nitrate is present in the free state. The developers previously
described, either for collodion or paper processes, were dependent
on the reduction of metallic silver by some such agent as ferrous
sulphate, the reduction taking place gradually and the reduced
particles aggregating on those portions of the film which had been
acted upon by light. The action of light being to reduce the
silver iodide, bromide or chloride, these reduced particles really
acted as nuclei for the crystallized metal. It will be evident
that in such a method of development the molecular attraction

HISTORY]

PHOTOGRAPHY

4»9

acts at distances relatively great compared with the diameters
of the molecules themselves. If it were possible to reduce the
altered particles of silver salt it was plain that development would
be more rapid, and also that the number of molecules reduced by
light would be smaller if the metallic silver could be derived from
silver compounds within shorter distances of the centres of
molecular attraction. Alkaline development accomplished this
to a very remarkable extent; but the method is only really
practicable when applied to films containing silver bromide
and chloride, as silver iodide is only slightly amenable to the
alkaline development. The introduction of this developer is
believed to be of American origin; and it is known that in
the year 1862 Major C. Russell used it with the dry plates he
introduced.

An alkaline developer consists of an alkali, a reducing agent
and a restraining agent. These bodies, when combined and applied
to the solid silver bromide or chloride, after being acted upon by
light, were able to reduce the sub-bromide or sub-chloride, and to
build up an image upon it, leaving the unaltered bromide intact,
except so far as it was used in the building up. In 1877 Sir W.
Abney investigated this action. A dry plate was prepared by the
bath process in the usual manner (to be described below), and
exposed in the camera. The exposed film was covered with another
film of collodiobromide emulsion, which of course had not seen the
light. An image was obtained from the double film by means
of the alkaline developer, which penetrated through the upper
unexposed film. The development was prolonged until an image
appeared through the unexposed film, when the plate was fixed,
washed and dried. A piece of gelatinous paper was cemented on
the upper film, and a similar piece on the lower after both had
been stripped off the glass. When quite dry the two papers were
forcibly separated, a film adhering to each. The upper film, although
never exposed to light, showed an image in some cases more intense
than the under film. The action of the alkaline developer was here
manifest : the silver bromide in close contiguity to the exposed
particles was reduced to the metallic state. Hence, from this
and similar experiments, Abney concluded that silver bromide could
not exist in the presence of a freshly precipitated or reduced metallic
silver, and that a sub-bromide was immediately formed. From this
it will be seen that the deposited silver is well within the sphere of
molecular attraction, and that consequently a less exposure (i.e.
the reduction of fewer molecules of the sensitive salt) would give
a developable image.

The alkalis used embraced the alkalis themselves and the
mono-carbonates. The sole reducing agent up till recent times
was pyrogallic acid. In the year 1880 Abney found that
hydroquinone was even more effective than pyrogallic acid, its
reducing power being stronger. Various other experimentalists
tried other kindred substances, but without adding to the list
of really useful agents until recently.

The following are some of the most effective : —

Eikonogen Developer.

Eikonogen 25 parts.

Sodium sulphite .... 50 ,,

Sodium carbonate .... 50 ,,

Potassium bromide .... i ..

Water 1000 ,,

This is a one-solution developer, and acts energetically.

Metol Developer.

Solution A.

Metol 2 parts.

Sodium sulphite 18 ,,

Water 100 „

Solution B.
Sodium carbonate .... 6 parts.

Potassium bromide ... 1 ,,

Water 100

For use, take one part of A to from I to 3 parts of B.

Amidol Developer.

Amidol 3 parts.

Sodium sulphite 100 ,,

Potassium bromide . . . 1 to 3 ,,

Water 1000 ,,

This developer requires no addition of alkali.

Ortol Developer.

Solution A.

Ortol 15 parts.

Sodium metabisulphite . . 7 „

Water 1000 „

Solution B.
Sodium carbonate .... 100 parts.
Sodium sulphite .... 125 ,,

Potassium bromide ... 3 ,,

Water 1000 „

A and B solutions are mixed together in equal proportions.
Besides these, there are several more, such as adurol, glycin,
pyrocatechin, which have been used with more or less success.
They all give a black in lieu of that dark olive-green deposit of
silver which is so often found with pyrogallol developers. All are
alkaline developers, and the image is built up from the sensitive
salt within the film. They are applicable to gelatin or collodion
plates, but for the latter rather more bromide of an alkali is added,
to retard fogging.

Another set of developers for dry plates dependent on the
reduction of the silver bromide and the metallic state is founded
on the fact that certain organic salts of iron can be utilized. In
1877 M. Carey Lea of Philadelphia and William Willis announced
almost simultaneously that a solution of ferrous oxalate in
neutral potassium oxalate was effective as a developer, and from
that time its use has been acknowledged. In 1882 J. M. Eder
demonstrated that gelatino-silver chloride plates could be
developed with ferrous citrate, which could not be so readily
accomplished with ferrous oxalate. The exposure for chloride
plates when developed by the latter was extremely prolonged.
In the same year Abney showed that if ferrous oxalate were
dissolved in potassium citrate a much more powerful agent was
formed, which allowed not only gelatino-chloride plates to be
readily developed but also collodio-chloride plates. These plates
were undevelopable except by the precipitation method until
the advent of the agents last-mentioned owing to the fact that
the chloride was as readily reduced as the sub-chloride.

Amongst the components of an alkaline developer we men-
tioned a restrainer. This factor, generally a bromide or chloride
of an alkali, serves probably to form a compound with the silver
salt which has not been acted upon by light, and which is less
easily reduced than is the silver salt alone — the altered particles
being left intact. The action of the restrainer is regarded by
some as due to its combination with the alkali. But whichever
theory is correct the fact remains that the restrainer does make
the primitive salt less amenable to reduction. Such restrainers
as the bromides of the alkalis act through chemical means;
but there are others which act through physical means, an
example of which we have in the preparation of a gelatin plate.
In this case the gelatin wraps up the particles of the silver
compound in a colloidal sheath, as it were, and the developing
solution only gets at them in a very gradual manner, for the
natural tendency of all such reducing agents is to attack the
particles on which least work has to be expended. In the case
of silver sub-bromide the developer has only to remove one atom
of bromine, whereas it has to remove two in the case of silver
bromide. The sub-bromide formed by light and that sub-
sequently produced in the act of development are therefore
reduced. A large proportion of gelatin compared with the
silver salt in a film enables an alkaline developer to be used
without any chemical restrainer; but when the gelatin bears a
small proportion to the silver such a restrainer has to be used.
With collodion films the particles of bromide are more or less
unenveloped, and hence in this case some kind of chemical
restrainer is absolutely necessary. We may say that the organic
iron developers require less restraining in their action than do
the alkaline developers.

In Major Russell's process the plate was prepared by immersion in
a strong solution of silver nitrate and then washed and a preservative
applied. The last-named agent executes two functions, one being to
absorb the halogen liberated by the action of light and the other
to preserve the film from atmospheric action. Tannin, which Major
Russell employed, if we mistake not, is a good absorbent of the
halogens, and acts as a varnish to the fiim. Other collodion dry-plate
processes carried out by means of the silver-nitrate bath were very
numerous at one time, many different organic bodies being also
employed. In most cases ordinary iodized collodion was made
use of, a small percentage of soluble bromide being as a rule added to
it. When plates were developed by the alkaline method this
extra bromide induced density, since it was the silver bromide alone
which was amenable to it, the icdide being almost entirely unaffected
by the weak developer which was at that time in general use.

49°

PHOTOGRAPHY

[HISTORY

Dry-Plate Bath Process. — One of the most successful bath
dry-plate processes was introduced by R. Manners Gordon.
The plate was given an edging of albumen and then coated with
ordinary iodized collodion to which one grain per ounce of
cadmium bromide had been added. It was kept in the silver-
nitrate bath for ten minutes, after which it was washed
thoroughly. The following preservative was then applied : —

( Gum arabic 20 grs.

1 •< Sugar candy 5 „

( Water 6 dr.

2. S Gallic acid 3 grs.

I Water 2 dr.

These ingredients were mixed just before use and, after
filtering, applied for one minute to the plate, which was allowed
to drain and set up to dry naturally. Great latitude is admissible
in the exposure; it should rarely be less than four times or more
than twenty times that which would be required for a wet plate
under ordinary circumstances. The image may be developed
with ferrous sulphate restrained by a solution of gelatin and
glacial acetic acid, to which a solution of silver nitrate
is added just before application, or by an alkaline developer.

In photographic processes not only has the chemical condition
of the film to be taken into account but also the optical. When
light falls on a semi-opaque or translucent film it is scattered by the
particles in it and passes through the glass plate to the back. Here
the rays are partly transmitted and partly reflected, a very small
quantity of them being absorbed by the material of the glass. Theory
points out that the strongest reflection from the back of the glass
should take place at the " critical " angle. In 1875 Abney investi-
gated the subject and proved that practice agreed with theory in
every respect, and that the image of a point of light in development
on a plate was surrounded by a ring of reduced silver caused by the
reflection of the scattered light from the back surface of the glass,
and that this ring was shaded inwards and outwards in such a manner
that the shading varied with the intensity of the light reflected at
different angles. To avoid " halation," as this phenomenon is
called, it was usual to cover the back of dry plates with some material
which should be in optical contact with it, and as nearly as possible
of the same density as glass, and which at the same time should
absorb all the photographically active rays. This was called
" backing a plate."

Collodion Emulsion Processes. — In 1864 W. B. Bolton and
B. J. Sayce published the germ of a process which revolutionized
photographic manipulations. In the ordinary collodion process
a sensitive film is procured by coating a glass plate with collodion
containing the iodide and bromide of some soluble salt, and then,
when set, immersing it in a solution of silver nitrate in order to
form silver iodide and bromide in the film. The question that
presented itself to Bolton and Sayce was whether it might not
be possible to get the sensitive salts of silver formed in the collo-
dion whilst liquid, and a sensitive film given to a plate by merely
letting this collodion, containing the salts in suspension, flow
over the glass plate. Gaudin had attempted to do this with
silver chloride, and later G. W. Simpson had succeeded in perfect-
ing a printing process with collodion containing silver chloride,
citric acid and silver nitrate; but the chloride until recently has
been considered a slow working salt, and nearly incapable of
development. Up to the time of W. B. Bolton and B. J. Sayce's
experiments silver iodide had been considered the staple of a
sensitive film on which to take negatives; and though bromide
had been used by Major Russell and others, it had not met with
so much favour as to lead to the omission of the iodide. At the
date mentioned the suspension of silver iodide in collodion was
not thought practicable, and the inventors of the process turned
their attention to silver bromide, which they found could be
secured in such a fine state of division that it remained suspended
for a considerable time in collodion, and even when precipitated
could be resuspended by simple agitation. The outline of the
method was to dissolve a soluble bromide in plain collodion, and
add to it drop by drop an alcoholic solution of silver nitrate, the
latter being in excess or defect according to the will of the
operator. To prepare a sensitive surface the collodion contain-
ing the emulsified sensitive salt was poured over a glass plate,
allowed to set> and washed till all the soluble salts resulting from
the double decomposition of the soluble bromide and the silver
nitrate, together with the unaltered soluble bromide or silver

nitrate, were removed, when the film was exposed wet, or
allowed to dry and then exposed. The rapidity of these plates
was not in any way remarkable, but the process had the great
advantage of doing away with the sensitizing nitrate of silver
bath, and thus avoiding a tiresome operation. The plates were
developed by the alkaline method, and gave images which, if
not primarily dense enough, could be intensified by the applica-
tion of pyrogallic acid and silver nitrate as in the wet collodion
process. Such was the crude germ of a method which was
destined to effect a complete change in the aspect of photo-
graphic negative taking 1 ; but for some time it lay dormant. In
fact there was at first much to discourage trial of it, since the
plates often became veiled on development.

M. Carey Lea of Philadelphia, and W. Cooper, jun., of Reading,
may be said to have given the real impetus to the method. Carey
Lea, by introducing an acid into' the emulsion, established a practic-
able collodion emulsion process, which was rapid and at the same time
gave negative pictures free from veil. To secure the rapidity Carey
Lea employed a fair excess of silver nitrate, and Colonel H. Stuart
Wortley gained further rapidity by a still greater increase of it;
the free use of acid was the only means by which this could be
effected without hopelessly spoiling the emulsion. The addition of
the mineral acids such as Carey Lea employed is to prevent the
formation of (or to destroy when formed) any silver sub-bromide
or oxide, either of which acts as a nucleus on which development
can take place. Abney first showed the theoretical effect of acids
on the sub-bromide, as also the effect of oxidizing agents on both
the above compounds (see below). A more valuable modification
was introduced in 1874 by W. B. Bolton, one of the originators of
the process, who allowed the ether and the alcohol of the collodion
to evaporate, and then washed away all the soluble salts from the
gelatinous mass formed of pyroxylin and sensitive salt. After
washing for a considerable time, the pellicle was dried naturally
or washed with alcohol, and then the pyroxylin redissolved in ether
and alcohol, leaving an emulsion of silver bromide, silver chloride
or silver iodide, or mixtures of all suspended in collodion. In this
state the plate could be coated and dried at once for exposure.
Sometimes, in fact generally, preservatives were used, as in the case
of dry plates with the bath, in order to prevent the atmosphere from
rendering the surface of the film spotty or insensitive on develop-
ment. This modification had the great advantage of allowing
a large quantity of sensitive salt to be prepared of precisely the same
value as to rapidity of action and quality of film.

A great advance in the use of the collodion bromide process was
made by Colonel Stuart Wortley, who in June 1873 made known the
powerful nature of a strongly alkaline developer as opposed to the
weak one which up to that time had usually been employed for a
collodion emulsion plate, or indeed for any dry plate.

An example of the preparation of a collodion emulsion and the
developer is the following: 2§ oz. of alcohol, 5 oz. of ether, 75 grains
of pyroxylin. In 1 oz. of alcohol are dissolved 200 grains of zinc
bromide 2 ; it is then acidulated with 4 or 5 drops of nitric acid, and
added to half the above collodion. In 2 drachms of water are
dissolved 330 grains of silver nitrate, 1 oz. of alcohol being added.
The silvered alcohol is next poured into the other half of the collodion
and the brominized collodion dropped in, care being taken to shake
between the operations. An emulsion of silver bromide is formed
in suspension; and it is in every case left for 10 to 20 hours to what
is technically called " ripen," or, in other words, to become creamy
when poured out upon a glass plate. When the emulsion has
ripened it may be used at once or be poured out into a flat dish and
the solvents allowed to evaporate till the pyroxylin becomes gelatin-
ous. In this state it is washed in water till all the soluble salts are
carried away. After this it may be either spread out on a cloth and
dried or treated with two or three doses of alcohol, and then re-
dissolved in equal parts of alcohol (specific gravity, -805) and ether
(specific gravity, -720). In this condition it is a washed emulsion,
and a glass plate can be coated with it and the film dried, or it may
be washed and some of the many preservatives, such as albumen,
beer, coffee, gum, &c, applied.

The type of a useful alkaline developer for collodion plates is as
follows : —

1. S Pyrogallic acid . . . . . 96 grs.
( Alcohol 1 oz.

2 . { Potassium bromide .... 12 grs.
' I Water distilled I oz.

•j, { Ammonium carbonate .... 80 grs.

" ( Water 1 oz.

To develop the plate 6 minims of No. 1, § drachm of No. 2, and 3
drachms of No. 3 are mixed together and made to flow over the plate
after washing the preservative off under the tap. Sometimes the

1 An account of Sayce's process is to be found in the Photographic
News of October 1865, or the Photographic Journal of the same date.

2 The advantages of this salt were pointed out by Leon Warnerke
in 1875.

PHOTOGRAPHY

o

g

o

A
A
<

Plate II.

PHOTOGRAPHY

TECHNIQUE]

PHOTOGRAPHY

49 1

development is conducted in a flat dish, sometimes the solution
is poured on the plate. 1 The unreduced salts are eliminated by either
cyanide of potassium or sodium hyposulphite. Intensity may be
given to the image, if requisite, either before or after the " fixing"
operation. Where resort is had to ferrous oxalate development,
the developer is made in one of two ways — (i) by saturating a
saturated solution of neutral potassium oxalate with ferrous oxalate,
and adding an equal volume of a solution (10 grains to I oz. of water)
of potassium bromide to restrain the action, or (2) by mixing, accord-
ing to Eder's plan, 3 volumes by measure of a saturated solution
of the potassium oxalate with I volume by measure of a saturated
solution of ferrous sulphate, and adding to the ferrous oxalate
solution thus obtained an equal bulk of the above solution of potas-
sium bromide. The development is conducted in precisely the
same manner as indicated above, and the image is fixed by one of
the same agents.

Gelatin Emulsion Process. — The facility with which silver
bromide emulsion could be prepared in collodion had turned
investigation into substitutes for it. As early as September
1871 Dr R. L. Maddox had tried emulsifying the silver salt in
gelatin, and had produced negatives of rare excellence. In
November 1873 J. King described a similar process, getting rid
of the soluble salts by washing. Efforts had also been made in
this direction by J. Burgess in July 1873. R. Kennett in 1874
may be said to have been the first to put forward the gelatin
emulsion process in a practical and workable form, as he then
published a formula which gave good and quick results. It was
not till 1878, however, that the great capabilities of silver bromide
when held in suspension by gelatin were fairly known; in March
of that year C. Bennett showed that by keeping the gelatin
solution liquid at a low temperature for as long as seven days
extraordinary rapidity was conferred on the sensitive salt. The
molecular condition of the silver bromide seemed to be altered,
and to be amenable to a far more powerful developer than had
hitherto been dreamt of. In 1874 J. S. Stas had shown that
various modifications of silver bromide and chloride were possible,
and it seemed that the green molecular condition (one of those
noted by Stas) of the bromide was attained by prolonged warm-
ing. It may be said that the' advent of rapid plates was 1878,
and that the full credit of this discovery should be allotted to
C. Bennett. Both Kennett and Bennett got rid of the soluble
salts from the emulsion by washing; and in order to attain success
it was requisite that the bromide should be in excess of that neces-
sary to combine with the silver nitrate used to form the emulsion.
In June 1879 Abney showed that a good emulsion might be
formed by precipitating a silver bromide by dropping a solution
of a soluble bromide into a dilute solution of silver nitrate. The
supernatant liquid was decanted, and after two or three washings
with water the precipitate was mixed with the proper amount
of gelatin. D. B. van Monckhoven of Ghent, in experimenting
with this process, hit upon the plan of obtaining the emulsion by
acting on silver carbonate with hydrobromic acid, which left
no soluble salts to be extracted. He further, in August 1879,
announced that he had obtained great rapidity by adding to the
bromide emulsion a certain quantity of ammonia. This addition
rapidly altered the silver bromide from its ordinary state to
the green molecular condition referred to above. At this point
we have the branching off of the gelatin emulsion process into
two great divisions, viz. that in which rapidity was gained by
long-continued heating, and the other in which it was gained by
the use of ammonia — a subdivision which is maintained to the
present day. Opinions as to the merits of the two methods are
much divided, some maintaining that the quality of the heated
emulsion is better than that produced by alkalinity, and vice
versa. We may mention that in 1881 Dr A. Herschel introduced
a plan for making an alcoholic gelatin emulsion with the idea of
inducing rapid drying of the plates, and in the same year H. W.
Vogel of Berlin introduced a method of combining gelatin and
pyroxylin together by means of a solvent which acted on the
gelatin and allowed the addition of alcohol in order to dissolve
the pyroxylin. This " collodio-gelatm emulsion" was only a
shortlived process, which is not surprising, since its preparation
involved the inhalation of the fumes of acetic acid.

1 For further details the reader is referred to Instruction in Photo-
graphy, nth ed., p. 362.

The warming process introduced by Bennett was soon super-
seded. Colonel Stuart Wortley in 1879 announced that, by
raising the temperature of the vessel in which the emulsion was
stewed to 150 F., instead of days being required to give the
desired sensibility only a few hours were necessary. A further
advance was made by boiling the emulsion, first practised, we
believe, by G. Mansfield in 1879. Another improvement was
effected by W. B. Bolton by emulsifying the silver salt in a
small quantity of gelatin and then raising the emulsion to boiling
point, boiling it for from half an hour to an hour, when extreme
rapidity was attained. Many minor improvements in this
process have been made from time to time. It may be useful
to give an idea of the relative rapidities of the various processes
we have described.

Daguerreotype, originally .... half an hour's exposure.

Calotype 2 or 3 minutes' „

Collodion 10 seconds' „

Collodion emulsion 15 seconds' „

Rapid gelatin emulsion .... jVth second „

Technique of Photography
Gelatin Emulsions.
The following is an outline of two representative processes.
All operations should be conducted in light which can act but
very slightly on the sensitive salts employed, and this is more
necessary with this process than with others on account of the
extreme ease with which the equilibrium of the molecules is
upset in giving rise to the molecule which is developable. The
light to work with is gaslight or candlelight passing through
a sheet of Chance's stained red glass backed by orange paper.
Stained red glass allows but few chemically effective rays to
pass through it, whilst the orange paper diffuses the light. If
daylight be employed, it is as well to have a double thickness
of orange paper. The following should be weighed out : —

1. Potassium iodide 5 grs.

2. Potassium bromide 135 „

3. Nelson's No. t photographic gelatin . . 30 „

4. Silver nitrate 175 „

( Autotype or other hard gelatin . . . 100 „

5* \ Nelson's No. 1 gelatin . . . . . . 100 „

Nos. 3 and 5 are rapidly covered with water or washed for a few
seconds under the tap to get rid of any dust. No. 2 is dissolved
in 1 1 oz. of water, and a little tincture of iodine added till it assumes
a light sherry colour. No. I is dissolved in 60 minims of water.
No. 4 is dissolved in J oz. of water, and No. 3 is allowed to swell
up in 1 oz. of water, and is then dissolved by heat. All the flasks
containing these solutions are placed in water at 150° F. and carried
into the " dark room," as the orange-lighted chamber is ordinarily
called; Nos. 3 and 4 are then mixed together in a jar or flask, and
No. 2 added drop by drop till half its bulk is gone, when No. I is
added to the remainder, and the double solution is dropped in as
before. When all is added there ought to be formed an emulsion
which is very ruddy when examined by gaslight, or orange by
daylight. The flask containing the emulsion is next placed in
boiling water, which is kept in a state of ebullition for about three-
quarters of an hour. It is then ready, when the contents of the
flask have cooled down to about 100° F., for the addition of No. 5,
which should in the interval be placed in 2 oz. of water to swell
and finally be dissolved. The gelatin emulsion thus formed is
placed in a cool place to set, after which it is turned into a piece
of coarse canvas or mosquito netting made into a bag. By
squeezing, threads of gelatin containing the sensitive salt can be
made to fall into cold water; by this means the soluble salts are
extracted. This is readily done in two or three hours by frequently
changing the water, or by allowing running water to flow over the
emulsion-threads. The gelatin is next drained by straining canvas
over a jar and turning out the threads on to it, after which it is
placed in a flask, and warmed till it dissolves, half an ounce of
alcohol being added. Finally it is filtered through chamois leather
or swansdown calico. In this state it is ready for the plates.

The other method of forming the emulsion is with ammonia. The
same quantities as before are weighed out, but the solutions of
Nos. 2 and 3 are first mixed together and No. 4 is dissolved in 1 oz.
of water, and strong ammonia of specific gravity -88o added to it
till the oxide first precipitated is just redissolved. This solution
is then dropped into Nos. 2 and 3 as previously described, and
finally No. 1 is added. In this case no boiling is required; but to
secure rapidity it is as well that the emulsion should be kept an
hour at a temperature of about 90° F., after which half the total-
quantity of No. 5 is added. When set the emulsion is washed,
drained, and redissolved as before; but in order to give tenacity

492

PHOTOGRAPHY

SftattS &^SSfcL N& 5 IS add6d *~ the ^ition
Coating the Plates.— Glass pfates are best cleaned with nitric
Hrii nn 'fK d ' and th en treated with P° tash ^lution, rinsed again and
dned with a clean cloth. They are then ready for receiving the
I k 10 "\ whlch - after being warmed to about 120° F., is pfured
on them to cover well the surface. This being done the plates
are placed on a level shelf and allowed to stay there tU the ge latfn
» thoroughly set; they are then put in a dryfng cupboard, though
that theTarm^ ^^ air " made t0 P^-'lt should be remarked
th a m • , ? th IS L only neces sary to enable the air to take up
the moisture from the plates. They ought to dry in about twelve
hours, and they are ready for use. ' twelve

Exposure.— With a good emulsion and on a bright day the ex-
posure of a plate to a landscape, with a lens whfose alrture U

nZ~ S £u C t nth th ^}^} he focal distance - should not be r^ore than
one-half to one-fifth of a second. This time depends, of course on

i xM\ I? l° f tHe V1 T = if u there be folia S e in the immediate foreground
LJl gen In - th u e P or trait-studio, under the same circum-

toTo C u7or n fi :rec U ondr H * "^ ^ ""* be fr0m half a Seco " d
Development of the Plate.— To develop the image either a ferrous
oxalate solution or alkaline pyrogallic acid may be used No
chemical restrains such as potassium bromide is necessary since
the gelatin itself acts as a physical restrainer. If the alkaUne
developer be used, the following may be taken as a good standard -

( Pyrogallol -

1. ] Citric acid ... fo

(Water '• ' ' ' ° oz

2 - \ W^tef " m br ° mide •••••• logrs.

3 iwate'r nia, ' M0 - \\ \ '' '' ' '■ '' * ^
One dram of each of these is taken and the mixture" made up
£,?„£■ Wlt \ wate T The P lat * ^ Placed in a dish and the above
poured over it without stoppage, whereupon the image gradually

rienf H ^ 'f the ? XP -° SUre has been P ro P er 'y timed* gains suffi*
cient density for printing purposes. It is fixed in a Solution of
hyposulphite of soda, as in the other processes already described,
fhp t h f n thoroughly washed for two or three hours to eliminate all

then«ure e of1he g eTa h t , fn 10ng WaSHmg " "^^ ° n aCCOUnt of
Intensifying the Negative.— Sometimes it is necessary to intensify

2^<. neg A ' W u 1Cl i Can be - done J ln a variet y of ways with mercury
salts An excellent plan, introduced by Chapman Jones, is to use
a saturated solution of mercuric chloride in water. After thoroueh
washing the negative is treated with ferrous oxalate. This process
can be repeated till sufficient density is attained. Wt£ most

E f/nl" * v!?!i? ,th mercu 7 the image is apt to become yellow and
to fade ; with this apparently it is not.

rJ P ZZ k i"K the N egative.-The ^Sative is often protected by
receiving first a film of plain collodion and then a coat of shellac
or other photographic varnish. This protects the gelatin from
moisture and also from becoming stained with the silver nitrate

owing to contact, with the sensitive paper used in silver printing!
Another varnish is a solution of celloidin in amyl acetate. This is
an excellent protection against damp. mis is

Printing Processes.
The first printing process may be said to be that of Fox
Talbot (see above), which has continued to be generally em-
ployed (with the addition of albumen to give a surface to the
print— an addition first made, we believe, by Fox Talbot).

,fe r for Printing is prepared by mixing 150 parts of ammonium
chloride with 240 parts of spirits of wine and 2000 parts of water
though the proportions may vary. These ingredients are dissolved!

beaten,,^ / ? f° f ^T fairl y- siz t d e gS? «* added and the whole
beaten up to a froth. In hot weather it is advisable to add a drop
of carbolic acid to prevent decomposition. The albumen is allowed
two or three days to settle, when it is filtered through a sponge
placed in a funnel, or through two or three thicknesses of fine muslin,
and trans erred to a flat dish. The paper is cut of convenient
size and allowed to float on the solution for about a minute, when
Zhtu 1 ° and dned ln , a warm room. For dead prints, on
which colouring is to take place, plain salted paper is useful. It
^L;l m f™ of the following proportions-90 parts of ammonium
chloride 100 parts of sodium citrate, 10 parts ofgelatin, Sooo parts
of distilled water. The gelatin is first dissolved in 'got water
and the remaining components are added. It is next filtered, and
and dried *° °" '* f ° r thrCe minutes ' then withdrawn

Sensitizing Bath— To sensitize the paper it is floated on a 10%
»'S" °Ln 1Ve J nltrate f °r.three minutes. It is then hung up
and allowed to dry, after which it is ready for use. To print the
image the paper is placed in a printing frame over a negative and

SET* t0 l iSht A I 4 U ? llowed to Print till such time asThe fmage
appears rather darker than it should finally appear.

[TECHNIQUE

Toning and Fixing the Print.- The next operation is to tone and
S * = Lfli ,J he earl ^ r days this was accomplished by means
rhlorJH. ™- 6 ' • 1 7r a u ral J XtU , re of hyposulphite of soda and gold
chloride. This gilded the darkened parts of the print which light
had reduced to the semi-metallic state: and on the removal of the
chloride by means of hyposulphite an image composed of metallic
silver, an organic salt of silver and gold was left behind There

rZu^ SpK1 T howeVer : $*£ part of the coloration was due to a

™ ba 7 of s "lP h " r with the silver, not that pure silver sulphide

Z£. ? d ,egree fugitive but the sulphuretted organic salt of silver

Sf„. t0 , be - Uable t0 u Change - J hls Save placl to a method of
ancahne toning, or rather, we should say, of neutral toning, by
employing gold chloride with a salt, such as the carbonate or
acetate of soda, chloride of lime, borax, &c. By this means there
wa "° dan g e , r of sulphunzation during the toning, to which the

h 1 v , SSrin«ti iu Wa u F r ° ne ow l? s , to the decomposition of the
hyposulphite. The substances which can be employed in tonine
seem to be those in which an alkaline base is combined with a weak
acid, the latter being readily displaced by a stronger acid, such as
nitric acid, which must exist in the paper after printing. This branch
of photography owes much to the Rev. T. F Hardwich, he hav"ng
carried on extensive researches in connexion with it during 18S4. and
subsequent years. A. Davanne and A. Girard, a little later, also
investigated the matter with fruitful results.

The following may be taken as two typical toning-baths :—

' (jold chloride x part

Sodium carbonate ... Tn nartL

Wa %- • • : : 5000T

gprax I0O „

Water 4000

Gold chloride T n art

water 4000 parts

In the latter («) and (0) are mixed in equal parts immediately
before use. Each of these is better used only once. A third bath

Gold chloride ........ 2 parts

Chloride of lime ..... ' 2

Cha l k ••■....'.'.'" 40 "
Water g^ "

These are mixed together, the water being warmed, "when cool
the solution is ready for use. In toning prints there is a distinct
difference in , the modus operandi according to the toning-bath
employed. Thus in the first two baths the print must be thoroughly
washed in water to remove all free silver nitrate, that salt forming
no part m the chemical reactions. On the other hand, where free
chlorine is used, the presence of free silver nitrate or some active
chlorine absorbent is a necessity. In 1872 Abney showed that
r^Vlr 1 a - tomng-bath free silver nitrate might be eliminated,
and it the print were immersed in a solution of a salt such as lead
nitrate the toning action proceeded rapidly and without causing
any fading of the image whilst toning, which was not the case
when the free silver nitrate was totally removed and no other
chlorine absorbent substituted. This was an important factor,
and one which had been overlooked. In the third bath the free
silver nitrate should only be partially removed by washing. The
print, having been partially washed or thoroughly washed; as the
case may be, is immersed in the toning-bath till the image attains
a purple or bluish tone, after which It is ready for fixing. The

nf ^H° a n t USeC l- fo l .''- tblS u purpose J i ? a 20 % so' 1 *! 011 of hyposulphite
of soda to which it is best to add a dew drops of ammonia in order
to render it alkaline. About ten minutes suffice to effect the
c^,K e i rS1 -°V the . <- hloride '"to hyposulphite of silver, which is
soluble in hyposulphite of soda and can be removed by washing
Vf^^anic sa ts of silver seem, however, to form a different salt,
which is partially insoluble, but which the ammonia helps to remove
It it is not removed there is a sulphur compound left behind
according to J. Spiller, which by time and exposure becomes yellow'
1 he use of potassium cyanide for fixing prints is to be avoided,
as this reagent attacks the organic coloured oxide which, if removed
would render the print a ghost. The washing of silver prints should

1 1TT- C °i mp j' Sln , ce ? ls ^ that the least trace of hyposulphite
lett behind renders the fading of the image a mere matter of time
Ihe stability of a print has been supposed to be increased by
mmersing it, after washing, in a solution of alum. The alum,
like any acid body, decomposes the hyposulphite into sulphur and
sulphurous acid. If this be the case, it seems probable that the
destruction of the hyposulphite by time is not the occasion of fading
but that its hygroscopic character is. This, however, is a moot

wt w w 'I USU V to , wa sh , th , e , P rints some hours in running
water. We have found that half a dozen changes of water, and
between successive changes the application of a sponge to the
back of each print separately, are equally or more efficacious,
the fi^' 11 h h Pnnt assumes a darker tone than it has after leaving
Different tones can thus be given to a print by different toning-
baths; and the gold itself may be deposited in a ruddy form or in
a Diue lorm. Ihe former molecular condition gives the red and
sepia tones, and the latter the blue and black tones. The degree
ot minute subdivision of the gold may be conceived when ft is

TECHNIQUE]

PHOTOGRAPHY

493

stated that, on a couple of sheets of albuminized paper fully printed,
the gold necessary to give a decided tone does not exceed half a
grain.

Collodio-chloride Silver Printing Process. — In the history of the
emulsion processes we stated that Gaudin attempted to use silver
chloride suspended in collodion, but it was not till the year 1864
that any practical use was made of the suggestion so far as silver
printing is concerned. In the autumn of that year George Wharton
Simpson worked out a method which has been more or less suc-
cessfully employed. The formula appended is Simpson's: —

Silver nitrate 60 parts.

Distilled water 60 ,,

Strontium chloride 64 ,,

1 Alcohol 1000 ,,

Citric acid 64 „

Alcohol 1000 „

To every 1000 parts of plain collodion 30 parts of No. I, previ-
ously mixed with 60 parts of alcohol, are added ; 60 parts of No. 2
are next mixed with the collodion, and finally 30 parts of No. 3.
This forms an emulsion of silver chloride and also contains citric
acid and silver nitrate. The defect of this emulsion is that it con-
tains a large proportion of soluble salts, which are apt to crystallize
out on drying, more particularly if it be applied to glass plates.
The addition of the citric acid and the excess of silver nitrate is
the key to the whole process; for, unless some body were present
which on exposure to light was capable of forming a highly-coloured
organic oxide of silver, no vigour would be obtained in printing.
If pure chloride be used, though an apparently strong image would
be obtained, yet on fixing only a feeble trace of it would be left,
and the print would be worthless. The collodio-chloride emulsion
may be applied to glass, or to paper, and the printing carried on in
the usual manner. The toning takes place by means of the chloride
of lime or by ammonium sulphocyanide and gold, which is practi-
cally a return to the sel d'or bath. The organic salt formed in
this procedure does not seem so prone to be decomposed by keeping
as does that formed by albumen, and the washing can be more
completely carried out. There are in the market several papers
which are collodio-chloride.

Gelatino-citro-chloride Emulsion. — A modified emulsion printing
process was introduced by Abney in 1881, which consisted in sus-
pending silver chloride and silver citrate in gelatin, there being no
excess of silver present. The formula of producing it is as follows: —

( Sodium chloride 40 parts.

i.-j Potassium citrate 40 ,,

( Water 500 ,,

\ Silver nitrate 150 „

" ) Water 500 ,,

\ Gelatin 300 „

■ i ' I Water 1700 ,,

Nos. 2 and 3 are mixed together whilst warm, and No. 1 is then
gently added, the gelatin solution being kept in brisk agitation.
This produces the emulsion of citrate and chloride of silver. The
gelatin containing the suspended salts is heated for five minutes at
boiling point, when it is allowed to cool and subsequently slightly
washed, as in the gelatino-bromide emulsion. It is then ready for
application to paper or glass. The prints are of a beautiful colour,
and seem to be fairly permanent. They may be readily toned by
the borax or by the chloride of lime toning-bath, and are fixed with
the hyposulphite solution of the strength before given. Most, if
not all, of the gelatin papers now extant are made somewhat after
this manner.

Printing with Salts of Uranium. — The sensitiveness of the salts
of uranium to light seems to have been discovered by Niepce, and
was subsequently applied to photography by J. E. Burnett in
England. One of the original formulae consisted of 20 parts of
uranic nitrate with 600 parts of water. Paper, which is better if
slightly sized previously with gelatin, is floated on this solution.
When dry it is exposed beneath a negative, and a very faint image
is produced; but it can be developed into a strong one by 6 to 10%
solution of silver nitrate to which a trace of acetic acid has been
added, or by a 2 % solution of gold chloride. In both these cases
the silver and goid are deposited in the metallic state. Another
developer is a 2 % solution of potassium ferrocyanide to which a
trace of nitric acid has been added, sufficient to give a red coloration.
The development takes place most readily by letting the paper
float on these solutions.

Self-toning Papers. — There are several self-toning papers based
on the chloride emulsion process. These contain the necessary
amount of gold to tone the print. The print is produced in the
ordinary way and then immersed in salt and water or in some cases
potassium sulphocyanide. The print is finished by immersing in
weak hyposulphite of soda.

Printing with Chromates: Carbon Prints.— -The first mention of
the use of potassium bichromate for printing purposes seems to have
been made by Mungo Ponton in May 1839, when he stated that
paper, if saturated with this salt and dried, and then exposed to the
sun's rays through a drawing, would produce a yellow picture
Jn an orange ground, nothing more being required to fix it than

washing it in water, when a white picture on an orange ground was
obtained. In 1840 Edmond Becquerel announced that paper
sized with iodide of starch and soaked in potassium bichromate was,
on drying, more sensitive than unsized paper. Joseph Dixon of
Massachusetts, in the following year, produced copies of bank-notes
by using gum arabic with potassium bichromate spread upon a
lithographic stone, and, after exposure of the sensitive surface
through a bank-note, by washing away the unaltered gum and
inking the stone as in ordinary lithography. The same process,
with slight modifications, has been used by Simonau and Toovey
of Brussels, and produces excellent results. Dixon's method,
however, was published in the Scientific American for 1854, and
consequently, as regards priority, it ranks after Fox Talbot's photo-
engraving process (see below), published in 1852. On the 13th
of December 1855 Alphonse Poitevin took out a patent in England,
in which he vaguely described a method of taking a direct carbon-
print by rendering gelatin insoluble through the action of light on
potassium bichromate. This idea was taken up by John Pouncey
of Dorchester, who perhaps was the first to produce veritable
carbon-prints, notwithstanding that Testud de Beauregard took
out a somewhat similar patent to Poitevin's at the end of 1857.

Pouncey published his process on the 1st of January 1859; but,
as described by him, it was by no means in a perfect state, half-
tones being wanting. The cause of this was first pointed out by
Abb6 Laborde in 1858, whilst describing a kindred process in a
note to the French Photographic Society. He says, " In the sensi-
tive film, however thin it may be, two distinct surfaces must be
recognized — an outer, and an inner which is in contact with the
paper. The action of light commences on the outer surf ace ; in the
washing, therefore, the half-tones lose their hold on the paper and
are washed away." J. C. Burnett in 1858 was the first to endeavour
to get rid of this defect in carbon printing. In a paper to the
Photographic Society of London he says, " There are two essential
requisites ... (2) that in printing the paper should have its
wreprepared side (and not its prepared side, as in ordinary printing)
placed in contact with the negative in the pressure-frame, as it
is only by printing in this way that we can expect to be able after-
wards to remove by washing the unacted-upon portions of the
mixture. In a positive of this sort printed from the front or pre-
pared side the attainment of half-tones by washing away more or
less depth of the mixture, according to the depth to which it has
been hardened, is prevented by the insoluble parts being on the
surface and in consequence protecting the soluble part from the
action of the water used in washing; so that either nothing is
removed, or by steeping very long till the inner soluble part is
sufficiently softened the whole depth comes bodily away, leaving
the paper white." This method of exposing through the back of
the paper was crude and unsatisfactory, and in i860 Fargier
patented a process in which, after exposure to light of the gelatin
film which contained pigment, the surface was coated with collodion,
and the print placed in warm water, where it separated from the
paper support and could be transferred to glass. Poitevin success-
fully opposed this patent, for he had used this means of detaching
the films in his powder-carbon process, in which ferric chloride and
tartaric acid were used. Fargier at any rate gave an impetus to
carbon-printing, and J. W. Swan took up the matter, and in 1864
secured a patent. One of the great features in Swan's innovations
was the production of what, is now known as " carbon-tissue,"
made by coating paper with a mixture of gelatin, sugar and
colouring matter, and rendered sensitive to light by means of
potassium or ammonium bichromate. After exposure to light
Swan placed the printed carbon-tissue on an india-rubber surface,
to which it was made to adhere by pressure. The print was immersed
in hot water, the paper backing stripped off, and the soluble gelatin
containing colouring matter washed away. The picture could
then be retransferred to its final support of paper. In 1869 J. R.
Johnson of London took out a patent in which he claimed that
carbon-tissue which had been soaked in water for a short period,
by its tendency to swell further, would adhere to any waterproof
surface such as glass, metal, waxed paper, &c, without any adhesive
material being applied. This was a most important improvement.
Johnson also applied soap to the gelatin to prevent its excessive
brittleness on drying, and made its final support of gelatinized
paper, rendered insoluble by chrome alum. In 1874 J. R. Sawyer
patented a flexible support for developing on ; this was a sized paper
coated with gelatin and treated with an ammoniacal solution of
shellac in borax, on which wax or resin was rubbed. The advantage
of this flexible support is that the dark parts of the picture have no
tendency to contract from the lighter parts, which they were apt
to do when a metal plate was used, as was the case in Johnson's
original process. With this patent, and minor improvements
made since, carbon-printing has arrived at its present state of
perfection.

According to P. E. Liesegang, the carbon-tissue when prepared
on a large scale consists of from 120 to 150 grains of gelatin (a soft
kind), 15 grains of soap, 21 grains of sugar and from 4 to 8 grains
of dry colouring matter. The last-named may be of various kinds,
from lamp-black pigment to soluble colours such as alizarin. The
I gelatin, sugar and soap are put in water and allowed to stand for
an hour, and then melted, the liquid afterwards receiving the

494

PHOTOGRAPHY

[TECHNIQUE

colours, which have been ground on a slab. The mixture is filtered
through fine muslin. In making the tissue in large quantities the
two ends of a piece of roll-paper are pasted together and the paper
hung on two rollers; one of wood about 5 in. in diameter is fixed
near the top of the room and the other over a trough containing
the gelatin solution, the paper being brought into contact with
the surface of the gelatin by being made to revolve on the rollers.
The thickness of the coating is proportional to the rate at which
the paper is drawn over the gelatin: the slower the movement, the
thicker the coating. The paper is taken off the rollers, cut through,
and hung up to dry on wooden laths. If it be required to make
the tissue sensitive at once, 120 grains of potassium bichromate
should be mixed with the ingredients in the above formula. The
carbon-tissue when prepared should be floated on a sensitizing
bath consisting of one part of potassium bichromate in 40 parts
of water. This is effected by turning up about 1 in. from the
end of the sheet of tissue (cut to the proper size), making a roll
of it, and letting it unroll along the surface of the sensitizing solu-
tion, where it is allowed to remain till the gelatin film feeis soft.
It is then taken off and hung up to dry in a dark room through
which a current of dry warm air is passing. Tissue dried quickly,
though not so sensitive, is more manageable to work than if more
slowly dried. As the tissue is coloured, it is not possible to ascertain
by inspection whether the printing operation is sufficiently carried
out, and in order to ascertain this it is usual to place a piece of
ordinary silvered paper in an actinometer, or photometer, alongside
the carbon-tissue to ascertain the amount of light that has acted
on it. There are several devices for ascertaining this amount, the
simplest being an arrangement of a varying number of thicknesses
of gold-beater's skin. The value of 1, 2, 3, &c, thicknesses of the
skin as a screen to the light is ascertained by experiment. Sup-
posing it is judged that a sheet of tissue under some one negative
ought to be exposed to light corresponding to a given number of
thicknesses, chloride of silver paper is placed alongside the negative
beneath the actinometer and allowed to remain there until it takes
a visible tint beneath a number of thicknesses equivalent to the
strength of the negative. After the tissue is removed from the
printing-frame — supposing a double transfer is to be made — it is
placed in a dish of cold water, face downwards, along with a piece
of Sawyer's flexible support. When the edges of the tissue begin
to curl up, its surface and that of the flexible support are brought
together and placed flat. The water is pressed out with an india-
rubber squeezer or " squeegee " and the two surfaces adhere. About
a couple of minutes later they are placed in warm water of about
90° to 100° F., and the paper of the tissue, loosened by the gelatin
solution next it becoming soluble, can be stripped off, leaving the
image (reversed as regards right and left) on the flexible support.
An application of warm water removes the rest of the soluble
gelatin and pigment. When dried the image is transferred to its
permanent support. This usually consists of white paper coated
with gelatin and made insoluble with chrome alum, though it may
be mixed with barium sulphate or other similar pigments. This
transfer-paper is made to receive the image by being soaked in hot
water till it becomes slimy to the touch; and the surface of the
damped print is brought into contact with the surface of the re-
transfer-paper, in the same manner as was done with the flexible
support and the carbon-tissue. When dry the retransfer-paper
bearing the gelatin image can be stripped off the flexible support,
which may be used again as a temporary support for other pictures.
If a reversed negative be used the image may be transferred at once
to its final support instead of to the temporary flexible support,
which is a point of practical value, since single-transfer are better
than double-transfer prints.

Printing with Salts of Iron. — Sir John Herschel and Robert Hunt
entered into various methods of printing with salts of iron. At
the present time two or three are practised, being used in draughts-
men's offices for copying tracings (see Sun-copying),

Photo-mechanical Printing Processes. — Poitevin claimed to have
discovered that a film of gelatin impregnated with potassium
bichromate, after being acted upon by light and damping, would
receive greasy ink on those parts which had been affected by light.
But Paul Oreloth seems to have made the discovery previous to
1854, for in his patent of that year he states that his designs were
inked with printing ink before being transferred to stone or zinc.
CM. Tessie de Motay (in 1 865) and C. R. Marechal of Metz, however,
seem to have been the first to produce half-tones from gelatin films
by means of greasy ink. Their general procedure consisted in
coating metallic plates with gelatin impregnated with potassium
ok ammonium bichromate or tri-chromate and mercuric chloride,
then treating with silver oleate, exposing to light through a negative,
washing, inking with a lithographic roller, and printing from the
plates as for an ordinary lithograph. The half-tints by this process
were very good, and illustrations executed by it are to be found
in several existing works. The method of producing the plates,
however, was most laborious, and it was simplified by A. Albert
of Munich. He had been experimenting for many years, endeavour-
ing to make the gelatin films more durable than those of Tessie de
Motay. He added gum-resins, alum, tannin and other such
matters, which had the property of hardening gelatin; but the
difficulty of adding sufficient to the mass in its liquid state before

the whole became coagulated rendered these unmanageable. It
at last occurred to him that if the hardening action of light were
utilized by exposing the surface next the plate to light after or
before exposing the front surface to the film and the image, the
necessary hardness might be given to the gelatin without adding
any chemical hardeners to it. In Tessie de Motay 's process the
hardening was almost absent, and the plates were consequently not
durable. It is evident that to effect this one of two things had to
be done: either the metallic plate used by Tessie de Motay must
be abandoned, or else the film must be stripped off the plate and
exposed in that manner, Albert adopted the transparent plate,
and his success was assured, since instead of less than a hundred
impressions being pulled from one plate he was able to take over a
thousand. This occurred about 1867, but the formula was not
published for two or three years afterwards, when it was divulged
by Ohm and Grossman, one of whom had been employed by Albert
of Munich, and had endeavoured to introduce a process which
resembled Albert's earlier efforts. The name of " Lichtdruck " was
given about this time to these surface-printing processes, and Albert
may be considered, if not the inventor, at all events the perfecter of
the method. Another modification of " Lichtdruck " was patented
in England by Ernest Edwards under the name of " heliotype."

Woodbury Type. — This process was invented by W. Woodbury
about the year 1864, though we believe thaf J. W. Swan had been
working independently in the same direction about the same time.
In October 1864 a description of the invention was given in the
Photographic News. Marc Antoine A. Gaudin claimed the principle
of the process, insisting that it was old, and basing his pretensions
on the fact that he had printed with translucent ink from intaglio
blocks engraved by hand; but at the same time he remarked that
the application of the principle might lead to important results.
It was just these results which Woodbury obtained, and for which
he was entitled to the fullest credit. Woodbury subsequently
introduced certain modifications, the outcome being what is known
as the " stannotype process," of which in 1880 he read a description
before the French Photographic Society (see Process).

Photo-lithography. — Reference has been made to the effect of
light on gelatin impregnated with potassium bichromate, whereby
the gelatin becomes insoluble, and also incapable of absorbing water
where the action of the light has had full play. It is this last
phenomenon which occupies such an important place in photo-
lithography. In the spring of 1859 E. J. Asser of Amsterdam
produced photographs on a paper basis in printer's ink. Being
anxious to produce copies of such prints mechanically, he conceived
the idea of transferring the greasy ink impression to stone, and
multiplying the impressions by mechanical lithography. Following
very closely upon Asser, J. W. Osborne of Melbourne made a
similar application; his process is described by himself in the
Photographic Journal for April i860 as follows: "A negative is
produced in the usual way, bearing to the original the desired ratio.
... A positive is printed from this negative upon a sheet of
(gelatinized) paper, so prepared that the image can be transferred to
stone, it having been previously covered with greasy printer's ink.
The impression is developed by washing away the soluble matter
with hot water, which leaves the ink on the lines of print of the
map or engraving." The process of transferring is accomplished in
the ordinary way. Early in i860 Colonel Sir H. James, R.E.,
F.R.S., brought forward the Southampton method ■ of photo-litho-
graphy, which had been carefully worked out by Captain de Courcy
Scott, R.E. The " papyrotype process " was published by Abney
in 1870 (see Lithography and Process)..

Photographs in Natural Colours.
The first notice on record of coloured light impressing its
own colours on a sensitive surface is in the passage already
quoted from the Farbenlehre of Goethe, where T. J. Seebeck
of Jena (18 10) describes the impression he obtained on paper
impregnated with moist silver chloride. In 1839 Sir J. Herschel
{Athenaeum, No. 621) gave a somewhat similar description.
In 1848 Edmond Becquerel succeeded in reproducing upon a
daguerreotype plate not only the colours of the spectrum
but also, up to a certain point, the colours of drawings
and objects. His method of proceeding was to give the
silver plate a thin coating of silver chloride by immersing it in
ferric or cupric chlorides. It may also be immersed in chlorine
water till it takes a feeble rose tint. Becquerel preferred to
chlorinize the plate by immersion in a solution of hydrochloric
acid in water, attaching it to the positive pole of a voltaic couple,
whilst the other pole he attached to a platinum plate also
immersed in the acid solution. After a minute's subjection to
the current the plate took successively a grey, a yellow, a violet
and a blue tint, which order was again repeated. When the
violet tint appeared for the second time the plate was withdrawn
and washed and dried over a spirit-lamp. In this state it

TECHNIQUE]

PHOTOGRAPHY

495

produced the spectrum colours, but it was found better to heat
the plate till it assumed a rose tint. At a later date Niepce de St
Victor chlorinized by chloride of lime, and made the surface more
sensitive by applying a solution of lead chloride in dextrin.
G. W. Simpson also obtained coloured images on silver chloride
emulsion in collodion, but they were less vivid and satisfactory
than those obtained on daguerreotype plates. Poitevin obtained
coloured images on ordinary silver chloride paper by preparing
it in the usual manner and washing it and exposing it to light.
It was afterwards treated with a solution of potassium bichromate
and cupric sulphate, and dried in darkness. Sheets so prepared
gave coloured images from coloured pictures, which he stated
could be fixed by sulphuric acid (Comptes rendus, 1868, 61, p. 11).
In the Bulletin de la Societe FranQaise (1874) Colonel St Florent
described experiments which he made with the same object. He
immersed ordinary or albuminized paper in silver nitrate and
afterwards plunged it into a solution of uranium nitrate and zinc
chloride acidulated with hydrochloric acid; it was then exposed
to light till it took a violet, blue or lavender tint. Before
exposure the paper was floated on a solution of mercuric nitrate,
its surface dried, and exposed to a coloured image.

It is supposed — though it is very doubtful if it be so— that the
nature of the chloride used to obtain the silver chloride has a
great effect on the colours impressed; and Niepce in 1857 made
some observations on the relationship which seemed to exist
between the coloured flames produced by the metal and the colour
impressed on a plate prepared with a chloride of such a metal.
In 1880 Abney showed that the production of colour really
resulted from the oxidation of the chloride that was coloured by
light. Plates immersed in a solution of hydrogen peroxide took
the colours of the spectrum much more rapidly than when not
immersed, and the size of the molecules seemed to regulate the
colour. He further stated that the whole of the spectrum colours
might be derived from a mixture of two or at most three sizes of
molecules.

In 1841, Robert Hunt published some results of colour-photography
by means of silver fluoride. A paper was washed with silver nitrate
and with sodium fluoride, and afterwards exposed to the spectrum.
The action of the spectrum commenced at the centre of the yellow
ray and rapidly proceeded upwards, arriving at its maximum in the
blue ray. As far as the indigo the action was uniform, whilst in
the violet the paper took a brown tint. When it was previously
exposed, however, a yellow space was occupied where the yellow
rays had acted, a green band where the green had acted, whilst in
the blue and indigo it took an intense blue, and over the violet
there was a ruddy brown. In reference to these coloured images
on paper it must not be forgotten that pure salts of silver are not
being dealt with as a rule. An organic salt of silver is usually mixed
with silver chloride paper, the organic salt being due to the sizing of
the paper, which towards the red end of the spectrum is usually
more sensitive than the chloride. If a piece of ordinary silver
chloride paper is exposed to the spectrum till an impression is
made, it \flll usually be found that the blue aolour of the darkened
chloride is mixed with that due to the coloration of the darkened
organic compound of silver in the violet region, whereas in the blue
and green this organic compound is alone affected, and is of a differ-
ent colour from that of the darkened mixed chloride and organic
compound. This naturally gives an impression that the different
rays yield different tints, whereas this result is simply owing to
the different range of sensitiveness of the bodies. In the case of
the silver chlorinized plate and of true collodio-chloride, in which no
organic salt has been dissolved, we have a true coloration by the
spectrum. At present there is no means of permanently fixing the
coloured images which have been obtained, the effect of light being
to destroy them. If protected from oxygen they last longer than
if they have free access to it, as is the case when the surface is
exposed to the air.

A method devised by Gabrielle Lippmann, of Paris, by which the
natural colours of objects are reproduced by means of interference,
may be briefly described as follows: A sensitive plate is placed
in contact with a film of mercury, and the exposure to the spectrum,
or to the image of coloured objects to be photographed, is made
through the back of the plate. On development, the image appears
coloured when viewed at one particular angle, the colours being
approximately those of the object. The necessary exposure to
produce this result was very prolonged in the first experiments
in which the spectrum was photographed, and a longer exposure
had to be given to the red than was required for the blue. Lippmann
at first employed collodion dry plates, prepared, it is believed, with
albumen, and it required considerable manipulation to bring out
the colours correctly. A. Lumiere used gelatin plates dyed with

appropriate dyes (orthochromatic plates); the exposure was much
diminished, and very excellent representations were produced
of all natural colours. The main point to aim at in the preparation
of the plate seems to be to obtain a very sensitive film without any,
or, at all events, with the least possible, " grain " in the sensitive
salt. A formula published by Lumiere seems to attain this object.
Viewed directly, the developed images appear like ordinary nega-
tives, but when held at an angle to the light the colours are vivid.
They are not pure monochromatic colours, but have very much
the quality of colours obtained by polarized light. It appears
that they are produced by what may be termed " nodes " of different-
coloured lights acting within the film. Thus in photographing
the spectrum, rays penetrate to the reflecting mercury and are
reflected back from it, and these, with the incident waves of light,
form nodes where no motion exists, in a somewhat similar way to
those obtained in a cord stretched between two points when plucked.
In the negative these nodal points are found in the thickness of the
silver deposit. When white light is sent through the film after
the image has been developed, theoretically only rays of the wave-
lengths which formed these nodes are reflected to the eye, and thus
we get an impression of colour.

Action of Light on Chemical Compounds.
Reference has been made above to early investigations on
the chemical action of light. In 1777 Karl Wilhelm Scheele
(Hunt's Researches in Light) made the following experiment?
on silver salts: —

" I precipitated a solution of silver by sal-ammoniac; then I
edulcorated it and dried the precipitate and exposed it to the
beams of the sun for two weeks; after which I stirred the powder,
and repeated the same several times. Hereupon I poured some
caustic spirit of sal-ammoniac (strong ammonia) on this, in all
appearance, black powder, and set it by for digestion. This men-
struum dissolved a quantity of luna cornua (horn silver), though
some black powder remained undissolved. The powder having
been washed was, for the greater part, dissolved by a pure acid of
nitre (nitric acid), which, by the operation, acquired volatility.
This solution I precipitated again by means of sal-ammoniac
into horn silver. Hence it follows that the blackness which the
luna cornua acquires from the sun's light, and likewise the solution
of silver poured on chalk, is silver by reduction. ... I mixed so
much of distilled water with well-edulcorated horn silver as would
just cover this powder. The half of this mixture I poured into a
white crystal phial, exposed it to the beams of the sun, and shook
it several times each day; the other half I set in a dark place. After
having exposed the one mixture during the space of two weeks, I
filtrated the water standing over the horn silver, grown already
black; I let some of this water fall by drops in a solution of silver,
which was immediately precipitated into horn silver."

This, as far as we know, is the first intimation of the reducing
action of light. From this it is evident that Scheele had found
that the silver chloride was decomposed by the action of light
liberating some form of chlorine. Others have repeated these
experiments and found that chlorine is really liberated from the
chloride; but it is necessary that some body should be present
which would absorb the chlorine, or, at all events, that the
chlorine should be free to escape. A tube of dried silver chloride,
sealed up in vacuo, will not discolour in the light, but keeps its
ordinary white colour. A pretty experiment is to seal up in
vacuo, at one end of a bent tube, perfectly dry chloride, and at
the other a drop of mercury. The mercury vapour volatilizes
to a certain extent and fills the tube. When exposed to light
chlorine is liberated from the chloride, and calomel forms on
the sides of the tube. In this case the chloride darkens. Again,
dried chloride sealed up in dry hydrogen discolours, owing to the
combination of the chlorine with the hydrogen. Poitevin and
H. W. Vogel first enunciated the law that for the reduction by
light of the haloid salts of silver halogen absorbents were necessary,
and it was by following out this law that the present rapidity in
obtaining camera images, has been rendered possible. To put
it briefly, then, the visible action of light is a reducing action,
which is aided by or entirely due to the fact that other bodies are
present which will absorb the halogens.

In the above we have alluded to the visible results on silver
salts. It by no means follows that the exposure of a silver salt
to light for such a brief period as to leave no visible effect must
be due to the same effect, that is, that any of the molecules are
absolutely reduced or split up by the light. That this or some
other action takes place is shown by the fact that the silver
salt is capable of alkaline development, that is, the particles

49 6

PHOTOGRAPHY

[TECHNIQUE

which have suffered a change in their molecules can be reduced
to metallic silver, whilst those which have not been acted upon
remain unaltered by the same chemical agency. Two theories
have been offered to explain the invisible change which takes
place in the salts of silver. One is based on the supposition that
the molecules of the salt can rearrange their atoms under the
vibrations caused by the ether waves placing them in more
unstable positions than they were in before the impact of light
took place. This, it is presumed, would allow the developer to
separate the atoms of such shaken molecules when it came in
contact with them. The other theory is that, as in the case of the
visible effects of light, some of the molecules are at once reduced
and that the developer finishes the disintegration which the light
has begun. In the case of the alkaline development the unaltered
molecules next those primarily reduced combine with the reduced
silver atom and again form an unstable compound and are in
their turn reduced.

The first theory would require some such action as that just
mentioned to take place and cause the invisible image formed by
the shaking apart of the light-stricken molecules to become visible.
It is hard to see why other unacted upon molecules close to those
which were made unstable and which have been shaken apart
by the developer should themselves be placed in unstable equilibrium
and amenable to reduction. In the second theory, called the
" chemical theory," the reduction is perfectly easy to understand.
Abney adopts the chemical theory as the balance of unsubstantiated
evidence is in its favour. There is another action which seems to
occur almost simultaneously when exposure takes place in the
absence of an active halogen absorbent, as is the case when the ex-
posure is given in the air, that is, an oxidizing action occurs. The
molecules of the altered haloid salts take up oxygen and form oxides.
If a sensitive salt be briefly exposed to light and then treated with
an oxidizing substance, such as potassium bichromate, potassium
permanganate, hydrogen peroxide, ozone, an image is not developed,
but remains unaltered, showing that a change has been effected
in the compound which under ordinary circumstances is developable.
If such an oxidized salt be treated very cautiously with nascent
hydrogen, the oxygen is withdrawn and the image is again capable
of development. 1

Spectrum Effects on Silver Compounds. — The next inquiry is
as to the effect of the spectrum on the different silver compounds.
We have already described Seebeck's (1810) experiments on
silver chloride with the spectrum whereby he obtained coloured
photographs, but Scheele in 1777 allowed a spectrum to fall on
the same material, and found that it blackened much more
readily in the violet rays than in any other. Senebiers experi-
ments have been already quoted. We merely mention these

HAG F E DCBA.

have become the foundation of nearly all subsequent researches
of the same kind. The effects of the spectrum have been studied
by various experimenters since that time, amongst whom we
may mention Edmond Becquerel, John William Draper, Alphonse
Louis Poitevin, H. W. Vogel, Victor Schumann and W. de W.
Abney. Fig. 1 is compiled from a cut which appeared in the
Proc. Roy. Soc. for 1882, and shows the researches made by
Abney as regards the action of the spectrum on the three
principal haloid salts of silver. No. 7 shows the effect of the
spectrum on a peculiar modification of silver bromide made by
Abney, which is seen to be sensitive to the infra-red rays.

Effect of Dyes on Sensitive Films. — In 1874 Dr H. W. Vogel
of Berlin found that when films were stained with certain dyes
and exposed to the spectrum an increased action on develop-
ment was shown in those parts of the spectrum which the dye
absorbed. The dyes which produced this action he called
" optical sensitizers," whilst preservatives which absorbed the
halogen liberated by light he called " chemical sensitizers." A
dye might, according to him, be an optical and a chemical sensi-
tizer. He further claimed that, if a film were prepared in which
the haloid soluble salt was in excess and then dyed, no action
took place unless some " chemical sensitizer " were present.
The term " optical sensitizer " seems a misnomer, since it is
meant to imply that it renders the salts of silver sensitive to
those regions of the spectrum to which they were previously
insensitive, merely by the addition of the dye. The idea of the
action of dyes was at first combated, but it was soon recognized
that such an action did really exist. Abney showed in 1875
that certain dyes combined with silver and formed true coloured
organic salts of silver which were sensitive to light; and Dr
Robert Amory went so far as to take a spectrum on a combination
of silver with eosin, which was one of the dyes experimented
upon by J. Waterhouse, who had closely followed Dr Vogel, and
proved that the spectrum acted simply on those parts which
were absorbed by the compound. Abney further demonstrated
that, in many cases at all events, the dyes were themselves
reduced by light, thus acting as nuclei on which the silver could
be deposited. He further showed that even when the haloid
soluble salt was in excess the same character of spectrum was
produced as when the silver nitrate was in excess, though the
exposure had to be prolonged. This action he concluded was
due to the dye.

Correct Rendering of Colours in Monochrome. — In Plate IV., fig.
14 the sensitiveness of a plate stained with homocol
is shown, and it is evident that as it is sensitive
throughout the visible spectrum there must be some

Agi+AgNCh on paper P. means of cutting off by a transparent screen so

much of the spectrum luminosity at different parts

AgCl+AgNCh on paper P. that evejy colour having the same luminosity to the

eye shall be shown on a negative of equal density.

P- When this is done the relative luminosities of all

colours will be shown by the same relative densities

D or in a print by different depths of greys. Abney

devised a sensitometer which should be used to

ascertain the colour of the screen that should be

employed. By proper means the luminosity of

the light of day coming through a red, a green, a

blue and an orange glass can be very accurately

r>. measured; if |-in. squares of these coloured glasses,

( ' e,> together with a white glass of the same area, be

d. placed in a row and cemented on white glass, we

(le ' ) have a colour screen which we can make available

P. for finding the kind of light-filter to be employed.

This is readily done by reducing the luminosity of

the light coming through all the glasses to that of

the luminosity of the light coming through the blue

glass. If the luminosity of the blue be 5 and that of

Agl-f AgNCh in albumen ...

Agl prepared in bath, treated with KI,
washed, redipped in silver bath, de-
veloped with pyrogallic acid.

Grey AgBr in gelatin, developed alka-
line or ferrous oxalate ....

Orange AgBr in collodion or gelatin,
alkaline ferrous oxalate or acid de-
veloper.

Green AgBr in collodion, developed
ferrous oxalate . . .

AgCl in-collodion, excess of AgN03 or
NaCl present, ferrous citrate or acid
development.

Agl-fAgBr, washed from AgN03

(I.e.)

D.

(I.e.)

D.

(I.e.)

D.
(I.e.)

3 Agl + AgBr + AgNCb collodion, wet
plate, acid or alkaline developer

Fig. I. — Spectrum Effects on Salts of Silver.
[P. = print ; D. = developed ; I.e. = long exposure].
two for their historical interest, and pass on to the study of the the white light 100, then the luminosity of the former must be re

action of the spectrum on different compounds by Sir J. Herschel
{Phil. Trans., 1840). He describes many experiments, which
'See Abney, "Destruction of the Photographic Image," Phil.
Mag. (1878), vol. v.; also Proc. Roy. Soc. (1878), vol. xxvii.

duced to-^jof its original value, and so with the other glasses.
The luminosity of the light coming through each small glass square
can be made equal by rotating in front of them a disk in which
apertures are cut corresponding to the reduction required. The

PHOTOGRAPHY

Plate IlL

K «

XXL 4^6

PHOTOGRAPHY

10 15 20 ' 25 ' ' ' ' ' 86 ' ' ' ' 36

CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM TAKEN WITH THE ELECTRIC ARC.

FLUORESCENT SPECTRUM OF EOSIN.

10 15 20 25 30 ' ' ' 35

SPECTRUM OF VOLATILIZED LITHIUM AND SODIUM.

10 15

ABSORPTION SPECTRUM OF EOSIN.

30 35

GRADUATION SCALE ON HOMOCOL STAINED "SEED" PLATE.

GRADUATION SCALE ON UNSTAINED PLATE.

! i . •ifflW

IMPRESSED CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM.

unrri

15 20 25 80 ' 35 '40

SPECTRUM OF BRIGHT LINES OF METALS.

TECHNIQUE]

PHOTOGRAPHY

497

blue glass, for instance, would not be covered by the disk at all,
while opposite the white square the disk would have an aperture
of an angle of i8°. When a plate is exposed behind the row of
glass squares, with the light passing through the rotating disk,
having the appropriate apertures for each glass, the negative
obtained would under ordinary conditions, show square patches
of very different opacity. A light-filter of some transparent
colour, if placed in the path of the light, will alter the opacities,
and eventually one can be found which will only allow such
coloured light to be transmitted as will cause all the opacities
in the negative to be the same. As the luminosities of the white
light passing through the glasses are made equal, and as the
photographic deposits are also rendered equal, this light-filter,
if used in front of the camera lens, will render all coloured objects
in correct monochrome luminosity. Another plan, based on the
same principles, is to place segments of annuluses of Vermilion,
chrome yellow, emerald green, French blue and white on a disk,
and to complete the annuluses with black segments, the amount
of black depending on the luminosity of the pigments, which can
be readily measured. When the disk is rotated, rings of colour,
modified in brightness by black, are seen, and each ring will be
of the same luminosity. As before, a screen (light-filter) to be
used in front of the lens must be found which will cause the
developed images of all the rings to appear of equal opacity.
It must be remembered that the light in which the object is
to be photographed must be the same as that in which the
luminosity of the glasses or pigments is measured.

Action of the Spectrum on Chromic Salts. — The salts most
usually employed in photography are the bichromates of the
alkalis. The result of spectrum action is confined to its own most
refrangible end, commencing in the ultra-violet and reaching as
far as in the solar spectrum. Fig. 2 shows the relative action of

D CB A

No. I

No. 2

Fig. 2. — -The top letters have reference to the Fraunhofer lines;
the bottom letters are the initials of the colours. The relative
sensitiveness is shown by the height of the curve above the base-line.

the various parts of the spectrum on potassium bichromate. If
other bichromates are employed, the action will be found to be
tolerably well represented by the figures. No. 1 is the effect of a
long exposure, No. 2 of a shorter one. It should be noticed that
the solution of potassium bichromate absorbs those rays alone
which are effective in altering the bichromate. This change is
only possible in the presence of organic matter of some kind, such
as gelatin or albumen.

Action of the Spectrum on Asphaltum. — This seems to be
continued into and below the red, the blue rays, however, are
the most effective. The action of light on this body is to render
it less soluble in its usual solvents.

Action of the Spectrum on Salts of Iron. — The commonest
ferric salt in use is the oxalate, by which the beautiful platinotype
prints are produced. We give this as a representation (fig. 3) of

Ho. 3

N0.4

Fig. 3.— Same description as for fig. 2.

the spectra obtained on ferric salts in general. Here, again, we
have an example of the law that exists as to the correlation
between absorption and chemical action. One of the most
remarkable compounds of iron is that experimented upon by Sir
j. Herschel and later by Lord Rayleigh, viz. ferrocyanide of

potassium and ferric chloride. If these two be brushed over
paper, and the paper be then exposed to a bright solar spectrum,
action is exhibited into the infra-red region. This is one of the
few instances in which these light-waves of low refrangibility
are capable of producing any effect. The colour of this solution
is a muddy green, and analysis shows that it cuts off these rays as
well as generally absorbs those of higher refrangibility.

Action of Light on Uranium. — The salts of uranium are affected
by light in the presence of organic matter, and they too are only
acted upon by those rays which they absorb. Thus nitrate of
uranium, which shows, too, absorption-bands in the green blue,
is affected more where these- occur than in any other portion Of
the spectrum.

Some salts of mercury, gold, copper, lead, manganese, molyb-
denum, platinum, vanadium, are affected by light, but in a less
degree than those which we have discussed. In the organic
world there are very few substances which do not change by the
continuous action of light, and it will be found that as a rule they
are affected by the blue end of the spectrum rather than by the
red end (see Photochemistry).

The following table gives the names of the observers of the
action of light on different substances, with the date of publica-
tion of the several observations. It is nearly identical with
one given by Dr Eder in his Geschichte der Photo-Chemie.

Substance.

Observer.

Silver.
Nitrate solution mixed with

chalk, gives in sunshine copies

of writing
Nitrate solution on paper
Nitrate photographically used

Nitrate on silk \

Nitrate with white of egg.
Nitrate with lead salts

Chloride

Chloride in the spectrum .
Chloride photographically used .
Chloride blackened ....

Iodide

Iodide by action of iodine (on

metallic silver).
Iodide photographically used
Iodide with gallic acid
Iodide with ferrous sulphate .
Chloride and iodide by chlorine

and iodine (on metallic silver).

Bromide

Bromide by action of bromine (on

metallic silver).
Sulpho-cyanide ....

Nitrite .......

Oxide with ammonia .

Sulphate

Chromate . . . . .

Carbonate

Oxalate

Benzoate

Citrate

Kinate

Borate

Pyrophosphate ....
Lactate

Date.

J. H. Schulze .

Hellot . . .
Wedgwood and

Davy.
Fulhame .
Rumford .
B. Fischer
Herschel .
J. B. Beccarius
Scheele .
Wedgwood
Lassaigne .
Davy .
Daguerre .

Formiates

Fulminates

Sulphide by vapour of sulphur
(on metallic silver).

Phosphide by vapour of phos-
phorus (on metallic silver).
Gold.

Oxide

Chloride on paper

Chloride on silk

Chloride in ethereal solution .

Chloride with ferrocyanide and
ferricyanide of potassium.

Chloride and oxalic acid .

Chromate

Plate of gold and iodine vapour

Herschel .
Talbot . .
Hunt .
Claudet

Balard
Goddard .

Grotthus .
Hess

Mitscherlich
Bergmann .
Vauquelin .
Buchholz .
Bergmann .
Trommsdorf
Vauquelin
Henry and Plisson
Rose

Stromeyer
Pelouze and Gay

Lussac.
Hunt . . .
Hunt . . .
Niepce.

Niepce .

Scheele .
Hellot .
Fulhame
Rumford
Hunt .

Dobereiner
Hunt . .
Goddard .

1727

1737
1802

1797
1798
1812
1839
1757
1777
1802

1839
1814

1839

1840
1841
1844
1840

1826
1840

1818
1828
1827
1779
1798
1800
1779

1793

1798

1829

1830 .

1830

1833

1844
1844
1820

1820

1777
1737
1794
1793
1844

1831

1844
1842

49 8

PHOTOGRAPHY

[TECHNIQUE

Substance.

Platinum.
Chloride in ether ....
Chloride with lime

Iodide

Bromide

Cyanide

Double chloride of platinum and
potassium.

Mercury.
Oxide (mercurous)

Oxide

Oxide (mercuric) ....
Oxide (more accurate observa-
tions)

Chloride (mercurous)

Chloride (mercuric) .
Chloride with oxalic acid .
Sulphate . . ...

Oxalate (mercuric)
Oxalate (mercurous) .
Sulphate and ammonia (mer-
curous).
Acetate (mercurous) .
Bromide (mercuric) .

Iodide (mercurous)

Iodide (mercuric) .
Citrate (mercuric)
Tartrate and potassium (mer-
curous).
Carbonate (mercuric) .

Nitrate

Sulphide (mercuric) .

Iron.
Sulphate (ferrous)
Chloride (ferric) and alcohol
Chloride and ether
Oxalate (ferric) .
Ferrocyanide of potassium .
Sulphocyanide ....
Prussian blue . . . . _ .
Ferric citrate with ammonium
Ferric tartrate ....
Chromate

Observer.

Copper.
Chloride (cupric dissolved in

ether).
Oxalate with sodium .

Chromate

Chromate with ammonium .

Carbonate

Iodide

Sulphate

Chloride (cuprous)

Copper plates (iodized)

Manganese.

Sulphate

Oxalate

Potassium permanganate
Peroxide and cyanide of potas-
sium

Chloride

Lead.

Oxide

Iodide

Sulphite

Peroxide

Red lead and cyanide of potas-
sium

Acetate

Nickel.

Nitrate

Nitrate with ferro-prussiates .
Iodide

Tin.
Purple of cassius ....

Various Substances.

Cobalt salts

Arsenic sulphide (realgar)
Antimony sulphide

Gehlen
Herschel .
Herschel .

Hunt . .

Dobereiner

Gay-Lussac and
Thenard.

Davy .

Davy .

Abildgaard

Harup not till .

K. Neumann pre-
viously to

Boullay

Bergmann .

Meyer .

Bergmann .

Harff . .

Fourcroy .

Garot .
Lowig .
Torosewicz
Artus .
Field . .
Harff . .
Carbonell and

Bravo
Davy .
Herschel
Vitruvius .

Chastaing .
Bestuscheff
Klaproth .
Dobereiner
Heinrich .
Grotthus .
Scopoli
Herschel .
Herschel .
Hunt . .

Gehlen

A. Vogel .

Date.

Hunt

A. Vogel .
Kratoch
Talbot . .

Brandenburg
Suckow
Frommberg
Hunt .

Hunt .

Davy .

Schonbein

Gay-Lussac
Hunt .

Hunt .

Hunt

Uncertain

Hunt .
Sage .
Suckow

1804
1840
1840

1844
1828

I8II

1812
1797
1797
1801

1739

1803
1776
1764
1776
1836
1791

1826
1828
1836
1836
1836
1836
1831

1812
1840

I B.C.

1877

1725
I782
1831
I808
I8l8

1783
I84O
184O
1844

1804
I8I3

1844

1859
I84I
I84I

I8I5
1832
I824
I844

I844

1802
1850

■1811

1844

1844

1844

1844
1803
1832

Substance.

Observer.

Bismuth salts

Cadmfum salts . . 1 .

Rhodium salts

Vanadic salts

Iridium ammonium chloride .
Potassium bichromate
Potassium with iodide of starch
Metallic chromates
Chlorine and hydrogen .

Chlorine (tithonized) .
Chlorine and ether
Chlorine in water ....
Chlorine and ethylene

Chlorine and carbon-monoxide
Chlorine and marsh gas .
Chlorine and hydrocyanic acid
Bromide and hydrogen
Iodine and ethylene .
Cyanogen, solution of

Various other methyl compounds

Hydrocyanic acid ...

Hypochlorites (calcium and po-
tassium)

Uranium chloride and ether .

Molybdenate of potassium and
tin salts.

Crystallization of salts under
influence of light.

Phosphorus (in hydrogen, nitro-
gen, &c.)

Phosphuretted hydrogen

Nitric acid

Hog's fat

Palm oil

Asphalt

Resins (mastic, sandarac, gam-
boge, ammoniacum, &c).

Guaiacum

Bitumens all decomposed, all
residues of essential oils.

Coloured extracts from flowers .

Similar colouring matters spread
upon paper.

Yellow wax bleached

Eudoxia macrembolitissa (purple
dye).

Other purple dyes

Oils generally ....
Nitric ether ....
Nicotine

Hunt . . .

Roscoe
Dobereiner
Mungo Ponton
Becquerel .
Hunt . . .
Gay-Lussac and

Thenard.
Draper
Cahours
Berthollet . .
Gay-Lussac and

Thenard
Davy .
Henry .
Serullas
Balard .
Faraday
Pelouze and

Richardson,
Cahours
Torosewicz
Dobereiner

Gehlen
Jager .

Petit .
Chaptal
Dize
Bockmann

A. Vogel
Scheele .
Vogel .
Fier
Niepce
Senebier

Hagemann
Daguerre .

Senebier
Herschel .

Santonine

Pliny

Cole

Reaumur .

Senebier

Senebier

Henry & Boutron

Charlard.
Merk . . .

Date.

1844

1874
1831
1838
1840

1843
1809

1842
1810

1785
1809

1812
1821
1827
1832
1821
1837

1846
1836
1813

1804
1800

1722
1788
1789
1800

1812
1777
1806
1832
1814
1782

1782
1839

1782

^1842

1st cent. A. d
10th cent.

1684
1711
1782
1782
1836

1883

Effect of Hydrogen Peroxide on Sensitive Plates. — Dr W. J.
Russell made a series of experiments on the effect of exposure of
sensitive plates to the action of vapours and gases for long
periods. It has long been known that contact of plates with such
substances as wood caused a sensitive surface to show " fog "
on development. By a somewhat exhaustive series of experi-
ments, Russell showed that the probable cause of this fog is
hydrogen peroxide, since substances which favoured its for-
mation produced the same effect. This is somewhat remarkable,
as this same substance will completely destroy the effect that
light has had on a sensitive plate; indeed, it affords one way of
destroying a light image on a sensitive collodion plate. The
experiments of Russell give a warning to store exposed plates for
brief periods. It appears that negatives wrapped in paraffin
paper are secure from this danger.

The Application of Photography to Quantitative Measures. — In
order to employ photography for the measurement of light it
was necessary that some means should be devised by which the
opacity of the deposit produced on the development of a plate
could be determined. It is believed that in 1874 the first attempt
was made by Sir W. Abney to do this. In the Phil. Mag. he
showed how density could be measured by means of an instru-
ment, the diaphanometer, he had devised, in which transparent

TECHNIQUE]

PHOTOGRAPHY

499

A

B

black wedges were used to make matches between the naked light
and the sarr»e light after passing through the photographic opacity
that had to be measured. In 1887, owing to the perfecting of
the rotating sectors, which could be made to increase or diminish
the apertures at pleasure during its rotation, the measurement of
opacities became easy. The Rumford method of comparing
the light through the deposit with the naked beam, using the
sectors to equalize the illumination, was adopted, the deposit
being placed between the light and the screen, the comparison
light being a beam reflected from the same light on to the
screen.

Owing to the fact that photographic deposit scatters light more
or less, the opacities measured by this plan were slightly greater
than was shown when such opacities were to be used for contact
printing. The final plan adopted by Abney was to place the
part of the plate carrying the deposit to be measured behind a screen
constructed as above. C D (fig. 4) is a
dull black card with an aperture cut
in it which may be of any desired shape.
This aperture was covered with trans-
parent paper, as was also a portion B,
the same size as A, but pasted on the
black card itself. Light thrown from
u behind A would be matched with light
FlG. 4. thrown on to B from the front when a

rod in the path of this last beam was made to prevent this light
falling on A. When a portion of a plate bearing a deposit was
placed behind and close to A, the light thrown on B had to be
diminished by the sector till the two squares appeared equally bright
and the aperture of the sector was noted and compared with that
required when the deposit was removed.

With this screen accurate measures of printing densities can be
made, and it can also be used in the determination of the com-
parative photographic brightness of the light issuing from different
objects. For instance, the relative brightness of the different parts
of the corona as seen in a total eclipse can be readily determined if
a " time scale " of gradation is impressed on the plate on which it
is taken. Both scale and streamer can then be enlarged optically
and thrown on the part of the screen A. The measures of the
streamer densities can then be directly compared with the densities
of the scale and the relative " photographic " brightness of the
different parts of the streamer be ascertained by comparison with
this scale also.

The same method of measurement was adopted in ascertaining
quantitatively the sensitiveness of the spectrum of ordinary plates
and of plates in which dyes are present. The figures on PI. IV show
reproductions of plates which were exposed to the spectrum. No. I
is a continuous spectrum taken with the electric light ; no. 7 is an
impressed continuous spectrum; no. 8 shows the bright lines of
metals; no. 3 the line spectrum of volatilized lithium and sodium
to indicate the position of the spectrum colours. Nos. 4 and 2
are the absorption and fluorescent spectra of eosin. No. 5 is the
graduation scale formed by a bromogelatin "Seed" plate stained
with homocol, a cyanine derivative sensitive to the red; no. 6
is a similar scale formed by an unstained plate. The small
numbers placed below the different bands show an empiric scale
which is made to apply to each of them. The first step is to measure

o to so 30 40

Empiric Scale of the spectrum

Fig. 5.

the opacity of the gradation scale, next the opacity of the continuous
spectrum at the various numbers of the empiric scale, and also the
opacity of the other bands at the same scale numbers. The con-
tinuous spectrum will give the sensitiveness of the plate to the
different parts of the spectrum when the measures of its different
opacities are compared with those of the scale of gradation, and a
curve of sensitiveness can be plotted from these comparisons.
It is evident that the measures of the other two bands will give us
information as to the fluorescence and the absorption of the eosin.
Fig. 5 shows the curve of opacity of the image of the spectrum at

its different parts, and also the curve of sensitiveness of the plate
to the different parts of the spectrum. This last is derived from a
comparison of the measured densities with those of the gradation
scale.

Measurement of the Rapidity of a Plate.— The first attempt that
was made to ascertain the rapidity of a plate was by Abney
{Phil. Mag. 1874), who demonstrated that within limits the
transparency of deposit varied as the logarithm of the exposure.

The last formula has been accepted for general use, though it is
believed that it is not absolutely correct, though very approxi-
mately true and sufficiently near to be of practical value. This
belief is based on the further researches described below. 1

In 1888 Sir W. Abney pointed out that the speed of a plate could
be determined by the formula T =E-M(logE+C) 2 , where T is the
transparency, E is the exposure (or time of exposure X intensity of
light acting), and C a constant. If the abscissae (exposures) are
plotted as logarithms, the curve takes the same form as that of
the law of error, which has a singular point, a tangent through
which lies closely along the curve and cuts the axis of Y at a point
which has a value of 2/VE. If the total transparency be unity,
this ordinate has a value of 1-212, the singular point having a
value of 0-606. The ordinate of the zero point of the curve will be
where the tangent to the singular point cuts the line drawn at
I -212. The difference between the measurements of this zero
point for two kinds of plates {i.e. C in the formula) from the points
in the abscissae marking the same exposure, will give the relative
sensitiveness of the two plates in terms of log x*. In 1890 Hurter
and Driffield {Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. Jan. 19, 1891) worked out a
less empirical formula connecting the exposure E with the density
of deposit, which in an approximate shape had the form D = ylog(E/»),
where D is the density of deposit (or log l/T), i the " inertia " of the
plate, T the transparency of the deposit. In the customary way a
small portion of a plate was exposed to a constant light at a fixed
distance and for a fixed time, and another small portion to the same
light for double the time, and so on. By measuring the densities of
the various deposits and constructing a curve, a large part of
which was approximately a straight line, it was found possible, by
the production of the straight portion to meet the axis of X, to
give the relative sensitiveness of different plates by the distance
of the intersection from the zero point L. (See also Exposure
Meters, below, under § 1, Apparatus.)

Effect of Temperature on Sensitiveness. — In 1876 Abney
showed that heat apparently increased, while cold diminished,
the sensitiveness of a plate, but the experiments were rather of
the qualitative than the quantitative order. In 1893, from fresh
experiments, 2 he found that the effect of a difference in tempera-
ture of some 40 C. invariably caused a diminution in sensitive-
ness of the sensitive salt at the lower temperature, a plate often
requiring more than double the exposure at a temperature of
about — 1 8° C. than it did when the temperature was increased to
+33 C. The general deduction from the experiments was that
increase in temperature involved increase in sensitiveness so
long as the constituents of the plate (gelatin, &c.) were unaltered.
Sir James Dewar stated at the Royal Institution in 1896 that
at a temperature of — 180° C. certain sensitive films were reduced
in sensitiveness to less than a quarter of that which they possess
at ordinary temperatures. It appears also, from his subsequent
inquiry, that when the same films were subjected to the tempera-
ture of liquid hydrogen (—252° C.) the loss in sensitiveness
becomes asymptotic as the absolute zero is approached. Pre-
sumably, therefore, some degree of sensitiveness would still
be preserved even at the absolute zero.

Effect of Small Intensities of Light on a Sensitive Salt? — When
a plate is exposed for a certain time to a light of given intensity,
it is commonly said to have received so much exposure (E). If
the time be altered, and the intensity of the light also, so that the
exposure (time X intensity) is the same, it was usually accepted
that the energy expended in doing chemical work in the film was
the same. A series of experiments conducted under differing
conditions has shown that such is not the case, and that the more
intense the light (within certain limits) the greater is the chemical
action, as shown on the development of a plate. Fig. 6 illustrates
the results obtained in three cases. The exposure E is the same
in all cases. The curves are so drawn that the scale of abscissae

1 Those applicable to the correction of star magnitudes as deter-
mined by photography have been verified and confirmed by
Schwarzchild, Michalke and others.

3 Abney, Proc. Roy. Soc. 1893.

* Abney, Proc. Roy. Soc. 1893, and Journ. Camera Club, 1893.

5oo

PHOTOGRAPHY

[TECHNIQUE

is the intensity of the light in powers of —2, and the ordinates
show the percentages of chemical action produced. If the
chemical action remained the same when the intensity of light
was reduced, E remaining the same, each of the curves would
be shown as a straight line at the height of 100, which is the trans-
parency of deposit with the unit of light. As it is, they show
diminishing percentages as the light intensity is diminished.

^

,1**^^

? rr

,.r!U

-^2

K ™

&%*

*s&*

(, ""

^V

sfct"

: "

^JV*'*

s '"

~~

* m

9.

Use Aee foe fk* &d

o Scatter*

lit Ik 1 Intensities

of Light

Fig. 6.
Thus, when the intensity of the light is reduced to^V of the
original, and the time of exposure is prolonged 64 times, the useful
energy expended on a lantern plate is only 50 % of that expended
when the light and time of exposure are each unity. In the cases
to which the diagram refers, the light used was a standard
amyl acetate lamp, and the unit of intensity taken was this light
at a distance of 2 ft. from the plate, and the unit of time was
10 seconds. The lamp being moved to 16 ft. from the plate,
gave an intensity of ^rthe unit, and the time of exposure had
to be increased to 640 seconds, so that E was the same in both
cases. Further, it was found that when the times of exposure
on different parts of the plate were successively doubled, light
at a fixed distance being used for one series, and altered for a
second series, the slopes of the curves of transparency (i.e. the
gradation) were parallel to one another. This investigation is
of use when camera images are in question, as the picture is
formed by different intensities of light, not very different from
those of the amyl acetate lamp, the time of exposure being the
same for all intensities. The deductions made from the investi-
gation are that with a slow plate the energy expended in chemical
action is smaller as the intensity is diminished, while with a quick
plate the variation is much less. As a practical deduction, we
may say that to obtain proper contrast in a badly lighted picture
it is advisable to use a slow plate.

Effect of very Intense
Light on a Sensitive Salt.
— Another investigation
was made as to the effect
of very intense light
on sensitive surfaces. In
this case a screen of
step-by-step graduated
opacities was made use
of, and plates exposed
through it to the action
of lights markedly differ-
ing in intensity, one
being that of the amyl
acetate lamp, another
that of the arc light,
and a third the light
emitted from the spark
of a Wimshurst machine.
The exposures were so
made that one of the

1 2 3 4- 5 G 7 °P ac i t i es produced on

t, , - . M ... . the plate from exposure

Scale of Intensities in to each source of light

Powers Of 2 was approximately the

Fig. 7. same. The unit of

intensity of light is, of course, in each case widely different.
The slope of the curve due to the spark light is less
steep than that due to the arc light, and the latter, again,
is much less steep than that due to the amyl acetate lamp.
A further investigation was made of the effect of increasing
the time of exposure when the intense light was diminished,
and it was found that with all plates the useful chemical
energy acting on a plate was least with the most intense light,
but increased as the intensity diminished, though the time
was correspondingly increased. This is the reverse of what we
have recorded as taking place when a comparatively feeble light
was employed. Further, it was proved that the variation was
greatest in those plates which are ordinarily considered to be the
most rapid. It follows, therefore, that there is some intensity
of light when the useful chemical energy is at a maximum, and
that this intensity varies for each kind of plate.

Intermittent Exposure of a Sensitive Salt. — The same investi-
gator has shown that, if a total exposure is made up of inter-
mittent exposures, the chemical action on a sensitive salt is less
than it is when the same exposure is not intermittent. It was
also proved that the longer the time of rest between the inter-
mittent exposures (within limits) the less was the chemical action.
We may quote one case. Exposures were first made to a naked
light, and afterwards to the same light for six times longer, as a
rotating disk intervened which had 1 2 apertures of 5 cut in it at
equal intervals apart, and 720 intermittent exposures per second
were given. The plate was moved to different distances from
the light, so that the intensity was altered. The apparent loss of
exposure by the intervention of the disk increases as the intensity
diminishes, the ratios of the chemical energy usefully employed
of the naked light exposure to that of the intermitting exposures
being: —

For intensity 1 1 to -815

i 1 „ -500

tV 1 » -423

..1. .. ik 1 .1 '37°

These results appear to be explicable by the theoretical con-
siderations regarding molecular motion.

Effect of Monochromatic Light of Varying Wave-lengths on a
Sensitive Salt. — It has been a subject of investigation as to
whether the gradation on a plate is altered when exposures are
made to lights of different c'olours; that is to say, whether the
shades of tone in a negative of a white object illuminated by,
say, a red light, would be the same as those in the negative if
illuminated by a blue light. Abney x announced that the
gradation was different; and, quite independently, Chapman
Jones made a general deduction for isochromatic plates that,
except with a certain developer, the gradation, was steeper (that
is, the curve shown graphically would be steeper) the greater
the wave-lengths of the light to which the sensitive salt was
subjected. For plates made with the ordinary haloid salts of
silver Chapman Jones's deduction requires modification. When
monochromatic light from the spectrum is employed, it is found
that the gradation increases with wave-lengths of light which
are less, and also with those which are greater, than the light
whose wave-lengths has a maximum effect on the sensitive salt
experimented with. Thus with bromo-iodide of silver the maxi-
mum effect produced by the spectrum is close to the blue lithium
line, and the gradation of the plate illuminated with that light
is less steep than when the light is spectrum violet, green, yellow
or red. From the red to the yellow the gradation is much' the
steepest. Whether these results have any practical bearing on
ordinary photographic exposures is not settled, but that they
must have some decided effect on the accuracy of three-colour
work for the production of pictures in approximately natural
colours is undoubted, and they may have a direct influence on
the determination of star magnitudes by means of photography.
Reproduction of Coloured Objects by means of Three Photo~
graphic Positives. — Ives's Process. — A practical plan of produc-
ing images in approximately the true colours of nature has been
devised by preparing three positives of the same object, one
1 Proc. Roy. Soc, 1900.

TECHNIQUE]

PHOTOGRAPHY

5 CI

illuminated by a red, the other by a green, and the third by a blue
light ; the images from these three transparencies, when visually
combined, will show the colours of the object. This plan was
scientifically and practically worked out by F. E. Ives of Phila-
delphia, though in France and elsewhere it had been formulated,
especially by Hauron Du Cros.

The following description may be taken as that of Ives's pro-
cess: by the trichromatic theory of colour- vision every colour in
nature can be accounted for by the mixture of two or three of the
three-colour sensations, red, green and blue, to which the eye is
supposed to respond. Thus a mixture of a red and green sensation
produces the sensation of yellow; of a green and blue, that of a
blue-green; of red and blue, that of purple; and of all three, that
of white. For the sensations we may substitute those colours
which most nearly respond to the theoretical sensations without
any material loss of purity in the resulting sensation. We must
take the spectrum of white light as the only perfect scale of pure
colours. It has been proved that the red sensation in the eye is
excited by a large part of the visible spectrum, but with varying
intensities. If, then, we can on a photographic plate produce a
developed image of the spectrum which exactly corresponds in
opacity and position to the amount of red stimulation excited
in those regions, we shall, on illuminating a transparent positive
taken from such a negative with a pure red light, have a repre-
sentation of the spectrum such as would be seen by an eye which
was only endowed with the sensation of red. Similarly, if
negatives could be taken to fulfil the like conditions for the green
and for the blue sensations, we should obtain positives from them
which, when illuminated by pure green and blue light respectively,
would show the spectrum as seen by an eye which was only
endowed with a green or a blue sensation. Evidently if by some
artifice we can throw the coloured images of these three positives
on a screen, superposing them one over the other in their proper
relative positions, the spectrum will be reproduced, for the over-
lapping colours, by their variation in intensity, will form the
colours intermediate between those used for the illumination of
the positives. For the purpose of producing the three suitable
negatives of the spectrum, three light-filters, through which
the image has to pass before reaching the photographic plate,
have to be found. With all present plates these are compromises.
Roughly speaking, the screens used for taking the three negatives
are an orange, a bluish-green and a blue. These transmit those
parts of the spectrum which answer to the three sensations.
When these are obtained an image of a coloured object can be
reproduced in its true colours.

Abney devised sensitometcrs for determining the colours of the
screens to be placed before the lens in order to secure the three-
colour negatives which should answer these requirements. Their
production depends upon the same principles indicated as neces-
sary for the correct rendering in monochrome of a coloured object.
When the sensitometer takes the form of glasses through which light
is transmitted to the plate, the luminosities of the coloured lights
transmitted are determined, and also their percentage composition
in terms of the red, green, and blue lights, and thence are deduced
the luminosities in terms of red, green and blue. For ascertaining
what screen should be used to produce the red negative the
luminosity transmitted through each glass is so adjusted that the
luminosity of the red components in each is made equal by rotating
a disk with correct apertures cut out close to the row of glasses.
This gives a sensitometer of equal red values. A coloured screen has
to be found which, when placed in front of the lens, will cause the
opacities of the deposit on the plate, corresponding to each square
of glass, to be the same throughout. This is done by trial, the
colour being altered till the proper result is obtained. In a similar
way the " green " and " blue " screens are determined. Coloured
pigments rotating on a disk can also be employed, as indicated in
the paragraph on the correct rendering of colour in monochrome.

As to the camera for the amateur, whose plates are not as a rule
large, all of the three negatives should be obtained on one plate, since
only in this way can they be developed and the densities increased
together. (For commercial work the negatives often cannot be
taken on the same plate, as it would make the plate too large to
manipulate.) The camera may be of an ordinary type, with a
repeating back, bringing successively three different portions of
the plate opposite the lens. It is convenient to have a slide, in
front of which a holder containing the three screens can be fixed,
which will then be close to the plate; such a one has been devised
by E. Sanger-Shepherd. The light passes through them one by

one as the plate is moved into the three positions. The three
exposures are given separately, after which the plate is ready for
development. The three separate exposures are, however, a
source of trouble at times, particularly in the case of landscapes,
for the lighting may vary and the sky may have moving clouds,
in which case the pictures would show variations which should
not exist. Sanger-Shepherd has a " one-exposure " camera by
which the three images are thrown side by side on the plate. Thus
any movement in the picture affects all three negatives alike.
Abney has also introduced a " one-exposure " camera which takes
in a larger angle than that of Sanger-Shepherd. The next point
is the exposures which should be given through each screen. This
can be done by placing in front of the plate and extending its whole
length a scale of gradation through which the light coming from a
sun-illuminated white card passes, as well as through the screens.
In the case of the three-exposure camera the times of exposure are
varied till the densities of the image of the gradation appear the
same in each of the three images. In the case of the one-exposure
camera, the light reaching the plate through the screens is altered
by cutting off with a shutter more or less of the lens used. As the
plates employed for the purpose of the three-colour negatives must
be sensitive to every colour, the ordinary dark-room light should
be most cautiously used. If used at all, it should be very feeble
and development must be carried out in a dish with a cover to it.
The plate is manipulated in the usual way.

Joly's Process. — Professor J. Joly, of Dublin, in 1897 introduced
a colour process by which an image in approximately natural
colours could be thrown upon a screen by an optical lantern,
only one transparency being employed, instead of three, as in
the Ives process. A " taking " screen was ruled with alternating
orange, blue-green and blue lines -g-J-o" to 'rfrtr in. apart, touching
one another and following one another in the above order.
When such a screen was placed in front of a sensitive plate in the
camera, and exposure made to the image of a coloured object,
there were practically three negatives on the same plate, each
being confined to the area occupied by lines of the same colour.
The shades of colour and the depth of the colours used in ruling
depended on the brand of plate. When a perfect triune negative
was obtained, a transparency was made from it, and in contact
with this was placed a screen ruled with lines the same distance
apart, but of the colours corresponding to the three colour sensa-
tions, namely red, green and blue. The red lines were made
to fall on the image taken through the orange lines, the green
on that of the blue-green, and the blue or violet on that of the
blue. On the screen there are practically three differently
coloured images shown by one transparency. The eye blends the
different colours together and a picture is seen in approximately
the correct colours of the original.

Autochrome. — A very remarkable process, founded on J. Joly's
process, was introduced in 1907 by A. Lumiere et ses Fils of
Lyons. Starch grains of very minute size, some of which were
dyed with a red stain, a second portion with a green, and a third
portion with a blue, are mixed together in such proportions that
a fine layer of them appears grey when viewed by transmitted
light. Under a magnifying glass the grains are coloured, but
owing to the want of focus in the eye the colours blend one with
the other. Such a layer is embedded on the surface of a glass
plate in a waterproof vehicle, and a film of sensitive emulsion
held in situ in some material, the composition of which has not
been published, covers this layer. When such a plate is placed
in the camera, with the back of the plate next the lens, the light
passes through the coloured granules, and again we have three
negatives on one plate, but instead of each negative being repre-
sented by lines as in the Joly process they are represented by
dots of silver deposit. Owing to the way in which the three-
coloured film is prepared, it is evident that a positive taken from
such a negative could not be backed with granules of the
right colour; as the granules are placed at random in the layer.
Lumiere, to overcome this difficulty, converted the negative into a
positive in a very ingenious way. The plate was developed with
pyrogallic and ammonia in the usual way, but instead of fixing
it it was plunged into a solution of potassium permanganate
and sulphuric acid. This dissolved all the silver that had been
deposited during development and left a film of unaltered silver
salt. On looking through the plate the colours of the coloured
layer coming through the different dots where the silver was at

502

PHOTOGRAPHY

[APPARATUS

first deposited appeared in view, and the image was the image
in colour of the object photographed. The plate after being
washed was taken into the light and redeveloped with an alka-
line developer, which converted the sensitive salt of silver to the
metallic state. The image now consisted of black particles of
silver and the coloured image. The plate was next fixed in
hyposulphite of soda to remove any unreduced silver salt that
might be left, and the picture after washing was complete. The
coloured image so obtained is a very close representation of the
true colours, but as the " taking " screen is the same as the
" viewing " screen some little variation must result.

Positives in Three Colours. — Ives was the first to show that a
transparency displaying approximately all the colours in nature
could be produced on the same principles that underlie the three-
colour printing. This he effected by printing each of the three
negatives, produced for his triple projection process as already
described, on gelatine films sensitized by bichromate of potash.
Each of the three transparent films was dyed with a colour com-
plementary to the colour of the light which he transmitted
through the positives when used for projection. Thus the " red "
positive he dyed with a blue-green dye, the " green " positive
with a purple dye, and the " blue " positive with a yellow dye.
These three films, when superposed, gave the colours of the
original object. Sanger-Shepherd has made the process a
commercial success (see Process) and produces lantern slides of
great beauty, in which all colours are correctly rendered. Instead
of using a dye for the " red " transparency, he converts the silver
image of a positive image into an iron salt resembling Prussian
blue in colour. (W. de W. A.)

II. — Photographic Apparatus

Photographic apparatus consists essentially of the camera
with lens and stand, lens shutters, exposure meters, prepared
plates for the production of negatives or transparencies, sensi-
tive papers and apparatus for producing positive prints, direct
or by enlargement. Besides these there are many subsidiary
accessories.

Since the introduction of highly sensitive dry plates and their
extended use in hand cameras, the art and practice of photo-
graphy have been revolutionized. Numerous special forms of
apparatus have been created suitable for the requirements of the
new photography, and their manufacture and sale have become
important industries. The value of the exports of photographic
materials from the United Kingdom in 1906 was £22,716. The
most important improvement has been in the construction of
anastigmatic lenses, which, having great covering power, flatness
of field, and freedom from astigmatism, can be worked with very
much larger apertures than was possible with the earlier forms of
rectilinear or aplanatic lenses. The increased rapidity of work-
ing thus gained has rendered it easy to photograph objects in
very rapid motion with great perfection. This has encouraged
the construction of the very light and compact hand cameras
now so universally in use, while, again, their use has been greatly
simplified by improvements in the manufacture of sensitive
plates and films and the introduction of light, flexible, sensitive
films which can be changed freely in daylight. The introduction
in 1907 of Messrs Lumiere's " Autochrome " process of colour
photography has also been a great advance, tending to popularize
photographic work by the facility it offers for reproducing objects
in the colours of nature.

The Camera.
Historical. — The camera obscura (q.v.) was first applied to
photographic use by Thomas Wedgwood between 1792 and 1802.
No description of his camera is available, but it was probably
one of the sketching cameras then in use. In 181 2 W. H.
Wollaston found that by using a meniscus lens with a concave
surface towards the object and the convex towards the screen, a
diaphragm being placed in front, the projected image of the
camera obscura was greatly improved in sharpness over a larger
field. The first photographic lenses made by V. and Ch. L.
Chevalier in Paris (1830-1840) were on this principle. The
photographic camera in its simplest form is a rectangular box,

one end of which is fitted to carry a lens and the opposite one
with a recess for holding the focusing screen and plate holders,
these ends being connected by a rigid or expanding base-board
and body, constructed to keep out all light from the sensitive
plate except that passing through the lens. In 18 16 Joseph
Nicephore Niepce, of Chalon-sur-Saone, for his photographic
experiments made a little camera, or artificial eye, with a box
six inches square fitted with an elongated tube carrying a len-
ticular glass. There are now in the Chalon Museum cameras of
his with an iris diaphragm for admitting more or less light to
the lens; some with an accordion bellows, others with a double
expanding rigid body for adjusting the focus. The iris dia-
phragm was adopted later by Chevalier for his photographic
lenses. In 1835 W. H. Fox Talbot constructed simple box
cameras for taking views of his house on sensitive paper, and
claimed them as the first photographs of a building {Phil. Mag.
1839, 14, p. 206). Fr. von Kobell and C. A. Steinheil, early in
1839, made a camera with an opera glass lens for taking land-
scapes on paper. Later in 1839 J. W. Draper successfully used
a camera for his daguerreotype experiments made of a spectacle
lens, 14 in. focus, fitted into a cigar box. He also used a camera
fitted with a concave mirror instead of a lens. Similar cameras
were constructed by A. T. Wolcott (1840) and R. Beard (1841)
for reversing the image in daguerreotype portraits. They have
also been recommended by V. Zenger (1875) and D. Mach (1890)
for scientific work.

L. J. M. Daguerre's camera, as made by Chevalier in 1839 for
daguerreotype, was of Niepce's rigid double body type, fitted
with an achromatic meniscus lens with diaphragm in front on
Wollaston's principle, the back part with the plate moving away
from the lens for focusing, and fixed in its place with a thumb-
screw. This expanding arrangement enabled lenses of different
focal lengths to be used. With modifications cameras of this
type were in use for many years afterwards for portrait and
studio purposes. For work in the field they were found incon-
venient, and many more portable forms were brought out, among
them G. Knight's and T. Ottewill's single and double folding
cameras (1853), made collapsible with hinges, so as to fold on to
the base-board. Cameras with light bodies made of waterproof
cloth, &c, also came into use, but these were superseded by
cameras with collapsible bellows-body of leather, which, invented
by Niepce, were used in France, in 1839, by Baron A. P. de
Seguier and others for daguerreotype. The first record of them
in England is, apparently, J. Atkinson's portable stereoscopic
camera of parallel-side bellows form (Ph. Journ. 1857, 3, p. 261),
which was soon followed by C. T. H. Kinnear's lighter conical
form, made by Bell of Edinburgh (Ph. Journ. 1858, 4, p. 166).
They have since been made in various patterns, conical, oblong
and square, by P. Meagher, G. Hare and others, and are still,
in modified forms, in general use as studio, field or hand cameras.
When wet collodion plates were used many cameras were fitted
with arrangements for developing in the field.

Information on these and other early cameras will be found in
the photographic journals, in C. Fabre's Traiti encyclopidique de
photographie, vol. i., and in J. M. Eder's Ausfiihrliches Handbuch
der Photographie, 2nd ed., vol. i., pt. ii.

The distinctive feature of present day photography is the
world-wide use of the hand camera. Its convenience, the ease
with which it can be carried and worked, and the remarkably
low prices at which good, useful cameras of the kind can be
supplied, concurrently with improvements in rapid sensitive
plates and lenses, have conduced to this result. It has also had
a valuable educational influence in quickening artistic perception
and scientific inquiry, besides its use in depicting scenes and pass-
ing events for historical record. Small portable cameras had
been made by B. G. Edwards (1855), T. Scaife (Pistolgraph,
1858), A. Bertsch (i860), T. Ottewill (1861), and others, but it
was not until rapid gelatin dry plates were available in 1881 that
T. Bolas brought out his " detective " camera (Ph. Journ. 1881,
p. 59). It consisted of a double camera (one as finder, the other
for taking the picture) enclosed in another box, suitably covered,
which also contained the double-plate carriers and had apertures

APPARATUS]

PHOTOGRAPHY

503

in front of the viewing and taking lenses. In another form the
finder was omitted. A month later A. Loisseau and J. B.
Germeuil-Bonnaud patented an opera glass camera. Various
forms of portable magazine cameras followed, among them A.
Pumphrey's " Repeating Camera " (1881), W. Rouch's " Eureka "
(1887), R. Krugener's camera (book form, 1888), and others in
collapsible or box forms disguised as books, watches, &c, but
they did not come into general use before 1888, when the East-
man Company of Rochester, U.S.A., brought out their very
portable roll-film cameras, now known under the trade name of
" Kodak." The manufacture of these and other light hand
cameras has since become a very important and flourishing
industry in Great Britain, Germany, France and the United
States. It is noteworthy that the most modern form of hand
camera, the reflex, goes back to an early type of portable camera
obscura, figured by Johann Zahn in 1686, in which a mirror was
used for reflecting the image on to a horizontal focusing screen,
At the same time reversing it. The first photographic camera on
this principle was T. Sutton's (i860), which has served as a basis
/or many subsequent developments. A. D. Loman's (1889) and
R. Krugener's (1891) were early examples of the hand camera
type, but great improvements have since been made.

Modern cameras differ so much in details of improved construction
that only a few of the more important requirements can be noticed.
A camera should be well and strongly made of seasoned wood or
of metal, perfectly rigid when set up, to avoid any shifting of the
axis of the lens in respect to the sensitive plate. The front and
back of the camera should normally be vertical and parallel, and
the axis of the lens perpendicular to the centre of the plate, but
arrangements are usually made by vertical and lateral adjustments
on the camera front for raising the lens to take in less foreground
or vice versa, or for moving it right or left, the latter becoming a
vertical movement when the camera has to be turned on its side.
In the Adams " Idento'" camera the lens and finder can be rotated
together on the rising front according as the camera is used horizon-
tally or vertically, the finder showing in either case the identical
view projected on the plate. The best modern field cameras are
fitted with a swing-back or swing-front and sometimes with both.
A swing-back is necessary for bringing back the plate to the vertical
position, so as to prevent convergence of vertical lines, when the
camera has to be tilted. A rising swing-front, in which the lens
is tilted, answers the same purpose, provided the camera is kept
level. If further tilting is necessary, when taking high buildings
&c, the swing-back and front may both be required, but must be
kept vertical and parallel and the effect is that of an abnormal
rising front. Many modern cameras are fitted with a double rising
front. The vertical and side swings are also useful for equalizing
the definition of objects at different distances from the camera,
but they alter the perspective. These swing-movements should

Creferably be round the central horizontal or vertical axis of the
ack or front, but are frequently effected by simple inclination of
the back or lens front on a hinge. When the rising front is used
a lens of extended covering power is desirable, and it may be neces-
sary to stop it down to obtain good definition over the extended
area of the picture. A slight inclination of the lens may also be
useful in readjusting the focus. The camera and plate carriers
must be perfectly light-tight and all inner bright surfaces made
dead black to prevent reflections from bright spots being thrown
on the plate. The black varnish used, preferably of shellac and
lampblack in spirit, must have no deleterious effect on the plates.
Although the weight and bulk are increased it is convenient to have
the camera square and fitted with a reversible back, so that the
greatest length of the plate may be horizontal or vertical, as desired.
Many cameras are fitted with revolving backs to be used in either
position. In some French cameras the back part of the camera
with the bellows is reversible, to be used upright or horizontal.

Focusing. — The earlier cameras were focused by drawing out
the back and clamping it with a thumb-screw working in a slot in
the base-board. When bellows cameras were introduced they were
focused by an endless screw, and these are still used for large copy-
ing cameras. Most modern cameras are fitted with rack and pinion
movements working either in front or at the back of the camera or
both. Many hand cameras, requiring to be brought to focus at
once, are fitted with studs (infinity catches) which fix the front in
focus for distant objects, nearer distances being noted on an engraved
scale attached to the base-board. Such scales should be verified
by measurement. In hand cameras with fixed infinity focus,
the necessary adjustments for distance of near objects are made on
the lens mount. The focusing screen may be ruled with parallel
cross lines for purposes of measurement, and as a check on the
vertically of the camera when photographing buildings or other
objects with vertical lines. The distance of the lens from the focus-
ing screen and from the sensitive plate in the dark slide must coincide
exactly. This can be tested by measurement or by focusing a

bright, well-defined object on the screen and then on a ground-
glass plate placed in each of the slides to be examined. A level or
other means of showing that the camera is level and the plate vertical
should be attached to the camera, also a view meter or finder,
showing the exact extent of the picture on the focusing glass. In
the view meter the picture is viewed directly through a pin-hole
mounted at the back of the camera as it appears in a frame with
cross wires on the rising front, adjusted to the size of the plate and
the **>cus of the lens. Finders are practically small reflex cameras,
and a reduced image is seen reflected from a mirror or prism. A
rectangular concave glass mounted on the camera is also a con-
venient form, it can be combined with a mirror for vertical observa-
tion, and in Watson's new form is also arranged as a level and
telemeter (B. J. A. p. 724, 1908). The image seen in the finders
should correspond exactly with that on the plate. When the rising
front is used special arrangements have to be made to ensure the
correspondence of the images in the finder and on the ground-
glass. This is done in the " Adams Identoscope " (1908), which
is fitted to the swing front and adjusted by a lever to follow the
movement of the lens.

Plate-holders or Dark-slides. — The dark-slides or backs, holding
sensitive plates, are made either single or double, the former usually
for wet plates, the latter for dry plates. The ordinary book-form
double dark-slide has been in use since the early days of calotype
paper negatives, and contains two plates separated by a blackened
metal plate; three of them usually form a set, the shutters being
numbered I to 6, the odd numbers on the opening side. Inner
frames can be used for smaller plates if desired. The slides should
fit easily into the camera and the shutters run smoothly out and
in. They must be perfectly light-tight, the corner joints, the hinges
in the shutters, and the openings in the sides and top of the book-
form slides are all weak points requiring occasional careful examina-
tion or protection by metal plates. The shutters of dark-slides
are either jointed or solid and removable; the former is perhaps
the more convenient, but both forms may become liable to let in
light. Various forms of solid slides, single and double, are now
made in wood or metal, or of wood for the frame and metal for the
shutters; they are lighter, more compact and less liable to admit
light to the plates. In some cases one slide can suffice for the
exposure of several plates or stiff films, enclosed in separate
envelopes, as in the " Wishart-Mackenzie " slide, the " Victrix "
and other similar ones, or contained in a single packet, as in the
" Premo Filmpack," and
similar arrangements which
enable twelve thin celluloid
films to be placed in the
camera, exposed one after
the other, and removed
again safely in daylight,
the pack being replaced, if
necessary, by another. The
packets of films are made
of light cardboard, and
effect a great saving of bulk
and weight (fig. 1). Roll-
holders are also a convenient
way of carrying sensitive
celluloid films in lengths of
six or twelve exposures,
rolled on spools, which can
be changed in daylight.
Changing boxes for holding
a. reserve of plates or cellu-
loid films in sheaths, are

used with some magazine and other cameras. They are arranged
to fit on the camera in place of the dark-slide and the plates are
changed automatically so that exposed plates are placed in
order successively at the back, a fresh plate going forward for
exposure and the number of the exposure being recorded at the same
time.

Studio cameras, for portraiture, are usually of the square bellows
type, of solid construction, to take large and heavy lenses; adjustable
from front and back with rack and pinion movements, to enable
long or short focus lenses to be used, with extra extension for copy-
ing or enlarging. They are generally fitted with repeating backs,
allowing two or more exposures to be made on one plate. The
backs are square or reversible, so that the plates can be used up-
right or lengthways, and are fitted with double swing movements
at the back. When single dark slides are used they are best fitted
with a flexible shutter to avoid jerking and movement of the
camera. For portraiture they are mounted on solid pillar stands,
being raised or lowered with an endless screw or rack-work, and
the table-top usually has vertical and horizontal angular move-
ments. Large cameras with long extension for copying purposes
are made in many forms with special arrangements for the various
photo-mechanical processes, and are mounted on substantial
table-stands with screw adjustments for obtaining the various
motions above noted, and also a rectilinear traversing motion
right or left. All these stands should be absolutely rigid and free
from tremor. Process cameras are, however, sometimes mounted,

Fig. I. — Premo Film-pack.

5°4

PHOTOGRAPHY

Sinclair Folding Camera.

together with the copying board, on swinging stands, to avoid the
effects of vibration.

Portable and field cameras include cameras of the Hare and
Meagher types for outdoor work and general purposes on plates
15 in. X 12 in. to 85 in. X 6§ in., and m lighter forms from 6J in.
X 4! in. to 4J in. X 3i in. For general purposes they are usually
made with square bellows and fokling tail-board, rather more sub-
stantially than those with conical bellows intended for outdoor
work. There are many patterns, the principal modern improve-
ments in field cameras being swinging fronts, tripod head and turn-
table in the base-board, double and sometimes triple extension
movements from the back and front for long or short focus lenses,
and the use of aluminium for some of the metal-work. They are
fitted with a focusing screen and are intended for use on a tripod
stand, though some of the smaller sizes of the modern light hand or
stand cameras can be used as hand cameras with finders. The
plates are carried in the usual dark-slides, but the smaller sizes,
from half-plate downwards, can be fitted with roll-holders for flexible
films, or with film packs or other daylight changing arrangements.
Folding and Hand Cameras. — Folding cameras form a class of
modern portable cameras which have many conveniences for hand

or stand work from
quarter-plate to 7 in. X
5 in. They may have
all the fittings of a stand
camera and be made to
take glass plates, flat or
roll films, but have the
advantage of forming
when closed a convenient
package enclosing cam-
era, lens and shutter, all
in position for immediate
use when opened out
(fig. 2). Most of them
are fitted with focusing
glass and finders, and
may focus by scale in
the same way as hand
cameras. With an ap-
paratus of this kind on
a light stand any class
of ordinary indoor or outdoor. work can be undertaken within the
size of the plate, and the extension of the bellows, which should be
quite double the focus of the lens.

The multiplicity of forms and arrangements of hand cameras
makes it difficult to classify them into distinct types; but they may
be mainly divided into box and folding cameras, and further into
(a) cameras with enclosed changing magazines for plates or flat
films; (b) with enclosed roll film on spools; (c) with separate changing
magazines, changing boxes or roll-holders; (d) 'with single, double
or multiple plate carriers or film-packs. Most cameras that will
take glass plates in the ordinary plate-holders will take cut films in
suitable sheaths or can be fitted with envelope slides, film-packs
or roll-holders. The normal size for hand cameras is the quarter-
plate (4} in. X 3l in.) , or the continental size 9X12 cm. ; 5 in. X 4 in.
is also a popular size, and cameras for the post-card size, 5! in. X 35 in.
or 15 X 10 cm. have been largely adopted. Smaller sizes are also
made for lantern plates and for the lighter pocket cameras, some
in the form of stereoscopes, field-glasses or watches, as in the
" Ticka," but the pictures are small and require enlarging. Hand
cameras are constructed on the same principles as stand cameras,
but, being specially intended for instantaneous work, they are
simplified and adapted for rapid focusing and exposing. The
focusing screen is superseded or supplemented by finders arranged
to show the limits of the subject on the plate, the focus being ad-
justed by the infinity catches and focusing scales above noticed.
Swing-backs and fronts are often dispensed with, but are desirable
adjuncts, and a rising and falling front particularly so. Lenses of
fairly large aperture, jr/6 to //8, and good covering power, preferably
of the anastigmatic type, or a rapid aplanat, should be used, but
for very rapid work anastigmats working from //4 to //6 will be
more useful. Hand cameras can also be fitted with telephoto
objectives of large aperture. Some cheap hand cameras are fitted
with single landscape lenses or aplanats working about fill or
lower, but the want of intensity limits their use to well-illuminated
subjects. Shutters of the between-lens type are now generally
used in hand cameras, and for ordinary purposes should give fairly
accurate exposures from ^ to j'j of a second or less and also time
exposures. Some central shutters are speeded for shorter exposures
to shi of a second, but for these focal plane shutters are preferable,
and for the more rapid exposures to jjVti of a second and less are
necessary. The shutter should be efficient, regular in action, and
readily released by gentle pressure, pneumatic or otherwise.
Mechanism for automatically changing plates or films in hand
cameras of the box magazine type must be certain in action, simple
and not readily put out of order, special care being taken to avoid
rubbing or abrasion of the plates in changing or transport. In
changing plates or films the number of plates exposed should
be recorded automatically, and duplicate exposures prevented as

[APPARATUS

A circular level placed near the finder is

far as practicable.
useful.

The choice of a hand camera depends upon the circumstances
in which it is to be used, and the purpose for which it is principally
required. For general work and with the modern facilities for
carrying and changing plates and films in daylight, the numerous
folding hand or stand cameras for plates, flat or roll films, with full
adjustments, will be found most useful. Box or magazine cameras
in which a supply of cut films or plates can be carried, changed
mechanically, and exposed rapidly in succession, are convenient,
but their use is limited and they are liable to get out of order.
A third class are the reflex
and other hand cameras
with focal plane shutters for
specially rapid instantan-
eous work as noticed below.
There are two types of light
folding hand or stand cam-
eras, specially adapted for
hand camera work-^-those
made for taking glass plates
and cut films, and the fold-
ing pocket Kodak or other
roll - film cameras. The
former are now made of
very light construction with
mahogany or metal bodies,
wooden or aluminium base-
boards, thin metal dark-
slides (fig. 3). The cameras
of the pocket Kodak type
are of similar construction,
but made to take roll films
on spools, or with an attach-
ment for focusing glass and dark-slides for taking plates and cut
films. Attached to a sling-strap the quarter-plate size can be
quite conveniently carried in a side-pocket. Watson's " Deft "
folding camera is fitted with
a focal plane shutter (fig. 4).
The " Selfix carbine " camera
has a self-erecting front bring-
ing the lens at once into
position for use on opening
out. Those fitted with lenses
of fairly large aperture, double
extension, and rising and fall-
ing fronts are to be preferred.
Of box or magazine cameras
there is an immense variety.
In some the lens is fixed in
focus for all objects within a
certain distance, in others it
is adjusted by a focusing
scale on the lens or by an
extending front. Some have
a single magazine, others two
or more. Some take only glass plates, others plates or cut films.
All of them are, however, self-contained and ready for immediate
exposure. One of the earliest forms of single magazine cameras,
still in use, as in the " Eureka " and " Yale," is the " bag," in

Fig. 3. — Ernemann's Pocket Camera.

Fig. 4.— The " Deft " Folding
Focal-plane Camera.

Fig. 5.-

-Double-magazine Box
Camera.

Fig. 6. — The Verascope,
Richard.

which a supply of plates or films in sheaths, is kept in a magazine
behind the camera, ready for exposure, the plates as exposed
being lifted with the fingers into a bag or expanding chamber
above the magazine and placed behind the rest of the plates at
the back, a fresh plate taking its place in front. In some forms the
magazines are removable and replaceable by others. The arrange-
ment is simple and effective, but the bag, usually made of soft
leather or cloth, is liable to wear and puncture, and may make
dust. The cameras with double magazines in which unexposed
plates are kept in one recess and transferred successively after
exposure to a second recess are more complicated, and many

APPARATUS]

PHOTOGRAPHY

505

ingenious devices have been invented for effecting the change
(fig- 5)- Some forms are effective and popular on account of their
compactness and readiness for immediate exposure, but there is
always a risk of the mechanism failing, and care has to be taken in
charging them to lay the plates truly in their places. The very
handy binocular cameras, or photo-jumettes, of which the " Vera-
scope " (fig. 6) is a type, are of this class, and have additional

Fig. 7. — Beck's Dai-Cornex Daylight-loading Camera,
magazines. So also are hand cameras of R. and J. Beck's " Frena "
type, specially constructed for using stiff celluloid films. The
films are notched on two sides and packed in bundles alternately
with cards similarly notched. The pack of films and cards is placed
in a magazine at the back of the camera, and by the movement of

a lever, after exposure, the
exposed film and its following
card are released, and by turn-
ing the camera down are
dropped into a second re-
ceptacle. A " folding Frena "
is now made as a folding
camera with attached maga-
zine for films, without which
it can be used separately for
plates. R. and J. Beck's new
" Dai-Cornex" is a great im-
provement in this form of
camera, being a daylight-
loading box magazine camera
for plates, the plates being
packed in a bundle of ridged
, „,,.,,,- sheaths, so that they are

Fig. 8.— Watsons Vnl Camera. qu i te protected from light and
can be put into or taken out of the camera in full daylight. In
other respects it resembles other magazine cameras (fig. 7). Another
useful magazine camera is the " Zambex," carrying either plates
or films, held in skeleton frames in envelopes which can be loaded
or unloaded in daylight, and are kept ready for use in the back
of the camera and exposed consecutively. For work in which
speed is of primary importance hand
cameras fitted with very rapid lenses
and focal plane shutters are necessary,
and several forms of portable collapsible
cameras of this kind are now available,
such as the Goerz-Anschiitz, Zeiss's
" Palmos," Watson's " Vril " (fig. 8),
Adams, " Idento," &c, and are lighter
and more portable than the reflex
cameras. Hand cameras are generally
fitted with screw-bushes for mount-
ing on a tripod stand when time ex-
posures are wanted. The light folding
wooden or aluminium stands noted
below are specially suitable.

Twin-lens and Reflex Cameras. — For
photographing animals, objects in motion,

p IG q Camera fitted public functions, &c, it is important to

with Twin Lenses, section have the means of watching the movement

to show working.' t'" tne critical moment of exposure

u j f c j arrives. For this it is convenient to

a, Hood ot hnder. have camera fitted with twm i enses

b, Ground glass screen. working in two separate compartments
(fig. 9) or more simply with a mirror
throwing a full-sized unreversed image
of the object from the lens on to
the focusing screen (fig. 10). With the
former, which has the advantage that
the image is seen before, during, and
after exposure, the lenses must be of

exactly equal focus and focused together by the same motion of
the rack-work, the object being viewed on the focusing screen of
the upper compartment, and the plate kept ready in the lower

to be exposed when desired. Binocular hand cameras are also
made on this principle, one compartment serving for focusing,
the other holding lens and plates. Stereoscopic cameras are
another form of twin-lens cameras, and are usually made for
also taking single panoramic pictures.

In reflex cameras only one lens is necessary, though two are con-
venient, and can be used somewhat as in fig. 9. They generally
consist of a cubical box camera containing a movable mirror facing
the lens at an angle of 45 and throwing up the image projected from
it on to a horizontal focusing screen, on which it is viewed through a
flexible hood which folds down in the upper part of the camera when
not in use (fig. 10). In order to get the greatest rapidity of
exposure a focal-plane shutter is generally fitted, and by a
single movement of the release the mirror is smoothly lifted and
the plate exposed simultaneously. They should be fitted with
anastigmatic lenses working at large apertures for very rapid
work. In some forms the lens is fixed, but usually there is a front
bellows extension for long-focus lenses, with rising and falling front,
to which swing motion may be given, a swing-back not being gener-
ally used with the focal plane shutter. In the " Ernex " camera
E. Human has made an arrangement by which the camera back,
horizontal viewing screen and reflector are made to swing simul-
taneously, by a rack and pinion movement. They may also have
reversing or revolving backs for quickly changing the position of
the plate. 5 in. X 4 in. and 3i in. X 4j in. are the usual sizes of
the plates, but larger and smaller sizes are also available. These
cameras require the best workmanship and perfect mechanism
for successful working and freedom from any jarring* movement
in releasing the shutter or mirror. The focusing screen must also
be in accurate register with the focus of the lens on the plate.
Those forms in which the image can also be viewed at the height
of the eye, as in the Graflex
(fig. io), are preferable. Al-
though reflex cameras are
rather heavy and bulky as
hand cameras, they have many
advantages over the ordinary
hand camera with finder and
focusing scales for the purpose
of the press photographer, the
naturalist and others, in ob-
serving and recording very
rapid movements, and have
come into very general use for
such purposes. They permit
the accurate focusing of a full-
sized image on the ground-
glass up to the moment of
exposure, especially useful
when lenses of long or short
focus are required and when
the rising or swing front is in
use. The aspect of this image
on the ground-glass is also a
great aid in the selection and

Fig. 10. — Reflex Camera,

a, Lens.

B, Mirror.

c, Ground-glass.

D, Plate.

E, Supplementary mirror.

placing of the subject and in judging the exposure required for
it. They practically have all the advantages of a stand camera
and can be used as such on a stand for subjects requiring prolonged
exposure. They are also coming into increasing use in studio work
for portraits of children, &c. Their use and adjustments are
discussed by G. E. Brown in the British Journal Almanac for 1909.
Panoramic Cameras. — Many so-called " panoramic " cameras
have been introduced from time to time, among them T. Sutton's
(1861), and J. R. Johnson's " Pantascopic " (1864), but did not

c, Mirror.

D, Viewing lens.

E, Working lens.

F, Shutter.

G, Focusing pinion.
h, Plate carrier.

1, Plate.

Fig. 11. — Section of " Al- Vista " Panoramic Camera.

come into general use till the use of curved surfaces of celluloid
film enabled such cameras of convenient size and weight to be put
on the market. They are on the same principle as one made by
F. von Martens in 1845 for curved daguerreotype plates, and cover-
ing an angle of 150°. P. Moessard's " Cylindrographe " of 1889
was the first of the modern type. It consists of a semi-circular

506

PHOTOGRAPHY

[APPARATUS

Fig. 12. — " Al-Vista " Panoramic
Camera, closed.

camera, the front of it formed of light-proof cloth and the back
by the curved flexible carriers. The lens is fitted on a vertical
axis, so that the nodal point of emergence remains motionless, and
is revolved round "it by means of a handle worked by hand and carry-
ing a view meter. The illumination of the image is regulated by
an adjustable vertical slit in a tube attached to the lens inside the
box, and by altering the rate at which the lens is revolved. The
pictures taken embrace less than 180°. The apparatus folds
together and is quite portable; it is fully described in Moessard's
Le Cylindrographe (Paris, 1889). The " Al-Vista " (1901) and the
" Panoram Kodak " (1900) are on the same principle, but arranged
as roll-holder hand cameras, in two sizes, carrying film for several
exposures, 7 in. X 2j in. or 4 in. X 12 in. They work instanta-
neously, and by means of a clock-spring the lens rotates rapidly
over a half-circle when released. The angle of view is about 120

(figs. II and 12). The
views taken with this
kind of camera are some-
times disappointing, on
account of the develop-
ment of cylindrical per-
spective on a plane sur-
face causing apparent dis-
tortion. This distortion
is avoided in Carl Zeiss's
" Palmos Panoram "
camera for plates 6J in. X
3i in., fitted with " Tes-
sar " lens and focal plane
shutter, and other similar
cameras which can be
used for stereoscopic or single pictures. Other more elaborate instru-
ments driven by clockwork have been made for making a complete
tour of the horizon. Among them C. Damoizeau's " Cyclographe,"
which can be used with lenses of different foci and takes the pictures
on a roll-film, which is unrolled as the instrument revolves on its
axis, the lens also rotating on its nodal point of emergence; and
thus the image always remains sharp (Bull. Soc. Franc, d. Phot.,

1 891, p. 183). Commandant A. Daubresse has improved on
Moessard's apparatus, by placing the lens vertically between two
right-angled prisms, the upper of which receives the image and
projects it through the lens on to the lower prism, from which, by
rotation of the system on the vertical axis, it is projected on to a
cylindrical film through an angle of 360 (Ibid. 1906, p. 430; E. Jb.,

1907, p. 91). The " Periphote " and Ernemann's " Rundblick "
camera are improved forms (£. Jb., 1908, p. 322).

Many early forms of panoramic cameras are described in B. J. A.

1892, p. 517. Colonel R. W. Stewart's " Panoram " (1893),
A. Chevalier's " Photographic Plane Table," J. Bridges Lee's
" Photo-Theodolite " (1894), and similar cameras fitted with
telescopes, levels and divided circles, are instruments of precision
suitable for photographic surveying. Improved instruments for
topographical surveying with stereo-photographic apparatus, on
the principle worked out by Dr C. Pulfrich, of Messrs Zeiss & Co.,
in his stereo-comparator (1903), are being practically developed,
and much information regarding them will be found in papers by
E. Dolezal and others in J. M. Eder's Jahrbiicher, 1903 to 1908;
also a paper by Lieut. F. V. Thompson in Geographical Journal,

1908, xxxi. 534.

Cameras for Three-Colour Photography. — Many forms of camera
have been constructed for making the three negatives required

fortrichromatic photography. They
fall into two types: (1) those with
a repeating back fitted w'Ji three
colour-screens or filters — red, green
and violet — through which the
colour impressions are made suc-
cessively with one lens upon a
single colour-sensitive plate, as in
the Sanger-Shepherd system. The
colour-screens are placed immedi-
ately in front of the sensitive plate
in the repeating back, which is
moved on for each exposure. In a
more recent form, by the same
Fig. 13. — Diagram of Camera maker, the three images are taken
for Three-colour Photography, on the sensitive plate with one

exposure. The camera is divided
into three compartments, and fitted with a special diaphragm which
'can be regulated for the varying sensitiveness of different batches of
plates. The central image is impressed directly on the plate; the
other two by reflection from prisms arranged so as to equalize the sizes
of the three images on the sensitive plates, the light rays passing
in each case through a suitable colour-filter — red, green and blue-
violet — -somewhat on the principle of F. E. Ives's camera of 1900
(fig. 13). It is convenient and successful in working. (2)
Cameras made on the reflecting principle of L. Ducos du
Hauron (1876), elaborated by F. E. Ives (1894) in his photo-
chfomoscope, in which three images are taken through three
colour-screens on separate plates with one lens, the respective

I"!

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.-nfllfltf

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^

exposures being regulated by reflection of the light coming from
the lens by plane mirrors on to the sensitive plates, and its
filtration through the colour-screens in front of them. Many
variations of this method have been proposed, in which reflecting
prisms replace the mirrors. The different systems have been dis-
cussed by W. Gamble [Ph. Jour. 1905, xlv. 150), the latter also by
E. T. Butler (Ibid. p. 199). Sir W. de W. Abney has described
three-colour cameras for landscape work in Ph. Jour. 1904, xliv.
81, and 1908, xlviii. 331.

Enlarging Cameras. — -These cameras vary in form, according to
the nature of the illumination, but ordinarily consist of a double
or triple extension bellows camera, with a holder for the negative
or transparency at one end, and for the sensitive plate or paper
at the other, the lens being placed on a fixed partition between the
two. Some recent forms of " daylight enlargers " can be used as
an ordinary camera. Other cheaper ones are on the fixed focus
principle. Enlargers for use with artificial light are made like a
magic lantern, with a condenser, projecting an enlarged image on
to a sensitive plate or paper fixed on an easel or screen. A simple
arrangement for daylight enlarging is to fix a suitable camera on
to a larger one by a sliding front, and mount the two on a studio
stand tilted so that the image may be illuminated by the open sky.

Cinematographs. — Many special cameras and lenses have been
introduced for taking on a long flexible sensitive film an extended
series of small photographs of the successive phases of movements,
and again projecting them on a screen so as to reproduce the scene,
with an illusion of motion, in what are known as " living pictures,"
biographs, &c. As each photograph requires a certain minimum
time for exposure and must be kept in true position in sequence
with the rest, some means of regulating the intermittent exposures
and keeping the film in position have to be adopted ; and there are
many different ways of doing it, either by a continuous or inter-
mittent motion and exposure of the film while it is being unwound
from one roller on to another. The films used are similar to the
ordinary celluloid films, but in narrow bands from if in. to 2f in.
in width, the length varying with the number of exposures re-
quired, at the rate of 16 to 20 per second. They are perforated
on both sides, so that they may run true and have the necessary
intermittent motion, the perforations fitting on to studs on a sprocket
wheel in connexion with the driving wheel and crank handle.
Special lenses of short focus, from 1 in. to 3 in., with good covering
power and large apertures j/4 to f/2, are required both for photo-
graphing and projecting; several such are noted below. Absolute
rigidity in the camera is essential. Special stands are made for
the purpose, but if a tripod stand is used it should be well braced.
Special apparatus is required for developing and fixing the exposed
films. They are wound on large rollers supported over troughs
containing the necessary solutions (see Cinematograph). The
mechanical arrangements are treated in H. V. Hopwood, Living
Pictures (1899); F. P. Liesegang, Handbuch der praktischen Kine-
matographie (1907) ; K. W. Wolf-Czapek, Die Kinematographie
(1908); G. Lindsay Johnson, Photographic Optics (1909); Eder's
Jahrbiicher.

A method of cinematography in colour was introduced by G. A.
Smith and C. Urban in 1908, the main features of it being the use
of a film sensitive to all colour waves to the furthest red; super-
imposing the colour records by persistence of vision; the use of
two-colour records instead of three, in order to reduce the interval
between the successive presentations; adaptation to existing
cinematograph machinery and films. These conditions are fulfilled
by the use, in place of the ordinary revolving sector shutter in front
of the lens passing intermittent white light, of a special, more
rapidly revolving shutter divided into four sectors, one fitted with
orange-red glass, another with bluish-green glass and two inter-
mediate opaque sectors, so that at every revolution of the shutter
an exposure is made through the red and green glasses alternately.
The former passes white and yellow, and then orange, scarlet to
deepest red; whilst the latter also passes white and yellow, green,
blue-green, blue, all in proportion according to the red and green
sensitiveness of the specially sensitized panchromatic emulsion on
the film. The same shutter and colour screens are used for pro-
jection, some supplementary blue rays being added. The results
are satisfactory and the method promises to be of great practical
value (see Jour. Roy. Soc. Arts, 1908, 57, No. 2926).

Special cameras are made for various branches of scientific
research in photo-micrography, photo-spectroscopy, astronomical
photography, &c.

Tripod Stands. — Field cameras are usually supported on wooden
tripod stands, folding in two or more sections, the head being
separate or fixed in the base-board of the camera. The legs should
be capable of extension to about 5 ft. and adjustable in length for
use on uneven ground. A tripod stand may be light, but must
be firm and rigid when set up. To prevent slipping, shoes of india-
rubber or cork may be fitted to the points of the legs, and in some
cases it may be desirable to strengthen the tripod by a folding
adjustable brace. W. Butler's " Swincam " camera stand is made
to enable the camera to be securely fixed in awkward positions,
and has many valuable special features, great extension, swivel
points to the feet, &c. For hand cameras the very light, portable
metal folding and walking-stick stands are convenient.

APPARATUS]

PHOTOGRAPHY

507

Photographic Objectives or Lenses.
The objective is the most important item of photographic
apparatus, because upon it depends the perfection with which
a correct and well-defined picture is projected upon the plane
surface of the sensitive plate of objects in the different planes form-
ing the field of view, which naturally would come to a focus on a
series of curved surfaces. This flattened picture must be equally
illuminated and sharply defined, within a limit of confusion from
rii to i&b °f an inch, over a sufficiently wide angle. A good
objective must also pass sufficient light to produce the required
effect on the photographic plate with short exposures ; the chemical
and visual foci must coincide exactly, and it must not distort
straight or parallel lines. The fulfilment of these conditions is
complicated by the presence of sundry focal displacements or aberra-
tions. (1) Spherical aberration, or non-coincidence of the foci of
the central and marginal pencils of rays passing through the lens.
It is corrected by varying the curves of the component lenses and by
the use of a diaphragm. (2) Coma, or blur, due to lateral spherical
aberration of oblique rays, and mostly found in unsymmetrical
combinations and single view lenses. It is partly eliminated by
the diaphragm. (3) Astigmatism, which accompanies coma in
single lenses, and is usually present in symmetrical aplanats, mani-
fests itself by forming two sets of images of points off the axis,
lying in two separate curved surfaces, one set focusing tangentially
as more or less horizontal lines, the other radially as more or less
vertical lines.. It increases with the obliquity of the rays and
causes want of definition and difference of focus between horizontal
and vertical lines away from the centre. (4) Curvature of field,
also increasing with the obliquity of the rays. (5) Distortion,
outward or inward, according to the nature and construction of
the objective. With the single meniscus view lens, used with its
concave surface towards the object and a diaphragm in front, a
square will appear barrel shaped from inward contraction of the
lines towards the centre; but with the convex surface towards the
object and the diaphragm behind, it will appear with concave
sides from outward expansion from the centre. It can be corrected
by using two such lenses with the convex sides outwards and a
central diaphragm, as in periscopic or rectilinear lenses. Lenses
of the orthoscopic and telephoto types generally show the latter
form of distortion. (6) Chromatic aberration, produced by the
dispersion of the white light passing through the lens, and the
different coloured rays composing it' coming to a focus at different
distances from the visual focus in the order of their wave-lengths.
It thus affects both the positions and sizes of the image for the dif-
ferent colours. For ordinary photographic work it suffices for the
blue-violet and yellow rays to be coincident, but for the new pro-
cesses of photography in three colours, apochromatic lenses, in
which perfect coincidence of the coloured rays is secured, are re-
quired to obtain the accurate register of the three images. The
corrections are effected by compensating lenses of different refractive
powers (see Aberration).

In constructing photographic objectives these aberrations and
distortions have to be neutralized, by regulating the curves of the
different positive and negative component lenses, the refractive
and dispersive indices of the glasses from which they are made,
and the distances of the refracting surfaces, so as to make the
objective as far as possible stigmatic or focusing to a point, giving
an image well defined and undistorted. This perfect correction
could never be effected in objectives made before 1887, and very
few could be effectively used at their full apertures, because although
linear distortion could be overcome there were always residual
aberrations affecting the oblique rays and necessitating the use of
a diaphragm, which by lengthening out the rays caused them to
define clearly over a larger surface, at the expense of luminous
intensity and rapidity of working. The introduction of rapid
gelatin dry plates enabled photographs to be taken with much
greater rapidity than before, and led to a demand for greater
intensity of illumination and better definition in lenses to meet
the requirements of the necessarily very rapid exposures in hand
cameras. For studio and copying work quick-acting lenses are
also valuable in dull weather or in winter.

The rapidity of a lens with a light of given intensity depends
upon the diameter of its aperture, or that of the diaphragm used,
relatively to the focal length. In order, therefore, to obtain in-
creased rapidity combined with perfect definition, some means
had to be found of constructing photographic objectives with larger
effective apertures. This necessity had long been recognized and
met by many of the best makers for objectives of the single meniscus
and aplanatic types, but with only partial success, because such
objectives are dependent upon the diaphragm for the further
correction necessary to obtain good definition over an extended
field. The difficulty was in the removal of astigmatism and curva-
ture of the field, which, as J. Petzval had shown, was impossible
with the old optical flint and crown glasses. In 1886 Messrs
E. Abbe and O. Schott, of Jena, introduced several new varieties
of optical glasses, among them new crown glasses which, with a
lower dispersion than flint glass, have a higher instead of a lower
refractive power. It was thus rendered possible to overcome
the old difficulties and to revolutionize photographic optics by

>0\A types.

enabling objectives to be made free from astigmatism, working at
their full apertures with great flatness of field independently of
the diaphragm, which is now chiefly used to extend the area of
definition or angle of view, and the so-called " depth of focus "
for objects in different planes.

Photographic objectives may be classed as follows: —

1 . Single achromatic combinations. ~|

2. Unsymmetrical doublets.

3. Symmetrical doublets.

4. Triple combinations. J

5. Anastigmatic combinations — symmetrical "1

and unsymmetrical. I N

6. Telephotographic objectives. f iNew ^yv^ s -

7. Anachromatic combinations. J

They are also sometimes classified according to their rapidity, as
expressed by their effective apertures, into " extra rapid," with
apertures larger than //6; " rapid," with apertures from //6 to //8;
" slow," with apertures less than //n. Another classification is
according to the angle of view, " narrow angle " up to 35° ; " medium
angle " up to 60°; " wide angle " up to 90°, 100°, or more. Many
lenses are made in series, differing in rapidity and angle of view as
well as in length of focus.

1. Single Achromatic Combination or Landscape Lens. — This is
the earliest form of photographic objective, evolved from W. H.
Wollaston's improved single periscopic meniscus camera obscura
lens (1812). It was made achromatic by Ch. Chevalier, and so used
by L. J. M. Daguerre, though it required correction for chemical
focus, as did the object glasses of telescopes or opera glasses first
used for photography. The single landscape lens usually consists
of an achromatic compound meniscus, formed of a biconvex positive
crown cemented to a biconcave negative flint to secure achromatism
and partially correct the spherical aberration, and may be taken
as the type of the " old photographic achromat "
(fig. 14). 1 It is used with its concave side towards
the object and a diaphragm in front, thus pro-
ducing inward or barrel-shaped distortion, inherent
in this type of objective, and rendering it unsuit-
able for copying or architecture, though not very
noticeable in landscape work. The full aperture
has to be largely reduced by a diaphragm to im-
prove definition; so it is slow, though many im-
proved forms have been brought out. It has
always been popular for pure landscape work on
account of the equality of illumination over
the plate, depth of focus, and the softness and
brilliancy of the image owing to its thinness and
freedom from reflecting surfaces. In some of its improved and
" long focus " forms it is preferred by portraitists for large
heads, on account of the general softness it gives when used with
large apertures.

The following are some of the best-known improved objectives
of this type: T. Grubb's "Aplanatic" (1857), //15 to //30

Fig. 14-Single
Lands cape
Lens.

a

Fig. 15. — Grubb's
" Aplanatic " Lens.

(fig. 15); J. H. Dallmeyer's " Wide Angle Landscape Lens " (1865),
//15, angle 75°. In it distortion was reduced and marginal defi-
nition improved. The " Rapid
(long focus) Landscape Lens "
(1884), //12, angle 40 4 (fig. 16),
was a modification of it, and
at //8 is useful for heads in
portraiture. W. Wray's

' Landscape Lens " (1886),
fill, is also useful for por-
traiture in the larger sizes at
//8. Fr. Voigtlander's " Wide-
Angle Landscape Lens " (18

Fig. 16. — Rapid Landscape Lens.
Long Focus.

/

Fig. 17. — Rectilinear Landscape
Lens.

1 In the diagrams of lenses which follow, a uniform system of
indicating the nature of the glass employed by means of the shading
has been adopted.

Flint glass is indicated thus : —

Crown glass of low refractive power thus : —

Crown glass of high refractive power thus : —

(These two are used indiscriminately in lenses made
before the introduction of the new Jena glass.)
Extra light flint glass thus: —
In most cases the front of the lens is on the right.

5 o8

PHOTOGRAPHY

[APPARATUS

//15, angle 90 °, with great covering power and depth of focus.
T. R. Dallmeyer's " Rectilinear Landscape Lens " (1888), //14,
angle 6o° (fig. 17), was of novel construction, free from distortion,
brilliant in working and useful for copying. Messrs Ross's " Wide-
Angle Landscape Lens " (1890), //16, angle 70 , triple cemented
and made of Jena glass. Many other excellent objectives of
this type have been made by British and foreign makers and are
still used, though somewhat superseded by the fully corrected
anastigmats spec'ally made to work singly, or as single elements
of anastigmatic doublets, as noticed in § 5.

2. Unsymmetrical Doublets: Old Types. — This class includes
objectives with comparatively large apertures formed of two
dissimilar combinations, in most cases correcting each other, with
a diaphragm between them. In some the single elements may be
used independently. All the older " portrait " lenses, some of the
aplanatic doublets and Fr. von Voigtlander's " Orthoscope "
Lens (1857), now disused, are of this type. Eyen with the present
improved conditions, the portraitist working in a studio requires
a quick-acting objective of large effective aperture and compara-
tively short focus, giving a brilliant well-defined image of near
objects in different planes over a restricted field of view. The
early single lenses were found to be too slow for portraiture by _ the
daguerreotype and talbotype processes, and the efforts of opticians
were directed to the problem of obtaining the maximum amount
of light, together with good definition and flatness of field, and
about 1840 compound lenses were brought out by Andrew Ross and
C. Chevalier, consisting* of two achromatic compounds, one at
each end of a tube. Ross's lens, made for H. Collen, is interesting
as the first lens corrected photographically, so that the visual and
chemical foci were coincident (fig. 18). Ch. Chevalier also com-
bined lenses of different foci, as is now done for " convertible "
objectives, used singly or combined. He also fitted them with
iris diaphragms. These forms were soon superseded by the com-
pound portrait lens, calculated by J. Petzval and brought out by

It had six reflecting surfaces and nearly approached a triplet
(fig. 21). Steinheil's "Group Aplanats " (1879), //6 4, angle 70 ,
were an improvement on the ordinary " Aplanats," but were
superseded in 1881 by the " Group Antiplanets," //5, angle 70°,
lenses of a distinct type (fig. 22). They were a further advance
on the " Aplanats," working at larger apertures and giving
better definition. This lens is interesting as the first in which
astigmatism was eliminated by combining a "crown-shaped"
Jens of high refractivity, with a " flint-shaped " of lower
refractivity, though made of the old glasses. In his " Rapid
Antiplanet " (1893), //6'5, angle 30°, Dr R. Steinheil improved
the "Group Antiplanet" as regards astigmatism and_ covering
power by replacing the thick back combination by a triple long-
focus negative element consisting of a crown between two flints,
with a heavy barium crown in the front element instead of a flint
(fig. 23). Voigtlander, who originally constructed the Petzval
portrait lens, improved it in 1878 and 1885, and now makes two
lenses on the same principle, series I. //3 2, angle 28°, for ordinary
portraiture and projection, and series la., //2-3, angle 22° (1900)
for astrophotography, cinematography, &c, when intense illumina-
tion is required over a small field. Both are quite free from coma-.

Fig. 18. — First English

Portrait Lens. Fig. 19. — Portrait Lens.

Fr. von Voigtlander in 1841. It consists of two dissimilar achro-
matic combinations widely separated. At first the diaphragms
were in front, but now they are central. The front element is a
plano-convex composed of a biconvex crown cemented to a plano-
concave flint, while the back element is a double convex, com-
posed of a biccnvex crown separated by an air-space from a concavo-
convex flint (fig. 19). This form of objective quickly supplanted all
other for portraitures, and is still largely used, though it has defects
which prevent its use for general purposes and is being superseded
for portraiture by some of the rapid anastigmats. In his " Quick
Acting Portrait Lens " (i860), jj\, angle 45°, J. H. Dallmeyer
improved the correction for spherical aberration, and in his " Extra
Quick Acting Portrait Lens " (i860), f/2 2, used for cinematograph
work, attained greater rapidity. In the " Patent Portrait Lens "

(1866), //3, //4 and //6, angles
50° to 55° (fig. 20), he made
great changes in the form and
relative positions of the back
elements, giving a flatter field
and freedom from flare spot. By
separating the two components
of the back element more or less
spherical aberration could be in-
troduced to give softer definition
and greater depth of focus. In
1875 Dr. A. Steinheil made an
unsymmetrical aplanatic por-
trait combination of peculiar construction, working at//3-2. It was
an improvement on his similar symmetrical " Portrait-Aplanat,"

Fig. 20. — Dallmeyer's Patent
Portrait Lens.

Fig. 23. — R. Steinheil's Im- Fig. 24. — Ordinary Angle

proved Group Antiplanet. Actinic Doublet.

Most of the above are portrait objectives of large aperture, but
unsymmetrical doublets have also been made for landscape work.
J. T. Goddard's " Combination Landscape Lens ". (1859) was one
of the first, and was free from distortion, gave a flat field, and
could -be used as a convertible lens. In 1864 T. Ross issued his
" Actinic Doublets," modified from the Collen lens, in three series
— "small angle," //8, angle 40 to 50°; "ordinary angle," //i4>
angle 60° to 75 (fig. 24); " large angle," //16, angle 80° to 95 .
These lenses were similar to the " Globe," but unsymmetrical
and more rapid. The separate elements could be used alone.
Some of them were fitted with a shutter near the diaphragm. They
were superseded by the " Symmetrical " lenses.

3. Symmetrical Doublets. — This class includes objectives formed
of two similar combinations of lenses, usually of the convergent
meniscus form, with their concave surfaces inwards and a diaphragm
between them ; consequently they are rectilinear and practically
free from marginal distortion. Until the introduction of anastig-
matic doublets they were in general use for all purposes under the
names " Aplanat," " Rectilinear," " Symmetrical," " Euryscope,"
&c. They are still largely used and have been improved by the
use of Jena glasses in their construction.

The first recorded lens of this type was Dr J. W. Draper's com-
bination used in 1839 for daguerreotype portraits, consisting of
two double-convex lenses 4 in. diameter, with a united focus
of 8 in., mounted in a tube with a diaphragm 3! in. in front.
In 1841 T. Davidson made a combination of two single landscape
lenses very similar to the later rectilinear doublets. Being slower
than the Petzval portrait lens its value as a non-distorting lens for
general purposes was not recognized. G. S. Cundell (1844) combined
two uncorrected meniscus lenses with a diaphragm between them.
In i860 T. Sutton brought out his " Panoramic Lens," which
worked on curved plates covering about ioo°. It was followed

Fig. 21. — Portrait Antiplanet. Fig. 22. — Group Antiplanet.
Form I. of 1874, but was superseded in 1881 by the " Portrait
Antiplanet," 7/4 and free from astigmatism over an angle of 14 .

Fig. 25.— C. A. Steinheil's

" Periskop." Fig. 26. — A. Steinheil's "Aplanat."

by C. C. Harrison's " Globe Lens " (1862), angle 75 , composed of
a symmetrical pair of deep compound menisci, the exterior surfaces
forming part of a sphere. Though defective and slow it was popular
for a time. C. A. Steinheil's " Periskop " (1865, //I3-5, angle go",
was a symmetrical doublet formed of two plain crown menisci
with central diaphragm (fig. 25). It gave a larger field than the
" Globe," the lenses being closer together. Being nonachromatic
it had to be adjusted for chemical focus. It was quite free from
distortion, with a very flat field, and both nodal points together.
It is considered the best possible combination of two plain lenses,
and is still used in some of the cheaper hand cameras with fixed
focus, the difference of the chemical and visual foci being allowed for
in the_ camera or by adjustable lens mounts. G. Rodenstock's
" Bistigmats " are of this class. J. Zentmayer made a similar un-
symmetrical lens. In A. Steinheil's " Aplanat " (1866) the sanle
principle was carried out with achromatized leases, and a great

APPARATUS]

PHOTOGRAPHY

509

improvement was effected in the construction of non-distorting
objectives of fairly large aperture. It consisted of two positive
cemented flint menisci, each composed of a dense flint with negative
focus outside and a light flint with positive focus inside, its concave
surfaces facing the centre (fig. 26). This use of flint glasses alone
was peculiar, former achromatic lenses having been made of flint
and crown. These lenses were made in three rapidities : " Ordinary,"
f/6 or//7, angle 60°; " Landscape," f/12 to//i5, angle 90 , also used
in convertible sets; " Wide Angle Landscape," //20 to f/25, angle
104°; " Wide Angle Reproduction," similar to the last, but with
sharper definition. The " Aplanat " had many advantages over
previous doublets and the triplet, being more rapid, perfectly
symmetrical, so that there was no necessity for turning them when
enlarging, and free from distortion or flare. There was no chemical
focus. Each component could be used alone for landscape work
with double focus, subject to the ordinary defects of single lenses.
By the use of Jena glasses in the "Universal Aplanat" (1886) the
components of this lens were brought closer together, its intensity
increased, and it was made more portable. J. H. Dallmeyer had
been_ working in the same direction simultaneously with Steinheil,
and in 1866 brought out his " Wide Angle Rectilinear," //15, angle
100°, made of flint and crown, the front element being larger than the
back (fig. 27). It was slow for ordinary purposes and was succeeded
in 1867 by the well-known " Rapid Rectilinear," //8, on the same

<-

Fig. 27. — Wide-Angle
Rectilinear Lens.

Fig. 28. — Rapid Rectilinear Lens.

Fig. 29. — Triple Achromatic Lens.
Triplets" (1861), //16, they were flat.

principle as Steinheil's " Aplanat, but made of flint and crown
(fig. 28). Ross's " Rapid " and " Portable Symmetrical " lenses,
Voigtlander's " Euryscopes," and other similar lenses of British
and foreign manufacture are of the same type, and still in use. They
arc excellent for general purposes and copying, but astigmatism is
always present, and although they can be used with larger apertures
than the triplets they displaced, they require stopping down to secure
good marginal definition over the size of plate they are said to cover.
By the use of Jena glasses they have been improved to work at
larger apertures, and some are made with triple cemented elements.

4. Triple Combinations: Old Types. — This class comprises objectives
composed of three separate combinations of glasses widely separated
from each other. An early form of this type was made by Andrew
Ross (1841) for W. H. Fox Talbot, others by F. S. Archer, J. T.
Goddard (1859), T. Sutton (i860), but they never came into general

use. J. H. Dallmeyer's " Triple
Achromatic Lens " (i86i),//io,
angle 6o°, now out of date,
was an excellent non-distorting
lens, very useful for general
work and copying (fig. 29). As
made by Dallmeyer, the inner
surfaces of the front and back
components were slightly con-
cave, but in T. Ross's " Actinic
The centre lens was an
achromatic negative serving to flatten the field.

5. Anastigmatic Combinations, Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical. — •
As already stated, it was found practically impossible to obtain
flatness of field, together with freedom from astigmatism, in objectives
constructed with the old optical glasses. A. Steinheil attempted it
in the " Antiplanets," but with only partial success. The Abbe and
Schott Jena glasses, issued in 1886, put a new power into the hands of
opticians by largely increasing their choice of glasses with different
refractive and dispersive powers. Whereas the old glasses had
high refractivity with higher dispersion, in the new ones high refrac-
tivity with lower dispersion could be set against lower refractivity
with higher dispersion.

Between 1887 and 1889 the first attempts to make anastigmatic
objectives with the new glasses were made by
M. Mittenzwei of Zwickau, R. D. Gray of New
Jersey, E. Hartnach and A. Miethe of Berlin
(" Pantoscope "), K. Fritsch of Vienna (" Apo-
chromat ") and Fr. von Voigtlander of Brunswick,
with more or less success, but progress was hindered
by the instability of some of the early glasses,
which was afterwards overcome by sandwiching
the soft glasses between two hard ones. In 1888
Dr H. L. H. Schroeder worked out for Messrs Ross
the " Concentric Lens " (fig. 30) issued in 1892
(Ph. Jour., 16, p. 276). It was a symmetrical
doublet of novel construction, each element con-
sisting of a plano-convex crown of high refrac-
tivity cemented to a plano-concave flint of lower
refractivity, but about equal or higher dispersion. Both the

Fig. 30. — Con-
centric Lens.

uncemented surfaces were spherical and concentric. At//i6 it gave
sharp definition and flatness of field with freedom from astigma-
tism, distortion or flare over an angle of 75 °. It was an excellent
lens, though slow, and has been superseded by the " Homocentric "
and other more rapid anastigmats. Dr Paul Rudolph, of Messrs
Carl Zeiss & Co., Jena, worked out in 1889 a new and successful method
of constructing a photographic objective by which astigmatism of
the oblique rays and the want of marginal definition due to it could be

Fig. 31. — Anastigmat. Fig. 32. — Anastigmat.

Series II. //6-3. Series Ilia. jf/9.

eliminated without loss of rapidity, so that a comparatively extended
field could be covered with a large aperture. This he did on the prin-
ciple of the opposite or opposed gradation of the refractive indices in
the front and back lenses, by a combination of two dissimilar systems
of single lenses cemented together, the positive element of each having
in one case a higher and in the other a lower refractive index than that
of the negative element with which it was associated. The front
system, relied upon for the correction of spherical aberration, was
made of the old glasses, a crown positive of low and a flint negative
of high refractivity, whilst the back system, relied upon for the
anastigmatic flattening of the field, was made of the new glasses,
a crown positive of high and a flint negative of low refractivity.
Both systems being spherically and chromatically corrected for a
large aperture, the field was flattened, the astigmatism of the one
being corrected by the opposite astigmatism of the other, without
destroying the flatness of the field over a large angle (see E. Jb.,
1891 and 1893; M. von Rohr's Geschichte, and O. Lummer, Photo-
graphic Optics, for further details). They were issued by Messrs
Zeiss and their licencees (in England, Messrs Ross), in 1890, in two
different types. The more rapid had five lenses (fig. 31), two of
ordinary glasses in the front normal achromat, and three in the
back abnormal achromat, two crowns of very high refractive power,
with a negative flint of very low refractive power between them.

Fig. 33— Anastigmat.
Series VI.

Fig. 34. — Satz Anastigmat.
Series Via.

The fifth lens assisted in removing spherical aberrations of higher
orders with large apertures. The second type, series Ilia., f/g,
1899 (fig. 32), had only two lenses, the functions of which were as
above. These combinations could not be used separately as single
lenses. They are now issued as " Protars," series Ha., //8; Ilia.,
//9; V., //18. In 1891 Dr Rudolph devoted himself to perfecting
the single landscape lens, and constructed on the same principle a
single combination of three lenses, the central one having a refractive
index between the indices of the two others, and one of its cemented
surfaces diverging, while the other was converging. At //l4-5 this
lens gave an anastigmatically flat image with freedom from spherical
aberration on or off the axis. It was, however, not brought out till
1893, as a convertible lens or " Satz-Anastigmat, " series VI., //l4'5,
and VIa.,//7-7 (figs. 33 and 34). In the meantime Dr E. von Hoegh
(C. B. Goerz) and Dr A. Steinheil had also been working at the pro-
blem and had independently calculated lenses similar to Rudolph's,
but, whereas he had devoted himself to perfecting the single lens,
they sought more perfect correction by combining two single anas-
tigmatic lenses to form a doublet. Dr Rudolph had had the same
idea, but Messrs Goerz secured the priority of patent in 1892, and
in 1893 brought out their " Double Anastigmat," now known as

Fig. 35.
Ross-Goerz " Dagor." Series III. Ross-Goerz. Series IV.
" Dagor." It was the first symmetrical anastigmat which combined
freedom from astigmatism with flatness of field and great covering
power at the large aperture of //7-7 (fig. 35). Both these types of
Zeiss's " Protars " and Goerz's " Dagor " anastigmats have since

5i°

PHOTOGRAPHY

[APPARATUS

been made by Messrs Ross in England. Messrs Steinheil brought
out their first " Orthostigmats " in 1893, but, owing to patent diffi-
culties, were unable to manufacture them in Germany, and they were
issued later in France and England. They were followed by a second
type, which has since been issued in several series by Messrs Steinheil
and by Messrs Beck in England (fig. 36). According to Dr R.
Steinheil (E. Jb., 1897, p. 172) this lens was an application of two
principles recognized by Dr A. Steinheil as necessary for the spherical
and anastigmatic correction of a lens. He attempted to carry them
out in the " Antiplanet," but was prevented by the want of suit-
able glass. He found that for anastigmatic correction an objective
should have the separating surface between two media concave
towards the medium of higher refraction (new achromat), and for

Fig. 36. — Steinheil's Fig. 37. — " Collinear."

" Orthostigmat." Series II.

spherical correction the separating surface should be convex towards
the higher refracting medium. A fully corrected cemented lens
cannot, therefore, be made with less than three glasses, but with
uncemented lenses an air-space may form one of the media. In
1895 Dr D. Kaempfer worked out the " Collinear " for Messrs
Voigtlander, constructed on the same principles as the " Ortho-
stigmat," type II., and similar to it (fig. 37). It is made in three
series:' II., //5'4 and//6'3; III., //68 and//77 (convertible); IV.,
//125, and the apochromatic collinear //8, calculated by Dr H.
Harting for three-colour reproduction, &c. (Ph. Jour., 1901, 25,
P- 323-)

In 1894 Dr Rudolph extended the application of his principle
by combining the old achromat and the new achromat into a single
quadruple cemented iens (fig. 38), which, according to T. R. Dall-
meyer, was the most perfectly corrected single lens that had been

these lenses are designed to be free from diaphragm corrections,
while the focal power of the negative lens is made as closely equal to
the combined focal powers of the two positive lenses as may be

Fig. 38.

Series VII. //I2-5. Series Vila. //6-3.

evolved up to 1900, Dr Rudolph having succeeded in obtaining
freedom from spherical aberration and astigmatism, and also in
eliminating coma (Ph. Jour. 1901, 25, p. 68). These lenses were
issued in 1895 as series VII. singly and Vila., in combinations now
known as " Convertible Protars," and the earlier series VI. and Via.
were withdrawn. The single lenses of series VII., //I2'5, angle 85°,
have great anastigmatic flatness of field and only very slight marginal
distortion, a condition not realized before in a single lens. The rela-
tive rapidities of the double combinations of series Vila, vary from
//6'3 to //8, according to the lenses used. They are excellent lenses
for all general purposes.

In their " Convertible Protars," series IV. (1908), //I2'5, angle
6o°, Messrs Zeiss have simplified and cheapened the construction
of these lenses by the use of new Jena glasses, so that they consist
of three instead of four lens elements cemented together, while
possessing the same high efficiency as series VII. They are issued
as " single " or " double " Protars, //I2'5 and //6'3 or fly, also in
sets of three or four objectives of different foci, which are combined
to give pictures of different angles of view from the same standpoint.
With both series when using the " Protar " lens singly, it should
be screwed behind the iris diaphragm of the mount, to avoid curva-
ture of the field, and when two such lenses are combined the one
with the greater focal length should be placed in front.

In 1895 Messrs Goerz patented a double anastigmat, //5'6, with
quintuple single lens components as a convertible lens, for which
greater sharpness of definition and intensity, with perfect freedom
from astigmatism and distortion in the single lens, were claimed.
It was issued in 1898, but, like an earlier analogous quintuplet of
Messrs Turner & Reich (1895), it has not come into use on account
of the cost and difficulty of construction. The latter firm, however,
brought out in 1906 a new symmetrical quintuplet at//6"8.

A triple anastigmatic combination containing remarkable new
features, constructed and patented by H. D. Taylor, was issued in
1895 by Messrs Taylor, Taylor & Hobson under the name of the
" Cooke Lens," and later by Messrs Voigtlander as the "Triple
Anastigmat." It consists of three single lenses, two of them positive
crossed lenses of crown glass with high refraction and low dispersion,
with their most convex sides outwards, and between them, in front
of the diaphragm, a single biconcave of light flint (fig. 39). All

Fig. 40. — "Cooke"
Series III.

Lens.

39. — " Cooke " Portrait Lens.
Aperture //4- 5.

necessary for the flattening of the field and correcting marginal
astigmatism. They are not convertible, but arrangements are made
for replacing the back lens by a low-power extension lens (Ph.
Jour. 1895, 19, p. 64). Series III., //6'5 (fig. 40), and series IV.,
//5'6, are portrait lenses. In the larger objectives of series II.
the back lenses are adjustable for uniform sharp definition or a soft
diffusion of focus. In a later series VI. (1907), //5"6, this adjustment
for diffusion is given to the front lens and is so arranged for portrai-
ture that the diffusing adjustment and iris diaphragm can be operated
from the back of the camera while viewing the focusing screen.
A special fully corrected "Process" lens on the same general
principle has recently been brought out for three-colour work and
fine-line reproduction. Another distinctly new type of anastigmatic
objective involving several new principles of construction was
patented by H. L. Aldis in 1895, and brought out by Messrs Dall-
meyer in three series, under the name of " Stigmatic" (Ph. Jour.,
1896, 20, p. 117). It also approaches the triplet construction and
depends on the introduction of air-spaces between the component
lenses. According to Aldis, three conditions must be observed to
obtain a flat field free from marginal astigmatism : (1) The converging
lenses must be of high, the diverging of low, refractive index; (2)
the converging and diverging components must be separated by a
considerable interval ; (3) thick meniscus glasses should be used.
The first " Stigmatic " was a portrait lens, series I., 1896, f/4. It
has been made in two forms, first with a triple front lens, and a back
negative system formed of a single thick crown lens of high refrac-
tivity with a negative ce-
mented meniscus. In the
second form (fig. 41) the
front component consists
of a cemented positive and
negative, and both parts
of the back component
are cemented lenses. All
the converging lenses are
of dense baryta crown,
while both the diverging
lenses in the back component are a light silicate crown. It is
fully corrected for spherical and chromatic aberration, free from
distortion and nearly so for astigmatism, giving equal illumination
over a flat field of 6o°. Diffusion of focus is obtained by unscrewing
the back cell. Series II. (1897) is on the same principle but differs
in construction, working at //6 over an angle of 85° as a universal
and convertible lens (fig. 42). The
front or back component can be used
alone, giving the choice of two focal
lengths, 1 1 and twice the focal
length of the complete lens. The
principles of its construction were
described by T. R. Dallmeyer in Ph.
Jour. 1897, 21, p. 167. Series III.,
//7'5. will at //16 give sharp defini-
tion over a plate two sizes larger.
The single components are not con-
vertible.

In 1897 Messrs Zeiss issued the " Planar," an objective of large
aperture based on the principle of the Gauss telescope objective.
It is a symmetrical doublet, each element consisting of three lenses,
the two inner ones being a double convex and a double concave, of
equal refractive but different dispersive power, cemented together
and separated by an air-space from the outer convex meniscus (fig.
43). Its special points are its good colour correction, large relative
aperture and intensity, varying from f/3'6 to //6, with perfectly
sharp definition and anastigmatic flatness of field over an angle of
view from 62° to 72°. It is a very rapid wide-angle lens useful for
instantaneous work with the cinematograph and hand cameras, also
for portraits and groups, photo-micrography and enlargements or
reductions (see E. Jb., 1898, p. 79, Von Rohr, p. 390, and Lummer,
p. 81). Apochromatic planars with reduced secondary spectrum were
brought out in 1903 for three-colour photography, and are also
useful for astrophotography, the circle of diffusion being very small.
The " Unar " (1900), //4'5 in the smaller and//6 - 5 in the larger sizes,
angle 65° and 68°, was a further improvement by Dr Rudolph. It

Fig. 41. — Stigmatic Portrait Lens.
Series I.

Fig. 42. — Stigmatic Lens.
Series II.

APPARATUS]

PHOTOGRAPHY

5"

consists of two unsymmetrical combinations, each formed of two
single lenses of very transparent glass, dense baryta crown and light
flint, separated by positive and negative air-spaces (fig. 44). The
separate halves cannot be used as single lenses, neither being fully
corrected for colour. It is well adapted for portraiture, groups or
landscapes, especially for rapid hand camera work, on account of
its covering power, with freedom from astigmatism and sharp
definition with large relative aperture.

Fig. 43. — Planar. Series la. flu. Fig. 44. — Zeiss's " Unar."
In 1898 Messrs Goerz patented their " Double Anastigmat Celor,"
series lb., //4-5 to //5-5. It is a symmetrical doublet, each element
consisting of two thin single lenses : a positive of high and a negative
of low refractive index, separated by an air-space (fig. 45). It is
derived from the triple anastigmats by decreasing the refractive
power of the central convex meniscus to the refractive power
of air, so that it becomes a convex air-space between a double
convex and a double concave lens. Less deeply curved surfaces
can be given to the lenses, and the doublet gives anastig-
matic flatness of field over an angle of 62 to 66°, equal to
the best anastigmats with a still larger aperture. Series \c, //6-3,
is similar and recommended for hand cameras, the aperture
being smaller. Goerz's " Hypergon," (1900) //22, angle 135°, is a

3 Rg^ ^g^&

Fig. 45. — Goerz's " Celor." Fig. 46. — Goerz's " Alethar."

symmetrical doublet of remarkable construction, consisting of only
two single semi-globular, very thin lenses, with diaphragm at the
centre of curvature between them. Astigmatism and curvature
have been eliminated, and definition is good over the above wide
angle with no distortion. Chromatic aberration is uncorrected, but
compensated for by using a small stop. A star mask is fitted in
front of the lens to allow for falling off of illumination towards the
margin (E. Jb., 1901, p. 103). The " Syntor " (1903), Series Id.,
//6-8, angle 64 to 70 , is on the same principle as the " Celor," but
cheaper, for use in hand cameras or telephoto combinations. The
" Alethar," series V. (i903),//u, isa lens with diminished secondary
spectrum, for three-colour reproductions, half-tone process work,
and general purposes. It is a symmetrical doublet, each element
consisting of a negative and positive separated by an air-space
(fig. 46). The negative is composed of three cemented lenses,
which correct the spherical and chromatic aberrations more fully
than hitherto possible, so that all the colours of the spectrum are
focused in the same invariable plane. It gives great crispness
of definition at full aperture (W. Zschokke, E. Jb., 1904, p. 165).
Goerz's " Pantar," //6-3 (1904), is a convertible 4-lens anastigmat,
and an improvement on the " Dagor," in that the single elements
are completely corrected for coma, and thus form efficient long-focus
lenses for landscape, &c, at an aperture of //i2-5, while the doublets
formed by various combinations of the single elements are universal
objectives working from f/6-s to 7/7-7. The single elements are
similar to those of the " Dagor," but have an additional negative

Fig. 47. — Aldis Lens.
Series II.

Fig. 48.— Aldis Lens.
Series III.

convex back lens. It is a long-focus objective with short back focus,
and is made in two forms, series IL, //6 (fig. 47), and series III.
(1903), 7/7-7 (fig. 48). In the latter the back element is very thin,
and the front combination of infinite focal length. By discarding
the symmetrical form simplicity is secured, while open or reflecting
surfaces are avoided. Special attention has been paid to perfect
correction of spherical aberration in the centre of the field. It is
lighter, smaller and cheaper than series II. The " Duo " lens of the
same maker (1907) is intended to replace the front lens and double
the focus, but with less rapidity and without any loss of quality.
The " Trio " (1908) is similar, but only increases the focus one and a
half times and is thus more suitable for cameras of short extension.
The Aldis " Oxys " anastigmat, series II. (1908), 7/5-°5, angle 85°,
is an improved form. Being an unsymmetrical cemented doublet
it is free from the defects incidental to air-spaces and is constructed
to give more perfect correction for flatness of field with large aperture
and wide angle.

It is generally stated that it is impossible to make a spherically,
chromatically and anastigmatically corrected photographic objective
with the old optical glasses. K. Martin, of Messrs Busch of Rathenow,
has, however, shown (E. Jb., 1902, p. 68) that it is quite possible to
do so with a system of separated lenses, and that it is immaterial
whether the index of the flint or the crown is the higher. An
anastigmat on this principle was issued by Messrs Busch in 1902,
as the " Omnar," series III., 7/7 - 7 (fig. 49). Series IL, 7/5 - 5» angle
75°, and I., 7/4"5> have since been issued. It is a symmetrical

lens at the back, so that the outer two of the three cemented surfaces
have a collective and the inner one a dispersive action, by which
coma is eliminated (E. Jb., 1905, p. 55).

In 1902 H. L. Aldis issued the " Aldis Lens," 7/6, a doublet
composed of a cemented meniscus in front and a single double-

Fig.

49. — " Omnar,'
Series III.

Fig. 50. — Ross's
" Homocentric."

doublet, each element consisting of a negative flint meniscus of
higher refraction, and a positive crown of lower refraction with an
air-space between them in the form of a negative lens. The back
element can be used alone. The " Lumar " series, by G. Roden-
stock, is similar. In 1902 Messrs Ross brought out the " Homo-
centric," a symmetrical doublet, each element consisting of a nega-
tive and positive meniscus separated by an air-space (fig. 50). It is
constructed so that all rays of light emanating from any one point
of the object are converged again into one point in the image. It is
also quite free from spherical zones, is not altered in focus with
different diaphragms, and thus has exquisite defining power. The
colour correction is so perfect that the different coloured images are
identical in size and position, thus rendering it specially suitable
for three-colour and process work. The back lens can be used alone,
with diaphragms, as a single lens of about double the focus of the
doublet. It is made in several series: II. , //5-6, and III., 7/6-3, for
rapid and instantaneous work; V., //8, for ordinary purposes; VI.,
//8, for process work and three-colour reproduction. A later series,
IV. (1907), " Compound Homocentric," 7/6-8, differs from the others
in being a symmetrical doublet composed of two triple cemented
elements, very close together and separated by a diaphragm. It is

Fig. 51.— Zeiss's Fig. 52. — Voigtlander's

" Tessar." '< Heliar."

specially suitable for outdoor work, also for copying and enlarging,
having good covering power. Zeiss's " Tessar " (1902) is a rapid
unsymmetrical doublet, formed of two separated uncemented posi-
tive and negative lenses in the front element and a cemented meniscus
at the back (fig. 51). The two halves cannot be used separately.
The glasses used are very transparent, permanent and lessen the
secondary spectrum. Three series are made by Messrs Ross, Ic,
//3-5 for cinematographic work and portraiture, and 7/4-5 for hand-
camera work and portraiture; 116., 7/6-3 for general purposes, and
VIII., the " Apochromatic Tessar," specially corrected for three-
colour work and reproduction. They all give fine definition over
a large flat field, free from any zonal aberration. The 7/3*5 portrait
lenses, with double the field and covering power of the Petzval lens,
are anastigmatic and free from distortion. Messrs Voigtlander's
" Heliar" (1902), 7/4-5, angle 50°, calculated by Dr H. Harting, is
an objective of large aperture, suitable for portraits and very rapid
instantaneous work, being well corrected for astigmatism, coma and
curvature of field, with freedom from flare. It is a triplet consisting

5"

PHOTOGRAPHY

{APPARATUS

of a central negative lens, with cemented double front and back
lenses (fig. 52). The negative lenses are of light silicate flint, the
two positive of the heaviest baryta crown. Besides being a rapid
universal lens, it is specially suitable for half-tone process work,
with a large diaphragm {E. Jb., 1903, p. 117). The " Dynar "
(i^^i //6, angle 60 , is of somewhat similar construction, but
differs from the " Heliar " in the positive lenses of the cemented
pairs being outside instead of towards the central lens. It can only
be used as a whole. It is made of hard colourless Jena glasses,
giving great brilliancy and uniformity of illumination over a large
angle, and is specially adapted for very rapid hand-camera work.

Dr R. Steinheil's " Unofocal " (1903), //4-5 is a symmetrical
doublet, each element consisting of two single separated lenses of
equal refractive power and of equal focus of opposite signs, hence
its name. Each half can be used as a single lens with small stops.
In its construction a quite new principle was followed, the separation
of the lenses fulfilling an important part in the colour correction, as
explained by Conrad Beck in Ph. Journ. (1904), 44, p. 177. This plan
satisfies the Petzval condition and removes its restrictions, so that
a lens of //4'5 can be produced with telescopic central definition,
perfect freedom from distortion and flare over a flat field of 6o°,
with great equality of illumination (fig. 53). They are made by
Messrs Beck in two series: II., //4-5, for portraiture, rapid hand-
camera work, telephotography and projection; and I..//6, in which
the lenses are closer together, for hand-camera work and general
purposes. E. Arbeit's " Euryplan " anastigmats (1903), made by
Schulze Bros., Potsdam, are apochromatic objectives of quite new
construction, giving perfect definition with large apertures over a

Fig.

53. — Beck-Steinheil
" Unofocal."

Fig. 54. — Euryplan,
Z/4-5-

wide angle, made in lour series: I., //4-5, angle 80°; II., //5-6, angle
90 ; III., //6-8 to 7-5, angle 82 ; IV., //6-5. They are symmetrical
doublets, each element consisting of three lenses, a new achromat
formed of a biconvex of heavy baryta crown of high refractivity and
low dispersion, separated by an air-space from a positive meniscus
of the same baryta crown, with its concave side towards the dia-
phragm. In series I., //4"5, the two positives are placed outside
(fig. 54), in series II. and III. they are inside. The single elements
are fully corrected astigmatically and chromatically, and can be
used singly at double the focus (E. Jb. 1904, p. 35).

Beck's Isostigmar " (1907) is a new anastigmat showing a dis-
tinct departure from the ordinary principles of construction, in that
it does not fulfil the Petzval condition that the sum of the focal
powers of its individual lenses multiplied by the reciprocals of their
respective refractive indices should be equal to zero, or 2(i//xf) =0.
It is a 5-lens combination, two separated thin single lenses in the
front element and three in the back
(fig- 55)- I n departing from the
Petzval condition very low power
lenses can be used, thus reducing the
initial errors to be corrected; no indi-
vidual component having a shorter
focal length than one-half that of a
complete objective. A special feature
is the excellent correction of the oblique

_. Rect's " Ten. spherical aberrations and central aber-

stitfmar " " rations, giving a practically flat field

° ' without astigmatism over angles from

60° to 90 . The half combinations can also be used alone with
diaphragms as long focus lenses of different foci {Ph. Journ. 1907, 47,
p. 191). It is issued in six series: I. (1908), fl\-$, large aperture,
series, for reflex press work and portraiture; Io.,//6-S, angle 6o°-65°,

L 3

latter is very useful when an extended use of the rising front is
required, either at a wide or ordinary angle. V. (1908), //n,
" Process " lenses specially corrected to give a flat field for copying.
They can be fitted with suitable reversing prisms. VI. (1908), //5-6,
variable portrait lenses, adjustable for sharp or soft definition from
the back of the camera while focusing.

The above represent the principal types of anastigmats, but
many more objectives of the kind, triple or quadruple, cemented
or uncemented, with air-spaces, in many modifications, have been
issued by English and foreign makers.

6. Telephotographic Objectives. — For some years past special
objectives, or attachments, have been constructed for photographing
near or distant objects on an enlarged scale with an ordinary camera,
the extension required being very much less than would be needed
to obtain an image of the same size with an ordinary long-focUs lens
without enlargement. They consist of a combination of a positive
converging with a negative dispersing lens, by which the image is
picked up and enlarged to varying degrees, according to the system
of lenses used and the extension given to the camera, thus producing
the same effect as a positive lens of very much longer focus. Enlarged
images of this kind can also be made by a combination of two con-
verging lenses, one of them forming an image of the object, which is
received on the other of shorter focus and projected on the sensitive
plate, being enlarged more or less according to the optical conditions
and relative positions of the lenses and sensitive plate. The photo-
heliographs at Greenwich and other solar observatories, designed
by Warren de la Rue, are on this principle. Portable apparatus
of the kind was made in 1869 by MM. Borie and de Tournemire, and
later by Jarret, but this system requires much greater extension of
the camera, entailing more loss of intensity of the image, and has
never come into use.

The modern telephotographic combination is generally looked
upon as an application of the principle of the " Barlow " lens, but
it really goes back to the Galilean telescope (c. 1610). J. B. Porta
mentions the combination of concave and convex lenses for giving
enlarged and clearer images of near and distant objects {Magia
Naturalis, lib. 17, cap. 10, 1589). J. Kepler showed that by a com-
bination of a convex with a concave lens images of objects could be
depicted on paper of a larger size than by the convex lens alone,
but reversed (Dioptrice, Prob. cv. 1611). Christopher Scheiner
made use of the same principle in his " Helioscope " for solar observa-
tions {Rosa Ursina, cap. vii. 1630). F. M. Deschales and P. Z.
Traber also dealt with the question, and in J. Zahn's Oculus artifi-
cialis Teledioptricus (1686) we find figured a reflecting camera
fitted with a compound enlarging lens on this principle. In his
Nova Dioptrica (1692), W. Molyneux has given some interesting
problems for calculating the position of the compound focus of a
convex with a concave lens, also the angles subtended by an object
on the focal plane. If for the simple uncorrected glasses then used
we substitute a system of photographically corrected positive and
negative lenses, suitably mounted, and put a sensitive plate in place
of the paper, we have the modern telephotographic arrangement.
I. Porro seems to have been the first to use a combination of this
kind for photographing an eclipse in 1857, and later for terrestrial
objects. It consisted of a small achromatic single lens combined
with a concave lens. Many attempts were afterwards made in
France, and also in England, to utilize the principle, but special
lenses for the purpose were not available. Ad. Steinheil constructed
one in 1889 for the Brussels Observatory, and another in 1890 for
the Marine Department in Berlin. In 1891, curiously enough,
three such combinations were worked out quite independently
and patented, by T. R Dallmeyer in London, A. Miethe in Berlin
and A. Duboscq in Paris. Since that time these combinations
have been greatly improved by increase in the working apertures
and reduction in size and weight, so that they can be used in hand
cameras. They are exceedingly valuable for obtaining details of
inaccessible objects at a distance, whether architectural or topo-
graphical, and for photographing animals without approaching them
too closely. Large portraits can also be taken with much better
perspective effects and more conveniently than
by using long-focus lenses much nearer to t

the sitter. With the very perfect telephoto-

:;■'•

*,

Fig. 56.

long focus, for portraiture, &c. ; II..//5-8, angle 70 , for general use,
III.//7-7, angle 65 , similar to II. but less rapid; IV.//6-3, angle 90°;
wide angle, giving satisfactory definition at full aperture over an angle
from 8o° to 85 . Having such a large reserve of covering power the

graphic objectives now available the loss of intensity of illumination,
which no doubt was the bar to early progress in this direction, has
been overcome, and definition has also been improved, so that snap-
shots can readily be made with combinations of high intensity, while

APPARATUS]

PHOTOGRAPHY

5 r 3

with those of ordinary intensity the exposures are not unduly
prolonged, and good definition can be obtained over an extended
field. ;

The optical principle on which these combinations are based
is very simple, and will be understood from fig. 56. It depends
mainly on the fact that in order that a real image may be thrown
on the screen of an object AB, the rays proceeding from it, which
pass through the positive system Lj, must come to a focus at a
point / within the secondary focus /" of the negative system L 2 .
Falling within this limit, they will be intercepted by L2 and made
less convergent, so that instead of coming to a focus at /, they will
continue to converge till they reach the screen at/', and will there
form a proportionally larger image a'b' of AB than the image ab
given by the positive lens alone at /; just as stated in Kepler's
problem. Moreover, this image a'b' will be of the same size as if
it had been produced directly by a positive lens L s with a focal
length equal to If", and this distance is the equivalent focal length
of the entire system. It can be found from the formula ¥=fftld,
where /1 and / 2 are the focal lengths of Li and L 2 respectively, and
d=f l +fi — s, s being the distance between the lenses. In many
instruments of the kind a scale showing the value of d is engraved
on the mount. If the rays from AB come to a focus in front of
Lj, on it, or beyond/", no real image can be projected on the screen.
There is therefore a certain limit, which is greater in proportion to
the length of focus of the negative system, within which the focus
of the positive system Li may fall and produce a series of well-defined
images on the screen, which can be varied in size by altering the
amount of separation of the two systems of lenses within the above
limit, and the distance of the screen from L 2 . Every change in the
position of the screen will involve a corresponding adjustment of
the lenses. The greater the extension of the camera and the closer
the lenses, the greater the size of the image, and vice versa. The
camera extension for a given magnification can be found by multiply-
ing the focal length of the negative system by the number of magnifi-
cations, less one. The magnification produced by a given camera
extension is found by dividing the latter by the focal length of the
negative system, and adding one.

In its usual form (fig. 57) the telephotographic combination con-
sists of a quick-acting portrait lens, or an anastigmatic doublet of

Fig. 58.—" Bis-Telar."

Fig. 57.— T. R. Dallmeyer's Compound Telephotographic Lens.

large aperture and relative intensity of suitable focal length, fitted
at one end of a tube, in which slides a smaller tube carrying a properly
corrected negative system, which may vary in focus, but must be
of shorter focus than the positive (usually about half) ; the shorter
the focus the greater the magnifying power for a given extension of
camera. The amount of separation of the lenses is limited on the
one hand by the position of the focus of the positive system, and on
the other by the focus of the negative system, as explained above,
and can be adjusted within these limits by a rack and pinion. The
tubes are adjusted so that when closed up the two foci may coincide,
or nearly so, and d = o, or its minimum value; and when opened
to their fullest extent the focus of the positive may fall upon the
negative system, or so that d may not exceed the focal length of the
negative system. Within these limits the focal length of the com-
bination will be positive; and a real image formed on the screen.
Several forms of them have been brought out by various makes,
some, as Zeiss's, with a special positive lens, others for use with ana-
stigmats and other lenses of large apertures. The negative lenses
are also made of various powers.

Messrs Dallmeyer's " Adon " (1902) is a telephotographic lens,
for use with hand cameras, composed of two achromatic combina-
tions adjusted for parallel rays, a front positive lens 4§ in. focal
length, and a back negative lens of 2\ in. focus. These are mounted
to permit of great variation in the separation, so that when the
" Adon " is fixed on the front of a suitable lens, near or distant
objects may be taken on an enlarged s<jale without altering the
focus of the camera, or the enlargement can be varied with further
extension of the camera. Used alone it is a complete telephoto
ans of moderate magnifying power, and will cover plates 15 in. X
12 in. In 1903 a special form, the " Junior Adon," was made in
three kinds for use with kodaks and similar folding hand cameras,
single and double extension, giving a fixed degree of magnification
without loss of rapidity, while focusing can be effected by scale.
It is intended to replace the front lens of an R.R. or anastigmatic
lens and cannot be used independently. Messrs Busch's " Bis-
Telar," //9 (1905), is another compact fixed focus telephoto_ lens,
specially for use with hand cameras. It is a complete lens in itself,
requiring no attachments and can be fitted to a central shutter. _ It
is made in three sizes magnifying from two to three times. An im-
proved form of this lens (1908), working at the large aperture of

XXI. 17

//7, is similar to an old form of " Dialytic " lens worked out by
J. Petzval, having a positive front and negative back meniscus,
with their concave surfaces facing p

inwards (fig. 58). As in the old
" Orthoscopic and lenses of that
type there is some outward dis-
tortion, but it is very slight. These
lenses are made in five sizes with
foci from 8 to 22 in., requiring
camera extensions from 4! in. to
Il£ in. They magnify about twice.
According to K. Martin, a telephoto-
combination of the Bis-Telar type
can be used in a reversed position
as a projecting lens for the lantern,
with the advantage of increasing the illumination from a given
source of light (E. Jb. 1908, p. 46).

Captain Owen Wheeler proposed in 1907 a high-power telephoto
arrangement, made by Messrs Staley, in which the negative attach-
ment consists of three negative lenses, any single one of which can
be used separately, giving magnifications of about 6, 9, and 13 dia-
meters with a camera extension of 14 in. By combining the three
a magnification of 30 diameters is attainable with the same short
extension, which is a great advantage in many ways. In 1908
Messrs Zeiss issued their " Special Tele-objectives " in two sizes
working at //io, the larger with an aperture of 3-14 in. and 32 in.
focal length fitted in a special " tele-camera " for plates 9 X, 12 cm.
with a monocular field glass magnifying four times as finder. The
smaller one, with 18 in. focus, is adapted for hand cameras with 6 in.
bellows extension. They consist of specially corrected positive and
negative combination with a definite focal length and requiring a
definite camera extension, and are specially suitable for balloon
photography, instantaneous portraiture, &c. The theory, construc-
tion and use of telephoto lenses has been fully described by T. R.
Dallmeyer in his Telephotography.

7. Anachromatic Lenses. — For large portraiture a certain amount
of softness and diffusion of the image has long been recognized by
artists as desirable, and in 1895 the " Dallmeyer-Bergheim Lens
was constructed with this special object. It is composed of a single
uncorrected positive meniscus front lens, with a diaphragm in front
of it, and an uncorrected negative meniscus back lens, and in the
larger sizes it has great range of focal length on the telephotogmphic
principle. The spherical and chromatic aberration produced by the
uncorrected single lenses gives the diffusion of focus which produces
the peculiarly soft and delicate effect aimed at. It is most useful
for large heads and life-size studies, the great depth of focus conduc-
ing to uniformity of definition. There is no distortion, and by stop-
ping down to about one-third perfect definition can be obtained.
It works with great brilliancy, both elements being single glasses.
It was the first of the anachromatic portrait lenses. Since 1903
Messrs C. Puyo and L. de Pulligny have been experimenting with
various combinations of uncorrected lenses for producing the same
effect in portrait and landscape photography by the diffusion of
focus produced by chromatic aberration, and suitable lenses of this
kind have recently been brought out in Paris as Les Objectifs d' artiste.
In their construction the principal points to be considered arc
spherical aberration, to be minimized in the form and arrangement of
the lenses selected ; distortion, corrected by using a symmetrical
system ; astigmatism, avoided by using combinations of low power.
The lenses used by Puyo have been: (1) a plano-convex crown with

ipli
convex side in front at//8 or f/g, or even f 15 for heads; (2) a simple
thin concavo-convex meniscus, with concave side in front, is better
and suitable for full lengthsat f/10 ; (3) a symmetrical system formed
of two similar crown menisci, concave sides inwards, is generally
useful when worked at//lo, or even//5. Arrangements are made in
mounting these lenses for automatically making the necessary
correction for colour. Another form is the " Adjustable Landscape
Lens," formed of an anterior plano-convex crown, 3 cm. diameter,
and a posterior plano-concave crown, each of 10 cm. focus, and
the same radii of curvature. In contact they have an infinite focus,
but when slightly separated any focus can be obtained up to about
10 cm. In such a telephotographic system, properly stopped down;
anastigmatism, flatness of field, and rectilinearity are secured over
a fairly large field. These lenses are fully described in Les Objectifs
a" artiste, by L. de Pulligny and C. Puyo (Paris, 1906), and various
forms, portrait and landscape, have been made by Messrs Hermagis,
Turillon & Morin (see Fabre, T. E. P. Suppl. D. 101).

Diaphragm Apertures. — In order to regulate the intensity of the
illumination by the lens, to enlarge its field, and, in the case of
the older forms of objectives, to extend the area of good marginal
definition, diaphragms are used, usually with circular apertures.
They are made in different ways: (1) as single metal plates, fitting
into a slot in the lens tube (Waterhouse diaphragms) ; (2) Rotatory,
a single plate revolving on a central axis and pierced with apertures
cut to fit centrically in the opening of the lens; (3) Iris: a form of
diaphragm now very generally used, and very convenient, because
it can be easily adjusted as required for intermediate apertures.
As a rule they are placed at the optical centre between the elements
of a compound lens or in front of a single one.

In order to provide a uniform system of diaphragm apertures,

11

5M-

PHOTOGRAPHY

[APPARATUS

the Royal Photographic Society in 1881 drew up some rules, which
were revised in 1891 and again in 1901. The former standard unit
//4, and the numerical notation used with it, have been abolished
in favour of the unit //i established at the International Congress
in Paris 1900. Intensity ratio is defined as dependent upon the
effective aperture of a lens, and not upon the diameter of the dia-
phragm in relation to the focal length of a lens. The effective
aperture of the lens is determined as follows: The lens must be
focused for parallel rays. An opaque screen is then placed in the
principal focal plane, and a pinhole is made in the centre of the plate
(in the axis of the lens) ; an illuminant is placed immediately behind
the pinhole itself, when the diameter of the beam emerging from the
front surface of the lens may be measured. (It will be found that
except in the case of the diaphragm being placed in front of the lens,
the diameter of the diaphragm itself is seldom that of the effective
aperture.) Every diaphragm is to be marked with its true intensity
ratio as above denned, but the present intensity ratios are retained
in their order of sequence : //i , //i -4, fJ2, //2-8, j/4, //516, //8, //i 1 .3,
//16, //22-6, //32,//45-2,//64, &c, each diaphragm requiring double
the exposure required by the preceding one. In other cases apertures
are to be made in uniformity with the scale, with the exception of the
highest intensity, e.g. a lens of //6-3 would be marked for //6-3,
//8, &c. The corresponding numbers are known as / numbers, but
are only applicable for a lens focused for distance. Other systems
of notation are in use, but the above is generally adopted (see Fabre,
T.E.P. Suppl. C. 38). Special diaphragms are in use for process
work with ruled screens (see N.S. Amstutz, Handbook of Photo-
engraving, 1907). Standards for the screws of photographic lens-
flange fittings, and for the screws fitted to cameras for attachment
to the stand or for fixing movable parts, have also been laid down
{Ph. Journ. 1901, 25, p. 322).

Instantaneous Shutters.
The general use of rapid dry plates and hand cameras has ren-
dered it necessary to have some mechanical means of regulating
exposures in small fractions of a second, especially for objects in
rapid motion, and this instantaneous shutter has become an essential
part of modern photographic equipment in many forms and patterns,
but practically three types are preferred — the between-lens shutter,
the roller-blind shutters, used before or behind the lens, and the focal
plane shutter, in front of and close to the plate and forming part of
the back of the camera. The usual limit of rapidity of the two
former is nominally about jiu of a second, and for ordinary pur-
poses higher speeds are seldom required, while with the latter speeds
of ic'ots to jxiVti of a second may be attained.

Two important factors in the use of lens shutters are therapidity
or speed, measured by the total duration of exposure from opening
to closing, and the efficiency, measured by the ratio of the time
during which the shutter is fully open and the time occupied in
opening and closing. Both factors are more or less variable, either
with differences of construction, of diaphragm opening or of position
of the shutter with regard to the plate and lens. In any case
the efficient exposure is always less than the actual, and may be
considerably so.

The rapidity required of a shutter in photographing moving
objects is regulated by the minimum time necessary to produce
a well-exposed image upon the plate, with a loss of definition, or
blurring, by displacement not exceeding ^Jo, or preferably ^Jjr to
lij of an inch, if enlargement is extended. This will depend
on the state of the light and the illumination of the object, the rela-
tive intensity of the lens as measured by its effective aperture
and focal length, the sensitiveness of the plate, and the amount
of effective light passing through the shutter during the exposure.
The amount of displacement to be guarded against depends upon
the rate of movement of the object, the direction in which it is mov-
ing with reference to the axis of the lens, its distance from the camera,
and the focal length of the lens. It will be proportionately less as
the distance of the object increases, and as the rate of its motion
and the focal length of the lens for a given distance decrease, and
vice versa. It will be greatest when the object is moving at right
angles to the axis of the lens, and least when the motion is directly
towards it ; but in that case there will be some increase in the apparent
size of the object as it approaches the camera. For example;
An object moving 1 m. an hour advances 17-6 in. per second. With
a lens of 5-in. focus this would represent a displacement on the
ground glass, for an object 50 ft. away, amounting to -146 in. per
second, and it would require exposures between ^ and gV of
a second to give maximum or minimum displacements of the
image between T J B and s h of an inch. An object at the same
distance moving ten times as fast would require I -10 of the above
exposures. If, however, the distance be increased, the possible
exposure may also be increased in the same proportion, so that the
object moving 10 m. an hour at 500 ft. distance would only require
the original exposures of ^ to 3 V of a second. On the other hand,
the limits of exposure for an object moving 1 m. an hour within
10 ft. of the lens would be between f z and T |- s of a second. This
is entirely independent of the sensitiveness of the plate, and only
represents the maximum duration of exposure permissible in order
to reduce the blurring of the image between certain limits. The
sensitiveness of the plate, and the intensity and amount of light

acting upon it through the lens and shutter, must be adjusted so
as to produce the desired photographic effect within that time.
With a lens of 8 in. focal length the displacement would have in-
creased in the first instance to -23 in. per second, and the maximum
exposure permissible would be from 2 V to A of a second. This
shows that there is an advantage in using short-focus lenses for very
rapid exposures. In practice, most work of this kind is done upon
quarter-plates (44X31 in.) with lenses of 4 J to 5 in. focus. As the
displacement will be greatest for an object moving at a right angle
across the axis of the lens, an exposure sufficient for this case will
be sufficient for any other. Sir William Abney has discussed this
question practically in his Instantaneous Photography, and it is
treated mathematically by W. B. Coventry in his Technics of the
Hand Camera, in which will be found formulae and tables for ascer-
taining the distances and limiting exposures for moving objects,
allowing for a blur of t&tt of an inch. In foreign treatises the limit
is usually calculated for a displacement of A of a millimetre, or
about 15 5 b of an inch.

An efficient shutter should fulfil the following conditions: It
should be light and compact, simple in construction and action,
strongly made, and not liable to get out of order; capable of being
set without admitting light into the camera; easily released with a
slight pressure of the finger, if a pneumatic release is not fitted, and
free from any tendency to shake the camera on release. It should
open and close quickly, allowing the largest possible proportion of
the exposure to be made with the full aperture, and it must not cut
off any of the effective light passing through the lens, but should
distribute it evenly all over the plate: though in landscape work
it is an advantage to give the foreground more exposure than the
sky. It should be adjustable for variable instantaneous and for
prolonged or " time " exposures. With a good shutter there is
less risk of shaking the camera in short " time " exposures, from J to
I second, than there is in taking off a cap. Shutters working between
the lenses must permit of the use of diaphragms in the lenses, and of
alterations of speed while set. Above all, a shutter must be con-
stant in its action, giving short and variable exposures always cor-
rectly or relatively so, an important condition which cannot always
be fulfilled, and the exposures marked on the indicator should lie
capable of being repeated with tolerable certainty. Shutters should
also be adaptable for use with different lenses. Three methods of
varying the speed of a shutter are in use: (1) by altering the length
of the slot; (2) by the retarding action of a pneumatic brake; (3)
by varying the tension of a spring. The latter is considered by
W. B. Coventry as far the best. They are usually released by the
pressure of the finger on the end of a lever holding the moving part
in a state of tension; or better, by J. Cadett's system of pneumatic
pressure, applied by means of a compressible rubber bulb and tube,
which may drive a piston acting on the lever holding the shutter, or
inflate a collapsible bulb at the other end of the tube and thus exert
the necessary pressure on the lever. With W. Watson's " Antinous "
release a flexible wire acts directly on the piston or trigger release
of a cylinder shutter. It is also adapted for roller-blind, focal plane,
flap, and various forms of between-lens shutters. It is durable,
effective and convenient (see fig. 3). In many cases both methods
can be used as desired, the mechanical release being preferable on
account of its convenience and freedom from liability to shake the
camera.

The following are the principal types of instantaneous shutter:
(1) Flap, (2) drop, (3) combined drop and flap, (4) rotary, (5) roller
blind, (6) focal plane, (7) moving blade central, (8) iris. They can
be applied in four different positions: (a) in front of the lens; (b)
centrally, near the diaphragm; (c) behind the lens (d) immediately
in front of the sensitive plate. They all, however, come under two
main classes: Lateral, including those in which the exposure
commences and ends at the circumference of the lens aperture;
and Central, those in which the exposure begins and ends at the centre
of the aperture. Some of them are " lateral " in their single form
and " central " when double. The form and position of the effective
aperture of a shutter, relatively to the lens and plate, have a strong
influence, either favourable or unfavourable, on the amount of
effective light passing through the lens, and its even distribution
over the plate. This is especially the case during the incomplete
phases of opening and closing the aperture. It seems to be agreed
that the best position for lens shutters of the lateral type is behind
the objective, and for those of the central type, between the com-
ponent lenses. In this latter position the whole of the plate is
illuminated during the full period of exposure, with a gradually
increasing intensity, until the full opening is reached, and then the
illumination gradually falls off until the shutter is closed. The
most effective shutter is one in which the first and third phases of
incomplete illumination, during the opening and closing, are the
shortest compared with the second phase of full opening.

With the focal plane shutters, however, different portions of the
plate are exposed in succession, the lens working at its full aperture
and efficiency throughout the exposure.

To secure successful results in using instantaneous shutters, the
operator should make himself acquainted with the working of his
shutter and its efficiency in various circumstances of exposure with
the lenses, plates and developer he proposes to use ; ascertaining the
actual value of the various exposures marked on the indicator, and f

APPARATUS]

PHOTOGRAPHY

515

what is more important, how far they can be depended on for
regularity. There are many simple ways in which the actual time
of exposure from opening to closing can be ascertained sufficiently
closely for practical purposes. They depend upon the measurement
of the trace left on a sensitive plate by the passage of a brightly
illuminated object revolving at a known speed or falling vertically
through a known distance, when photographed with different speeds
of the shutter against a dark background. These, and the more
elaborate methods for obtaining more accurate determinations of the
shutter-exposure periods and of the corresponding effective exposures
— i.e. showing the actual effect of the shutter through its different
phases from opening to closing — have been described by Sir William
Abney in the work already mentioned, by A. Londe in La Photo-
graphic moderne and La Photographic instantanbe. An apparatus for
testing shutters at the National Physical Laboratory was described
by J. de Graaf Hunter in the Optician, 1906.

I. Flap Shutters. — The simple flap shutters consisting of a hinged
flap opening upwards in front of the lens, though favourites in early
days for landscape work, and still useful for intermittent exposures
or as sky-shades for securing cloud effects or increasing foreground
exposures, have been almost superseded by quicker and more com-
pact forms. They are used with single and double flaps for portrai-
ture and studio work, for which purpose they are made to act
noiselessly and not attract the attention of the sitters. Guerry's
(figs. 59 and 60) is a good example of the type. W. Watson's " Silent "

Fig. 59. — Guerry's
Single-flap Shutter.

Fig. 60.— Guerry's
Double-flap Shutter.

shutter is hemispherical in form and collapsible, the two wings
opening out and folding together, when actuated by a special
" Antinous " release, and R. & J. Beck's is another form, a single
lifting flap with pneumatic release.

2. Drop Shutters. — The old simple drop shutter, in which a plate
having an opening in it falls in front of the lens aperture, has been
superseded by the more compact and quicker-working roller-blind
shutters, which act on much the same principle. It had a theoretical
interest in connexion with the effect of different forms of aperture —
circular, square, or elongated — used with shutters of the lateral
type, but it is now generally recognized that a more or less extended
rectangular opening, of at least the full width of the lens aperture, is
best for securing the even admission of light from all parts of the image
with shutters of the rectilinear lateral type, to which this and similar
shutters, in which a single opening passes across the lens aperture,
belong. In Busch's " sky shade " shutter (1907), fitting on the front
of the lens a single leaf moves vertically upwards and descends again,
giving less exposure to the sky.

3. Combined Drop and Flap Shutters. — In early dry-plate days
several forms of this kind of shutter were brought out, under the
names of Phoenix, Phantom, &c, but are now little used. In these
shutters, in addition to the drop slide, there was also a lifting flap,
which on release opened from below, and, having fully uncovered
the aperture, released the drop slide, which fell and closed the shutter.
They were useful and effective in the smaller sizes, but heavy and
cumbrous in the larger. Speed could only be estimated very
roughly by the use of india-rubber bands for giving tension.

4. Rotary Shutters. — These are of the lateral type, and consist of a
circular metal disk revolving on an axis eccentric to the axis of the
lens, and furnished with a radial sector-shaped opening, which
passes laterally in front of the lens aperture when the tension of a

spring is released (fig. 61). They are
used in various patterns in cheap hand
cameras, usually in front of the objective,
though they may be placed behind it or
between the component lenses. So long
as the opening is at least equal to the size
of the lens aperture, the illumination is
sufficiently even, but the openings are
usually elongated so as to give a longer
period of full opening. Working by a
spring they are more portable and con-
venient than drop shutters. Beck's
" Celverex " between-lens shutter (1906)
is of this type, the disk being revolved by
a spring and the variations of exposure obtained by altering the
size of the opening passing over the ler.s aperture, and not the
tension of the spring. It is speeded for exposures of -fa, ■£/>,
<"j, gV sec; also "bulb" and "time." It is fairly accurate and
consistent in action, but loses efficiency at the highest speeds by the
diminution of the opening.

Fll.6l.-P.otaryShutter. .

5. Roller-Blind Shutters. — For general use the well-known roller-
blind shutter of the single lateral type, as made by Thornton-Pickard
and others, is undoubtedly one of the most popular and efficient. It
possesses most of the qualities laid down as essential to a good shutter,
gives good illumination, appears to be fairly regular in its action
and can be used for time or instantaneous exposures. It consists
of a light mahogany or aluminium box, arranged so that it can be
fitted in front of or behind the objective. It is made in different
sizes, and each size can be adjusted to smaller objectives (fig. 62).
It is also made with a disappearing cord, and in an improved pattern,
the " Royal," all the fittings are inside the box. By pulling the cord

Fig. 63. — Mechanism
of the Thornton-
Pickard Roller-
Blind Shutter.

A, Upper roller.

B, Lower roller.

c, Cord.

d, Black curtain.
h, Aperture in curtain.

Fig. 62. — Thornton-Pickard Roller-Blind r, Rubber ring
Shutter with automatic exposure appliance. adapter.

an opaque black curtain with an elongated rectangular aperture is
unrolled from the lower roller on to the upper one, and held by a
coiled spring on the lower roller (fig. 63). Pressure on a pneumatic
bulb inflates a second smaller bulb, raising a lever which ^releases the
spring, and thus brings the blind down with a rapidity which can be
adjusted by turning a handle actuating the spring, the corresponding
speed being shown on an indicator. For time exposures, pressure
on the bulb opens the shutter, and another pressure closes it, but
an arrangement is now made by which time exposures of |. i, I.
I, 2, 3 seconds can be given automatically, the pressure of the bulb
opening the shutter, which closes of itself at the expiration of the
exposure required. The theory of shutters of this type has
been very fully discussed by Coventry (op. cit. p. 50), who shows
that for any given tension of the spring the actual exposure decreases
as the size of the lens aperture diminishes, while the effective
exposure remains constant for all apertures. This is peculiar to
the lateral shutter. He also shows that with plates of very different
rapidities, though the exposure may be the same; the actual exposure
effective is less with the rapid plate and a small stop than with
the slow plate and a large stop; consequently the blur due to the
movement of the object would be proportionately less on the rapid
plate than on the slow one. Also that for any given lens the smaller
the shutter the more rapid the exposure can be made, though
with the same lens a larger shutter is capable of giving a more efficient
though less rapid exposure. It is better, therefore, for moderate
exposures, to have a larger shutter than the size of the lens requires.
Sir William Abney had given diagrams of the action of a shutter of
this kind in his book referred to; they show clearly that the centre
of the plate gets more exposure than the margins; but practically
this is not very noticeable, and the action is very regular.

6. Focal Plane Shutters. — These are also roller-blind shutters with
mechanism similar to the foregoing, but arranged so that the slit
in the curtain may move rapidly close in front of the sensitive plate,
exposing different portions of it in turn, the intensity of the exposure
being regulated by the width of the slit, whether adjustable or not,
and the rapidity with which it is moved by the unwinding of a spring.
The advantages of these shutters are now being fully appreciated,
the principal being that they are quite independent of the lens, so
that one shutter will serve for different lenses, and any suitable lens
may be used at its full intensity, without the loss of efficiency in-
herent in the ordinary forms of lens-shutters. They thus add
effectively, if not actually, to the speed of a slow lens, or if a lens be
stopped down there is less loss of efficiency, with a gain in increased
depth and definition. They are particularly well adapted for the
very short exposures required in photographing near and quickly
moving objects, racing horses, divers, &c, and many reflex and other
hand cameras are fitted with them. They are constructed in
different forms, either for short exposures with high speeds alone,
or for short and prolonged exposures ; with a single slit of fixed or
variable width moved at regulated speeds, or with a series of slits
or openings varying in width, their speeds being adjusted by the

5 i6

PHOTOGRAPHY

[APPARATUS

tensions of the springs. Thus the new Goerz-Anschiitz shutter has
ten tensions and nine curtain apertures, providing for ninety differ-
ent speeds or exposures, rang-
ing from J 1 ,) to jj'sjj of a second,
besides autobulb exposures
from ^ to 5 seconds and time
exposures (fig. 64). Most of
these shutters are now pro-
vided with a self-capping
device for protecting the
sensitive plate during the
setting of the shutter. As the
slit moves progressively over
the plate, if it is too narrow
or moving too slowly, it may
cause distortion of the images
of quickly-moving objects,
especially if near the camera,
but with due care in regulating
the width of the slit and the
duration of exposure this is
practically not often percep-
tible, especially if the slit is
arranged to move in the
same direction as the object.
The theory of these shutters is discussed by Coventry {op. cit. p. 69),
more fully by Fabre {T. E. P. Suppl., C. p. 128), and their practical
use in Focal Plane Photography (" Photo-Miniature Series, No. 77,
1907).

7. Moving Blade Central Shutters. — These shutters, in which
two thin metal or ebonite plates or opaque curtains with round or
rectangular apertures, or in other cases two curved blades, pass
very quickly over each other in opposite directions, are largely
used in many patterns fitted between the lenses of a combination
or attached to them in front or behind. Formed of two single
lateral shutters opening and closing in the centre of the lens aperture,
they become central, the exposure taking place during the short
period in which the openings are passing each other or the curved
blades opening out and closing again. To obtain the greatest
efficiency the size of the openings should correspond with the full
aperture of the lens. If each plate moves as fast as a drop shutter
the combination gives double the speed, corresponding to half
the exposure. The sensitive plate will be most evenly and strongly
illuminated when the leaves of the shutter work inside the lens
near the diaphragm, as in Bausch and Lomb's " Unicum " and
other similar between-lens shutters, in general use (fig. 65). This
necessitates the fitting of the lens to the shutter, but with adapters

Fig. 64. — Goerz-Anschiitz Focal
Plane Shutter.

Fig. 65. — Bausch and Lomb's
" Unicum " Shutter.

Fig. 66. — Lancaster's
" See-Saw " Shutter.

it is possible to fit other lenses. Some forms are, however, suitable
for use in front of the lens, such as the " Constant " and Lancaster's
" See-Saw " (fig. 66), while those of the double roller-blind type
can be used either in front of or behind the lens, though this position
is not a favourable one. In these the rectangular form of aperture
is the best, circular apertures cutting off a good deal of light, as in
the case of drop shutters. W. B. Coventry {op. cit. p. 60) has
discussed the action of the double roller-blind shutter as typical
of the central class of shutters, and shows that while, under similar
conditions, with the lateral shutter the effective exposure is con-
stant and the actual exposure variable at all apertures, it is the
reverse with the central shutters, and it will not be so easy to
calculate exposures with different sized stops. A central shutter,
acting as a diaphragm of variable aperture, gives a more efficient
exposure than a lateral shutter of the same dimensions, as long as
the opening is greater than the lens aperture, the coefficient of
illumination of the lens varying as long as the shutter opening is
smaller than that of the diaphragm used. It is desirable, there-
fore, to increase the speed and use as large an aperture as possible,
so that the diaphragm used may be entirely uncovered during the
greater part of the exposure.

Fig. 67. — Goerz's "Sector"
Shutter.

8. Iris Shutters. — These are a further development of the double
curved blade central shutters, and constructed on the principle of
the " Iris " diaphragm, with several leaves opening out from the
centre of the lens and closing again. They are usually fitted
between the lenses of double objectives, and can be made very
light and compact. Theoretically this central position of the
shutter is the best, and the " Iris " is the best form for ensuring
the most equal distribution of light over the plate, provided, as
before, that the opening is equal to the full aperture of the lens.
They are made so that the periods
of opening and closing may be as
short as possible compared with that
of full opening. They require great
care in construction and fitting to
the lens, and so are expensive.
They can, however, be used with
convertible sets of lenses of different
foci fitting the same mount. Several
forms are. made by British and
foreign makers, with three, four or
more leaves. Goerz's " Sector "
shutter (fig. 67) may be taken as a
type. Georgen's " Central " shutter
is very light and smooth in working,
and can be used in front of a lens
for telephoto work. Further details
regarding the different forms of
shutters, theoretical and practical,
will be found in the works by
Abney, Coventry, Eder, Fabre and Londe.

Exposure Meters.

When gelatin dry plates came into general use, and were made
of many different degrees of sensitiveness, the want of a guide to
the proper exposure for the various makes of plates under different
conditions of lighting began to be felt, and several methods were
devised for meeting it. Some of them depend solely upon data
derived from observations of the action of the principal factors
affecting the result, namely: (1) the speed of the plate; (2) the
actinic power of the sun's light for the time of year in a given
latitude and its position at the particular time of day; (3) the
effective diaphragm aperture of the lens; (4) the nature of the sub-
ject and its illumination as affected by local and atmospheric
conditions. With others these data are supplemented by, and
practically based upon, actinometric observations of the action of
the light upon sensitive paper exposed near the camera or the
subject at the time. Both methods are in many cases of undoubted
use, but the information given by instruments of this kind can
only be considered as approximate, and much is left to the judgment
of the operator, whose surest guide will be an intelligent study of
the principles on which these instruments are based, together
with carefully-recorded observations of the combined working of
his lenses, shutters, plates and methods of development under the
varying conditions of practical work. Before using any of these
instruments it is necessary to know approximately the relative
sensitiveness or " speed " of the plate in use. In the early days of
gelatin dry plates their rapidities were stated as so many times those
of wet plates, or (as they are still) " ordinary," " instantaneous,"
" rapid ' or " extra-rapid," terms which, though suitable for one make
of plate, may not be so for others. This was improved upon by the
adoption, in 1878, of Leon Warnerke's " Sensitometer," which was
in use as a standard for some years. It consisted of a transparent
scale of 25 squares of different intensities, marked with opaque
numbers and arranged so that each third number indicated a doubled
rapidity. This was placed in a frame in front of the sensitive
plate, and exposed for thirty seconds to the constant light emitted
by a phosphorescent tablet, supplied with the instrument, which
was previously excited by burning one inch of magnesium ribbon
in front of it. The exposed plate was then developed and fixed,
and the highest number visible indicated the rapidity of the plate.
In 1890 F. Hurter and V. C. Driffield introduced an entirely new
system of calculating the sensitiveness of plates of different rapidi-
ties. They make a series of exposures in seconds on different
parts of the plate in geometrical progression with a standard candle
at one metre distance. After development for a certain fixed
period with a standard developer, fixing, washing and drying, the

densities " or logarithms of the opacities of the different parts are
measured by a special photometer and plotted on a skeleton diagram,
producing a curve, one portion of which will practically be a straight
line. The position of this line with reference to a scale of exposures
given on the diagram decides the rapidity of the plate, while its
length indicates the " capacity " of the plate for the truthful
rendering of tone. The elaborate investigations by which these
results were obtained are of great interest, and were published in
the Journal of the Society for Chemical Industry (1890, 1891), and
later ones in the Photographic Journal (1898). A complete account
of the system by V. C. Driffield was published in 1903, as No. 56 of
the " Photo Miniature Series." The sensitiveness shown on the
H. & D. scale is directly proportional to the speed number given.
The method has been adopted by several dry-plate makers in

APPARATUS]

PHOTOGRAPHY

517

denoting the sensitiveness of their different brands, and is more or
less the basis on which the plate-speeds for the modern English
dry-plate actinometers and exposure meters are calculated. Several
systems of photometry and measurement of the speeds of dry
plates have been discussed at the meetings of the Congres Inter-
national de Photographie, in 1889, 1891, 1900 and 1905, but no
definite standard has been finally adopted. In Germany the use
of J. Scheiner's sensitometer has been adopted, and appears to be
extending. It is based on a system of photographing the gradu-
ated tints given by rotating sectors. A full account of the instru-
ment, and of a system of sensitometry based on its use, is given by
J. M. Eder in the Photographische Correspondenz (1898) p. 469, and
(1900) p. 244. In 1901 Chapman Jones brought out a convenient
plate-tester on the same principle as the Warnerke sensitometer,
but extended by the addition of a colour sensitometer, which is
useful for the comparison of orthochromatic dry plates, colour
screens, light filters, &c. It consists of a screen plate, 4}X3i in.,
containing a series of twenty-five tints of graduated densities;
a series of coloured squares, blue, green, yellow and red, and
a strip of neutral grey, all five being of approximately equal
luminosity; a series of four squares of special pure colours, each
representing a definite portion of the spectrum ; also a space of line
design, over which is superposed a half-tone negative. To use
the instrument, a quarter-plate of the brand to be tested is exposed
behind the screen for a few seconds to the light of a standard candle
placed at the distance of a foot, developed, fixed and washed.
An examination of the plate will show the sensitiveness, range of
gradation, possible range of exposure, sensitiveness to colour,
size of grain, amount of halation, and the most suitable light for
development. It can be used for many other tests, and enables
any brand of plates to be readily tested by the user and compared
with any standard he may find convenient. In making these and
similar tests, a standard developer should be allowed to act for a
fixed period and at a uniform temperature (Ph. Journ., 1901, 25,
p. 246).

The next important factor is the actinic power of the light. It
depends normally on the height of the sun for the latitude of the
place at the time when the photograph is taken, and exposures in
bright sunlight are found to vary approximately as the cosecant
of the sun's altitude above the horizon. The light of the sun itself
is practically the same at any given time and place year after year,
but is liable to more or less local and temporary diminution by the
amount of cloud, haze, dust, &c, present in the atmosphere at the
time. It is also affected by the time of day, increasing from sunrise
to noon, and then decreasing to sunset. The remaining factor
is the effective diaphragm aperture of the lens in relation to its
focal length. In most cases of ordinary outdoor exposures this
can be taken at its normal value, but becomes smaller and increases
exposure if the focal length is much increased for photographing
near objects. Besides these principal factors, the nature and colour
of the objects, their distance, and the amount of light received
and reflected by them under various atmospheric conditions, have
a great influence on the exposure required. W. B. Coventry has
shown (op. cit. p. 75) how the " light coefficient L," for full sun-
light, can be found, and has given a table of values of L for the
latitude of London for every hour of the day in periods of ten days
throughout the year, also the relative coefficients for " diffused
light," " cloudy," " dull'" and " very dull." Tables of exposures
for different subjects under varying conditions of light have been
published by W. K. Burton, A. S. Platts, F. W. Mills, Sir D. Salomons
and others, and in preparing them Dr J. A. Scott's tables, showing
monthly and daily variations of light for countries about N.
lat. 53 , are generally used. The more modern tables, such as are
published in the printed " exposure notebooks," also take into
account the plate speeds, but unfortunately there is no uniform
standard of plate speeds, owing to the difficulty of fixing a
definite standard of light. The subject is fully treated in the British
Journal Almanac (1901), p. 675, the Watkins Manual, H. Bour-
sault's Calcul du temps de pose en photographie, and similar works
by A. de la Baume Pluvinel, G. de C. d'Espinassoux and others.

Based on the same principle as these exposure tables, various
portable exposure meters have been brought out, in which scales
representing the coefficients for plate-speed, light and diaphragm
are arranged as in a slide rule, so that, when properly set, the
normal exposure required can be found by inspection, and in-
creased or diminished according to circumstances. In Hurter
and Driffield's " Actinograph " the light coefficient is given by a
printed card showing the curves for every day in the year and for
every hour of the day, the unit being the 1 fo f part of the brightest
possible diffused daylight when the altitude of the sun is 90 . The
" lens " scale shows the ratios of aperture to focal length in general
use, and is calculated for single, double and triple systems of lenses.
The " speed " scale is based on the exposure in seconds which with
one actinograph degree of light will produce a perfect negative
of an ordinary landscape. An additional scale is given for five
different degrees of illumination—" very bright," " bright,"
" mean," " dull," " very dull." A table of factors for " views,"
" portraiture," " interiors," " copying," is also given, and these
regulate the figure to be taken for the exposure. The scales are
engraved on boxwood, and there are two sliding pieces (fig. 68).

It is specially adapted for use with plates of speed numbers agree-
ing with the H. & D. scale, but can be used with any plate of which
the relative speed number is known. Convenient exposure meters
have been made since 1890 by A. Watkins, of Hereford, in different

1 iimiiiiiiiiiijjiiiiiiiiiiii mi nimi mi ni m um i mm:
— I ?gs

"5

SPEED) INOCX.

miinii 1 1 iimiiiiim 1 nrmT

im-mi

SOOiOO 100 BO 60M4O 30 20 109876 5 4 3 2

SPUO OF PLATl

* HURTER & DRIFFIELD'S ACTINOGRAPH
PATENT NO 5545 1888

Fig. 69. — Watkins's " Stan-
dard " Meter.

Fig. 68. — Hurter & Driffield's Actinograph.
forms based upon an actinometrical test of the light at the time of
exposure. In the complete " Standard Meter " (1890) scales corre-
sponding to "speed of plate," "diaphragm/ numbers," "light,"
" subject " and " enlarging," marked P. D. A. S. and E., are arranged
on rings adjustable round a cylinder. The plate-speeds are taken
from a table and the " light coefficient," or " actinometer number,"
is ascertained at the time by ex-
posing a piece of sensitive paper
in the actinometer at the end of
the instrument for the number of
seconds required to match a fixed
tint as shown by an attached
pendulum. Many improvements
have been made in it and the
latest pattern (1908) is made in
magnalium (fig. 69). The " Dial "
meter (1901) is a simpler form in
a circular metal case with four
apertures marked " plate,"
" stop," " act " and " exp." above
the corresponding scales, and an actinometer for testing the light.
The numbers showing the speed of the plate in use, the / value
of the diaphragm, and the actinometer exposure in seconds are
brought into the respective apertures and the exposure required
is read off in the "exposure" aperture.
An " indoor meter " is also made, and a
" hand camera calculator " for use with
the " Standard " or " Bee " meters. The
" Queen Bee " and " Bee " meters (1903)
are later, smaller and more convenient
patterns which have superseded the
" Dial " meter and have the plate num-
bers and exposures marked round the
case, and the scales of "/ numbers " and
" light " on a revolving glass plate. This
is revolved till the / number on the right
is opposite the speed number of the plate ;
opposite the " actinometer number " on
the left, found as above, will be found

the exposure in seconds (fig. 70). The _ , . ,

"Queen Bee" meter is similar to the Fl G- 7°.— The Watkins s
" Bee," but of better construction and " ee Meter,

fitted with a pendulum.

G. F. Wynne's " Infallible " exposure meter (1893) is also in
dial form, but the sensitive paper is exposed directly, no pendulum

is used, and the scales are open on
the dial. In use, the glass carrying
the movable scale is turned until
the actinometer time in seconds
upon the exposure scale is opposite
the diaphragm number of the plate,
as given in the list of plate speeds;
the correct exposure will then be
found against each stop given on
the scale. There are practically
only two scales: the scale of dia-
phragms representing the dia-
phragm apertures or / numbers,
the speed of plate and the vari-
ation of exposure due to subject;
and the time scale, represent-
or,-. *t w„„„„'<. " T„f„i m g the actinometer time and the

\bll ""iSosure Mete? ex P osure < fi * ?A The actino-
iiDie exposure meter. meter ig protectec i by a yellow glass

screen when not in use. In a smaller form the scales are on the

5 i8

PHOTOGRAPHY

[APPARATUS

circumference of a locket, and the actinometer at the back. An
" Infallible " Printmeter is also made for showing exposures in
contact printing on sensitive papers, but can also be used for
testing speeds of plates and papers. Beck's " Zambex " Exposure
Meter gives the exposure and stop to be used, also the depth of
focus to be obtained with different diaphragm apertures. The
required exposure is set to the " speed " number on the next
scale of the meter. The third scale corresponds to the times
of darkening the sensitive paper in the actinometer attached to
the meter, and shows the diaphragm aperture suitable for the
given exposure. Other scales show the distances that will be
in focus with the different stops used, arranged so that the focal
depth of four different lenses can be found. Several other ex-
posure meters are made on the principle of the slide rule, with scale
corresponding to the factors of " plate speed," " diaphragm number,"
" light," " subject," " exposure," and the exposure is found by
simple inspection without an actinometer. They are designed
for use with particular brands of plates, but can be used for others
of similar speeds.

Another class of exposure meters comprises those in which
the intensity of the light is estimated visually by extinction
through a semi-transparent medium of increasing intensity, such as
J. Decoudun's (1888), in which the exposure is judged by the
disappearance of a series of small clear openings on a graduated
scale of densities when laid on the most important part of the image
as seen on the ground-glass. Its indications are not very definite,
and the paper scale changes in density after a time. A better
form is " E. Degen's Normal Photometer " (1903), consisting of
two sliding violet glass prisms, one adjusted for the diaphragm
apertures, the other for the actinic illumination of the object.
They are mounted with their outer faces parallel. In use the upper
slide with prism is drawn out so that the pointer coincides with the
division indicating the diaphragm aperture to be used; the object
to be photographed is then viewed directly through openings at
one end of the instrument, and the lower slide is drawn out and
pushed back slowly till the object viewed is almost obscured.
The attached pointer will then indicate the exposure required,
or, reversing the order, the diaphragm aperture for a given exposure
can be found. Auxiliary scales are attached for very short or very
long exposures. The principle of construction is that the logarithms
of the times of exposure are proportional to the thickness of the
coloured prisms. " G. Heyde's Actino-Photometer " (1906) is
on a somewhat similar principle, and consists of a circular metal
box with dark violet glass viewing screens in the centre of both
sides, with an obscuring iris inside the case worked by revolving
the back of the box. On the front of the instrument exposure
tables are given for plates of every rapidity, and for diaphragm
apertures from //3 to //45. Exposure meters of this type are
specially applicable for open-air work where there is sufficient
light for ready measurement. Other simple actinometers are in
use for carbon and process printing, consisting generally of trans-
lucent graduated scales in different densities of paper, coloured
gelatin, &c, or of a photographed scale graduated by increasing
exposures. The " Burton actinometer," for pigment printing,
made on this principle, contains several small negatives of different
densities, one of which is selected of equal depth to the one to be
printed, and the progress of the printing is estimated by exposing
a piece of sensitive paper under it and examining it from time to
time.

Sensitive Plates, Films and Papers
Sensitive Dry Plates. — A special feature of modern photography
is the use of trustworthy ready-prepared sensitive dry plates and
films in different grades of sensitiveness, so that there is nc necessity
for the photographer to prepare his own plates, nor, indeed, could
he do so with any advantage. The practice of outdoor and studio
photography has thus been very greatly simplified; and although
with wet collodion there was the advantage of seeing the results
at once and retaking a picture if necessary, the uncertainties con-
nected with the use of the silver bath and collodion, and the amount
of cumbrous apparatus necessary for preparing and developing
the plates, far outweighed it. There is also an enormous saving
of time, in using dry plates as compared with wet, by deferring
development. In tropical climates, also, dry plates can be used
when work with wet plates would be impossible. On the other
hand, the uncertainty of more or less random exposures on ready-
prepared olates must not be overlooked. Besides their use in
taking negatives, gelatin dry plates are also largely used for print-
ing transparencies, lantern slides, enlargements, &c. For negative
work they are prepared with an emulsion in gelatin of silver bromide,
alone or with the addition of silver iodide or chloride, and are to
be obtained in five or six degrees of rapidity: " slow," for photo-
mechanical or "process" work; "ordinary," for general purposes
when quick exposures are not required; "rapid," for landscape
and portraits; "extra rapid," for instantaneous exposures; and
" double extra rapid," for very quick snapshot work in dull weather
or for special subjects. These latter kinds are exceedingly sensitive,
and require great care in use to avoid fog. In order to prevent
halation, or irregular action by reflection from the back surface of
the glass, dry plates are coated with a non-actinic " backing,"
which can easily be removed before development.

Self-developing dry plates were introduced in 1906, in which the
developing agent is mixed in the film itself, as in the Ilford
" Amauto " plate, which only requires immersion in a solution of
washing soda for development, or, as in the Wellington " Watalu "
plates, applied on the back of the plate, plain water only being re-
quired for development, this application also preventing halation.
The slow plates used for printing lantern slides and transparencies
are usually prepared with an emulsion of silver chloride with or
without free silver nitrate and other haloids.

The rendering of photographic plates isochromatic or sensitive
to all colours by dyeing them with eosin, or other suitable dyes,
has been greatly improved by the use of new dyes, especially
those of the isocyanin group, prepared by Dr E. Konig of the
Hoechst factory, and known as " orthochrom T," " dicyanin,"
" pinaverdol," " pinachrom " and " pinacyanol," the latter of
which can confer on a silver bromide plate as high a degree of
sensitiveness for red as erythrosin does for yellow; also F. Bayer's
" Homocol," Dr A. Miethe's " ethyl red," and other similar dyes
(see E. Jb., 1905, pp. 183, 336). Panchromatic plates are now largely
manufactured and used for all photographic work in which a true
rendering of the relative colour luminosities is essential, and more
particularly for the various methods of colour reproduction in
which plates are required to be sensitive to red, green and blue-
violet. They are made in different degrees of general and colour
sensitiveness, according to the purpose for which they are required,
the ordinary " isochromatic " being most sensitive for yellow and
green, and the " panchromatic " for red, orange and yellow, as
well as for green, blue and violet. To obtain the best results
from all these plates it is necessary to screen off the blue and violet
rays with yellow or orange transparent screens, or colour filters,
made of coloured glass, or glass coated with coloured gelatin,
collodion, &c, or with glass cells containing solutions of suitable
dyes or salts. For the various processes of three-colour reproduc-
tion panchromatic plates and special red, green and blue-violet
filters have to be used for taking the three negatives, their intensities
and absorptions being carefully adjusted to the particular plates
in use; the same applies, but less strictly, to the yellow screens
used with ordinary isochromatic plates. Dyes specially suitable
for these colour-filters have been prepared by Dr E. Konig. Various
kinds of colour screens for ordinary, microscopic and trichromatic
work are made commercially, and Messrs Schott of Jena make a
special yellow glass in three tints for the purpose.

Plates for Colour Photography. — In 1868 Louis Ducos du Hauron,
among various trichromatic methods patented for photographically
reproducing coloured objects in the colours of nature, described one
in which the trichromatic principle, instead of being carried out
on three separate plates, was to be combined in one plate by means
of a transparent medium covered by a trichromatic screen divided
into narrow juxtaposed lines or minute spaces, corresponding to
the three primary colours, red, green and blue-violet, the trans-
parent colour of each of these lines or spaces acting as a colour
filter. A sensitive panchromatic plate was to be exposed in con-
tact with this screen to produce a negative with lines or spots
corresponding to the relative strength of the three coloured lights
passing through it, so that a diapositive print on glass properly
registered with the tricolour screen would show the object in its
proper colours. This method could not be carried out successfully
for want of efficient panchromatic plates and other difficulties.

Between 1892 and 1898 several patents were taken out by J. W.
McDonough and J. Joly for various methods of preparing trichro-
matic ruled screens (Ph. Journ., 1900, p. 191). The Joly method was
fairly successful in action, but had several disadvantages owing to
the coarseness of the lines, the necessity for having two screens,
one for taking and another for viewing, and the cost of making
them (B. J. A., 1899, p. 671). The " Florence " chromatic plate
(1905), worked out in America by J. H. Powrie and Florence
M. Warner, was an improvement on the Joly method, the colour screen
being photographically printed on a glass plate, coated with pan-
chromatic emulsion and exposed to the coloured object through
the screen (Penrose Pictorial Annual, 1905-1906, p. m). Some
good results were produced, but it has not come into use.

After several years of laborious research, Messrs Lumiere, of
Lyons, adopting Ducos du Hauron's coloured grain method, suc-
ceeded where he had failed, and in 1907 brought out their " Auto-
chrome " plates, in a very complete and practical form, making it
Eossible to produce photographs in the colour of natural objects
y one exposure instead of three, as in the ordinary three-colour
processes. Glass plates are coated with an adhesive medium over
which is spread a mixture of potato starch grains, of microscopic
fineness, stained violet, green and orange, the interstices being
filled in with fine carbon powder to form a tricolour screen, dark by
reflected and of a pinkish, pearly appearance by transmitted light.
This is varnished and coated with a thin sensitive panchromatic
emulsion of gelatino-silver bromide. The plates are exposed in
the camera from the back, through the tricolour films, using also
a special compensating orange-yellow screen, before or behind
the lens, then developed as usual, producing a negative coloured
image in the complementary colours, which is then treated and re-
versed so as to produce a positive coloured image by transmission,
showing the picture in its proper colours. The results thus obtained

APPARATUS]

PHOTOGRAPHY

5*9

are remarkably good and practically solve the problem of direct
colour photography in a simple and fairly inexpensive manner
(see Agenda Lumiere, 1909).

In C. L. Finlay's " Thames " colour plate (1908) the tricolour
screen is formed by rows of circular dots coloured alternately
orange-red and green and the intermediate spaces blue. It is used
alone, the coated surface being placed in contact with a panchro-
matic plate, the uncoated side towards the lens. It carries register
marks for adjusting it to the finished picture after development
and reversal of the image. These screens, being more transparent
than the " Autochrome," require less exposure, but the colour
rendering is not so perfect. In the Jougla " Omnicolore " plate
(1909) the tricolour screen and sensitive surface are combined on
one plate as in the " Autochrome," but the screen is made up of
a series of blue-violet parallel lines, with intermediate alternate
broken lines of orange-red and yellowish-green at right angles to
them, the red narrower than the green. The relative sizes of the
coloured dots in the three plates are approximately : —

" Autochrome " starch grains . sgVs to i^^ in.
" Thames " plate, dots, diameter . . 8 lir ,,
" Omnicolore " plates, blue line . . jj^ ,,

„ „ red square . . ifo „

E. Fenske's " Aurora " plate (1909) is a tricolour screen formed
by coating a glass plate with a mixture of finely divided particles
of gelatin, dyed orange-red, green and blue-violet, without any
intervening spaces. The grain generally is coarser and more
irregular than in the " Autochrome " plates, but optically corre-
sponds more closely to them than the " Thames " or " Omnicolore "
screens do. These plates are issued uncoated for use with any
suitable panchromatic plate. A later process is due to Dufay.
With the exception of the " Autochrome," these processes are still
more or less in the experimental stage.

Celluloid Films. — In order to avoid the weight of glass plates,
which may become burdensome on a tour, and also the risk of
breakage of valuable records, thin films or sheets of celluloid coated
with sensitive emulsions can be used, with great saving of bulk
and weight and no loss of efficiency, though such films are some-
times liable to deterioration by long keeping before or after ex-
posure. They are made in two thicknesses, stiff or flexible, the
stiff being used exactly as plates, but held in a carrier or simply
backed with a card or glass plate, while the flexible are made up
in separate sheaths with cardboard backing, as in the " Kodoid
films, or in convenient packages of twelve or more in " film packs "
of various patterns. Flexible films of this kind on celluloid have for
many years past also been prepared in long strips of different
widths suitable for use in hand cameras of the Kodak types and in
roll-holders. In the early forms of roll-holders the films were used
alone, and being unprotected had to be changed in the dark room,
but, as already stated, they are now supplied on spools in cartridges
which can be changed in daylight. C. Silvy seems to have been
the first to employ this method in 1870. In these cartridges the
film is attached to a much longer strip of black paper, and rolled
up with it, so that several turns of the paper have to be unrolled
before the film is ready for exposure, this point being marked
on the outside paper for the successive exposures, with numbers
visible through a red screen at the back of the holder. When all
have been exposed, the black paper is rolled on for several turns,
and when taken out of the holder the loose end is fastened up till
the film is developed. As these films are principally used for
landscape work, it is now usual to make them isochromatic, and
they may be used with or without a yellow screen. They are also
made " non-curling " by being coated with gelatin on both sides.
Negatives taken on these thin films have the advantage that they
can be printed from either side without perceptible loss of definition,
which is useful in printing by the single transfer carbon process,
and in some of the photo-mechanical printing methods. Flexible
transparent films in sheets and rolls have also been prepared upon
hardened gelatin, but it is difficult to retain the original dimensions
of the film owing to expansion of the gelatin. Paper coated with
sensitive emulsions has been successfully used for making negatives
in the same way as the celluloid films, and is cheaper, but much
more liable to deterioration from atmospheric action before and
after exposure, and unless developed soon after exposure the im-
pressed images may fade and become undevelopable. Such papers
are, however, still used in meteorological and other self-recording
instruments. Stripping films of thin celluloid upon a paper support
were introduced by Messrs Wellington and Ward, and had advan-
tages for printing from either side, but are not now made.

Photographic Printing Papers. — Pari passu with the supply of
ready-prepared plates, all kinds of photographic printing papers
can now be obtained ready for use, so that the photographer has
nothing to do with the preparation of his sensitive plates or papers.
The old albuminized papers have been generally superseded by
ready-prepared sensitive papers coated by machinery with emulsions
of silver haloids in gelatin, with or without citrate or other organic
silver salts, the chloride being used for most of the " P.O.P." or
" printing out papers," which contain more or less free silver
nitrate, and in the " self-toning " papers some salt of gold. Some
of these printing out papers are also made with emulsions of silver

chloride in collodion, and known as " C.C." or " collodiochloride."
The basis of most of the developable bromide papers used for en-
largements and direct copying, containing no free silver nitrate,
and with which an invisible image is brought out by development,
much in the same way as with dry plates, is silver bromide. These
papers are made in great variety of tints and surfaces, " smooth "
and " rough," " glossy " and " matt," for producing different
effects. They are largely used for direct printing by artificial
light or daylight, for enlargements, and for printing photographic
post-cards, &c, in large numbers by machinery, the prints being
made on a long band with an almost instantaneous exposure, and
developed and fixed by being passed through the proper solutions
on large rollers or otherwise. Papers for the platinotype processes,
sensitized with salts of platinum and iron, are also manufactured
for printing out entirely or for development with potassic oxalate.
Prints on these papers have the advantage of being permanent.

Messrs York Schwartz and J. Mallabar's process of developing and
toning prints made on a special sensitive paper prepared with an
emulsion of silver phosphate was introduced by Messrs Houghton
in 1908 under the name of " Ensyna." Very short exposures to
day or artificial light are required, and with a special developer
(" Ensynoid ") permanent prints are obtained with a varied scale
of tones similar to those given by toning with gold, the colour of
the print being determined by the exposure, short exposures giving
purple and long exposures brown or reddish tones. The process
is a rapid one, the operations of printing, developing, fixing and
washing being completed within about ten minutes or even less.

For the various methods of printing in permanent pigments
(" Autotype," &c.) tissues are prepared coated with pigmented
gelatin in various colours, and very successful results in colour
photography have been obtained by printing from suitable negatives
in three colours with specially prepared yellow, blue and pink
tissues. Similar papers, prepared with pigmented gum instead of
gelatin, are used in the " gum bichromate " process, and " single
transfer " papers, coated with plain gelatin, are used in the pigment
printing processes to receive the developed print, and are also
useful for photo-lithography, the new " oil-printing " methods,
and in trichromatic printing on paper by the Sanger-Shepherd
method and Dr Konig's " Pinatype." For Manly's " Ozotype "
and " Ozobrome " processes special gelatinized and pigmented
papers are made. " Cyanotype " and " Ferrogallic " papers are
prepared for the use of architects, engineers, &c, in rolls of consider-
able width, for the direct reproduction of tracings and drawings
as blue or black prints by these and similar methods.

Apparatus for Development. — The recognition of the fact that
the two principal factors in the development of modern photo-
graphic dry plates with a suitable developer are time and tempera-
ture, and also that a prolonged immersion in dilute solutions is in
many cases a more convenient and equally efficient method of
development, has led to the construction of apparatus for enabling
the operation to be carried out almost automatically and for timing
its duration.

In 1894 A. Watkins brought out his factorial system of develop-
ment based on the principle " that with a correct exposure on a
given plate with a given developing agent, the time of development
required for a given printing opacity has a fixed arithmetical
ratio to the time of appearance of the high lights of the image,
provided the developing power of the solution remains constant
during development; and this rule holds good for all variations
of strength, amount of alkali or bromide, and temperature within
those limits which have been found safe in practice " (Photo. News,
1894, 38, pp. 115, 729; and further, Ph. Journ., 1900, 24^, p. 221). By
a series of observations he ascertained the multiplying factors of
most of the developers in ordinary use, and in 1905 brought out
his " factorial calculator " and a " dark-room clock " for facilitating
the working of the method. The former is made of aluminium,
and consists of two circular disks, the upper smaller one rotating
and carrying a pointer. The outer disk is marked with a scale of
Watkins' factors for the different developers, as given in the " in-
structions " accompanying the instrument, and is used to denote
the " time of development " in minutes. The scale on the inner

Fig. 72. — Watkins's Factorial Fig. 73. — Watkins's Dark-

Calculator, room Clock,

disk shows the " time of appearance " in seconds or minutes. In use
the pointer is set to the factor for the developer in use, and against
the " time of appearance " on the inner scale will be found the total
number of minutes required for complete development (fig. 72).

520

PHOTOGRAPHY

[APPARATUS

The " calculator " can be used with any ordinary clock or watch,
but the " dark-room clock " (fig. 73) has been specially constructed
for the factorial system. It is an improvement on the earlier
forms of Watkins' " Eikronometer," and has a 4 in. dial with 10
minute and 100 seconds divisions, very plain for dark rooms,
centre seconds hand, stop action and outside indicator to mark
the completed time. The seconds hand completes the revolution
in 100 seconds, while the minute hand does so in 10 minutes, or
sufficient for the longest ordinary development, though it runs on,
if necessary, very much longer, both hands starting together
always at O.

In 1908 Watkins brought out another system of " thermo-
development " by time dependent on the use of a standard " time
developer," the duration of the development, at a given tempera-
ture, being modified according to the make and speed of the partic-
ular plate in use. The temperature variations are indicated by
a movable scale, or " thermo-calculator," on the bottle of de-
veloper, the variations for development speed of various plates
being given approximately on the " Watkins' Plate Speed List,"
which thus shows the " speed of plate " and " speed of develop-
ment " with the standard developer at 6o°. This method is well
adapted for plates, films and stand development in tanks or
machines, no observation of the plate being required, and the times
are most conveniently observed with the " dark-room clock."
Full details of these two distinct methods of development will be
found in the 4th edition of the Watkins' Manual of Exposure and
Development.

C. W. Piper's "photographer's stop clock " (1906) is a more
elaborate clock, intended for use not only in " time development "
but for all photographic operations in which accurate control
in regard to time is of importance. It is fitted with a gong and
arranged to work by " time " or " bulb." Once started, by pressure
on a lever or on the bulb, it will continue to go until stopped,
striking the gong at the completion of every minute, when the
seconds hand reaches the zero point. A second pressure on the
bulb stops the clock, so long as the pressure is continued, while
pressure on a lever stops it permanently. It is thus useful for timing
any intermittent operations, whilst the clock adds up the separate
times and prevents the occurrence of errors difficult to avoid when
timing with an ordinary watch. By an additional attachment
a prolonged time exposure with the camera may be terminated,
or an " instantaneous " or short " time " exposure given at any
prearranged time. Messrs Houghton's " Ensign " clock for time
development has a dial with 60 divisions, a single hand, and is
fitted with a gong. It can be set to ring an alarm bell at the
expiration of any period from one minute to one hour, can be started
or stopped immediately and is easily read in the dark-room. It
requires no winding up, the action of setting providing the tension
for the recording movements. It can be stopped and started at
will and the bell arranged to give a short or prolonged ring. S.
Stanley's is another convenient form, with a 4J in. dial, divided into
60 seconds and 60 minutes, the thick hand recording the seconds
and the thin hand the minutes.

Several forms of developing tanks and machines have been
constructed for developing a number of exposed plates, together
with ordinary or dilute developers, with the aid of the factorial
system or independently of it. The Kodak " Automatic Develop-
ing Tank " (1905) is a useful arrangement by which bands of ex-
posed roll films can be developed in daylight, without any need of
a dark-room (fig. 74). The exposed film is wound from the spool

Other forms are made, and in some the fixing and washing can also
be effected. These tanks undoubtedly save much time and trouble
in developing a large number of exposed plates or films, and have
been found to work with efficiency and regularity. Eastman Kodak
Co. brought out in 1907 a machine for developing paper prints on
bromide or gaslight papers.

Fig. 74. — Kodak Developing Tank.

into a red celluloid apron contained in a box A, then placed in the
tank B, where it is left in a dilute developer for about twenty
minutes, and requires no attention. It gives very good results.
For the " Brownie " films a special daylight developing box is made.
With the Kodak " Eastman Plate-developing Tank " (1908) the
exposed plates are removed, in the dark-room, from the plate
holders and placed, in pairs back to back, in a special framework
holding six pairs, which is lowered into a metal tank containing
the developer, and is fitted with a watertight lid so that it can
be inverted during development. A clock face, with pointer, by
which the period of development may be noted is fitted outside
the tank. Another apparatus of the kind is made for developing
celluloid films exposed in the " Premo Film Packs " (fig. 75).

Fig. 75.— Premo Film Pack Tank (1908).
Photographic Printing Apparatus
For ordinary printing purposes pressure frames, with or without
glass fronts, are used for holding the negative and sensitive paper
in close contact during exposure to light. They are fitted with
hinged backs enabling^ the progress of the printing to be seen. The
pressure is usually given with springs or with screws or wedges
acting on the back. They are made in different kinds shown in
the dealers' catalogues. For copying large tracings and engineers'
drawings by the cyanotype and similar processes large glazed
frames are used, mounted on a stand with axle, so that they may
be easily turned over for refilling or fixed at a suitable angle to
the light. The pressure is given by an elastic cushion or vacuum
arrangement, by which air is pumped out from under an india-
rubber sh<>et covering the back of the frame, thus securing a per-
fectly uniiorm pressure of about 14 tt> to the square inch without
strain on the front glass. Such frames are also useful for various
photo-mechanical printing processes with large negatives or metal
plates.

For rapid printing of post-card and other negatives up to 8|X
6| in. a handy and simple apparatus the " Rapide " has been
brought out, consisting of a lantern fitted for oil, gas or electric
light, with a sloping front, in which a special printing frame is fixed
and arranged so that the prints can be rapidly exposed one after
another (B. /. A. 1909), p. 691. In another form arrangements
are made for exposing a large number of printing frames on a suit-
able stand, in one or two tiers round a central arc lamp, which
may be provided, as in the " Westminster " revolving printing
frame, with a shade to protect the eyes of the operator when
examining the prints or changing the frames.

For printing tracings, &c, in long rolls, cylinder and rotatory
machines of various types are used, so that the tracing and sensitive
paper may be drawn together at a regulated speed in close contact
round a glass cylindrical surface within which electric arc or mercury
vapour lamps supply the source of light. Several machines of
this kind are described in Eder's Jahrbuch for 1908, also in the
patent records and photographic journals.

Authorities. — Apparatus in general: Sir W. de W. Abney,
Instruction in Photography (nth ed., 1905); R. C. Bayley, The
Complete Photographer (1906) ; Dr J. M. Eder, Ausfuhrliches Hand-
buch der Photographie (2nd ed., pt. i. (2), 1892); Jahrbucher fur
Photographie und Reproductions Technik (E. Jb.), (1887-1908).
Valuable for reference on all forms of apparatus: Dr C. Fabre,
Traite encyclopSdique de photographie (T. E. P.) (vol. i., 1889 ; Supple-
ments A, 1892 ; B, 1897 ; C, 1902 ; D, 1906), also gives much informa-
tion about photographic apparatus and optics; Chapman Jones,
An Introduction to the Science and Practice of Photography (4th ed.,
1904); British Journal Photographic Almanacs to 1909 (B. J. A.);
Patent Office, Abridgments of Specifications, class 98, " Photo-
graphy " ; Photography Annuals (1891 to 1899) ; Photographic Journal
(Ph. Journ.) ; Year Books of Photography to 1907.

Lenses and Optics: C. Beck and A. Andrews, Photographic Lenses
(6th ed.); W K. Burton, Optics for Photographers (1891); R. S.
Cole, A Treatise on Photographic Optics (1899) ; T. R. Dallmeyer,
Telephotography (1899); J. A. Hodges, Photographic Lenses (1895);
Captain Houdaille. Sur une methode d'essai scientifique et pratique
des objectifs photo graphiques (1894) ; G. L. Johnson, Photographic
Optics and Colour Photography (1909); O. Lummer, Contributions
to Photographic Optics, translated and augmented by Professor
S. P. Thompson (1900) ; Dr A. Miethe, Optique photographique sans
devellopements mathematiques , translation by A. Noaillon and V.
Hassreidter (1896); Lieut. -Colonel P. Moessard, L'Optique photo-
graphique (1898), L'Objectif photographique (1899); C. W. Piper,
A First Book of the Lens (1901); Dr M. von Rohr, Theorie und
Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs (1899), a most valuable
theoretical and historical summary of photographic optics and its
literature; Hans Schmidt, Das Fern-Objectiv im Portrait- Archi-
tectur- und, Landschaftsfache (1898); Dr H. Schroeder, Die Elemente

PICTORIAL]

PHOTOGRAPHY

52i

der photo graphischen Optik (1891); J. T. Taylor, The Optics of
Photography and Photographic Lenses (3rd ed., 1904); The " Photo-
Miniature Series," No. I (1899), Modern Lenses, No. 26 (1901),
Telephotography; No. 36 (1902), Lens Facts and Helps; No. 79
(1907), The Choice and Use of Photographic Lenses.

Hand Cameras, Shutters, Exposure Meters, &c. : Sir W.de W. Abney,
Instantaneous Photography (1895); H. Boursault, Calcul du temps
de pose en photographie (1896) ; W. B. Coventry, The Technics of
the Hand Camera (1901), the working principles of lenses, shutters,
&c, for instantaneous exposures are treated mathematically and
practically; L. David, Die Moment-Photographie (1898); G. de
Chapel d'Espinassoux, Traite pratique de la determination du temps
de pose (1890) ; Dr R. Kriigener, Die Hand Camera und ihre Anwen-
dung fur die Moment-Photographie (1898); A. Londe, La Photo-
graphie instantanee, theorie et pratique (3rd ed., 1897) ; F. W. Pilditch,
Drop-Shutter Photography (1896) ; A. de la Baume Pluvinel, Le Temps
de pose (1890); A. Watkins, The Watkins Manual of Exposure and
Development (4th ed., 1908). The Practical Photographer, No. 8
(1904), " Hand Camera Work." The " Photo-Miniature Series,"
No. 3 (1899), Hand Camera Work; No. 37 (1902), Film Photography;
No. 56 (1903), The Hurler and Driffield System; No. 76 (1906),
The Hand Camera; No. 77 (1907), Focal Plane Photography.

Colour Photography: Agenda Lumiere, La Photographie des
couleurs et les plaques autochromes (1909) ; G. E. Brown and C. W.
Piper, Colour Photography with the Lumiere Autochrome Plates
(1907); Baron A. von Htibl, Three Colour Photography, translated
by H. O. Klein (1904); Theorie und Praxis der Farben Photographie
mil Autochrom Platten (1908); G. L. Johnson, Photographic Optics
and. Colour Photography (1909); Dr E. Konig, Natural Colour
Photography (trans, by E. J. Wall (1906) ; Die Autochrom Photographie
und die verwandten Dreifarbenraster-verfahren (1908). (J. Wa.)

III. — Pictorial Photography

Pictorial photography differs from other branches of photo-
graphic practice in the motive by which it is prompted. Employ-
ing the same methods and tools, it seeks to use photographic
processes as a means of personal artistic expression. Thus in the
early days of Fox Talbot's calotype, about 1846, David Octavius
Hill, a successful Scottish painter, took up this method of
portrayal, and, guided by an artist's knowledge and taste, and
unfettered by photographic convention, which indeed had
then scarcely begun to grow, produced portraits which for
genuine pictorial quality have perhaps never been surpassed,
especially if some allowance be made for the necessary im-
perfections of the " Talbotype " (see Plate II). Whether they
were in their day typical examples of Talbotype with all the
latest improvements, Hill probably never cared. When, again,
a few years later, Sir William J. Newton, the eminent
miniature painter, read a paper before the newly formed
Photographic Society of Great Britain (now the Royal Photo-
graphic Society), his recommendation to depart from the
custom of defining everything with excessive sharpness caused
his address to be almost epoch-making. " I do not conceive
it to be necessary or desirable," he said, " for an artist to repre-
sent, or aim at, the attainment of every minute detail, but to
endeavour at producing a broad and general effect. ... I do
not consider that the whole of the subject should be what is
called 'in focus'; on the contrary, I have found in many in-
stances that the object is better obtained by the whole subject
being a little out of focus." The doctrine has been persistently
repeated ever since, but only within the last decade of the 19th
century was the suppression or diffusion of focus received by
photographers generally with anything better than ridicule or
contempt, because it was unorthodox. O. G. Rejlander, Mrs
Julia Margaret Cameron, H. P. Robinson, and others, by precept
or practice, strove against such photographic conventions as
had arisen out of those technical exigencies to which pictorial
qualities were so often sacrificed. As late as 1868, in the
Manual of Photographic Manipulation, by Lake Price, the old
advice to arrange a group of persons in crescent form, so as to
adapt the subject to the curve of the field of the lens, was repeated
with the additional recommendation of plotting out on the
ground beforehand the " curve of the focus " as a guide. As a
defiance of this dictum, Rejlander, in 1869, produced a group of
the members of the Solar Club in which some of the chief figures
were set widely out of the " curve of the focus." The mere
technical difficulties of this performance with wet collodion
plates, and in an ordinary upper room, need not be touched upon

here, but it is to be noted as one of those triumphant departures
from convention which have marked the progressive stages of
pictorial photography. At about the same period, Mrs Cameron,
carrying the recommendation of " a little out of focus " rather
further, regardless of how her lens was intended to be used by
its maker, secured the rendering dictated by her own taste and
judgment, with the result that many of her portraits, such as
those of Tennyson, Carlyle, &c, are still in their way unsur-
passed. Contemporaneously, Adam Salomon, a talented sculp-
tor, " sunned " down the too garish lights of his photographic
prints, and strengthened the high lights by working on the back
of the negative.

But, during the concluding quarter of the 19th century,
probably the most powerful influence in pictorial photography
was that of H. P. Robinson, who died in February 1901, and, but
for a brief period about the year 1875, was one of the most
prolific " picture makers." Inspired by Rejlander, of whom he
was a contemporary, Robinson will perhaps be best remembered
by his earlier advocacy of combination printing. As early as
1855 Berwick and Annan exhibited a photograph which was the
result of printing from more than one negative, a figure from one
plate being cunningly introduced into a landscape print from
another. Then came from Rejlander " The Two Ways of Life,"
in which, with wonderful ingenuity, thirty different negatives
were combined. Robinson followed, and between 1858 and 1887
exhibited numerous examples of combination-printing, one of
the most popular and fairly typical examples being " Carolling "
(see Plate II), which received a medal in the exhibition of the
Royal Photographic Society in 1887.

Though in this combination-printing one may perhaps perceive
the germ of incentive towards the production of special effects
not seen in the original, yet the practice was not destined to
become very popular, for even in the most capable hands there
remains the difficulty, if not impossibility, of fitting a portion of
one negative into a print from another and still preserving true
relative tonality, and even true proportion. Skilfully produced,
eminently popular in character though " Carolling " may be,
such errors are not absent. Of this combination-printing
Dr P. H. Emerson has said: " Cloud printing is the simplest
form of combination-printing* and the only one admissible when
we are considering artistic work. Rejlander, however, in the early
days of photography, tried to make pictures by combination-
printing. This process is really what many of us practised in the
nursery, that is, cutting out figures and pasting them into white
spaces left for that purpose in the picture-book. With all the
care in the world the very best artist living could not do this
satisfactorily. Nature is so subtle that it is impossible to do
this sort of patchwork and represent her. Even if the greater
truths be registered, the lesser truths, still important, cannot
be obtained, and the softness of outline is easily lost. The rela-
tion of the figure to the landscape can never be truly represented
in this manner, for all subtle modelling of the contour of the
figure is lost."

Pictorial photography received a large accession of votaries
in consequence of the greater facilities offered by the introduction
of the gelatino-bromide, or dry-plate, process, which, although
dating from 1880, did not notably affect photographic communi-
ties until some years afterwards; and although improvement in
appliances and instruments had little to do with the advance
of the pictorial side of photography, yet, indirectly at least, the
dry-plate and the platinotype printing process have had an
undoubted effect. The former gave enormously increased
facility, and dispensed with tedious manipulations and chemical
knowledge, while its increased light-sensitiveness decreased the
limitations as to subjects and effects. The platinotype process
was discovered in 18 74-1 880 by W. Willis, who employed his
chemical skill and knowledge to give the world a printing process
more likely than the hitherto prevalent silver papers to satisfy
artistic requirements.

Up to 1882 but few outdoor photographers had ventured to
run counter to the general dictum that photographs should only be
taken during sunshine or good bright light, and unquestioning

522

PHOTOGRAPHY

[PICTORIAL

consent would have been given everywhere to the proposition
that it would be absurd to work when anything like fog or atmo-
spheric haze was present. Isochromatic plates, introduced for
the purpose of equalizing the actinic power of various colour
luminosities, and so rendering colours in correct relative value,
were recommended by one writer, who applauded their supposed
advantage of enabling the photographer to photograph distance
without any suggestion of atmosphere. That evening or morn-
ing haze might enhance the beauty of a landscape, or that the
mystery of half-concealment might itself be beautiful, does not
seem to have occurred to the photographer, who had become
infatuated by the exquisite clearness and sharpness which, with a
minimum of labour, he was able to achieve. It is therefore
interesting to note one of the first photographic successes which
broke away from this convention, just as Rejlander's Solar Club
group defied the formula of arranging human figures like the
tiers of an amphitheatre. William M'Leish, of Darlington, a
Scottish gardener who had taken to photography, and who seems
to have been less under the influence, or it may have been that he
was ignorant, of the old dicta, sent to the Royal Photographic
Society's Exhibition in 1882 a photograph entitled " Misty Morn-
ing on the Wear," a very beautiful view of Durham Cathedral
as seen through the mist from across the river. The judges,
although they that year awarded eleven medals, passed this by;
but appreciation came from outside, for newspaper critics, and
practically all those who were not blinded by prejudice and
conventionality, declared it to be the photograph of the year.
The exhibitions immediately succeeding revealed numerous
imitators of M'Leish, and both figure and landscape work began
to be shown in which there was evidence of greater freedom
and originality.

Meanwhile the Photographic Society of Great Britain had
drifted away from its artistic starting-point, and had become
chiefly absorbed in purely scientific and technical subjects. But
the general apathy which existed in respect of the artistic aspira-
tions of some workers was the forerunner of a period of renaissance
which was to end in lifting the pictorial side of photography into
a greatly improved position. In 1886 Dr P. H. Emerson read
before the Camera Club a paper on " Naturalistic Photography,"
which served as an introduction to the publication (1887) of his
book under that title. Unquestionably this book struck a
powerful blow at the many conventionalities which had grown
up in the practice of photography; the chief doctrines set forth
being the differentiation of focus in different planes, a more
complete recognition and truer rendering of " tone," a kind of
truthful impressionism derived from a close study and general
acquaintance of nature, and a generally higher and more intel-
lectual standard. After the publication of a second edition in
1889 Dr Emerson publicly renounced the views he had published,
by issuing in January of 1891 a bitterly worded, black-bordered
pamphlet, entitled The Death of Naturalistic Photography. But
the thoughts which the book had stirred were not to be stilled
by its withdrawal. Towards the end of the same year the
conflict which within the Photographic Society had become
apparent as between the pictorial enthusiasts and the older
school, culminated in connexion with some matters respecting
the hanging of certain photographs at the exhibition of that year;
and a number of prominent members resigned their membership
as a protest against the lack of sympathy and the insufficient
manaer in which pictorial work was represented and encouraged.
This secession was to prove the most important event in the
history of that branch of photography. The secessionists being
among the most popular contributors to the annual exhibition
gathered round them numerous sympathizers. In the following

Aroused into greater activity by these events, the Royal
Photographic Society began to pay more attention to what had
now become the more popular phase. At subsequent exhibitions
the technical and scientific work was hung separately from the
" Art Section," and a separate set of judges was elected for each
section. It became the custom to allot by far the greater
amount of space to the " artistic "; and later, artists were elected
as judges, by way of encouraging those who were devoted to the
pictorial side to send in for exhibition. In the autumn of 1900
the New Gallery was secured, and a comprehensive exhibition
of all phases of photography was held.

It is interesting to note that as a distinct movement pictorial
photography is essentially of British origin, and this is shown
by the manner in which organized photographic bodies in Vienna,
Brussels, Paris, St Petersburg, Florence and other European
cities, as well as in Philadelphia, Chicago, &c, following the
example of London, held exhibitions on exactly similar lines to
those of the London Photographic Salon, and invited known
British exhibitors to contribute. The international character
of the " Linked Ring " encouraged an interchange of works
between British and foreign exhibitors, with the result that the
productions of certain French, Austrian and American photo-
graphers are perfectly familiar in Great Britain. This, in the
year 1900, led to a very remarkable cult calling itself " The New
American School," which had a powerful influence on contem-
poraries in Great Britain.

It may be well to glance at such improvements of process or
apparatus as have not been direct and essential means to pictorial
advance, but rather modifications and improvements made in
response to the requirements of the artistic aspirant. Such im-
provements are of two orders — those which are devised with the
aim of securing greater accuracy of delineation, the correction of
distortion and of apparent exaggeration of perspective, and the
more truthful rendering of relative values and tones; and those
which seek to give the operator greater personal control over the
finished result. While great advances have been made in photo-
graphic optics, it cannot be said that pictorial work has been
thereby materially assisted, some of the most successful exponents
preferring to use the simplest form of uncorrected objective, or
even to dispense with the lens altogether, choosing rather to employ
a minute aperture, technically called a " pinhole." This is but
one example of many which might be quoted to bear out the state-
ment that in photography the advance of anything in the nature
of artistic qualities has not been correlative with mechanical im-
provements. The hand camera can only be said to have had an
indirect influence: it has increased the photographer's facilities,
and by removing the encumbrance of heavy tools has widened his
sphere of operations; but it is perhaps in connexion with the plates
and printing processes that more direct advantages have been
gained. The fact that the actinic power of colours is not pro-
portional to their luminosity was long regretted as an obstacle to
correct representation; but by the introduction of orthochromatic
or isochromatic plates in 1886 (when B. J. Edwards bought the
Tailfer and Clayton patent, under which he shortly brought out
his orthochromatic plates) this original disability was removed;
while with increased rapidity in the isochromatic plate colour
values may still further be corrected by the use of coloured screens
or light filters, without interfering with the practicability of making
sufficiently rapid exposures for most subjects. Again, by a better
knowledge of what is required in artistic representation, certain
modifications in the formulated treatment of ordinary and un-
corrected plates are found to do much towards removing the evil;
hence, with an ordinary plate " backed " so as to counteract over-
exposure of the higher lights, an exposure may, except in extreme
cases, be given of length sufficient to secure the feeble rays of the
less actinic colours, and by subsequent suitable development a
result hardly distinguishable from that of a colour corrected plate
may be secured. Chemical experiment has placed in the photo-
grapher's hands improved and easier means of entire, unequal and
local intensification and reduction, but utility of these is restricted.
By the artistic worker it is claimed that the lens and camera are
but the tools, and the negative the preliminary sketch or study,
the final print standing to him in the same relation as the finished

year they formed themselves into a brotherhood called " Th^> painting does to the artist. In the production of the print various
Linked Ring," and in 1893 held their first "Photographic Salon, ~ *"""" " f — "- —--11.-— «->- *—.♦.•„„ ~f +u- ,-„.™ I,™
at the Dudley Gallery, Piccadilly. The most noteworthy of the
early adherents attracted to the new body was James Craig
Annan, whose work was practically unknown until he exhibited
it at the first Salon; and almost at once he, by general consent,
took a position amongst pictorial photographers second to none
(see Plate II).

means of personally controlling the formation of the image have
been resorted to. Thus the local development of platinotype
by means of glycerine has its champions, but it seems to have .been
little used, its resuscitation being chiefly due to two or three promi-
nent workers in New York. Here should also be mentioned the
revival in 1898 of rough-surface printing papers, chiefly those
sensitized with silver, the roughest texture drawing papers being
employed to break up the excessive sharpness of the photographic
image, and by the superficial inequalities introducing the effect

PHOTOGRAPHY, CELESTIAL

523

of luminousness to over-dark shadows and variety to blank whites.
The almost forgotten process of Pouncy, and of Poitevin, now known
as the gum bichromate process, was rehabilitated in 1894 by M.
Rouille Ladeveze expressly to meet the needs of the pictorial
worker. Perhaps the best results that have been achieved by it
are those of M. Robert Demachy of Paris, though many English
workers have used it with remarkable success. In it paper of any
kind may be selected as the support. The power of the operator
to modify the printed image to almost any extent, even to intro-
ducing and eliminating lights and shadows, and in other ways to
depart widely from the image given by the negative, depends upon
the fact that the coating of gum and pigment (which, being bichro-
matized, becomes insoluble in proportion as it is acted upon by light)
holds the pigment but imperfectly, and yields it up upon a vigorous
application of water. According, therefore, to its application or
retention, the operator can lighten or deepen in tone any portion.
Numberless variations of other methods, such as brush develop-
ment and local toning or stopping, have been suggested with the
same object. Other workers have shown that by dexterously shutting
off and admitting the light to various parts of the negative whilst
printing, the disposition of the lights and shades in the print can
be modified to so great an extent as to alter the general contour of
the scene. Examples of an original unaltered print, and one
which has been thus modified, are shown in the accompanying
plate. Portions are shaded in by allowing the light to have access
to the print, either through the negative — in which case the image
with all its details, prints more deeply — or by removing the negative,
when the action of the light is to flatten and suppress both detail
and contrast. Latterly some few have resorted to extensive
working on the negative, both on the back and on the film ; drawing
by hand is practised on the film to render too prominent features less
obtrusive, and objects in the background are merged by an intricacy
of lines and cross-hatching. Many of the results are very pleasing,
although one hesitates to justify the means, however good the
end. On the other hand, to exclaim for purity of method and the
exclusion of extraneous aids is very like setting up an arbitrary
standard no less unreasonable than those conventions against
which pictorial photography has so long striven.

Authorities. — P. H. Emerson, Naturalistic Photography; H. P.
Robinson, Picture-making by Photography; Art Photography;
Pictorial Effect in Photography; Elements of a Pictorial Photograph;
A. H. Wall, Artistic Landscape Photography (1896); A. Horsley
Hinton, Practical Pictorial Photography (1898), and subsequent
editions; C. Puyo, Notes sur la photographic artistique (Paris).

(A. H. H.)

PHOTOGRAPHY, CELESTIAL. The requisites for celestial
photography are best explained by a comparison with ordinary
photography in several essential points.

a. Illumination. — In taking a portrait artificial light is used,
being thrown on to the face of the sitter either directly or by
reflection. If the day is dull a longer exposure is required, and
artificial light may be used when the daylight fails. In photo-
graphing the stars there is no question of illuminating them by
artificial light; for the strongest searchlight which we could
throw in the direction of the heavenly bodies would have no
sensible effect. The light used is their own, and its feebleness
renders it necessary to make long exposures, the length increasing
as we attempt to get images of fainter objects. The invention
of the dry plate, by making it possible to give very long exposures,
caused a revolution in celestial photography. With the wet
plate, exposures were limited to the few minutes during which
the film would remain wet; but the dry plate can remain in the
telescope for days, weeks or even years if necessary. On the
approach of daylight, the cap is put on the camera, or the plate
removed into the dark room; but when night returns the plate
is put back in the telescope, which is accurately pointed to the
same stars, the cap is removed, and the exposure is resumed
without any loss from the interruption.

b. Magnification. — In taking a portrait we can obtain a large
or small size by placing the camera near the sitter or far away.
But this method is not available for the heavenly bodies, since
we cannot sensibly approach them. To magnify an image we
must lengthen the focus of the camera, either directly or in-
directly. The direct method is to construct a lens or mirror of
long focus; the camera becomes similar in length to a telescope;
and indeed resembles a telescope in other respects, except that
we take away the eye-piece and put in a photographic plate
instead. If, however, we already have a lens of short focus which
we wish to use, we may lengthen the focus indirectly by using a
secondary magnifier, that is by putting in another lens near the
focus of the first. In either case the profitable magnification

is limited, not only by the imperfections of the optical apparatus
but by disturbances in the atmosphere. Air currents, either
outside or inside the telescope, act as irregular lenses of varying
shape, and produce such defects in the image that we gain
nothing by enlarging it beyond a certain point. Such air dis-
turbances do not trouble the ordinary photographer at all, or
scarcely at all: he is only concerned with a few feet of air,
whereas the celestial photographer cannot escape from the
necessity of looking through many miles of it.

c. Steadiness. — In taking a portrait the photographer is only
concerned to fix his camera firmly and to induce his sitter to
remain still. The heavenly bodies are in constant motion,
though their real and apparent movements are fortunately
smooth, except for air disturbances above mentioned. If, there-
fore, it were possible to devise perfectly smooth clockwork, we
could keep the camera or telescope continually pointed to the
required star or stars. But human workmanship has not yet
made clockwork of sufficient strength and accuracy to keep a
large telescope satisfactorily pointed. The clockwork which
had been found good enough for use with visual telescopes was
soon found to be quite inadequate for photography. The first
method adopted was to bind two telescopes, one visual and the
other photographic, firmly together; and by looking through the
visual one to keep some object steadily on the crosswires by
using the slow motion screws; meanwhile the other telescope
was kept properly pointed for taking a photograph. As it was
sometimes found that extremely fine movements were required,
electrical arrangements were devised, whereby the observer, on
simply pressing a button, could accelerate or retard the rate of
the clockwork by a minute amount, instead of actually turning
the screws by hand. And about the same time the idea arose
of making these corrections automatically. This automatic
correction is based on the principle that a freely swinging
pendulum, which has no work to do, will naturally keep
much better time than the clockwork which has to drive a
heavy telescope; and if such a pendulum is therefore arranged
to send a current every second through certain electro-magnets,
apparatus can be devised to detect whether the clockwork is
going properly; and to correct it in the right direction, if it is
not. One or more of these three methods, which may be called
hand-guiding, electrical control, and automatic electric control,
are used in taking all celestial photographs.

The Photographic Image. — The image of a star en the plate
should be, theoretically, merely a point; but in practice it is a
small patch on the plate which grows in size as the exposure is
lengthened, while at the same time it becomes darker in the
middle. One reason for this is that light is many-coloured, and
when we attempt to focus it by a lens, we can only get a very few
colours into even approximate focus; the other colours are not
brought to focus at all, and form concentric patches of fainter
light on the plate, which increase in size with the error of focus.
Thus at best our focusing is only a compromise. When the
exposure is short, those colours which have most nearly been
brought to focus have an effect, while the faint light of the others
may produce no sensible impression. It is natural to select for
the colours to be brought most sharply to focus those which are
most important photographically, viz. those at the violet end of
the spectrum. As the exposure proceeds the faint light of the
other colours affects the plate by accumulation, and hence the
image spreads, while at the same time the central part naturally
becomes blacker.

A reflecting telescope brings all colours to the same focus; and
it might appear, therefore, that images formed with it will not
spread in this way. There is, however, another cause of spread-
ing besides that due to colour; neither the reflecting telescope
nor the lens can focus all the light received by them for more
than one particular star. It is just theoretically possible to
construct a mirror which would focus all the light from a star
seen in the direction of its axis; but the light from another star
seen in a slightly different direction would not be truly focused,
since directly we leave the axis, some parts of the mirror have a
focus slightly different from other parts; and if the image

524

PHOTOGRAPHY, CELESTIAL

produced is magnified, it is seen to have a shape like that of a
kite. As the exposure is prolonged the small kite-shaped figure
gradually increases in size from the point towards the head, and
this defect is the more pronounced the farther we depart from
the centre of the plate. The result is, speaking generally, that
the images near the centre of a plate may be fairly small and
circular, but at a certain distance from the centre they become
distorted and large. It is a practical problem of great importance
to have this distance as great as possible, so that the field of good
definition may be large. Estimating in terms of angular distance
from the centre of the field, the reflecting telescope has a good
field of not more than 40'; a telescope with one compound lens
(the ordinary refractor) a field of about 1°, while if two compound
lenses are used (as is the case in portrait photography) the field
may be very greatly extended, io c or 1 5 having been successfully
covered. This is naturally a very great advantage of the
" doublet " over other forms of telescope, an advantage which
has only recently been fully realized. But there is a compen-
sating drawback; to get a large field we must eitHer use a large
plate, which is liable to bend or to have a permanent curvature;
or if we use a small plate the picture will be on a small scale, so
that we lose accuracy in another way.

Star Charts may thus be made by photography with any
desired combination of these advantages. The Cape Photo-
graphic Durchmusterung is a photographic survey of the southern
hemisphere by means of 2 50 plates each covering 5° X 5° taken
at the Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope; the plates being
afterwards measured at Groningen in Holland by Professor J. C.
Kapteyn who recorded the places to 0"i and O'i. A much
higher degree of accuracy is aimed at in the international scheme
for a map of the whole sky undertaken jointly by eighteen
observatories in 1887. The plates are only 2° X 2 , and each of
the eighteen observatories must take about 600 to cover its zone
of the sky once, 1200 to cover it twice. Exposures of 6 min.,
3 min., and 20 sec. are given, the telescope being pointed in a
slightly different direction for each exposure; so that each star to
about the 9th magnitude shows 3 images, and stars to the nth
or 12th magnitude show 2; which has the incidental advantage
of distinguishing stars from dust-specks. A rlseau of lines
accurately ruled at distances of 5 mm. apart in two directions at
right angles is impressed on the plate by artificial light and de-
veloped along with the star images; and by use of these reference
lines the places of all stars shown with 3 min. exposure are
measured with a probable error which, by a resolution of the
executive committee, is not to exceed ±o-2o". An additional
scheme for a series of charts enlarged from similar plates with
much longer exposure has proved too costly, and only a few
observatories have attempted it. Meanwhile Professor E. C.
Pickering of Harvard, by using doublet lenses which cover a much
larger field at once, has photographed the whole sky many times
over. The plates have not been measured, and would not in
any case yield results of quite the same accuracy as those of the
international scheme; but being systematically stored at the
Harvard Observatory they form an invaluable reference library,
from which the history of remarkable objects can be read back-
wards when once attention is drawn to them. Thus the history
of the asteroid Eros, discovered in 1898, was traced back to 1894
from these plates; new stars have been found on plates taken
previous to the time of discovery, and the epoch of their blazing
up recovered within narrow limits; and the history of many
variable stars greatly extended. The value of this collection of
photographs will steadily increase with time and growth.

Spectroscopic Star Charts.— By placing a glass prism in front
of the object glass of a telescope the light from each star can be
extended into a spectrum: and a chart can thus be obtained
showing not only the relative positions, but the character of the
light of the stars. This method has been used with great effect
at Harvard: and from inspection of the plates many discoveries
have been made, notably those of several novae.

The Geometry of the Star Chart.— Let OS in the figure be the object
glass with which the photograph is taken, and let its optical centre
be C. Let PL be the plate, and draw CN perpendicular to the sur-

face of the plate. The point N is of fundamental importance in the-
geometry of the star chart and it is natural to call it the plate centre;
but it must be carefully distin-
guished from two other points which
should theoretically, but may not in
practice, coincide with it. The first
is the centre of the material plate,
as placed in position in the telescope.
In the figure NL is purposely
drawn larger than PN, and this
material centre would be to the
right of N. The second point is
that where the optical axis of the
object glass (CG in the figure) cuts
the plate. The object glass is drawn
with an exaggerated tilt so that CG
falls to the right of CN. To secure
adjustment, the object glass should
be " squared on " to the tube by a
familiar operation, so that the tube
is parallel to CG : and then the plate
should be set normal to the tube
and therefore to CG. This is done
by observing reflected images, com-
bined with rotation of the plate in its plane.

The field of the object glass will in general be curved: so that
the points of best focus for different stars lie on a surface such as
AGB (purposely exaggerated). The best practical results for
focus will thus be obtained by compromise, placing the plate so
that some stars, as A, are focused beyond the plate, and others, as
B, nearer the object glass: exact focus only being possible for a
particular ring on the plate. The star A will thus be represented
by a small patch of light, pq on the plate, which will grow in size as
above explained. When we measure the position of its image we
select the centre as best we can: and in practice it is important
that the point selected should be that where the line Ca drawn from
the star to the optical centre cuts the plate. If this can be done,
then the chart represents the geometrical projection of the heavens
from the point C on to the plane PL. The stars are usually conceived
as lying on the celestial sphere, with an arbitrary radius and centre
at the observer, which is in this case the object glass: describing
such a sphere with C as centre and CN as radius, the lines &CB and
aCA project the spherical surface on to a tangent plane at the point
N, which we call the plate centre. If we point the telescope to a
different part of the sky, we select a different tangent plane on which
to project. It is a fundamental property of projections that a
straight line projects into a straight line ; and in the present instance
we may add that every straight line corresponds to a great circle
on the celestial sphere. Hence if we measure any rectilinear co-
ordinates (x, y) of a series of stars on one plate, and co-ordinates
(X, Y) of the same stars on another plate, and (*, y) are connected
by a linear relation, so must (X, Y) be. This property leads at
once to the equations,

X=(ax+by+c)/(l-kx-ly), Y = (dx+ey+f)/(l-kx-ly), (1)
the numerators being any linear functions of (x, y) but the
denominators being the same linear function. When x = o,
y = o, then X = c and Y=/, which are thus the co-ordinates of
the origin of (xy) on plate (XY). The co-ordinate of the origin of
(XY) on plate (xy) can be shown to be (k, I) if proper units of length
be chosen.

As a particular case the co-ordinates

# = cot5cosa, y = tanSsina (2)

represent the rectangular co-ordinates of a star of RA and declina-
tion a and 5, projected on the tangent plane at the north pole. If
the same star be projected on the tangent plane at the point (A, D),
then its rectangular co-ordinates (£, 17) will be

f = tan (a — A) sin q sec (q — D), ^ = tan (q — D), )
where tan g = tan S sec (a— A), J (3)

the axis of tj being directed towards the pole. It can readily be verified
that (£, ij) can be expressed in terms of (x, y) by relations of the form
( I ) . The co-ordinates (£, v) have been named ' ' standard co-ordinates ' '
and represent star positions on an ideal plate free from the effects
of refraction and aberration. For plates of not too large a field,
differential refraction and aberration are so small that their product
by squares of the co-ordinates may be neglected, and the actual
star positions (x, y) are connected with (£, ij) by linear relations.
The linearity of these relations is obviously not disturbed by the
choice of origin of axes and of orientation; in which the effects of
procession and mutation for any epoch may be included. Hence
to obtain the standard co-ordinates (|, i;) of any object on a plate it is
only necessary to know the position of the plate centre (the point
N in fig. 1) and the six constants in the relations

Z = Ax + By+C, ,, = D*+Ey+F, (4)

where (x, y) are rectilinear co-ordinates referred to any axes. The
constants can theoretically be determined when there are three
stars on the plate for which £, 1; are known: but in practice it is
better to use as many " known " stars as possible. These equations

PHOTOMETRY

525

are well adapted to solution by least squares or any equivalent
device.

Photography of Nebulae and Clusters. — Some of the earliest
and most striking successes in celestial photography were the
pictures of nebulae. Dr A. A. Common (1841-1903), F.R.S.,
of Ealing, led the way in 1883 with a successful picture of the
great nebula in Orion, taken with a 3 ft. concave mirror
by Calver. Dr Isaac Roberts (1829-1904) was the first to show
the real structure of the great nebula in Andromeda, by a photo-
graph also taken with a reflector. In the clear atmosphere of
the Lick Observatory in California, small nebulae were photo-
graphed in great numbers by Professor J. E. Keeler (1857-1900) :
and it was shown what a large percentage were spiral in form.
Prof. G. W. Ritchey, at the Yerkes Observatory, has followed
up these successes with a 2-ft. reflector, and is constructing a
5 -ft., to be erected on Mt Wilson (Cal.); but he has also shown
that pictures of clusters are best taken with a telescope of long
focus, such as the great Yerkes refractor; and incidentally
that this telescope, although intended for visual work, can be
adapted to photography by using a " colour screen " just in front
of the plate, which sifts out the rays not brought to focus.

Photography of the Moon. — G. W. Ritchey has used the
same device of a colour screen for the moon, and obtained even
better pictures than those obtained at Paris, which were pre-
viously the best. The positions of a large number of craters
and other points have been measured by Dr J. H. G. Franz
and S. A. Saunder on photographs, and a new epoch in lunar
topography has thereby been created.

Photography of the Planets. — Some striking successes have
been obtained at the Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff, Arizona:
by cutting down the aperture of the object-glass some of the
delicate markings, called canals, on the planet Mars have been
photographed; but even these do not approach what can be
seen by the eye.

Photography of Comets. — Some wonderful pictures have been
obtained of comets by Professor E. E. Barnard and others.
Here, as in the case of nebulae, the photograph is superior to
the eye in detecting faint luminosity, and delicate details of
the tail structure have been photographed which could never
be seen. In several pictures the tails have an appearance of
violent shattering, and if successive pictures can be obtained
at such times we may learn something of the nature of such
disturbances.

Solar Photography. — The light of the sun is so intense that
the chief difficulty is to obtain a short enough exposure. When
successfully taken, photographs of the surface show the well-
known spots and the mottling of the surface. The image
sensibly falls off in intensity towards the limb, owing to the
absorption of light by the solar atmosphere; and the bright
faculae (which are thus inferred to lie above the main absorbing
layer) are seen near the limb. But an immense advance in
solar photography was made about a dozen years ago by the
invention of the spectroheliograph, which is an instrument for
photographing in the light of one very definite colour — say
a single hydrogen line. The faculous appearances can be photo-
graphed with this instrument all over the sun's disk, instead
of merely near the limb. The appearance presented varies
enormously with the line selected, or (in the case of the wide
" lines " in the spectrum, such as the H and K lines) with the
particular part of the same line selected. But for a full account
of such matters reference must be made to the articles Sun and
Spectroheliograph.

Authorities. — Various papers in the Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society and in the Astrophysical Journal. Also the
bulletins and circulars of the Harvard, Lick and Yerkes Observa-
tories ; and of the Executive Committee for the A strographic Catalogue
(published by Gauthier Villars for the Paris Academie des Sciences).
See also more especially a paper by G. W. Ritchey in the Decennial
Papers of the University of Chicago, reprinted in vol. ii. (1903) of
the Yerkes Observatory Publications. (H. H. T.)

PHOTOMETRY (from Gr. (p&s, <fcor6s, light, fjkrpov, a mea-
sure), the art and science of comparing the intensities or illumin-
ating powers of two or more sources of light. As in all scientific

measurements, its methods are attempts to give quantitative
accuracy to the crude comparisons made by the eye itself. The
necessity for this accuracy in practical affairs of life has arisen
because of the great development of artificial lighting in recent
times. The eye soon learns to associate with any particular
source of light a quality of brightness or power of illumination
which diminishes with increase of distance of the source from
the eye or from the surface illuminated. This quality depends
upon an intrinsic property of the source of light itself, generally
known as its " candle power." The aim of photometry is to
measure this candle power; and whatever be the experimental
means adopted the eye must in all cases be the final judge.

In the photometric comparison of artificial lights, which
frequently vary both in size and colour, direct observation of
the sources themselves does not yield satisfactory results. It
is found to be much better to compare the illuminations pro-
duced on dead white surfaces from which no regular reflection
takes place, or through colourless translucent material uniformly
illuminated by the light placed on the further side. By such
processes there is always loss of light, and we must be certain
that the various coloured constituents of the light are reduced
in the same proportion. This necessary condition is practically
satisfied by the use of white diffusing screens.

Two principles of radiation underlie many photometric
applications, namely, the inverse square distance law, and J. H.
Lambert's " cosine law." Both can be established i nverse
on theoretical grounds, certain conditions being square
fulfilled. But as these conditions are never abso- Distance
lutely satisfied, the applicability of the two laws Law.
must in the end be tested by experiment. Since we find that
within the errors of observation four candles, placed together at a
distance of 2 ft. from a diffusing screen, produce the same illu-
mination as one candle at a distance of 1 ft., we may regard the
inverse square distance law as satisfied. Thus if two lights of
intensities A and B produce equal illuminations on a screen when
their distances from the screen are respectively a and b, we at once
write down the relation between the two intensities in the form
A : B = a 2 : b 2 . The theoretical basis of the law follows at once
from the universally accepted view that light is energy radiating
outwards in all directions from the source. If we assume that
there is no loss of energy in the transmitting medium, then the
whole amount of radiant energy passing in one second across
any closed surface completely surrounding the source of light
must be the same whatever the size or form of the surface.
Imagine for simplicity a point source of light, or its equivalent,
a uniformly radiating spherical surface with the point at its
centre, and draw round this point a spherical surface of unit
radius. Across this surface there will pass a definite amount
of radiant energy, in other words a definite total luminous
flux, E, which will be the same for all concentric spherical
surfaces. Since the area of a spherical surface of radius r is
47rr 2 , the flux which crosses unit area is E/47rr 2 . This quantity
is the " illumination." It is measured in terms of the unit
called the lux, which is defined as the illumination produced by
a light of unit intensity on a perfectly white surface at a distance
of 1 ft. In the great majority of photometers the illumina-
tions are compared, and the intensities are deduced by applying
the law of the squared distances.

Lambert's cosine law has to do with the way in which a
luminous surface sends off its radiations in various directions.
It is a matter of common observation that the
disk of the sun appears equally bright all over the Lambert's
surface. Careful measurements show that this is Law
not strictly true; but it is sufficiently near the truth
to suggest that under certain definable conditions the law
would hold accurately. Again, when a glowing surface is viewed
through a small hole in an opaque plate, the brightness is very
approximately independent of the angular position of the
incandescent surface. This is the same phenomenon as the
first mentioned, and shows that the more oblique, and therefore
larger, element of surface sends the same amount of radiation
through the hole. Hence the amount per unit surface sent off

526

PHOTOMETRY

Talbot's
Law.

at a given angle with the normal must be less than that sent off
in the direction of the normal in the inverse ratio of the areas
of the corresponding normal and oblique elements; that is, as
the cosine of the given angle to unity. For most practical
purposes, and so long as the obliquity is not great, Lambert's
law may be assumed to hold.

In almost all accurate methods of photometry the aim is to
bring the illuminating powers of the two sources to equality.
This may be effected by altering the distance of either light
from the illuminated surface. Or we may use polarized light
and diminish the intensity of the stronger beam by suitable
rotation of a Nicol prism, a method particularly useful in spectro-
photometers. The same result may also be effected by inter-
posing absorbent disks, the precise absorbing powers of which
must, however, be known with great accuracy. Another useful
method is that first described by H. Fox Talbot in
1834, and used with effect by Professor William
Swan (1849), and more recently by Sir W. de W.
Abney. Talbot's law is thus enunciated by H. von Helmholtz:
" When any part of the retina is excited by regularly periodic
intermittent light, and when the period is sufficiently short, the
resulting impression will be continuous, and will be the same as
that which would be produced if the whole light were distributed
uniformly throughout the whole period." Talbot deduced the
principle from the well-known experiment in which a continuous
luminous line is produced by rapid rotation of a luminous point.
If the principle be granted, it is obvious that any mechanism
by which a ray of light is obstructed in a regularly rhythmic
manner during definite intervals t', separated by intervals t,
during which the light is allowed to pass, will have the effect
of reducing the apparent brightness of the ray in the ratio
//(t + /')• This is frequently accomplished by placing in the ray
a rotating disk perforated by radial sectors, the so-called
Talbot disk.

If photometric results are to be of general value it is essential
to have a unit in which to express all other intensities. For
example, electric lights are classified according to
of'ught S th e ' r " candle-power." The candle, in terms of
whose brightness the brightness of other sources of
light is to be expressed, must, of course, fulfil the conditions
demanded of all standards. It must give under definite and
easily realizable conditions a definite and constant luminous'
effect, and it must be easily reproducible. The earlier attempts
to get a candle of constant brightness were not very satisfactory.
The British standard is a sperm candle which weighs | lb, and
loses in burning 120 grains per hour. It is found that these
conditions are not sufficient to determine the luminous power
of the candle, since the length and shape of the wick, the height
of the flame, and the composition, temperature and humidity
of the atmosphere all have an effect upon its brightness. The
same is true of other similar sources of light — for example,
the German standard candle, which is made of paraffin, has a
diameter of 2 cm., and has its wick cut until the flame is 5 cm.
high, but which with all precautions suffers continual altera-
tions in brightness. For ordinary practical purposes, however,
these candles are steady enough. Other kinds of flame have
also been used as a standard source of light. The oldest of
these is the French Carcel lamp, which is provided with a
cylindrical Argand burner, and gives the standard brightness
Vernon- when 42 grammes of colza oil are consumed per hour.
Harcourt The supply and draught are regulated by clockwork.
Pentane a q Vernon-Harcourt's pentane standard, in which
aa ' a mixture of gaseous pentane and air is burnt so as
to maintain a flame 2-5 in. high at ordinary barometric pressure,
gives good results, and is readily adjustable to suit varied con-
ditions. Several forms of this standard have been constructed,
one of the most important being the 10 candle-power pentane
lamp, in which air saturated with pentane vapour is burnt in a
specially-designed burner resembling an Argand burner. For
photometric purposes a definite length of the lower part of the
flame is used, the upper part being hidden within an opaque tube.
The amyl-acetate lamp designed by H. von Hefner-Alteneck has

been elaborately studied by the German authorities, and at present
is probably more used than any other flame for photometry. It
is of simple construction, and gives the standard
brightness when it burns with a flame 4 cms. in

Hefner
Lamp.

height in still air of humidity o-88% and free of
carbon dioxide. The presence of carbon dioxide and increase
in the humidity have a marked effect in diminishing the brilliancy
of the flame. If the vapour pressure is e and the barometric
pressure p, the strength of the flame, when all other conditions
are fulfilled, is given by the formula

i-049-5-5c/(£-e)
One disadvantage for photometric purposes is the reddish colour
of the flame as compared with the whiter artificial lights in
general use. sv -j

For an interesting account of the various experimental investi-
gations into the properties of the Hefner flame see E. L. Nichols,
" Standards of Light," Transactions of the International Electrical
Congress, vol. ii. (St Louis, 1904). Angstrom's determination of
the radiation of the flame in absolute energy units is also of special
interest.

Attempts have been made, but hitherto with limited success,
to construct a convenient standard with acetylene flame.
Could a satisfactory burner be devised, so that a steady brilliancy
could be easily maintained, acetylene would, because of its
intense white light, soon displace all other flames as standards.

J. Violle has proposed to use as standard the light emitted
by a square centimetre of surface of platinum at its melting-
point, but there are obvious practical difficulties in the
way of realizing this suggested standard. J. E. Violle' s
Petavel, who carefully examined the necessary condi- Platinum
tions for producing it (Proc. Roy. Soc. 1899), finds Standard.
that the platinum must be chemically pure, that the crucible
must be made of pure lime, that the fusion must be by means of
the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe, that the gases must be thoroughly
mixed in the proportion of 4 volumes of hydrogen to 3 of oxygen,
and that the hydrogen must contain no hydro-carbons. Under
these conditions the variation in the light emitted by the molten
platinum would probably not exceed 1 %. O. Lummer and F.
Kurlbaum have proposed as a standard a strip of platinum foil
25 mm. wide and -015 mm. thick brought to incandescence by
an electric current of about 80 amperes. The temperature
is gradually increased until ^-th of the total radiation is trans-
mitted through a water trough 2 cm. in width. This ratio is
determined by means of a bolometer, and so long as it is adjusted
to i-^th the light is practically constant.

For comparative photometric work the incandescent electric
light is very convenient, having the one great advantage over
candles and flames that it is not affected by atmospheric changes.
But it does not satisfy the requirements of a primary standard.
It ages with use, and when run at constant voltage gradually
loses in brilliancy, partly because of changes in the filament itself,
partly because of the deposit of carbon on the interior of the
bulb. Professor J. A. Fleming has shown that very good results
can be obtained if carbon filaments carefully selected Fleming's
and run in ordinary bulbs for a definite time at a incandes-
little above their normal voltage are remounted centLamp
in large clear glass bulbs 6 or 8 in. in diameter. stat " ,ard -
If used sparingly, and never above their marked voltage, these
large incandescent bulbs have been found to remain constant
for years, and therefore to be eminently suitable as secondary
standards. In his Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and
Testing Room (vol. ii.) Fleming concludes that the best primary
standards are the Violle incandescent platinum and the Vernon-
Harcourt pentane one-candle flame; and that the most con-
venient practical standards are the Hefner lamp, the ten-candle
pentane lamp, and the Fleming large bulb incandescent electric
lamp. Comparisons of the intensities of these various standards
do not give quite concordant results. Thus three different
authorities have estimated the 10-candle pentane lamp as being
equal to 10-75, n - °, n - 4 Hefner lamps.

A specially constructed instrument or piece of apparatus
for comparing light intensities or illuminations is called a

PHOTOMETRY

527

Photo-
meter?

photometer. The earlier forms of photometers were very simple
and not capable of giving very precise results. The principles of
construction are, however, the same in all the recog-
nized forms down to the most elaborate of recent
inventions. Two of the earliest forms were described
by P. Bouguer and W. Ritchie. The Ritchie wedge constitutes
the basis of many varieties of type. The two lights to be
, compared illuminate the sides of the wedge, which
Wedge * * s pl ace d between them, so that the eye set in front of
the wedge sees the two sides illuminated each by one
of the lights. The edge should be as sharp as possible so that the
two illuminated surfaces are in close contact. The illuminations
are made equal either by shifting the wedge along the line
joining the lights or by moving one of the lights nearer to or
farther from the wedge as may be required. The lights given
out by the sources are then as the squares of the distances from
Rum ford's the matched parts of the surfaces. Count Rumford
Photo- suggested the comparison of the intensity of the
meter. shadows of the same object thrown side by side on
a screen by the two lights to be compared. In this case
the shadow due to one source is lit up by the other alone;
and here again the amounts of light given out by the sources
are as the squares of their distances from the screen when
the shadows are equally intense. The shadow-casting object
should be near the screen, so as to avoid penumbra as much
as possible; yet not too near, so that the shadows may not
overlap.

R. Bunsen suggested the very simple expedient of making
a grease-spot on white paper for photometric purposes. When
Buasea's the paper is equally illuminated from both sides
Photo- the grease-spot cannot be seen except by very
meter. c i ose inspection. In using this photometer, the
sources are placed in one line with the grease-spot, which lies
between them and can be moved towards one or other. To
make the most accurate determinations with this arrangement
the adjustment should first be made from the side on which
one source lies, then the screen turned round and the adjust-
ment made from the side of the other source — in both cases,
therefore, from the same side of the paper screen. Take the
mean of these positions (which are usually very close together),
and the amounts of light are as the squares of the distances
of the sources from this point. The efficiency of the Bunsen
photometer has been improved by using two inclined mirrors
so that the eye views both sides of the paper simultaneously.

Sir Charles Wheatstone suggested a hollow glass bead, silvered
internally, and made to describe very rapidly a closed path, for
use as a photometer. When it is placed between two
sources we see two parallel curves of reflected light,
one due to each source. Make these, by trial, equally
bright; and the amounts of light from the sources are,
again, as the squares of the distances.

William Swan's prism photometer, invented in 1859, is a beautiful
application of the principle embodied in Bunsen's grease-spot photo-
, meter (see Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed. vol. xxi.). The essential

n'Hi' P art °f tne instrument is fundamentally the same as
Prh that described °y °- Lummer and E. Brodhun in 1889.

It consists of two equal right-angled isosceles glass
prisms placed with their diagonal faces together so as to form a cube

(fig. 1), and cemented together by
a small patch of Canada balsam,
which spreads out into a circle
when the prisms are pressed to-
gether. In the figure, which
represents a central section of the
bi-prism, the Canada balsam is
represented by the letter N. The
light from two illuminated sur-
faces, PQ, RS, is allowed to fall
perpendicularly on the faces AB,
AD. In each case that part of the
light falling internally on the por-
tion of the diagonal face which is
not backed with the Canada
balsam is totally reflected. On
the other hand, the light which
falls on the portion backed by the
Canada balsam is almost wholly
transmitted. Thus an eye placed

Wheat-
stone's PhO'
tometer.

h
D

1

rs

A

'

? P

N A

V

V

r )

/

C

ft

A

is

■>

Fig. 1.

in the position qtp receives light from both sources, the surface
RS supplying nearly all the light that seems to come from the patch
N, and the surface PQ supplying all the light which seems to
come from the region immediately surrounding N. The patch N
will in general be visible; but it will quite disappear when the
luminosity of the ray Tt, which traverses the Canada balsam, is
exactly equal to the luminosity of the rays Pp, Qq, which have come
after total reflection from the surface PQ. This condition of in-
visibility of N is arrived at by adjusting the positions of the
sources of light which illuminate the surfaces PQ, RS. The
brightnesses of the two sources will then be as the squares of their
distances from their respective screens.

The essential part of Lummer and Brodhun's photometer is a
combination of prisms very similar to Swan's. In its most im-
proved form the bi-prism or " optical cube " has one
of its component prisms cut in a peculiar manner. J^""^ er f
The diagonal face is partly cut away, so that the central p£ / ome < er .
part only of this face can be brought into contact with
the diagonal face of the other prism. The Canada balsam
is dispensed with, the surfaces being pressed closely together
so that no layer of air is left between them. In order to make the
instrument convenient for use with an optical bench, Lummer and
Brodhun make the illuminated surfaces which are to be compared
the opposite sides of an opaque screen set in the continuation of
the diagonal (CA) of the bi-prism, the rays being brought by reflec-
tion from symmetrically situated mirrors so as to enter the sides
AB and AD perpendicularly. An important modification, due
also to Lummer and Brodhun, is the following : By means of a
sand-blast a portion, which may be called r, is removed from one
half of the diagonal face of the one prism, and from the other half
of the same prism there is removed in like manner all but a part /
corresponding to the part r. The portions which have not been
removed are pressed close to the diagonal face of the other prism,
and become the parts through which light is freely transmitted.
On the other hand, the light which enters the second prism and falls
on the portions of surface backed by the layers of air filling
the cut-out parts is totally reflected. The general result is the pro-
duction of two similar luminous patches I and r, each of which is
surrounded by a field of the same intensity as the other patch.
When the photometric match is made the whole region will be
uniformly bright. But, by insertion of strips of glass so as to
weaken equally the intensity in the surrounding fields, the match
will be obtained when these fields are made of equal intensity and
when at the same time the two patches differ equally in intensity
from them. Under these conditions the eye is able to judge more
certainly as to the equality of intensity of the two patches, and an
untrained observer is able to effect a comparison with an accuracy
which is impossible with most forms of photometer.

J. Joly's diffusion photometer consists of two equal rectangular
parallelepipeds of a translucent substance like paraffin separated
by a thin opaque disk. It is set between the sources ,
of light to be compared in such a way that each paraffin pwL, te .
block is illuminated by one only of the sources, and is
adjusted until the two blocks appear to be of the same brightness.
The method is made more sensitive by mounting the photometer
on an elastic vibrator so as to render it capable of a slight to-
and-fro oscillation about a mean position.

A form of photometer which is well adapted for measuring the
illumination in a region is that due to L. Weber. It consists of a
horizontal tube across one end of which is fitted another Weber , s
tube at right angles. This second tube can be rotated p notometet . t
into any position perpendicular to the horizontal tube.
Where the axes of the two tubes meet is placed in the later forms of
the instrument one of Lummer and Brodhun's modified Swan cubes.
At the other end of the horizontal tube a standard flame is set
illuminating a piece of ground glass which may be moved to any
convenient position in the tube. The eye looks along the cross
tube, at the farther end of which is placed another piece of ground
glass illuminated from the outside. The illuminations of the two
pieces of ground glass as viewed through the photometer double
prism are brought to equality, either by shift of the ground glass
to or from the standard light, or by means of two Nicol prisms
placed in the cross tube. One advantage of the instrument is its
portability.

The photometry of incandescent electric lamps has led to
several special modifications and devices. The candle power
varies distinctly in different horizontal directions, incan-
and one measurement in any particular direction descent
is not sufficient. Sometimes the lamp is rotated
about three times a second about a vertical axis and
an average value thus obtained. But there is always a risk
of the filament breaking; and in all cases the effect of centrifugal
force must alter the form of the filament and therefore the
distances of the different parts from the screen. Accuracy
demands either the measurement of the radiation intensity in
a number of directions all round the lamp, or one combined

Electric
Lamp.

528

PHOTOMETRY

measurement of as many rays as can be conveniently com-
bined. One of the best methods of effecting this is by means of
Matthews'* C. P. Matthews's integrating photometer. By the
integrating use of twelve mirrors arranged in a semicircle whose
PAotometer. ( jj amet;er coincides with the axis of the lamp, twelve
rays are caught and reflected outward to a second set of
twelve mirrors which throw the rays on to the surface of
a photometric screen. This combined effect is balanced by the
illumination produced by a standard lamp on the other side of
the screen (see Trans. Amer. Inst. Elect. Eng., 1902, vol. xix.).

So long as the lights to be compared are of the same or nearly
the same tint, the photometric match obtained by different
Hetero- observers is practically the same. If, however, they
chromatic are f distinctly different colours, not only do dif-
"'"""^■ferent observers obtain different results but those
obtained by the same observer at different times are not
always in agreement. Helmholtz was of opinion that photo-
metric comparison of the intensities of different coloured
lights possessed no real intrinsic value. There can be little
doubt that in a rigorous sense this is true. Nevertheless it is
possible under certain conditions to effect a comparison which
has some practical value. For example, when the intensities
of two differently coloured lights differ considerably there is
no difficulty in judging which is the stronger. By making the
one light pass through a fairly large range of brightness we may
easily assign limits outside which the intensities are undoubtedly
different. After some experience these limits get close; and
many experimenters find it possible, by taking proper precau-
tions, not only to effect a match, but to effect practically the
Abney's same match time after time. According to Abney,
ExpeH- whose memoirs on colour photometry {Phil. Trans.,
meats. ];886, 1892) form a most important contribution to
the subject, the observer in making his judgment as to the
equality of luminosity of two patches of colour placed side by
side must not begin to think about it, but must let the eye act
as unconsciously as possible. His method was to compare the
coloured patch with white light given by a particular standard
and cut down to the proper intensity by use of a Talbot's
rotating sector, which could be adjusted by means of a suitable
mechanism while it was rotating.

At the same time, although the eye may be able to effect a
definite matching of two patches of colour of a particular
luminosity, it has been long known that a change in the lumi-
nosity will destroy the apparent equality. This depends upon a
physiological property of the retina discovered by J. E. Purkinje
in 1825 (see below, Celestial Photometry). In virtue of this
property the blue and violet end of the spectrum is more stimu-
lating to the eye than the red end when the general luminosity
is low, whereas at high luminosities the red gains relatively in
brightness until it becomes more stimulating than the blue.
Unless therefore account is taken in some definite measurable
manner of the absolute brightness, there must always be some
uncertainty in the photometric comparison of the intensities
of differently coloured sources of light.

Instead, however, of trying to effect a photometric match
in any of the ways which have been found sufficient when the
sources are of the same or nearly the same tint, we may effect
important practical comparisons in what is called hetero-
chromatic photometry by an appeal to other physiological
properties of the eye. For example, the power of clearly dis-
criminating patterns in differently coloured lights of various
intensities is obviously of great practical importance; and this
power of detailed discrimination may be made the basis of a
method of photometry. According to this method two lights
Dlscrimlna- are arranged so as to illuminate two exactly similar
tion Photo- patterns of lines drawn, for example, on the sides
meter. f a Ritchie wedge, and their distances are adjusted

until the patterns are seen equally distinct on the two sides.
Application of the usual distance law will then give the relation
between the two lights. A discrimination photometer con-
structed on this principle has been designed by J. A. Fleming.
Its results do not agree with the indications of an ordinary

luminosity photometer; for it is found that the eye can dis-
criminate detail better with yellow than with blue light of the
same apparent luminous intensity.

Another and very promising method of photometry depends
upon the duration of luminous impressions on the retina. J. A. F.
Plateau observed in 1829 that the blending into Flicker
a homogeneous impression of a pattern of alternate Photometry.
sectors of black and some other colour marked on a disk
when that disk was rotated occurred for rates of rotation
which depended on the colour used. A form of experiment
suggested in Professor O. N. Rood's Modern Chromatics seems
to have been first carried out by E. L. Nichols (Amer. Journ. of
Science, 1881). A black disk with four narrow open sectors was
rotated in front of the slit of a spectroscope. When the rotation
was not too quick the yellow part of the spectrum appeared as a
succession of flashes of light separated by intervals of darkness
of appreciable length, whereas towards both the red and violet
ends no apparent interruption in the steady luminosity could be
observed. As the rate of rotation increased the part of the
spectrum in which flickering appeared contracted to a smaller
length extending on each side of the yellow, and finally with
sufficiently rapid alternation the yellow itself became steady.
This seems to show that the retinal image persists for a shorter
time with yellow light than with light of any other colour; for
with it the intervals of darkness must be shorter before a con-
tinuous impression can be obtained. Now yellow is the most
luminous part of the spectrum as it affects the normal human
eye; and E. S. Ferry (Amer. Journ. of Science, 1892) has shown
that the duration of luminous impression is mostly, if not entirely,
determined by the luminosity of the ray. Hence the determina-
tion of the minimum rate of intermittence at which a particular
colour of light becomes continuous may be regarded as a measure
of the luminosity, the slower rate corresponding to the lower
luminosity. Although in the experiment just described the
red part of the ordinary solar spectrum becomes continuous
for a slower rate of intermittence than the yellow part, yet we
have simply to make a red ray as luminous as the yellow ray to
find that they become continuous for the same rate of inter-
mittence. It is, however, highly improbable that the duration
of impression depends only on the luminosity of the light and
not to some extent upon the wave-length. There are indeed
phenomena which require for their explanation the assumption
that the duration of luminous impression does depend on the
colour as well as on the brightness.

Nevertheless the luminosity is by far the more important factor,
as shown by Ogden N. Rood's experiments. He found (Amer.
Journ. of Science, 1893) that, when a disk whose halves (
differ in tint but not in luminosity is rotated rather p^a',,^,1
slowly, the eye of the observer sees no flickering
such as is at once apparent when the halves differ slightly in
luminosity. Rood himself suggested various forms of photo-
meter based on this principle. In his latest form (Amer. Journ. of
Science, Sept. 1899) the differently coloured beams of light which
are to be compared photometrically are made to illuminate the
two surfaces of a Ritchie wedge set facing the eye. Between
the wedge and the eye is placed a cylindrical concave lens,
which can be set in oscillation by means of a motor in such a
way that first the one illuminated surface of the wedge and then
the other is presented to the eye in sufficiently rapid alternation.
The one source of light is kept fixed, while the other is moved
about until the sensation of flicker disappears. From work
with this form of instrument Rood concluded that " the accuracy
attainable with the flicker photometer, as at present con-
structed, and using light of different colours almost spectral
in hue, is about the same as with ordinary photometers using
plain white light, or light of exactly the same colour." '"

Various modifications of Rood's forms have been constructed
from time to time by different experimenters. The„,
Simmance and Abady nicker photometer is an i n genious an<M ^ a< j ■ ,
and yet mechanically simple method by which (as ^photometer
were) the wedge itself is made to oscillate so as to throw
on the eye in rapid succession, first the one side and then
I the other. The rim of a wheel of white material is bevelled

PHOTOMETRY

529

in a peculiar manner. The sharp edge, which passes slightly obliquely
across the rim from one side of the wheel to the other and back
again, is the meeting of two exactly similar conical surfaces facing
different ways and having their axes parallel to, but on opposite
sides of, the axis of rotation of the wheel. As the wheel rotates
with its rim facing the eye, the intersection of the two surfaces
crosses and recrosses the line of vision during each revolution.
Hence first the one illuminated side and then the other are pre-
sented to the eye in rapid alternation. The inventors of this instru-
ment claim that their instrument can gauge accurately and easily
the relative intensities of two lights, whether of the same
or of different colour {Phil. Mag., 1904). There is no doubt that
results obtained by different observers with a flicker photometer
are in better agreement than with any other form of photometer.
The comparative ease with which the balance is obtained even when
the tints are markedly different shows that its action depends upon
a visual distinction which the eye can readily appreciate, and this
distinction is mainly one of brightness.

The spectrophotometer is an instrument which enables us to
make photometric comparisons between the similarly coloured
Spectro- portions of the spectra of two different sources of
photometry, light, or of two parts of the same original source after
they have passed through different absorbing media. When
it is desired to compare the intensities of the spectra from
two different sources a convenient form is the one described
by E. L. Nichols. A direct vision spectroscope mounted upon
a carriage, travels along a track between the two sources. In
front of the slit two right-angled triangular prisms are set so
that the light from each source enters the one side of one prism
perpendicularly and is totally reflected into the spectroscope.
The two spectra are then seen side by side. Attention being
fixed on some chosen narrow portion, say, in the green, the
instrument is moved along the track between the sources until
the two portions appear of the same intensity. The process is
then repeated until the whole spectrum has been explored.

In Lummer and Brodhun's form of spectrophotometer the rays

to be compared pass in perpendicular lines through the modified

f Swan double prism, and then together side by side

s «cf S through a spectroscope. By means of a simple modifi-

? ro ' . cation in the form of the two prisms, Professor D. B.
paotomeier. Brace ^^ Ma ^ lgg ^ made the combined prism

serve to produce the spectra as well as to effect the desired
comparison. In this arrangement the compound prism ABC

(fig. 2) is made up of two
equal right-angled prisms
ADB and ADC placed with
their longer sides in contact,
so that the whole forms an
equilateral prism with three
polished faces. Part of the
interface AD is silvered, the
silvering forming a narrow
central strip running parallel
to AD. Along the rest of the
interface the two prisms are
cemented together with
Canada balsam or other
material having as nearly as
possible the same refractive
index as the glass. When two

Fig. 2.

R*$'

rays R S enter symmetrically from opposite sides of the base of the
compound prism as shown in the diagram, the ray R will pass through
the prism except where the silver strip intercepts it, and will form a
part of a spectrum visible to the eye placed at R', while to the
same eye there will be visible the similarly dispersed ray SS' reflected
from the silvered surface. Thus two systems of incident parallel
rays of white light will form on emergence two spectra with
corresponding rays exactly parallel. With these and other forms
of instrument the aim of the experimenter is to make the two spectra
of equal intensity by a method which enables him to compare the
original intensities of the sources. In most cases the relative
intensities of the portions of the spectra being compared cannot
conveniently be altered by varying the distances of the sources.
Recourse is therefore generally had to one of the other methods
already mentioned, such as the use of polarizing prisms or of rotating
sectors. Under certain conditions K. Vierordt's method of allowing
the two rays to pass through slits of different width leads to good
results, but too great confidence cannot be placed upon it.

In other types of spectrophotometer, such as those associated
with the names of H. Trannin, A. Crova, H. Wild, G. Hiifner,
J. Konigsberger, A. Konig, F. F. Martens and others, the equaliza-
tion in brightness of two rays is effected by using polarized light,
which can be cut down at pleasure by rotation of a Nicol prism.
For example, in the Konig-Martens instrument the two rays
which are to be compared enter the upper and lower halves pf a

divided slit. After passing through a lens they pass in succession
through (1) a dispersing prism, (2) a Wollaston prism, (3) a bi-
prism, and are finally focused where the eight spectra so
produced can be viewed by the eye. Of these only two K° a 'B" (
are made use of, the others being cut out. These two ^ a f^ BS s
are polarized in perpendicular planes, so that if be- £ ^ r °" /
tween the spectrum images and the eye a Nicol prism p ° ometeT%
is introduced the intensities of any two narrow corresponding
portions of the two spectra can be readily equalized. In terms
of the angle of rotation of the Nicol the relative intensities
of the original rays can be calculated. An important application
of the spectrophotometer is to measure the absorptive powers
and extinction coefficients of transparent substances for the
differently coloured rays of light. By appropriate means the in-
tensities of chosen corresponding parts of the two contiguous
spectra are made equal — in other words, a match is established.
Into the path of the rays of one of the spectra the absorbent
substance is then introduced, and a match is again established.
A measure of the loss of luminosity due to the interposition of the
absorbent substance is thus obtained.

To facilitate experiments of this nature Dr J. R. Milne has
devised a spectrophotometer which presents some novelties of
construction (see Proceedings of the Optical Convention, >

1905, vol. i.). The light from a bright flame is suitably ™ ™? s
projected by a lens so as to illuminate a small hole in the ? < T ro " /
end of the collimator. The rays from this point-source Photometer.
are made parallel by the collimator, and then pass, partly through
the absorbing medium, partly through the space above it. These
two parts of the original beam are transmitted through a dispersing
prism and then fall upon a screen with two similar rectangular
openings, the upper one allowing the unabsorbed part of the beam
to pass, the lower that part which has been transmitted through
the absorbing medium. The objective of the observing telescope
converges the rays suitably upon a Wollaston prism, so that two
spectra are seen side by side, having their light polarized in per-
pendicular planes. A Nicol prism is placed between the Wollaston
prism and the eye-piece of the telescope, and by its rotation in the
manner already described the intensities of any two corresponding
portions of the two spectra can be brought to equality. By careful
attention to all necessary details Milne shows that his instrument
satisfies the requirements of a good spectrophotometer; for (1) the
rays through the absorbing medium can be made strictly parallel;
(2) the two spectra can be brought with ease accurately edge to
edge without any diffraction effects ; (3) the plane of the delimiting
screen can be made conjugate to the retina of the observer's eye;
(4) not only do the two spectra touch accurately along their common
edge, but the two fans of rays which proceed from every point of the
common edge lie in one and the same plane; (5) the eye is called
upon to judge the relative intensities not of two narrow slits but
of two broad uniformly illuminated areas. Milne also points out
that this instrument can be used as a spectropolarimeter.

£. L. Nichols considers that spectrophotometers which depend
for their action upon the properties of polarized light are
necessarily open to serious objections, such as: selective absorp-
tion in the calcspar, altering the relative intensities of the con-
stituents in the original rays; selective losses by reflection of
polarized rays at the various optical surfaces; and the neces-
sarily imperfect performance of all forms of polarizing media.
To eliminate these defects as far as possible great care in con-
struction and arrangement is needed, otherwise corrections
must be applied. •

It is evident that if the successive parts of two spectra are
compared photometrically we may by a process of summation
obtain a comparison of the total luminosities of the lights which
form the spectra. This process is far too tedious to be of any
practical value, but sufficiently accurate results may in certain
cases be obtained by comparison of two or more particular parts of
the spectra, for example, strips in the red, green and blue. Similar
in principle is the method suggested by J. Mace de Lepinay,
who matches his lights by looking first through a red glass
of a particular tint and then through a chosen green. If R
and G represent the corresponding ratios of the intensities,
the required comparison is calculated from the formula

"D

I = ; — : ^rrr- A. Crova, one of the earliest workers

1 + 0-208 (1 — GR)

in this subject, effects the photometric comparison of differently
coloured lights by matching those monochromatic rays from the
two sources which have the same ratio of intensities as the
whole collected rays that make up the lights. Careful experi-
ment alone can determine this particular ray, but were it once
ascertained for the various sources of light in use the method
would have the merits of rapidity and accuracy sufficient for

■53o

PHOTOMETRY

practical needs. Spectrophotometric observations are necessary
to determine the position in the spectrum of the particular mono-
chromatic ray, but when it has been determined a coloured
glass may be made which allows light in the neighbourhood of
this ray to pass, and the photometric comparison may then be
effected by looking through this glass.

This article has been confined strictly to the methods of visual
photometry, with very little reference to the results. Comparison
of intensities of radiation by photographic means or by methods
depending on the effects of heat introduces considerations quite
distinct from those which lie at the basis of photometry in its usual
signification. (C. G. K.)

Celestial, or Stellar, Photometry

The earliest records that have come down to us regard-
ing the relative positions of the stars in the heavens have
always been accompanied with estimations of their relative
brightness. With this brightness was naturally associated
the thought of the relative magnitudes of the luminous bodies
from whence the light was assumed to proceed. Hence in the
grand catalogue of stars published by Ptolemy (c. 150 a.d.),
but which had probably been formed three hundred years
before his day by Hipparchus, the 1200 stars readily visible
to the naked eye at Alexandria were divided into six
classes according to their lustre, though instead of that term
he uses the word neyedos or " magnitude "; the brightest he
designates as being of the first magnitude, and so downwards
till he comes to the minimum visible, to which he assigns the
sixth. These magnitudes he still further divides each into three.
To those stars which, though not ranged in any particular order
of brightness, nevertheless exceed the average of that order in
lustre he attaches the letter /z, the initial letter in jueifcov (greater),
and to those in the same order which exhibit a lustre inferior to
that of the average he affixes the letter e, the initial letter of
tkaaauv. With this sort of subdivision he passes through all
the six orders of magnitude. He does not, indeed, tell us the
precise process by which these divisions were estimated, but the
principle involved is obvious. It is one of the many remarkable
instances of the acuteness and precision of the Greek mind that
for upwards of 1500 years no real improvement was made in
these estimations of lustre. J. Flamsteed extended the estima-
tion of magnitude of stars visible only by the telescope, and he
improved Ptolemy's notation by writing 4-3 instead of 5, fx —
indicating thereby an order of magnitude brighter than the
average of a fourth, but inferior to that of a third — and 3-4 for
5, e, and so on; but it was not till the year 1796 that any real
advance was made in stellar photometry. Sir W. Herschel,
instead of assigning a particular magnitude to stars, arranged
them in small groups of three or four or five, indicating the order
in which they differed from each other in lustre at the time of
observation. This method was admirably adapted to the
discovery of any variations in brightness which might occur in
the lapse of time among the members of the group. Sir William
observed in this way some 1400 stars, published in four cata-
logues in the Philosophical Transactions from 1796 to 1799; and
two additional catalogues were discovered among his papers
in 1883 by Professor E. C. Pickering of Harvard (see Harvard
Annals, xiv. 345), and have recently been published by Colonel
J. Herschel (Phil. Trans., 1906). These researches of the
elder Herschel were in due time followed by those of his son,
Sir John, about the year 1836 at the Cape of Good Hope. He
both extended and improved the methods adopted by his father
at Slough, and by a method of estimated sequences of magnitude
he hoped to arrange all the stars visible to the naked eye at
the Cape or in England in the order of their relative lustre,
and then to reduce his results into the equivalent magnitudes
adopted by the universal consent of astronomers. Sir John,
however, like his father, left this important labour incomplete.
Not only is the work one of great and continuous effort, but the
effects of ever-varying meteorological conditions greatly impede
it. Moreover, there is an unsatisfactory indefiniteness attending
all estimations made by the Unaided eye ; numerical or quantita-
tive comparisons are out of the question, and hence we find

Sir John, in the very midst of establishing bis " sequences,"
adopting also an instrumental method which might lead him
to more definite results.

In the year when Sir John Herschel concluded his photo-
metric work at the Cape (1838) Dr F. W. A. Argelander com-
menced, and in 1843 completed, his Uranometria nova, in
which the magnitudes of all stars visible to the unaided eye in
central Europe are catalogued with a precision and completeness
previously unknown. It contains 3256 stars, and although
it will probably be superseded by instrumental photometry it
must ever remain a monument of intelligent patience. Arge-
lander's labours were not confined to stars visible to the naked
eye; by the aid of his assistants, Dr E. Schonfeld and Dr A.
Kriiger, three catalogues of magnitudes and celestial co-ordinates
were ultimately published (1859-1862) as the Bonn Durch-
musterung, including the enormous number of 324,188 stars,
and an additional volume containing 133,659 stars south of
the equator was published in 1886.

Dr B. A. Gould (1824-1896), in his Uranometria argentina
(1879), has done similar work for 7756 stars visible only in the
southern hemisphere, and his successor at Cordoba, J. M. Thome,
has published (1904) three volumes of the Argentine (Cordoba)
Durchmusterung containing 489,662 stars between declination
— 22 to —5 2 . There have been other worthy labourers in the
same field, each of whom has rendered efficient service, such as
Dr E. Heis and M. J. C. Houzeau.

It is to Sir John Herschel that we are indebted for the first
successful attempt at stellar photometry by what may be
termed " artificial " means. He deflected the light of the moon
(by means of the internal reflection of a rectangular prism)
through a small lens 0-12 in. in diameter and of very short
focus (0-23 in.) so as to form a sort of artificial star in its
focus. With strings and a wooden pole he could move this
artificial star of comparison so as to be in the same line of sight
with any actual star whose light he proposed to measure. Other
strings enabled him to remove it to such a distance from the eye
that its fight was adjudged to be sensibly the same as that of
the star compared; and the distance was measured by a gradu-
ated tape. While he was thus busy at the Cape of Good Hope,
K. A. Steinheil at Munich had completed for Dr P. L. Seidel
an instrument nearly the same in principle but more manageable
in form. He divided the small object-glass of a telescope into
two halves, one of which was movable in the direction of its
axis. The images of two stars whose light he desired to compare
were formed by prismatic reflection, nearly in the same line of
sight, and one of the lenses was then moved until the light of
the two images seemed equal. The distance through which it
was necessary to bring the movable lens furnished the data for
comparing the relative lustre of the two stars in question.
More recently other photometers have been devised, and de-
scriptions of three of them, with which considerable researches
have been conducted will now be given. With the first mentioned
below Professor Pickering of Harvard has made more than a
million measures with his own eyes. The results of his observa-
tions, and of those of his assistants, will be found in the Harvard
Annals especially in vol. xlv. published in 1901, which con-
tains a general catalogue of about 24,000 stars brighter than
magnitude 7-5, north of declination — 40 . With the Zollner
photometer Drs Gustav Miiller and P. Kempf of Potsdam have
recently completed a similar piece of work, their catalogue of
stars north of the equator brighter than 7-5 containing 14,199
stars (Potsdam Publications, 1907, vol. xvii.). The catalogue
of Professor C. Pritchard was smaller, containing 2784 stars
brighter than magnitude about 6-5 and north of declination
— io°; but it was published in 1886, when very little had yet been
done towards the systematic measurement of the brightness
of the stars (Uranometria nova oxoniensis, vol. ii. of the Oxford
University Observatory publications).

Pickering's meridian photometer (Ann. Astron. Obs. Harv. vols,
xiv. and xxiii.) consists of two telescopes placed side by side pointing
due east, the light from the stars on the meridian being reflected into
them by two mirrors inclined at an angle of 45 to this direction.
If there were a star exactly at the Pole, one of these mirrors

PHOTOMETRY

53i

would be absolutely fixed and would constantly reflect the light
of this star down the axis of its telescope ; in practice a slight motion
can be given to the mirror so as to keep in view
Pickering's the polar star selected, whether Polaris, with which
Meridian the brighter stars were compared, or X Ursae
Photometer. Minoris, which was used for fainter stars. The second
mirror (which projects a little beyond the first so as
to get an unobstructed view of the meridian) can be rotated round
the axis, of the telescope by means of a toothed-wheel gearing, and
can thus be made to reflect any star on the meridian down the
second telescope; it is also provided with a small motion in the
perpendicular direction, so as to command a degree or two on each
side of the meridian. Near the common eyepiece of the telescopes
there is a double image prism which separates the light received from
each into two pencils; the pencil of ordinary rays from one object-
glass is made to coincide with that of extraordinary rays from the
other, and the two remaining pencils are excluded by a stop. The
two coincident pencils then pass through a Nicol prism to the eye
of the observer, who by rotating the prism round its axis can
equalize them at a definite reading depending on their relative
intensities. This reading gives in fact the difference of magnitude
between the two stars selected for comparison. It may be re-
marked that the position of the double image prism is important.
It should be just within, not at, the common focus: this position
prevents any noticeable colour in the images, and gives the
ordinary and extraordinary pencils a sufficient separation at the
eye-stop to permit the entire exclusion of one without the loss of
any part of the other. If the prism were exactly at the focus,
and any part of the superfluous images were admitted, the resulting
secondary images would coincide with the others and thus lead
to errors in observing. But in the actual construction of the instru-
ment the secondary images would appear, if at all, only as
additional stars near those under observation, and too faint to
produce any inconvenience. It is worthy of note that Professor
Pickering has extended his survey into the southern hemisphere,
so that the Harvard photometry is the most complete of all. Each
observation consists of four comparisons; after the first two the
observer reverses the position of the star images in the field, and
also reverses the double-image prism. The former precaution is
necessary in order to eliminate a curious error depending on the
relative position of the images, which may amount to several tenths
of a magnitude. Errors of this kind affect all estimations of the
relative brightness of two stars in the same field, as has been
repeatedly shown; a striking instance is given by A. W. Roberts, of
Lovedale, South Africa (Mon. Not. R.A.S. April 1897), who found
that his eye-estimations of the brightness of variable stars required
a correction depending on the position-angle of the comparison
star ranging over nearly two magnitudes.

In Zollner's instrument an artificial star is taken as the standard
of comparison. There is only one telescope, and inside the tube
near the eye end is a plate of glass placed at an angle
Zollner's of 45 with the axis, so that the rays from a lamp which
Photometer, enter the tube from the side are reflected down the tube
to the eyepiece, while the light from the star passes
through the plate unobstructed. The lamplight passes through a
Nicol prism and a plate of rock crystal, which give control over
the colour; through two Nicols which can be rotated round the
axis of the beam to definite positions read off on a graduated circle ;
and then through a convex lens which forms an image reflected by
the glass plate to focus alongside the star. The whole of this
apparatus is carried in a compact form on the eye end of the telescope,
it being arranged that the lamp shall always stand upright. The
measures are made by rotating the Nicols until the brightness of
the artificial star is equal to that of the star viewed through the
object glass, and reading the graduated circle.

Professor Pritchard's (1 808-1 893) wedge photometer is con-
structed on the principle that the absorption of light in passing
The Wedee through a uniform medium depends, caeteris paribus,
Photometer, upon the thickness. On this principle a thin wedge
" is constructed of homogeneous and nearly neutral-
tinted glass, through which the images of stars formed in the
focus of a telescope are viewed. Simple means are contrived for
measuring with great exactness the several thicknesses at which
the light of these telescopic star-images is extinguished. In this
way the light of any star can be readily compared with that of
Polaris (or any other selected star) at the moment of observa-
tion, and thus a catalogue of star-magnitudes can be formed.
Two material improvements suggested by Dr E. J. Spitta are
worthy of notice. The first (Proc. Roy. Soc, 1889, 47, 15) corrects
a slight defect in the form of the instrument. If a pencil of rays
passes through a thin wedge of tinted glass, the rays do not all pass
through the same thickness of glass. Dr Spitta proposes to substi-
tute a pair of wedges with their thicknesses increasing in opposite
directions. By sliding one over the other we obtain a parallel
plate of glass of varying thickness, and a uniform beam of light of
sensible dimensions can then be extinguished satisfactorily. He
has also pointed out a source of error in the method of " evaluating "
the wedge and shown how to correct it. The scale value was
determined by Professor Pritchard by the use of a doubly refracting
prism of quartz and a Nicol prism. Using this method subsequently,

Pheno-
menon.

Dr Spitta found that internal' reflections within the Nicol prism
interfered with the accuracy of the result, but that this error could
be eliminated by using a suitable diaphragm (Mon. Not. R.A.S.
March 1890; Abney, ibid., June 1890).

Since 1885 systematic catalogues of stellar brightness have
been constructed with all these instruments, and it has been of
great interest to compare the results. The com- The
parison has in general shown a satisfactory agreement, Purkinje
but there are small differences which are almost
certainly systematic, due to the difference of method
and instrument. One cause of such differences, the reality
of which is undoubted, but the effects of which have as yet
not been perhaps fully worked out, is the " Purkinje phenom-
enon " {Pfltigers Archiv. lxx. 297). If a blue source of light
and a red source appear equally bright to the eye, and if the
intensity of each be diminished in the same ratio, they will no
longer appear equally bright, the blue now appearing the brighter ;
in more general terms, the equalizing of two differently
coloured lights by the eye depends upon their intensity. It is
clear that this phenomenon must affect all photometric work
unless the stars are all exactly of the same colour, which we
know they are not. For let us suppose that both the comparison
star of the meridian photometer and the artificial star of the
Zollner photometer were equalized with a bright star A, and that
they could be also compared inter se and found equally bright.
Then when a faint star B comes under observation and the inten-
sities of the comparison stars are both reduced to equality with B,
they will no longer appear equal to one another unless they are
exactly the same in colour. In other words, the observed ratio of
intensities of A and B will vary with the colour of the comparison
star, and similarly it will also vary with the aperture of the
telescope employed. Now it is one of the merits of the Potsdam
catalogue above mentioned that it gives estimates of the colours
of the stars as well as of their magnitudes — so that we now for the
first time have this systematic information. In a most interesting
section of their introduction it is shown that two of the Harvard
photometric catalogues show systematic differences, due to
colour, and amounting to nearly half a magnitude: and that
the Purkinje phenomenon is a satisfactory explanation of these
differences. This is the first instance in which the effect of
this phenomenon has been measured in the case of the stars,
though it was known to be sensible. But there is a set of
numerical results obtained in the laboratory which is of impor-
tance for all such works, viz. those obtained by Sir W. Abney
(Proc. Roy. Soc. May 1891; and Mon. Not. R.A.S. April 1892),
giving the limiting intensity at which each pure colour vanishes.
If we start with lights C D E F G of the colours usually denoted
by these letters in the spectrum, and each so bright that it
appears to the eye as bright as an amyl-acetate lamp at 1 ft.,
and if then the intensity of each be gradually diminished, the
C light will disappear when the original intensity has been
reduced to 22,000 ten-millionths of the original value. Theother
colours will disappear at the following intensities, all expressed
in ten-millionths of the original: D at 350, E at 35, F at 17,
and G at 15. If then we had a mixture of two lights, one of
C colour as bright as before, and the other of G colour 1000
times fainter (a combination in which the eye would be unable
to distinguish the G light at all), and if we continually reduced
the combined intensity, the luminosity of the C light would
diminish so much more rapidly than that of the G that the latter
would begin to assert itself, and when the combined intensities
were reduced to 22,000 ten-millionths of the original value, the
C light would have all disappeared, while the G light would not.
Hence the colour of the light would appear pure violet, though
it was originally deepred. This extreme case shows that the
" last ray to disappear " when a light is gradually extinguished
may be very different in colour from that of the original light,
and when more usual light-mixtures are considered, such as
those of sunlight and starlight, which appear nearly white to
the eye, the " last ray to disappear " is found to be in the green,
very near E in the spectrum. This result has two important
bearings on the use of the wedge photometer. In the first place,

532

PHOTOMETRY

either the wedge itself should be of a greenish hue, or green light
should be used in finding the scale-value (the constant B in the
formula m = A+Bw). In the second, star magnitudes obtained
by extinction with the wedge will agree better with those obtained
by photography than those obtained with other visual photo-
meters, since photographic action is chiefly produced by rays
from E to G in the spectrum, and the E light of ultimate impor-
tance with the wedge photometer is nearer this light in character
than the D light with which other photometers are chiefly
concerned. It would also appear that results obtained with the
wedge photometer are independent of the aperture of telescope
employed, which is not the case with other photometers.

Passing now to the consideration of photographic methods,
it is found that when a plate is exposed to the stars, the images
Photo- 0I the brighter stars are larger and blacker than
graphic those of the fainter ones, and as the exposure is
Photo- prolonged the increase in size and blackness contin-
metry. ues _ Much of the light is brought to an accurate
focus, but, owing to the impossibility of perfect achromatism in
the case of refractors, and to uncorrected aberration, diffraction,
and possibly a slight diffusion in both refractors and reflectors,
there are rays which do not come to accurate focus, grouped in
rings of intensity gradually diminishing outwards from the focus.
As the brightness of the star increases, or as the time of exposure
is prolonged, outer and fainter rings make their impression on
the plate, while the impression on the inner rings becomes
deeper. Hence the increase in both diameter and blackness of
the star disks. As these increase concurrently, we can estimate
the magnitude of the star by noting either the increase in
diameter or in blackness, or in both. There is consequently
a variety in the methods proposed for determining star
magnitudes by photography. But before considering these
different methods, there is one point affecting them all
which is of fundamental importance. In photography a
new variable comes in which does not affect eye-observations,
viz., the time of exposure, and it is necessary to consider
Low to make due allowance for it. There is a simple law
which is true in the case of bright lights and rapid plates,
that by doubling the exposure the same photographic effect
is produced as by increasing the intensity of a source of light
twofold, and so far as this law holds it gives us a simple method
of comparing magnitudes. Unfortunately this law breaks down
for faint lights. Sir W. Abney, who had been a vigorous advo-
cate for the complete accuracy of this law up till 1893, in that
year read a paper to the Royal Society on the failure of the
law, finding that it fails when exposures to an amyl-acetate
lamp at 1 ft. are reduced to o'-ooi, and " signally fails " for
feeble intensities of light; indeed, it seems possible that there is
a limiting intensity beyond which no length of exposure would
produce any sensible effect. This was bad news for astronomers
who have to deal with faint lights, for a simple law of this kind
would have been of great value in the complex department of
photometry. But it seems possible that a certain modification
or equivalent of the law may be used in practice. Professor
H. H. Turner found that for plates taken at Greenwich, when
the time of exposure is prolonged in the ratio of five star magni-
tudes the photographic gain is four magnitudes (Mon. Not.
R.A.S. lxv. 775), and a closely similar result has been obtained
by Dr Schwarzschild using the method presently to be
mentioned.

Stars of different magnitudes impress on the plate images
differing both in size and blackness. To determine the magni-
Diameter as tude from the character of the image, the easiest
Testof quantity to measure is the diameter of the image,
Magnitude. an( j w hen measurements of position are being made
with a micrometer, it is a simple matter to record the
diameter as well, in spite of the indefiniteness of the border.
Accordingly we find that various laws have been proposed for
representing the magnitude of a star by the diameter of its
image, though these have usually been expressed, as a pre-
liminary, as relations between the diameter and time of exposure.
Thus G. P. Bond found the diameter to increase as the square of

the exposure, Turner as the cube, Pritchard as the fourth power,
while W. H. M. Christie has found the law that the diameter
varies as the square of the logarithm of the exposure within
certain limits. There is clearly no universal law — it varies with
the instrument and the plate — but for a given instrument and
plate an empirical law may be deduced. Or, without deducing
any law at all, a series of images may be produced of stars of
known brightness and known exposures, and, using this as a
scale of reference, the magnitudes of other images may be
inferred by interpolation. A most important piece of systematic
work has been carried out by the measurement of diameters in
the Cape Photographic Durchmusterung {Ann. Cape Obser.
vols, iii., iv. and v.) of stars to the tenth magnitude in the south-
ern hemisphere. The measurements were made by Professor
J. C. Kapteyn of Groningen, on photographs taken at the Cape
of Good Hope Observatory; he adopts as his purely empirical
formula

magnitude = B/(diameter+ C),

where B and C are obtained independently for every plate, from
comparison with visual magnitudes. C varies from 10 to 28,
and B from 90 to 260. The part of the sky photographed was
found to have an important bearing on the value of these con-
stants, and it was in the course of this work that Kapteyn found
a systematic difference between stars near the Milky Way and
those far from it, which may be briefly expressed in the law, the
stars of the Milky Way are in general bluer than the stars in other
regions of the sky. It is intended, however, in the present
article to discuss methods rather than results, and we cannot
here further notice this most interesting discovery.

Of methods which choose the blackness of the image rather
than the diameter for measurement, the most interesting is
that initiated independently by Pickering at Harvard
and C. Schwarzschild at Vienna, which consists /pf^ HS-
in taking star images considerably out of focus.
The result is that these images no longer vary appreciably in
size, but only in blackness or density; and that this gradation
of density is recognizable through a wide range of magnitudes.
On a plate taken in good focus in the ordinary way there is a
gradation of the same kind for the faintest stars; the smallest
images are all of approximately the same size, but vary in tone
from grey to black. But once the image becomes black it
increases in size, and the change in density is not easy to follow.
The images-out-of-focus method seems very promising, to judge
by the published results of Dr Schwarzschild, who used a pre-
pared comparison scale of densities, and interpolated for any
given star from it. The most satisfactory photographic method
would certainly be to take account of both size and blackness,
i.e. to measure the total deposit in the film; as, for instance,
by interposing the whole image in a given beam of light, and
measuring the diminution of the beam caused by the obstruction.
But no considerable piece of work has as yet been attempted on
these lines.

Even in a rapid sketch of so extensive a subject some notice
must be taken of the application of photometry to the determina-
tion of the relative amount of light received on the Light of the
earth from the sun, the moon and the planets. Sun, Moon
The methods by which these ratios have been a '" ,p/al,ete •
obtained are as simple as they are ingenious; and for them
we are mainly indebted to the labours of P. Bouguer and
W. C. Bond (1789-1859). The former compared the light
received from the sun with that from the moon in the following
fashion in 1725. A hole one-twelfth of a Paris inch was made
in the shutter of a darkened room; close to it was placed a con-
cave lens, and in this way an image of the sun 9 in. in dia-
meter was received on a screen. Bouguer found that this light
was equal to that of a candle viewed at 16 in. from his eye.
A similar experiment was repeated with the light of the full
moon. The image now formed was only two-thirds of an inch
in diameter, and he found that the light of this image was
comparable with that of the same candle viewed at a distance
of 50 ft. From these data and a very simple calculation it
followed that the light of the sun was about 256,289 times that

PHRAATES

533

of the moon. Other experiments followed, and the average
of all the results was that the light of the sun was about 300,000
times the average light of a full moon, both being viewed in
the heavens at the same altitudes. The details will be found in
Bouguer's Traite d'optique. W. H. Wollaston in 1829 tried a
series of experiments in which the ratio 801,072 was obtained;
but the omission of certain necessary precautions vitiates the
result (Phil. Trans. 1829). Bond (Mem. Amer. Acad. 1861,
p. 295) adopted a different process. He formed the image of
the sun on a silvered globe of some 10 in. diameter; the light of
this image was reflected on to a small mercurial thermometer
bulb; and then this second image was compared with a Bengal
light so moved that the lights appeared to be equal. The same
process was adopted with the full moon instead of with the sun.
The result was that the sun's light was 470,980 times that of
the moon. Seidel long before this date had compared the light
of the mean full moon with that of Jupiter in mean opposition;
his result is 6430. So also this light of Jupiter was found to be
•4864 times that of Venus at her brightest; and Jupiter was
found to give 8-2 times the light of a Lyrae. If, then, these
numbers could be accepted with confidence, we should have the
means of comparing the light received from the sun with that
received from any of the stars. Adopting these precarious
numbers on the authorities of Bond and Seidel we have the
following results: —

Sun's light = 470,980 that of the full moon.

,, = 622,600,000 „ Venus at her brightest.

,, = 302,835,000 „ Jupiter at mean opposition.

» = SST 3 ^ 00 ! 000 7. Sirius.

Lastly, Bouguer, by comparing the light of the full moon
viewed at different altitudes with an artificial light, found
that the atmosphere absorbs -1877 of the light incident on it
at the zenith of any place. Professor Pritchard, from photo-
metric measures taken at Cairo, found this number to be -157.
At Oxford it was -209. Thus Bouguer's determination indicates
an absorptive capacity in the atmosphere of Brittany just midway
between those of Oxford and Cairo. Seidel at Munich expresses
" surprise " at finding his own results so nearly accordant with
Bouguer's. Although rather outside the domain of photometry
in the strict sense, a word or two may be said here about recent
attempts to measure the heat received from the stars, the first
being made with the " radio-micrometer " of C. V. Boys. (Proc.
Roy. Soc. 1890). This is an extremely delicate instrument for
Very little measuring radiant heat, and consists of a very light
Heat from thermo-electric circuit (two tiny bars of antimony
the stars. anc j bismuth soldered together at one edge, the
outer edges being connected by a hoop of copper wire)
suspended by a quartz fibre (a torsion fibre of the very
greatest sensitiveness) in a strong magnetic field. A minute
quantity of radiant heat falling on one of the junctions of the
circuit sets up a current in the circuit, which thus rotates in the
magnetic field until brought to rest by the torsion of the fibre.
For use on the heavenly bodies the radiant heat is collected to
focus by a reflecting telescope (an object-glass would absorb it),
and when the telescope is pointed to the moon the varying
radiation from different parts of the disk is beautifully shown.
No heat comes from the unlit portion, and of the illuminated
portion the maximum is obtained from near the limb. But
when pointed to the brightest stars no indications were obtained,
although the instrument is sensitive enough to detect the heat
from a candle more than a mile off. It seems certain that
indications of heat from the stars obtained by previous observers
must be spurious. It is also manifest that to obtain satisfactory
results even more sensitive apparatus must be devised, and by
using a radiometer and the powerful resources of the Yerkes
Observatory E. F. Nichols succeeded in 1898 and 1900 in obtain-
ing indications of heat from Arcturus and Vega, as well as from
Jupiter and Saturn (Astrophysical Journ. xiii., 101), the heat
received being comparable with that from a candle 6 m. away.
We may place alongside this result that obtained by W. J.
Dibdin (Proc. Roy. Soc. April 1892), who compared candle-
light with twenty-one stars ranging to the sixth magnitude,

and found the light of a second magnitude star equal to that
of a candle at 1260 ft. (H.H.T.)

PHRAATES (Phrahates; Pers. Frahat, modern Ferhat), the
name of five Parthian kings.

1. Phraates I., son of Priapatius, reigned c. 175-170 B.C.
He subdued the Mardi, a mountainous tribe in the Elburz
(Justin xli. 5; Isid. Charac. 7). He died young, and appointed as
his successor not one of his sons, but his brother Mithradates I.
(Justin xli. 5).

2. Phraates II., son of Mithradates I., the conqueror of
Babylonia, reigned 138-127. He was attacked in 130 by
Antiochus VII. Sidetes, who, however, in 129 was defeated and
killed in a great battle in Media, which ended the Seleucid rule
east of the Euphrates (see Seleucid Dynasty). Meanwhile
the kingdom was invaded by the Scythians (the Tochari of
Bactria), who had helped Antiochus. Phraates marched against
them, but was defeated and killed (Justin xlii. 1; Johannes
Antioch,/r. 66).

3. Phraates III., " the God " (Phlegon, jr. 12 ap. Photius
corf. 97 and on some of his coins) , succeeded his father, Sanatruces,
in 70 B.C., at the time when Lucullus was preparing to attack
Tigranes of Armenia, who was supreme in western Asia and had
wrested Mesopotamia and several vassal states from the Parthian
kingdom. Naturally, Phraates declined to assist Mithradates
of Pontus and Tigranes against the Romans (see Tigranes).
He supported his son-in-law, the younger Tigranes, when he
rebelled against his father, and invaded Armenia (65 B.C.) in
alliance with Pompey, who abandoned Mesopotamia to the
Parthians (Dio. Cass, xxxvi. 45, 51; Appian, Mithr. 104; Liv.
Epit. 100). But Pompey soon overrode the treaty; he acknow-
ledged the elder Tigranes, took his son prisoner, occupied the
vassal states Gordyene and Osroene for the Romans, and denied
the title of " king of kings," which Phraates had adopted again,
to the Parthian king (Plut. Pomp. 33, 38; Dio. Cass, xxxvii.
5 seq.). About 57 Phraates was murdered by his two sons,
Orodes I. and Mithradates III.

4. Phraates IV., son of Orodes I., by whom he was appointed
successor in 37 B.C., after the death of Pacorus. He soon
murdered his father and all his thirty brothers (Justin xlii. 5;
Plut. Crass. 33; Dio Cass. xlix. 23). He was attacked in 36
by Antonius (Mark Antony), who marched through Armenia
into Media Atropatene, and was defeated and lost the greater
part of his army. Believing himself betrayed by Artavasdes,
king of Armenia, he invaded his kingdom in 34, took him prisoner,
and concluded a treaty with another Artavasdes, king of Atro-
patene. But when the war with Octavianus Augustus broke
out, he could not maintain his conquests; Phraates recovered
Atropatene and drove Artaxes, the son of Artavasdes, back
into Armenia (Dio. Cass. xlix. 24 sqq., 39 seq., 44; cf. li. 16;
Plut. Antonius, 37 seq.). But by his many cruelties Phraates
had roused the indignation of his subjects, who raised Tiridates
II. to the throne in 32. Phraates was restored by the Scythians,
and Tiridates fled into Syria. The Romans hoped that Augustus
would avenge the defeat of Crassus on the Parthians, but he
contented himself with a treaty, by which Phraates gave back
the prisoners and the conquered eagles (20 B.C., Mon. Anc. 5,
40 sqq.; Justin xlii. 5); the kingdom of Armenia also was recog-
nized as a Roman dependency. Soon afterwards Phraates,
whose greatest enemies were his own family, sent five of his sons
as hostages to Augustus, thus acknowledging his dependence
on Rome. This plan he adopted on the advice of an Italian
concubine whom he made his legitimate wife under the name
of "the goddess Musa"; her son Phraates, commonly called
Phraataces (a diminutive form), he appointed successor. About
4 B.C. he was murdered by Musa and her son (Joseph. Ant.
xviii. 2, 4).

5. Phraates V., or Phraataces, the younger son of Phraates
IV. and the " goddess Musa," with whom he is associated on
his coins. Under him a war threatened to break out with
Rome about the supremacy in Armenia and Media. But when
Augustus sent his adopted son Gaius Caesar into the east in
order to invade Parthia, the Parthians preferred to conclude a

534

PHRANTZA— PHRENOLOGY

treaty (a.d. i), by which once again Armenia was recognized as
in the Roman sphere (Dio. Cass. lv. 10; Velleius ii. 101). Soon
after Phraataces and his mother were slain by the Parthians,
about a.d. 5 (Joseph. Ant. xviii. 2, 4). (Ed. M.)

PHRANTZA, GEORGE [Georgios Phrantzes] (1401-c. 1477),
the last Byzantine historian, was born in Constantinople. At
an early age he became secretary to Manuel II. Palaeologus, in
1432 protovestiarius (great chamberlain), in 1446 praefect of
Sparta, and subsequently great logothete (chancellor). At the
capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453) he fell into their
hands, but managed to escape to Peloponnesus, where he
obtained protection at the court of Thomas Palaeologus, despot
of Achaea. After the downfall of the Peloponnesian princes
(1460) Phrantza retired to the monastery of Tarchaniotes in
Corfu. Here he wrote his Chronicle, containing the history of
the house of the Palaeologi from 1258-1476. It is a most
valuable authority for the events of his own times.

Editions by I. Bekker (1838) in the Corpus scriptorum hist, byz.,
and in J. P. Migne, Patrologia graeca, clvi; see also C. Krumbacher,
Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897).

PHRAORTES, the Greek form of Fravartish, king of Media.
According to Herodotus (i. 102) he was the son of Deioces, and
began the Median conquests. He first subjugated the Persians,
and then a great many other peoples of Asia, till at last he
attacked the Assyrians, but was defeated and killed in a battle,
after a reign of twenty-two years (about 646-625 B.C.; but
perhaps, as G. Rawlinson supposes, the fifty-three years of
Deioces ought in reality to be transferred to him). From other
sources we obtain no information whatever about Phraortes;
but the data of the Assyrian inscriptions prove that Assur-bani-
pal (see Babylonia and Assyria), at least during the greater
part of his reign, maintained the Assyrian supremacy in Western
Asia, and that in 645 he conquered Susa. The Medians too were
subject to him as far as the Elburz and the central Iranian
desert.

When after the assassination of Smerdis all the Iranian tribes,
the Babylonians and the Armenians rebelled against Darius
and the Persian rule, " a man of the name of Fravartish {i.e.
Phraortes), a Mede, rebelled in Media and spoke to the
people thus: I am Khshathrita, of the family of Uvakhshatra
(Cyaxares)." He reigned for a short time, but was defeated by
Hydarnes, and afterwards by Darius himself, taken prisoner
in Rhagae (Rai), and executed in Ecbatana (520 B.C.; see
inscription of Darius at Behistun). (Ed. M.)

PHRENOLOGY, (from Gr. <ppr\v, mind, and X670J, discourse),
the name given by Thomas Ignatius Forster to the empirical
system of psychology formulated by F. J. Gall, and developed
by his followers, especially by J. K. Spurzheim and G. Combe,
by whom it was named " cranioscopy," " craniology,"
" physiognomy " or " zoonomy." The principles upon which
it is based are five: (1) the brain is the organ of the mind;
(2) the mental powers of man can be analysed into a definite
number of independent faculties; (3) these faculties are innate,
and each has its seat in a definite region of the surface of the
brain; (4) the size of each such region is the measure of the
degree to which the faculty seated in it forms a constituent
element in the character of the individual; (5) the correspon-
dence between the outer surface of the skull and the contour
of the brain-surface beneath is sufficiently close to enable the
observer to recognize the relative sizes of these several organs
by the examination of the outer surface of the head. It
professes primarily to be a system of psychology, but its second
and more popular claim is that it affords a method whereby the
disposition and character of the subject may be ascertained.

History. — That the phenomena of mind are in some measure
connected with the action of the brain has been recognized from
a very early age of philosophy. It is true that Aristotle 1
describes the brain as the coldest and most bloodless of bodily
organs, of the nature of water and earth, whose chief purpose
is to temper the excessive heat of the heart, as the cooler regions
of the firmament condense the vapours rising from the earth.
1 De partibus animalium, ii. c. 7 (Paris, 1629, p. 986).

In his view, as in that of most of the earlier writers of other
nations of antiquity, the heart is the seat of life; to it, not to the
brain, the Hebrew writers refer thoughts and affections, while
they considered judgment as seated sometimes in the head,
sometimes in the kidneys. 2 This was likewise the teaching of
the ancient Egyptian philosophy; and hence, while many rites
were practised and prayers offered for the preservation of the
heart of the deceased, there were none for the conservation of
the brain. 3 We learn from Diogenes Laertius 4 that Pythagoras
held more accurate physiological views, as he taught that the
mind and the intellect have their seat in the brain. The theory
of Hippocrates was Pythagorean rather than Aristotelian, for,
although in one passage in his work De corde he expresses himself
doubtfully, yet elsewhere he clearly states that he considers the
brain to be the index and messenger of the intellect. 5 The
cerebral seat of sense-perception is also taught by Plato, 6 who
puts into the mouth of Socrates the theory that the brain is the
organ affected by the senses, whereby memory and opinion arise,
and from whence knowledge springs. The classic poets also
notice this dependence of mind on brain; for example, in the
Clouds (v. 1276) Strepsiades accuses Amynias of not being in
his right mind, and, on being asked why, responds, " You seem
to me as if you had had a concussion of the brain."

The two founders of anatomical science, Erasistratus and
Herophilus, who lived in the days of Ptolemy Soter, taught not
only that the brain was the seat of sensation and of intellect,
but also that there was therein a certain degree of localization
of function. Erasistratus believed that the sensory nerves arose
from the brain-membranes, the motor from the cerebral sub-
stance. Herophilus was apparently the first who held that the
vital forces resided in and circulated from the ventricles of the
brain, at least so we gather from Celsus and the other authors
who have preserved his views. By the influence of the writings
of Galen, 7 which directly teach that the brain is the seat of soul
and intellect the Pythagorean doctrine prevailed among the later
philosophers. According to the Galenical theory the animal
spirits have their origin in the ventricles of the brain, and pass
into the heart from which they are conveyed by the arteries
through the body. Galen in one place (viii. 159) refers their
origin to the brain-substance, but the ventricular theory was that
adopted by his followers, some of whom suggested that there was
some relation between the shape of the head and the character
and disposition of the mind. 8 The Arabian physicians Averroes 9
and Rhazes 10 adopted the Galenical doctrine and developed the
hypothesis of a fourfold ventricular localization of faculties,
which the Greeks had originated. Avicenna 11 added to these a
fifth region. Such of the early Christian authors as referred in

2 In the Chaldee portion of Daniel (ii. 28, iv. 5, vii. 1) visions and
thoughts are referred to the head. For other particulars as to early
views see Nasse on the psychical relations of the heart in Zeitschr. f.
psychische Aerzte (1818), vol. i. A few of the later medical writers
express similar views ; see Santa Cruz,Opuscula medica, Madrid (1624).

3 Book of the Dead, ch. xxvi.-xxx.

4 viii. 30; ed. Cobet, Paris (1850), p. 211, — &pivas Si ko.1 vovv, tA Iv

6 De morbo sacro, on Opp. ed. Kiihn, i. 612 seq.; also Epist. iii.
824. Among later writers Licetus of Genoa taught the co-extension
of soul and body, upon which subject he wrote two books (Padua,
1616). In this connexion may be noted a curious work by Schegkius,
Dialogus de animae principatu,Aristotelis et Galeni rationes praeferens
quibus ille cordi, hie cerebro, principatum attribuit (Tubingen, 1542).

6 Phaedo, Valpy's ed. 1833, ch. xlv., p. 128. See also Haller's
Bibl. anat., i. 30.

7 De usu partium, ed. Kiihn, iii. 700. — t<xs iiiv ovv airo8e££eis rod
ri}v ~\oyuTTiK7]v ipvxyv olKetv iv kyKe<j>a\cp , /cat irvevfxa ipvxwbv kv cinq
irepiixeaBcu irkfiiroKv. See also v. 288, viii. 159, xv. 360. In his
Definitiones medicae (467, xix. 459) he says that the brain has a
ifrvxutri Swap: is, but does not specify in what part the power inheres.

8 See Paulus Aegineta, Stephen's ed. 1567, cap. 62, col. 363, also
Actuarius, De actionibus et affectibus spiritus animalis (Paris, 1556),
p. 22, c. 7.

9 Comment, in Arist., Latin tr. (Venice, 1550), vi. 73.

. 10 " Imaginatio quidem in doubus ventricuhs anterioribus
perficitur. Cogitatio vero in medio expletur. Memoria autem
posteriorem possidet ventriculam." De re medica, Gerard's trans.
(Basel, 1554), i.9.
11 Lib. canonis (1507), p. 19, and De naturalibus, c. 6.

PHRENOLOGY

535

their writings to the relation of soul to body naturally adopted
the teaching of Galen which they accommodated to their
theology, thereby conferring on it an importance which rendered
correction difficult. Tertullian 1 in a sense expresses his belief
in a theory of localization as also at a later period does Thomas
Aquinas. 2

Early in the 13th century Albertus Magnus 3 gave a detailed
description of the distribution of mental and psychical faculties
in the head. The anterior region he assigned to judgment, the
middle to imagination, and the posterior to memory. A some-
what similar allocation was made by Gordon, professor of
medicine in Montpellier (1296), 4 who assigned common sensation
and the reception of impressions to the anterior cornua of the
lateral ventricles, phantasia to the posterior, this power being
two-fold {imaginative!, and cogitativa) , judgment or aestimativa
to the third ventricle, and memory to the fourth. 5 Figures of a
similar division were given by Petrus Montagnana 6 and Lodo-
vico Dolce 7 still later by Ghiradelli of Bologna 8 and by Theodore
Gall of Antwerp. 9 That the " vital spirits " resided in the
ventricles was doubted by many, and denied by a few of the
anatomists of the 17th century. G. Bauhin in 1621 10 attacked
the old view, and Hoffmann of Altorf showed that, as the
ventricles were closed cavities, they could not transmit any
material fluid. That these spirits existed at all was doubted by
Alexander Benedictus, 11 Plater, 12 and a few others; but they were
believed in by the great majority of 17th and even of 18th century
medical writers, many of whom conceived that the ventricles
were semper pleni spiritibus animalibus flammulis similibus,
quorum beneficiis inlelligimus , senlimus, el movemus, n and the
opponents of this view were strongly assailed by J. Riolan and
others as revolutionary. Columbus 14 ridiculed the idea that
the convoluted surface can have anything to do with intellect,
as the ass, a proverbially stupid animal, has a convoluted cere-
brum. According to his view, the convolutions are for the
purpose of lightening the brain and facilitating its movements.
The grey matter of the surface of the cerebrum was recognized
as the true dynamic element by M. Malpighi 15 and T. Willis. 16

1 De anima, cxiv. (ed. Franeker, 1597), p. 268.

2 Summa theologiae, ed. Migne, i. 1094, 1 106-7. Prochaska and
his translator, Laycock (Mind and Brain, ii. 163), charge Duns
Scotus with holding this view; probably he did, but he does not
express it, as he simply specifies the cerebrum and its root, the
spinal cord, as the source of the nerves along which sensory impulses
travel. Comment, de anima, i. 515 (Leiden, 1637).

3 Opera, iii. 124, vi. 20 (Leiden, 1651).

* Lilium medicinae, 101 (Venice, 1494).

5 Avicenna's fifth region is interposed between imaginativa and
aestimativa (De naturalibus, c. vi.). Thomas Aquinas combines the
last two, which he says are possessed by the same eminence. On
the other hand, he says of ratio particulars, " medici assignant
determinatum organum, scilicet mediam partem capitis " (i. 1 106).

6 Physiognomia (Padua, 1491).

7 Dialogo net quale si ragione del modo di accrescere e conservar la
memoria, 27 (Venice, 1562).

8 Physiognomia, 1670.

* Tabulae element, scientiae (Rome, 1632).

10 Theatr. anat. (Basel, 1621, iii. 314); Caspar Hoffmann, De usu
cerebri (Leipzig, 1619). See also Spigelius, De corp. humani fabrica,
296 (Amsterdam, 1645); Varolius (1591), p. 6; Wepfer, Historiarum
apoplecticarum potissimum anatomiae subjectorum auctarium (Amster-
dam, 1681). See also many of the anatomical works of this age,
such as those of Fernel, Cabrol, Argenterius, Rolfinck, &c.

11 Alexander Benedictus, Anatomica, vol. iii. (Basel, 1527). Quer-
cetanus is said by Laycock (following Prochaska )to have assailed this
doctrine of spirits; on what ground is not apparent, as he certainly
expresses himself as a believer in the old view; see Tetras graviss.
totius capitis affect, x. 89 (Marburg, 1606). Possibly Prochaska may
allude to an obscure passage in the work of the other Quercetanus
(Eustachius), Acroamaton in librum Hippocratis, p. 14 (Basel, 1549),
not to the better-known Josephus Armeniacus; but he gives no
reference.

12 Opera, col. 22, 89 (Basel, 1625).

13 Joelis opera medica, 22 (Amsterdam, 1663).

14 De re anatomica, p. 350 (Frankfort, 1593).

15 " Epist. de cerebro et cort. cereb. ad Fracassatum," in Opp.,
Vol. ii. (Geneva, 1685).

16 De anima brutorum, p. 71 (Oxford, 1677), " hae particulae sub-
tilissimae, spiritus animales dictae, partium istarum substantias
corticales prirao subeuntes, exinde in utriusque meditullia," &c. ;
also p. 76 seq.

The latter regarded the convoluted surface of the Cerebrum as
the seat of the memory and the will, the convolutions being
intended to retain the animal spirits for the various acts of
imagination and memory. Imagination he described as seated
in the corpus callosum, sense-perception in the corpus striatum,
and impetus et perturbatio in the basal parts of the cerebrum above
the crura. The thalami he regarded as the centres of sight and
the cerebellum of involuntary acts. Succeeding anatomists
simply varied these localizations according to their respective
fancies. G. M. Lancisi placed sense-perception in the corpus
callosum, R. Vieussens in the centrum ovale majus. R. Descartes
supposed the soul to be seated in the pineal gland, others in the
brain-commissures especially the pons Varolii. 17 Meyer con-
sidered abstract ideas to arise in the cerebellum, and memory
to have its seat at the roots of the nerves. 18

Of later writers three deserve special notice, as having largely
prepared the way for the more modern school of phrenology.
J. A. Unzer, of Halle, in his work on physiology extended the
pre-existing theories of localization. Metzger, 19 twenty years
before the publication of Prochaska's work, had proposed to
make a series of observations on the anatomical characters of
the brains of persons of marked intellectual peculiarity; but
apparently he did not carry this into effect. In a more special
manner Prochaska of Vienna may be looked upon as the father
of phrenology, as in his work on the nervous system, published
in Vienna in 1784, are to be found the germs of the later views
which were propounded in that city twelve years later. 20

The system formulated by Gall (q.v.) is thus a modern expan-
sion of an old empirical philosophy, and its immediate parentage
is easily traced, although, according to Gall's account, it was
with him the result of independent observations. These, he
tells us, he began to make at an early age, by learning to correlate
the outward appearances and mental qualities of his school-
fellows. Gall's first published paper was a letter in the Deulscher
Merkur of December 1798, but his principal expositions were
oral, and attracted much popular attention, which increased
when, in 1802, he was commanded by the Austrian government,
at the instance of the ecclesiastical authorities, to discontinue
his public lectures. In 1804 he obtained the co-operation of
Spurzheim (1776-1832), a native of Longwich, near Treves, who
became his pupil in 1800, and proved a powerful ally in pro-
mulgating the system. Master and pupil at first taught in
harmony, but they found it advisable to separate in 1813; and
we find Spurzheim, several years after their parting, declaring
that Gall had not introduced any improvements into his system
since their separation (notes to Chenevix, p. 99). " My philoso-
phical views," he also says, " widely differ from those of Gall."
In Paris, where he settled in 1807, Gall made many influential
converts to his system. F. J. V. Broussais, H. M. D. de Blain-
ville, H. Cloquet, G. Andral, E. Geoffroy St-Hilaire, Vimont and
others adopted it and countenanced its progress. Gall visited
Great Britain, but the diffusion of phrenology here was chiefly
due to Spurzheim, who lectured through the country and through
America, and with the aid of his pupil, George Combe, attracted
a large popular following. His most influential disciples were
J. Elliotson, Andrew Combe, Sir G. S. Mackenzie, R. Macnish,
T. Laycock and Archbishop R. Whately, and in America Caldwell
and J. Godman. On the opposite side many influential men
took up a strongly antagonistic position, prominent among whom
were J. Barclay the anatomist, P. M. Roget, Sir Charles Bell,
Sir'W. Hamilton, F. Jeffrey, H. P. Brougham, T. Brown and Sir
B. Brodie. The nature of the system rendered it eminently fitted
to catch public attention, and it rapidly attained to so great a

17 Fechner, Elemente der Psychophysik, ii. 396.

18 Some of the medieval views were very fanciful, thus Shabbethai
b. Abraham, the earliest Jewish writer on medicine (d. A.D. 959),
thought that the spirit of life has its seat in the brain-membrane,
expanded over the brain and subarachnoid fluid, as the Shekinah
in the heavens arched over the earth and waters. See Der Mensch
als Gottes Ebenbild, ed. Jellinek (Leipzig, 1854), an d Castelli,
Commento (Florence, 1880).

19 Vermischte medicinische Schriften (1764), i. 58.

20 See Laycock's trans., in Sydenh. Society's Pub. (1851).

536

PHRENOLOGY

degree of popularity that in 1832 there were twenty-nine phreno-
logical societies in Great Britain, and several journals devoted
to phrenology in Britain and America; of these the Phrenological
Journal, a quarterly, edited chiefly by George Combe with aid
from others of the Edinburgh confraternity, notably Sir George
Mackenzie and Macnish, " the modern Pythagorean," lived
from 1823 to 1847, through twenty volumes. The controversy
in many places was heated and often personal, and this largely
increased the popular interest. In the Edinburgh Review the
theory was severely criticized by Thomas Brown, and afterwards
in a still more trenchant manner by Jeffrey. In Blackwood it
was ridiculed by Professor John Wilson. Being a subject which
lent itself easily to burlesque, it was parodied cleverly in a long
rhyme by two authors, " The Craniad," 87 pages long, published
in 1817, while, on the other hand, verse was pressed into its
service in the rhyme " Phrenology in Edinburgh " in 1824. 1
The'best defence of the system was that by Chenevix in the third
number of the Foreign Quarterly, afterwards reprinted with notes
by Spurzheim.

The Faculties and their Localities.— The system of Gall was
constructed by a method of pure empiricism, and his so-called
organs were for the most part identified on slender grounds.
Having selected the place of a faculty, he examined the heads of
his friends and casts of persons with that peculiarity in common,
and in them he sought for the distinctive feature of their charac-
teristic trait. Some of his earlier studies were made among low
associates, in gaols and in lunatic asylums, and some of the
qualities located by him were such as tend to become perverted
to crime. These he named after their excessive manifestations,
mapping out organs of murder, theft, &c. ; but as this cast some
discredit on the system the names were changed by Spurzheim,
who claimed as his the moral and religious considerations
associated with it. Gall marked out on his model of the head
the places of twenty-six organs as round enclosures with vacant
interspaces. Spurzheim and Combe divided the whole scalp
into oblong and conterminous patches (see the accompanying
figures). Other methods of division and other names have been
suggested by succeeding authors, especially by Cox, Sidney
Smith (not Sydney) , Toulmin Smith, K. G. Carus of Dresden,
Don Mariano Cubi i Solar, W. B. Powell of Kentucky, J. R.
Buchanan of Cincinnati, Hittel of New York. Some, like
the brothers Fowler, raise the number of organs to forty-three;
but the system of Spurzheim and Combe is that which has
always been most popular in Britain.

Spurzheim separated the component faculties of the human
mind into two great groups and subdivided these as follows: —
I. Feelings, divided into —

1. Propensities, internal impulses inviting only to certain

actions.

2. Sentiments, impulses which prompt to emotion as well

as to action.

A. Lower — those common to man and the lower animals.

B. Higher — those proper to man.
II. Intellectual faculties.

1. Perceptive faculties.

2. Reflective faculties.

In the following list the locality and the circumstances of the
first recognition of the organ are appended to the names, which
are mostly the inventions of Spurzheim. Gall's names are placed
in brackets. 2

Propensities.

1. Amativeness (Instinct de la generation), median, below the
inion ; first determined by Gall from its heat in an hysterical widow,
supposed to be confirmed by many observations, and referred to
the cerebellum. 3

1 Other burlesque and satirical writings were published at this
time, notably The Phrenologists, a farce by Wade (1830) ; The Head-
piece, or Phrenology opposed to Divine Revelation, by James the Less;
and A Helmet for the Headpiece, or Phrenology incompatible with
Reason, by Daniel the Seer.

! For topographical purposes Broca's names are adopted as the
most convenient for localities on the head.

3 Apollonius Rhodius speaking of the love of Medea for Jason
(Argonautica, iii. 760-765) says, Sd/cpu S' &*' (tytfaXijou- favivSoBi
&' aiel Ttip bhuv-q aftixovaa 8«1 xpodSt <&M</>' ipaias tvos nal n«j>a\rp, ird
vttarov ivlov 4xpis, ...

2. Philoprogenitiveness {Amour de la progeniture), median, on
the squama occipitis, and selected as the organ for the love of
children because this part of the skull is usually more prominent
in apes and in women, iti whom the love of children is supposed
to be stronger than in men.

3. Concentrativeness, below the obelion and over the lambda.
This is a region of uncertain function, unnoticed by Gall, but de-
scribed as Inhabitiveness by Spurzheim, because he found it large
in cats and in a clergyman fond of his home. It has since been con-
sidered by Combe to be the seat of the power of concentration,
whereof he believed Inhabitiveness to be a special case.

4. Adhesiveness (Amide), over the lateral area of the lambdoidal
suture. This region was prominent in a lady introduced to Gall
as a model of friendship, and is said by him to be the region where
persons who are closely attached put their heads together.

5. Combativeness (Instinct de la defense), above the asterion; it
was found by Gall by examining the heads of the most quarrelsome
of his low companions whom he had beforehand stimulated by
alcohol. It was verified by comparing this region with the same
part of the head of a quarrelsome young lady.

6. Destructiveness (Instinct carnassier), above the ear meatus.
This is the widest part of the skulls of carnivorous animals, and
was found large in the head of a student so fond of torturing animals
that he became a surgeon, also large in the head of an apothecary
who became an executioner.

6a. Alimentiveness, over the temporal muscle and above the
ear. Hoppe describes it as being large in a gourmand acquaintance,
and he therefore supposes it to be the origin of selecting food.

7. Secretiveness (Ruse, Finesse), the posterior part of the squam-
ous suture.

8. Acquisitiveness (Sentiment de la propriete), on the upper edge
of the front half of the squamous suture. This part of the head Gall
noticed to be prominent in the pickpockets of his acquaintance.

9. Constructiveness (Sens de mechanique) , on the stephanion;
detected by its prominence on the heads of persons of mechanical
genius. It was found large on the head of a milliner of uncommon
taste and on a skull reputed to be that of Raphael.

The organ of Vitativeness, or love of life, is supposed by Combe
to be seated at the base of the skull. To this locality Herophilus
referred most of the intellectual powers.

Lower Sentiments.

10. Self-esteem (Orgueil, fierte), at and immediately over the
obelion; found by Gall in a beggar who excused his poverty on
account of his pride. This was confirmed by the observation that
proud persons held their heads backwards in the line of the organ.

11. Love of Approbation (V anile), outside the obelion; the
region in which Gall saw a protuberance on the head of a lunatic
who fancied herself queen of France.

12. Cautiousness (Circonspection) , on the parietal eminence;
placed here because an ecclesiastic of hesitating disposition and a
vacillating councillor of state had both large parietal eminences.

PHRENOLOGY

537

Superior Sentiments.

13. Benevolence (BontS), on the middle of the frontal bone in
front of the coronal suture; here Gall noticed a rising on the head
of the highly commended servant of a friend, as well as on a bene-
volent schoolmate who nursed his brothers and sisters when they
were ill. To this spot Xenocrates referred the intellectual powers.

14. Veneration (Sentiment religieux), median at the bregma.
Gall noted when visiting churches that those who prayed with the
greatest fervour were prominent in this region, and it was also
prominent in a pious brother.

15. Conscientiousness, Believingness (Forster) unknown to Gall;
recognized by Spurzheim usually from its deficiency, and placed
between the last and the parietal eminence.

16. Firmness (FermelS), median, on the sagittal suture from
behind the bregma to the front of the obelion. Lavater first
pointed out that persons of determination had lofty heads.

17. Hope, not regarded as primary by Gall, who believed hope
to be akin to desire and a function of every faculty which desires
and left this territory unallocated.

18. Wonder, said to be large in vision-seers and many psychic
researchers. A second similar organ placed between this and the
next is called Mysterizingness by Forster, and is said to be the seat
of belief in ghosts and in the supernatural.

19. Ideality (Poesie), noted by Gall from its prominence in the
busts of poets; said to be the part touched by the hand when com-
posing poetry.

20. Wit (Esprit caustique), the frontal eminence, the organ of
the sense of the ludicrous, prominent in F. Rabelais and J. Swift.

21. Imitation (Faculte d'imiter), disposition to mimicry, placed
between Benevolence and Wonder.

Perceptive Faculties.

22. Individuality, over the frontal sinus in the middle line;
the capacity of recognizing external objects and forming ideas
therefrom; said to have been large in Michelangelo, and small in
the Scots.

23. Form (Memoire des personnes), capacity of recognizing faces;
gives a wide interval between the eyes ; found by Gall in a squinting
girl with a good memory for faces.

24. Size, over the trochlea at the orbital edge; described by
Spurzheim and Vimont as the capacity of estimating space and
distance.

25. Weight, outside the last on the orbital edge and, like it,
over the frontal sinus. The prominence of ridge here is due to
large sinus or a projecting bone. Certain old writers, such as Strato
Physicus, located the whole intellect in this ridge.

26. Colour, also on the orbital edge external to the last.

27. Locality (Sens de localite), placed above Individuality on
each side, and corresponding to the upper part of the frontal sinus
and to the region immediately above it.

28. Number, on the external angular process of the frontal bone,
large in a calculating boy in Vienna.

29. Order, internal to the last, first noted by Spurzheim in an
orderly idiot.

30. Eventuality (Memoire des choses), the median projection above
the glabella, supposed to be the seat of the memory of events.

31. Time, below the frontal eminence and a little in front of
the temporal crest.

32. Tune (Sens des rapports des tons), on the foremost part of the
temporal muscle, where Gall noticed a bulge on the head of a musical
prodigy of five.

33. Language (Sens des mots), behind the eye. This was the
first organ noticed by Gall, as a clever schoolfellow, quick at lan-
guages, had prominent eyes. Old authors had noted the con-
nexion between prominent eyeballs and mental development; thus
Gazzali and Syenensis Medicus Cyprius place the intellect and soul
behind the eyeballs.

Reflective Faculties.

34. Comparison (Sagacite comparative), median, at the top of the
bare region of the forehead, where a savant friend of Gall's, fond of
analogies, had a prominent boss.

35. Causality (Esprit metaphysique) , the eminence on each side
of Comparison, noticed on the head of Fichte and on a bust of Kant;
the seat oi the faculty of correlating causes and effects.

The first identification of each organ was made by an induction
from very limited data, but the founders and exponents of the
system have collected all available instances wherein enlargements of
each of these regions coexisted with increased powers of the faculty
supposed to reside therein, and in some cases they have discovered
coincidences of a surprising nature. When, however, such do not
exist, a convenient excuse is found by reference to the indefinite
article of temperament, or by a supposed explanation of the faculty
in question as not simple but produced by the co-operation of other
influences. Thus, as Sheridan's bump of wit was small, he is said
not to have been truly witty; but to have had comparison and
memory strongly developed. The girl Labrosse (described in
Ferussac's Bulletin for October 1831), who exhibited strong amative-
ness but had a rudimentary cerebellum, is said to have obliterated

it by over-use. Thurtell, a cold-blooded murderer, whose organ of
benevolence was large, is said to have been generous, as he once gave
half-a-guinea to a friend, &c.

The method whereby the sizes of organs are estimated is arbitrary
and the boundaries of the regions indefinite. The attempts of Nicol,
Straton and Wight to devise mechanical and accurate modes
of measurement have not been very successful and have not found
favour with the professional phrenologist.

Anatomical Aspect of Phrenology. — The phrenological con-
troversy served the useful purpose of stimulating research into
the anatomy of the brain; but we owe very little of solid progress
to the advocates of the system. Gall is the only writer of his
creed in whose works original observations of value are to be
found, and Dr B. Hollander has cited many interesting and care-
fully recorded anatomical and clinical facts in his writings.
Although the study of the surface of the cerebrum is of the
essence of phrenology, yet nowhere in the circle of phrenological
literature are the convolutions of the brain accurately described;
our knowledge of their order and disposition comes from the
morphologist, not from the phrenologist. The first real step
towards their systematic description was made by L. Rolando, 1
who in 1830 described the fissure to which his name is attached,
and very little advance was made until the publication in 1856
of L. P. Gratiolet's 2 and Huschke's 3 memoirs. These works
for the first time placed the description of the surface of the brain,
imperfectly attempted by L. A. Desmoulins in 1825, 4 on a satis-
factory basis.

A description of the anatomy of the brain is given under the
heading Brain, so it is necessary here only to refer to points not
included in that account.

1. Any psychological theory which correlates brain-action and
mental phenomena requires a correspondence between brain-size
and mental power; and, speaking- generally, the brains of those
whose capacities are above the average are larger than those of the
general run of their fellow-men.

2. Direct measurements of the relative developments of different
portions of brains are difficult and troublesome to make; but their
importance to phrenologists is so great that it is remarkable that no
attempts to obtain any such were made by them. The series given
by R. Wagner of the relative sizes of the cerebral lobes of four
brains is almost the only record of importance in this direction, and
is appended.

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From this it appears that the woman exceeded Gauss in percep-
tive and reflective organs, exceeded Fuchs in sentiment, and fell
below the workman in propensities. It must be said, however,
that the phrenological divisions do not accurately coincide with the
anatomical. It would furnish important physiological data if
the brains of men distinguished for special qualities were examined
in this or some comparable way.

3. It is important in relation to phrenology to ascertain the
constancy of the convolutions. Many varieties in the detail of
the surface-patterns have been recorded by Tenchini, Poggi, Gia-
comini, N. Riidinger, Cunningham and Sernow, 5 but the general
plan is fairly uniform. A still more important question has been
recently raised by J. N. Langley, viz. how far identical spots on

1 Delia Struttura degli emisferi cerebrali (Turin, 1830).

2 Memoire sur les plis cerebraux de I'homme et des primates (Paris,
1856).

3 Schadel, Him, und Seele (Jena, 1856).

4 Magendie and Desmoulins, Anat. du syst. nerveux (Paris, 1825).
6 Rivista sperimentale di freniatria (1883), ii. 193; ibid. iv. 403;

Archiv fur Anthropologic (1879), xi. 289.

538

PHRENOLOGY

identical convolutions in different brains consist of nerve-cells with
precisely the same connexions. The convoluted arrangement results
From growth of brain-surface under constraint, hence as the different
tracts of surface undergo proportional overgrowth they may fold
along different lines. The occurrence of small differences in the
rate of overgrowth, testified to by the varieties of the resulting
pattern, can hardly fail to cause considerable alteration in the place
of definite territories of grey cells. Some method for the deter-
mination of the limits of these shiftings of place is required before
comparisons can be of value as phrenological data.

4. The comparison of the rate of growth of brain with the develop-
ment of mental faculties is important not only to the phrenologist
but to the psychologist. No observations on this point were made
by phrenological writers, who only refer to the first and rather
crude observations of the earlier anatomists. We have, however,
recently learned from the researches of T. L. W. von Bischoff,
Tuczec, Cunningham, and S. Exner 1 many particulars as to the rate
and progress of brain-growth. At birth the brain weighs one-tenth
of the weight of the body, and averages about 11 oz. For the
first year brain-growth and consequently expansion of the skull
proceed with great rapidity, the growth during a large part of this
period averaging one cubic centimetre daily. This enormous
increase is chiefly due to the rapid development of medullated nerve-
fibres, which are deficient in the foetal brain. During the second
and third years growth takes place more slowly, the occipital and
parietal lobes increasing more than the frontal or temporo-sphenoidal.
During these and the four succeeding years the base elongates
commensurately with the increasing depth of the face. In the
sixth and seventh years the frontal lobes grow faster than the
parietals, and at seven the average brain has attained the weight
of 1340 grammes, being the weight of the body as 1:20. In
the period between seven years and puberty growth is slight, but
at puberty the whole brain grows actively, especially the frontal
lobes. This activity lasts until about eighteen years of age, then
diminishes; but the average brain does not reach its maximum size
until about thirty, from a little after which period the brain tends
to diminish towards senility. 2

5. The estimation of the relative development of grey and white
matter in the several lobes is important to any theory of cerebral
dynamics which allocates functions specifically diverse to each
separate part of the brain-surface; but no attempt has been made by
the phrenologist to obtain precise results in this direction, nor even
to determine the physical constants of the two forms of brain-matter.
The recently introduced method of Bourgoin and B. Danilewski,
based upon the differing specific gravities of grey and white matter,
promises to give definite information as to the relative amounts of
these forms of brain-matter; but further experiments are needed
to perfect the method. 3

6. The relations, if any, between the alterations which take place
in the shape and position of the head and alterations in brain-surface
have been speculated on by the phrenologist. Broussais is reported
to have said that his organ of causality had enlarged with increasing
use, and a list of cases of similar alterations of head-shape is given
by Deville (Phren. Journ. xiv. 32), most of which are simply age-
changes, of the kind described by Professor J. Cleland (Phil.
Trans., 1870). There are no exact measurements recorded which
indicate the occurrence of topical increases of a normal brain in
special directions coincident with the cultivation of definite faculties.
All the so-called cases are given vaguely, with no measurements,
and the careful measurements of George Combe in such cases as
were available to him showed no appreciable alterations in adult
heads even at long intervals of time (see also Andrew Combe, Phren.
Journ. x. 414).

7. The phrenological want of knowledge of the topography of
the brain-surface was necessarily correlated with ignorance of the
exact relations of the convolutions to the interior of the cranial
bones; these have been carefully worked out by E. Huschke, Heffler,
W. A. Turner, Cunningham and Reid. Some latitude, however,
must be allowed in topography, as the exact relation of convolution
of skull varies with the shape of the skull. Giacomini showed that
the fissure of Rolando is perceptibly farther back from thecoronal
suture in dolichocephalic than in brachycephalic skulls, and it is still
farther back in the extreme boat-shaped form of long-headedness.
Passet shows that there is a slight topographical difference in the
two sexes (Arch.f. Anthrop., 1882, xiv. 89), and in the heads of those
with a symmetrically-shaped skull there is often a want of lateral
symmetry of convolution. Artificial deformations likewise alter
the topographical relations of convolutions, and have served not a
little to puzzle the phrenologist. Thus, the artificial dolichocephaly
of the Caribs having bulged the squama occipitis, they decided that
these people must be amiable lovers of children, 4 &c.

1 Neurologisches Centralblatl (1883), p. 457.

2 Weisbach, Med. Jahrbuch. der k. Gesellsch, der Aerzte, xvii. 133
(Vienna, 1869) ; Merkel, Beitrdgez. post-embryonalen Entwickelung des
menschl. Schddel (Bonn, 1882); Calori, Mem. de I'accad. di Bologna
(1871), x. 35. Cunningham, Cunningham Memoir, Royal Irish
Academy.

* Centralblatl (1880), No. 14; Beitrage zur Biologie (Stuttgart 1882).
' Martius tells us that the Caribs castrate their own children,

8. The existence of structural differences between different areas
of cerebral surface is important to any theory of cerebral localiza-
tion, but no phrenologist has given us any original information on this
point. Since the investigation of J. G. F. Baillarger 6 and Bevan-
Lewis it has been shown that some local differentiations of structure
do really exist. Thus in the convolutions around the fissure of
Rolando the ganglion-cells of the fourth layer are of large size (giant-
cells of Betz), and in the convolutions of the temporo-sphenoidal lobe
a layer of small angular cells (granule-cells) is interposed between the
larger pyramidal and the ganglion-cells, so that, while in the parts
of the brain above the fissure of Sylvius the gray cortex is for the
most part five-layered, below and behind that fissure it is six-layered.
There is no abrupt passage from the one to the other, the only sudden
transition of structure of the grey cortex being at the hippocampal
sulcus; and giant-cells, although of smaller size, and less like those
of the anterior cornu of the spinal cord, are scattered over other
parts of the cerebral grey matter. 6

Other local variations in structure have been described by Elliot
Smith and other histologists.

The teaching of anatomy with regard to phrenology may be
summarized thus: (1) the rate of growth of brain is concurrent
with the rate of development of mental faculty; (2) there is some
degree of structural differentiation as there are varying rates of
development of different parts of the cerebral surface; (3) there is
no accordance between the regions of Gall and Spurzheim and definite
areas of cerebral surface.

Physiological Aspect. — The theory of some of the older meta-
physicians, that the mind, in feeling and reflection, makes use
of no material instrument is not now accepted by psychologists.
It was advanced by Brougham and Jeffrey as against the theory
of phrenology; but the doctrine that the brain is the organ of
the mind is now universally received. While it is probable that
certain molecular changes in the grey matter are antecedents
or concomitants of mental phenomena, the precise nature of
these processes, to what extent they take place, or how they vary
among themselves have not as yet been determined experi-
mentally; the occurrence of the change can only be demonstrated
by some such coarse method as the altered pulsation of the carotid
arteries, 7 the increase of the temperature of the head, 8 the
abstraction, during brain-action, of blood from other organs as
shown by the plethysmograph, or the formation of lecithin and
other products of metabolism in brain-substance. As yet no
light has been shed on the connexion between the molecular
changes in the nerve-cell and the phenomena of thought and
feeling. While our knowledge of the anatomy of the brain,
especially of the grey nuclei and of the white bands uniting them,
has in recent years become much more accurate (see articles
Brain and Muscle and Nerve), our knowledge of the physiology
of the nerve centres is still indefinite and fragmentary, even when
the utmost allowance is made for the experimental work of
C. S. Sherrington, A.S.F. Grilnbaum, F. Goltz and others; and
the hypotheses relating to the division of labour in the nerve-
centres is chiefly based on anatomical structure. Certain
masses of grey nerve-matter situated in the spinal cord and
medulla oblongata are so linked by nerve-cords to organs outside
the nervous system which are set apart for the discharge of
separate functions that they obviously form parts of the
mechanism for the fulfilment of such functions. In cases where
these can be subjected to experiment we learn that they are
nervous centres presiding over the discharge of such functions;
and it has been determined by experiment, or else deduced
from anatomical structure, that in those lower parts of the
nervous centres which are more directly connected with the
segmental elements of the body there is a certain localization
of function; hence the centres of pelvic actions, of respiration,
cardiac action, and inhibition of vaso-motor influence, degluti-
tion, secretions, &c, can be mapped out in ascending series. As
certain of these centres are united by bands of fibres to the larger

fatten and eat them, an abuse of the organ of philoprogenitiveness ;
see also Garcilaso de la Vega, Hist, des Incas, i. 12.
6 Mem. de Vacad. de mkdecine (1840), viii. 149.

6 For further particulars of structure, in addition to the authors
quoted at i. 878, see Bevan-Lewis and Clark, P.R.S., (1878), and
Phil. Trans. (1880 and 1882).

7 See Eugene Gley, " Sur les conditions physiologiques de la
pensee," in Archives de physiologie (1881), p. 742.

8 J. S. Lombard, N. Y. Med. Journal (June 1867), and Experimental
Researches on the Regional Temperature of the Head (London, 1872).

PHRENOLOGY

539

and higher-lying grey portions of the nervous centres there is
an a priori presumption in favour of the extension of this principle
of localization. This has been premised on metaphysical as well
as on anatomical grounds. A. B. Bonnet long ago believed each
portion of the brain to have a specifically separate function, and
Herbert Spencer has said that " no physiologist can long resist
the conviction that different parts of the cerebrum subserve
different kinds of mental action. Localization of function is the
law of all organization; separateness of duty is universally
accompanied with separateness of structure, and it would be
marvellous were an exception to exist in the cerebral hemispheres.
Let it be granted that the cerebral hemispheres are the seats
of the higher psychical activities; let it be granted that among
these higher psychical activities there are distinctions of kind
which, though not definite, are yet practically recognizable, and
it cannot be denied, without going in direct opposition to
established physiological principles, that these more or less
distinct kinds of psychical activity must be carried on in more
or less distinct parts of the cerebral hemisphere."

For a masterly review of the old and the new association and
localization theories, see W. Wundt's Grundziige der physiologischen
Psychologie, i. 289 sqq. ; also the same author's Essays, Leipzig
(1888), pp. 109 sqq.

There is a large weight of evidence in favour of the existence
of some form of localization of function. So little is known of
the physical changes which underlie psychical phenomena, or
indeed of the succession of the psychical processes themselves,
that we cannot as yet judge as to the nature of the mechanism
of these centres. So much of the psychic work of the individual
life consists in the interpretation of sensations and the translation
of these into motions that there are strong a priori grounds
for expecting to find that much of the material of the nerve-
centres is occupied with this kind of work, but in the present
conflict of experimental evidence it is safer to suspend judgment.
That these local areas are not centres in the sense of being
indispensable parts of their respective motor apparatuses is
clear, as the function abolished by ablation of a part returns,
though tardily, so that whatever superintendence the removed
region exercised apparently becomes assumed by another part
of the brain. 1 Experimental physiology and pathology, by
suggesting other functions for parts of the brain-surface, are
thus directly subversive of many details of the phrenology of
Gall and Spurzheim.

Psychological Aspect. — The fundamental hypothesis which
underlies phrenology as a system of mental science is that mental
phenomena are resolvable into the manifestations of a group of
separate faculties. A faculty is defined as " a convenient
expression for the particular states into which the mind enters
when influenced by particular organs; it is applied to the feelings
as well as to the intellect, thus the faculty of benevolence means
every mode of benevolence induced by the organ of benevolence "
(Combe). In another work the same author says it is " used
to denote a particular power of feeling, thinking, perceiving,
connected with a particular part of the brain." The assumption
is contained in the definition that the exercise of a faculty is the
physical outcome of the activity of the organ, and in several
of the standard works this is illustrated by misleading analogies
between these and other organs; thus the organs of benevolence
and of firmness are said to be as distinct as the liver and pancreas.
The mind, according to another author, consists of the sum of all
the faculties. In this view the unity of consciousness is some-
what difficult to explain, and consequently there is assumed
by others a single unifying substratum, and on this the organs
are supposed to act; thus thoughts are defined as " relations
of the simple substance, mind, to certain portions of the en-
cephalon " (Welsh, Phren. J own. i. 206). Gall himself believed
that there was but a single principle which saw, felt, tasted,
heard, touched, thought and willed (Fonctions du cerveau,
i. 243); and the American exponent of phrenology, Caldwell,
says " the mind is as single in its power as it is in its substance;

1 For cases, see Rochefontaine, Archives de Physiologie (1883), 28;
Bianchi, La Psichiatria, i. 97.

it is a quickening and operating principle, essential to all the
mental faculties, but does not, by any means, possess them
itself " {Elements, p. 16). It is not easy to understand the sup-
posed relation of this hypothetical substratum to the separate
faculties acting on it. It must be both immaterial and uncon-
nected with the brain, as the whole two thousand million cells
supposed to exist in the cerebral hemispheres are all parcelled
out among the faculties, and none are left for the unifying nous.
Each organ is considered as engaged, either independently
in bringing forth its own product, or collectively with others in
elaborating compound mental states, and according to their
several degrees of development and activity they are considered
capable of perceiving, conceiving, recollecting, judging or
imagining each its own subject. This mechanical conception
of the division of labour in the production of the phenomena
of mind has the charm of simplicity, but is attended with the
difficulty that arises in discriminating the operations of the
different organs one from the other. Phrenologists are apt to
be vague respecting the limits of the several faculties, as about
the boundaries of the separate organs. It was pointed out by
Jeffrey that the lines of demarcation between benevolence,
adhesiveness and philoprogenitiveness were indeterminate,
although the organs are not very close, and the same applies
to other organs.

It is unfortunate for the clearness of the definition that,
although historically the faculties were the first phenomena
noted, independent of and previous to their localization, yet
in the definition the faculties are defined in terms of their
localities.

The following arguments are adduced in favour of the funda-
mental separateness of the faculties: (1) analogy — elsewhere
in the animal economy division of labour is the rule; (2) the
variety of mental endowment observed among children before
they are influenced by education, and the inequalities in the
mental endowments of individuals; (3) the phenomena of
insanity, especially of monomania; (4) the varying periods at
which individual faculties attain their maximum development;
(5) the phenomena of dreams, and the awakening of a limited
number of faculties during them; (6) pain being felt in an organ
when it is overtaxed. 2

Such faculties are supposed to be primary — (1) as exist in
some animals and not in others, (2) as vary in their development
in the sexes, (3) as are developed in varying proportions with
regard to other faculties, (4) as may act separately from other
faculties, (5) as are not necessarily simultaneous with other
faculties in action, (6) as are hereditary, and (7) as may be
singly diseased.

According to the development of their powers mankind may
be divided into six classes: (1) those in whom the highest
qualities are largely developed and the animal qualities feeble;
(2) those with the reversed conditions developed, with large
animal and feeble intellectual and moral faculties; (3) those
in whom good and evil are in constant war, with active animal
and strong intellectual faculties and sentiments; (4) those partial
geniuses in whom a few qualities are unusually developed, while
the rest are at or below the mediocre standard; (5) those men
of moderate endowment in whom some faculties are nearly or
quite deficient; (6) those with an unvarying standard of
undistinguished mediocrity in all their faculties.

It is perhaps unfortunate that the word " faculty " has been
used in this sense of original power by phrenologists. It would
have been better to employ, as Mr Lewes suggests, the term
2 It is interesting in this connexion to note that in a case published
by Professor Hamilton in Brain (April 1884), where a tumour existed
on the occipital lobe, the pain was persistently referred to the fore-
head. Many similar cases are to be noticed among the records of
localized brain-lesions. Bearing on this point also it is worth noting,
once for all, that in nothing is the purely hypothetical nature of
phrenological description better realized than in the accounts of
what these authors call the " natural language of the faculties,"
— that poets are supposed to touch ideality when composing,
musicians to press on tone and time, and painters on foim and
colour, when in the exercise of their arts ! Yet we are gravely
taught this in the standard works on the subject.

54-o

PHRENOLOGY

" function " for the native activity of an organ, and to leave
" faculty " for the expression of an acquired activity. " Faculty
is properly limited to active power, and therefore is abusively
applied to the mere passive affections of the mind " (Hamilton,
Lectures, i. 177).

An attempt has been recently made by Dr Bernard Hollander
to correlate the doctrines of phrenology with the modern physio-
logical and pathological observations which bear upon the
localization of function. In his works The Mental Functions
of the Brain, under the sub-title " The Revival of Phrenology "
(1001), and in Scientific Phrenology (1902), the author endeavours
to bring Gall's clinical and pathological instances into line with
more modern observations. He deprecates the craniology of
Gall, as far as it deals with mere " bumps," and honours him,
with justice, as the recorder of many facts worth saving out
of the wreck of his system; and he endeavours, though with
doubtful success, to establish an unbroken connexion between
phrenology, in the Greek sense, and our present knowledge of
cerebral localization.

The substance of Hollander's first work is of two kinds. The one
kind is a tabulated statement of many hundred cases of different
forms of mania, with injury or disease limited to one portion of
the brain; the other kind is a tabulated statement of cases of injury
or disease of the brain, followed by perversion, or exaltation, or loss
of some definite instinct or faculty of consciousness.

He divides the tabulated cases of mania into three groups:
(1) Melancholia; (ii) Irascible Insanity, " Mania furiosa "; (iii) Mania
with suspicion and delusions of persecution. For these three groups
of cases he lays down the following rules : (i) Melancholia is especially
associated with injury or disease of the parietal lobe of the brain,
more particularly with injury or disease of the convolutions under-
lying the parietal eminences of the skull, i.e. the supramarginal and
angular convolutions, (ii) Mania furiosa is especially associated
with injury or disease of the central portion of the temporal lobe,
(iii) Mania with suspicion and delusions of persecution is especially
associated with injury or disease of the posterior portion of the
temporal lobe.

The second kind of cases, where injury or disease of the brain,
strictly localized to one part or another of its grey matter, was
followed by perversion, exaltation or loss of some one instinct, habit
or faculty, includes cases of kleptomania, cases of voracious hunger
and thirst, cases of sexual desire exalted or lost, and cases of loss of
certain special memories, as of words, tunes, numbers and the like.

These two collections of recorded cases, taken from a vast mass of
clinical and pathological literature "accumulated during the past
century, have been arranged by Dr Hollander with great industry ;
so as to extend the limits of the study of cerebral localization, and
to advance it from the observation of the motor areas and the special
sense centres to the observation of the higher acts and states of con-
sciousness. Modern physiology, from its objective point of view,
is engaged over finer and finer issues of microscopic and experimental
work; and, from its subjective point of view, is becoming more and
more psychological, seeking a higher level of interpretation, and a
statement of the departmental life of the brain in terms of ever-,
increasing complexity. The motor centres, governing the voluntary
purposeful movements of the body, are considered to be not simply
motor, but "psycho-motor"; the speech-centres are not homo-
geneous, but are on experimental grounds differentiated into sub-
centres for the utterance of words, the recognition of words and the
understanding of words; the visual centres are in like manner sub-
divided according to the consciousness involved in the complete
act of vision. There is room, therefore, for a " higher phrenology,"
if it can show clear evidence in favour of the localization, in deter-
minate regions of the brain, of the physical changes accompanying
certain states of consciousness.

Of the two kinds of cases that Dr Hollander has tabulated, it
cannot be said that the cases of mania are convincing. Some of
them are altogether beside the mark; e.g. he quotes two cases of
melancholia, after an injury over the left parietal bone, which were
cured by an operation limited to the scalp (excision of a painful
scar, removal of a small nerve-tumour of the scalp); in neither
case was anything done to the skull or to the brain, but both patients
were cured of their melancholy. Again, the acceptance of these
rules as to the localization of these insane thoughts involves the
localization of sane thoughts in the same areas of the brain, and
this in turn involves assumptions that are wholly unwarranted by
our present knowledge. Moreover, cases of mania are so common
that it might be possible to find an equal number of cases to con-
trovert his rules: we want consecutive, not picked cases. If 5000
consecutive fatal cases of these different kinds of mania, with the
post mortem record of each case, were tabulated, we should then begin
to stand on surer ground. Again, though Dr Hollander seems to
argue well, where he says that the facial and other movements,
induced by direct electrical stimulation of certain convolutions are
such as express the mental states which he attributes to those

convolutions, yet this argument is insecure, partly because Sherring-
ton s recent work, on the motor area of the anthropoid apes, has
rendered it necessary to reconsider the present localization of the
motor area in man, and partly because the interpretation of facial
and muscular movements as representing this or that state of the
emotions is always precarious.

The second kind of cases, where injury or disease limited to one
portion of the brain is followed by perversion, exaltation or loss of
some special instinct or habit, is more valuable and more convincing;
especially the cases of voracious hunger and thirst, those of true
kleptomania, and those of the loss of certain special memories.
It is not so easy to believe that the cerebellum is in any primary
way associated with sexual desire : its position, its structure and its
proved association with the co-ordination of muscular movements
seem clearly to indicate that its work is wholly subordinate and
complementary to the work of the cerebral hemispheres ; and the
evidence adduced in favour of its being the " seat " of the sexual
impulses hardly amounts to more than a probability that it may
transmit or co-ordinate the performance of the sexual act.

Practical Application. — " Die Schadellehre ist allerdings nicht
so sehr Irrthum in der Idee als Charlatanerie in der Ausfuhrung,"
says one of its most acute critics. Even though no fault could
be found with the physiology and psychology of phrenology,
it would not necessarily follow that the theory could be utilized
as a practical method of reading character; for, although the
inner surface of the skull is moulded on the brain, and the outer
surface approximates to parallelism thereto, yet the correspon-
dence is sufficiently variable to render conclusions therefrom
uncertain. The spongy layer or diploe which separates the two
compact tables may vary conspicuously in amount in different
parts of the same skull, as in the cases described by Professor
Humphry (Journ. of Anat. viii. 137). The frontal sinus, that
opprobrium phrenologicum, is a reality, not unfrequently of large
size, and may wholly occupy the regions of five organs. The
centres of ossification of the frontal and parietal bones, the
muscular crests of these and of the occipital bones also, differ
in their prominence in different skulls. Premature synostoses
of sutures mould the brain without doing much injury to its
parts. ^ In such cases there are compensatory dilatations in other
directions modifying sometimes to an extreme degree the relation
of brain-surface to skull-surface. The writer has found such
displacements in extremely scaphocephaly skulls; the same is
true of accidental deformations due to pressure on the infantile
skull before it consolidates. Artificial malformations alter the
apparent skull shape considerably while they affect the relative
development of the parts of the brain cortex but little. All
these and other cogent reasons of a like kind, whose force can
be estimated by those accustomed to deal with the component
soft parts of the head, should lead phrenologists to be careful
in predicating relative brain-development from skull-shape.
Psychology, physiology and experience alike contribute to
discredit the practical working of the system and to show how
worthless the so-called diagnoses of character really are. Its
application by those who are its votaries is seldom worse than
amusing, but it is capable of doing positive social harm, as in its
proposed application to the discrimination or selection of servants
and other subordinate officials. It has even been proposed to
use it for the purposes of the guarantee society and for the
selection of parliamentary representatives. The sarcastic
suggestion which originated with Christopher North of moulding
children's heads so as to suppress the evil and foster the good
was actually repeated in good faith by a writer on phrenology,
but experience of the effects of malformation leads one to be
sceptical as to the feasibility of this mode of producing a social
Utopia.

Bibliography. — Prochaska, Functions of the Nervous System (tr.
by Laycock, in Sydenham Society's series, 1851); Gall, Recherches
sur le systeme nerveux, &c. (Paris, 1809), Anatomie et physiologie
du systeme nerveux, &c. (Paris, 1810-1819), Traite des dispositions
innees de Idme et de V esprit (Paris, 181 1) and Sur Us fonclions
du cerveau (6 vols., 1825); Beryk, Bemerkungen u. Zweifel uber die
Schadellehre des Dr Galls (Leipzig, 1803); Marton, Leichtfassliche
Uarstellung der Gehirn- und Schadellehre (Leipzig, 1803); Metzger,
Ueber den menschlichen Kopf (Konigsberg, 1803); Walther, Neue
Untersuchungen der Gall'schen Gehirn- und Schadellehre (Munich,
1804) ; Kessler, Priifung des Gall'schen Systems (Jena, 1805) ; Bischoff,
Uarstellung der Gall schen Gehirn- und Schadellehre, &c. (Berlin, 1805) ;
Ackermann, Die Gall'sche Gehirnlehre widerlegt (Heidelberg, 1806);

PHRYGIA

54i

Himly, Erorterung der Gall'schen Lehre (Halle, 1806); Thomas I. M.
Forster, " Sketch of the New Anatomy and Physiology of the
Brain," in Pamphleteer (1815, vol. v., pt. ix., No. 10, reprinted
with additions, 1817); Spurzheim, The Physiognomical System of
Gall and Spurzheim (London, 1815), Phrenology, or the Doctrine of the
Mind (1825), and The Anatomy of the Human Brain (1826) ; Gordon,
Observations on the Structure of the Brain, comprising an estimate of
the Claims of Gall and Spurzheim, &c. (1817) ; Three Familiar Lectures
on Craniological Physiognomy, anonymous and satirical (London,
Wilson, 1816); G. Combe, Essays on Phrenology (Edinburgh, 1819),
Elements of Phrenology (1824), System of Phrenology (1825), Constitu-
tion of Man (1827), Lectures on Phrenology by Boardman (1839),
and Outlines of Phrenology (1847); Dewhurst, Guide to Human and
Comparative Phrenology (London, 1831); Otto, Phrmnologien eller
Galls og Spurzheims Hjcerne- og Organlare (Copenhagen, 1825);
Broussais, Cours de phrenologie (Paris, 1836); Vimont, Traiti de
Phrenologie humaine et comparee (1836) ; Noel, Grundzuge der Phreno-
logie (Leipzig, 1836 and 1856), and Die materielle Grundlage des
Seelenlebens (Leipzig, 1874); Macnish, Introduction to Phrenology
(Glasgow, 1836); Capen, Phrenological Library (Boston, 1836);
Ferrarese, Memorie risguardanti la dottrina frenologica (1 836-1 838);
Watson, Statistics of Phrenology (1836) ; Azais, Traite de la phrenologie
(Paris, 1839); Sidney Smith, Principles of Phrenology (Edinburgh,
1838); Joshua T. Smith, Synopsis of Phrenology; Forichon, Le
Materialisme et la phrenologie combattu (Paris, 1840); K. G. Cams,
Grundzuge einer neuen und wissenschaftlich begrilndeten Kranioskopie
(Stuttgart, 1841), and Atlas der Kranioskopie (1864); Castle, Die
Phrenologie (Stuttgart, 1845); Struve, Geschichte der Phrenologie
(Heidelberg, 1 843) ; ld]iez,Cours de phrenologie (Paris,l847) ; Flourens,
Examen de la phrenologie (Paris, 1842), De la Phrenologie (1863);
Serrurier, Phrenologie morale (Paris, 1840); Mariano Cubi i Solar,
Lecons de phrenologie (Paris, 1857); Morgan, Phrenology; Donovan,
Phrenology; Struve and Hirschfeld, Zeitschrift fur Phrenologie
(Heidelberg, 1843-1845); Phrenological Journal (20 vols., 1823-
1847); Lelut, Qu'est ce que la phrenologie? (1836), and Rejet de
I'organologie phrenologique (1843); Scheve, Katechismus der Phreno-
logie (Leipzig, 1896) ; Tupper, Enquiry into Dr Gall's System (1819) ;
Wayte, A nti phrenology (1829); Stone, Observations on the Phreno-
logical Development of Murderers (Edinburgh, 1829); Epps, Horae
Phrenologicae (1829); Crock, Compendium of Phrenology (1878);
Aken, Phrenological Bijou (1839); Hall, Phreno-Magnet (1843);
Hollander, The Mental Functions of the Brain (1901), Scientific
Phrenology (1902). (A. Ma.)

PHRYGIA, the name of a large country in Asia Minor, in-
habited by a race which the Greeks called <&pvyes, freemen. l
Roughly speaking, Phrygia comprised the western part of the
great central plateau of Anatolia, extending as far east as the
river Halys; but its boundaries were vague, 2 and varied so much
at different periods that a sketch of its history must precede
any account of the geography. According to unvarying Greek
tradition the Phrygians were most closely akin to certain tribes
of Macedonia and Thrace; and their near relationship to the
Hellenic stock is proved by all that is known of their language
and art, and is accepted by almost every modern authority.
The country named Phrygia in the better known period of
history lies inland, separated from the sea by Paphiagonia,
Bithynia, Mysia and Lydia. Yet we hear of a Phrygian
" thalassocracy " at the beginning of the 9th century B.C. The
Troad and the district round Mt Sipylus are frequently called
Phrygian, as also is the seaport Sinope; and a district on the
coast between Sestus and the river Cius was regularly named
Little Phrygia; names like Mygdones, Doliones and Phryges or
Briges, &c, were widely current both in Asia Minor and in
Europe. The inference has been generally drawn that the
Phrygians belonged to a stock widespread in the countries
which lie round the Aegean Sea. There is, however, no con-
clusive evidence whether this stock came from the east over
Armenia, or was European in origin and crossed the Hellespont
into Asia Minor; but modern opinion inclines decidedly to the
latter view.

According to Greek tradition there existed in early time a
Phrygian kingdom in the Sangarius valley, ruled by kings among
whom the names Gordius and Midas were common. It was
known to the ancient Greeks of Ionia and the Troad as something
great and half-divine. When the goddess appeared to her
favourite Anchises she represented herself as daughter of the
king of Phrygia; the Phrygians were said to be the oldest people,

1 The meaning is given in Hesych, s.v. " Bpl-yts."

2 The difficulty of specifying the limits gave rise to a proverb —
X&pls tcl Qpvy&v.

and their language the original speech of mankind ; the Phrygian
kings were familiar associates of the gods, and the heroes of
the land tried their skill against the gods themselves; we hear
of the well-walled cities of Phrygia and of the riches of its
kings. Tradition is completely corroborated by archaeological
evidence. In the mountainous region on the upper waters of
the Sangarius, between Kutaiah Eski Shehr and Afium (Afiom)
Kara Hissar, there exist numerous monuments of great antiquity,
showing a style of marked individuality, and implying a high
degree of artistic skill among the people who produced them.
On two of these monuments are engraved the names of " Midas
the King " and of the goddess " Kybile the Mother." Even the
title " king " (aval;) 3 appears to have been borrowed by Greek
from Phrygian.

It is impossible to fix a date for the beginning of the Phrygian
kingdom. It appears to have arisen on the ruins of an older
civilization, whose existence is revealed to us only by the few
monuments which it has left. These monuments, which are
found in Lydia, Phrygia, Cappadocia and Lycaonia, as well as
in north and central Syria, point to the existence of a homo-
geneous civilization over those countries; they show a singularly
marked style of art, and are frequently inscribed with a peculiar
kind of hieroglyphics, engraved boustrophedon; and they origi-
nated probably from a great Hittite kingdom, whose kings ruled
the countries from Lydia to the borders of Egypt. There can
be traced in Asia Minor an ancient road-system, to which belongs
the " royal road " from Sardis to the Persian capital, Susa
(Herod, v. 55). The royal road followed a route so difficult
and circuitous that it is quite unintelligible as the direct path
from any centre [in Persia, Assyria or Syria to the west of
Asia Minor. It can be understood only by reference to an
imperial centre far in the north. The old trade-route from
Cappadocia to Sinope, which had passed out of use centuries
before the time of Strabo (pp. 540, 546), fixes this centre with
precision. It must be far enough west to explain why trade
tended to the distant Sinope, 4 hardly accessible behind lofty
and rugged mountains, and not to Amisus by the short and easy
route which was used in the Graeco-Roman period. This road-
system, then, points distinctly to a centre in northern Cappadocia
near the Halys. Here must have stood the capital of some great
empire connected with its extremities, Sardis or Ephesus on
the west, Sinope on the north, the Euphrates on the east, the
Cilician Gates on the south, by roads so well made as to continue
in use for a long time after the centre of power had changed to
Assyria, and the old road-system had become circuitous and
unsuitable. 5 The precise spot on which the city stood is marked
by the great ruins of Boghaz Keui, probably the ancient Pteria,
of which the wide circuit, powerful walls and wonderful rock-
sculptures make the site indisputably the most remarkable in
Asia Minor. On this site Winckler found in 1907 the records
of the Hittite kings who fought against Egypt and Assyria.

The ancient road from Pteria to Sardis crossed the upper
Sangarius valley, and its course may be traced by the monuments
of this early period. Close to its track, on a lofty plateau which
overhangs the Phrygian monument inscribed with the name
of " Midas the King," is a great city, inferior indeed to Pteria
in extent, but surrounded by rock-sculptures quite as remarkable
as those of the Cappadocian city. The plateau is 2 m. in cir-
cumference, and presents on all sides a perpendicular face of
rock 50 to 200 ft. in height. This natural defence was crowned
by a wall partly Cyclopean, partly built of large squared stones. 6
This city was evidently the centre of the old Phrygian kingdom

3 fa.va.KTu. on the Midas tomb. It is expressly recorded that
rvpavvos is a Lydian word. BatriXefa resists all attempts to explain
it as a purely Greek formation, and the termination assimilates it to
certain Phrygian words.

4 Sinope was made a Greek colony in 751 B.C., but it is said to
have existed long before that time.

6 When the Persians conquered Lydia they retained, at least for
a time, this route, which they found in existence.

6 The stones have all fallen, but the line where they were fitted
on the rocks can be traced by any careful explorer. The small
fortress Pishmish Kalessi is a miniature of the great city beside it
(See Perrot, Explor. Archeol. p. 169 and pi. viii.)

542

PHRYGIA

of the Sangarius valley, but at least one of the monuments in
it seems to belong to the older period of Cappadocian supremacy,
and to prove that the city already existed in that earlier time.
The Phrygian kingdom and art therefore took the place of an
older civilization. It is probable that the tradition of battles
between the Phrygians and the Amazons on the banks of the
Sangarius preserves the memory of a struggle between the two
races and the victory of the Phryges.

Of the monuments that exist around this city two classes may
be confidently referred to the period of Phrygian greatness.
That which is inscribed with the name of " Midas the King " is
the most remarkable example of one class, in which a large
perpendicular surface of rock is covered with a geometrical
pattern of squares, crosses and maeanders, surmounted by a
pediment supported in the centre by a pilaster in low relief.
In some cases a floral pattern occupies part of the surface, and
in one case the two sides of the pediment are filled by two
sphinxes of archaic type. 1 In some of these monuments a door-
way is carved in the lower part; the door is usually closed, but in
one case, viz. the sphinx monument just alluded to, the valves
of the door are thrown wide open and give access to a little
chamber, on the back of which is sculptured in relief a rude
image of the Mother-goddess Cybele, having on each side of her
a lion which rests its forepaws on her shoulder and places its
head against hers. Sometimes a grave has been found hidden
behind the carved front; in other cases no grave can be detected,
but it is probable that they are all sepulchral. 2 The imitation
of woodwork is obvious on several monuments of this kind.
The second class is marked by the heraldic type of two animals,
usually lions rampant, facing one another, but divided by a pillar
or some other device. This type is occasionally found conjoined
with the preceding; and various details common to both classes
show that there was no great difference in time between them.
The heraldic type is used on the monuments which appear to
be the older, and the geometrical pattern is often employed on
the inscribed monuments, which are obviously later than the
earliest uninscribed. Monuments of this class are carved on the
front of a sepulchral chamber, the entrance to which is a small
doorway placed high and inaccessible in the rocks. There are
also many rock monuments of the Roman time.

Early Phrygian art stands in close relationship with the art
of Cappadocia. The monuments of the type of the Midas
tomb are obviously imitated from patterns which were employed
in cloth and carpets and probably also in the tilework on the
inside of chambers varying slightly according to the material.
Such patterns were used in Cappadocia, and the priest in the rock-
sculpture at Ibriz wears an embroidered robe strikingly similar
in style to the pattern on the Midas tomb ; but the idea of using
the pattern as the Phrygians did seems peculiar to themselves.
The heraldic type of the second class is found also in the art of
Assyria, and was undoubtedly adopted by the Phrygians from
earlier art; but it is used so frequently in Phrygia as to be
specially characteristic of that country. 3 While Phrygian
art is distinctly non-Oriental in spirit, its resemblance to archaic
Greek art is a fact of the greatest importance. It is not merely
that certain types are employed both in Phrygia and in Greece,
but several favourite types in early Greek art can be traced in
Phrygia, employed in similar spirit and for similar purposes.
The heraldic type of the two lions is the device over the principal
gateway of Mycenae, and stamps this, the oldest great monument
on Greek soil, with a distinctly Phrygian character. Mycenae
was the city of the Pelopidae, whom Greek tradition unhesita-
tingly declares to be Phrygian immigrants. A study of the topo-
graphy of the Argive plain suggests the conclusion that Mycenae,

1 Published in Journ. Hell. Stud. (1884).

2 The monuments of Phrygia fall into two groups, which probably
mark the sites of two cities about 16 m. distant from each other,
Metropolis and Conni. One group lies round the villages of Yazili-
Kaya, Kumbet, Yapuldak and Bakshish; the other beside Liyen,
Bei Keui, Demirli and Ayazin.

3 The heraldic type continues on gravestones down to the latest
period of paganism. Carpets with geometrical patterns of the
Midas-tomb style are occasionally found at the present time in the
houses of the peasantry of the district.

Midea and Tiryns form a group of cities founded by an immigrant
people in opposition to Argos, the natural capital of the plain
and the stronghold of the native race. Midea appears to be
the city of Midas, and the name is one more link in the chain
that binds Mycenae to Phrygia. This connexion, whatever
may have been its character, belongs to the remote period when
the Phrygians inhabited the Aegean coasts. In the 8th and
probably in the 9th century B.C. communication with Phrygia
seems to have been maintained especially by the Greeks of Cyme,
Phocaea and Smyrna. About the end of the 8th century Midas,
king of Phrygia, married Damodice, daughter of Agamemnon,
the last king of Cyme. Gyges, the first Mermnad king of Lydia
(687-653), had a Phrygian mother. The worship of Cybele spread
over Phocaea to the west as far as Massilia: rock monuments
in the Phrygian style and votive reliefs of an Anatolian type are
found near Phocaea. Smyrna was devoted to the Phrygian
Meter Sipylene. It is then natural that the Homeric poems
refer to Phrygia in the terms above described, and make Priam's
wife a Phrygian woman. After the foundation of the Greek
colony at Sinope in 751 there can be no doubt that it formed
the link of connexion between Greece and Phrygia. Phrygian
and Cappadocian traders brought their goods, no doubt on
camels, to Sinope, and the Greek sailors, the aeivavrai. of Miletus,
carried home the works of Oriental and Phrygian artisans.
The Greek alphabet was carried to Phrygia and Pteria, either
from Sinope or more probably direct east from Cyme, in the
latter part of the 8th century. The immense importance of
Sinope in early times is abundantly attested, and we need not
doubt that very intimate relations existed at this port between
the Ionic colonists and the natives. The effects of this commerce
on the development of Greece were very great. It affected Ionia
in the first place, and the mainland of Greece indirectly; the
art of Ionia at this period is almost unknown, but it was
probably closely allied to that of Phrygia. 4 A striking fact in
this connexion is the use of a very simple kind of Ionic capital
in one early Phrygian monument, suggesting that the " proto-
Ionic " column came to Greece over Phrygia. It is obvious
that the revolution which took place in the relations between
Phrygians and Greeks must be due to some great movement
of races which disturbed the old paths of communication.
Abel is probably correct in placing the inroads of the barbarous
European tribes, Bithynians, Thyni, Mariandyni, &c, into
Asia Minor about the beginning of the 9th century B.C.
The Phrygian element on the coast was weakened and in many
places annihilated; that in the interior was strengthened; and
we may suppose that the kingdom of the Sangarius valley now
sprang into greatness. The kingdom of Lydia appears to have
become important about the end of the 8th century, and to
have completely barred the path between Phrygia and Cyme
or Smyrna. Ionian maritime enterprise opened a new way
over Sinope. 6

The downfall of the Phrygian monarchy can be dated with
comparative accuracy. Between 680 and 670 the Cimmerians
in their destructive progress over Asia Minor overran Phrygia;
the king Midas in despair put an end to his own life; and from
henceforth the history of Phrygia is a story of slavery, degrada-
tion and decay, which contrasts strangely with the earlier
legends. The catastrophe seems to have deeply impressed the
Greek mind, and the memory of it was preserved. The date
of the Cimmerian invasion is fixed by the concurrent testimony
of the contemporary poets Archilochus and Callinus, of the late
chronologists Eusebius, &c, and of the inscriptions of the
Assyrian king Esar-haddon. The Cimmerians were finally
expelled from Asia Minor by Alyattes before his war with the
Medes under Cyaxares (590-585 B.C.). The Cimmerians,
therefore, were ravaging Asia Minor, and presumably held
possession of Phrygia, the only country where they achieved
4 See Furtwangler, Goldfund von Vettersfelde, Winckelm. Progr.
(1884) ; Hogarth, &c, The Archaic Artemisia (British Museum, 1908).
The closest analogies of old Phrygian art are to be found in the earliest
Greek bronze work in Olympia, Italy and the northern lands.

' Hipponax, jr. 36 [49], proves that a trade-route from Phrygia
down the Maeander to Miletus was used in the 6th century.

PHRYGIA

543

complete success, till some time between 610 and 590 Phrygia
then fell under the Lydian power, and by the treaty of 585 the
Halys was definitely fixed as the boundary between Lydia and
Media (see Lydia and Persia). The period from 675 to 585
must therefore be considered as one of great disturbance and
probably of complete paralysis in Phrygia. After 585 the
country was ruled again by its own princes under subjection
to Lydian supremacy. To judge from the monuments, it appears
to have recovered some of its old prosperity; but the art of
this later period has to a great extent lost the strongly marked
individuality of its earlier bloom. The later sepulchral monu-
ments belong to a class which is widely spread over Asia Minor
from Lycia to Pontus. The graves are made inside a chamber
excavated in the rock, and the front of the chamber imitates a
house or temple. No attempt is made to conceal the entrance
or to render it inaccessible. The architectural details are in some
cases unmistakably copied, without intentional modification,
from the architecture of Greek temples; others point perhaps
to Persian influence, while several — which are perhaps among
the early works of this period — show the old freedom and power
of employing in new and original ways details partly learned
from abroad. This style continued in use under the Persians,
under whose rule the Phrygians passed when Cyrus defeated
Croesus in 546, and lasted till the Roman period. One monu-
ment appears to presuppose a development of Greek plastic art
later than the time of Alexander 1 and is almost certainly of
the Roman time. It would, however, be wrong to suppose
that the influence of truly Hellenic art on Phrygia began
with the conquest of Alexander. Under the later Mermnad
kings the Lydian empire was penetrated with Greek influence,
and Xanthus, the early Lydian historian, wrote his history in
Greek. Under the Persian rule perhaps it was more difficult
for Greek manners to spread far east; but we need not think
that European influence was absolutely unfelt even in Phrygia.
The probability is that Alexander found in all the large cities
a party favourable to Greek manners and trade. Very little
is to be learned from the ancient writers with regard to the
state of Phrygia from 585 to 300. The slave-trade flourished:
Phrygian slaves were common in the Greek market, and the
Phrygian names Midas and Manes were stock-names for slaves.
Herodotus (i. 14) records that a king Midas of Phrygia dedicated
his own chair at Delphi; the chair stood in the treasury of
Cypselus, and cannot have been deposited there before 680 to
660 B.C. It is not improbable that the event belongs to the
time of Alyattes or Croesus, when Greek influence was favoured
throughout the Lydian empire; and it is easy to understand
how the offering of a king Midas should be considered, in the
time of Herodotus, as the earliest made by a foreign prince to
a Greek god. The Phrygian troops in the army of Xerxes were
armed like the Armenians and led by the same commander.

It is to be presumed that the cities of the Sangarius valley
gradually lost importance in the Persian period. The final
castastrophe was the invasion of the Gauls about 270 to 250;
and, though the circumstances of this invasion are almost
unknown, yet we may safely reckon among them the complete
devastation of northern Phrygia. At last Attalus I. settled
the Gauls permanently in eastern Phrygia, and a large part of
the country was henceforth known as Galatia. Strabo mentions
that the great cities of ancient Phrygia were in his time either
deserted or marked by mere villages. The great city over the
tomb of Midas has remained uninhabited down to the present
day. About 5 m. west of it, near the modern Kumbet, stood
Metropolis, a bishopric in the Byzantine time, but never men-
tioned under the Roman empire.

Alexander the Great placed Phrygia under the command of
Antigonus, who retained it when the empire was broken up.
When Antigonus was defeated and slain, at the decisive battle
of Ipsus, Phrygia came under the sway of Seleucus. As the
Pergamenian kings grew powerful, and at last confined the
Gauls in eastern Phrygia, the western half of the country was

1 A gorgoneum of Roman period, on a tomb engraved in Journ.
Hell. Stud. (PI. xxvi.).

incorporated in the kingdom of Pergamum. Under the Roman
empire Phrygia had no political existence under a separate
government, but formed part of the vast province of Asia. In
autumn 85 B.C. the pacification of the province was completed
by Sulla, and throughout the imperial time it was common for
the Phrygians to date from this era. The imperial rule was
highly favourable to the spread of Hellenistic civilization,
which under the Greek kings had affected only a few of the
great cities, leaving the mass of the country purely Phrygian.
A good deal of local self-government was permitted; the cities
struck their own bronze coins, inscribed on them the names of
their own magistrates, 2 and probably administered their own
laws in matters purely local. The western part of the country
was pervaded by Graeco-Roman civilization very much sooner
than the central, and in the country districts the Phrygian
language 3 continued in common use at least as late as the third
century after Christ.

When the Roman empire was reorganized by Diocletian at
the end of the 3rd century Phrygia was divided into two pro-
vinces, distinguished at first as Prima and Secunda, or Great
and Little, for which the names Pacatiana and Salutaris soon
came into general use. Pacatiana comprised the western half,
which had long been completely pervaded by Graeco-Roman
manners, and Salutaris the eastern, in which the native man-
ners and language were still not extinct. Each province was
governed by a praeses or rfyt\Miv about a.d. 412, but shortly after
this date an officer of consular rank was sent to each province
(Hierocles, Synecd.). About 535 Justinian made some changes
in the provincial administration: the governor of Pacatiana
was henceforth a comes, while Salutaris was still ruled by a
consularis. When the provinces of the Eastern empire were
reorganized and divided into themata the two Phrygias were
broken up between the Anatolic, Opsician and Thracesian
themes, and the name Phrygia finally disappeared. Almost
the whole of Byzantine Phrygia is now included in the vilayet
of Brusa, with the exception of a small part of Parorius and the
district about Themisonium (Karayuk Bazar) and Ceretapa
(Kayadibi), which belong to the vilayet of Konia, and the
district of Laodicea and Hierapolis, which belongs to Aidin.
The principal modern cities are Kutaiah (Cotyaeum), Eski
Shehir (Dorylaeum), Afiom Kara Hissar (near Prymnessus),
and Ushak (Trajanopolis).

It is impossible to say anything definite about the boundaries
of Phrygia before the 5th century. Under the Persians Great
Phrygia extended on the east to the Halys and the Salt Desert;
Xenophon (Anab. i. 2, 19) includes Iconium on the south-
east within the province, whereas Strabo makes Tyriaeum the
boundary in this direction. The southern frontier is unknown:
the language of Livy (xxxviii. 15) implies that the southern
Metropolis (in the Tchul Ova) belonged to Pisidia; but Strabo
(p. 629) includes it in Phrygia. Celaenae, beside the later city
of Apamea (Dineir), and the entire valley of the Lycus, were
Phrygian. The Maeander above its junction with the Lycus
formed for a little way the boundary between Phrygia and Lydia.
The great plateau now called the Banaz Ova was entirely or in
great part Phrygian. Mt Dindymus (Murad Dagh) marked the
frontier of Mysia, and the entire valley of the Tembrogius or
Tembris (Porsuk Su) was certainly included in Phrygia. The
boundaries of the two Byzantine Phrygias were not always
the same.

Taking Hierocles as authority, the extent of the two provinces
at the beginning of the 6th century will be readily gathered from
the accompanying list, in which those towns which coined money
under the Roman empire are italicized and the name of the
nearest modern village is appended.

I. Pacatina. — (1) Laodicea (Eski Hissar) ; (2) Hierapolis (Pambuk
Kalessi); (3) Mosyna (Geveze) ; [(4) Motellopolis, only in Notitiaf

2 This liberty was not granted to the cities of any other province
in Anatolia.

3 A number of inscriptions in a language presumably Phrygian
have been discovered in the centre and east of the country; they
belong generally to the end of the 2nd and to the 3rd century.

544

PHRYGIA

Episcop. (Medele)]; (5) Attudda (Assar); (6) Trapezopdis (Bolo S.
tram Serai Keui) ; (7) Colossae (near Chonas) ; (8) Ceretapa Diocaesarea
(Kayadibi) ; (9) Themtsontum (Karayuk Bazar) ; (10) Tacina (Yar-
ishli); (11) Sanaus (Sari Kavak, in Daz Kiri); (12) Dionysopolis
* a L Keui) ; (13) Anastasiopolis, originally a village of the Hyrgaleis
(Utch Kuyular); (14) Attanassus (Eski Aidan) ; (15) Lunda (Eski
^t, ;; „V 6 ' ) f e * toe v (Karayashlar) ; (17) Eumenea (Ishekli) ; (18)
Sibha (Horna) ; (19) Pepuza (DumanorSuretli) ; (20) Bria (Bourgas) ;
(21) Sebaste (Sivasli) ; (22) Eluza or Aludda (Hadjimlar) ; (23)
Acmoma (Ahat Keui) ; (24) Alia (Kirka) ; (25) Siocharax (Otourak) ,
Y°\ Dioclea (Dola) ; (27) Aristtum (Karaj Euren, in Sitchanli Ova);
28) Ctdyessus (Geukche : Eyuk); (29) Apia (Abia) ; ( 3 o) Cotyaeum
Kutaiah); (31) \Aezani (Tchavdir Hissar) ; (32) Tiberiopolis (Amed);
(33) Cadot (Gediz) ; (34) Ancyra (Kilisse Keui) ; (35) Synaus (Sirnav) ;
(36) tlamopohs Temenothyrae (Ushak) ; (37) Trajanopolis Grimeno-
tkyrae (Giaour Euren, near Orta Keui); (38) Blaundus (Suleimanli)
.11. Salutaris.— (1) Eucarpia (Emir Assar); (2) Hieropolis
(Kotch Hissar) ; (3) Otrous (Tchor Hissar) ; (4) Stectorium (Mentesh) ;
(5)Bruzus (Kara Sandykly)'; (6) Beudus (Aghzi Kara) ; (7) Augusto-
polis, formerly Anabura (Sufmeneh) ; (8) Sibidunda (Baljik Hissar) •
(9) Lysias (Oman) ; (10) Synnada (Tchifut Cassaba) ; (1 1) Prymnessus
(beulun); (12) Ipsus, afterwards Julia (near Sakly) ; (13) Polybotus
(Bolawadun); (14) Docimium (Istcha Kara Hissar); (15) Metropolis
(Kumbet), including Conni (B. Tchorgia) and Ambasus (Ambanaz);
(16) Merus (Doghan Arslan); (17) Nacolea (Seidi Ghazi); (18) Dory-
',^T-^ S V Sheher); (19) Midaeum (Kara Euuk) ; (20) Lycaones
(Kalejik) ; (21) Aulocra (in Dombai Ova) ; (22) Amadassus (unknown
perhaps corrupt: it should include Kinnaborion near Geneli) ■ (23)
Praepenissus (Altyntash). In later times the important fortress
(and bishopric) of Acroenus was founded on the site of the present
Anom Kara Hissar.

Besides these, certain cities beyond the bounds of the Byzantine
l-'hrygias belonged under the Roman empire to the province of
Asia and are usually considered Phrygian: (1) in Byzantine Pisidia,
Philomehum (Ak Shehr), Hadrianopolis; (2) in Byzantine Galatia,
Amonum (Assar near Hamza Hadji), Orcistus (Alikel or Alekian)
Incomia or Trocmada or Trocnada (Kaimaz); (3) in Byzantine
Lycia, Libyra (Horzum).

Phrygia contains several well-marked geographical districts.
(I) Farorius, the long, level, elevated valley stretching north-west
to south-east between the Sultan Dagh and the Emir Dagh from
Holmi (about Tchai) to Tynaeum (Ilghin); its waters collect within
the valley, in three lakes, which probably supply the great fountains
in the Axylon and through them the Sangarius. (2) Axylon
the vast treeless plains on the upper Sangarius; there burst forth
at various points great perennial springs, the Sakaria fountains
(Strabo p. 543), Ilije Bashi, Bunar Bashi, Geuk Bunar, Uzuk Bashi,
&c, which feed the Sangarius. Great part of the Axylon was
assigned to Galatia (3) The rest of Phrygia is mountainous (except
the great plateau, Banaz Ova), consisting of hill-country intersected
by rivers, each of which flows through a fertile valley of varying
breadth. The northern half is drained by rivers which run to the
Black Sea; of these the eastern ones, Porsuk Su (Tembris or Tem-
brogius), Seidi Su (Parthenius), Bardakchi Tchai (Xerabates),
and Bayat Tchai (Alandrus), join the Sangarius, while the western, 2
laushanly Tchai (Rhyndacus) and Simav Tchai (Macestus), meet
and How into the Propontis. The Hermus drains a small district
included in the Byzantine Phrygia, but in earlier times assigned
to Lydia and Mysia. Great part of southern and western Phrygia
is drained by the Maeander with its tributaries, Sandykly Tchai
(Glaucus), Banaz Tchai, Kopli Su (Hippurius), and Tchuruk Su
(Lycus) ; moreover, some upland plains on the south, especially the
Dombai Ova (Aulocra), communicate by underground channels
with the Maeander. Finally, the Karayuk Ova in the extreme south-
west drains through the Kazanes, a tributary of the Indus, to the
Lycian Sea. Phrygia Parorius and all the river-valleys are exceed-
ingly fertile, and agriculture was the chief occupation of the ancient
inhabitants; according to the myth, Gordius was called from the
plough to the throne. The high-lying plains and parts of the vast
Axylon furnish good pasturage, which formerly nourished countless
Hocks of sheep. The Romans also obtained fine horses from Phrygia
Grapes, which still grow abundantly in various parts, were much
cultivated in ancient times. Other fruits are rare, except in a
few small districts. Figs cannot be grown in the country, and the
ancient references to Phrygian figs are either erroneous or due to a
loose use of the term Phrygia. 3 Trees are exceedingly scarce, in the
country; and the pine-woods on the western tributaries of the San-
garius and the valonia oaks in parts of the Banaz Ova and a few other
districts form exceptions. The underground wealth is not known
to be great. Iron was worked in the district of Cibyra, and the
marble of Synnada, or more correctly of Docimium, was largely
used by the Romans. Copper and quicksilver were mined in the
Zizima district, north of Iconium. The scenery is generally mono-
tonous; even the mountainous districts rarely show striking features

1 Nos. 1-5 were called the Phrygian " Pentapolis."

2 This district was according to the Greek view part of Mysia.

3 In Strabo, p. 577, iXaityvrov must be wrong; &ijiire\i<t>VTov is
true to fact, and is probably the right reading. Olives cannot
now grow on these uplands, which are over 3000 ft. above sea-level.

or boldness of character; where the landscape has beauty it is of a
subdued melancholy character. The water-supply is rarely abun-
dant and^agriculture is more or less dependent on an uncertain
rainfall. The circumstances of the country are well calculated to
impress the inhabitants with a sense of the overwhelming power of
nature and of their complete dependence on it. Their mytholoev
so far as we know it, has a melancholy and mystic tone, and their
religion partakes of the same character. The two chief deities
were Cybele the Mother, the reproductive and nourishing power of
Earth, and Sabazius, the Son, the life of nature, dying and revivine
every year (see Great Mother of the Gods). The annual vicissi-
tudes of the life of Sabazius, the Greek Dionysus, were accompanied
by the mimic rites of his worshippers, who mourned with his suffer-
ings and rejoiced with his joy. They enacted the story of his birth
and life and death ; the Earth, the Mother, is fertilized only by an act
ot violence by her own child ; the representative of the god was prob-
ably slain each year by a cruel death, just as the god himself died.
1 he rites were characterized by a frenzy of devotion, unrestrained
enthusiasm, wild orgiastic dances and wanderings in the forests
and were accompanied by the music of the flute, cymbal, and tam-
bourine. 1 At an early time this worship was affected by Oriental
lnHuence coming over Syria from Babylonia. Sabazius was iden-
tified with Adonis or Attis (Atys), Cybele with the Syrian goddess-
and many of the coarsest rites of the Phrygian worship, the mutila-
tion of the^ priests, the prostitution at the shrine, 6 came from the
countries of the south-east. But one point of Semitic religion never
penetrated west of the Halys: the pig was always unclean and
abhorred among the Semites, whereas it was the animal regularly
used in purification by the Phrygians, Lydians, Lycians and Greeks,
the Phrygian religion exercised a very strong influence on Greece
In the archaic period the Dionysiac rites and orgies spread from
Inrace into Greece, in spite of opposition which has left many traces
in tradition, and the worship of Demeter at Eleusis was modified
by Cretan influence ultimately traceable to Asia Minor. Pindar
erected a shrine of the Mother of the gods beside his house, and the
Athenians were directed by the Delphic oracle to atone for the
execution of a priest of Cybele during the Peloponnesian War bv
building the Metroon. In these and other cases the Phrygian
character was more or less Hellenized; but wave after wave of
religious influence from Asia Minor introduced into Greece the
unmodified barbarian " ritual of Phrygia. The rites spread first
among the common people arid those engaged in foreign trade
1 he comic poets satirized them, and Plato and Demosthenes in-
veighed against them; but. they continued to spread, with all their
fervid enthusiasm, their superstition and their obscene practices
wide among -the people, whose religious cravings were not satisfied
with the purely external religions of Hellenism. The orgies or
mysteries were open to all, freemen or slaves, who had duly performed
the preliminary purifications, and secured to the participants
salvation and remission of sins. Under Mysteries (qv) a dis-
tinction of character has been pointed out between the true Hellenic
mysteries, such as the Eleusinian and the Phrygian; but there
certainly existed much similarity between the two rituals In
the first centuries after Christ onfy the Phrygian and the Egyptian
rites retained much real hold on the Graeco-Roman world. Phrygia
itself, however, was very early converted to Christianity. Christian
inscriptions m the country begin in the 2nd and are abundant in the
3rd century. There is every appearance that the great mass of the
people were Christians before 300, and Eusebius (H.E.v 16) is
probably correct in his statement that in the time of Diocletian
there was a Phrygian city in which every living soul was Christian.
1 he great Phrygian saint of the 2nd century was named Avircius
Marcellus (Abercius) ; the mass of legends and miracles in the late
biography ot him long brought his very existence into dispute, but a
fragment of his gravestone, discovered in 1883, and now preserved
in the Lateran Museum in Rome, has proved that he was a real per-
son, and makes it probable that the wide-reaching conversion of the
people attributed to him did actually take place. The stranee
enthusiastic character of the old Phrygian religion was not wholly
lost when the country became Christian, but is clearly traced in the
various heresies that arose in central Anatolia. Especially the wild
ecstatic character and the prophecies of the Montanists recall the
old -type of religion. Montanus (see Montanism) was born on the
borders of Phrygia and Mysia (probably south-east from Philadel-
phia), and was vehemently opposed by Abercius.

Of the old Phrygian language very little is known; a few words
are preserved in Hesychius and other writers. Plato mentions that
the Phrygian words for dog, " "fire," &c, were the same as the
Oreek; and to these we may add from inscriptions the words for
mother, king, &c. A few inscriptions of the ancient period
are known, and a larger number of the Roman period have been
published in the Oesterreichische Jakreshefte (1905).

Owing to the scantiness of published material about Phryeia
frequent reference has been made in this article to unpublished

The influence which was exerted on Greek music and lyric poetry
stu rhr .yg ian music wa s great ; see Marsyas ; Olympus
Ihere is no direct evidence that this was practised inthe wor-
ship ot Lybele, but analogy and indirect arguments make it pretty
certain. H '

PHRYNE— PHTHALIC: ACIDS

monuments. Besides the works already quoted of Abel and Perrot
see Hitter s Klemasien," in his Erdkunde von Asien; Leake Asia
Minor (1824);. Kiepert appendix to Franz, Fiinf Inschr. u. fiinf
StadteKleinasiens (1840) ; Haase, in Ersch and Gruber's Encyklop.
art. Fhrygien ; Hamilton, Travels in Asia Minor (1842); Hirschfeld
" Reisebencht," in the Bed. Monatsber (1879) ; Texier, Asie mmeure
(1862); bteuart, Ancient Monuments of Lydia and Phrygia, besides
the special chapters in the geographical treatises of Cramer, Vivien
St Martin, Forbiger, &c. ; numerous articles by recent travellers ■
J. G. C. Anderson in Journal of Hellenic Studies (1898, &c )• D g'
Hogarth, ibid.; Korte in Mittlieil. Inst. A then. &c, and his book
Gordium (1904); Humann and Judeich, Hierapolis (1898); Radet
in his work En Phrygie ; Ramsay [in addition to articles in Mitlheil
Instil. Athen. (1882 sqq.), Bulletin de corresp. hellen (1883 sqq.),
Journal of Hellenic Studies (1882, sqq.), American Journal of Archaeo-
logy, Revue des etudes anciennes], /Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia,
vols. 1. it. (1895 sqq.); Studies in the History and Art of the Eastern
provinces (1906); Pauline and other Studies (1906); Historical Com-
mentary on Galatians, &c. (1899); Cities of St Paul (1907); see also
T. Eisele, " Die Phrygischen Kulte " in Neue Jahrb. f. das klass.
Altertutn (Sept. 1909). (W. M. Ra.)

PHRYNE, Greek courtesan, lived in the 4th century B.C. Her
eal name was Mnesarete, but owing to her complexion she
was called Phryne (toad), a name given to other courtesans.
She was born at Thespiae in Boeotia, but seems to have lived
at Athens. She acquired so much wealth by her extraordinary
beauty that she offered to rebuild the walls of Thebes, which
had been destroyed by Alexander the Great (336), on condition
that the words " Destroyed by Alexander, restored by Phryne
the courtesan," were inscribed upon them. On the occasion
of a festival of Poseidon at Eleusis she laid aside her garments,
let down her hair, and stepped into the sea in the sight of the
people, thus suggesting to the painter Apelles his great picture
of Aphrodite Anadyomene, for which Phryne sat as model.
She was also (according to some) the model for the statue of the
Cnidian Aphrodite by Praxiteles. When accused of profaning
the Eleusinian mysteries, she was defended by the orator
Hypereides, one of her lovers. When it seemed, as if the verdict
would be unfavourable, he rent her robe and displayed her lovely
bosom, which so moved her judges that they acquitted her.
According to others, she herself thus displayed her charms.
She is said to have made an attempt on the virtue of the philo-
sopher Xenocrates. A statue of Phryne, the work of Praxiteles,
was placed in a temple at Thespiae by the side of a statue of
Aphrodite by the same artist.

See Athenaeus, pp. 558, 567, 583, 585, 590, 591; Aelian, Var.
Hist. ix. 32; Pliny, Nat. Hist, xxxiv. 71.

PHRYNICHUS — 1. Son of Polyphradmon and pupil of Thespis,
one of the earliest of the Greek tragedians. Some of the ancients,
indeed, regarded him as the real founder of tragedy. He gained
his first poetical victory in 511 B.C. His famous play, the
Capture of Miletus, was probably composed shortly after the
conquest of that city by the Persians. The audience was moved
to tears, the poet was fined for reminding the Athenians of their
misfortunes, and it was decreed that no play on the subject
should be produced again. In 476 Phrynichus was successful
with the Phoenissae, so called from the Phoenician women who
formed the chorus, which celebrated the defeat of Xerxes at
Salamis (480). Themistocles acted as choragus, and one of the
objects of the play was to remind the Athenians of his great
deeds. The Persians of Aeschylus (472) was an imitation of
the Phoenissae. Phrynichus is said to have died in Sicily.
Some of the titles of his plays, Danaides, Actaeon, Alcestis,
Tantalus, show that he treated mythological as well as con-
temporary subjects. He introduced a separate actor as distinct
from the leader of the chorus, and thus laid the foundation of
dialogue. But in his plays, as in the early tragedies generally,
the dramatic element was subordinate to the lyric element as
represented by the chorus and the dance. According to
Suidas, Phrynichus first introduced female characters on the
stage (played by men in masks), and made special use of the
trochaic tetrameter.

Fragments in A. Nauck, Tragicorum graecorum fragmenta (1887).

2- A poet of the Old Attic comedy and a contemporary of
Aristophanes. His first comedy was exhibited in 429 B.C. He
xxi. 18

545

composed ten plays, of which the Solitary (Movorporos) was
exhibited in 414 along with the Birds of Aristophanes and gained
the third prize. The Muses carried off the second prize in 405,
Aristophanes being first with the Frogs, in which he accuses
Phrynichus of employing vulgar tricks to raise a laugh, of
plagiarism and bad versification.

Fragments in T. Kock, Comicorum atticorum fragmenta (1880).

3. Phrynichus Arabius, a grammarian of Bithynia, lived
in the 2nd century a.d. According to Suidas he was the author
of (1) an Atticist, or On Attic Words, in two books; (2) HiBepkyuiv
o-vvayayyri, a collection of subjects for discussion; (3) So^kttiki)
Trapao-Kevfj, or Sophistical Equipment, in forty-seven (or
seventy-four) books. As models of Attic, style Phrynichus
assigned the highest place to Plato, Demosthenes and Aeschines
the Socratic. The work was learned, but prolix and garrulous.
A fragment contained in a Paris MS. was published by B. de
Montfaucon, and by I. Bekker in his Anecdota graeca (1814).
Another work of Phrynichus, not mentioned by Photius, but
perhaps identical with the Atticist mentioned by Suidas, the
Selection ('EicXoyri) of Attic Words and Phrases, is extant, 'it is
dedicated to Cornelianus, a man of literary tastes, and one of the
imperial secretaries, who had invited the author to undertake
the work. It is a collection of current words and forms which
deviated from the Old Attic standard, the true Attic equivalents
being given side by side. The work is thus a lexicon anti-
barbarum, and is interesting as illustrating the changes through
which the Greek language had passed between the 4th century
B.C. and the 2nd century a.d.

Editions of the 'EkXottJ, with valuable notes, have been published
by C. A. Lobeck (1820) and W. G- Rutherford (1881) ; Lobeck devotes
his attention chiefly to the later, Rutherford to the earlier usages
noticed by Phrynichus. See also J. Brenous, De Phrynicho Atticista
(i895).

4. An Athenian general in the Peloponnesian War. He
took a leading part in establishing the oligarchy of the Four
Hundred at Athens in 411 B.C., and was assassinated in the same
year (Thucydides viii.).

PHTHALAZINES (benzo-orthodiazines or benzopyridazines),
in organic chemistry a group of heterocyclic compounds contain-
ing the ring complex shown in formula I. They are isomeric
with the cinnolines (q.v.). The parent substance of the group,
phthalazine, C 8 H 6 N 2 , is best obtained from the condensation
of co-tetrabromorthoxylene with hydrazine (D. Gabriel, Ber.
1893, 26, p. 2210), or by the reduction of chlorphthalazine with
phosphorus and hydriodic acid {Ber., 1897, p. 3024). It possesses
basic properties and forms addition products with alkyl iodides.
On oxidation with alkaline potassium permanganate it yields
pyridazine dicarboxylic acid. Zinc and hydrochloric acid
decompose it with formation of orthoxylylene diamine.

The keto-hydro derivative phthalazone, C 8 H 6 ON 2 , (formula II.)
is obtained by condensing hydrazine with orthophthalaldehydo-
acid. On treatment with phosphorus oxychloride it yields a chlor-
phthalazine which with zinc and hydrochloric acid gives isoindole
C 8 H 7 N, and with tin and hydrochloric acid phthalimidine, C 8 H,On'
the second nitrogen atom being eliminated as ammonia. '

i / Y co > H

I. Phthalazine. II. Phthalazone.

PHTHALIC ACIDS, or Benzene Dicarboxylic Acids
C6H4(C0 2 H) 2 . There are three isomers: (1) ortho, or phthalie
acid; (2) meta, or isophthalic acid; (3) para, or terephthalic
acid.

Phthalie acid was obtained by Laurent in 1836 by oxidizing
naphthalene tetrachloride, and, believing it to be a naphthalene
derivative, he named it naphthalenic acid; Marignac determined
its formula and showed Laurent's supposition to be incorrect,
upon which Laurent gave it its present name. It is manufactured
by oxidizing naphthalene tetrachloride (prepared from naph-
thalene, potassium, chlorate and hydrochloric acid) with nitric
acid, or, better, by oxidizing the hydrocarbon with fuming
sulphuric acid, using mercury or mercuric sulphate as a catalyst
(German pat. 91, 202). It also results on the oxidation of ortho*

54^

PHTHISIS— PHYLLITE

diderivatives of benzene. It torms white crystals, melting at
213 with decomposition into water and phthalic anhydride;
the latter forms long white needles, melting at 128 and boiling
at 284 . Heated with an excess of lime it gives benzene; calcium
benzoate results when calcium phthalate is heated with one
molecule of lime to 330°~35o°. The acid (and anhydride) are
largely used in the colour industry (see Fluorescein; Phenol-
phthalein) .

Phthalyl chloride, C 6 H 4 (C0C1) 2 or C 6 H 4 (CCl 2 )(CO)0, formed by
heating the anhydride with phosphorus chloride, is an oil which
solidifies at 0° and boils at 275 . In some reactions it behaves
as having the first formula, in others as having the second. Phthalyl
chloride with phosphorus pentachloride gives two phthalylene
tetrachlorides, one melting at 88° and the other at 47°. They cannot
be changed into one another, and have been given the formulae
C,H 4 (CC1,)(C0C1) and C 6 H 4 (CC1 2 ) 2 0. Phthalimide, QH 4 (CO) 2 NH,
is formed by heating phthalic anhydride or chloride in ammonia
gas or by molecular rearrangement of ortho-cyanbenzoic acid.
It forms N-metallic and alkyl salts. Bromine and potash give
anthranilic acid, C«H 4 (NH 2 )(C0 2 H). (See Indigo.)

Isophthalic acid is obtained by oxidizing meta-xylene with
chromic acid, or by fusing potassium meta-sulphobenzoate, or
meta-brombenzoate with potassium formate (terephthalic acid
is also formed in the last case) . It melts above 300 , and dissolves
in 7800 parts of cold water and in 460 of boiling. The barium
salt (+6H 2 0) is very soluble (a distinction between phthalic and
terephthalic acids). Uvitic acid, 5-methyl isophthalic acid, is
obtained by oxidizing mesitylene or by condensing pyroracemic
acid with baryta water.

Terephthalic acid, formed by oxidizing para-diderivatives
of benzene, or best by oxidizing caraway oil, a mixture of
cymene and cuminol, with chromic acid, as almost insoluble in
water, alcohol and ether; it sublimes without melting when
heated.

For the reduced phthalic acids see Polymethylenes.

PHTHISIS (Gr. <t>8'uns " wasting "), a term formerly applied
(like " Consumption ") to the disease of the lung now known
as Tuberculosis (q.v.).

PHYLACTERY (^uXaKr^ptov), a Greek word meaning
" guard " (sc. against misfortune), i.e. an amulet. It is applied
in the New Testament to the tefillin or " prayer-thongs " worn
by orthodox Jews daily at morning-prayer (whether at home or
in the synagogue). The title employed in Hebrew, tefillin, seems
really to be derived from an Aramaic term meaning " attach-
ments," " ornaments "; it corresponds to the Biblical Hebrew
word rendered " frontlets " (totafdth). The tefillin or phylac-
teries are worn, one on the left arm (the " hand-tefilla "), and
the other on the head (the " head-tefilla "). In each case the
leather thongs support a small satchel which is fastened to the
arm and the forehead respectively, and contains certain passages
of the Law written (in Hebrew) on parchment, viz. Exod. xiii.
i-ioamdu-16; Deut. vi. 4-9 and xi. 13-21. The custom of wear-
ing phylacteries seems to have been derived in the first instance
from the Pharisees. By the Sadducees and the generality of
the people in the time of Christ it seems not to have been
practised. Later it became— not without protest — one of the
badges of orthodox Judaism. It is significant that the custom
is entirely unknown to the Samaritan community.

The phylacteries, together with the " fringe " (tsitstth) and
door-post symbol (mezuza) — which latter consists of a piece of
parchment, containing the Hebrew text of Deut. vi. 4-0 and xi.
13-21 enclosed in a glass or metal tube, and fixed upon the right
hand post of the door of each dwelling-room in a house — form
the three sets of visible signs by which the Israelite is constantly
reminded of his duty to God (cf. Num. xv. 39-40; Deut. vi. 9;
xi. 20). The " fringe " (or " tassels ") was originally attached
to the common outer garment— a large square wrap — the loose
end of which hung over the left shoulder. This garment with
tassels is mentioned in the New Testament (cf. Matt. ix. 20;
xiv. 36; xxiii. 5 and parallels). Among modern Jews it has sur-
vived in two forms: (1) the fringed praying shawl called talith
worn by every male orthodox Jew at the synagogue morning ser-
vice; and (2) an under-garment, shaped like a chest-protector,

one part covering the chest, the other the back, which is
worn continuously by male orthodox Jews. It is called Arba
Kanfoth {i.e. "Four Corners," Deut. xxii. 12) or " little Talith,"
and is, of course, " fringed." Both phylactery and mezuza
were supposed to keep off hurtful demons (Targ. on Cant,
viii. 3).

See Surenhusius, Mischna, i. 9 seq. ; and Bodenschatz, Kirch.
Verf. d. heutigen Juden, iv. 9 seq. (W. R. S. ; G. H. Bo.)

PHYLARCHUS, a Greek historian, who flourished during the
time of Aratus, the strategus of the Achaean League, in the 3rd
century B.C. His birthplace is variously given as Athens,
Naucratis, or Sicyon. He was probably a native of Naucratis,
and subsequently migrated to Athens. He was the author of a
history in 28 books, covering the period from the expedition of
Pyrrhus king of Epirus to Peloponnesus (272) to the death of the
Spartan king Cleomenes (220) after his defeat by Antigonus
Doson. Polybius (ii. 56-63) charges him with undue partiality
for Cleomenes and unfairness towards Aratus; Plutarch (Aratus,
38 ), who is of the same opinion, did not hesitate to use him freely
in his own biographies of Agis and Cleomenes.

Fragments and life in C. W. Muller, Fragmenta historicorum
graecorum, vol. i. (1841); monographs by J. F. Lucht (1836) and
C. A. F. Bruckner (1839) ; C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium
der alien Geschichte (1895).

PHYLE, a mountain fortress, on a pass leading from Athens
to Boeotia and Thebes, and commanding a fine view of the Attic
plain. It is situated on the south-west end of Mt Parnes. It
is chiefly famous for its occupation by Thrasybulus at the head
of the Athenian exiles during the rule of the Thirty Tyrants in
404 B.C. After defending himself from attack, with the help
of a snowstorm, he succeeded by a venturesome night march
in seizing Munychia. Close to Phyle is the cliff called Harma,
over which the Pythian lightnings were watched for from
Athens.

PHYLLITE (Gr. <t>{i\\ov, a leaf, probably because they
yield leaf-like plates, owing to their fissility), in petrology, a
group of rocks which are in practically all cases metamorphosed
argillaceous sediments, consisting essentially of quartz, chlorite
and muscovite, and possessing a well-marked parallel arrange-
ment or schistosity. They form an intermediate term in the
series of altered clays or shaly deposits between clay-slates
and mica-schists. The clay-slates have a very similar mineral
constitution to the phyllites, but are finer grained and are
distinguished also by a very much better cleavage. In the
phyllites also white mica (muscovite or sericite) is more abundant
as a rule than in slate, and its crystalline plates are larger; the
abundance of mica gives these rocks a glossy sheen on the smooth
planes of fissility. Many of the best Welsh slates are rich in
small scales of white mica, which polarize brightly between
crossed nicols. The Cornish slates are still more micaceous and
rather coarser grained, so that they might be called mica-slates
or even phyllites.

A microscopical section of a typical phyllite shows green chlorite
and colourless mica both in irregular plates disposed in parallel
order, with a greater or smaller amount of quartz which forms small
lenticular grains elongated parallel to the foliation. Grains of iron
oxide (magnetite and haematite) and black graphitic dust are very
commonly present. Feldspar is absent or scarce, but some phyllites
are characterized by the development of small rounded grains of
albite, often in considerable numbers. The minute needles of
rutile, so often seen in clay-slates, are not of ten met with in phyllites,
but this mineral forms small prisms which may be intergro\vn with
black magnetite; at other times it occurs as networks of sagenite.
Other phyllites contain carbonates (usually calcite but sometimes
dolomite) in flat or spindle-shaped crystals, which often give evidence
of crushing. Very tiny blue needles of tourmaline are by no means
rare in phyllites, though readily overlooked. Garnet occurs some-
times, a good example of garnetiferous phyllite being furnished by
the whetstones of the Ardennes, in which there are many small
isotropic crystals of magnesian garnet. Hornblende, often in
branching feathery crystals, is a less frequent accessory. In some
phyllites a mineral of the chloritoid group makes its appearance;
this may be ottrelite, sismondine or other varieties of chloritoid,
and occurs in large sub-hexagonal plates showing complex twinning,
and lying across the foliation planes of the rock, so that they seem
to have developed after the movements and pressures which gave
rise to the foliation had ceased.

PHYLLOXERA

547

The structural variations presented by the phyllites are compara-
tively few. The most finely crystalline specimens have generally
the most perfect parallel arrangement of their constituents. The
foliation is generally flat or linear, but in some rocks is undulose
or crumpled. From the imperfection of their cleavage phyllites
are rarely suitable for roofing materials ; their softness renders them
valueless as road stones, but they are not uncommonly employed
as inferior building materials. They are exceedingly common in
all parts of the world where metamorphic rocks occur; as in the
Scottish Highlands, Cornwall, Anglesey, north-west Ireland, the
Ardennes, the Harz Mountains, ^Saxony, the Alps, Norway, the
Appalachians, the Great Lakes district in America, &c. (J. S. F.)

PHYLLOXERA (Gr. <j>vXkov, leaf, and frpos, dry), a genus
of insects belonging to the family of Aphidae, or Plant-lice, in the
Homopterous section of the order Hemiptera. It is chiefly
known from the causal relation of one of its species to the most
serious of vine-diseases. The name was first given in 1834 to
a plant-louse which was observed to "dry up the leaves" of oaks
in Provence. About twenty-seven species are now known, all
characterized by length not exceeding -06 of an inch, flat wings,
three articulations in the antennae, one or two articulations in
the tarses, with digitules, but without cornicles on the abdomen.
The following full description of the only species which attacks
the vine, the Phylloxera vastatrix, or grape-louse, is reprinted from
the article Vine in the 9th edition of this encyclopaedia.

" The symptoms of the disease, by means of which an infected spot
may be readily recognized, are as follows: The vines are stunted and
bear few leaves, and those small ones. When the disease reaches an
advanced stage the leaves are discoloured, yellow or reddish, with
their edges turned back, and withered. The grapes are arrested
in their growth and their skin is wrinkled. If the roots are examined
numerous fusiform swellings are found upon the smaller rootlets.
These are at first yellowish in colour and fleshy; but as they grow
older they become . rotten and assume a brown or black colour. If
the roots on which these swellings occur be examined with a lens,
a number of minute insects of a yellowish-brown colour are observed ;

these are the root-forms (radi-

J - cola) of Phylloxera (fig. 1); they

are about -8 mm. long, of an

oval outline and with a swollen

body. No distinction between

head, thorax and abdomen can

be observed. The head bears

small red eyes and -a pair of

three-jointed antennae, the first

two joints being short and thick,

the third more elongated, with

the end cut off obliquely and

Fig. 1. — Root-inhabiting Form slightly hollowed out. Under-

(Radicola.) ol Phylloxera, with pro- neath, between the legs, lies the

boscis inserted into tissue of root rostrum, which reaches back to

of vine. the abdomen. The insect is fixed

by this rostrum, which is inserted
into the root of the vine for the purpose of sucking the sap. The
abdomen consists of seven segments, and these as well as the anterior
segments bear four rows of small tubercles on their dorsal surface.
These root-dwelling insects are females, which lay parthenogenetic
eggs. The insect is fixed by its proboscis, but moves its abdomen
about and lays thirty to forty yellow eggs in small clusters. After
the lapse of six, eight or twelve days, according to the temperature,
the larvae hatch out of the eggs. These are light yellow in colour
and in appearance resemble their mother, but with relatively
larger appendages. They move actively about for a few days and
then, having selected a convenient place on the young roots, insert
their proboscis and become stationary. They moult five times,
becoming with each change of skin darker in colour; in about three
weeks they become adult and capable of laying parthenogenetic
eggs. In this way the insect increases with appalling rapidity:
it has been calculated that a single mother which dies after laying
her eggs in March would have over 25,000,000 descendants by
October. If, however, the insect were content with this method of
reproduction the disease could be isolated by surrounding the
infected patches with a deep ditch full of some such substance as
coal-tar, which would prevent the insects spreading on to the roots
of healthy vines. The fertility of the parthenogenetically produced
insects would also diminish after a certain number of generations
had been produced.

As the summer wears on a second form of insect appears amongst
the root-dwellers, though hatched from the same eggs as the form
described above. These are the nymphs, destined to acquire
wings; their body is more slender in outline, and at first they
bear well-marked tubercles. After several moults the rudiments
of two pairs of wings appear, and then the insect creeps up to the
surface of the earth, and on to the vine. Here it undergoes
its fifth and last moult, and appears as a winged female, capable
of reproducing parthenogenetically. The winged form has a
slender body with distinct head (fig. 2). The eyes are well developed,

with numerous facets; the antennae have three joints, the ter-
minal one shaped like that of the root-dwellers. The wings
are transparent, with few nervures, and are well adapted for
flight. The anterior pair reach far
beyond the end of the abdomen; the
posterior are narrower and not so long.
These winged forms are about 1 mm.
long. They fly about from July till
October, living upon the sap of the
vine, which is sucked up by the
rostrum from the leaves or buds.
They lay their parthenogenetically
produced eggs in the angles of the
veins of the leaves, in the buds, or, if
the season is already far advanced, in
the bark. In very damp or cold
weather the insect remains in the
ground near the surface, and deposits
its eggs there. The eggs are very few
in number and of two sizes, small
and large (fig. 3, b and c). From the
larger a female (fig. 4) is hatched in
eight or ten days, and simultaneously,
for the first time in the life-history of
the Phylloxera, a male (fig. 3) appears
from the smaller egg. Neither male
nor female has wings; the rostrum is
replaced by a functionless tubercle ;
and there is no alimentary canal.
The female is larger than the male
and differs from it and the other forms
in the last joint of the antennae.

The life of these sexual forms lasts ,- ■ , , , .

but a few days, and is entirely taken ° n leaves and buds of vine,
up with reproduction. The female is and lays parthenogenetically
fertilized by the male and three or e Sf ? f two kinds, one de-
four days later lays a single egg-the yeloping into a wingless
winter egg— and then dies This egg is fen ] ale > the other lnto a
laidinthecrevicesofthebarkofthevine, male -

and as it is protectively coloured it is almost impossible to find it.
Here the winter eggs remain undeveloped during the cold months;
but in the following spring, as a rule in the month of April, they give

Fig. 2. — P hylloxer a.
Winged Female which lives

Fig. 3. — o, Male produced
from small egg c, laid by winged
female (fig. 2); b, large egg; c,
small egg.

Fig. 4. — Wingless Female pro-
duced from large egg (fig. 3, b),
laid by winged female (fig. 2).

birth to a female insect without wings, which resembles the root-
dwelling forms, but has pointed antennae. These forms are termed
the stock-mothers; they creep into the buds of the vine, and, as these
develop into the young leaves, insert their proboscis into the upper
side. By this means a gall is produced on the under side of the leaf.

Scheme of the Various Forms of Phylloxera vastatrix.

A. Root-infesting forms, ?

Root -infesting forms, 2nd generation, $

Root -infesting forms, 3rd generation, ?

I

&c.

Winged forms, S ■

Wingless female.

I

Male.

Gall-producing ?
ditto

I
Winter egg.

Stock-mother.

I

Root-infesting $

1

The gall is cup-shaped, and its outer surface is crumpled and covered
with small warts and hairs. The opening upon the upper surface

54 8

PHYSHARMONICA-^PHYSIOCRATIC SCHOOL

of the leaf is protected by similar structures. Within this gall the
stock-mother lives and surrounds herself with numerous partheno-
genetically produced eggs — sometimes as many as two hundred
in a single gall ; these eggs give birth after six or eight days to a
numerous progeny (gallicola), some of which form new galls and
multiply in the leaves, whilst others descend to the roots and become
the root-dwelling forms already described. The galls and the gall-
producing form are much commoner in America than in the Old
World.

The particular species of phylloxera which attacks the vine
is a native of the United States, probably originating among the
wild vines of the Colorado district. It was first observed in
1856 by Asa Fitch (1809-1878), who did not suspect its mischief,
and called it Pemphigus vitifoliae. In 1863 'it was independently
discovered by Westwood in an English vinery at Hammersmith;
he was ignorant of Fitch's observation, and called it Peritymbia
vitisana. From 1858 to 1863 there were many importations
of American vines for grafting purposes to Bordeaux, Roque-
maure and other parts of France, England, Ireland, Germany,
Portugal, &c. It is practically certain that the deadly, phyl-
loxera was imported on these plants. A year or two later certain
vine-growers in the South of France began to complain of the
new vine-disease. M. Delorme, of Aries, in 1865, appears to have
been the first who recognized its novelty and had a presentiment
of disaster. The disease steadily spread outwards in concentric
circles from its first place of lodgment near Roquemaure.
Within two or three years whole departments were infested.
In 1866 a second centre of infection made its appearance near
Bordeaux. The vine-growers were at their wits' end to account
for this new plague, which threatened to be even more costly
than the oidium. The completeness of the ruin which threatened
them may be illustrated by the statistics for a single commune,
that of Graveson, whose average annual production of wine in
the years 1865-1867 was about 220,000 gallons. In 1868 this fell
to 121,000 gallons, in 1869 to 48,400 gallons, in 1870 to 8800
gallons, and by 1873 to 1100 gallons.

In 1868 Planchon proved that the disease was due to a new
species of phylloxera, which was invariably found on the roots
of the affected vines, and to which he accordingly gave the
prophetic name of Phylloxera vastatrix. During the next ten
years a series of students, of whom only Riley and "Balbiani need
be mentioned here, worked out the natural history of Phylloxera
vastatrix, and proved its identity with the American grape-louse.
Its devastations rapidly assumed gigantic proportions. In
France, where the disease was by far the most prevalent — owing
in great part to the obstinacy with which the vine-growers at
first refused to take any reasonable precautions against its
spread — -M. Lalande, president of the chamber of commerce
at Bordeaux, in 188S calculated the direct loss to the country by
the phylloxera at 10 milliards (£400,000,000), or double the
indemnity which had been paid to Germany in 1871 !

The phylloxera has made its appearance in almost every vine-
growing country in the world. Thus it appeared in Austria-Hungary
in 1868; in Italy, in spite of the frantic efforts made — as in other
countries — to keep it out by strict legislation against the import of
vines, in 1879; in Russia in 1880; in Germany, on the Rhine and
Moselle, and in Switzerland in 1872 ; in Madeira, Spain and Portugal,
about 1876. The pest even crossed the oceans, and appeared in
Australia, at Geelong, about 1880; it has since twice broken out in
Victoria, and has ravaged the vineyards of South Australia and New
South Wales. At the Cape, in spite of a long endeavour to prohibit
the import of the phylloxera, it appeared about 1884. In 1885 it
crossed the Mediterranean to Algeria. There was only one country
where its ravages were long unimportant; that was its home in the
United States, where the native vines had become, by the operation
of natural selection, immune to its attacks. Yet no imported vine
has ever lived there more than five years, and in 1890 the phylloxera
crossed the Rocky Mountains, and seriously damaged the vineyards
of California, where it had previously been unknown.

Three different methods of fighting the pest have been success-
fully adopted. One is to kill the phylloxera itself; another, to
destroy it along with the infected vines, and plant fresh and
healthy plants; the third, to adapt the secular therapeutics of
nature, and to introduce American vines which a long acquain-
tance with the phylloxera has made immune to its ravages.
Insecticides, of which the bisulphide of carbon (CS 2 ) and the

sulpho-carbonate of potassium (KSCS 2 ) remain in use, were
injected into the earth to kill the phylloxera on the roots of the
vine. These methods were chiefly advocated in vineyards of
the first class, where it was worth while to spend a good deal of
money and labour to preserve the old and famous vines: the
Chateau Leoville Poyferre and Clos Vougeot are instances.
Some good judges attribute the peculiar and not unpleasing
flavour of certain clarets of 1888 to means thus adopted to kill
the phylloxera. The second plan was largely adopted in
Switzerland and on the Rhine, where measures resembling those
taken with cattle suspected of anthrax were applied to all
diseased vineyards. The third plan, which consists in replanting
the affected vineyard with American vines — such as the Vitis
labrusca, V. riparia, V. rupestris or V. monticola — has proved
the most generally successful.

A very good bibliography will be found in Les Insectes de la vigne,
by Professor Majet of Montpellier (1890), which is the best book on
the subject. Reference may also be made to the classic memoirs
of Planchon, culminating, in Les Masurs de la phylloxera de la
vigne (1877); Dreyfus, Vber Phylloxerinen (1889); Lichtenstein,
Histoire du phylloxera; the Rapports annuels a la commission
supirieure du phylloxera; and the excellent Report on Phylloxera
drawn up by the Hon. J. W. Taverner (Victoria, 1899, No. 68).

(W. E. G. F.)

PHYSHARMONICA, a keyboard instrument fitted with free-
reeds, a kind of harmonium much used in Germany. The phys-
harmonica resembles a small harmonium, but is differentiated
from it by having no stops; being without percussion action, it
does not speak readily or clearly. As in the harmonium, the
bellows are worked by the feet by an alternate movement, which
also affords a means of varying the dynamic force of the tone
according as more or less energetic pedalling increases or
decreases the pressure of the wind supply. The physharmonica
was invented in 1818 by Anton Hackel, of Vienna; in the original
instrument the bellows were placed right and left immediately
under the shallow wind-chest, and were worked by means of
pedals connected by stout wire. A specimen, having a compass
of four octaves and a very sweet tone, is preserved in the collec-
tion of Paul de Wit, formerly in Leipzig, now transferred to
Cologne. (K. S.)

PHYSICAL PHENOMENA, in the terminology of spiritualism
and psychical research, molar or molecular phenomena in the
physical world not traceable to ordinary causes and referred to
the action of spirits or of mediums in abnormal psychical states.
Among the phenomena or alleged phenomena are: materializa-
tion, levitation or elongation of the medium; passage of matter
through matter, alteration of weight in a balance, tying of knots
in an endless cord, apports (objects brought from a distance) and
movements of objects (telekinesis); the production of writing,
imprints of plaster or other objects; raps, voices and other
sounds, including music; spirit photographs; lights and perfumes.
To these may be added immunity against the effects of fire and
the untying of ropes.

Analogous phenomena are found in many parts of the world
(see Poltergeist; Firewalking) ; spectral lights are associated
with the tombs of Mahommedan saints, with Buddhist shrines,
with religious revivals, with Red Indian and other magicians,
&c, and as sporadic phenomena in the Highlands and Norway,
Levitation is asserted of Australian wizards, the rope-trick of
Eskimo angekoks; glyphs and direct writing are found in Mexican
and Tibetan cults.

See F. Podmore, Modem Spiritualism; F. W. H. Myers, Human
Personality, ii. 506; Journal S. P. R., vi. 309 sq. (N. W. T.)

PHYSIOCRATIC SCHOOL, the name given to a group of
French economists and philosophers. The heads of the school
were Francois Quesnay (q.v.) and Jean Claude Marie Vincent,
sieur de Gournay (1712-1759). The principles of the school had
been put forward in 1755 by R. Cantillon, a French merchant
of Irish extraction (Essai sur la nature du commerce en general) ,
whose biography W, S. Jevons has elucidated, and whom he
regards as the true founder of political economy; but it was in
the hands of Quesnay and Gournay that they acquired a system-
atic form, and became the creed of a united group of thinkers

PHYSIOCRATIC SCHOOL

549

and practical men, bent on carrying them into action. The
members of the group called themselves les Sconomisles, but it is
more convenient, because unambiguous, to designate them by
the name physiocrates (Gr. <I>vck, nature, and Kpareiv, to rule),
invented by P. S. Dupont de Nemours (1730-1817), who was
one of their number. In this name, intended to express the
fundamental idea of the school, much more is implied than the
subjection of the phenomena of the social, and in particular the
economic, world to fixed relations of coexistence and succession.
This is the positive doctrine which lies at the bottom of all true
science. But the law of nature referred to in the title of the sect
was something quite different. The theological dogma which
represented all the movements of the universe as directed by
divine wisdom and benevolence to the production of the greatest
possible sum of happiness had been transformed in the hands of
the metaphysicians into the conception of a jus naturae, a
harmonious and beneficial code established by the favourite
entity of these thinkers, nature, antecedent to human institu-
tions, and furnishing the model to which they should be made to
conform.

The general political doctrine is as follows: Society is com-
posed of a number of individuals, all having the same natural
rights. If all do not possess (as some members of the negative
school maintained) equal capacities, each can at least best
understand his own interest, and is led by nature to follow it.
The social union is really a contract between these individuals,
the object of which is the limitation of the natural freedom of
each just so far as it is inconsistent with the rights of the others.
Government, though necessary, is a necessary evil; and the
governing power appointed by consent should be limited to the
amount of interference absolutely required to secure the fulfil-
ment of the contract. In the economic sphere this implies
the right of the individual to such natural enjoyments as he can
acquire by his labour. That labour, therefore, should be undis-
turbed and unfettered, and its fruits should be guaranteed to
the possessor; in other words, property should be sacred. Each
citizen must be allowed to make the most of his labour; and there-
fore freedom of exchange should be ensured, and competition
in the market should be unrestricted, no monopolies or privileges
being permitted to exist.

The physiocrats then proceed with the economic analysis as
follows: Only those labours are truly " productive " which add
to the quantity of raw materials available for the purposes of
man; and the real annual addition to the wealth of the com-
munity consists of the excess of the mass of agricultural products
(including, of course, metals) over their cost of production.
On the amount of this produit net depends the well-being of the
community and the possibility of its advance in civilization.
The manufacturer merely gives a new form to the materials
extracted from the earth; the higher value of the object, after
it has passed through his hands, only represents the quantity of
provisions and other materials used and consumed in its elabora-
tion. Commerce does nothing more than transfer the wealth
already existing from one hand to another; what the trading
classes gain thereby is acquired at the cost of the nation, and it
is desirable that its amount should be as small as possible. The
occupations of the manufacturer and merchant, as well as the
liberal professions, and every kind of personal service, are
'' useful " indeed, but they are " sterile," drawing their income,
not from any fund which they themselves create, but from the
superfluous earnings of the agriculturist. The revenue of the
state, which must be derived altogether from this net product,
ought to be raised in the most direct and simplest way — namely,
by a single impost of the nature of a land tax.

The special doctrine relating to the exclusive productiveness
of agriculture arose out of a confusion between " value " on the
one hand and "matter and energy" on the other. A. Smith
and others have shown that the attempt to fix the character of
" sterility " on manufactures and commerce Was founded in
error. And the proposal of a single impot territorial falls to the
ground with the doctrine on which it was based. But such
influence as the school exerted depended little, if at all, on these

peculiar tenets, which indeed some of its members did not hold.
The effective result of its teaching was mainly destructive. It
continued in a more systematic form the efforts in favour of the
freedom of industry already begun in England and France, It
was to be expected that the reformers should, in the spirit of
the negative philosophy, exaggerate the vices of established
systems; and there can be no doubt that they condemned too
absolutely the economic action of the state, both in principle
and in its historic manifestations, and pushed the laissez-
faire doctrine beyond its just. limits.' But this was a necessary
incident of their connexion with the revolutionary movement,
of which they really formed one wing. In the course of that
movement, the primitive social contract, the sovereignty of the
people and other dogmas now seen to be untenable, were
habitually invoked in the region of politics proper, and had a
transitory utility as ready and effective instruments of warfare.
And so also in the economic sphere the doctrines of natural rights
of buying and selling, of the sufficiency of enlightened selfishness
as a guide in mutual dealings, of the certainty that each member
of the society will understand and follow his true interests, and
of the coincidence of those interests with the public welfare,
though they will not bear a dispassionate examination, were
temporarily useful as convenient and serviceable weapons for
the overthrow of the" established order.

These conclusions as to the revolutionary tendencies of the
school are not at all affected by the fact that the form of govern-
ment preferred by Quesnay and some of his chief followers was
what they called a legal despotism, which should embrace
within itself both the legislative and the executive function.
The reason for this preference was that an enlightened central
power could more promptly and efficaciously introduce the
policy they advocated than an assembly representing divergent
opinions and fettered by constitutional checks and limitations.
Turgot used the absolute power of the Crown to carry into
effect some of his measures for the liberation of industry, though
he ultimately failed because unsustained by the requisite force
of character in Louis XVI. But what the physiocratic idea
with respect to the normal method of government was appears
from Quesnay's advice to the dauphin, that when he became
king he should " do nothing, but let the laws rule," the laws
having been, of course, first brought into conformity with the
jus naturae. The partiality of the school for agriculture was in
harmony with the sentiment in favour of " nature " and primi-
tive simplicity which then showed itself in so many forms in
France, especially in combination with the revolutionary spirit,
and of which Rousseau was the most eloquent exponent. The
members of the physiocratic group were undoubtedly men of
thorough uprightness, and inspired with a sincere desire for the
public good, especially for the material and moral elevation of
the working classes. Quesnay was physician to Louis XV., and
resided in the palace at Versailles; but in the midst of that
corrupt court he maintained his integrity, and spoke with manly
frankness what he believed to be the truth. And never did any
statesman devote himself with greater singleness of purpose or
more earnest endeavour to the service of his country than
Turgot, who was the principal practical representative of the
school. ',..■■

The physiocratic school never obtained much direct popular
influence, even in its native country, though it strongly attracted
many of the more gifted and earnest minds. Its members,
writing on dry subjects in an austere and often heavy style, did
not find acceptance with a public which demanded before all
things charm of manner in those who addressed it. The physio-
cratic tenets, which were in fact partly erroneous, were regarded
by many as chimerical, and were ridiculed in the contemporary
literature; as, for example, the impdt unique by Voltaire in his
L'Homme aux quarante icus, which was directed in particular
against P. P. Mercier-Lariviere (1720-1704). It was justly
objected to the group that they were too absolute in their view
of things; they supposed, as Smith remarks in speaking of
Quesnay, that the body politic could thrive only under one
precise regime — that, namely, which they recommended— ^and

55o

PHYSIOGNOMY

thought their doctrines universally and immediately applicable
in practice. They did not, as theorists, sufficiently take into
account national diversities or different stages in social develop-
ment; nor did they, as politicians, adequately estimate the
impediments which ignorance, prejudice and interested opposi-
tion present to enlightened statesmanship.

The physiocratic system, after guiding in some degree the
policy of the Constituent Assembly, and awakening a few echoes
here and there in foreign countries, soon ceased to exist as a
living power; but the good elements it comprised were not lost
to mankind, being incorporated into the more complete construc-
tion of Adam Smith.

See the article on Quesnay, with bibliography appended thereto,
also the articles on Mirabeau and Turgot. Most French histories
contain an account of the school; see especially Tocqueville,
L'Ancien rigime et la revolution, ch. iii. ; Taine, Les Origines de la
France contemporaine, vol. i. ; R. Stourm, Les Finances de I'ancien
rigime ei de la revolution (1885); Droz, Histoire du rigne de Louis
XVI.; also L. de Lavergne, Hconomistes francais du XV III' siecle;
H. Higgs, The Physiocrats (London, 1897, with authorities).

PHYSIOGNOMY, the English form of the middle Greek
<t>vcioyv(i>iiia, a contraction of the classical tpvcnoyvcanovia.
(from <t>0(ns, nature, and yvoi/MV, an interpreter), (1) a term
which denotes a supposed science for the " discovery of the
disposition of the mind by the lineaments of the body " (Bacon) ;
(2) is also used colloquially as a synonym for the face or outward
appearance, being variously spelled by the old writers: fysenamy
by Lydgate, phisnomi in Udall's translation of Erasmus on
Mark iv., physnomie in Bale's English Votaries (i. 2. p. 44), and
fisnomie in All's well that ends well, iv. 5 (first folio).

Physiognomy was regarded by those who cultivated it as a
twofold science: (1) a mode of discriminating character by the
outward appearance, and (2) a method of divination from form
and feature. On account of the abuses of the latter .aspect of
the subject its practice was forbidden by the English law. By
the act of parliament 17 George II. c. 5 (1743) all persons pre-
tending to have skill in physiognomy were deemed rogues and
vagabonds, and were liable to be publicly whipped, or sent to
the house of correction until next sessions. 1 The pursuit thus
stigmatized as unlawful is one of great antiquity, and one which
in ancient and medieval times had an extensive though now
almost forgotten literature. It was very early noticed that the
good and evil passions by their continual exercise stamp their
impress on the face, and that each particular passion has its own
expression. Thus far physiognomy is a branch of physiology.
But in its second aspect it touched divination and astrology, of
which Galen J says that the physiognomical part is the greater,
and this aspect of the subject bulked largely in the fanciful
literature of the middle ages. There is evidence in the earliest
classical literature that physiognomy formed part of the most
ancient practical philosophy. Homer was a close observer of
expression and of appearance as correlated with character, as
is shown by his description of Thersites* and elsewhere. Hippo-
crates, writing about 450 B.C., expresses his belief in the influence
of environment in determining disposition, and in the reaction
of these upon feature, 4 a view in which he is supported later
by Trogus. Galen, in his work Ilept t&v ttjs \fa>xys ifl&v r having
discussed the nature and immortality of the soul, proceeds in
ch. vii. to a brief study of physiognomy (ed. Kuhn iv. 795).
In this passage he deprecates current physiognomical specula-
tions, saying that he might criticize them but feared to waste
time and become tedious over them. In chapter viii. he quotes
with approbation the Hippocratic doctrine referred to above; and
■The Act 39 Elizabeth c. 4 (1 597-1598) declared "all persons
fayning to have knowledge of Phisiognomie or like Fantasticall
Ymaginacious " liable to " be stripped naked from the middle up-
wards and openly whipped until his body be bloudye." This was
modified by 13 Anne c. 26 (1713), still further by 17 George II. c. 5,
which was re-enacted by the Vagrancy Act 1824. This last act only
specifies palmistry.

2 Galen. Htpl KaraicXlacois rpoyvaimKi (ed. Kuhn xix. 530).

3 Iliad, ii. 214. See also Blackwell's Inquiry, (2nd ed. 1736), p. 330.
A physiognomical study of the Homeric heroes is given by Malalas,
Chronogr. ed. Dindorf, v. 105.

4 Qffil it par, 6SA,to>v, t6t&»> (ed. Kuhn, i. 547).

in a later work, Ilept KaraxKiaeus TpoyvoicrTiKa. , he speaks of the
advantage of a knowledge of physiognomy to the physician. 6
We learn both from Iamblichus 6 and Porphyry 7 that Pytha-
goras practised the diagnosis of the characters of candidates for
pupilage before admitting them, although he seems to have
discredited the current physiognomy of the schools, as he
rejected Cylo, the Crotonian, on account of his professing these
doctrines, and thereby was brought into some trouble. 8 Plato
also tells us that Socrates predicted the promotion of Alcibiades
from his appearance; and Apuleius 9 speaks of Socrates recog-
nizing the abilities of Plato at first view. On the other hand, it
has been recorded by Cicero 10 that a certain physiognomist,
Zopyrus, who professed to know the habits and manners of men
from their bodies, eyes, face and forehead, characterized Socrates
as stupid, sensual and dull (bardus), " in quo Alcibiades cachin-
num dicitur sustulisse." Alexander Aphrodisiensis adds that,
when his disciples laughed at the judgment, Socrates said it was
true, for such had been his nature before the study of philosophy
had modified it. Zopyrus is also referred to by MaximusTyrius 11
as making his recognitions " intuitu solo."

That one's occupation stamps its impress on the outward
appearance was also noticed at an early period. In the curious
poem in the Sallier papyrus (II.), written about 1800 B.C., Duan,
son of Khertu, expatiates on the effects of divers handicrafts on
the workmen as compared with the elevating influences of a
literary life. 12 Josephus tells us that Caesar detected the pretence
of the spurious Alexander by his rough hands and surface. 13

The first systematic treatise which has come down to us is
that attributed to Aristotle, 14 in which he devotes six chapters
to the consideration of the method of study, the general signs
of character, the particular appearances characteristic of the
dispositions, of strength and weakness, of genius and stupidity,
of timidity, impudence, anger, and their opposites, '&c. Then
he studies the physiognomy of the sexes, and the chanacters
derived from the different features, and from colour, hair, body,
limbs, gait and voice. He compares the varieties of mankind
to animals, the male to the lion, the female to the leopard. The
general character of the work may be gathered from the following
specimen. While discussing noses, he says that those with
thick bulbous ends belong to persons who are insensitive,
swinish; sharp-tipped belong to the irascible, those easily
provoked, like dogs; rounded, large, obtuse noses to the mag-
nanimous, the lion-like; slender hooked noses to the eagle-like,
the noble but grasping; round- tipped retrousse noses to the
luxurious, like barndoor fowl; noses with a very slight notch
at the root belong to the impudent, the crow-like; while snub
noses belong to persons of luxurious habits, whom he compares
to deer; open nostrils are signs of passion, &c.

The practice of physiognomy is alluded to in many of the
Greek classics. 15 Apion speaks of the metoposcopists, who judge
by the appearance of the face, and Cleanthes the Stoic says it is

6 Op. cit., xix. 530.

6 Ilepi fliov UvBayopiKov Xo-yos, i. 17, 59 (Amsterdam, 1707).

7 De vita Pythagorae, p. 16 (Amsterdam, 1707). This author tells
us that he applied the same rule to his friends. See also Aulus
Gellius, i. ix.

8 Iamblichus, p. 49.

9 De dogmate Platonis, i. 567, p. 34 (Leiden, 1714).

10 Tuscul. quaestionum, iv. 37. De fato, v.

11 Diss., xv. 157 (Cambridge, 1703).

12 Select Papyri, PI. xv., xix., and (Anastasi) ibid., cxxviii., cxxxiii.

13 Ant., xvii. 12, 2-.

14 Authors differ in their views as to its authenticity, but Diogenes
Laertius (v. 22) and Stobaeus {Serm. clxxxix.) both believe it to be
genuine. The chief difficulty is the reference to a certain sophist,
Dionysius, but this is probably an interpolation. There are phy-
siognomic references in other writings of Aristotle (ci.Anal. pr., ii.
c. 30; Hist, anim., i. 8, &c.) sufficient to justify the attribution of the
treatise to him. On this, see Franz, Preface, p. vi. seq., of his Scrip-
tores physiognomiae veteres (Leipzig, 1780).

16 See an interesting paper on " Stretching and Yawning as Signs
of Madness," by Professor Ridgeway (Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc, i.
201), which refers to Aristoph. Wasps, 642, with which he compares
Plautus, Menaechmi, 279. Other references exist to physiognomy
in Cassiodorus, Isidorus, Meletius and^Nemesius, but none of any
great importance.

PHYSIOGNOMY

55i

possible to tell habits from the aspect (cf. Ecclus. xix. 29, 30).
Polemon (c. a.d. 150) compiled a treatise (published 1534, in
Latin) on the subject, similar in character to that of Aristotle;
but he excels in graphic descriptions of different dispositions,
and differs only from Aristotle in some of his animal comparisons.
A more important work was written by a converted Jew,
Adamantius, about a.d. 415. This is in two books, the first on
the expression of the eye, the second on physiognomy in general,
mostly Aristotelian in character.

Among the Latin classical authors Juvenal, Suetonius and
Pliny in well-known passages refer to the practice of physiog-
nomy, and numerous allusions occur in the works of the Christian
Fathers, especially Clement of Alexandria and Origen (for
example, the familiar passage in his work against Celsus, i. 33). 1
While the earlier classical physiognomy was chiefly descriptive,
the later medieval authors particularly developed the predictive
and astrological side, their treatises often digressing into chiro-
mancy, onychomancy, clidomancy, podoscopy, spasmatomancy,
and other branches of prophetic folk-lore and magic.

Along with the medical science of the period the Arabians
contributed to the literature of physiognomy; 'AH b. Ragel wrote
a book on naevi; Rhazes (1040) devoted several chapters to it;
and Averroes (1165) made many references to it in his De sanitate,
p. 82 (Leiden, 1537). Avicenna also makes some acute physiog-
nomical remarks in his De animalibus, which was translated by
Michael Scot about 1270. Among medieval writers Albertus
Magnus (born 1205) devotes much of the second section of his
De animalibus to physiognomy; but this chiefly consists of
extracts from Aristotle, Polemon and Loxus. He does not enter
into the animal comparison's of his predecessors, but occupies
himself chiefly with simple descriptive physiognomy as indicative
of character; and the same is true of the scattered references
in the writings of Duns Scotus and Thomas Aquinas. The
famous sage of Balwearie, Michael Scot, while court astrologer
to the emperor Frederick II., wrote his treatise De hominis
phisiognomia, much of which is physiological and of curious
interest. It was probably composed about 1272, but not
printed until 1477. This was the first printed work on the
subject. Physiognomy also forms the third part of his work
De secretis naturae. In 1335 Pietro d'Abano of Padua delivered
in Paris a course of lectures on this subject (afterwards edited
by Blondus, 1544), a few years before he was burned for
heresy.

The 16th century was rich in publications on physiognomy.
The works of the classical authors before mentioned were printed,
and other treatises were published by John de Indagine, Codes,
Andreas Corvus, Michael Blondus, Janus Cornaro, Anselm
Douxciel, Pompeius Ronnseus, Gratarolus, Lucas Gauricus,
Tricassus, Cardanus, Taisnierus, Magnus Hund, Rothman,
Johannes Padovanus, and, greatest of all, Giambattista della
Porta. The earliest English works were anonymous: On the
Art oj Foretelling Future Events by Inspection of the Hand (1504),
and A Pleasant Introduction to the Art of Chiromancie and
Physiognomie (1588). Dr Thomas Hill's work, The Contempla-
tion of Mankynde, contayning a singular Discourse after the Art
of Physiognomie, published in 1 571, is a quaintly written adapta-
tion from the Italian authors of the day. The undated book on
moles and naevi by " Merlin Britannicus, " after the model of
'AH ibn Ragel, is of about the same date.

The development of a more accurate anatomy in the 17th
century seems to have diminished the interest in physiognomy,
by substituting fact for fiction; and consequently the literature,
though as great in quantity, became less valuable in quality.
The principal writers of this age were T. Campanella, R. Coclen-
ius, Clement, Timpler, J. E. Gallimard, Moldenarius, Septalius,
Saunders, C. Lebrun (a precursor of Charles Bell), Elsholz, de la
Belliere, J. Evelyn (in the appendix to Numismata), Baldus,
Bulwer (in his Pathomyotomia), Fuchs, Spontoni, Ghiradelli,

1 For Scriptural allusions to physiognomy see Vecchius, Observa-
tiones in div. script. (Naples, 1641). Other classical references are
contained in the Prooemium to the 1593 edition of the works of
Baptista Portae.

Chiaramonti, A. Ingegneri, Finella, De la Chambre, Zanardus,
R. Fludd, and others of less importance.

The 1 8th century shows a still greater decline of interest in
physiognomy. Historians of philosophy, like J. Meursius and
Franz, re-edited some of the classical works, and G. G. Ftilleborn
reviewed the relation of physiognomy to philosophy. Indeed,
the only name worthy of note is that of J. K. Lavater (q.v.).
The other authors of this century are Peuschel, Spon, Schutz,
Wegelin, J. Pernetti, Girtanner, Grohmann, and several anony-
mous writers, and from the anatomical side G. M. Lancisi, J.
Parsons and Peter Camper. The popular style, good Ulustra-
tions and pious spirit pervading the writings of Lavater have
given to them a popularity they Httle deserved, as there is no
system in his work, which chiefly consists of rhapsodical com-
ments upon the several portraits. Having a happy knack of
estimating character, especiaUy when acquainted with the
histories of the persons in question, the good pastor contrived
to write a graphic and readable book, but one much inferior
to Porta's or Aristotle's as a systematic treatise. The treatises
of Nicolai and of Lichtenberg were written to refute his theory.
With Lavater the descriptive school of physiognomists may be
said to have ended, as the astrological physiognomy expired
with de la Belliere. The few works which have since appeared,
before the rise of the physiological school of Sir Charles Bell and
Charles Darwin, are undeserving of notice, the development of
phrenology having given to pure physiognomy the coup de grdce
by taking into itself whatever was likely to Hve of the older
science. The writers of the 19th century are Horstig, Maas,
Rainer, Thone, A. Stohr, Sehler, Dr Rubels, Polli, Cardona,
Mastriani, Diez, Cams, Piderit, Burgess and P. Gratiolet.

The physiological school of physiognomy was foreshadowed
by Parsons and founded by Sir Charles Bell, whose Essay on
the Anatomy of the Expression, published in 1806, was the first
scientific study of the physical manifestation of emotions in
the terms of the muscles which produce these manifestations.
In the later editions of this essay the thesis is elaborated with
greater detail. Moreau's edition of Lavater, in 1807, was some-
what along the same Hnes. In 181 7 Dr Cross of Glasgow wrote
his defence of a scientific physiognomy based on general physio-
logical principles. The experiments of G. B. A. Duchenne
(Mlcanisme de la physiognomie humaine, Paris, 1862) showed
that by the use of electricity the action of the separate muscles
could be studied and by the aid of photography accurately
represented. These observations confirmed by experimental
demonstration the hypothetical conclusions of Bell. The
machinery of expression having thus been indicated, the con-
nexion of the physical action^ and the psychical state was made
the subject of speculation by Herbert Spencer (Psychology, 1855).
These speculations were reduced to a system by Darwin (Expres-
sion of Emotions, 1872), who formulated and illustrated the
following as fundamental physiognomical principles: —

(1) Certain complex acts are of direct or indirect service, under
certain conditions of the mind, in order to relieve or gratify certain
sensations or desires; and whenever the same states of mind are.
induced the same sets of actions tend to be performed, even when
they have ceased to be of use. (2) When a directly opposite state
of mind is induced to one with which a definite action is correlated,
there is a strong and involuntary tendency to perform a reverse
action. (3) When the sensorium is strongly excited nerve-force
is generated in excess, and is transmitted in definite directions,
depending on the connexions of nerve-cells and on habit.

The last of these propositions is adversely criticized by P.
Mantegazza as a truism, but it may be allowed to stand with the
qualification that we are ignorant concerning the nature of the
influence caUed " nerve-force." It follows from these proposi-
tions that the expression of emotion is, for the most part, not
under control of the will, and that those striped muscles are the
most expressive which are the least voluntary. To the fore-
going may be added the following three additional propositions,
so as to form a more complete expression of a physiognomical
philosophy: —

(4) Certain muscles concerned in producing these skin-folds be-
come strengthened by habitual action, and when the skin diminishes

552

PHYSIOLOGUS

in elasticity and fulness with advancing age, the wrinkles at
right angles to the course of the muscular fibres become permanent.
{5) To some extent habitual muscular action of this kind may, by
affecting local nutrition, alter the contour of such bones and cartilages
as are related to the muscles of expression. (6) If the mental dis-
position and proneness to action are inherited by children from their
parents, it may be that the facility in, and disposition towards,
certain forms of expression are in like manner matters of heredity.

Illustrations of these theoretic propositions are to be found in
the works of Bell, Duchenne and Darwin, and in the later publi-
cations of Theoddr Piderit, Mimike und Physiognomik (1886) and
Mantegazza, Physiognomy and Expression (1890), to which the
student may be referred for further information.

For information on artistic anatomy as applied to physiognomy
see the catalogue of sixty-two authors by Ludwig Choulant, Ge-
schichte und Bibliographic der anatomischen A bbildung, &c. (Leipzig,
1852), and the works of the authors enumerated above, especially
those of Aristotle, Franz, Porta, Cardan, Corvus and Bulwer. For
physiognomy of disease, besides the usual medical handbooks, see
Cabuchet, Essai sur V expression de la face dans les maladies (Paris,
1801); Mantegazza, Physiology of Pain (1893), and Polli, Saggio
di fisiognomonia e potognomonia (1837). For ethnological physi-
ognomy, see amongst older authors Gra tardus, and amongst moderns
the writers cited in the various textbooks on anthropology, especially
Schadow, Physionomies nationales (1835) and Park Harrison, Journ.
Anthrop. Inst. (1883). The study of the physical characteristics of
criminals is discussed at great length by Lombroso, L'Uomo delin-
quenle (1897); Ferri, L'Omicidio (1895); von Baer, Der Verbrecher
(1 893) ; Laurent, Les Habitues des prisons (1890) ; and Havelock Ellis,
The Criminal (1901). (A. Ma.)

PHYSIOLOGUS, the title usually given to a collection of some
fifty Christian allegories much read in the middle ages, and still
existing in several forms and in about a dozen Eastern and
Western languages. As nearly all its imagery is taken from the
animal world, it is also known as the Bestiary. There can, be
hardly a doubt about the time and general circumstances of its
origin. Christian teachers, especially those who had a leaning
towards Gnostic speculations, took an interest in natural history,
partly because of certain passages of Scripture that they wanted
to explain, and partly on account of the divine revelation in the
book of nature, of which also it was man's sacred duty to take
proper advantage. Both line's of study were readily combined
by applying to the interpretation of descriptions of natural
objects the allegorical method adopted for the interpretation of
Biblical texts. Now the early Christian centuries were any thing
but a period of scientific research. Rhetorical accomplishments
were considered to be the chief object of a liberal education, and
to this end every kind of learning was made subservient. Instead
of reading Aristotle and other naturalists, people went' for
information to commonplace books like those of Aelian, in which
scraps of folk-lore, travellers' tales and fragments of misappre-
hended science were set forth in an elegant style. Theological
writers were not in the least prepared to question the worth of
the marvellous descriptions of creatures that were current in
the schools on the faith of authorities vaguely known as " the
history of animals," " the naturalists," and " the naturalist " in
the singular number (#1*710X6705) .* So they took their notions.
of strange beasts and other marvels of the visible world on
trust and did their best to make them available for religious
instruction. In some measure we find this practice adopted by
more than one of the Fathers, but it was the Alexandrian school,
with its pronounced taste for symbolism, that made the most of
it. Clement himself had declared that natural lore, as taught
in the course of higher Christian education according to the
canon of truth, ought to proceed from " cosmogony " to " the
theological idea," 2 and even in the little that is left of the works
of Origen we have two instances of the proceeding in question.
And yet the fact that these reappear in the Physiologus would
not suffice to stamp the work as a series of extracts from Alex-
andrian writings, as parallels of the same kind can be adduced

1 Qrigen, Sel. in Jerem. xvii. 11, 'a> t§ irepl £<#o>v iirrop'p;
Epiphan. A.dv. haer. i. 3, p. 274 (ed. D. Petav.), <Ss <t>acnp ol
4>v(ru>\6yoi; Origen, Horn, xvii., in Gen. xliv. 9, " nam physiologus
de catulo ieonis scribit."

2 Strom., iv. p-. 564 (ed. Potter), ij yovv /card t&v ttjs &\rjdelas navdva
yvuMTTticrjs iropa56(Tews <j>v<no\oyia, jitaXXoc 5£ firoTrreia, &k tov irepl
wtxjiter/ovltu 4}prijrat X6701), tvd&v&e ivaffalyotxra iirl rd 6eo\oyuiiv tlSos.

from Epiphanius (loc, cit.) and Ephraem Syrus (Opp. Syr. ii.
17, 130). Father Cahier would even trace the book to Tatian,
and it is true that that heresiarch mentions a writing of his own
upon animals. Still, the context in which the quotation occurs
makes it evident that the subject-matter was not the nature of
particular species nor the spiritual lessons to be drawn therefrom,
but rather the place occupied by animal beings in the system of
creation. On the other hand, the opinion of Cardinal Pitra,
who referred the Physiologus to the more orthodox though
somewhat peculiar teaching of the Alexandrians, is fully borne
out by a close examination of the irregularities of doctrine
pointed out in the Physiologus by Cahier, all of which are to be
met with in Origen. The technical words by which the process
of allegorizing is designated in the Physiologus, like ipurjvela,
dtvpia, avaywyii, &X\ifyopla, are familiar to the students
of Alexandrian exegesis. It has, moreover, been remarked
that almost all the animals mentioned were at home in the
Egypt of those days, or at least, like the elephant, were to be seen
there occasionally, whereas the structure of the hedgehog, for
instance, is explained by a reference to the sea-porcupine, better
known to fish-buyers on the Mediterranean. The fables Of the
phoenix and of the conduct of the wild ass and the ape at the
time of the equinox owe their origin to astronomical symbols
belonging to the Nile country. 3 In both chapters an Egyptian
month is named, and elsewhere the antelope bears its Coptic
name of " antholops."

That the substance of the Physiologus was borrowed from
commentaries on Scripture 4 is confirmed by many of the sec-
tions opening with a text, followed up by some such formula as
" but the Physiologus says." When zoological records failed,
Egypto-Hellenic ingenuity was never at a loss for a fanciful
invention distilled from the text itself, but which to succeeding
copyists appeared as part of the teaching of, the original Physio-
logus. As a typical instance we may take the chapter on the
ant-lion — not the insect, but an imaginary creature suggested
by Job. iv. 11. The exceptional Hebrew for a lion (layish)
appeared to the Septuagint translators to call for a special
rendering, and as there was said to exist on the Arabian coast
a lion-like animal called " myrmex " (see Strabo xvi. 774',
Aelian, N.A., vii. 47) they ventured to give the compound noun
" myrmekoleon." After so many years the commentators had
lost the key to this unusual term, and only knew that in common
Greek " myrmex " meant an ant. So the text " the myrme-
koleon hath perished for that he had no nourishment " set them
pondering, and others reproduced their meditations, with the
following result: " The Physiologus relates about the ant-lion:
his father hath the shape of a lion, his mother that of an ant;
the father liveth upon flesh, and the mother upon herbs. And
these bring forth the ant-lion, a compound of both, and in part
like to either, for his fore part is that of a lion, and his hind part
like that of an ant. Being thus composed, he is neither able
to eat flesh like his father, nor herbs like his mother; therefore
he perisheth from inanition "; the moral follows.

At a later period, when the Church had learnt to look with
suspicion upon devotional books likely to provoke the scoffing
of some and lead others into heresy, a work of this kind could
hardly meet with her approval. A synod of Pope Gelasius, held
in 496, passed censure, among others, on the " Liber Physiologus,
qui ab haereticis conscriptus est et B. Ambrosii nomine signatus,
apocryphus," and evidence has even been offered that a similar
sentence was pronounced a century before. Still, in spite of
such measures, the Physiologus, like the Church History of
Eusebius or the Pastor of Hermas, continued to be read with
general interest, and even Gregory the Great did not disdain
to allude to it on occasion. Yet the Oriental versions, which
had certainly nothing to do with the Church of Rome, show that
there was no systematic revision made according to the catholic

3 Cp. Leemans on Horapollo i. 16, 34.

4 Including the Apocrypha. See the Icelandic account of the
elephant, also a decidedly Alexandrian fragment upon the ulipyoi,
founded upon 4 Mace. i. 3, which has got into the scholia upon the
Odyssey xviii. 2 (ii. 533, ed. Dindorf, Oxford, 1855).

PHYSIOLOGUS

553

standard of doctrine. The book remained essentially the same,
albeit great liberties were taken with its details and outward
form. There must have been many imperfect copies in circula-
tion, from which people transcribed such sections as they found
or chose, and afterwards completed their MS. as occasion served.
Some even rearranged the contents according to the alphabet
or to zoological affinity. So little was the collection considered
as a literary work with a definite text that every one assumed a
right to abridge or enlarge, to insert ideas of his own, or fresh
scriptural quotations; nor were the scribes and translators by
any means scrupulous about the names of natural objects, and
even the passages from Holy Writ. Physiologus had been
abandoned by scholars, and left to take its chance among the
tales and traditions of the uneducated mass. Nevertheless, or
rather for this very reason, its symbols found their way into
the rising literature of the vulgar tongues, and helped to quicken
the fancy of the artists employed upon church buildings and
furniture.

The history of the Physiologus has become entwined from the
beginning with that of the commentaries on the account of
creation in Genesis. The principal production of this kind in
our possession is the Hexaemeron of Basil, which contains several
passages very like those of the Physiologus. For instance, in
the seventh homily the fable of the nuptials of the viper and the
conger-eel, known already to Aelian and Oppian, and proceeding
from a curious misreading of Aristotle {Hist. An. v. 4, 540 b,
Bekk.), serves to point more than one moral. Notwithstanding
the difference in theology, passages of this kind could not but be
welcome to the admirers of the Alexandrian allegories. In fact
a medley from both Basil and the Physiologus exists under the
title of the Hexaemeron of Eustathius; some copies of the first
bear as a title Ilepi <j>vcno\oylas, and in a Milan MS. the
" morals " of the Physiologus are ascribed to Basil. The Leyden
Syriac is supplemented with literal extracts from the latter, and
the whole is presented as his work. Other copies give the
names of Gregory Theologus, Epiphanius, Chrysostom and
Isidore.

As far as can be judged, the emblems of the original Physio-
logus were the following: (i)the lion (footprints rubbed out with
tail; sleeps with eyes open; cubs receive life only three days
after birth by their father's breath); (2) the sun-lizard (restores
its sight by looking at the sun) ; (3) the charadrius (Deut. xiv.
16; presages recovery or death of patients); (4) the pelican
(recalls its young to life by its own blood); (5) the owl (or nykti-
korax; loves darkness and solitude); (6) the eagle (renews its
youth by sunlight and bathing in a fountain); (7) the phoenix
(revives from fire) ; (8) the hoopoe (redeems its parents from the
ills of old age); (9) the wild ass (suffers no male besides itself};
(10) the viper (born at the cost of both its parents' death); (n)
the serpent (sheds its skin; puts aside its venom before drinking;
is afraid of man in a state of nudity; hides its head and abandons
the rest of its body); (12) the ant (orderly and laborious; prevents
stored grain from germinating; distinguishes wheat from barley
on the stalk); (13) the sirens and onocentaurs (Isa. xiii. 21, 22;
compound creatures); (14) the hedgehog (pricks grapes upon
its quills); (13) the fox (catches birds by simulating death);
(16) the panther (spotted skin; enmity to the dragon; sleeps for
three days after meals; allures its prey by sweet odour) ; (17) the
sea-tortoise (or aspidochelone; mistaken by sailors for an island) ;
(18) the partridge (hatches eggs of other birds); (19) the vulture
(assisted in birth by a stone with loose kernel); (20) the ant-lion
(able neither to take the one food nor to digest the other);
(21) the weasel (conceives by the mouth and brings forth by the
ear); (22) the unicorn (caught only by a virgin); (23) the beaver
(gives up its testes when pursued); (24) the hyaena (a her-
maphrodite) ; (25) the otter (enhydris; enters the crocodile's mouth
to kill it); (26) the ichneumon (covers itself with mud to kill
the dragon; another version of No. 25) ; (27) the crow (takes but
one consort in its life); (28) the turtle-dove( same nature as No.
27); (29) the frog (either living on land and killed by rain, or in
the water without ever seeing the sun) ; (30) the stag (destroys
its enemy the serpent); (31) the salamander (quenches fire);

(32) the diamond (powerful against all danger); (33) the swallow
(brings forth but once; misreading of Aristotle, Hist. An. v. 13);
(34) the tree called peridexion (protects pigeons from the serpent
by its shadow); (35) the pigeons (of several colours: led by one
of them, which is of apurple or golden colour); (36) theantelope
(or hydrippus; caught by its horns in the thicket); (37) the fire-
flints (of two sexes; combine to produce fire); (38) the magnet
(adheres to iron) ; (39) the saw-fish (sails in company with ships) ;
(40) the ibis (fishes only along the shore); (41) the ibex (descries
a hunter from afar) ; (42) the diamond again (read " carbuncle "-,
found only by night) ; (43) the elephant (conceives after partaking
of mandrake; brings forth in the water; the young protected
from the serpent by the father; when fallen is lifted up only by a
certain small individual of its own kind); (44) the agate (em-
ployed in pearl-fishing); (45) the wild ass and ape (mark the
equinox) ; (46) the Indian stone (relieves patients of the dropsy) ;
(47) the heron (touches no dead body, and keeps to one dwelling-
place); (4S) the sycamore (or wild fig; grubs living inside the
fruit and coming out) ; (49) the ostrich (devours all sorts of things;
forgetful of its own eggs). Besides these, or part of them,
certain copies contain sections of unknown origin about the bee,
the stork, the tiger, the woodpecker, the spider and the wild
boar.

The Greek text of the Physiologus exists only in late MSS., and
has to be corrected from the translations. In Syriac we have a full
copy in a 12th-century Leyden MS., published in J. P. N. Land's
Anecdota syriaca; thirty-two chapters with the " morals " left out
in a very late Vatican copy, published by Tychsen ; and about the
same number in a late MS. of the British Museum (Add. 25878).
In Armenian Pitra gave some thirty-two chapters from a Paris MS.
(13th century). The Aethiopic exists both in London and Paris,
and was printed at Leipzig by Dr Hommel in 1877. In Arabic
we have fragments at Paris, of which Renan translated a specimen
for the Spicilegium solesmense, and another version of thirty-seven
chapters at Leiden, probably the work of a monk at Jerusalem,
which Land translated and printed with the Syriac. . The Latin
MSS. of Bern are, after the Vatican glossary of Ansilcubus, the oldest
of which we know; there are others in several libraries, and printed
editions by Mai, Heider and Cahier. Besides these, a few fragments
of an old 'abridgment occur in Vallarsi's edition of Jerome's works
(vol. xi. col. 218). A metrical Physiologus of but twelve chapters
is the work of Theobaldus, probably abbot of Monte Cassino (a.d.
1022-1035). From this was imitated the Old-English fragment
printed by Th. Wright, and afterwards by Maetzner; also the Old-
French Sensuyl le bestiaire d'amours. The prose Physiologus was
done into Old High German before 1000, and afterwards into rhyme
in the same idiom; since Von der Hagen (1824) its various forms
have found careful editors among the leading Germanists. The
Icelandic, in a Copenhagen MS. of the 13th century, was printed by
Professor Th. Mobius in his Analecta ncrroena (2nd ed., 1877); at
the same time he gave it in German in Dr Hommel's Aethiopic
publication. Some Anglo-Saxon metrical fragments are to be
found in Grein's Bibliothek, vol. i. The Provencal (c. 1250), pub-
lished in Bartsch's Chrestomathie provengale, omits the "morals,"
but is remarkable for its peculiarities of form. Before this there
had been translations into French dialects, as by Philippe, de Thaun
(1121), by Guillaume, " clerc de Normandie," also, about the same
period, by Pierre, a clergyman of Picardy. All the Old-French
materials have not yet been thoroughly examined, and it is far
from improbable that some versions of the book either remain to
be detected or are now lost past recovery. A full account of the
history of the Physiologus should also embrace the subjects takgn
from it in the productions of Christian art, the parodies suggested
by the original work, e.g. the Bestiaire a" amour by Richard de
Fournival, and finally, the traces left by it upon the encyclopaedical
and literary work of the later middle ages.

Nearly all the information now obtainable is to be found in the
following works and such as are there quoted : S. Epiphanius ad
physiologum, ed. Ponce de Leon (with woodcuts) (Rome, 1587);
another edition, with copper-plates (Antwerp, 1588); S.Eustathii in
hexahemeron commentarius, ed. Leo Allatius (Lyons, 1629; cf. H>
van Herwerden, Exercitt. Critt., pp. 180-182, Hague, 18S2); Physio-
logus syrus, ed. O. G. Tychsen (Rostock, 1795); Classici auctores,
ed. Mai, vii. 585-596 (Rome, 1835); G. Heider, in Archiv
fur Kunde osterreich. Geschichtsquellen ii. 545 seq. (Vienna, 1850);
Cahier and Martin, Melanges d'archeologie, &c. ii. 85 seq.
(Paris, 1851), iii. 203 seq. (1853), iv. 55 se Q- ( l8 5 6 ) < Cahier, Nouveaux
melanges (1874), p. 106 seq.; J. B. Pitra, Spicilegium solesmense in.
xlvii. seq., 338 seq., 416, 535 (Paris, 1855) ; Maetzner, Altengl: Sprach-
proben (Berlin, 1867), vol. i. pt. i. p. 55 seq.; J. Victor Carus, Gesch.
der Zoologie (Munich, 1872), p. 109 seq.; J. P. N. Land, Anecdota.
syriaca (Leiden, 1874), iv. 31 seq., 115 seq., and in Verslageri
en Mededeelingen der kon. Akad. van Wetenschappen, 2nd series,
vol. iv. (Amsterdam, 1874); Mobius and Hommel in their

554

PHYSIOLOGY

publications quoted above. See also Lauchert, Geschichte des
Physiologus (Strassburg, 1889) and E. Peters, Der griechische
Physiologus und seine orienialischen Vbersetzungen (Berlin, 1898).

PHYSIOLOGY (from Gr. <j>v<tk, nature, and X670S, discourse),
the science or theory of the properties, processes and functions
of living organisms. Physiology is distinguished from anatomy
as dealing specifically with the functions of an organism, rather
than its structure. The two main branches of the science are
animal and plant (vegetable) physiology, and in animal physi-
ology that of man stands out as primarily associated with the
word.

Ever since men began to take a scientific interest in the
problems of life two distinct rival explanatory principles of vital
phenomena have claimed attention: a natural and
Theory!' a m ystical principle. The first outcome of the
scientific attempt to explain vital phenomena after
the natural method and by a unitary principle was the doctrine
of the Pneuma, held by the followers of Hippocrates, which
found its clearest expression in Galen's system. According to
this doctrine, the origin of all vital phenomena was a very fine
substance, the Pneuma, which was supposed to exist in atmo-
spheric air, to be inhaled into the lungs of man, and thus through
the blood to reach all the parts of the body, where it produced
vital phenomena. This doctrine — an attempt to explain the
phenomena of life which was not altogether natural, but even
materialistic — was accepted by the middle ages together with
Galen's system. With its translation into the Latin spiritus,
however, the conception of the Pneuma lost its original force.
The spiritus animates of the middle ages developed ere long into
mystical powers, the result ' being the explanation of vital
phenomena by a supernatural theory. Not until the scientific
renaissance of the 16th and 17th centuries did views again
undergo a change. After the establishment of a scientific
method in physiology by William Harvey, and the development
of Descartes' mechanical system of regarding living bodies, the
natural explanation of vital phenomena once more universally
found favour. Two schools arose, which endeavoured by
dissimilar methods to find a mechanical explanation of vital
phenomena: the iatrophysical, originating with the gifted and
versatile Borelli, and the iatrochemical, founded by the Dutch-
man, F. de la Boe (Sylvius). But when both chemical and
physical methods of explanation failed at such problems as, for
instance, irritability and evolution, another change in opinion
took place. By degrees there emerged once more the tendency
to explain vital phenomena by mystical means, finding expression
in the Animism of Stahl, to quote an example; and in the second
half of the 18th century Vitalism, originating in France, began
its victorious march throughout the whole scientific world.
Again the opinion came to be entertained that the cause of vital
phenomena was a mystical power (force hypermicanique) — that
" vital force " which, neither physical nor chemical in its nature,
was held to be active in living organisms only. Vitalism
continued to be the ruling idea in physiology until about the
middle of the 19th century, and its supremacy was only gradu-
ally overthrown by the great discoveries in natural science of
that century. The chemical discoveries resulting from Wohler's
synthesis of urea first showed that typical products of the animal
body, the production of which had hitherto been supposed to be
solely the result of the operation of vital force, could be obtained
artificially by purely chemical methods. Then above all came
the discovery of the law of the Conservation of Energy by Robert
Mayer (1814-1878) and Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894),
and its application to the living organism by Mayer, Helmholtz,
Pierre Louis Dulong (1785-1838), Edward Frankland, Max
Rubner and others, to prove that the manifestations of energy
by the organism are simply the result of the quantity of potential
energy received into the body by means of food. Finally, the
stupendous results arrived at by Darwin and the establishment
of the fundamental law of " biogenesis " by Ernst Haeckel,
prepared the way for a natural explanation of the enigma of
evolution and structure of organisms. Thus by the second
half of the 19th century the doctrine of vital force was definitely

and finally overthrown to make way for the triumph of the
natural method of explaining vital phenomena, which down to
the present time has continued to spread and flourish with an
unparalleled fertility. It would, it is true, appear as if in our
day, after the lapse of half a century, mystical tendencies were
again disposed to crop up in the investigation of life. Here and
there is heard once more the watchword of Vitalism. But all
the so-called neo-vitalistic efforts — such as those of Alexander von
Bunge (1803-1890), Georg Evon Rindfleisch (b. 1835), Johannes
Reinke (b. 1849) and others — have nothing to do with the old
vitalism. They originate solely in a widespread confusion with
regard to the boundaries of natural science, their principal
tendency being to amalgamate psychological and speculative
questions with problems of purely natural science. In the face
of all these efforts, which by their unfortunate designations
of Vitalism and Neo-vitalism give rise to entirely false concep-
tions, and which by their intermingling of psychological ques-
tions and questions of natural science have led to mere confusion
in research, it is essential that natural philosophy should be
called upon to realize its own limits, and above all clearly to
understand that the sole concern of physical science is the inves-
tigation of the phenomena of the material world. Physiology,
as the doctrine of life, must therefore confine itself to the material
vital phenomena of organisms. It is self-evident, however, that
only such laws as govern the material world will be found
governing material vital phenomena — the laws, that is, which
have hitherto been brought to their most exact and most logical
development by physics and chemistry, or, more generally
speaking, by mechanics. The explanatory principles of vital
phenomena must therefore be identical with those of inorganic
nature — that is, with the principles of mechanics.

The investigation of vital phenomena in this sense requires,
in the first place, an exact knowledge of the substratum in which
these phenomena are manifested, just as in chemistry ultimate
and physics a thorough knowledge of the composition Elements of
of the material world is a necessary premise to the L,fe -
investigation of the phenomena of inorganic nature. The
knowledge of the composition and structure of organisms has in
the course of the scientific development of anatomy attained
to an ever-increasing minuteness of detail, without having
as yet reached a definite limit. The last important step in this
direction was the discovery by Matthias Jakob Schleiden
(1804-1881) and Theodor Schwann (1810-1882) that all organ-
isms are built up of elementary living structural components,
namely of cells (see Cytology). The details of the anatomical
construction of organisms are described under various appro-
priate headings, and a general guide to these will be found under
Anatomy and Zoology. We would here merely point out that
a cell is the simplest particle of living substance which appears
to be permanently capable of life. Different elements are
essential, however, to the existence of the cell — two, at least, so
far as has hitherto been discovered — the protoplasm and the
nucleus. It must at present be regarded as at least very
doubtful whether the centrosome, which in recent times it has
been possible to demonstrate as existing in very many cells,
and which appears sometimes in the protoplasm, sometimes in
the nucleus, is a general and third independent cell-constituent.
On the other hand, the number of special constituent parts which
appear in various cell-forms is very large. A question which
has long been discussed, and which has received special and
animated attention, is that with regard to the finer structure
of the cells — with regard, that is, to the protoplasm and the
nucleus lying in it. Views on this subject have diverged very
widely, and several totally diverse theories have been opposed
to one another. One theory maintains that the living cell-
substance has a reticular structure; another, that it is fibrillous.
According to a third theory, the essence of the construction of
the cell-substance lies in the granules which it contains; and
according to a fourth, it lies in the ground-substance in which
these granules are embedded. One view holds this ground
substance to be homogeneous, another regards it as possessing
a fine foam-structure. It may at present be regarded as

PHYSIOLOGY

555

Incontrovertible that living substance is more or less fluid, and
that there does not exist any general structure for all cell-forms.
But in some special cases all the theories which have been quoted
are to a certain extent correct. In different cells there are
reticular, fibrillous and granular differentiations respectively,
and differentiations in foam-structure; in many cells, however,
the protoplasm appears to be beyond doubt homogeneous and
without a distinct structure, and only under certain conditions
to assume changing structures. But the fact which is of most
importance for the right understanding of vital phenomena
is that the cell-substance is always more or less fluid, for only
in a fluid substratum can such intense chemical processes be
enacted as are to be found in every living cell.

Where the analytical powers of the microscope in anatomy
can go no farther, chemical analysis of the composition of the
cell steps in. By its means the discovery is made that there is
no elementary difference between organic and inorganic nature,
for only such chemical elements as are known to exist in the
inorganic world are found in the organic. On the other hand,
however, the living cell-substance possesses chemical compounds
which find analogues nowhere in inorganic nature. The charac-
teristic organic substances which are present in every cell are
proteids and proteid-compounds. Besides these there occur,
widely disseminated, carbohydrates, fats and other organic
substances, which partly originate in the decomposition of
proteids and their compounds, and are partly used for their
construction. Lastly, there are in addition great quantities of
water and some inorganic salts.

Such are the structure and composition of the substratum
in which vital phenomena play their part. When we consider
General vital phenomena themselves in the various living
Phenomena organisms — in protista, plants, animals, man — there
of Lite. appears an incalculable diversity of phenomena.
Here, however, as in the case of the structure of organisms,
we have to analyse and to penetrate ever farther and deeper
till we reach the fundamental phenomena. We then find
that the great variety of vital manifestations may be traced
back to a few fundamental general groups, which are precisely
the same groups of phenomena as those to be observed in in-
organic nature. All the processes that take place in the organic
world may be regarded from the three different standpoints of
their changes in substance, in energy and in form; for substance,
energy and form are all necessary to our conception of matter.
Accordingly, the general elementary vital phenomena likewise
fall into three groups — metabolism, the mechanism of energy,
and the assumption of form. Every cell, so long as it is living,
takes in certain substances from its environment, submits them
to chemical transformation in its interior, and gives out other
substances. This metabolism is manifested in several special
functions — in nutrition and digestion, respiration and circu-
lation, secretion and excretion. The essence of the whole
process is the fact that while out of these ingested stuffs
living substance is always again being formed by the living
substance which already exists, it is itself continually under-
going decomposition, and the products of this decomposition
are what the cell gives off again to the outside. With
metabolism, however, there is inseparably associated a
transformation of energy. These substances taken in by
the cell contain a large quantity of potential energy, which
is transformed into kinetic energy. This has for its result the
manifold activities of the organism, more especially motion, heat,
electricity and light. Finally, the chemical transformations in
living substance may also manifest themselves outwardly in
changes of form, as is the case generally in the matter of growth,
reproduction and development. The three general elementary
groups of vital phenomena are therefore in reality merely the
expression of the various aspects of one and the same process
— of the actual vital process itself. The ultimate object
of all physiology is to discover what this vital process is — that
is to say, what is the exact cause of these manifold vital
phenomena — a goal from which it is at the present day still very
remote.

As every physical and chemical phenomenon of inorganic
nature occurs only under distinct conditions, so vital phenomena
are also dependent upon certain conditions of life.
Every living body, every living cell, requires food, t Life.
water, oxygen, and, further, a certain temperature
and a certain pressure in its environment. These are the general
conditions of life. But the special conditions on which depends
the continued existence of the individual forms of organism are as
numerous as the forms of organisms themselves. Now, just as
the physicist or chemist varies those conditions under which a
phenomenon occurs in order to get at its causes, so does the
physiologist try to experiment with vital phenomena, altering
the vital conditions: and testing the changes which are thereby
produced. The great importance of this method consists in
the power it gives the experimenter of analysing vital phenomena
systematically from definite points of view. Every change in
its normal vital conditions which produces any effect whatsoever
upon an organism is termed a stimulus. This is the only general
definition we have for a conception which is of such vast impor-
tance to physiology. According to it, experimental physiology
is entirely a physiology of stimuli. It further follows from this
conception of stimulation that there must be an enormous
multiplicity of stimuli, since each particular vital condition may
be subjected to some change capable of acting upon it as a
stimulus. But, besides this, other factors may be brought to
bear upon organisms which have absolutely no place among
their vital conditions: for instance, many chemical reagents and
electric currents. These influences come under the general
definition of stimulus, because they likewise imply a change
in the conditions under which the organism lives. From their
qualitative nature stimuli are distinguished as chemical, thermal,
photic, mechanical and electrical. Each of these several
varieties may, however, be applied quantitatively in various
degrees of intensity, and may in consequence produce quite
different results. This opens up to experimental physiology a
vast field of research. But the physiology of stimulation is
not only of the greatest value as a means of research: its
importance is much increased by the fact that in nature itself
stimuli are everywhere and constantly acting upon the
organism and its parts. Hence the investigation of their
action comes to be not merely a means, but a direct end of
research.

Although it is not at present possible to define all the laws that
govern stimulation, on the one hand because the number of
stimulating effects known to us in the whole organic
world is as yet too limited, and on the other because stimuli. °
those already known have not yet been thoroughly
analysed, yet it is within our power to classify stimula-
ting effects according to their various characteristics, and
to ascertain a few facts concerning their general and funda-
mental conformity to law. The first fact, apparent from
a glance at a great many of the various forms of stimulation,
is that all their effects are manifested in either a quanti-
tative or a qualitative alteration of the characteristic vital
phenomena of each living object. The quantitative is the
usual mode of action of stimuli. It is generally found that a
stimulus either increases or diminishes the intensity of vital
phenomena. In the first case the effect is one of excitation; in
the second of depression. It is the more important to bear in
mind this twofold operation of stimuli, owing to the fact that
in former times physiologists were very apt to conceive of
excitation and stimulation as identical. It is now, however, an
undisputed fact that depression may also occur as a typical effect
of stimulation. This is most apparent in cases where the same
stimulus that produces excitation may on being applied for a
longer period and with greater intensity, produce depression.
Thus narcotics (alcohol, ether, chloroform, morphia, &c.) on
certain forms of living substance produce the phenomena of
excitation when their action is weak, whereas when it is stronger
they produce complete depression. Thus, likewise, temperature
stimuli act differently upon vital phenomena according to the
degree of temperature: very low temperatures depressing

556

PHYSIOLOGY

medium temperatures exciting with increasing intensity, and
higher temperatures from a certain height upwards again de-
pressing. The effects of stimulation are not, however, always
manifested in merely quantitative changes of the normal vital
phenomena. Sometimes, especially in the case of long uninter-
rupted and chronic stimuli, stimulation is found gradually to
produce phenomena which are apparently quite foreign to the
normal vital phenomena of the cell in question. Such qualitative
alterations of normal vital phenomena are perceptible chiefly in
chronic maladies in the cells of different organs (the heart, liver,
kidneys, spleen, &c), in which the vital conditions become
gradually more and more modified by the cause of the malady.
To this category pertain all the so-called chronic processes of
degeneration which in pathology are known as fatty degeneration,
mucous degeneration, amyloid degeneration, and so forth. The
characteristic element in all these processes is that the normal
metabolism is diverted into a wrong channel by the altered vital
conditions of the cells of the organ affected, so that substances
are formed and accumulated in the cell which are entirely foreign
to its normal life. But this class of stimulation is still very
obscure as regards causes and inner processes, and it is within
the range of possibility that the ultimate cause of the qualitative
changes in the normal metabolism is to be found simply in the
processes of excitation and depression which chronic stimulation
produces in separate parts of the metabolism. Thus, at least
with regard to fat-metamorphosis (fatty degeneration), it is
highly probable that fat is deposited in the protoplasm simply
because, owing to an inadequate supply of oxygen, it cannot,
when it originates, be oxidized in the same proportion as it is
formed, whereas in the normal cell all fat which originates in
metabolism is consumed as soon as it is produced. According
to this conception, therefore, fatty degeneration is attributable
primarily to a depression of the processes of oxidation in the cell.
If we may accept this view as correct with regard to the other
metamorphic processes also, the qualitative changes in vital
phenomena under the influence of stimuli would after all depend
simply upon the excitation or depression of the constituent parts
of the vital process, and, according to such a view, all stimuli
would act primarily only as exciting or as depressing agents upon
the normal process of life.

In accordance with the three groups into which general vital
phenomena are divided, it follows as a matter of course that the
excitation or depression produced by a stimulus can manifest
itself in the cell's metabolism, assumption of form, and mani-
festation of energy. The effects of excitation upon the produc-
tion of energy are the most striking, and were therefore in former
times frequently thought to have a claim par excellence to rank
as stimulating effects. These reactions attract most attention
in cases where the production of energy is proportionately very
great— as with muscle, for instance, which is made to twitch and
perform work by a feeble stimulus. Processes of discharge
(Auslosungsvorgange), however, lie at the bottom of cases like
these. Potential chemical energy, which is stored up in a con-
siderable quantity in living substance, is converted by the
impulse of the stimulus into kinetic energy. Therefore the
amount of the effect of stimulation— Hhat is to say, the quantity
of work performed — bears no proportion whatever to the amount
of energy acting as a stimulus upon the muscle. The amount
of energy thus acting may be very small as contrasted with an
enormous production of energy on the part of the living sub-
stance. It will not do to make generalizations, however, with
regard to this proportion, as was frequently done in former
times. All processes of stimulation are not processes of discharge.
The influence of many stimuli, as has been observed, consists
far more in depression than in excitation, so that in certain
circumstances a stimulus actually diminishes the normal
liberation of energy. There is therefore no general law as to
the proportion which the amount of energy acting as a stimulus
upon living substance bears to the amount of energy liberated.

Among special varieties of stimulation there is one class of
stimuli which has attracted particular attention — namely, those
which act unilaterally upon free-moving organisms. It is

principally with the lowest forms of life that we have here to do
—unicellular protista and free-living cells in the bodies of higher
organisms (sperm-cells, leucocytes, &c). When from Directive
one direction a stimulus — be it chemical, thermal, stimuia-
photic, electrical, or of any other kind — acts upon tioa -
these organisms in their medium, they are impelled to move in a
course bearing a definite relation to the source of the stimulus —
either directly towards that source or directly away from it,
more rarely in a course transverse to it. This directive action
of stimulation is under such a fixed conformity to law, that it
vividly recalls such purely physical processes as, for instance, the
attraction and repulsion of iron particles by the poles of a magnet.
For example, if light falls from one side upon a vessel full of water
containing unicellular green algae, according to the intensity of
the light these organisms swim either towards the illuminated
side, where they form a compact mass on the edge of the vessel,
or away from it, to cluster on the opposite edge. In the same
way infusoria in water are observed to hasten towards or to flee
from certain chemical substances, and leucocytes in our bodies
act in the same manner towards the metabolic products of pus-
forming bacteria which have penetrated into an open wound.
The suppuration of wounds is always accompanied by an
amazing conglomeration of leucocytes at the seat of the lesion.
Perhaps the most striking effects are those of the constant
electric current upon unicellular organisms, since in this case
the motion follows the cause with absolutely automatic regularity,
certainty and rapidity. Thus, for example, after the establishment
of the current many Infusoria (Paramaecium) accumulate at the
negative pole with great celerity and without deviation, and turn
round again" with equal celerity as soon as the direction of the
current is altered. As such cases of directive stimulation may
occur among all varieties of stimuli whenever stimuli act unilater-
ally, they have been designated, according to the direction in
which they occur in relation to the source of the stimulus, as
positive or negative chemotaxis, phototaxis, thermotaxis,
galvanotaxis, and so forth. The strange and perplexing element
in these phenomena becomes clear to us as soon as we know the
characteristic method of locomotion for each form of organism,
and whether the stimulus in question in the given intensity
exercises an effect of excitation or of depression upon the special
form. The direction of motion is the essential mechanical
result of unilateral stimulation of the organs of locomotion.
Seeing that these reactions are exceedingly widely distributed
throughout the whole organic world, and possess a deep biological
significance for the existence and continuance of life, the interest
they have awakened is thoroughly justified.

One of the most important physiological discoveries of the
19th century was that of the " Specific Energy of Sense-sub-
stances." Johannes Muller was the first to establish
the fact that very different varieties of stimuli applied Bneny ••
to one and the same organ of sense always produce
one and the same variety of sensation, and that, conversely, the
same stimulus applied to the different organs of sense produces a 1
different sensation in each organ — the one, in fact, which is its
specific attribute. Thus, for example, mechanical, electrical
and photic stimuli applied to the optic nerve produce no other
sensation than that of light; and, conversely, any one variety of
stimulus — take the electrical, for example — produces sensations
of light, hearing, taste or smell, according as it affects the optic,
auditory, gustatory or olfactory nerves. This law of the
" Specific Energy of Sense-substances," as Johannes Muller
(1809-1875) called it, has come to have a highly important
bearing upon scientific criticism, since it proves experimentally
that the things of the outer world are in themselves in no way
discernible by us, but that from one and the same outward object
— -the electric current, or a mechanical pressure, for instance — we
receive altogether different sensations and form altogether
different conceptions according to the sense-organ affected.
But this law does not possess significance for psychology alone;
as regards physiology also it has a much more general and more
comprehensive force than Muller ever anticipated. It holds
good, as demonstrated by Ewald Hering (b. 1834) and others,

PHYSIOLOGY

557

not of sense-substances only, but of living substance generally,
Each cell has its specific energy in Johannes Miiller's sense, and
in its extended form there is no more general law for all the
operations of stimuli than this law of specific energy. To take
examples, whether a muscle be stimulated by a chemical, '
mechanical, thermal or electrical stimulus the result is in each
case the same — namely, a twitching of the muscle. Let a salivary
gland be stimulated chemically, mechanically, electrically or
in any other way, there always follows the same specific action —
a secretion of saliva; no matter what be the kind of stimulus
acting upon it, the liver-cell always reacts by producing bile,
and so on. On the other hand, one and the same stimulus — the
electric current, for example — gives in each form of living
substance a specific result: twitching in the muscle, secretion
of saliva in the salivary gland, production of bile in the liver-cell,
&c. That is, of course, with the proviso that the effect of the
stimulus be exciting and not depressing. The following general
formulation, however, of the law of specific energy brings the
depressing stimuli also within its scope: " Different stimuli
produce in each form of living substance an increase or a dimi-
nution of its specific activity." As already observed, it will
probably be found that those weak chronic forms of stimulation
which produce qualitative changes may also be comprised MKter
this general law.

The knowledge thus far acquired from analysis of vital
phenomena and their changes under the influence of stimuli
affords but a very indefinite temporary basis for
of Lite. trie theory of the actual vital process itself, of
which vital phenomena are the outward manifes-
tation. The conceptions to which physiological research has
hitherto attained in this matter are of a more or less doubt-
ful nature. The facts contained in them still require to be
linked together by hypotheses if we are ' to obtain even a
vague outline of what lies hidden behind the great riddle of life.
Such hypotheses, serving as they do to link facts consistently
together, are absolutely essential, however, to the further
progress of research, and without their aid any systematic
investigation would be impracticable. But at the same time it
must never be forgotten that these hypotheses are merely
provisional, and that whenever they are found to be no longer
in harmony with the widening range of new experiences and
ideas they must either be proved to be facts or be subjected to
modification. This is the point of view from which we must
deal with modern ideas concerning the nature of the actual vital
process — the mechanism of life.

The fundamental fact of life is ' the metabolism of living
substance which is continually and spontaneously undergoing
Metabolism decomposition, and building itself up anew with
the help of the food-substances it takes in. These
processes of decomposition and of reconstruction may be
briefly designated as dissimilation (catabolism) and assimilation
(anabolism) respectively. Now the question arises: How are
we to understand this process of dissimilation and assimilation
from a mechanical standpoint? It is quite evident that we
have to do with some chemical occurrence; but how are the
chemical transformations brought about? There are obviously
two possibilities. It is conceivable that the decomposition of
food -stuffs and the formation of excretion-products in the cell-
body are caused by the repeated casual encounter of a great series
of chemical combinations and by their repeatedly reacting upon
one another in the same manner, bringing about transformations
and forming waste products which are excreted, while at the same
time certain chemical affinities are always taking in from without
new chemical combinations (food-stuffs) and uniting them.
This theory was in fact occasionally advanced in former times,
particularly in its chemical aspect, and the belief was especially
entertained that the enzymes in living substance might play an
important part in these transformations. This assumption,
however, leads to no clear and lucid image of what takes place,
and, moreover, draws too largely upon auxiliary hypotheses. It
has therefore met with but little acceptance. The other possible
explanation of metabolism is that its. whole process is confined

to one single class of chemical combinations whose tendency it
is to be constantly undergoing spontaneous decomposition and
regeneration. This latter theory was founded by Ludimar
Hermann (b, 1838), Eduard Friedrich Pfliiger (b. 1829) and
others, and has met with universal recognition because of its
naturalness, simplicity and clearness.

Starting with this hypothesis, the path of further research
lies clear and well defined before us. In the first place, we are
obviously met by the question: What conception are Proteias.
we to form of these combinations on which hinges the
whole vital process? Among the organic matters which compose
living substance, proteids perform the most important part.
Proteids and proteid-compounds form the only organic matter
which is never absent from any cell. They form also the greater
part of all the organic compounds of the cell, unless reserve-stuffs
are accumulated to a considerable extent, and they are by far
the most complicated of the compounds of living substance.
While animal life is impossible without profeid food, there are,
on the other hand, animals which can continue to subsist oh
proteid alone. This series of facts proves very conclusively
that proteids and their compounds play by far the most impor-
tant part of all organic matter in the processes of life. The idea
thus naturally presents itself that the required hypothetical
compound forming the central point of metabolism will be
found to bear a very close relation to proteids. But another
point must be here considered. The proteids and their com-
pounds known to us are, comparatively speaking, stable com-
pounds, which never undergo spontaneous decomposition Be-
long as they are protected from outward injury, whereas: the
hypothetical combination whioh lies at the centre of organic
metabolism is extraordinarily liable and continually undergoing
spontaneous decomposition. Therefore we have to think n<3t df
ordinary proteids in this case, but of. still more complicated
combinations, the atoms in the molecule of which have a strong
tendency to group themselves in new arrangements.- Owing to
their fundamental importance, these combinations have been
termed " biogens." When we come to inquire how such labile
biogen molecules are built up out of the proteids of food, we
find our knowledge very much restricted. Doubtless the intra-
molecular addition of inspired oxygen has much to do with it;
for living substance when deprived of oxygen loses its irritability
— that is to say, its tendency to decomposition. The fact that the
decomposition of living substance is always associated with the
formation of carbonic acid — -a circumstance obviously necessi-
tating the aid of oxygen — also points to the absolute indis-
pensableness of oxygen in the matter. Pfliiger has further
suggested that the molecule of living substance owes its lability
and its tendency to form carbonic acid when joined by oxygen
atoms principally to cyanogen groups which are contained in it.
According to this view, the following is supposed to be the process
of the formation of biogen molecules: It is assumed that the
biogen molecules already present in living substance take out
of the proteids of food certain groups of atoms, and dispose them
so as to produce cyanogen-like compounds. The addition of
oxygen atoms then brings the biogen molecule to the maximum
of its power of decomposition, so that- — partly spontaneously,
but more especially when impelled by a stimulus — it breaks
down somewhat explosively, causing the formation of carbonic
acid. In this proceeding, according to the hypothesis which is
the most widely accepted and the most fruitful in results, would
lie the very germ of the vital process.

If we accept these views as far as their general principle is
concerned, assimilation is the re-formation of biogen molecules
by those already existing, aided by food-stuffs;
dissimilation, the decomposition of biogen molecules. of ceii-nte.
To this primary process, however, is attached a whole
series of secondary chemical processes, which serve partly to work
upon the food so as to fit it for the building up of biogen mole-
cules, and partly to form out of the direct decomposition-products
of the biogen molecules the characteristic secretion-products
of living substance (excretions and secretions). The various
workings of matter in the cell are rendered very much more

55»

PIACENZA

complex by the circumstance that the living cell exhibits various
morphological differentiations — above all, the differentiation in
protoplasm and nucleus. Again, a transformation of energy is
inseparably connected with metabolism. Along with food and
oxygen potential chemical energy is continually being introduced
into the cell, to be accumulated in the biogen molecules, and at
their decomposition transformed into kinetic energy, which finds
an outlet in the various manifestations of energy in the cell —
motion, heat, and so forth. In the light of this hypothesis the
operations of stimuli also become comprehensible. Seeing that
there is an initial tendency to the occurrence of certain definite
chemical processes, which are associated with the reconstruction
and decomposition of biogen molecules, various stimuli will
either further or hinder the course of this metabolic series. A
cell which is exposed to no outward disturbance, and which
continues always in the unvarying medium provided by an exact
sufficiency of food, will be in " metabolic equilibrium "—that is
to say, its assimilation and its dissimilation will be equal (A = D).
When, however, the influence of external stimuli is brought to
bear upon them — that is to say, any change in their environing
vital conditions — A and D will either be altered in similar
proportion, or their mutual equilibrium will be disturbed. In
the former case the vital processes will merely be intensified in
their course; in the latter and usual case the result will be deter-
mined according to the part of metabolism excited or depressed.
When the effect of a stimulus is to excite D continuously in a
high degree without correspondingly increasing A, the result is a
dying off — an atrophy. In the contrary case, when A remains
continuously greater than D, the result is growth, increase and
Metabolic reproduction of the cell. Experience proves, how-
Bquiu- ever, that A and D stand in a certain relation of
brium. mutual dependence to each other, with the result
that when D has been increased by a stimulus, for example, A
correspondingly increases during the stimulation, and continues
to do so after its cessation, till the loss in living substance
produced by the stimulation of D is eventually made good, and
metabolic equilibrium is restored. The muscle may be taken as
an example of this self-regulation of metabolism common to all
living substance (Hering's Selbststeuerung des Stoffwechsels).
When a muscle has been fatigued by some stimulation causing an
enormous increase of D, there is a corresponding spontaneous
increase in A. After some time the muscle is observed to have
recovered. It has once more become capable of performing
work ; its metabolism is again in equilibrium.

The vital phenomena of the cell may be derived mechanically
from metabolism and the changes it undergoes under the
influence of stimuli. Our ability to do this will increase more
rapidly as we become better acquainted with the details of the
metabolism of the cell itself. The foregoing outline must be
regarded, of course, as embodying only a fragmentary hypo-
thesis, which can serve as a guide for further research only so
long as it does not clash with facts, and which must be amplified,
specialized and developed with the widening of specific knowledge
regarding the cell's metabolism. The relations already known
are so exceedingly complex that only by slow degrees can we
pursue the investigation of separate fragments of the entire
metabolic series. The differentiation of nucleus and protoplasm
in the living substance of the cell alone gives rise to an extra-
ordinary complication in the metabolic process, for these two
parts of the cell stand in the most complicated correlation with
Qe U . one another as well as with the environing medium — a

Processes fact of which the experiments made by vivisection
the Secret j n various free-living cell-forms have furnished
° abundant evidence. The farther such knowledge

advances, the more rounded, clear and free from hypotheses
will become our conception of the cell's metabolism. But
the cell is the elementary component part of all organisms,
and from the life of individual cells is constructed the life
of the separate tissues and various organs, and thus of the
entire organism. Hence the cell is the only vital element
which the organism possesses, and therefore the investi-
gation of the vital processes in its separate cells leads

ultimately to a knowledge regarding the mechanism of life
in the whole.

Vegetable physiology is dealt with in the article Plants : Physio-
logy. For details of different parts of the animal body, see Animal
Heat ; Respiratory System ; Vascular System ; Touch ; Smell ;
Taste; Vision; Hearing; Voice; Muscle and Nerve; Sleep;
Hypnotism; Brain; Spinal Cord; Sympathetic System; Blood;
Lymph; Phagocytosis; Digestive Organs; Nutrition, &c.

The principal modern English textbooks of animal physiology
are those of Sir Michael Foster (1885), A. E. Schafer (1898), Noel
Paton (1908), Halliburton (1909), and Starling (1909). See, how-
ever, the bibliographical notes to the separate articles. (M. V.)

PIACENZA (Lat. Placentia), a town and episcopal see of
Emilia, Italy, the capital of the province of Piacenza, 42 1 m.
S.E. of Milan and 91 m. N.W. of Bologna by rail. Pop. (1906),
39,786. It lies on the Lombard plain, 217 ft. above sea-level,
near the right bank of the Po, which here is crossed by road and
railway bridges, just below the confluence of the Trebia. It is
still surrounded by walls with bastions and fosse in a circuit of
4 m. The cathedral was erected between 1122 and 1233, in the
Lombard Romanesque style, under the direction of Santo da
Sambuceto, on the site of a church of the 9th century which had
been destroyed by earthquake. The west front has three doors
with curious pillared porches. The campanile is a massive square
brick tower 223 ft. high; the iron cage attached to one of its
windows was put up in 1495 by Ludovico il Moro for the confine-
ment of persons guilty of treason or sacrilege. The crypt is a
large church supported by one hundred columns. The entire
edifice has been restored since 1898, and the frescoes by Guercino
and Caracci, which decorate parts of its roof, though good in
themselves, are inappropriate to its severe style. Sant' Antonino,
which was the cathedral church till 877, is supposed to have been
founded by St Victor, the first bishop of Piacenza, in the 4th
century, and restored in 903; it was rebuilt in 1104, and altered in
1857. It was within its walls that the deputies of the Lombard
League swore to the conditions of peace ratified in 1183 at Con-
stance. The Gothic brick vestibule (II Paradiso) on the north
side is one of the older parts of the building. San Francesco, a
spacious Gothic edifice begun by the Franciscans in 1278, was
erected on the site of the palace of Ubertino Landi, a leader
of the Ghibelline party. S. Savino, a fine Romanesque building of
a.d. 903 (well restored in 1903), contains a mosaic pavement of
this period with curious representations, including one of a game
of chess. S. Sisto, which dates from 1499, and takes the place of
the church founded in 874 by Angilberga (consort of the emperor
Louis II.), lost its chief attraction when Raphael's Sistine
Madonna (now in Dresden) was sold by the monks in 1734 to
Frederick Augustus III. Its place, however, is occupied by a
copy by Avanzini, and there are also several good intarsias by
Bartolomeo da Busseto. S. Sepolcro and S. Maria della Campagna
are both good early Renaissance churches; the latter is rich in
frescoes by Pordenone. S. Anna, dating from 1334, was the
church of the barefooted Carmelites. Of the secular buildings
the most interesting is the Palazzo Communale, begun in 1281,
one of the finest buildings of its kind in Italy. The square in
front is known as the Piazza dei Cavalli, from the two bronze
equestrian statues of Ranuccio (1620) and his father Alexander,
prince of Parma, governor of the Netherlands (1625). Both were
designed by Francesco Mocchi. The Palazzo dei Tribunali and
the Palazzo degli Scoti are fine early Renaissance brick buildings
with terra-cotta decorations. The huge Farnese palace was begun
after Vignola's designs by Margaret of Austria in 1558, but it was
never completed, and since 1800 it has been used as barracks.
Other buildings or institutions of note are the old and the new
bishop's palace, the fine theatre designed by Lotario Tomba in
1803, the great hospital dating from 147 1, the library presented
to the commune in 1846 by the marquis Ferdinando Landi, and
the Passerini library founded in 1685. The Museo Civico,
formed in 1903, contains collections of antiquities (though many
of the Roman antiquities of Piacenza have passed to the museum
of Parma), some good Flemish tapestries and a few pictures.
The castle erected by Antonio da Sangallo the younger has been
demolished. Piacenza is the junction of the Milan and Bologna
line with that from Voghera and Turin. From Codogno, 7 m.

PIANOFORTE

559

to the north, a branch line runs to Cremona. By road Piacenza
is 88 m. north-east of Genoa. The town has an arsenal, a
technical and arts school, and various industries — iron and brass
works, foundries, silk-throwing, printing works and flour-
mills.

Piacenza was made a Roman colony in 218 B.C. While its
walls were yet unfinished it had to repulse an attack by the
Gauls, and in the latter part of 218 it afforded protection to the
remains of the Roman army under Scipio which had been de-
feated in the great battle on the Trebia. In 205 it withstood a
protracted siege by Hasdrubal. Five years later the Gauls
burned the city; and in 190 it had to be recruited with three
thousand families. In 187 it was connected with Ariminum and
the south by the construction of the Via Aemilia. Later on it
became a very important road centre; the continuation north-
wards of the Via Aemilia towards Milan, with a branch to Ticinum,
crossed the Po there, and the Via Postumia from Cremona to
Dertona and Genoa passed through it. Later still Augustus
reconstructed the road from Dertona to Vade, and into Gallia
Narbonensis, and gave it the name of Julia Augusta from
Placentia onwards. The rectangular arrangement of the streets
in the centre of the town, through which passes the Via Aemilia,
is no doubt a survival from Roman times. Placentia is mentioned
in connexion with its capture by Cinna and a defeat of the forces
of Carbo in the neighbourhood (82 B.C.), a mutiny of Julius
Caesar's garrison (50 B.C.), another mutiny under Augustus
(40 B.C.), the defence of the city by Spurinna, Otho's general,
against Caecina, Vitellius's general (a.d. 69), and the defeat of
Aurelian by the Marcomanni outside the walls (a.d. 271). In
546 Totila reduced Piacenza by famine. Between 997 and 1035
the city was governed by its bishops, who had received the title
of count from Otho III. At Roncaglia, 5 m. to the east, the
emperor Conrad II. held the diet which passed the Salic law. In
the latter part of the 12th century it was one of the leading
members of the Lombard League. For the most part it remained
Guelph, though at times, as when it called in Galeazzo Visconti,
it was glad to appeal to a powerful Ghibelline for aid against its
domestic tyrants. In 1447 the city was captured and sacked by
Francesco Sforza. Having been occupied by the papal forces
in 1512, it was in 1545 united with Parma (q.v.) to form an here-
ditary duchy for Pierluigi Farnese, son of Paul III. In 1746 a
battle between the Franco-Spanish forces and the Austrians was
fought under the city walls, and in 1796 it was occupied by
the French. In 1848 Piacenza was the first of the towns of
Lombardy to join Piedmont; but it was reoccupied by the
Austrians till 1859.

PIANOFORTE (Ital. piano, soft, and forte, loud). The group
of keyed stringed musical instruments, among which the piano-
forte is latest in order of time, has been invented and step by
step developed with the modern art of music, which is based
upon the simultaneous employment of different musical sounds.
In the 10th century the " organum " arose, an elementary
system of accompaniment to the voice, consisting of fourths and
octaves below the melody and moving with it; and the organ
(q.v.), the earliest keyed instrument, was, in the first instance, the
rude embodiment of this idea and convenient means for its
expression. There was as yet no keyboard of balanced key
levers; sliders were drawn out like modern draw-stops, to admit
the compressed air necessary to make the pipes
Evolution. soun( i. About the same time arose a large stringed
instrument, the organistrum, 1 the parent of the
now obsolete hurdy-gurdy; as the organ needed a blower as
well as an organist, so the player of the organistrum required
a handle-turner, by whose aid the three strings of the instru-
ment were made to sound simultaneously upon a wheel, and,
according to the well-known sculptured relief of St George
de Boscherville, one string was manipulated by means of a

1 An organistrum is shown in the lower right hand corner of the
full page miniature of a fine 12th century psalter of English work-
manship, forming part of the Hunterian collection in University
Court Library, Glasgow. No. 31 in Catalogue of the Exhibition of
Illuminated MSS. at the Burlington Fine Arts Club (1908).

row of stoppers or tangents pressed inwards to produce the
notes. The other strings were drones, analogous to the drones
of the bagpipes, but originally the three strings followed the
changing organum.

In the nth century, the epoch of Guido d'Arezzo, to whom the
beginning of musical notation is attributed, the Pythagorean
monochord, with its shifting bridge, was used in the singing
schools to teach the intervals of the plain-song of the church.
The practical necessity, not merely of demonstrating the pro-
portionate relations of the intervals, but also of initiating pupils
into the different gradations of the church tones, had soon after
Guido's time brought into use quadruplex-fashioned monochords,
which were constructed with scales, analogous to the modern
practice with thermometers which are made to show both
Reaumur and Centigrade, so that four lines
indicated as many authentic and as many plagal clavichord.'
tones. This arrangement found great acceptance,
for Aribo, 2 writing about fifty years after Guido, says that
few monochords were to be found without it. Had the clavi-
chord then been known, this make-
shift contrivance would not have
been used. Aribo strenuously en-
deavoured to improve it, and " by
the grace of God " invented a mono-
chord measure which, on account of
the rapidity of the leaps he could
make with it, he named a wild-goat
(caprea). Jean de Muris (Musica
speculativa, 1323) teaches how true
relations may be found by a single-
string monochord, but recommends
a four-stringed one, properly a
tetrachord, to gain a knowledge of
unfamiliar intervals. He describes
the musical instruments known in
his time, but does not mention the
clavichord or monochord with keys,
which could not have been then
invented. Perhaps one of the earliest
forms of such an instrument, in which
stoppers or tangents had been
adopted from the organistrum, is

shown in fig. 1, from a wood carving representation of a Keyed
of a vicar choral or organist, pre- Stringed Instrument, from

S cT ed K in %, M r' S , ChUrCh ' (primSlkvicS!'^
Shrewsbury. The latest date to f ore I4 6o.

which this interesting figure may be

attributed is 1460, but the conventional representation shows
that the instrument was then already of a past fashion, although
perhaps still retained in use and familiar to the carver.

In the Weimar Wunderbuch, 3 a MS. dated 1440, with pen and
ink miniatures, is given a " clavichordium " having 8 short and
apparently 16 \or\g keys, the artist has drawn 12 strings in a
rectangular case, but no tangents are visible. A keyboard of
balanced keys existed in the little portable organ known as the
regal, so often represented in old carvings, paintings and stained
windows. Vitruvius, De architectura, lib. x. cap. xi., translated
by Newton, describes a balanced keyboard; but the key appar-
atus is more particularly shown in The Pneumatics of Hero of
Alexandria, translated by Bennet Woodcroft (London, 1851).
In confirmation of this has been the remarkable recovery at
Carthage ' of a terra-cotta model of a Hydraulikon or water
organ, dating from the 2nd century a.d., in which a balanced
keyboard of 18 or 19 keys is shown. It seems likely the balanced
keyboard was lost, and afterwards reinvented. The name of

* See " Musica aribonls scholastici," printed by Martin Gerbert
in Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra (1784), ii. 197; and in J. P.
Migne, Patrologiae cursus computus, vol. 150, col. 1307.

s Grossherzogliche Bibliothek. See also Dr Alwin Schulz, Deutsches
Leben im xiy. and xv. Jahrhund. (Vienna, 1892), p. 58, fig. 522.

* For an illustration of this important piece of evidence, see under
Organ: Ancient History; and for description and illustration of
balanced keys, see Keyboard.

Fig. i.-^-Earliest existing

56o

PIANOFORTE

regal was derived from the rule (regula) or graduated scale of
keys, and its use was to give the singers in religious processions
the note or pitch. The only instrument of this kind known to
exist in the United Kingdom is at Blair Atholl, and it bears the
very late date of 1630. The Brussels regal 1 may be as modern.
These are instances of how long a some-time admired musical
instrument may remain in use after its first intention is forgotten.
We attribute the adaptation of the narrow regal keyboard to
what was still called the monochord, but was now a complex of
monochords over one resonance board, to the latter half of the
14th century; it was accomplished by the substitution of tangents
fixed in the future ends of the balanced keys for the movable
bridges of the monochord or such stoppers as are shown in the
Shrewsbury carving. Thus the monochordium or " payre of
monochordis " became the clavichordium or " payre of clavi-
chordis " — pair being applied, in the old sense of a " pair of
steps," to a series of degrees. This use of the word to imply
gradation was common in England to all keyed instruments;
thus we read, in the Tudor period and later, of a pair of regals,
organs, or virginals. Ed. van der Straeten 2 reproduces a so-
called clavichord of the 15th century from a MS. in the public
library at Ghent. The treatise is anonymous, but other treatises
in the same MS. bear dates 1503 and 1504. Van der Straeten
is of opinion that the drawing may be assigned to the middle of
the 15th century. The scribe calls the instrument a clavicim-
balum, and this is undoubtedly correct; the 8 strings in the
drawing are stretched from back to front over a long sound-
board, the longest strings to the left; 8 keys, 4 long and 4 short
with levers to which are attached the jacks, are seen in a
horizontal line behind the keyboard, and behind them again
are given the names of the notes a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h. In the
Weimar Wunderbuch is a pen-and-ink sketch of the " clavicim-
balum " 3 placed upon a table, in which we recognize the
familiar outline of the harpsichord, but on a smaller scale.
The keyboard shows white and black notes — the latter short
keys, one between each group of two white keys, precisely as
in the instrument reproduced by Van der Straeten" — but no
mechanism is visible under the strings.

The earliest known record of the clavichord occurs in some
rules of the minnesingers, 4 dated 1404, preserved at Vienna.
The monochord is named with it, showing a differentiation of
these instruments, and of them from the clavicymbalum, the
keyed cymbal, cembalo (Italian), or psaltery. From this we
learn that a keyboard had been thus early adapted to that
favourite medieval stringed instrument, the " cembalo " of
Boccaccio, the " sautrie " of Chaucer. There were two forms of
the psaltery: (1) the trapeze, one of the oldest representations
of -which is to be found in Orcagna's famous Trionfo della Morf e
in the Campo Santo at Pisa, 'and another by the same painter in
the National Gallery, London; and (2) the contemporary "testa
di porco," the pig's head, which was of triangular shape as the
name suggests. The trapeze psaltery was strung horizontally;
the " istromento di porco " either horizontally or vertically—
the notes, as in the common dulcimer, being in groups of three or
four unisons. In these differences of form and stringing we see
the cause of the ultimate differentiation of the spinet and harpsi-
chord. The compass of the psalteries was nearly that of Guido's
scale; but according to Mersenne, 5 the lowest interval was a
fourth, G to C, which is worthy of notice as anticipating the later
" short measure " 6 of the spinet and organ.

The simplicity of the clavichord inclines us to place it, in
order of time, before the clavicymbalum or clavicembalo ; but
we do not know how the sounds of the latter were at first excited.'
There is an indication as to its early form to be seen in the church
of the Certosa near Pavia, which compares in probable date with

1 See Victor C. Mahillon, Catalogue descriptif (1880), I. p. 320^
No. 454: regal with two bellows, end of XVI. C. Compass E to a 2 .

2 La Musique aux Pays Bas, i. 278.

8 See Dr Alwin Schulz, op. cit., fig. 524.

'V. 410 and 414. See Ambros, Geschichte der Musik (1892),
ii. 226.

• L'Harmonie universelle (Paris, 1636), livre III. p. 107.

* A. J. Hipkins, History of Pianoforte (London, 1896), p. 51.

the Shrewsbury example. We quote the reference to it from Dr
Ambros. 1 He says a carving represents King David as holding
an " istromento di porco " which has eight strings and as many
keys lying parallel to them; inside the body of the instrument,
which is open at the side nearest the right hand of King David,
he touches the keys with the right hand and damps the strings
with the left. The attribution of archaism applies with equal
force to this carving as to the Shrewsbury one, for when the
monastery of Certosa near Pavia was built by Ambrogio Fossana
in 1472, chromatic keyboards, which imply a considerable ad-
vance, were already in use. There is an authentic representation
of a chromatic keyboard, painted not later than 1426, in the
St Cecilia panel (now at Berlin) of the famous Adoration of the
Lamb by the Van Eycks. The instrument depicted is a positive

, ,, i,

Fig. 2. — Diatonic Clavichord Keyboard (Guido's Scale) from
Virdung. Before 1 511.

organ, and it is interesting to notice in this realistic painting that
the keys are evidently boxwood, as in the Italian spinets of later
date, and that the angel plays a common chord — A with the
right hand, F and C with the left. But diatonic organs with
eight steps or keys in the octave, which included the B flat and
the B natural, as in Guido's scale, were long preserved, for
Praetorius speaks of them as still existing nearly two hundred
years later. This diatonic keyboard, we learn from Sebastian
Virdung {Musica getutscht und auszgezogen, Basel, 1511), was the
keyboard of the early clavichord. We reproduce his diagram as
the 1 ttft'ly authority we have for the disposition of the one short
key. :

The extent of this scale is exactly Guido's. Virdung's diagram
of the chromatic is the same as our own familiar keyboard, and
comprises three octaves and a note, from F below the bass stave
to G above the treble. But Virdung tells us that even then
clavichords were made longer than four octaves by repetition
of the same order of keys. The introduction of the chromatic
order he attributes to the study of Boetius, and the consequent
endeavour to restore the three musical genera of the Greeks — the
diatonic, chromatic and' enharmonic. But the last-named had
not been attained. Virdung gives woodcuts of the clavichordium,
the virginal, the clavicymbalum and the clavicytherium. We
reproduce three of them (figs. 3, 6 and 12), omitting the virginal

Fig. 3.— Virdung's Clavichordium, 151 1 ; reversed facsimile.

as obviously incorrect. Writers on musical instruments have
continually repeated these drawings without! discerning that in
the printing they are reversed, which puts the keyboards entirely
wrong, and that in Luscinius's Latin translation of Virdung
(Musurgia, sive praxis musicae, Strasburg, 1536), which has been
hitherto chiefly followed, two of the engravings, the clavicim-
balum and the clavicytherium, are transposed, another cause of
error. Martin Agricola {Musica instrumentalis, Wittenberg,
1529) has copied Virdung's illustrations with some differences of
perspective, and the addition, here and there, of errors- of his
own.

r Geschichte der Musik, ii. 544-555.

PIANOFORTE

561

Still vulgarly known as monochord, Virdung's clavichord was
really a box of monochords, all the strings being of the same
length. He derives the clavichord from Guido's monochord
as he does the virginal from the psaltery, but, at the
same time, confesses he does not know when, or by whom,
either instrument was invented. We observe in this
drawing the short sound-board, which always remained a
peculiarity of the clavichord, and the straight sound-
board bridge — necessarily so when all the strings were of
one length. To gain an angle of incidence for the tangents
against the strings the keys were made crooked, an expedient
further rendered necessary by the " fretting " — three tangents,
according to Virdung, being directed to stop as many notes from
each single group of three strings tuned in unison; each tangent
thus made a different vibrating length of string. In the drawing
the strings are merely indicated. The German for fret is Bund,
and such a clavichord, in that language, is known as a "gebun-
denes Clavichord" both fret (to rub) and Bund (from binden, to
bind) having been taken over from the lute or viol. The French
and Italians employ " touche " and " tasto," touch. Praetorius
who wrote a hundred years later than Virdung, says two, three
and four tangents were thus employed in stopping. There are
extant small clavichords having three keys and tangents to one
pair of strings and others have no more than two tangents to a
note formed by a pair of strings, instead of three. Thus seven
pairs of strings suffice for an octave of twelve keys, the open
notes being F, G, A, B flat, C, D, E flat, and by an unexplained
peculiarity, perhaps derived from some special estimation of the
notes which was connected with the church modes, A and D are
left throughout free from a second tangent. A corresponding
value of these notes is shown by their independence of chromatic
alteration in tuning the double Irish harp, as explained by
Vincentio Galilei in his treatise on music (Dialogo della musica,
Florence, 1581). Adlung, who died in 1762, speaks of another
fretting, but it must have been an adaptation to the modern
major scale, the " free " notes being E and B. Clavichords
were made with double fretting up to about the year 1700 —
that is to say, to the epoch of J. S. Bach, who, taking advantage
of its abolition and the consequent use of independent pairs of
strings for each note, was enabled to tune in all keys equally,
which had been impossible so long as the fretting was maintained.
The modern scales having become established, Bach was now
able to produce, in 1722, Das wohltemperirte Clavier, the first
collection of preludes and fugues in all the twenty-four major
and minor scales for a clavichord which was tuned, as to con-
cordance and dissonance, fairly equal.

The oldest clavichord, here called manicordo (as French
manlcorde, from monochord), known to exist is that shown in
fig. 4. It will be observed that the lowest octave is here already

Fit;. 4. — Manicordo (Clavichord) d'Eleonora di Montalvo, 1659;
Kraus Museum, Florence.

" bundfrei " or fret-free. The strings are no longer of equal
length, and there are three bridges, divisions of the one bridge,
in different positions on the sound-board. Mersenne's " mani-
corde " (Harmonie universelle, Paris 1636, p. 115), shown in an
engraving in that work, has the strings still nearly of equal
length, but the sound-board bridge is divided into five. The
fretted clavichords made in Germany in the last years of the
17th century have the curved sound-board bridge, like a
spinet. In the clavichord the tangents always form the second

^^^Tr^

Fig. 5. — Clavichord Tangent.

bridge, indispensable for the vibration, besides acting as the

sound exciters (fig. 5). The common damper to all the strings

is a list of cloth, interwoven

behind the tangents. As the

tangents quitted the strings the

cloth immediately stopped all

vibration. Too much cloth

would diminish the tone of this

already feeble instrument, which

gained the name of " dumb

spinet " from its use. In the

clavichord in Rubens's St Cecilia

(Dresden Gallery) — interesting

as perhaps representing that

painter's own instrument — the

damping cloth is accurately

painted. The number of keys

there shown is three octaves and a third, F to A — the same extent

as in Handel's clavichord now in the museum at Maidstone (an

Italian instrument dated 1726, and not fretted), but with the

peculiarity of a combined chromatic and short octave in the

lowest notes, to which we shall have to refer when we arrive

at the spinet; we pass it by as the only instance we have

come across in the clavichord.

The clavichord must have gone out of favour in Great Britain
and the Netherlands early in the 16th century, before its ex-
pressive power, which is of the most tender and intimate quality,
could have been, from the nature of the music played, observed,
— the more brilliant and elegant spinet being preferred to it.
Like the other keyboard instruments it had no German name,
and can hardly have been of German origin. Holbein, in his
drawing of the family of Sir Thomas More, 1528, now at Basel,
indicates the place for " Klavikordi und ander Seytinspill."
But it remained longest in use in Germany — until even the begin-
ning of the 19th century. It was the favourite " Klavier " of
the Bachs. Besides that of Handel already noticed there are
in existence clavichords the former possession of which is attri-
buted to Mozart and Beethoven. The clavichord was obedient
to a peculiarity of touch possible on no other keyboard* instru-
ment. This is described by C. P. Emmanuel Bach in his famous
essay on playing and accompaniment, entitled Versuch iiber die
wahre Art das Klavier zu spielen (" An Essay on the True Way to
play Keyboard Instruments.") It is the Bebung (trembling), a
vibration in a melody note of the same nature as the tremolo
frequently employed by violin players to heighten the expressive
effect; it was gained by a repeated movement of the fleshy end
of the finger while the key was still held down. The Bebung was
indicated in the notation by dots over the note to be affected by
it, perhaps showing how many times the note should be repeated.
According to the practice of the Bachs, as handed down to us in
the above mentioned essay, great smoothness of touch was
required to play the clavichord in tune. As with the monochord,
the means taken to produce the sound disturbed the accuracy
of the string measurement by increasing tension, so that a key
touched too firmly in the clavichord, by unduly raising the
string, sharpened the pitch, an error in playing deprecated by
C. P. Emmanuel Bach. This answers the assertion which has
been made that J. S. Bach could not have been nice about
tuning when he played from preference on an instrument of
uncertain intonation.

The next instrument described by Virdung is the virginal (virgin'
alis, proper for a girl), a parallelogram in shape, having the same
projecting keyboard and compass of keys the same as
the clavichordium. Here we can trace derivation from
the psaltery in the sound-board covering the entire inner surface
of the instrument and in the triangular disposition of the strings.
The virginal in Virdung's drawing has an impossible position with
reference to the keyboard, which renders its reproduction as an
illustration useless. But in the next drawing, the clavi-
cimbalum , this is rectified, and the drawing, reversed on c^nbalum
account of the keyboard, can be accepted as roughly
representing the instrument so called (fig. 6). There would be

Virginal.

562

PIANOFORTE

no difference between it and the virginal were it not for a peculi-
arity of keyboard compass, which emphatically refers itself to
the Italian " spinetta," a name unnoticed by Virdung or by his
countryman Arnold Schlick, who, in the same year 1511, pub-
lished his Spiegel der Orgelmacher (Organ-builders' Mirror),
and named the clavichordium and clavicimbalum as familiar
instruments. In the first place, the keyboard, beginning appar-
ently with B natural, instead of F, makes the clavicimbalum
smaller than the virginal, the strings in this arrangement being
shorter; in the next place it is almost certain that the Italian
spinet compass, beginning apparently upon a semitone, is
identical with a " short measure " or " short octave " organ
compass, a very old keyboard arrangement, by which the lowest
note, representing B, really sounded G and C sharp in like
manner A. The origin of this may be deduced from the psaltery
and many representations of the regal, and its object appears
to have been to obtain dominant basses for cadences, harmonious
closes having early been sought for as giving pleasure to the ear.
Authority for this practice is to be found in Mersenne, who, in
1636, expressly describes it as occurring in his own spinet
(espinette). He says the keyboards of the spinet and organ are
the same. Now, in his Latin edition of the same work he renders

Fig. 6. — Virdung's Clavicimbalum (Spinet), 1511 ; reversed facsimile.

espinette by clavicimbalum. We read {Harmonie Universelle,
Paris, 1636, liv. 3, p. 107 — "Its longest string [his spinet's] is
little more than a foot in length between the two bridges. It
has only thirty-one keys [marches] in its keyboard, and as
many strings over its sound-board [he now refers to the illustra-
tion], so that there are five keys hidden on account of the per-
spective^ — that is to say, three diatonic and two chromatic [feintes,
same as the Latin ficti] , of which the first is cut into two
[a divided sharp forming two keys] ; but these sharps serve to
go down to the third and fourth below the first step, C sol [tenor
clef C] , in order to go as far as the third octave, for the eighteen
principal steps make but an eighteenth, that is to say, a fourth
more than two octaves." The note we call F, he, on his engrav-
ing, letters as C, indicating the pitch of a spinet of the second
size, which the one described is not. The
third and fourth, reached by his divided sharp,
are consequently the lower A and G; or, to
complete, as he says, the third octave, the
lowest note might be F, but for that he would
want the diatonic semitone B, which his spinet,
according to his description, did not possess. 1
Mersenne's statement sufficiently proves,' first,
the use in spinets as well as in organs of what
we now call " short measure," and, secondly,
the object of divided sharps at the lower end
of the keyboard to gain lower notes. He
speaks of one string only to each note; unlike
the double and triple strung clavichord, those
instruments, clavicimbalum, spinet, or virginal,
derived from the psaltery, could only present
one string to the mechanical plectrum which
twanged it. As regards the kind of plectra

1 A. J. Ellis {History of Musical Pitch, p. 318) sees the B in
Mersenne's outline diagram.

earliest used we have no evidence. The little crow-auill points
project from centred tongues in uprights of wood known as
"jacks" (fig. 7), which also carry the dampers, and rising by
the depression of the keys in front, the quills set the strings
vibrating as they pluck them in passing, springs at first of steel,
later of bristle, giving energy to the twang and governing their
return J. C. Scaliger in Poetices libri septem (1561, p. 51. c. 1.)
states that the Clavicimbalum and Harpichordum of his
boyhood are now called Spinets on account of those quill
points (a b Mis mucronibus), and attributes the introduction
of the name " spinetta " to them (from spina, a thorn). We will
leave harpichordum for the present, but the early identity
of clavicimbalum and spinetta is certainly proved.
Scaliger's etymology remained unquestioned until
Signor Ponsicchi of Florence discovered another derivation.
He found in a rare book entitled Conclusione nel suono dell'
organo, di D. Adriano Banchieri (Bologna, 1608), the following
passage, which translated reads: " Spinetta was thus named
from the inventor of that oblong form, who was one Maestro
Giovanni Spinetti, a Venetian; and I have seen one of
those instruments, in the possession of Francesco Stivori,
organist of the magnificent community of Montagnana,
within which was this inscription — Joannes Spinetvs Venetvs
fecit, a.d. 1503." Scaliger's and Banchieri's statements may
be combined, as there is no discrepancy of dates, or we may
rely upon whichever seems to us to have the greater authority,
always bearing in mind that neither invalidates the other. The
introduction of crow-quill points, and adaptation to an oblong
case of an instrument previously in a trapeze form, are synchro-
nous ; but we must accept 1 503 as a late date for one of Spinetti's
instruments, seeing that the altered form had already become
common, as shown by Virdung, in another country as early as
1 51 1. After this date there are frequent references to spinets in
public records and other documents, and we have fortunately the
instruments themselves to put in evidence, preserved in public
museums and in private collections. A spinet dated 1490 was
shown at Bologna in 1888; another old spinet in the Conserva-
toire, Paris, is a pentagonal instrument made by Francesco di
Portalupis at Verona, 1523. The Milanese Rossi were famous
spinet-makers, and have been accredited {La Nobilitd di Mttano,
1595) with an improvement in the form which we believe was
the recessing of the keyboard, -a feature which had previously
entirely projected; by the recessing a greater width was obtained
for the sound-board. The spinets by Annibale Rosso at South
Kensington, dated respectively 1555 (fig. 8) and 1577, show this

FlG. 7. — Spinet
" Jack."

FlG. 8.— Milanese Spinetta, by Annibale Rosso, 1555; South
Kensington Museum.

alteration, and may be compared with the older and purer form
of one, dated 1568, by Marco Jadra (also known as Marco " dalle
spinette," or " dai cembali"). Besides the pentagonal spinet,
there was an heptagonal variety; they had neither covers nor
stands, and were often withdrawn from decorated cases when
required for performance. In other instances, as in the 1577
Rosso spinet, the case of the instrument itself was richly adorned.
The apparent compass of the keyboard in Italy generally
exceeded four octaves by a semitone, E to F; but we may regard
the lowest natural key as usually C, and the lowest sharp key
as usually D, in these instruments, according to" short measure."
The rectangular spinet, Virdung's " virginal," early assumed
in Italy the fashion of the large " cassoni " or wedding chests.
The oldest we know of in this style, and dated, is
the fine specimen belonging to M. Terme which
figures in L' Art decoratif (fig. 9). Virginal is not an Italianname;

PIANOFORTE

563

the rectangular instrument in Italy is " spinetta tavola." In
England, from Henry VII. to Charles II., all quilled instruments
(stromentidipenna), without distinction as to form, were known
as virginals. It was a common name, equivalent to the con-
temporary Italian clavkordo and Flemish clavisingel. From the
latter, by apocope, we arrive at the French clavecin — the French
clavier {clavis, a key), a keyboard, being in its turn adopted by
the Germans to denote any keyboard stringed instrument.

SESTifJi"

Fig. 9. — Spinetta Tavola (Virginal), 1568; Vict, and Albert
Museum.

Mersenne {op. oil., liv. iii., p. 158) gives three sizes for spinets
— one 2j ft. wide, tuned to the octave of the " ton de chapelle "
( in his day a half tone above the present English medium pitch) ,
one of 35 ft. tuned to the fourth below, and one of 5 ft. tuned
to the octave below the first, the last being therefore tuned
in unison to the chapel pitch. He says his own spinet was one
of the smallest it was customary to make, but from the lettering
of the keys in his drawing it would have been of the second size,
or the spinet tuned to the fourth. The octave spinet, of trapeze
form, was known in Italy as " ottavina " or " spinetta di
serenata." It had a less compass of keys than the larger instru-
ment, being apparently three and two-third octaves, E to C —
which by the " short measure " would be four octaves, C to C.
We learn from Praetorius that these little spinets were placed
upon the larger ones in performance; their use was to heighten
the brilliant effect. In the double rectangular clavisingel of the
Netherlands, in which there was a movable octave instrument, we
recognize a similar intention. There is a fine spinet of this

1 11 ,, r Harpsichord;

we should therefore clavicymbal.

^.^.-,_. JAHSc

Fig. 10.— English Spinet (Spinetta Traversa), by Carolus Haward.
About 1668.

kind at Nuremberg. Praetorius illustrates the Italian spinet by
a form known as the " spinetta traversa," an approach towards
the long clavicembalo or harpsichord, the tuning pins being
immediately over the keyboard. This transposed spinet, more
powerful than the old trapeze one, became fashionable in England
after the Restoration, Haward, Keene, Slade, Player, Baudin, the
Hitchcocks, Mahoon, Haxby, the Harrir family, and others

having made such " spinets " during a period for which we have
dates from 1664 to 1784. Pepys bought his "Espinette" from
Charles Haward for £5, July 13, 1664.

The spinets of Keene and Player, made about 1700, have
frequently two divided sharps at the bass end of the keyboard, as
in the description by Mersenne, quoted above, of a spinet with
short measure. Such divided sharps have been assumed to be
quarter tones, but enharmonic intervals in the extreme bass can
have no justification. From the tuning of Handel's Italian clavi-
chord already mentioned, which has this peculiarity, and from
Praetorius we find the further halves of the two divided sharps
were the chromatic semitones, and the nearer halves the major
thirds below i.e. the dominant fourths to the next natural keys.
Thomas Hitchcock (for whom there are dates 1664 and 1703
written on keys and jacks of spinets bearing Edward Blunt's
name and having divided bass sharps) made a great advance in
constructing spinets, giving them the wide compass of five
octaves, from G to G, with very fine keyboards in which the
sharps were inlaid with a slip of the ivory or ebony, as the case
might be, of the naturals. Their instruments, always numbered,
and not dated as has been sometimes supposed, became models
for contemporary and subsequent English makers.

We have now to ask what was the difference beween Scaliger's
harpichordum and his clavicymbal. Galilei, the father of the
astronomer of that name {Dialogo della musica antica e moderna,
Florence, 1581), says that the harpichord was so named from
having resembled an " arpa giacente," a prostrate or " couched"
harp, proving that the clavicymbal was at first the
trapeze-shaped spinet; and

differentiate harpichord and clavicymbal as, in form,
suggested by or derived from the harp and psaltery, or from
a " testa di porco " and an ordinary trapeze psaltery. We are
inclined to prefer the latter. The Latin name " clavicymbalum,"
having early been replaced by spinet and virginal, was in Italy and
France bestowed upon the long harpichord, and was continued
as clavicembalo (gravecembalo, or familiarly cembalo only)
and clavecin. Much later, after the restoration of the Stuarts,
the first name was accepted and naturalized in England as
harpsichord, which we will define as the long instrument with
quills, shaped like a modern grand piano, and resembling a wing,
from which it has gained the German appellation " Fliigel."
We can point out no long instrument of this kind so old as the
Roman cembalo at South Kensington (fig. n). It was made by
Geronimo of Bologna in 1521, two years before the Paris Porta-
lupis spinet. The outer case is of finely tooled leather. It has a
spinet keyboard with a compass of nearly four octaves, E to D.
The natural keys are of boxwood, gracefully arcaded in front.
The keyboard of the Italian cembalo was afterwards carried
out to the normal four octaves. There is an existing example,
dated 1626,. with the bass keys carried out without sharps in
long measure (unfortunately altered by a restorer). It is sur-
prising to see with what steady persistence the Italians adhered
to their original model in making the instrument. As late as
the epoch of Cristofori, 1 and in his 1722 cembalo at Florence, 2
we still find the independent outer case, the single keyboard, the
two unisons, without power to reduce to one by using stops.
The Italians have been as conservative with their forms of
spinet, and are to this day with their organs. The startling
" piano e forte " of 1598, brought to light from the records of
the house of D'Este by Count Valdrighi of Modena, 3 after much
consideration and a desire to find in it an anticipation of Cristo-
fori's subsequent invention of the pianoforte, we are disposed to
regard as an ordinary cembalo with power to shift, by a stop,

1 In the harpsichord Cristofori made for Prince Ferdinand dei
Medici in 1702, recently acquired by Mr Stearns, of Detroit, and
presented by him to the University of Michigan, U.S.A., there are
three keyboards, thus arranged: 1st, highest keyboard, octave
string only; 2nd, middle, octave and first unison; 3rd, lowest, both
unisons. A harpsichord similarly designed with three keyboards,
inscribed " Vincentius Sodi Florentinus Fecit, Anno Domini 1779,"
was presented by Mrs J. Crosby Brown to the Metropolitan Museum,
New York.

2 In the Kraus Museum Catalogue (1901), No. 559.

3 See Van der Straeten, vi. 122.

5 6 4

PIANOFORTE

from two unisons (forte) to one string (piano), at that time a
Flemish practice, and most likely brought to Italy by one of the
Flemish musicians who founded the Italian school of composition.
About the year 1600, when accompaniment was invented for
monody, large cembalos were made for the orchestras to bring
out the bass part, the performer standing to play. Such an

Fig. 11. — Roman Clavicembalo by Geronimo of Bologna, 1 521;

Albert Museum.

instrument was called " archicembalo," 1 a name also applied to
a large cembalo, made by Vito Trasuntino, a Venetian, in 1606,
intended by thirty-one keys in each of its four octaves — one
hundred and twenty-five in all — to restore the three genera of
the ancient Greeks. How many attempts have been made
before and since Trasuntino to purify intonation in keyboard
instruments by multiplying keys in the octave ? Simultaneously
with Father Smith's well-known experiment in the Temple organ,
London, there were divided keys in an Italian harpsichord
to gain a separate G sharp and A flat, and a separate D sharp
and E flat.

Double keyboards and stops in the long cembalo or harpsichord
came into use in the Netherlands early in the 16th century. We
find them imported into England. The following citations,
quoted by Rimbault in his History of the Pianoforte, but imper-
fectly understood by him, are from the privy purse expenses
of King Henry VIII., as extracted by Sir Harris Nicolas in
1827.

" I 53° (April). Item the vj
daye paied to William Lewes
for ii payer of virginalls in one
coffer with iiii stoppes brought to
Grenewiche iii li. And for ii
payer of virginalls in one coffer
brought to the More other iii li."

Now the second instrument
may be explained, virginals
meaning any quilled instru-
ment, as a double spinet, like
that at Nuremberg by Martin
van der Beest, the octave divi-
sion being movable. But the
first cannot be so explained;
the four' stops can only belong
to a harpsichord, and the two
pair instrument to a double-
keyed one, one keyboard be-
ing over, and not by the side
of the other. Again from the
inventory after the king's
death (see Brit. Mus. Harl.
MS. 1419) fol. 247 —

1 Invented by Nicola Vicentino; see L'Antica musica ridotto alia
moderna prattica (Rome, 1555).

Fig. 12. — Virdung's Clavicy-
therium (upright Harpsichord),
1 511; (reversed facsimile).

" Two fair pair of new long Virginalls made harp-fashion of
Cipres, with keys of ivory, having the King's Arms crowned and
supported by his Grace's beastes within a garter gilt, standing
over the keys."

We are disposed to believe that we have here another double
keyboard harpsichord. Rimbault saw in this an upright
instrument, such as Virdung's clavicytherium
(fig. 12). Having since seen the one in the Kraus
Museum, Florence, it seems that Virdung's
drawing should not have been reversed; but he
has mistaken the wires acting upon the jacks for
strings, and omitted the latter stretched hori-
zontally across the soundboard (see Clavi-
cytherium). We read in an inventory of the
furniture of Warwick Castle, 1584, " a faire paire
of double virginalls," and in the Hengrave
inventory, 1603, " one great payre of double
virginalls." Hans Ruckers, the great clavisingel
maker of Antwerp, lived too late to have
invented the double keyboard and stops, evident
adaptions from the organ, and the octave string
Up" (the invention of which was so long attributed

p to him), which incorporated the octave spinet

with the large instrument, to be henceforth
playable without the co-operation of another per-
former, was already in use when he began his work.
Vict and Until the last harpsichord was made by Joseph
Kirkman, in 1798, scarcely an instrument of the
kind was constructed, except in Italy, without the
octaves. The harpsichord as known throughout the 18th
century, with piano upper and forte lower keyboard, was the
invention of Hans Ruckers's grandson, Jean Ruckers's nephew,
Jan Couchet, about 1640. Before that time the double keyboards
in Flemish harpsichords were merely a transposing expedient,
to change the pitch a fourth, from plagal to authentic and vice
versa, while using the same groups of keys. Fortunately there is
a harpsichord existing with double keyboards unaltered, date
1638, belonging to Sir Bernard Samuelson, formerly in the
possession of Mr Spence, of Florence, made by Jean Ruckers, the
keyboards being in their original position. It was not so much
invention as beauty of tone which made the Ruckers' harpsi-
chords famous. The Ruckers harpsichords in the 18th century
were fetching such prices as Bologna lutes did in the 17th or
Cremona violins do now. There are still many specimens
existing in Belgium, France and England. Handel had a
Ruckers harpsichord, now in Buckingham Palace; it completes
the number of sixty-three existing Ruckers instruments
catalogued in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians.

After the Antwerp make declined, London became pre-
eminent for harpsichords — the representative makers being
Jacob Kirckmann and Burckhard Tschudi, pupils of a Flemish
master, one Tabel, who had settled in London, and whose
business Kirckmann continued through marriage with Tabel's
widow. Tschudi was of a noble Swiss family belonging to the
canton of Glarus. According to the custom with foreign names
obtaining at that time, by which Haendel became Handel,
and Schmidt Smith, Kirckmann dropped his final n and Tschudi
became Shudi, but he resumed the full spelling in the fades of
the splendid harpsichords he made in 1766 for Frederick the
Great, which are still preserved in the New Palace, Potsdam.
By these great makers the harpsichord became a larger, heavier-
strung and more powerful instrument, and fancy stops were
added to vary the tone effects. To the three shifting registers
of jacks of the octave and first and second unisons were added
the " lute," the charm of which was due to the favouring of
high harmonics by plucking the strings close to the bridge, and
the " harp," a surding or muting effect produced by impeding
the vibration of the strings by contact of small pieces of buff
leather. Two pedals were also used, the left-hand one a combina-
tion of a unison and lute. This pedal, with the " machine "
stop, reduced the upper keyboard to the lute register, the plectra
of which acted upon the strings near the wrest-plank bridge

PIANOFORTE

5^5

of the
Pianoforte,

only; the lower keyboard to the second unison. Releasing the
machine stop and quitting the pedal restores the first unison on
both keyboards and the octave on the lower. The right-hand
pedal was to raise a hinged portion of the top or cover and thus
gain some power of " swell " or crescendo, an invention of
Roger Plenius, 1 to whom also the harp stop may be rightly
attributed. This ingenious harpsichord maker had been
stimulated to gain these effects by the nascent pianoforte which,
as we shall find, he was the first to make in England. The first
idea of pedals for the harpsichord to act as stops appears to have
been John Hayward's (PHaward) as early as 1676, as we learn
from Mace's Mustek's Monument, p. 235. The French makers
preferred a kind of knee-pedal arrangement, known as the
" genouillere," and sometimes a more complete muting by one
long strip of buff leather, the " sourdine." As an improvement
upon Plenius's clumsy swell, Shudi in 1769 patented the Venetian
swell, a framing of louvres, like a Venetian blind, which opened
by the movement of the pedal, and becoming in England a
favourite addition to harpsichords, was early transferred to the
organ, in which it replaced the rude " nag's-head " swell. A
French harpsichord maker, Marius, whose name is remembered
from a futile attempt to design a pianoforte action, invented a
folding harpsichord, the " clavecin brise," by which the instru-
ment could be disposed of in a smaller space. One, which is
preserved at Berlin, probably formed part of the camp baggage
of Frederick the Great.

It was formerly a custom with kings, princes and nobles
to keep large collections of musical instruments for actual
playing purposes, in the domestic and festive music of their
Cristofori's courts. There are records of their inventories,
invention and it was to keep such a collection in playing order
that Prince Ferdinand dei Medici engaged a Paduan
harpsichord maker, Bartolommeo Cristofori, the
man of genius who invented and produced the pianoforte. 2
We fortunately possess the record of this invention in a
literary form from a well-known writer, the Marchese Scipione
Maffei; his description appeared in the Giornale dei letterati
d'ltalia, a publication conducted by Apostolo Zeno. The
date of Maffei's paper was 171 1. Rimbault reproduced it,
with a technically imperfect translation, in his History of the
Pianoforte. We learn from it that in 1709 Cristofori had
completed four " gravecembali col piano e forte " — keyed-
psalteries with soft and loud — three of them being of the long
or usual harpsichord form. A synonym in Italian for the
original cembalo (or psaltery) is " salterio," and if it were struck
with hammers it became a '' salterio tedesco " (the German
hackbrelt, or chopping board), the latter being the common
dulcimer. Now the first notion of a pianoforte is a dulcimer
with keys, and we may perhaps not be wrong in supposing that
there had been many attempts and failures to put a keyboard
to a dulcimer or hammers to a harpsichord before Cristofori
successfully solved the problem. The sketch of his action in
Maffei's essay shows an incomplete stage in the invention,
although the kernel of it — the principle of escapement or the
controlled rebound of the hammer — is already there. He obtains
it by a centred lever (linguetta mobile) or hopper, working, when
the key is depressed by the touch, in a small projection from
the centred hammer-butt. The return, governed by a spring,
must have been uncertain and incapable of further regulating
than could be obtained by modifying the strength of the spring.

1 Mace describes a primitive swell contrivance for an organ
65 years before Plenius took out his patent (1741).

2 The invention of the piano by Cristofori, and him alone, is now
past discussion. What is still required to satisfy curiosity would be
the discovery of a Fort Bien or Frederici square piano, said to ante-
date by a year or two Zumpe's invention of the instrument in London.
The name Fort Bien was derived, consciously or unconsciously, from
the Saxon German peculiarity of interchanging B and P. Among
Mozart's effects at the time of his death was a Forle-Biano mit
Pedal (see Vierzehnter jdhrlicher Bericht des Mozarteum, " Salzburg,"
Dec. 19, 1791). Also wanted is the " old movement " for the long
or grand pianos, sometimes quoted in the Broadwood day-books
of the last quarter of the 18th century with reference to the
displacement by the Backers English action.

Moreover, the hammer had each time to be raised the entire
distance of its fall. There are, however, two pianofortes by
Cristofori, dated repectively 1720 and 1726, which show a
much improved, we may even say a perfected, construction,
for the whole of an essential piano movement is there. The
earlier instrument (now in the Metropolitan Museum, New York)
has undergone considerable restoration, the original hollow
hammer-head having been replaced by a modern one, and the
hammer-butt, instead of being centred by means of the holes
provided by Cristofori himself for the purpose, having been
lengthened by a leather hinge screwed to the block; 3 but the
1726 one, which is in the Kraus Museum at Florence, retains
the original leather hammer-heads. Both instruments possess
alike a contrivance for determining the radius of the hopper,
and both have been unexpectedly found to have the " check "
(Ital. paramartello) , which regulates the fall of the hammer
according to the strength of the blow which has impelled it to
the strings. After this discovery of the actual instruments of
Cristofori there can be no longer doubt as to the attribution of
the invention to him in its initiation and its practical comple-
tion with escapement and check. To Cristofori we are indebted,
not only for the power of playing piano and forte, but for
the infinite variations of tone, or nuances, which render the
instrument so delightful.

But his problem was not solved by the devising of a working
action ; there was much more to be done to instal the pianoforte
as a new musical instrument. The resonance, that most subtle

Fig. 13. — Cristofori's Escapement Action, 1720. Restored in
*875 by Cesare Ponsicchi.

and yet all-embracing factor, had been experimentally developed
to a certain perfection by many generations of spinet and harpsi-
chord makers, but the resistance structure had to be thought out
again. Thicker stringing, rendered indispensable to withstand
even Cristofori's light hammers, demanded in its turn a stronger
framing than the harpsi-
chord had needed. To
make his structure firm
he considerably increased
the strength of the block
which holds the tuning-
pins, and as he could not
do so without materially
adding to its thickness, he
adopted the bold expedient
of inverting it ; driving his
wrest-pins, harp-fashion,
through it, so that tuning
was effected at their
upper, while the wires
were attached to their
lower, ends. Then, to
guarantee the security of
the case, he ran an
independent string - block
round it of stouter wood
than had been used in

Fig. 14. — Cristofori's Piano e Forte,
1726; Kraus Museum, Florence.

harpsichords, in which block the hitch-pins were driven to
hold the farther ends of the strings, which were spaced at
3 Communicated by Baron Alexander Kraus (May 1908).

;66

PIANOFORTE

Silbermann.

equal distances (unlike the harpsichord), the dampers lying
between the pairs of unisons.

Cristofori died in 1731. He had pupils, 1 but did not found a
school of Italian pianoforte-making, perhaps from the peculiar
Italian conservatism in musical instruments we have already
remarked upon. The essay of Scipione Maffei was translated
into German, in 1725, by Konig, the court poet at Dres-
den, and friend of Gottfried Silbermann, the renowned organ
builder and harpsichord and clavichord maker. 2 Incited by
this publication, and perhaps by having seen in Dresden one of
Cristofori's pianofortes, Silbermann appears to have
taken up the new instrument, and in 1726 to have
manufactured two, which J. S. Bach, according to his pupil
Agricola, pronounced failures. The trebles were too weak;
the touch was too heavy. There has long been another version
to this story, viz. that Silbermann borrowed the idea of his
action from a very simple model contrived by a young musician
named Schroeter, who had left it at the electoral court in 1721,
and, quitting Saxony to travel, had not afterwards claimed it.
It may be so; but Schroeter's letter, printed in Mitzler's
Bibliothek, dated 1738, is not supported by any other evidence
than the recent discovery of an altered German harpsichord,
the hammer action of which, in its simplicity, may have been
taken from Schroeter's diagram, and would sufficiently account
for the condemnation of Silbermann's earliest pianofortes if
he had made use of it. In either case it is easy to distinguish
between the lines of Schroeter's interesting communications
(to Mitzler, and later to Marpurg) the bitter disappointment
he felt in being left out of the practical development of so
important an instrument.

But, whatever Silbermann's first experiments were based upon,
it was ascertained, by the investigations of A. J. Hipkins, that
he, when successful, adopted Cristofori's pianoforte without
further alteration than the compass and colour of the keys
and the style of joinery of the case. In the Silbermann grand
pianofortes, in the three palaces at Potsdam, known to have been
Frederick the Great's, and to have been acquired by that
monarch prior to J. S. Bach's visit to him in 1747, we find the
Cristofori framing, stringing, inverted wrest-plank and action
complete. Fig. 15 represents the instrument on which J. S.
Bach played in the Town Palace, Potsdam.

Mahillon of Brussels, however, acquired a Frederici " upright
grand " piano, dated 1745 (fig. 16). In Frederici's upright grand
action we have not to do with the
ideas of either Cristofori or Schroeter;
the movement is practically identical
with the hammer action of a Ger-
man clock, and has its counterpart
in a piano at Nuremberg; a fact which
needs further elucidation. We note
here the earliest example of the leather
hinge, afterwards so common in piano
actions and only now going out of use.
Where are we to look for Schroeter's
copyist if not found in Silbermann,
Frederici, or, as we shall presently see,
perhaps J. G. Wagner? It might be
in the harpsichord we have mentioned,
which, made in 171 2 by one Brock for
the elector of Hanover (afterwards
George I. of England), was by him
presented to the Pro- ||M

testant pastor of Schulen- JL

berg, near Hanover, and 1™

has since been rudely Fig. 16— Frederici's Upright Grand

altered into a ninnnfnrte Plano Actlon > J 745- In the museum
altered into a pianotorte of the Brussels Conservatoire.

(fig. 17), There ts an

altered harpsichord in the museum at Basel which appears
to have been no more successful. But an attempted com-
bination of harpsichord and pianoforte appears as a very early
intention. The English poet Mason, the friend
of Gray, bought such an instrument at Ham-
burg in 1755, with " the cleverest mechanism
imaginable."

It was only under date of 1763 that Schroeter 3
published for the first time a diagram of his pro-

Ty

L

ir

■j

Fig. 15.

-Silbermann Forte Piano; Stadtschloss, Potsdam, 1746.

Frederici.

It has been repeatedly stated in Germany that Frederici, of
Gera in Saxony, an organ builder and musical instrument
maker, invented the square or table-shaped piano,
the " fort bien," as he is said to have called it, about
1 7 58-1 760. No square piano by this maker is forthcoming,
though an " upright grand " piano, made by Domenico del
Mela in 1739, with an action adapted from Cristofori's has
been discovered by Signor Ponsicchi of Florence. Victor

1 See Cesare Ponsicchi, // Pianoforte, sua origine e sviluppo
(Florence, 1876), p. 37.

2 This translation, published at Hamburg and reproduced in
extenso, may be read in Dr Oscar Paul's Geschichte des Claviers
(Leipzig, 1868).

Fig. 17. — Hammer and Lifter of altered Harpsichord by Brock.
Instrument in the collection of Mr Kendrick Pyne, Manchester.

posed invention, designed more than forty years
before. It appeared in Marpurg's Kritische Briefe
(Berlin, 1764). Now, immediately after,
Johann Zumpe, a German in London, who zumpe. '
had been one of Shudi's workmen, invented
or introduced (for there is some tradition that Mason
had to do with the invention of it) 4 a square piano, •
which was to become the most popular domestic
instrument. It would seem that Zumpe was in fact
not the inventor of the square piano, which appears
to have been well known in Germany before his
date, a discovery made by Mr George Rose. In
Paul de Wit's Musical Instrument Museum — formerly
"" in Leipzig, now transferred to Cologne — there is a

small square piano, 27 in. long, 10 in. wide and
4j in. high, having a contracted keyboard of
3 octaves and 2 notes. The action of this small instrument
is practically identical in every detail with that of the square
pianofortes made much later by Zumpe (Paul de Wit, Katalog
des musikhistorischen Museums, Leipzig, 1903. No. 55,
illustration, p. 38). Inside is inscribed: " Friedrich Hildebrandt,
Instrumentenmacher in Leipzig, Quergasse," with four figures

3 For arguments in favour of Schroeter's claim to the invention
of the pianoforte see Dr Oscar Paul, op. cit. pp. 85-104, who was
answered by A. J. Hipkins in Grove's Diet, of Music and Musicians.

4 Mason really invented the " celestina " (known as Adam
Walker's patent No. 1020), as we know from the correspondence
of Mary Granville. Under date of the nth of January 1775 she des
cribes this invention as a short harpsichord 2 ft. long, but played
with the right hand only. The left hand controlled a kind of violin
bow, which produced a charming sostinente, in character of tone
between the violin tone and that of musical glasses.

PIANOFORTE

567

almost illegible. Paul de Wit refers the instrument to the
middle of the 18th century. It has all the appearance of being
a reduced copy of a well-established type, differing very little
from the later models, except that it has no dampers. It
seems probable that this small instrument is a converted
clavichord, and that the action may have been suggested by
Schroeter's model, left in 1721 at the Electoral Court of Saxony.
Burney tells us all about Zumpe; and his instruments still
existing would fix the date of the first at about 1765. Fetis
narrates, however, that he began the study of the piano on
a square piano made by Zumpe in 1762. In his simple "old
man's head" action we have the nearest approach to a realiza-
tion of Schroeter's simple idea. It will be observed that
Schroeter's damper would stop all vibration at once. This
defect is overcome by Zumpe's " mopstick " damper.

Another piano action had, however, come into use about that
time or even earlier in Germany. The discovery of it in the
simplest form is to be attributed to V. C. Mahillon,
who found it in a square piano belonging to Henri
Gosselin, painter, of Brussels. The principle of this action is
that which was later perfected by the addition of a good escape-
ment by Stein of Augsburg, and was again later experimented

Stela.

Fig. 18. — Schroeter's Model for an Action, 1721.

upon by Sebastian Erard. Its origin is perhaps due to the
contrivance of a piano action that should suit the shallow clavi-
chord and permit of its transformation into a square piano;
a transformation, Schroeter tells us, had been going on when he

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Fig. 19. — Zumpe's Square Piano Action, 1766.

wrote his complaint. It will be observed that the hammer is,
as compared with other actions, reversed, and the axis rises
with the key, necessitating a fixed means for raising the hammer,
in this action effected by a rail against which the hammer

is known to remain. It is from Augsburg, dated 1780, and has
Stein's escapement action, two unisons, and the knee pedal,
then and later common in Germany.

Mozart's own grand piano, preserved at Salzburg, and the
two grand pianos (the latest dated 1790) by Huhn of Berlin,
preserved at Berlin and Charlottenburg, because they had

Fig. 21. — Stein's Action (the earliest so-called Viennese), 1780.
belonged to Queen Luise of Prussia, follow Stein in all
particulars. These instruments have three unisons upwards,
and the muting movement known as celeste, which no doubt
Stein had also. The wrest-plank is not inverted; nor is there any
imitation of Cristofori. We may regard Stein, coming after the
Seven Years' War which had devastated Saxony, as the German
reinventor of the grand piano. Stein's instrument was accepted
as a model, as we have seen, in Berlin as well as Vienna, to
which city his business was transferred in 1794 by his daughter
Nanette, known as an accomplished pianist and friend of
Beethoven, who at that time used Stein's pianos. She had
her brother in the business with her, and had already, in 1793,
married J. A. Streicher, a pianist from Stuttgart, and distin-
guished as a personal friend of Schiller. In 1802, the brother and
sister dissolving partnership, Streicher began himself to take
his full share of the work, and on Stein's lines improved the
Viennese instrument, so popular for many years and famous
for its lightness of touch, which contributed to the special
character of the Viennese school of pianoforte playing. Since
1862, when Steinway's example caused a complete revolution
in German and Austrian piano-making, the old wooden cheap
grand piano has died out. We will quit the early German
piano with an illustration (fig. 22) of an early square piano

nr^K

Fig. 20. — Old Piano Action on the German principle of Escape-
ment. Square Piano belonging to M. Gosselin, Brussels.

is jerked up. It was Stein's merit to graft the hopper principle
upon this simple action; and Mozart's approbation of the inven-
tion, when he met with it at Augsburg in 1777, is expressed in a
well-known letter addressed to his mother. No more " blocking "
of the hammer, destroying all vibration, was henceforth to vex
his mind. He had found the instrument that for the rest of
his short life replaced the harpsichord. V. C. Mahillon secured
for his museum the only Johann Andreas Stein piano which

Fig. 22. — German Square Action, 1783. Piano by Wagner,
Dresden.

action in an instrument made by Johann Gottlob Wagner of
Dresden in 1783. This interesting discovery of Mahillon's
introduces us to a rude imitation (in the principle) of Gristofori,
and it appears to have no relation whatever to the clock-hammer
motion seen in Frederici's.

Burney, who lived through the period of the displacement of
the harpsichord by the pianoforte, is the only authority to
whom we can refer as to the introduction of the latter instrument
into England. He tells us, 1 in his gossiping way, The Piano-
that the first hammer harpsichord that came to forte in
England was made by an English monk at Rome, Bngland.
a Father Wood, for an English gentleman, Samuel Crisp of
Chesington; the tone of this instrument was superior to that
produced by quills, with the added power of the shades of piano
and forte, so that, although the touch and mechanism were
so imperfect that nothing quick could be executed upon it, yet
in a slow movement like the " Dead March " in Saul it excited
wonder and delight. Fulke Greville afterwards bought this
instrument for 100 guineas, and it remained unique in England
for several years, until Plenius, the inventor of the lyrichord,
made a pianoforte in imitation of it. In this instrument the
touch was better, but the tone was inferior. We have no date
for Father Wood. Plenius produced his lyrichord, a soslenente

1 Rees's New Cyclopaedia, art. " Harpsichord."

5 68

PIANOFORTE

harpsichord, in 1745. When Mason imported a pianoforte in
1755, Fulke Greville's could have been no longer unique. The
Italian origin of Father Wood's piano points to a copy of Cristofori,
but the description of its capabilities in no way confirms this
supposition, unless we adopt the very possible theory that the
instrument had arrived out of order and there was on one in
London who could put it right, or would perhaps divine that it
was wrong. Burney further tells us that the arrival in London
of J. C. Bach in 1759 was the motive for several of the second-
rate harpsichord makers trying to make pianofortes, but with
no particular success. Of these Americus Backers (d. 1776),
. said to be a Dutchman, appears to have gained the

first place. He was afterwards the inventor of
the so-called English action, and as this action is based upon
Cristofori's we may suppose he at first followed Silbermann in

were the assistants of Backers in the installation of his invention.
On his deathbed he commended it to Broadwood's care, but
Stodart appears to have been the first to advance it — Broadwood
being probably held back by his partnership with his brother-
in-law, the son of Shudi, in the harpsichord business. (The elder
Shudi had died in 1773.) Stodart soon made a considerable repu-
tation with his " grand " pianofortes, a designation he was the first
to give them. In Stodart's grand piano we first find an adapta-
tion from the lyrichord of Plenius, of steel arches between the

Fig. 23. — Grand Piano Action, 1776. The
Americus Backers.

English " action of

copying the original inventor. There is an old play-bill of
Covent Garden in Messrs Broadwood's possession dated the
16th of May 1767, which has the following announcement: —

"End of Act 1. Miss Brickler will sing a favourite song from
Judith, accompanied by Mr Dibdin on a new instrument call'd
Piano Forte."

The mind at once reverts to Backers as the probable maker
of this novelty. Backers's "Original Forte Piano" was played
at the Thatched House in St James's Street, London, in 1773.
Ponsicchi has found a Backers grand piano at Pistoria, dated
that year. It was Backers who produced the action continued
in the direct principle by the firm of Broadwood, or with the
reversed lever and hammer-butt introduced by the firm of
Collard in 1835.

The escapement lever is suggested by Cristofori's first action,

to which Backers has added a contrivance for regulating it by

means of a button and screw. The check is from

sT'dart""''' Cristofori's second action. No more durable action

has been constructed, and it has always been found

equal, whether made in England or abroad, to the demands of the

Fig. 24. — Broadwood's Grand Piano Action, 1884. English direct
mechanism.

most advanced virtuosi. John Broadwood and Robert Stodart
were friends, Stodart having been Broadwood's pupil; and they

Fig. 25. — Collard's Grand Piano Action, 1884. English action,
with reversed hopper and contrivance for repetition added.

wrest -plank and belly-rail, bridging the gap up which the ham-
mers rise, in itself an important cause of weakness. These are
not found in any contemporary German instruments, but may
have been part of Backers's.

Imitation of the harpsichord by "octaving" was at this time
an object with piano makers. Zumpe's small square piano had
met with great succcess; he was soon enabled to retire, and his
imitators, who were legion, continued his model with its hand
stops for the dampers and sourdine, with little change but that
which straightened the keys from the divergences inherited from
the clavichord. John Broadwood took this domestic instrument
first in hand to improve it, and in the year 1780 succeeded in
entirely reconstructing it. He transferred the wrest-plank and
pins from the right-hand side, as in the clavichord, to the back
of the case, an improvement universally adopted after his patent,
No. 1379 of 1783, expired. In this patent we first find the
damper and piano pedals, since universally accepted, but at first in
the grand pianofortes only. Zumpe's action remaining with an
altered damper, another inventor, John Geib, patented (No.
1 57 1 of 1786) the hopper with two separate escapements, one
of which soon became adopted in the grasshopper of the square
piano, it is believed by Geib himself; and Petzold, a Paris maker,
appears to have taken later to the escapement effected upon the
key. We may mention here that the square piano was developed
and continued in England until about the year i860, when it
went out of fashion.

To return to John Broadwood — having launched his recon-
structed square piano, he next turned his attention to the grand
piano to continue the improvement of it from the point where
Backers had left it. The grand piano was in framing and
resonance entirely on the harpsichord principle, the sound-board
bridge being still continued in one undivided length. The
strings, which were of brass wire in the bass, descended in notes
of three unisons to the lowest note of the scale. Tension was
left to chance, and a reasonable striking line or place for the
hammers was not thought of. Theory requires that the notes
of octaves should be multiples in the ratio of 1 to 2, by which,
taking the treble clef C at one foot, the lowest F of the five-
octave scale would require a vibrating length between the
bridges of 12 ft. As only half this length could be conveniently
afforded, we see at once a reason for the above-mentioned
deficiencies. Only the three octaves of the treble, which had
lengths practically ideal, could be tolerably adjusted. Then
the striking-line, which should be at an eighth or not less than a
ninth or tenth of the vibrating length, and had never been
cared for in the harpsichord, was in the lowest two octaves
out of all proportion, with corresponding disadvantage to the
' tone. John Broadwood did not venture alone upon the path

PIANOFORTE

5 6 9

towards rectifying these faults. He called in the aid of professed
men of science — Tiberius Cavallo, who in 1788 published his
calculations of the tension, and Dr Gray, of the British Museum.
The problem was solved by dividing the sound-board bridge,
the lower half of which was advanced to carry the bass strings,
which were still of brass. The first attempts to equalize the
tension and improve the striking-place were here set forth, to
the great advantage of the instrument, which in its wooden
construction might now be considered complete. The greatest
pianists of that epoch, except Mozart and Beethoven, were
assembled in London — Clementi, who first gave the pianoforte
its own character, raising it from being a mere variety of the
harpsichord, his pupils Cramer and for a time Hummel, later
on John Field, and also the brilliant virtuosi Dussek and Steibelt.
To please Dussek, Broadwood in 1791 carried his five-octave,
F to F, keyboard, by adding keys upwards, to five and a half
octaves, F to C. In 1794 the additional bass half octave to C,
which Shudi had first introduced in his double harpsichords,
was given to the piano. Steibelt, while in England, instituted
the familiar signs for the employment of the pedals, which
owes its charm to excitement of the imagination instigated by
power over an acoustical phenomenon, the sympathetic vibra-
tion of the strings. In 1799 Clementi founded a pianoforte
manufactory, to be subsequently developed and carried on by
Messrs Collard.

The first square piano made in France is said to have been
constructed in 1776 by Sebastian Erard, a young Alsatian.
In 1786 he came to England and founded the
London manufactory of harps and pianofortes
bearing his name. That eminent mechanician and inventor
is said to have at first adopted for his pianos the English models.

Erard.

was introduced by William Stodart in 1822. A pressure-bar
bearing of later introduction is claimed for the French maker,
Bord. The first to see the importance of iron sharing with
wood (ultimately almost supplanting it) in pianoforte framing
was a native of England and a civil engineer by H aw klns.
profession, John Isaac Hawkins, known as the
inventor of the ever-pointed pencil. He was living at Phila-
delphia, U.S. A., 'when he invented and first produced the familiar

Fig. 26. — Erard's Double Escapement Action, 1884. The double
escapement or repetition is effected by a spring in the balance press-
ing the hinged lever upwards, to allow the hopper which delivers the
blow to return to its position under the nose of the hammer, before
the key has risen again.

However, in 1794 and 1801, as is shown by his patents, he was
certainly engaged upon the elementary action described as
appertaining to Gosselin's piano, of probably German origin.
In his long-continued labour of inventing and constructing
a double escapement action, Erard appears to have sought to
combine the English power of gradation of tone with the German
lightness of touch. He took out his first patent for a " repeti-
tion" action in 1808, claiming for it " the power of giving
repeated strokes without missing or failure, by very small
angular motions of the key itself." He did not, however,
succeed in producing his famous repetition or double escapement
action until 1821; it was then patented by his nephew Pierre
Erard. who, when the patent expired in England in 1835, proved
a loss from the difficulties of carrying out the invention, which
induced the House of Lords to grant an extension of the
patent.

Erard invented in 1808 an upward bearing to the wrest-plank
bridge, by means of agraffes or studs of metal through holes
in which the strings are made to pass, bearing against the upper
side. The wooden bridge with down-bearing strings is clearly
not in relation with upward-striking hammers, the tendency
of which must be to raise the strings from the bridge, to the
detriment of the tone. A long brass bridge on this principle

Fig. 27. — Steinway's Grand Piano Action, 1884. The double
escapement as in Erard's, but with shortened balance and usual
check.

cottage pianoforte — " portable grand " as he then called it.
He patented it in America, his father, Isaac Hawkins, taking
out the patent for him in England in the same year, 1800.
It will be observed that the illustration here given (fig. 28)
represents a wreck; but a draughtsman's restoration might be
open to question.

There had been upright grand pianos as well as upright
harpsichords, the horizontal instrument being turned up upon
its wider end and a keyboard and action adapted to it. William
Southwell, an Irish piano-maker, had in 1798 tried a similar
experiment with a square piano, to be repeated in later years
by W. F. Collard of London ; but Hawkins was the first to make
a piano, or pianino, with the strings descending to the floor,
the keyboard being raised, and this, although at the moment
the chief, was not his only merit. He anticipated nearly every

"JAW'

FlG. 28. — Hawkins's Portable Grand Piano, 1800. An upright
instrument, the original of the modern cottage, piano or pianino.
In Messrs Broadwood's museum and unrestored.

discovery that has since been introduced as novel. His
instrument (fig. 28) is in a complete iron frame, independent
of the case; and in this frame, strengthened by a system of iron
resistance rods combined with an iron upper bridge, his sound-
board is entirely suspended. An apparatus for tuning by
mechanical screws regulates the tension of the strings, which
are of equal length throughout. The action, in metal supports,
anticipates Wornum's in the checking, and still later ideas in
a contrivance for repetition. This remarkable bundle of inven-
tions was brought to London and exhibited by Hawkins himself;

57°

PIANOFORTE

but the instrument being poor in the tone failed to bring him
pecuniary reward or the credit he deserved. Southwell appears
to have been one of the first to profit by Hawkins's ideas by
bringing out the high cabinet pianoforte, with hinged sticker
action, in 1807. All that he could, however, patent in it was
the simple damper action, turning on a pivot to relieve the
dampers from the strings, which is still frequently used with
such actions. The next steps for producing the lower or cottage
upright piano were taken by Robert Wornum, who in 181 1
produced a diagonally, and in 1813 a vertically, strung one.
Wornum's perfected crank action (fig. 29) was not complete
until 1826, when it was patented for a cabinet piano; but it was
not really introduced until three years later,
when Wornum applied it to his little " piccolo."
The principle of this centred lever check action
was introduced into Paris by Pleyel 1 and Pape,
and thence into Germany and America.

It was not, however, from Hawkins's inven-
tion that iron became introduced as essential to
the structure of a pianoforte. This
was due to William Allen, a young
Scotsman in the employ of the Stodarts. He
devised a metal system of framing intended
primarily for compensation, but soon to become,
in other hands, a framing for resistance. His
idea was to meet the divergence in tuning caused
in brass and iron strings by atmospheric changes
by compensating tubes and plates of the same
metals, guaranteeing their stability by a cross
batoning of stout wooden bars and a metal bar
across the wrest-plank. Allen, being simply a
tuner, had not the full practical knowledge for
carrying out the idea. He had to ally himself
with Stodart's foreman, Thorn; and Allen and
Thorn patented the invention in January 1820.
The firm of Stodart at once acquired
the patent.

We have now arrived
at an important epoch
in pianoforte construc-
tion — the abolition, at
least in England and
France, of the wooden

Fig. 29. — Wornum's
Upright Action, 1826.
The original of the now
universal crank action
in upright pianos.

construction in favour of a combined construc-
tion of iron and wood, the
former material gradually as-
serting pre-eminence. Allen's
design is shown in fig. 30. The
long bars shown in the diagram
are really tubes fixed at one end
only; those of iron lie over
the iron or steel wire, while
those of brass lie over the
brass wire, the metal plates
to which they are attached
being in the same corre-
spondence. At once a great
advance was made in the pos-
sibility of using heavier strings
than could be stretched before,
without danger to the dur-
ability of the case and frame.
The next step was in 1821, to
a fixed iron string-plate, the
invention of one of Broad-
wood's workmen, Samuel

Fig. 30. — Allen's Compensating
Grand Piano, 1820. The first
complete metal framing system
applied over the strings.

Herve, which was in the first instance applied to one of the
square pianos of that firm. Tbe great advantage in the fixed
plate was a more even solid counterpoise to the drawing or
tension of the strings and the abolition of their undue length

1 Pleyel exhibited a small upright piano in Paris in 1827. Pierre
Erard did not turn his attention to upright pianos until 1831.

behind the bridge, a reduction which Isaac Carter 2 had tried some
years before, but unsuccessfully, to accomplish with a plate of
wood. So generally was attention now given to improved
methods of resistance that it has not been found possible to de-
termine who first practically introduced those long iron or steel
resistance bars which are so familiar a feature in modern
grand pianos. They were experimented on as substitutes for
the wooden bracing by Joseph Smith in 1798; but to James
Broad wood belongs the credit of trying them first above the
sound-board in the treble part of the scale as long ago as 1808,
and again in 1818; he did not succeed, however, in fixing them
properly. The introduction of fixed resistance bars is really
due to observation of Allen's compensating tubes, which were,
at the same time, resisting. Sebastian and Pierre Erard seem
to have been first in the field in 1823 with a complete system of
nine resistance bars from treble to bass, with a simple mode of
fastening them through the sound-board to the wooden beams
beneath, but, although these bars appear in their patent of
1824, which chiefly concerned their repetition action, the Erards
did not either in France or England claim them as of original
invention, nor is there any string-plate combined with them
in their patent. James Broadwood, by his patent of 1827,
claimed the combination of string-plate and resistance bars,
which was clearly the completion of the wood and metal instru-
ment, differing from Allen's in the nature of the resistance being
fixed. Broadwood, however, left the brass bars out, but added
a fourth bar in the middle to the three in the treble he had
previously used. It must be borne in mind that it was the
trebles that gave way in the old wooden construction before the
tenor and bass of the instrument. But the weight of the
stringing was always increasing, and a heavy close overspinning
of the bass strings had become general. The resistance bars
were increased to five, six, seven, eight and, as we have seen,
even nine, according to the ideas of the different English and
French makers who used them in their pursuit of stability.

The next important addition to the grand piano in order of
time was the harmonic bar of Pierre Erard, introduced in 1838.
This was a gun-metal bar of alternate pressing and drawing
power by means of screws which were tapped into the wrest-
plank immediately above
the treble bearings, mak-
ing that part of the instru-
ment nearly immovable;
this favoured the produc-
tion of higher harmonics
to the treble notes, recog-
nized in what we com-
monly call " ring." A
similar bar, subsequently
extended by Broadwood
across the entire wrest-
plank, was to prevent
any tendency in the
wrest-plank to rise, from
the combined upward
drawing of the strings. A
method of fastening the
strings on the string-plate
depending upon friction,
and thus dispensing with
" eyes," was a contri-
bution of the Collards,
who had retained James
Stewart, a man of con

siderable inventive power, Fig. 31.— Broadwood's Iron Grand
who had been in America Piano, 1884. Complete iron frame with
with Chickering. This diagonal resistance bar.
invention was introduced in 1827. Between 1847 and 1849
2 Sometime foreman to the pianoforte maker Mott, who attracted
much attention by a piano with sostenente effect, produced by a
roller and silk attachments in 1817. But a sostenente piano, how-
ever perfect, is no longer a true piano such as Beethoven and Chopin
wrote for.

PIANOFORTE

57i

Mr Henry Fowler Broadwood, son of James, and grandson of
John Broadwood, and also great-grandson of Shudi (Tschudi),
invented a grand pianoforte to depend practically upon iron, in
which, to avoid the conspicuous inequalities caused by the break-
ing of the scale with resistance bars, there should be no bar
parallel to the strings except a bass bar, while another flanged
resistance bar, as an entirely novel feature, crossed over the
strings from the bass corner of the wrest-plank to a point upon
the string-plate where the greatest accumulation of tension
strain was found. Broadwood did not continue, without some
compromise, this extreme renunciation of ordinary resistance
means. After the Great Exhibition of 1851 he employed an
ordinary straight bar in the middle of his concert grand scale,
his smaller grands having frequently two such as well as the
long bass bar. After 1862 he covered his wrest-plank with a
thick plate of iron into which the tuning pins screw as well as
into the wood beneath, thus avoiding the crushing of the wood
by the constant pressure of the pin across the pull of the string,
an ultimate source of danger to durability.

The introduction of iron into pianoforte structure was differ-
ently and independently effected in America, the fundamental
idea there being to use a single casting for the metal plate and
bars, instead of forging or casting them in separate pieces.
Alphaeus Babcock was the pioneer to this
kind of metal construction. He also was
bitten with the compensation notion, and
had cast an iron ring for a square piano
in 1825, which, although not a success,
gave' the clue to a single casting resis-
tance framing, successfully accomplished
by Conrad Meyer, in Philadelphia, in
1833, in a square piano which still exists,
and was shown in the Paris Exhibition
of 1878. Meyer's idea was improved
upon by Jonas Chickering (1797-1853) of
Boston, who applied it to the grand piano
as well as to the square, and brought the
principle up to a high degree of perfection
— establishing by it the independent con-
struction of the American pianoforte.

We have now to do with over- or
cross-stringing, by which the bass division
of the strings is made to cross
over the tenor part of the
scale in a single, double or
treble disposition at diverging angles —
the object being in the first instance to
get longer bass strings than are attainable
in a parallel scale, and in the next to
open out the scale and extend the area
of bridge pressure on the sound-board.
In the 1 8th century clavichords were
sometimes overstrung in the lowest octave
to get a clearer tone in that very indistinct
part of the instrument (strings tuned an octave higher being
employed). The first suggestion for the overstringing in the
piano was made by the celebrated flute-player and inventor
Theobald Boehm, who carried it beyond theory in London, in
1 83 1, by employing a small firm located in Cheapside, Gerock &
Wolf, to make some overstrung pianos for him. Boehm expected
to gain in tone; Pape, an ingenious mechanician in Paris, tried
a like experiment to gain economy in dimensions, his notion
being to supply the best piano possible with the least outlay of
means. Tomkinson in London continued Pape's model, but
neither Boehm's nor Pape's took permanent root. The Great
Exhibition of 185 1 contained a grand piano, made by Lichtenthal
of St Petersburg, overstrung in order to gain symmetry by two
angle sides to the case. It was regarded as a curiosity only.
Later, in 1855, Henry Engelhard Steinway (originally Steinweg;
1707-1871), who had emigrated from Brunswick to
New York in 1849, an d had established the firm of
Steinway & Sons in 1853 in that city, effected the combination

Over-
stringing,

Fig. 32. — Meyer's
Metal Frame for a
Square Piano, 1833.
In a single casting.

of an overstrung scale with the American iron frame, which
exhibited in grand and square instruments shown in London
in the International Exhibition of 1862, excited the attention of
European pianoforte makers, leading ultimately to important
results. The Chickering firm claim to have anticipated the
Steinways in this invention. They assert that Jonas Chickering
had begun a square piano on this combined system in 1853, but,
he died before it was completed, and it was brought out later.
It is often difficult to adjudicate upon the claims of inventors,
so rarely is an invention the product of one man's mind alone.
However, the principle was taken up and generally adopted in
America and Germany, and found followers elsewhere, not only
in grand but in upright pianos, to the manufacture of which
it gave, and particularly in Germany, a powerful impetus.

Steinway.

, Fig. 33. — Steinway's Grand Piano, 1884. Metal framing in a
single casting and overstrung.

Since 1885 the American system of a metal plate in one casting,
and cross- or over-stringing by which the spun bass strings
cross the longer steel diagonally, has become general Recent
in Europe with the exception of France, where structural
musical taste has remained constant to the older Changes.
wooden structure and parallel stringing throughout. The greater
tenacity of the modern cast-steel wire favours a very much
higher tension, and consequent easier production of the
higher partials of the notes, permitting a sostenuto unknown
to Beethoven, Schumann or Chopin. While in 1862 the' highest
tension of a concert grand piano worked out at sixteen tons,
since 1885 thirty tons has been recorded. Generally speaking,
the rise in tension may be expressed musically by the interval
of a minor third, to the great advantage of the standing in tune.
First shown by Henry Steinway in the London Exhibition of
1862, this altered construction attracted extraordinary attention
at Paris in 1867, and determined the German direction of
manufacture and a few years later the English. What is now
particularly noticeable wherever pianos are made is the higher
average of excellence attained in making, as well as in piano-
playing. Naturally the artistic quality, the personal note,
characterizes all first-class instruments, and permits that liberty
of choice which appertains to a true conception of art.

Much attention has been given of late years to the touch of
pianos, to make it less tiring for the modern performer, especially
since, in 1885-1886, Anton Rubinstein went through the hercu-
lean feat of seven consecutive historical recitals, repeated in the
capital cities and principal musical centres of Europe. For even
this stupendous player a light touch was indispensable. In

572

PIANOFORTE

the competition for power piano makers had been gradually
increasing the weight of touch to be overcome by the finger,
until, to obtain the faintest pianissimo from middle C, at the
front edge of the key, from three to four ounces was a not uncom-
mon weight. The Broadwood grand piano which Chopin used
for his recitals in London and Manchester in 1848, an instrument
that has never been repaired or altered, shows the resistance he
required: the middle C sounds at two ounces and a half, and to
that weight piano-makers have returned, regarding two ounces
and three-quarters as a possible maximum. Owing to the
greater substance of the hammers in the bass, the touch will

Fig. 34. — Broadwood Barless Grand.

always be heavier in that department, and lighter in the treble
from the lesser weight. In balancing the keys, allowance has
to be made for the shorter leverage of the black keys. When
the player touches the keys farther back the leverage is propor-
tionately shortened and the weight increased, and there is also
an ascending scale in the weight of the player's blow or pressure
from pianissimo to fortissimo. The sum of the aggregate force
expended by a pianist in a recital of an hour and a half's duration,
if calculated, would be astonishing.

The most important structural change in pianos in recent
years has been the rejection of support given by metal bars
or struts between the metal plate to which the strings are hitched
and the wrest-plank wherein the tuning-pins are inserted.
These bars formed part of Willis m Allen's invention, brought
forward by Stodart in 1820, and were first employed for rigidity
in place of compensation by the Paris Erards two years later,
Broadwood in London introducing about that time the fixed
metal plate. The patent No. 1231, for the barless or open-scale
piano, taken out in London in 1888 by H. J. Tschudi Broadwood,
is remarkable for simplification of design as well as other qualities.
Ten years elapsed after the taking out of the patent before
the first barless grand was heard in public (January 1898 at St
James's Hall). The metal frame, bolted in the usual manner
to the bottom framing, is of fine cast steel entirely free from any
transverse bars or struts, being instead turned up round the edges

to form a continuous flange, which enables the frame to bear
the increased modern tension while providing additional elas-
ticity and equality of vibration power throughout the scaling.
The absence of barring and bracing tends to subdue the metallic
quality of tone so often observable in pianofortes constructed
with heavy iron frames, and the barless steel frame being so
much more elastic than the latter, no loss in resonance is per-
ceptible. The tone of the barless grand is of singular beauty
and sonority and is even throughout the compass.

The problem of resonance — with stringed keyboard instru-
ments, the reinforcement or amplification of sound — has, from
the days of the lute- and spinet-makers, been
empirical. With lute, guitar, and viol or violin T ^ .
the sound-box comes in, combining in the instrument R es(lne ace.
the distinct properties of string and enclosed air or
wind. With the spinet, harpsichord and piano we have to do
chiefly with the plate of elastic wood, to amplify the initial
sound of the strings; and the old
plan of a thin plate of spruce, put
in slightly convex and with an
under-barring of wood for tension,
has absorbed the attention of
piano-makers. The violin belly,
with its bass bar and sound post,
has relation to it; but the recent
invention of the Stroh violin has
shown that the initial string
vibrations may be passed through
a bridge, be concentrated, and
adequately transferred to an
aluminium disk not much larger
than half a crown. The piano,
with its numerous strings, cannot
be so reduced, but the reinforce-
ment problem is open to another
solution, tentative it is true, but
a possible rival. The " Gladi-
ator " soundboard is the invention
of Albert Schulz, late director
of the piano manufactory of
Ritmiiller and Sonne of Gottin-
gen. Dr Moser's name has been
associated with the inventor's in
the English patent. In the
" Gladiator " two slabs of wood,
with grain of opposed direction
to give the necessary tension, are
glued together, and the whole
system of belly bars is done away
with. There is a thinning round
the edge, to facilitate promptness
of speech. As we are still feeling
our way towards an accurate
and comprehensive statement of
resonance, this invention is one
claiming scientific interest, as well
as being of possible practical im-
portance.

To return to the touch. The
desirability of what is called

repetition — that the _

. *\, ... ... Repetition.

jack or sticker, which

from the depression of the key
delivers the blow that raises the
hammer to the strings, should
never be far away from the
notch or nose which receives the
impulse — is as much an object
of consideration with piano-
makers now as it has been since
Sebastian Erard began those
experiments in 1808 which ended

Fig. 35. — Cary's Repeating
Action. I, the butt in which
the hammer is glued. E, a
spring attached to the butt by
a link of silk cord passed
through a wire guide. The
object is that though the key
may be still pressed down,
the hammer returns but a
short distance to ensure a
quick response to the blow if
repeated.

PIANOFORTE

573

in his famous " double escapement " action. The principle of
this grand action, like that of Wornum patented for upright
pianos in 1826, has become general. But Joseph Henry Cary
in 1853 (patent No. 2283) invented a simple contrivance for
repetition in all pianos, neglected at the time, and subsequently
repatented and disputed over by others, which has only been
preserved in the records of the patent office, while the inventor
has left no other mark. But the utility of the invention has
come to light. It is increasingly used in the actions of upright
pianos, and, in combination with the old English grand action,
is successfully competing with the Erard action proper and
the simplified Herz-Erard, of late years so very generally
employed.

There has been a great change in the freer technique of piano-
playing, partly favoured by the development of piano-making,
but reacting and obliging the piano-makers to keep
ec a que. ^^ r attention incessantly alive to the aim and re-
quirements of the players. It is true that the genius of Beet-
hoven dominates a technique that has become obsolete, and so
completely that the adequate performance of his piano works
still gives to the sense as well as the intellect the highest pleasure,
but his annotations to Cramer's Studies, as preserved by Schindler,
betray the close touch of the clavichord-player and the student
of C. P. E, Bach's Essay on Clavichord- Playing, as well as the

Mechanics!
Playing.

Fig. 36. — Modern Pianola.

A, Blowing pedals operated by feet of player connected by metal
crank to feeder B, which exhausts air from bellows C, which in turn
exhausts air from all working valves and bellows in Pianola.

D, is perforated roll passing over tracker bar E winding on to spool
F operated by a pneumatic motor and controlled by lever G, which
is connected to' metrostyle pointer H. This is used in conjunction
with a specially marked roll, giving correct interpretation of tempo.

I, is channel leading to primary pneumatic J operating secondary
pneumatic K, which exhausts striking motor L, connected to key
lever M to depress piano key.

The themodist device consists of two small holes, one at each end
of tracker bar E, connecting with pneumatic valve, which increases
power of suction instantaneously when melody notes are being
played, by means of an extra perforation at each outside edge of
music roll D; one hole for bass melody at left, and one at right
edge for treble melody.

N, is metai arm or bracket connected to lever in front for purpose
of depressing sustaining pedal of piano.

O, is the governing bellows of motor for operating music-roll and
prevents pace of roll being accelerated or retarded by hard or soft
pedalling, thus allowing great change of expression to be made
without interfering with speed of roll.

weakness as a musical instrument of the early piano. The in-
ventor of a technique so original, and at the time (c. 1830) so
extraordinary, as Chopin's, sat at the piano with his elbows
immovable, using, for flexibility, neither wrist nor arm. With
Chopin, to play loudly was anathema. The modern free style
of playing comes from Czerny — whom Beethoven despised as
having no legato (Bindung) — through Liszt to the Rubinsteins
and to the splendidly equipped performers of our time, to
whom the pedal has become indispensable for cantabile ind
effect.

The most expert performers are now rivalled technically by
the recent extraordinary invasion of the American automatic
piano-players — the Angelus, Pianola, Apollo, Ceci-
lian, and other varieties of the same idea. The use
of the perforated roll acts by means of the ingenious
and indeed faultless application of pneumatic leverage to the
ordinary piano, doing duty for the pianist's fingers; and it is
made possible to play louder or softer, faster or slower, by
mechanical arrangement. Such an instrument lacks the player's
touch, which is as personal and indispensable for sympathy as
the singer's voice or violinist's bow. Still, to a violinist, it is
a benefit to have a correct coadjutor in a Beethoven or Brahms
sonata with one of these handy companions, just as it is to a
singer to have always at command the accompaniments to his
or her repertory. The Apollo has the addition of a useful
transposing apparatus — an aid, however, that, though often
tried, has never yet been adopted; it is possibly too disturbing
to the musician's ear. The mechanical tuning-pin is an analo-
gous experiment which comes regularly under notice as the years
go by, to be as persistently rejected. The most practical of
these tuning inventions was the Alibert, shown in the Inventions
Exhibition, 1885. Here, pressure upon the strings above the
wrest -plank bridge modified their tension after a first rough
adjustment to pitch had been effected.-

The perforated music-sheet, a mechanism common to piano-
playing attachments as well as self-playing pianos, first appears
in a French patent, 1842. A United States patent for a keyboard
piano-player was issued to E. D. Bootman (Dec. 18, i860),
and the first pneumatic keyboard piano-player was patented in
France in 1863 by M. Fourneaux. Between 1879 and 1902 a total
of 55 patents had been issued in the States. The first complete
automatic piano-player ready for performance was the Angeius
(No. 24799, J 897). The specification is from a communication to
the British patent office by Edward Hollingworth White, of Meriden,
New Haven county, Conn., U.S.A. There is a pneumatic chest,
fulcrum bar, finger levers, bellows and pedals. The whole apparatus
is contained in a portable cabinet mounted upon castors, so as to be
conveniently moved about a room. The finger levers or key strikers
correspond with a considerable portion of the manual keys or clavier
of a piano. Thus the automatic piano-player comprises a portable
cabinet provided with bellows and operating pedals, a pneumatic
actuating mechanism, a tracker adjusted for the use of a perforated
music-sheet, a pneumatic motor and winding-roll mechanism to
propel the music-sheet, and a series of finger levers operated by the
pneumatic mechanism, so projecting as to overhang the piano
keyboard and play upon it, with rockers or levers for depressing
the piano pedals. Subsequently the apparatus was made capable
of accelerating or retarding the tempo at the will of the
operator. A roll of music, 12 in. wide and varying in length accord-
ing to the composition, can be placed in position promptly, and when
exhausted can be returned upon its original roll by a simple stop,
altogether a triumph of mechanical adjustment. The Pianola
followed in 1898, the Apollo 1900. The difference of all these clever
contrivances is not conspicuous to the amateur.

While these allied inventions have had to do with a substitute
for touch and the necessity for the persevering acquirement of a
difficult technique, another, the Virgil Practice Clavier, so called
after the inventor, Mr Almon Kincaid Virgil, an American music
teacher, is intended to shorten the period of study by doing away
with tone, so that the finger technique is acquired mechanically and
unmusically, while value of tone, reading, expression, what-
ever we understand by musical production exciting our re-
ceptivity through the ear, is delayed until the player's hand is
formed and considerably developed. The opinion of some of
the very greatest pianists is brought forward as approving of
the system; in the work, for instance, of Vladimir de Pachmann,
whose technique was formed long before the Virgil Clavier came
to Europe. Bearing in mind that the minimum weight of the
touch of a concert piano is not likely to exceed three and a half
ounces it is hardly likely that these skilled performers use this
dumb keyboard with the graduated weight advised for advancing

574

PIANOSA PIATTI

pupils, namely, from five to eight ounces. It is allowed that the
lightest possible touch may be used at first. One high recommen-
The Dumb Nation certainly remains after all that rriay be said regard-
Keyboard. m 6 Mr Virgil's invention: that it is practically silent,
almost noiseless, the up and down clicks that mark the
duration of finger attachment being alone audible, a boon to the
unwilling hearers of ordinary piano practice, scales and five-finger
exercises. Mr Virgil's invention was produced in its elementary
form in 1872, the more satisfactory Practice Clavier dates from
the completion of the invention, about 1890. It was brought to
England in 1895 by Mr Virgil.

Bibliography. — A. Schlick, Spiegel der Orgelmacher (Mainz ?,
151 1 ; Berlin repr., 1869) ; S.Virdung, Musica getuscht und auszgezogen
(Basel, 151 1 ; reprinted in facsimile, Berlin, 1882); M. Agricola,
Musica instrumenialis (Wittenberg, 1529); O. Luscjnius, Musurgia
sive praxis musicae (Strassburg, 1536); M. Praetorius, Syntagma
musicum, vol. i. (Wittenberg, 161 5); vols. ii. and iii. in German,
Wolfenbuttel, 1619; M. Mersenne, Harmonicorum (Paris, 1635), and
Harmonie universclle (Paris, 1636); C. Huygens, Correspondance,
(Jonkbloet et Land, Leiden, 1882); T. Mace, Musick's Monument
(London, 1676); J. S. Bach, Das wohltemperirte Clavier (Coethen,
1722) ; C. P. E. Bach, Versuch iiber die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen
(Berlin, 1753); J. Adlung, Musica mechanica organoedi (Berlin,
1768); C. Burney, The Present Slate of Music in France and Italy
(London, 1771), and The Present State of Music in Germany, the
Netherlands, &c. (London, 1772); W. A. Mozart, Briefe (Leipzig,
1878); D. Steibelt, Three Sonatas, Op. 35, preface (London, 1799),
and Methode de piano forte (Paris, 1805); F. J. Fetis, " Esquisse
de l'Histoire du Piano," in the Revue et gazette musicale (Paris,
1830), partly translated in the Harmonicon (London, 1830-1831);
" Exposition universelle de Londres," in Gazette musicale (Paris,
1851), Exposition universelle de Paris, rapport du jury (Paris, 1855),
" Exposition internationale de Londres " in Gazette musicale (Paris,
1862), and Exposition universelle de Paris, rapport du jury (Paris,
1867) ; J. S. Broadwood, Some Notes made in 1838, with observations
and elucidations by H. F. Broadwood (London, 1862) ; Kuetzing,
Das Wissenschaftliche der Fortepiano Baukunst (Bern, 1844); S. and
P. Erard, London Exhibition (London, 1851); W. Pole, "Musical
Instruments of the Great Exhibition," from Newton's Patent Journal
(London, 1851), and in Jurors' Reports, International Exhibition
(London, 1862); J. Fischhoff, Versuch einer Geschichte des Clavier-
baues (Vienna, 1 853); Anonymous, Notes sur les travaux de MM.
Erard (Paris, 1855) ; C. A. Andre, Der Clavierbau, Offenbach, 1855) ;
H. Welcker von Gontershausen, Der Flugel oder die Beschaffenheit
des Pianos in alien Formen (Frankfort, 1856), and Der Clavierbau
in seiner Theorie, Technik und Geschichte (Frankfort, 1870); E. F.
Rimbault, The Pianoforte (London, i860); J. Broadwood & Sons
International Exhibition (London, 1862); L. de Burbure, Recherches
sur les facteurs de clavecins d'Anvers (Brussels, 1863) ; A. W. Ambros,
Geschichte der Musik, vol. ii. (Breslau, 1864); O. Paul, Geschichte des
Claviers (Leipzig, 1868), and Amtlicher Bericht iiber die wiener
Ausstellung im Jahre 1873 (Brunswick, 1874); G F. Sievers, II
Pianoforte guida pratica (Naples, 1868); Patents: Abridgments
of Specifications relating to Musical Instruments (London, 1871);
P. Rombouts and T. Van Lerius, De Liggeren der antwerpsche Sint
Lucasgilde (vol. i., Antwerp, 1872; and vol. ii., The Hague);
C. Engel, Musical Instruments in the South Kensington Museum
(London, 1874), and " Some Account of the Clavichord," in
Musical Times (London: July, August, September, 1879); E.
Van Der Straeten, La Musique aux Pays-bas, vol. iii., (Brussels,
1875); Chickering & Sons, The Pianoforte (Boston, 1874); C. Chou-
quet, Le Musee du conservatoire national de musique (Paris, 1875),
and Exposition universelle et internationale de Paris, rapport du
jury (Paris, 1880); L. Puliti, Delia Origine di pianoforte (Florence,
1876); C. Meyer & Son, On the Full Iron Plate Frame for Pianos
(Philadelphia, 1876); C. Ponsicchi, // Pianoforte, sua origine e
sviluppo (Florence, 1876); Bosanquet, Elementary Treatise on
Musical Intervals (London, 1876); A. Kraus, Catalogue des instru-
ments de musique du musee Kraus (Florence, 1878); V. Mahillon,
Annuaires du conservatoire royal de musique de Bruxelles (Brussels,
1877 to 1883), and Catalogue descriptif et analytique du musie
instrumental du conservatoire royal de musique de Bruxelles (Ghent,
1880-1881); L. F. Valdrighi, Musurgiana (Modena, 1879); E.
Brinsmead, History of the Pianoforte (London, 1879); S. Blondel,
Histoire anecdotique du piano (Paris, 1880); A. Reissmann, Illus-
irirte Geschichte der deutschen Musik (Leipzig, 1880-1881); A. J.
Ellis, " History of Musical Pitch," with appendices, in Journal
of the Society of Arts (London, 1880); A. J. Hipkins, various articles
in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, " History of the Piano-
forte," with appendix, in Journal of the Society of Arts (London,
1883), and " The Pianoforte and its Precursors, in the English
Illustrated Magazine (London, 1884); O. Bie, History of the Piano-
forte (London, 1899). J. Bluethner and H. Gretschel, Der Piano-
fortebau (3rd ed. Leipzig, 1909) ; S. Hansing, Das Pianoforte in seinen
akustischen Anlagen (Schwerin, 1910); F. A. Goehlinger, Geschichte
des Klavichords (Basel, 1910). (A. J. H.; K. S.)

PIANOSA (anc. Planasia), an island of Italy, belonging to
the province of Leghorn, and forming part of the commune

of Marciana (Elba), from which it is 75 m. S.W. Pop. (1881),
774. As its name indicates, it is quite flat, and the highest
point is only 95 ft. above sea-level. Its area is 6 sq. m. Augus-
tus banished to it his grandson, Agrippa Postumus, and some
ruins of baths near the harbour still bear his name. It changed
hands more than once in the wars between Pisa and Genoa in
the 1 2th and 13th centuries; from 1390 it belonged to the prince
of Piombino, but was depopulated in 1553 by the Turkish fleet,
and only resettled at the beginning of the 19th century. In
1857 a penal colony was established here.

PIARISTS, the popular name of a Catholic educational order,
the " clerici regulares scholarum piarum," the Pauline Congrega-
tion of the Mother of God, founded by Joseph Calasanza (Jose-
phus a Matre Dei) at Rome in the beginning of the 17th century.
Calasanza, a native of Calasanz in the province of Huesca in
Aragon, was born on September 11, 1556, studied at Lerida and
Alcaic, and after his ordination to the priesthood removed to
Rome (1592). Here he organized, in 1607, a brotherhood which
ultimately, in 1617, became an independent Congregation,
numbering at that time fifteen priests, under Calasanza as their
head. To the three usual vows they added a fourth, that of
devotion to the gratuitous instruction of youth. In 1622 the
Congregation received a new constitution from Gregory XV.,
and had all the privileges of the mendicant orders conferred
upon it, Calasanza being recognized as general. In 1643 the
jealousy of the Jesuits led to his removal from office; owing to
the same cause the Congregation was deprived of its privileges
by Innocent X. in 1646. Calasanza, who died on August 22,
1648, was beatified in 1748, and canonized in 1767. The
privileges of the Congregation were successively restored in
1660, 1669 and 1698. The Piarists, who are not numerous,
are found chiefly in Italy, Spain, the West Indies, Germany,
and especially in Austria-Hungary. Before the course of study
was regulated by the state, a Piarist establishment contained
nine classes: reading, writing, elementary mathematics, schola
parva or Rudimentorum, schola Principiorum, Grammatica,
Syntaxis, Humanitas or Poesis, Rhetorica. The general provost
of the order is chosen by the general chapter, and with a general
procurator and four assistants resides at Rome. The members
are divided into professors, novices, and lay brethren. Their
dress is very similar to that of the Jesuits; their motto " Ad
majus pietatis incrementum! "

For Calasanza, see Timon-David, Vie de St Joseph Calasance
(Marseilles, 1884); on the Piarists, P. Helyot, Hist, des ordres reli-
gieuses (1715), iv. 281; J. A. Seyffert, Ordensregeln der Piaristen
(Halle, 1783) ; J. Schaller, Gedanken iiber die Ordensfassung der Piar-
isten (Prague, 1805) ; A. Heimbucher, Or den und Kongregationen
(1897) ii. 271; articles by O. Zockler in Herzog-Hauck's Real-
encyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie (1904), vol. xv. and by
C. Kniel in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchen-lexikon (1895), vol. ix.

PIATRA (Peatra), the capital of the department of Neamtzu,
Rumania, situated on the left bank of the river Bistritza, where
it cuts a way through the Carpathian foothills. Pop. (1900),
17,391. A branch railway passes through the town, and at
Bacau meets the main line from Czernowitz in Bukowina to
Galatz. The church of St John's (or the Prince's) monastery
was founded in 1497 by Stephen the Great. There are saw-mills
and textile factories in Piatra, which has a considerable trade in
wine and timber. Neamtzu is one of the most densely forested
regions in Moldavia. Lumber rafts are floated down the Bis-
tritza to the Sereth, and so on to Galatz. There are several
monasteries in the neighbourhood.

PIATTI, CARLO ALFREDO (1822-1901), Italian violoncellist,
was born at Bergamo on the 8th of January 1822. He was
the son of a violinist, and became a pupil at the conservatorio
of Milan. From 1838 onwards he journeyed over Europe,
playing with extraordinary success in all the important
cities of the continent. In 1844 he appeared before the
London public at a Philharmonic Concert; and in 1859, on
the foundation of the Popular Concerts, he took up the
work with which he was most intimately connected for
thirty-nine seasons, retaining until 1897 the post of first
violoncello at these famous chamber concerts, during the latter

PIAUHY— PICA

575

half of each series. His purely classical style, his wide musical
sympathies, and his general culture and charm, would have
ensured him a high position even without his marvellously
finished technical skill. In 1894 the fiftieth anniversary of his
first appearance in London was celebrated by a reception given
in honour of him and his lifelong friend Joachim. He retired
from public life, owing to a severe illness, in 1897, and until his
death at Bergamo on the 19th of July 1901 divided his time
between his native town and Cadenabbia. As a composer he
attained a wide popularity with some graceful and popular
songs; he did excellent work as an editor; and he was an
enthusiastic collector and musical antiquary.

PIAUHY, or Piauhi, a north-eastern state of Brazil, bounded
N. and W. by Maranhao, E. by Ceara, Pemambuco and Bahia,
and S. by Bahia. It has a few miles of Atlantic coast-line on
the N., and the Rio Parnahyba forms the boundary line with
Maranhao throughout its entire length. Area, 116,523 sq. m.;
pop. (1900), 334,328. Part of the state on the Atlantic coast and
along the lower Parnahyba is low, swampy and malarial. South
of this the country rises gradually to a high plateau with open
campos. This plateau region is watered by numerous tributaries
of the Parnahyba, chief of which are the Urussuhy, the Caninde
and its tributary the Piauhy, the Gurgueia and its tributary
the Parahim, which drains the large inland lake of Parnagua,
the Longa, and the Poty, which has its source in the state of
Ceara. The Parnahyba is navigable for boats of 3 ft. draught up
to Nova York, a few miles above the mouth of the Gurgueia,
and could be made navigable up to the mouth of the Balsas.
The climate is hot and humid in the lowlands and along the lower
Parnahyba, but in the uplands it is dry with high sun tempera-
tures and cool nights. The principal industry is stock-raising,
which dates from the first settlement in 1674 by Domingos
Affonso Mafrense, who established here a large number of cattle
ranges. A secondary industry is the raising of goats, which are
able to stand neglect and a scanty food supply. Sheep have
likewise been raised in Piauhy, but there is no market for mutton
and their wool is not utilized. The agricultural products are
cotton, sugar and tobacco. Of food-stuffs the people do not
produce enough for their own consumption. Forest products
include rubber, carnauba wax and dyewoods. The exports in-
clude hides, skins, rubber, wax, tobacco and cotton. The
capital is Therezina, on the right bank of the Parnahyba, 250 m.
above Parnahyba (town), with which it is connected by a line of
light-draught river boats. The town dates from 1852, is attrac-
tively situated, and is regularly laid out with broad, straight
streets crossing each other at right angles. The population
of the municipio in 1890 was 31,523, which includes a large
rural district. Other towns, with their populations in 1890,
are Oeiras (19,858), founded in 1718 under the name of Moxa;
Amarante (15,525); Valenca (17,693); and CampoMaior (12,425),
the figures given of population being those of the large districts
(municipios) in which the towns are situated.

PIAZZA, properly an open square or place in an Italian town
(Ital. piazza, from Lat. platea, broad space, Gr. irXdrus, broad).
These squares were usually surrounded with a colonnade or
arcade, and thus the word has been loosely applied to a covered
walk or arcade along the front of a building, and in America,
to the veranda of a house.

PIAZZA ARMERINA, a city of Sicily, in the province of
Caltanisetta, 39 m. by road E.S.E. from that town, and the
same distance S. of the railway station of Assoro-Valguarnera,
43 m. W. of Catania, situated 2360 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
(1901), 24,119. It has a 15th-century cathedral, with a fine
campanile, and some of the houses show Norman or Gothic
architecture. The foundation of the town dates from the nth
century, and the dialect is Lombard.

See Mauceri in L' 'Arte (1906), 14.

PIAZZI, GIUSEPPE (1 746-1 826), Italian astronomer, was
born at Ponte, in the Valtellina, on the 16th of July 1746. He
entered the Theatine Order in 1764, accepted the chair of
mathematics in the academy of Palermo in 1780, and persuaded
the viceroy, Prince Caramanico, to build an observatory there.

During a visit to England in 1788 he procured from Jesse
Ramsden a five-foot altazimuth, with which he collected at
Palermo, 1792-1813, the materials for two admirable star-
catalogues, published in 1803 and 1814 respectively. While
engaged on this work he discovered, on the 1st of January 1801,
the first asteroid or minor planet, to which he gave the name of
Ceres, the tutelary deity of Sicily. He died at Naples on the
22nd of July 1826.

See B. E. Maineri, L'Astronomo Giuseppe Piazzi (Milan, 1871);
R. Wolf, Biographien, Bd. iv. p. 275 ; Monatliche Correspondenz
(1810; portrait), xxi. 46; Astr. Jahrbuch, liv. 218; Bulletin des
sciences (1826), vi. 339; Edin. Journal of Science (1827), vi. 193;
Memoirs Roy. Astr. Soc. iii. 119; R. Grant, Hist. Phys. Astronomy,
pp. 238, 510, 549.

PIBRAC, GUY DU FAUR, Seigneur de (1529-1584),
French jurist and poet, was born at Toulouse, of an old family
of the magistracy. He studied law there with Jacques Cujas, and
afterwards at Padua. In 1548 he was admitted to the bar at
Toulouse, at once took high rank, and rose to be juge-mage,
an office in Languedocian cities about equal to that of prSvdt.
He was selected in 1562 as one of the three representatives of
the king of France at the council of Trent. In 1565 he became
general advocate to the parlement of Paris, and extended the
renaissance in jurisprudence which was transforming French
justice. In 1573 he was sent by Charles IX. to accompany as
chancellor his brother Henry (afterwards Henry III.) to Poland,
of which country Henry had been elected king. Pibrac's fluent
Latin won much applause from the Poles, but his second visit
to Poland in 1575, when sent back by Henry III. to try to save
the Crown he had deserted, was not so successful. Then he was
employed in negotiations with the so-called politiques, and he
managed to keep them quiet for a while. In 1578 he became the
chancellor of Marguerite of France, queen of Navarre. Although
he was fifty, her beauty and intellectual gifts led him to aspire
to win her affection; but he was rejected with disdain. He died
in 1584. His oratorical style was too pedantic, but quotations
from the classics had a fresher meaning in his day. He was
the friend of Ronsard, de Thou and L'Hopital, and left, among
other literary remains, elegant and sententious quatraines.

PIBROCH, a form of music as played by the bagpipe. The
word is derived from the Gaelic piobaireachd, the art of the
bagpiper. This special form of bagpipe music, consisting of
a series of variations founded on a theme, was called the urlar.
These variations are generally of a martial or warlike character
and include dirges and marches (see Bagpipe).

PICA, the name of the European representative of a group
of diminutive rodent mammals, also known as tailless hares,
mouse-hares, or piping hares, constituting the family Ochotonidae
with the single genus Ochotona. From the more typical hares
and rabbits they differ by the short and rounded ears, the absence
of a tail, and the relatively shorter hind-limbs, as well as by
complete collar-bones. The soles of the feet are hairy, and the
fur is usually soft and thick; while in some cases the last upper
molar is absent. Picas are inhabitants of cold and desert
regions. They dwell either in the chinks between rocks, or in
burrows, although one Himalayan species frequents pine-forests.
They are very active, and most of the species utter a piping or
whistling cry. They store up a supply of grass for winter use;
in Siberia it is stacked in small heaps. The Himalayan Ochotona
roylei may be seen in the daytime, but most kinds are nocturnal.
The Siberian species, O. alpina, ranges into eastern Europe, but
Central Asia is the headquarters, although a few species range
into Arctic America and the Rocky Mountains. In size picas
may be compared to guinea-pigs. Till of late years the group
has been generally known by the name of Lagomys. There are
several extinct genera.

See Rodentia; also J. L. Bouhote, "The Mouse-hares of the
genus Ochotona," Proc. Zool. Soc. (London, 1905). (R. L.*)

PICA, the Latin name of a genus of oscine passerine birds,
the magpies. The Latin word, by interchange of initial p and
k, is possibly the Gr. do-aa (see Magpie), and probably the same
word as picus, the woodpecker (q.v.). Another derivation would
connect both pica and picus with the root pic- of pingere, to

57 b

PICARD— PICARESQUE NOVEL

paint, from the parti-coloured appearance of the bird. It is
this " pied " or black and white look of the page that probably
gave the name of pica, " pie " or " pye," to the ordinal printed
in black-letter (see Pie), and thence to a size of type in printing
coming next to " English " (see Typography). The Gr. tdaaa.
and Lat. pica were used of a perverted craving for unnatural
foods; and the word has been adopted in this sense in modern
medical terminology.

PICARD, LOUIS JOSEPH ERNEST (1821-1877), French
politician, was born in Paris on the 24th of December 1821.
After taking his doctorate in law in 1846 he joined the Parisian
bar. Elected to the corps legislatif in 1 858, he joined the group of
Emile Ollivier. But as Ollivier approximated to the government
standpoint, Picard, one of the members of the group known as
Les Cinq, veered more to the left. He founded in 1868 a weekly
iemocratic journal, L'Electeur libre, and in 1869 was elected
both for Herault and Paris, electing to sit for the former.
From the 4th of September 1870 he held the portfolio of finance
in the government of National Defence. In January 1871 he
accompanied Jules Favre to Versailles to arrange the capitula-
tion of Paris, and in the next month he became minister of the
interior in Thiers's cabinet. Attacked both by the Monarchist
and the Republican press, he resigned in May. Later in the year
he was sent as ambassador to Brussels, where he remained for
two years. On his return to Paris he resumed his seat in the
Left centre, and in 1875 became life senator. He died in Paris
on the 13th of May 1877.

PICARDY {La Picardie), one of the old provinces of France,
bounded on the N. by Hainaut and Artois, on the E. by Cham-
pagne, on the S. by the lie de France, and on the W. by Nor-
mandy and the English Channel. Its maritime frontier ran
from the mouth of the Aa to the cliffs of Caux, and it included
tha whole of the basin of the Somme and part of that of the
Oise. The chief towns of Picardy were Amiens, Boulogne,
Abbeville, Laon, Soissons, Montreuil, Peronne, Beauvais,
Montdidier, St Quentin and Noyon. Its principal rivers were
the Somme and the Oise. Picardy formed part of the arch-
diocese of Reims, and its bishoprics were Amiens, Beauvais,
Senlis, Soissons, Noyon and Laon. In 1789 the province of
Picardy was covered by the three bishoprics of Amiens, Noyon
and Boulogne. It was one of the provinces of the five great
fermes, districts subject to the tariff of 1664, and in judicial
matters was under the authority of the parlement of Paris.
Its area now forms the department of the Somme and parts
of the departments of Pas de Calais, Aisne and Oise.

The name of Picardy does not appear until the 13th century,
but was employed by Matthew Paris and was in general use in
the 14th century. In the 13th century the province was
divided into the two bailliages of Amiens and Vermandois, but
its regular organization as part of the kingdom of France only
dates from the beginning of the 16th century. At this time it was
divided into north and south Picardy. North Picardy, or Picardy
proper, formed one of the great military governorships of the
kingdom, while south Picardy was included in the lie de France.
North Picardy was divided into upper and lower Picardy, the
former being the interior part of the province and the latter the
district along the coast. Upper Picardy comprised the districts
of Amienois, Santerre, Vermandois and Thierache, and lower
Picardy those of Ponthieu, Vimeu, Boulonnais and Calaisis,
or the Pays reconquis; south Picardy included the districts of
Beauvaisis, Laonnais and Soissonais.

Under the Romans Picardy was part of Belgica secunda;
it was inhabited by the Morini, the Ambiani, the Veromandui,
the Bellovaci and the Suessiones, whose names still appear in
Amiens, Vermandois, Beauvais and Soissons. The Romans
intersected the district with roads and built several castra to
defend the valley of the Somme. In the 3rd century Christianity
was preached here, and St Quentin and others were martyred.
A little later abbeys were founded, among them Corbie, St
Valery and St Riquier. Early in the 5th century Picardy
became the centre of Merovingian France, for, as the historian
Michelet says, "l'histoire de l'antique France semble entassee

en Picardie." Clovis had his first capital at Soissons Charle-
magne had his at Noyon, and Laon was the capital and the
refuge of the later and feebler Carolingian sovereigns.

During the later feudal period Picardy was the home of the
counts of Vermandois, of Clermont and of Ponthieu, the sire of
Coucy and others. The neighbouring dukes of Burgundy cast
covetous eyes upon the province; in 1435, by the famous treaty
of Arras, the royal towns and lands in the valley of the Somme
were ceded by King Charles VII. to Burgundy. However, after
the death of Charles the Bold in 1477 Picardy was finally'united
with the crown of France. The province was early an industrial
district. Flemish immigrants brought with them the lucrative
trade of weaving cloth, and the Somme towns were soon compet-
ing with those of Flanders. The Picard towns were noted for
their love of independence, which often brought them into
collision with the kings of France during the 13th century. At
a later time the province received a number of Spanish immi-
grants. In the middle ages the Picards formed one of the four
" nations " at the university of Paris. Picardy has a high place
as a home of Gothic art, this being testified to by the superb
cathedrals at Amiens and Noyon, while within its borders is
the famous chateau of Coucy.

Picardy has a literature of its own, which was rich and popular
in the 12th century. It suffered greatly from the ravages of
the Normans, and later during the Hundred Years' War and
the wars between France and Spain. Within it are the famous
fields of Crecy, Agincourt and St Quentin, while it also includes
places of conference like Guines, Amiens and Picquigny. The
Picard had a high reputation as a soldier, being sometimes called
the " Gascon of the North," and in 1558 Henry II. created the
rigiment de Picardie. Many anthropological remains have been
found in the Somme valley.

See Labourt, Essai sur Vorigine des villes de Picardie (Amiens,
1840); Grenier, Introduction a l'histoire generate de la province de
Picardie (Amiens, 1856); and H. Carnoy, Litterature orale de la
Picardie (1883).

PICARESQUE NOVEL, THE. This special form of the
roman d'aventures may be defined as the prose autobiography of
a real or fictitious personage who describes his experiences as a
social parasite, and who satirizes the society which he has
exploited. The picaroon, or rogue type, is represented by
Encolpos, Ascyltos and Giton in the Satyricon which tradition
ascribes to Petronius; it persists in Lucian, in the Roman de
Renart, in the fableaux, and in other works popular during the
middle ages; and it is incarnated in real life by such men of
genius as the Archpriest of Hita and Francois Villon. But in
its final form the picaresque novel may be regarded as a Spanish
invention. The word picaro is first used, apparently, in a letter
written by Eugenio de Salazar at Toledo on the 15th of April
1560; the etymology which derives picaro from picar (to pick up)
is unsatisfactory to philologists, but it suggests the picaroon's
chief business in life. In the Tesoro de la lengua castellana
(Madrid, 161 1) Sebastian Covarrubias y Orozco, the best of
Spanish lexicographers, describes a picaro as a man of loose
character engaged in menial work and — by extension — a rascal
who attains his ends by skilful dissimulation; and the earliest
application of the expression picaro to a character in fiction
occurs in Mateo Aleman's Guzman de Alfarache, the first part of
which was published in 1599. But a genuine novela picaresca
existed in Spain before the word picaro became generally
current.

The earliest specimen of the kind is La Vida de Lazarillo de
Tormes y de sus fortunas y adversidades, an anonymous tale long
attributed, on insufficient grounds, to Diego Hurtado de Mendoza
(q.v.) . The authorship of this brilliant book and the circumstances
of its publication are obscure; however, it was certainly issued
not later than 1554, and was thrice reprinted before 1559, when it
was placed on the Index. Imitations of so successful a story
were inevitable, and so early as 1555 there appeared at Antwerp
La Segunda parte de Lazarillo de Tormes, an anonymous sequel
which completely misinterpreted the irreverent wit of the original.
The first part had been prohibited because of its attacks on the

PICARESQUE NOVEL

577

clergy ; in the second part the hero is presented as a devout youth
transformed into a tunny at the intercession of the Virgin Mary,
who thus saved him from death; after many extravagant experi-
ences in this form he is restored to human shape, and proposes
to teach the submarine language at the university of Salamanca.
This dull performance naturally failed to please and, meanwhile,
many surreptitious copies of the first part were introduced into
Spain; the Inquisition finally gave up the attempt to suppress it,
and in 1573 an expurgated edition was authorized. With this
mutilated version the Spanish public was forced to be content
during the remaining fifteen years of Philip II. 's reign. Upon
the death of this sombre monarch society relaxed its hypocritical
pose of austerity, and in 1599 Mateo Aleman (q.v.) published the
Primera parte de Guzmdn de Alfarache. It is modelled upon
Lazarillo de Tormes, being the autobiography of the son of a
ruined Genoese money-lender; but the writer indulges in a
tedious series of moralizings. This contrasts sharply with the
laconic cynicism of Lazarillo de Tormes; but Guzmdn de Alfarache
is richer in invention, in variety of episode and in the presentation
of character. Its extraordinary popularity tempted a Valencian
lawyer named Juan Jose Marti to publish a Segunda parte de la
vida del picaro Guzmdn de Alfarache (1602) under the pseudonym
of Mateo Lujan de Sayavedra. Though partly plagiarized from
the manuscript of the genuine second part to which Marti had
somehow obtained access, the continuation was coldly received;
in 1604 Aleman brought out the true continuation, and revenged
himself by introducing into the narrative a brother of Marti — a
crazy picaroon of the lowest morality who ultimately commits
suicide in disgust at his own turpitude. In Lazarillo de Tormes,
and still more in Guzmdn de Alfarache, it is difficult to distinguish
between the invented episodes and the personal reminiscences
of the authors. The Viage entretenido (1603) of Agustin de Rojas
is a realistic account of the writer's experiences as a strolling
actor and playwright, and, apart from its considerable literary
merits, it is an invaluable contribution to the history of the
Spanish stage as well as a graphic record of contemporary low
life; the chief character in the book is called the caballero del
milagro, an expression which recurs in Spanish literature as the
equivalent of a chevalier d'induslrie.

The next in chronological order of the Spanish picaresque tales

is La Picara Justina (1605), the history of a woman picaroon,

which it has long been customary to ascribe to Andres Perez, a

Dominican monk: there is, however, no good reason to suppose

that the name of Francisco Lopez de Ubeda on the title-page is a

pseudonym. The Picara Justina has wrongly acquired a

reputation for indecency; its real defects are an affected diction

and a want of originality. The writer frankly admits that he has

taken material from the Celestina, from Lazarillo de Tormes,

from Guevara, Timoneda and Aleman, and he boastfully asserts

that " there is nothing good in ballad, play or Spanish poet,

but that its quintessence is given here." Unluckily he has not

the talent to utilize these stolen goods. The Picara Justina was

thrice reprinted during the seventeenth century; this is the only

basis for the untenable theory that it is the source of the cultera-

nismo which reaches its climax in Gracian's treatises. The

Picara Justina is now read solely by philologists in quest of verbal

eccentricities. Gines de Pasamonte, one of the secondary figures

in Don Quixote (1605-1615), is a singularly vivid sketch of the

Spanish rogue, and in the comedy entitled Pedro de Urdemalas

Cervantes again presents a brilliant panorama of picaresque

existence. He returns to the subject in Rinconete y Cortadillo

and in the Coloquio de los perros, two of the best stories in the

Novelas ejemplares (1613). The attraction of picaresque life

was felt by pious and learned critics, and expounded in print.

In the Viage del mundo (1614) the zealous missionary Pedro de

Cevallos interpolates amusing tales of what befell him in the

slums of Andalusia before he fled from justice to America, where

he lived as a sinful soldier till his spiritual conversion was

accomplished. Cristobal Suarez de Figueroa, a caustic critic

of his contemporaries and an arbiter of taste, did not think it

beneath his dignity to show a disconcerting acquaintance with

the ways of professional rogues, and in El Pasagero (161 7) he

xxi. 19

fills in the sketch of the knavish inn-keeper already outlined by
Cervantes in Don Quixote. Evidence of the widely diffused taste
for picaresque literature is found in Enriquez de Castro (1617), an
interminable story written in Spanish by a Frenchman named
Francois Loubayssin de Lamarca, who brought out his book at
Paris; two years previously Loubayssin had introduced some
clever but risky picaresque episodes in his Enganos deste siglo y
historia sucedida en nuestros tiempos. But his attempt to fill a
larger canvas is a complete failure.

The roving instinct of Vicente Martinez Espinel (q.v.) had led
him into strange and dangerous company before and after his
ordination as a priest, and a great part of his Relaciones de la
vida del escudero Marcos de Obregdn (1618) is manifestly the
confession of one who has regretfully outlived his pleasant vices.
The baffling compound of fact with fiction and the lucid style
of which Espinel was a master would suffice to win for Marcos de
Obregdn a permanent place in the history of Spanish literature;
the fact that it was largely utilized by Le Sage in Gil Bias has
won for it a place in the history of comparative literature.
Within five months of its publication at Madrid a fragmentary
French version by the Sieur d'Audiguier was issued at Paris, and
at Paris also there appeared a Spanish picaresque story entitled
La Desordenada codicia de los bienes ajenos (16 19), ascribed con-
jecturally to a certain Dr Carlos Garcia, who reports his conver-
sation with a garrulous gaol-bird, and appends a glossary of slang
terms used by the confraternity of thieves; he was not, however,
the first worker in this field, for a key to their gross jargon had
been given ten years previously by Juan Hidalgo in his Romances
de germania (1609), a series of gipsy ballads. Every kind of
picaroon is portrayed with intelligent sympathy by Alonso
Jeronimo de Salas Barbadillo, who is always described as a picar-
esque novelist; yet he so constantly neglects the recognized
conventions of the Spanish school that his right to the title is
disputable. Thus in La Hija de Celestina (1612) he abandons the
autobiographical form, in El Subtil cordobes Pedro de Urdemalas
(1620) he alternates between dialogue and verse, and in El Necio
Hen afortunado (1621) the chief character is rather a cunning
dolt than a successful scoundrel. The pretence of warning new-
comers against the innumerable occasions of sin in the capital
is solemnly kept up by Antonio Linan y Verdugo in his Guia y
avisos de for aster os que vienen d la corle (1620), but in most of his
tales there is more entertainment than decorum.

The profession of a serious moral purpose on the part of many
picaresque writers is often a transparent excuse for the intro-
duction of unsavoury incident. There is, however, no ground
for doubting the sincerity of the physician Jeronimo de Alcala
Yanez y Ribera, who at one time thought of taking holy orders,
and studied theology under St John of the Cross. An unusual
gravity of intention is visible in Alonso, mozo de muchos amos
(1624-1626), in which the repentant picaro Alonso, now a lay-
brother, tells the story of his past life to the superior of the
monastery in which he has taken refuge. It abounds with
pointed anecdotes and with curious information concerning the
Spanish gipsies, and this last characteristic explains George
Borrow's hyperbolical praise of the work as competing with
Don Quixote in grave humour, and as unequalled " for knowledge
of the human mind and acute observation."

At about this time there lived in Spain an ex-nun named
Catalina de Erauso, who fled from her convent, dressed herself
in men's clothes, enlisted, was promoted ensign, and saw more of
life than any other nun in history. Broadsides relating the story
of this picaresque amazon were circulated during her lifetime,
and the details of her adventures arrested the attention of De
Quincey, who would seem to have read them in a Spanish
original which has been admirably translated since then by the
French poet Jose Maria de Heredia. The Spanish original, in
its existing form, was issued no earlier than 1829 by Joaqufn
Maria de Ferrer, whose character is not a satisfactory guarantee
of the work's authenticity; but its interest is unquestionable.
No such suspicion attaches to the Vida of Alonso de Contreras,
first published in 1899; this out-at-elbows soldier faithfully
records how he became a knight of the Order of Santiago, how he

578

PICARESQUE NOVEL

broke all the Commandments, how he found himself stranded in
Madrid, how his fine air captivated Lope de Vega, who housed
him for eight months and dedicated to him a play entitled Rey sin
reino, and how the ex-captain ended by " resolving to retire to a
lonely spot and there serve God as a hermit." Every convention
of the picaresque novel is faithfully observed, and the incidents
are no doubt substantially true, though Contreras, like most
converts, judges his own past with unnecessary harshness. This
subtle form of vanity also pervades the Comentarios de el desen-
gahado de si mismo of Diego duque de Estrada, a rakish soldier
and inferior dramatist whose autobiography (begun in 1614 and
continued at intervals during many years) was not printed till
i860. A far higher order of talent distinguishes the Capilulaci-
ones de la vida de la corte y oficios entretenidos in ella, a bitterly
unsparing review of picaresque life written by the great satirist
Francisco Gomez de Quevedo y Villegas (q.v.). These thumbnail
sketches were the preparatory studies worked up into the more
elaborate Vida del buscdn Don Pablos (1626), the cleverest and
most revolting book of its class. There is no attempt to scare
the wicked by means of awful examples; the moral lesson is con-
temptuously thrown aside; the veil of romance is rent in twain,
and the picaro — the nephew of the public executioner — is revealed
as he is, gloating in cruelty and revelling in the conscious enjoy-
ment of crime. But though Quevedo detests mankind, his
morose vision of existence rarely degenerates into caricature.
In his repugnant, misanthropic masterpiece the sordid genius
of the Spanish picaroon finds absolute expression. Nothing
further remained to be done in the matter of realism; henceforth
the taste for picaresque novels grew less keen, and later writers
unconsciously began to humanize their personages.

The Varia fortuna del soldado Pindaro (1626) added nothing
to the established reputation of Gonzalo Cispedes y Meneses.
A clever anonymous story, Don Raimundo el entretenido (1627),
missed fire, even though it was attributed to Quevedo; yet the
author, Diego Tovar y Valderrama, compiled a sprightly diary
of the events which make up a picaroon's crowded day, and failed
solely because the interest in rogues was waning. Other writers
of undoubted gifts were slow to see that the fashion had changed.
AJonso de Castillo Solorzano (q.v.) tempted the public with three
picaresque stories published in quick succession: La Nina de los
embusles, Teresa de Manzanares (1634), the Aventuras del Bachiller
Trapaza (1637) and a sequel to the latter entitled La Garduna de
Sevilla (1642). Clever as Castillo Solorzano's stories are, their
tricky heroes and heroines were no longer welcomed with the old
enthusiasm in Spain; the Bachiller Trapaza was destined to be
continued by Mateo da Silva Cabral in Portugal and to be ex-
ploited by Le Sage in France, and to these two accidents it owes
its survival. Le Sage likewise utilized in Gil Bias episodes taken
from El Siglo pitagorico (1644), the work of Antonio Enriquez
Gomez (q.v.) ; but most of El Siglo pitagorico is in verse, and as it
was published at Paris by an exiled Portuguese Jew, its circu-
lation in Spain must have been limited. The normal primitive
rogue returns to the scene in La Vida y hechos de Estebanillo
Gonzalez (1646) , which is no doubt the genuine autobiography that
it purports to be. If he is still occasionally read by students he
owes it to the fact that Le Sage drew upon him in the Histoire
d' Estevamlle Gonzdles. By the general public he is completely
forgotten, and the same may be said of many subsequent Spanish
writers who adopted the picaresque formula. The Buscdn is the
last great book of its kind.

Meanwhile, the rogue had forced his way into other European
literatures. The Antwerp continuation (1555) of Lazarillo de
Tortnes brought the original to the notice of northern readers,
and this first part was translated into French by Jean Saugrain
in 1561. A Dutch version was issued anonymously in 1579, a*nd
it seems extremely likely that the book had been translated into
English before this date. This follows from a manuscript note
written by Gabriel Harvey in a copy of the Howleglass given him
by Edmund Spenser; Harvey here mentions that he had received
the Howleglass, Skoggin, Skelton and Lazarillo from Spenser on
the 20th of December 1578. The earliest known edition of
David Rowland's version of Lazarillo de Tormes is dated 1586,

but as a licence to print a translation of this tale was granted on
the 22nd of July 1568/1569, it is probable that a 1576 edition
which appears in the Harleian Catalogue really existed.
Numerous reprints (1599, 1639, 1669-1670, 1672, 1677) go to
prove that Lazarillo de Tormes was very popular, and that
Shakespeare had read it seems to follow from an allusion in
Mucfi Ado about Nothing (Act. 11., sc. i.) : " Now you strike like
the blind man; 't was the boy that stole your meat, and you will
beat the post." To Thomas Nash belongs the credit, such as it is,
of being the first to write a picaresque novel in English: The
Unfortunate Traveller; or the Life of Jack Wilton (1594). Nash
carefully points out that his work is a new experiment, " being
a cleane different veine from other my former courses of writing " ;
the only possible Spanish model that he can have had was
Lazarillo de Tormes, but he has nothing of his predecessor's
sardonic brevity, and he anticipates later Spanish writers by his
emphatic insistence on the pleasures of eating and drinking to
repletion. Nash led the way, and a reference to " Spanish
pickaroes " in Middleton's Spanish Gipsie indicates that the
picaroon type had speedily become familiar enough for London
playgoers to understand the reference. Interest in picaresque
literature was kept alive in England by a translation (1622) of a
sequel to Lazarillo de Tormes published at Paris two years earlier
by Juan de Luna, who came to London to supervise the English
rendering; by James Mabbe's admirable version (1622) of
Guzmdn de Alfarache; by The Son of the Rogue or the Politic Thief
(1638), an anonymous translation, done through the French, of
La desordenada codicia; and by another anonymous translation
(1657), likewise done through the French, of Quevedo's Buscdn.
The result of this campaign was The English Rogue described in
the Life of Meriton Latroon, a witty Extravagant (1665), by Richard
Head and Francis Kirkman. The authors of this farrago insist
on the English nationality of their chief character, and repudiate
the idea that they are in any way indebted to Aleman and
Quevedo. It is no exaggeration, however, to say that almost
all the material in the text is taken from Spanish sources, and
even the thieves' vocabulary is stolen from John Awdeley's
Fraternitye of Vacabondes or Thomas Harman's Caveat, or
Warning for Common Cursetors. It is not till Defoe's time that
the English picaresque novel acquires any real importance,
and the picaresque intention informs much of his work that
contravenes the accepted rules of composition. There is a
female picaroon in Moll Flanders, and, as Defoe read Spanish, it
is conceivable that Moll Flanders was suggested by the Picara
Justina; but this resemblance does not make a picaresque novel
of Moll Flanders. The satirical spirit which is lacking in Moll
Flanders is abundantly present in Colonel Jack, which bravely
aims at exhibiting " vice and all kinds of wickedness attended
with misery." Henceforward the picaroon is naturalized in
English literature, and is gloriously reincarnated in Fielding's
Jonathan Wild and in Smollett's Ferdinand, Count Fathom.
The classification of Sterne's Tristram Shandy and Morier's Hajji
Baba as picaresque novels is not strictly accurate; like
Pickwick and Oliver Twist and Barry Lyndon, they are rather
varieties of the peripatetic novel, but many incidents in all five
recall the pleasing wiles of the Spanish picaroons.

The Dutch translation of Lazarillo de Tormes (1579) did not
enable the picaresque novel to strike root in Holland, yet from
it is derived one of the best Dutch comedies, De Spaensche
Brabander Jorolimo (1616) of Gerbrand Bredero. A German
translation of Guzmdn de Alfarache was published by Aegidius
Alberitnus in 161 5; both Lazarillo and Rinconete y Cortadillo
were translated by Niclas Ulenhart in 1716, and in 1627 there
appeared an anonymous version of the Picara Justina. The
Spanish tradition was followed by Martin Frewden in a con-
tinuation (1626) of Guzmdn de Alfarache, but the only original
picaresque novel of real value in German is Grimmelhausen's
Simplicissimus. The attempt to acclimatize the picaresque novel
in Italy failed completely. Barezzo Barezzi translated Guzmdn
de Alfarache, Lazarillo de Tormes and the Picara Justina in 1606,
1622 and 1624 respectively, and Giovanni Pietro Franco did the
Buscdn into Italian in 1634; but there was no important native

PICAYUNE— PICCINNI

development. The same may be said of Portugal; for though
Silva Cabral's continuation of the Bachiller Trapaza is called
the most remarkable of Portuguese picaresque romances, it is
significant that O peralvilho de Cordrva remains in manuscript.

The case was very different in France, where pictures of low
life had always found admirers. The first translation of Laza-
rillo de Tormes appeared, as already noted, at Paris in 1561; the
first translation of the first part of Guzmdn de Aljarache was
issued there by Gabriel Chappuis in 1600, and the dictator
Chapelain deigned to translate both parts in 1619-1620; the first
translation of the Novelas ejemplares was published at Paris in
1618 by Rosset and d'Audiguier; and French translations of
Marcos de Obregon, of La Desordenada codicia, of the Buscon and
of the Picara Justina were printed in 1618, 1621, 1633 and 1635
respectively. Before this series of translations was completed
Charles Sorel recounted in Francion (1622) " the comic mishaps
which befall evil-doers," invoking the common excuse that it
is " lawful to find pleasure at their expense." Many of the
episodes in Francion are picaresque in tone, but unfortunately
Sorel wanders from his subject, and devotes no small part of his
book to satirizing literary men who, though fribbles or paupers,
are in no sense picaroons. The legitimate Spanish tradition is
followed more closely and with much more ability by Paul
Scarron in the Roman comique (165 1), in which horseplay is
predominant. The framework may have been suggested by
Agustin de Rojas or Quevedo, both of whom introduce a strolling
company, and such characters as Liandre, Angelique de FEtoile
and Ragotin might be found in any average novela picaresca.
Scarron frankly mentions Castillo Solorzano's Garduiia de Sevilla
in his text, and his Precaution inutile and Les Hypocrites are
convincing proofs of close study of Spanish picaresque stories:
the Precaution inutile is taken from Guzmdn de Aljarache, and
Les Hypocrites is merely a translation of Salas Barbadillo's
Hija de Celestina. The Roman bourgeois (1666) of Antoine
Furetiere is generally described as a picaresque novel, but this
involves a new definition of the adjective; the Roman bourgeois
includes some portraits and more satire which seem suggested
by picaresque reading, but it is concerned with the foibles of
the middle class rather than with the sly devices of common
vagabonds.

The Spanish picaroon lives again in Gil Bias, where, with a
dexterity almost rarer than original genius, a master of literary
manipulation fuses materials unearthed from forgotten and
seemingly worthless Spanish quarries. Gil Bias is a creation of
the gentler, sunnier French spirit; like Beaumarchais' Figaro he
is a Spaniard born, reared and humanized in Paris, and these
two are the only picaroons whose relative refinement has not
been gained at the cost of verisimilitude. But the old original
scoundrel was not yet extinct: in the interval between the appear-
ance of the Barbier de Seville and the Mariage de Figaro Restif
de la Bretonne produced a sequel (1776) to the Buscon — a sequel
so dull as to be wellnigh unreadable. The untamed Spanish
rogue had become impossible towards the end of the 18th cen-
tury: in the 19th he was deliberately rejected when Theophile
Gautier wrote his Capitaine Fracasse. Yet Gautier conscien-
tiously provides a Spanish atmosphere; the personages have
Spanish names; the knife has a Spanish inscription; the host
speaks French with a Spanish accent; Vallombreuse parts from
the marquis with a Spanish formula: " beso a vuestra merced
la mano, caballero." Capitaine Fracasse is the last important
book which continues the picaresque tradition. The possibilities
of picaresque fiction can never be exhausted while human nature
is unchanged. Pereda (q.v.) in Pedro Sdnchez (1884) touches
the old theme with the accent of modernity. It may be that
instead of one continuous tale, interrupted by episodical
digressions, the picaresque fiction of the future will take the form
of short stories independent of one another; but this would be
nothing more than a convenient mechanical device, a readjust-
ment of means to ends.

Bibliography.— Frank Wadleigh Chandler, Romances of Roguery,
pt. 1. (New York, 1899) ; Fonger De Hann, An Outline of the History
of the Novela Picaresca in Spain (The Hague-New York, 1903) ; W.
Lauser, Der erste Schelmenroman, Lazarillo von Tormes (Stuttgart,

579

1889) ; H. Butler Clarke, " The Spanish Rogue-Story " in Studies in
European Literature (Oxford, 1900); A. Schultheiss, Der Schelmen-
roman der_ Spanier und seine Nachbildungen (Hamburg, 1893);
F. J. Garriga, Estudio de la novela picaresca (Madrid, 1891); F. M.
Warren, History of the Novel previous to the Seventeenth Century (New
York, 1895); H. Koerting, Geschichte des franzbsischen Romans
tm 17. Jahrhundert (Oppeln and Leipzig, 1891); Arvede Barine,

' Les gueux d'Espagne ' in the Revue des deux mondes, vol. lxxxvi.
(Pans, 1888); A. Morel ¥&tio,_Etudes sur VEspagne (3 vols., Paris,
1888-1904). (j. F .. K .)

PICAYUNE, the name in Florida and Louisiana of the Spanish
half -real, = ^ of a dollar, b\ cents, and hence used of the United
States 5 cent piece. The French picaillon, from which the word
was adapted in America, was an old copper coin of Piedmont.
Its origin is doubtful, but is possibly related to the Italian piccolo,
little, small. In America the word is used of anything trifling,
petty, mean or contemptible.

PICCANINNY, or Pickaninny, a word applied originally by
the negroes of the West Indies to their babies. It is adapted
either from Span, pequeno, small, or Port, pequenino, very small.
The w.ord spread with the slave trade to America, and has since
been adopted in Australia and in South Africa.

PICCININO, NICCOLd (1386-1444), Italian condoltiere, born at
Perugia, was the son of a butcher. He began his military career
in the service of Braccio da Montone, who at that time was
waging war against Perugia on his own account, and at the death
of his chief, shortly followed by that of the latter's son Oddo,
Piccinino became leader of Braccio's condotta. After serving
for a short period under the Florentine Republic, he went over to
Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan (1425), in whose service
together with Niccold Fortebraccio he fought in the wars against
the league of Pope Eugenius IV., Venice and Florence. He
defeated the papal forces at Castel Bolognese (1434), but another
papal army under Francesco Sforza having defeated and killed
Fortebraccio at Fiordimonte, Piccinino was left in sole command,
and in a series of campaigns against Sforza he seized a number
of cities in Romagna by treachery. In 1439 he again fought in
Lombardy with varying success against Sforza, who had now
entered the Venetian service. Piccinino then induced the duke
of Milan to send him to Umbria, where he hoped, like so many
other condottieri, to carve out a dominion for himself. He was
defeated by Sforza at Anghiari (1440), but although a number of
his men were taken prisoners they were at once liberated, as
was usually done in wars waged by soldiers of fortune. Again
the war shifted to Lombardy, and Piccinino, having defeated
and surrounded Sforza at Martinengo, demanded of the visconti
the lordship of Piacenza as the price of Sforza's capture. The
duke by way of reply concluded a truce with Sforza; but the
latter, who, while professing to defend the Papal States, had
established his own power in the Marche, aroused the fears of
the pope and the king of Naples, as well as of the visconti, who
gave the command of their joint forces to Piccinino. Sforza
was driven from the Marche, but defeated Piccinino at Monte-
lauro, and while the latter was preparing for a desperate effort
against Sforza he was suddenly recalled to Milan, his army was
beaten in his absence, and he died of grief and of his wounds in
1444. Short of stature, lame and in weak health, he was brave
to the point of foolhardiness, wonderfully resourceful, and never
overwhelmed by defeat. He was cruel and treacherous, and
had no aim beyond his own aggrandizement. Piccinino left twe
sons, Jacopo and Francesco, both distinguished condottieri.

A good account of Piccinino is contained in vol. iii. of E. Ricotti's
Storia delta compagnie di ventura (Turin, 1845); G. B. Poggio, Vita
dt N. Piccinino (Venice, 1572); see also the general histories of the
period.

PICCINNI, NICCOLA (1728-1800), Italian musical composer,
was born at Bari on the 16th of January 1728. He was
educated under Leo and Durante, at the Conservatory
di Sant' Onofrio in Naples. For this Piccinni had to thank
the intervention of the bishop of Bari, his father, although
himself a musician, being opposed to his son's following
a musical career. His first opera, Le Donne dispettose,
was produced in 1755, and in 1760 he composed, at Rome,
the chef d'auvre of his early life, La Cecchina, ossia la buona

5 8o

PICCOLO— PICCOLOMINI, O.

Figliuola, an opera biiffa which attained a European success. Six
years after this Piccinni was invited by Queen Marie Antoinette
to Paris. He had married in 1756 his pupil Vincenza Sibilla, a
singer, whom he never allowed after her marriage to appear on the
stage. All his next works were successful; but, unhappily, the
directors of the Grand Opera conceived the mad idea of deliber-
ately opposing him to Gluck, by persuading the two composers to
treat the same subject — Iphigenie en Tauride — simultaneously.
The Parisian public now divided itself into two rival parties,
which, under the names of Gluckists and Piccinnists, carried
on an unworthy and disgraceful war. Gluck's masterly Iphi-
ginie was first produced on the 18th of May 1779. Piccinni's
Iphigenie followed on the 23rd of January 1781, and, though
performed seventeen times, was afterwards consigned to oblivion.
The fury of the rival parties continued unabated, even after
Gluck's departure from Paris in 1780; and an attempt was after-
wards made to inaugurate a new rivalry with Sacchini. Still,
Piccinni held a good position, and on the death of Gluck, in 1787,
proposed that a public monument should be erected to his
memory — a suggestion which the Gluckists themselves declined
to support. In 1 784 Piccinni was professor at the Royal School of
Music, one of the institutions from which the Conservatoire was
formed in 1794. On the breaking out of the Revolution in 1789
Piccinni returned to Naples, where he was at first well received by
King Ferdinand IV.; but the marriage of his daughter to a
French democrat brought him into irretrievable disgrace. For
nine years after this he maintained a precarious existence in
Venice, Naples and Rome; but he returned in 1798 to Paris,
where the fickle public received him with enthusiasm, but left
him to starve. He died at Passy, near Paris, on the 7th of May
1800. After his death a memorial tablet was set up in the house
in which he was born at Bari.

The most complete list of his works is that given in the
Rivista musicale italiana, viii. 75. He produced over eighty
operas, but although his later work shows the influence of
the French and German stage, he belongs to the conventional
Italian school of the 18th century.

See also P. L. Ginguene, Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Niccolo
Piccinni (Paris, 1801); E. Demoiresterres, La Musique francaise au
18' Steele Cluck et Piccinni 1774-1800 (Paris, 1872).

reign of Conradin, and again returned to Siena with the help
of Charles of Anjou. But through their riotous political activity
the Piccolomini lost their commercial influence, which passed
into the hands of the Florentines, although they retained their
palaces, castles and about twenty fiefs, some of which were in
the territory of Amalfi and of great extent. Many members of
the house were distinguished ecclesiastics, generals and statesmen
in Siena and elsewhere; two of them were popes, viz. Aeneas
Silvius Piccolomini (Pius II., q.v.) and Francesco Piccolomini
(Pius III., q.v.).

See Riehter, Die Piccolomini (Berlin, 1874); A. Lisini and A.
Libcrati, Albero della famiglia Piccolomini (Siena, 1899); and
articles by A. Lisini in the Miscellanea storica senese, 3rd series
12, and 4th series, 17 and 189.

PICCOLOMINI, OCTAVIO, Prince (1599-1656), duke of
Amalfi, Austrian general, was born on the nth of November 1599
in Florence, and carried a pike in the Spanish service at the age
of sixteen. Two years later, on the outbreak of the Thirty
Years' War in Bohemia, he was appointed a captain in a cavalry
regiment sent by the grand duke of Tuscany to the emperor's
army, and he fought with some distinction under Bucquoy at
the Weisser Berg and in Hungary. In 1624 he served for a
short time in the Spanish army and then as lieutenant-colonel
of Pappenheim's cuirassier regiment in the war in the Milanese.
In 1627 he re-entered the Imperial service as colonel and captain
of the lifeguard of Wallenstein, duke of Friedland. In this
capacity he soon fell into disgrace for practising extortion at
Stargard in Pomerania, but his adroitness secured him, after no
long interval, the rank of " colonel of horse and foot." About
this time the appointment of his younger brother to the arch-
bishopric of Siena secured him a position of influence in the
diplomatic world. Diplomatic talent was indeed almost the
birthright of a member of an Italian family, that had seen two
of its members occupying the papal chair, and Wallenstein freely
made use of his subordinate's capacity for negotiation and
intrigue. In the events of the Mantuan War Piccolomini took a
prominent part in the dual role of the subtle diplomatist and the
plundering soldier of fortune. At this moment came the invasion
of Germany by Gustavus Adolphus. Piccolomini was interned
at Ferrara as a hostage for the ratification of a treaty, but he

PICCOLO (Fr. petite flute octave; Ger. Pickelflote; Ital. flauto added his voice to the general call for Wallenstein's reappoint
piccolo or oltavi no), a small flute of less than half the dimensions
of the large concert flute and pitched an octave higher. The
principles of construction and the acoustic properties are the
same for the piccolo as for the flute, with the exception that the
piccolo does not contain the additional tail-piece with the extra
low keys, which give the flute its extended compass. As the
pitch of the piccolo is so high, the highest of all orchestral instru-
ments with the exception of a few harmonics on the violin, the
music for it is written an octave lower than the real sounds in
order to avoid the ledger lines. The piccolo has been used with
good effect in imitating the whistling of the wind in storms, as in
Beethoven's Pastoral Symphony, Wagner's Flying Dutchman,
and in conjunction with the violins in tremolo to depict the rust-
ling of the leaves in the breeze, as in the " Waldweben " in
Siegfried. Verdi employed it to advantage in Falstaf as a comic
agent in humorous situations. The piccolo is generally in D,
sometimes in E'p or F. (K- S.)

PICCOLOMINI, the name of an Italian noble family, which
was prominent in Siena (q.v.) from the beginning of the 13th
century onwards. In 1220 Enghelberto d'Ugo Piccolomini
received the fief of Montertari in Val d'Orcia from the emperor
Frederick II. as a reward for services rendered. The family
acquired houses and towers in Siena and castles in the republic's
territory, including Montone and Castiglione; the latter they sold
to the commune in 132 1. They obtained great wealth through
trade, and established counting-houses in Genoa, Venice,
Aquileia, Trieste, and in various cities of France and Germany.
Supporters of the Guelph cause in the civil broils by which Siena
was torn, they were driven from the city :r? the time of Manfred
and their houses demolished; fcy returned in triumph after
the Angevin victories, were expelled once more during the brief

ment as commander-in-chief. He was not, however, included in
the list of promotions that followed the duke's reappearance,
and he served under General Hoik, an officer brought in from the
Danish service, in the preliminary operations and in the battle
of Lutzen. His ambition was gratified when, on reading the
official report of the battle, the emperor made him a generel-
feldwachtmeister. At the same time, however, Hoik was created
a field marshal at Wallenstein's instance, much to his rival's
chagrin. In the campaign of 1633 Piccolomini held the command
of an important detachment posted at Koniggratz to bar the
enemy's advance from Silesia into Bohemia. History repeated
itself on the same ground in 1756, 1778 and 1866; in the first of
these cases it was a Piccolomini, grand-nephew of Octavio, who
commanded the Austrians; in the last the victorious Prussians
passed over the estate of Nachod, which after 1635 was a heredi-
tary possession of the family. In May Wallenstein entered
Silesia with the main army with the unavowed object of compel-
ling or persuading the electors of Brandenburg and Saxony to
make common cause with the emperor against the Swedes.
Piccolomini was with him, and, disapproving of the duke's
policy, joined in a military conspiracy, out of which grew the
drama that ended with the murder of Wallenstein on the 25th
of February 1634. Piccolomini's own part in the tragedy has
been set forth for all time in the pages of Schiller's Wallenstein.
His reward was his marshal's baton, 100,000 gulden and the
beautiful estate of Nachod in the Riesengebirge.

He was Wallenstein's pupil as well as his slayer, and had
learned the art of war from that master. On the 5th-6th of
September in the same year he distinguished himself amongst
the foremost in the great victory of Nordlingen. Fie soon saw
the necessity for following out the lines of military policy laid

PICENE— PICHEGRU

581

down by the duke, but neither he nor Gallas, the new lieutenant-
general of the emperor, possessed the capacity for carrying it
out, and the war dragged on year after year. Piccolomini was
in 1635 allied with a Spanish army, and bitterly complained that
their sloth and caution marred every scheme that he formed.
In 1638 he was made a count of the empire, and in 1639, having
been fortunate enough to win a great victory over the French
(relief of Thionville, July 7, 1639), he was rewarded with the
office of privy councillor from the emperor and with the dukedom
of Amain from the king of Spain. But instead of being appointed,
as he hoped, Gallas's successor, he was called in to act as ad latus
to the Archduke Leopold Wilhelm, with whom he was defeated
in the second battle of Breitenfeld in 1642. After this he spent
some years in the Spanish service and received as his reward the
title of grandee and the order of the Golden Fleece. Some years
later, having re-entered the Imperial army, he was again dis-
appointed of the chief command by the selection of the brave
veteran Peter Melander, Count Holzapfel. But when in 1648
Melander fell in battle at Zusmarshausen, Piccolomini was at
last appointed lieutenant-general of the emperor, and thus con-
ducted as generalissimo the final campaign of the weary and
desultory Thirty Years' War. Three days after the commission
for executing the peace had finished its labours, the emperor
addressed a letter of thanks " to the Prince Piccolomini," and
awarded him a gift of 114,566 gulden. Piccolomini died on the
nth of August 1656. He left no children (his only son Josef
Silvio, the " Max " of Schiller's Wallenstein, was murdered by
the Swedes after the battle of Jankau in 1645), and his titles and
estates passed to his brother's son. With the death of the latter's
nephew Octavio Aeneas Josef in 1757, the line became extinct.

PICENE, C22H14, a hydrocarbon found in the pitchy residue
obtained in the distillation of peat-tar and of petroleum. This
is distilled to dryness and the distillate repeatedly recrystallized
from cymene. It may be synthetically prepared by the action
of anhydrous aluminium chloride on a mixture of naphthalene
and ethylene dibromide (R. Lespieau, bull. soc. chim., 1891,
(3), 6, p. 238), or by distilling a-dinaphthostilbene (T. Hirn, Ber.,
1899, 32, p. 3341). It crystallizes in large colourless plates
which possess a blue fluorescence. It is soluble in concentrated
sulphuric acid with a green colour. Chromic acid in glacial
acetic acid solution oxidizes it to picene-quinone, picene-quinone
carboxylic acid, and finally to phthalic acid. When heated with
hydriodic acid and phosphorus it forms hydrides of composition
C-vjHm and C22H36 (see E. Bamberger and F.D. Chattaway, Ann.,
1895, 284, p. 61).

PICENUM, a district of ancient Italy, situated between the
Apennines and the Adriatic, bounded N. by the Senones and S.
by the Vestini. The inhabitants were, according to tradition,
an offshoot of the Sabines. Strabo (v. 4, 1) gives the story of
their migration, led by a woodpecker (picus), a bird sacred to
Mars, from which they derived their name Picentini (cf. Dion.
Hal. i. 14, 5), just as the Hirpini derived theirs from hirpus, a
wolf. The district was conquered by the Romans early in the
3rd century B.C. and the whole territory was divided up among
Latin-speaking settlers by the Lex Flaminia in 232 B.C. Hence
we have very scanty records of any non-Latin Language that may
have been spoken in the district before the 3rd century. Besides
the problematic inscriptions from Belmonte, Nereto and Cupra
Maritima (see Sabellic), we have one or two Latin inscriptions
(probably of the 2nd or even the 1st century B.C.) which contain
certain forms showing a distinct affinity with the dialect of
Iguvium (cf. the name Pasdi = Latin Pacidii). Hence there
seems some ground for believing that the population which the
Romans dispossessed, or held in subjection, really spoke a dialect
very much like that of their neighbours in Umbria.

For inscriptions, see R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, p. 449,
where the place-names and personal names of the district will
also be found; see further, Livy, Epit. xv. ; B. V. Head, Historia
numorum, p. 19. (R. S. C.)

It was in Picenum, at Asculum, that the Social War broke out
in 90 b.c. At the end of the war the district became connected
with Pompeius Strabo, and his son Pompey the Great threw into

the scale on the side of Sulla, in 83 B.C., all the influence he
possessed there, and hoped to make it a base against Caesar's
legions in 49 B.C. Under Augustus it formed the fifth region of
Italy, and included twenty-three independent communities, of
which five, Ancona, Firmum, Asculum, Hadria and Interamnia,
were coloniae. It was reached from Rome by the Via Salaria,
and its branch the Via Caecilia. It was also on a branch leading
from the Via Flaminia at Nuceria Camellaria to Septempeda.
There were also communications from north to south; a road led
from Asculum to Urbs Salvia and Ancona, another from Asculum
and Firmum and the coast, another from Urbs Salvia to Potentia,
while finally along the whole line of the coast there ran a
prolongation of the Via Flaminia, the name of which is not
known to us.

At the end of the 2nd century a.d. the north-eastern portion
of Umbria was divided from the rest and acquired the name
Flaminia, from the high road. For the time it remained united
with Umbria for administrative purposes, but passed to Picenum
at latest in the time of Constantine, and acquired the name of
Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium, the main portion of Picenum
being distinguished as Suburbicarium. In an inscription of A.D.
399 Ravenna is actually spoken of as the chief town of Picenum.
When the exarchate of Ravenna was founded the part of Pice-
num Annonarium near the sea became the Pentapolis Maritima,
which included the five cities of Ariminum, Pisaurum, Fanum
Fortunae, Sena Gallica and Ancona. The exarchate was seized
by Luitprand in 727, and Ravenna itself was taken by Aistulf
in 752. In the next year, however, the Emperor Pippin took
it from him and handed it over to the pope, a grant confirmed by
his son Charlemagne. (T. As.)

PICHEGRU, CHARLES (1761-1804), French general, was born
at Arbois, or, according to Charles Nodier, at Les Planches, near
Lons-le-Saulnier, on the 16th of February 1761. His father was a
labourer, but the friars of Arbois gave the boy a good education,
and one of his masters, the Pere Partault, took him to the military
school of Brienne. In 1783 he entered the first regiment of
artillery, where he rapidly rose to the rank of adjutant-sub-
lieutenant. When the Revolution began he became leader of
the Jacobin party in Besancon, and when a regiment of volun-
teers of the department of the Gard marched through the city
he was elected lieutenant-colonel. The fine condition of his
regiment was soon remarked in the army of the Rhine, and his
organizing ability was made use of by an appointment on the
staff, and finally by his promotion to the rank of general of
brigade. In 1793 Carnot and Saint Just were sent to find
roturier generals who could be successful; Carnot discovered
Jourdan, and Saint Just discovered Hoche and Pichegru. In
co-operation with Hoche and the army of the Moselle, Pichegru,
now general of division and in command of the army of the Rhine,
had to reconquer Alsace and to reorganize the disheartened
troops of the republic. They succeeded; Pichegru made use of
the elan of his soldiers to win innumerable small engagements,
and with Hoche forced the lines of Haguenau and relieved
Landau. In December 1793 Hoche was arrested, it is said
owing in part to his colleague's machinations, and Pichegru
became commander-in-chief of the army of the Rhine-and-
Moselle, whence he was summoned to succeed Jourdan in the
army of the North in February 1794. It was now that he fought
his three great campaigns of one year. The English and Austrians
held a strong position along the Sambre to the sea. After
vainly attempting to break the Austrian centre, Pichegru
suddenly turned their left, and defeated Clerfayt at Cassel,
Menin and Courtrai, while Moreau, his second in command,
defeated Coburg at Tourcoing in May 1794; then after a pause,
during which Pichegru feigned to besiege Ypres, he again dashed
at Clerfayt and defeated him at Rousselaer and Hooglede, while
Jourdan came up with the new army of the Sambre-and-Meuse,
and utterly routed the Austrians at Fleurus on the 27th of June
1794. Pichegru began his second campaign by crossing the
Meuse on the 18th of October, and after taking Nijmwegen
drove the Austrians beyond the Rhine. Then, instead of going
into winter-quarters, he prepared his army for a winter

5 82

PICHLER— PICKERING, E. C.

campaign. On the 28th of December he crossed the Meuse on the
ice, and stormed the island of Bommel, then crossed the Waal
in the same manner, and, driving the English before him, entered
Utrecht on the 19th of January, and Amsterdam on the 20th
of January, and soon occupied the whole of Holland. This
grand feat of arms was marked by many points of interest,
such as the capture of the Dutch ships, which were frozen in
the Helder, by the French hussars, and the splendid discipline
of the ragged battalions in Amsterdam, who, with the richest
city of the continent to sack, yet behaved with a self-restraint
which few revolutionary and Napoleonic armies attained. The
former friend of Saint Just now offered his services to the
Thermidorians, and after receiving from the Convention the
title of " Sauveur de la Patrie," subdued the sans-culottes of
Paris, when they rose in insurrection against the Convention on
12 Germinal (April 1). Pichegru then took command of the
armies of the North, the Sambre-and-Meuse, and the Rhine, and
crossing the Rhine in force took Mannheim in May 1795. When
his fame was at its height he allowed his colleague Jourdan to be
beaten, betrayed all his plans to the enemy, and took part in
organizing a conspiracy for the return of Louis XVIII., in which
he was to play, for his own aggrandizement, the part that Monk
played from higher motives in the English revolution. His
intrigues were suspected, and when he offered his resignation to
the Directory in October 1795 it was to his surprise promptly
accepted. He retired in disgrace, but hoped to serve the royalist
cause by securing his election to the Council of Five Hundred in
May 1797. He was there the royalist leader, and planned a
coup d'etat, but on the 18th Fructidor he was arrested, and with
fourteen others deported to Cayenne in 1797. Escaping, he
reached London in 1798, and served on General Korsakov's staff
in the campaign of 1799. He went to Paris in August 1803 with
Georges Cadoudal to head a royalist rising against Napoleon;
but, betrayed by a friend, he was arrested on the 28th of
February 1804, and on the 15th of April was found strangled
in prison. It has often been asserted that he was murdered by
the orders of Napoleon, but there is no foundation for the story.
Pichegru 's campaigns of 1794 are marked by traits of an
audacious genius which would not have disgraced Napoleon.
His tremendous physical strength, the personal ascendancy he
gained by this and by his powers of command made him a
peculiarly formidable opponent, and thus enabled him to main-
tain a discipline which guaranteed the punctual execution of his
orders. He had also, strangely enough, the power of captivating
honest men like Moreau. He flattered in turn Saint Just and
the Terrorists, the Thermidorians and the Directors, and played
always for his own hand — a strange egoist who rose to fame as
the leader of an idealist and sentimental crusade.

There is no really good life of Pichegru; perhaps the best is
J. M. Gassier's Vie du general Pichegru (Paris, 1815). For his
treason, trial and death, consult Montgaillard's Memoires concernant
la Irahison de Pichegru (1804); Fauche-Borel's Memoires; Savary,
Memoires sur la mori de Pichegru (Paris, 1825); and G. Pierret,
Pichegru, son proces et sa mort (1826).

PICHLER, KAROLINE (1769-1843), Austrian novelist, was
born at Vienna on the 7 th of September 1769, the daughter of
Hofrat Franz von Greiner, and married, in 1796, Andreas Pichler,
a government official. For many years her salon was the centre
of the literary life in the Austrian capital, where she died on the
9th of July 1843. Her early works, Olivier, first published
anonymously (1802), Idyllen (1803) and Ruth (1805), though
displaying considerable talent, were immature. She made her
mark in historical romance, and the first of her novels of this
class, Agathocles (1808), an answer to Gibbon's attack on that
hero in the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, attained great
popularity. Among her other novels may be mentioned Die
Belagerung Wiens (1824); Die Schweden in Prag (1827); Die
W iedereroberung Ofens (1829) and Henriette von England (1832).
Her last work was Zeitbilder (1840).

The edition of Karoline Pichler's Samtliche Werke (1 820-1 845)
comprises no less than 60 volumes. Her Denkwurdigkeiten aus
tneinem Leben (4 vols.) was published posthumously in 1844. A

selection of her narratives, Ausgewa'hUi, Erziihlungen, appeared
in 4 vols, in 1894.

PICKENS, ANDREW (1739- 1817), American soldier in the
War of Independence, was born in Paxton, Bucks county,
Pennsylvania, on the 19th of September 1739. His family
settled at the Waxhaws (in what is now Lancaster county),
South Carolina, in 1752. He fought against the Cherokees in
1 76 1 as a lieutenant. In the War of Independence he rose to
brigadier-general (after Cowpens) in the South Carolina militia.
He was a captain among the American troops which surrendered
at Ninety Six in November 1775. On the 14th of February
1779, with 300-400 men, he surprised and defeated about 700
Loyalists under Colonel Boyd on Kettle Creek, Wilkes county,
Georgia; on the 20th of June he fought at Stono Ferry; and later
in the same year at Tomassee defeated the Cherokees, who were
allied with the British. Upon the surrender of Charleston
(May 1780) he became a prisoner on parole, which he observed
rigidly until, contrary to the promises made to him, Major James
Dunlap plundered his plantation; he then returned to active
service. His command (about 150 men) joined General Daniel
Morgan immediately before the battle of Cowpens, in which
Pickens commanded an advance guard (270-350 men from
Georgia and North Carolina) and twice rallied the broken
American militia; for his services Congress gave him a sword.
With Colonel Henry Lee he harassed Lieut. -Colonel Banastre
Tarleton, who was attempting to gather a Loyalist force just
before the battle of Guilford Court House; and with Lee and
others, he captured Augusta (June 5, 1781) after a siege. At
Eutaw Springs (Sept. 8, 1781) he commanded the left wing
and was wounded. In 1782 he defeated the Cherokees again
and forced them to surrender all lands south of the Savannah
and east of the Chattahoochee. After the war he was a member %
of the South Carolina House of Representatives for a number
of years, of the state Constitutional Convention in 1790, and of
the National House of Representatives in 1 793-1 795. He died
in Pendleton district, South Carolina, on the 17th of August
1 81 7. He had married in 1765 Rebecca Calhoun, an aunt of
John C. Calhoun. Their son, Andrew Pickens (1779-1838),
served as a lieutenant-colonel in the War of 181 2, and was
governor of South Carolina in 1816-1818.

PICKENS, FRANCIS WILKINSON (1805-1869), American
politician, was born in Togadoo, St Paul's parish, South Carolina,
on the 7th of April 1805, son of Andrew Pickens (1 779-1838)
and grandson of General Andrew Pickens (1739-1817). He
was educated at Franklin College, Athens, Georgia, and at South
Carolina College, Columbia, and was admitted to the bar in 1829.
In 1832 he was elected to the state House of Representatives,
where, as chairman of a sub-committee, he submitted a report
denying the right of Congress to exercise any control over the
states. He was a Democratic member of the National House
of Representatives in 1834-1843, served in the South Carolina
Senate in 1 844-1 845, was a delegate to the Nashville Southern
Convention (see Nashville, Tennessee) in 1850, was United
States minister to Russia in 1858-1860, and in 1860-1862
was governor of South Carolina. He strongly advocated the
secession of the Southern states; signed the South Carolina
ordinance of secession; protested against Major Robert Ander-
son's removal from Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter; sanctioned
the firing upon the " Star of the West " (Jan. 9, 1861), which
was bringing supplies to Anderson, and the bombardment of
Fort Sumter; and was a zealous supporter of the Confederate
cause. At the close of his term he retired to his home at
Edgefield, South Carolina, where he died on the 25th of
January 1869.

PICKERING, EDWARD CHARLES (1846- ), American
physicist and astronomer, was born in Boston on the 19th of
July 1846. He graduated in 1865 at the Lawrence Scientific
School of Harvard, where for the next two years he was a
teacher of mathematics. Subsequently he became professor
of physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and
in 1876 he was appointed professor of astronomy and director
of the Harvard College observatory. In 1877 he decided to

PICKERING, T.— PICKERING

583

devote one of the telescopes of the observatory to stellar photo-
metry, and after an exhaustive trial of various forms of photo-
meters, he devised the meridian photometer (see Photometry,
Stellar), which seemed to be free from most of the sources of
error. With the first instrument of this kind, having objectives
of 1 -5 inch aperture, he measured the brightness of 4260 stars,
including all stars down to the 6th magnitude between the North
Pole and -30 declination. With the object of reaching fainter
stars, Professor Pickering constructed another instrument of
larger dimensions, and with this more than a million observations
have been made. The first important work undertaken with
it was a revision of the magnitudes given in the Bonn Durch-
musterung. On the completion of this, Professor Pickering
decided to undertake the survey of the southern hemisphere.
An expedition, under the direction of Prof. S. I. Bailey, was
accordingly despatched (1889), and the meridian photometer
erected successively in three different positions on the slopes of
the Andes. The third of these was Arequipa, at which a perma-
nent branch of the Harvard Observatory is now located. The
.nagnitudes of nearly 8000 southern stars were determined,
including 1428 stars of the 6th magnitude and brighter. The
instrument was then returned to Cambridge (U.S.A.), where the
survey extended so as to include all stars of magnitude 7-5 down
to -40° declination, after which it was once more sent back to
Arequipa. In 1886 the widow of Henry Draper, one of the
pioneers of stellar spectroscopy, made a liberal provision for
carrying on spectroscopic investigations at Harvard College in
memory of her husband. With Professor Pickering's usual
comprehensiveness, the inquiry was so arranged as to cover the
whole sky; and with four telescopes — two at Cambridge for
the northern hemisphere, and two at Arequipa in Peru for the
southern — to which a fine 24-in. photographic telescope was
afterwards added, no fewer than 75,000 photographs had been
obtained up to the beginning of 1901. These investigations
have yielded many important discoveries, not only of new stars,
and of large numbers of variable stars, but also of a wholly new
class of double stars whose binary character is only revealed by
peculiarities in their spectra. The important conclusion has
been already derived that the majority of the stars in the Milky
Way belong to one special type.

PICKERING, TIMOTHY (1 745-1829), American politician,
was born at Salem, Massachusetts, on the 17th of July 1745.
He graduated from Harvard College in 1763 and was admitted
to the bar in 1768. In the pre-revolutionary controversies he
identified himself with the American Whigs; in 1773 he prepared
for Salem a paper entitled State of the Rights of the Colonists; in
1775 he drafted a memorial protesting against the Boston Port
Bill; and in 1776 he was a representative from Salem in the
General Court of Massachusetts. In 1766 he had been commis-
sioned lieutenant and in 1769 captain in the Essex county
militia; early in 1775 he published An Easy Plan of Discipline
for a Militia, adopted in May 1776 by the General Court for use
by the militia of Massachusetts, and he was elected colonel of
his regiment. In the same year he became judge of the court
of common pleas for Essex county, and sole judge of the maritime
court for the counties of Suffolk, Essex and Middlesex. In the
winter of 1776-1777 he led an Essex regiment of volunteers
to New York, and he subsequently served as adjutant-general
(June 1777-Jan. 1778) and later as quartermaster-general
(1780- 1785); he was also a member of the board of war from the
7th of November 1777 until its abolition. With the aid of some
officers he drew up, in April 1783, a plan for the settlement of
the North- West territory, which provided for the exclusion of
slavery. In 1785 he became a commission merchant in
Philadelphia; but in October 1786, soon after the legislature of
Pennsylvania had passed a bill for erecting Wyoming district
into the county of Luzerne, he was appointed prothonotary and
a judge of the court of common pleas and clerk of the court of
sessions and orphans' court for the new county, and was com-
missioned to organize the county. He offered to purchase for
himself the Connecticut title to a farm, and in the following year
he was appointed a member of a commission to settle claims

according to the terms of an act, of which he was the author,
confirming the Connecticut titles (see Wyoming Valley and
Wilkes-Barre). Pickering was a member of the Pennsylvania
convention of 1787 which ratified the Federal constitution, and
of the Pennsylvania constitutional convention of 1789-1790.
In November 1790 he negotiated a peace with the Seneca
Indians, and he concluded treaties with the Six Nations in July
1 791, in March 1792 and in November 1794. Under Washington
he was postmaster-general (1791-1795), secretary of war (1795),
and after December 1795 secretary of state, to which position he
was reappointed (1797) by Adams. In 1783, while he was
quartermaster-general, he had presented a plan for a military
academy at West Point, and now, as secretary of war, he super-
vised the West Point military post with a view to its conversion
into a military academy. As head of the state department
he soon came into conflict with Adams. His hatred of France
made it impossible for him to sympathize with the president's
efforts to settle the differences with that country on a peaceable
basis. He used all his influence to hamper the president and
to advance the political interests of Alexander Hamilton,
until he was dismissed, after refusing to resign, in May 1800.
Returning to Massachusetts, he served as chief justice of the
court of common pleas of Essex county in 1802-1803. He was
a United States senator in 1803-1811 and a member of the
Federal House of Representatives in 1813-1817. As an ultra
Federalist — he was a prominent member of the group known
as the Essex Junto — he strongly opposed the purchase of
Louisiana and the War of 18 12. He died at Salem, Massachu-
setts, on the 29th of January 1829.

The standard biography is that by his son, Octavius Pickering
(1791-1868), and C. W. Upham, The Life of Timothy Pickering
(4 vols., Boston, 1867-1873). In the library of the Massachusetts
Historical Society at Boston, there are sixty-two manuscript
volumes of the Pickering papers, an index to which was published
in the Collections of the society, 6th series, vol. viii. (Boston, 1896).

His son, John Pickering (1777-1846), graduated at Harvard
in 1796, studied law and was private secretary to William
Smith, United States minister to Portugal, in 1 797-1 799, and
to Rufus King, minister to Great Britain, in 1799-1801. He
practised law in Salem and (after 1827) in Boston, where he
was city solicitor in 1827-1846, and wrote much on law and
especially on the languages of the North-American Indians.
He was a founder of the American Oriental Society and published
an excellent Comprehensive Dictionary of the Greek Language
(1826).

See Mary 0. Pickering (his daughter), Life of John Pickering
(Boston, 1887).

Timothy Pickering's grandson, Charles Pickering (1805-
1878), graduated at Harvard College in 1823 and at the Harvard
Medical School in 1826, practised medicine in Philadelphia,
was naturalist to the Wilkes exploring expedition of 1838-1842,
and in 1843-1845 travelled in East Africa and India. He wrote
The Races of Man and their Geographical Distribution (1848),
Geographical Distribution of Animals and Man (1854), Geo-
graphical Distribution of Plants (1861) and Chronological History
of Plants (1879).

PICKERING, a market town in the Whitby parliamentary
division of the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 32 m.
N.E. by N. from York by the North Eastern railway, the
junction of several branch lines. Pop. of urban district (1901),
3491. The church of St Peter is Norman and transitional
Norman, with later additions including a Decorated spire. It
contains a remarkable series of mural paintings of the 15th
century. The castle, on a hill to the north, is a picturesque
ruin, the fragmentary keep and several towers remaining. The
work is in part Norman, but the principal portions are of the
14th century. One of the towers is connected in name and
story with Fair Rosamond. The castle was held by Earl
Morcar shortly before the Conquest; it then came into the hands
of the Crown, and subsequently passed to the duchy of Lancaster.
It was the prison of Richard II. before his confinement at Ponte-
fract. During the civil wars of the 17th century the castle was
held by the Royalists, and suffered greatly in siege. The district

3 8 4

PICKET— PICO DELLA MIRANDOLA

surrounding Pickering is agricultural, and the town is a centre
of the trade. Agricultural implements are manufactured, and
limestone and freestone are quarried in the vicinity.

PICKET, Piquet or Picquet (Fr. piquet, a pointed stake
or peg, from piquer, to point or pierce), a military term, signifying
an outpost or guard, supposed to have originated in the French
army about 1690, from the circumstance that an infantry
company on outpost duty dispersed its musketeers to watch,
the small group of pikemen called piquet remaining in reserve.
Thus at the present day the word " picquet " is, in Great Britain
at any rate, restricted to an infantry post on the outpost line,
from which the sentries or " groups " of watchers are sent out.
In the United States a " picket " is synonymous with a sentry,
and the " picket-line " is the extreme advanced line of observa-
tion of an army. In the French army picquets are called
" grand' gardes," and the phrase " grand guard " is often met
with in English military works of the 17th and 18th centuries.
A body of soldiers held in readiness for military or police duties
within the limits of a camp or barracks is also called a picquet
or " inlying picquet." These special uses of the word in English
are apparently quite modern (after about 1750). " Picket "
in its ordinary meaning of a peg or stake, has always been in
common military use, being applied variously to the picketing
pegs in horse-lines, to long pointed stakes employed in palisades
or stockades, to straight thin rods used for marking out the line
of fire for guns, &c. Of the various spellings " picquet " is
officially adopted in Great Britain and " picket " in the United
States, but the latter is now invariably used when a peg or stake
is meant.

Two obsolete meanings of the word should also be mentioned.
The " picket " was a form of military punishment in vogue in
the 16th and 17th centuries, which consisted in the offender
being forced to stand on the narrow flat top of a peg for a period
of time. The punishment died out in the 18th century and was
so far unfamiliar by 1800 that Sir Thomas Picton, who ordered
a mulatto woman to be so punished, was accused by public
opinion in England of inflicting a torture akin to impalement.
It was thought, in fact, that the prisoner was forced to stand
on the head of a pointed stake, and this error is repeated in the
New English Dictionary. In the middle of the 19th century,
when elongated rifle bullets were a novelty, they were often, and
especially in America, called pickets. The ordinary military
use of the word gives rise to compound forms such as " picket
boat " or " picket launch," large steam launch or pinnace fitted
with guns-and torpedoes, and employed for watching the waters
of harbours, &c. For picketing in strikes, &c, see below.

PICKETING, a term used to describe a practice resorted to
by workmen engaged in trade disputes, of placing one or more
men near the works of the employer with whom the dispute is
pending, with the object of drawing off his hands or acquiring
information useful for the purposes of the dispute. In England,
under the Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act 1875, it
is an offence wrongfully and without legal authority to watch
or beset the house or place where another resides or works, or
carries on business or happens co be, or the approach to such
house or place, if the object of the watching, &c, is to compel
the person watched, &c, to abstain from doing or to do an act
which he is legally entitled to do or to abstain from doing (§ 7).
The definition of the offence was qualified by a proviso excluding
from punishment those who attend at or near a house or place
merely to obtain or communicate information, in other words
what is termed peaceful picketing, without intimidation, molesta-
tion or direct efforts to influence the course of a trade dispute.
This enactment led to a great deal of litigation between trade
unions and employers; and trade unions were in some instances
restrained by injunction from picketing the works of employers,
The decisions of the courts upon this subject met with severe
criticism from the leaders of trade unions, and by the Trades
Disputes Act 1906 the proviso above quoted was repealed, and
it was declared lawful for one or more persons acting for them-
selves or for a trade union or for an individual employer to attend
at or near a house. &c, " if the attendance is merely for the

purpose of peacefully obtaining or communicating information
or of peacefully persuading any person to work or abstain frovi
working." The exact effect of this change in the law has not
yet been determined by the courts, but during the Belfast carters'
strike of 1907 serious riots ensued upon the efforts of the authori-
ties to counteract the interference with lawful business caused
by free use of picketing. The change in the law is supplemented
by provisions forbidding actions against trade unions in respect
of any tortious acts alleged to have been committed by or on
behalf of the union.

PICKLE. In the wider sense the term " pickle " is applied
to any saline or acid preservative solution; in the narrower to
vegetables preserved in vinegar. The word appears to be an
adaptation of Dutch pekel, brine, pickle; cf. Ger. Pokel. The
ultimate origin is unknown; connexions with a supposed in-
ventor's name, such as Beukeler or Bockel are mere inventions.
A solution of copper or zinc sulphate is used as a " pickle " for
railway-sleepers or other wood, a brine containing salt and
saltpetre as a preservative for meat, lime-water as " pickle "
for eggs. Domestic pickles are made from small cucumbers,
onions, cauliflowers, cabbages, mangoes and unripe walnuts,
by either steeping or boiling them in salt-brine and vinegar.
On account of the large proportion of water natural to these
vegetables, only the strongest vinegar, containing from 5 to 6 %
of acetic acid, can be used. For the better kinds vinegar made
from malted or unmalted barley is as a rule employed, for
cheaper varieties simply dilute acetic acid obtained from acetate
of lime. Sauces such as Worcestershire sauce, or Yorkshire
relish, consist of fluid pickles, that is of salted and variously
spiced vinegar solutions or emulsions containing tissue of
vegetables (tomatoes, mushrooms, &c), or of fish (sardines or
anchovies).

PICKNELL, WILLIAM LAMB (1854-1897), American land-
scape-painter, was born at Hinesburg, Vermont, on the 23rd
of October 1854. He was a pupil of George Inness in Rome for
two years, and of J. L. Gerome in the Ecole des Beaux Arts,
Paris. With Robert Wylie he worked for several years in
Brittany, at Pont Aven and Concarneau, where he painted his
" Route de Concarneau " (Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington,
D.C.). His " Morning on the Loing " received a gold medal
at the Paris Salon of 1895. In 1880 he became a member of
the Society of American Artists, and in 1891 an associate of the
National Academy of Design. He died at Marblehead, Massa-
chusetts, on the 8th of August 1897.

PICNIC, a fcrm of entertainment in which the guests are
invited to join an excursion to some place where a meal can be
taken in the open air. During the first half of the 19th century
the essential of a picnic was that the guests should each bring
with them a contribution of provisions. At the beginning of
the 19th century a society was formed in London called the
" Picnic Society," the members of which supped at the Pantheon
in Oxford Street, and drew lots as to what part of the meal each
should supply (see L. Melville, The Beaux of the Regency, 1908,
i. 222). The French form pique-nique is said to be of recent
introduction in 1692 (Menage, Diet. etym.). It is doubtful
whether picnic is merely a rhyming word, or can be referred
to pique, pick, and nique, small coin.

PICO, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, belonging to Portugal,
and forming part of the Azores archipelago. Pop. (1900),
24,028; area 175 sq. m. Pico is a conical mountain, rising to
the height of 7612 ft. The soil consists entirely of pulverized
lava. The so-called Fayal wine, though named after an adjacent
island, was formerly produced here, and largely exported to
Europe. But in 1852 the vines were attacked by the Oidium
fungus and completely destroyed, while the orange-trees suffered
almost as much from the Coccus hesperidum. The people were
consequently forced to emigrate in great numbers, till the
planting of fig-trees and apricots alleviated the evil. Pico also
produces a species of wood resembling mahogany, and equal in
quality to it. Its chief town is Lagens do Pico. Pop. (2975).

PICO DELLA MIRANDOLA, GIOVANNI, Count (1463-1404),
Italian philosopher and writer, the youngest son of Giovanni

PICRIC ACID— PICRITE

585

Francesco Pico, prince of Mirandola, a small territory about
jo Italian miles west of Ferrara, afterwards absorbed in the
duchy of Modena, was born on the 24th of February 1463. The
family was illustrious and wealthy, and claimed descent from
Constantine. In his fourteenth year Pico went to Bologna,
where he studied for two years, and was much occupied with
the Decretals. The traditional studies of the place, however,
disgusted him; and he spent seven years wandering through all
the schools of Italy and France and collecting a precious library.
Besides Greek and Latin he knew Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic;
and his Hebrew teachers (Eliah del Medigo, Leo Abarbanel and
Jochanan Aleman — see L. Geiger Johann Reuchlin (i8yi),p. 167)
introduced him to the Kabbalah, which had great fascinations
for one who loved all mystic and theosophic speculation. His
learned wanderings ended (i486) at Rome, where he set forth
for public disputation a list of nine hundred questions and
conclusions in all branches of philosophy and theology. He
remained a year in Rome, but the disputation he proposed was
never held. The pope prohibited the little book in which they
were contained, and Pico had to defend the impugned theses
(De otnni re scibili) in an elaborate Apologia. His personal
orthodoxy was, however, subsequently vindicated by a brief
of Alexander VI., dated 18th June 1493. The suspected theses
included such points as the following : that Christ descended
ad inferos not in His real presence but quoad ejfectum; that no
image or cross should receive latreia even in the sense allowed
by Thomas ; that it is more reasonable to regard Origen as saved
than as damned; that it is not in a man's free will to believe or
disbelieve an article of faith as he pleases. But perhaps the
most startling thesis was that no science gives surer conviction
of the divinity of Christ than " magia " {i.e. the knowledge of
the secrets of the heavenly bodies) and Kabbalah. Pico was
the first to seek in the Kabbalah a proof of the Christian mysteries
and it was by him that Reuchlin was led into the same delusive
path.

Pico had been up to this time a gay Italian nobleman; he was
tall, handsome, fair-complexioned, with keen grey eyes and
yellow hair, and a great favourite with women. But his troubles
led him to more serious thoughts; and he published, in his 28th
year, the Heptaplus, a mystical exposition of the creation.
Next he planned a great seven-fold work against the enemies
of the Church, of which only the section directed against astrology
was completed. After leaving Rome he again lived a wandering
life, often visiting Florence, to which he was drawn by his friends
Politian and Marsilius Ficinus, and where also he came under
the influence of Savonarola. It was at Florence that he died
on the 17th of November 1494. Three years before his death
he parted with his share of the ancestral principality, and
designed, when certain literary plans were completed, to give
away all he had and wander barefoot through the world preach-
ing Christ. But these plans were cut short by a fever which
carried him off just at the time when Charles VIII. was at
Florence.

Pico's works cannot now be read with much interest, but the
man himself is still interesting, partly from his influence on
Reuchlin and partly from the spectacle of a truly devout mind
in the brilliant circle of half-pagan scholars of the Florentine
renaissance.

His works were published at Bologna in 1496 by his nephew,
Giov. Fran. Pico, with a biography, which was translated by Sir
Thomas More as Life of John Picus, Earl of Mirandola, in 1510.
See the essay in Walter Pater's Renaissance (1878); and the
study by J. Rigg, prefixed to the reprint of More's Life in the
" Tudor Library " (London, 1890).

PICRIC ACID, or Trinitrophenol, C 6 H 2 OH-(N0 2 ) 3 [i-2-4-6],
an explosive and dyestuff formed by the action of con-
centrated nitric acid on indigo, aniline, resins, silk, wool,
leather, &c. It is the final product of the direct nitration of
phenol, and is usually prepared by the nitration of the mixture
of phenol sulphonic acids obtained by heating phenol with
concentrated sulphuric acid (E. Eisenmann and A. Arche,
V-ng. pat., 4539 (1889). It may also be obtained by
oxidizing the symmetrical trinitrobenzene with potassium

ferricyanide in alkaline solution (P. Hepp, Ann. 1882, 215,
p. 352). It crystallizes from water in yellow plates melting at
122-5° C., which sublime on careful heating, but explode when
rapidly heated. It is poisonous and possesses a bitter taste,
hence its name from the Greek m/cpos, bitter. It has a strongly
acid reaction, being almost comparable with the carboxylic
acids. By the action of bleaching powder it is converted into
chlorpicrin, CCL/NC^. Phosphorus pentachloride converts
it into picryl chloride, C6H 2 C1(N0 2 )3, which is a true acid
chloride, being decomposed by water with the regeneration of
picric acid and the formation of hydrochloric acid ; with ammonia
it yields picramide, C6H 2 NH 2 (N02)3. Silver picrate and methyl
iodide yield the methyl ester, which gives with ammonia
picramide. Picric acid forms many well-defined salts, of a
yellow or red-brown colour. It also yields crystalline compounds
with many aromatic hydrocarbons and bases. It imparts a
yellow colour to wool and silk. The chief application of picric
acid and its salts is in the manufacture of explosives. When
ignited, picric acid burns quietly with a smoky flame, and it is
very difficult to detonate by percussion; its salts, however, are
more readily detonated. The more important picric powders
are melinite, believed to be a mixture of fused picric acid and
gun-cotton; lyddite, the British service explosive, and shimose,
the Japanese powder, both supposed to be identical with the
original melinite; Brugere's powder, a mixture of 54 parts of
ammonium picrate and 45 parts of saltpetre; Designolle' s powder,
composed of potassium picrate, saltpetre and charcoal; and
emmensile, invented by Stephen Emmens, of the United States
It may be detected by the addition of an aqueous solution of
potassium cyanide, with which it gives a violet-red coloration,
due to the formation of isopurpuric acid. R. Anschutz [Ber., 1884,
17, p. 439) estimates picric acid by precipitation with acridine.
PICRITE (from. Gr. wiKpos, bitter, because these rocks are
rich in magnesia, a base which forms bitter salts), a rock belong-
ing to the ultrabasic group, and consisting mainly of olivine
and augite often with hornblende and biotite and a greater or
less amount of plagioclase felspar. The picrites are of
" hypabyssal " origin and in their natural occurrence are
connected with dolerites (diabases and teschenites). The
distinction between them and the peridotites, which have an
essentially similar composition, is not easy to define, but the
peridotites accompany the true plutonic rocks, such as gabbro,
norite and pyroxenite, are often very coarsely crystalline, and
form large bosses and laccolites, while the picrites usually are
found in sills or intrusive sheets.

In hand specimens the picrites are dark green to black; the
absence or scarcity of lath-shaped plagioclase felspars distin-
guishes them from diabases and they rarely have the lustre-
mottling which is a characteristic of the peridotites. Since they
contain much olivine they readily decompose, passing into deep
green and brown incoherent masses in which are embedded
rounded lumps of harder consistency. They have a high specific
gravity (about 3-0) and may be distinctly magnetic, because
they are rich in iron ores. Porphyritic structure is rare though
occurring sometimes in the rocks known as picrite-porphyrites;
the phenocrysts are olivine and augite. There is seldom any
fine-grained or glassy groundmass, and the typical micro-
structure is holocrystalline, moderately fine grained and some-
what poikilitic. Olivine is abundant in rounded pale green
crystals. It may form one half of the rock but rarely more than
this. The augite is generally brown or reddish-brown, sometimes
violet, and tends to enclose the olivine, yielding poecilitic aggre-
gates. Brown hornblende often occurs as marginal growths
around the pyroxene, and may be so abundant as to replace
augite to a large extent; rocks of this class are known as
hornblende-picrites. Bright green or pale-green hornblende are
less frequently present, and in many cases are really of secondary
origin. Deep brown biotite is a frequent accessory mineral
and both biotite and hornblende sometimes enclose olivine.
A small amount of basic plagioclase occurs in many picrites;
apatite, iron oxides, chromite and spinels are minor ingredients
seldom altogether absent.

5 86

PICROTOXIN— PICTON

The minerals of picrites are very frequently decomposed.
Serpentine partly or wholly replaces olivine, forming radiate
fibrous masses which are green, yellow or red in microscopic
sections. Sometimes hornblende (pilite), talc, chlorite and mica
appear as secondary products after olivine. The augite passes
into chlorite or into green fibrous or platy amphibole. Horn-
blende and biotite are often fresh when the other components
are much altered. The felspar is rarely in good preservation
but yields epidote, prehnite, sericite, kaolin; calcite and analcite
are abundant in some weathered picrites.

Rocks of this type are well represented in Great Britain. In
the central valley of Scotland several masses of picrite have been
discovered, always in close association with olivine-diabase and
teschenite. One of these forms the island of Inchcolm in the Firth
of Forth, another lies near Bathgate (in Linlithgowshire), and there
are others at Aberdour (Fife), Ardrossan and Barnton (Midlothian).
They belong to the great series of Carboniferous eruptive rocks ot
the Scottish midland valley. These picrites are not known to be
represented in England, but, on the other hand, there are Devonian
picrites in Devon and Cornwall as basic members of the diabase
and proterobase series of these counties. Some of them contain
much augite like the picrite (often called palaeopicrite as being of
palaeozoic age) at Menheniot Station in Cornwall and the picrite
of Highweek near Newton Abbot in Devonshire. Others are horn-
blende-picrites like that of Cartuther near St Germans, Cornwall.
Hornblende-picrite occurs also in the island of Sark and several
beautiful examples have been described from Anglesey and from
Penarfynnydd in North Wales and from Wicklow in Ireland.
Picrites occur in several parts of Germany, notably in the Devonian
rocks of the Fichtelgebirge and Nassau, where they accompany
diabases and proterobases like those of Cornwall and Devonshire.
In Silesia and Moravia picrites are found with teschenites like those
of Central Scotland. In some of the continental picrites ensta-
tite is present but is rare. In North America picrites occur
among the igneous rocks on the Hudson river and in Alabama and
Montana. (J. S. F.)

PICROTOXIN, a neutral principle obtained from the Cocculus
indicus, which is the fruit of the Anamirta paniculate. It is
used in medicine externally as an antiparasitic. Internally it
has been successfully used to check the night-sweats of phthisis.
In large doses it is a powerful poison, causing unconsciousness,
delirium, convulsions, gastro-enteritis and stimulation of the
respiratory centre followed by paralysis, from which death
sometimes results. Formerly low class publicans sometimes
added Cocculus indicus berries to beer to increase the intoxicat-
ing effects. Its chemical formula is GsHieOe" H 2 0.

PICTET DE LA RIVE, FRANQOIS JULES (1809-1872), Swiss
zoologist and palaeontologist, was born in Geneva on the 27th
of September 1809. He graduated B. es Sc. at Geneva in 1829,
and pursued his studies for a short time at Paris, where under
the influence of Cuvier, de Blainville and others, he worked at
natural history and comparative anatomy. On his return to
Geneva in 1830 he assisted A. P. de Candolle by giving demon-
strations in comparative anatomy. Five years later, when de
Candolle retired, Pictet was appointed professor of zoology and
comparative anatomy. In 1846 his duties were restricted to
certain branches of zoology, including geology and palaeontology,
and these he continued to teach until 1859, when he retired to
devote his energies to the museum of natural history and to
special palaeontological work. He was rector of the academy
from 1847 to 1850, and again from 1866 to 1868. He was for
many years a member of the Representative Council of Geneva,
and in 1862 President of the Constituent Assembly. His earlier
published work related chiefly to entomology, and included
Recherches pour servir a I'histoire et d I'anatomie des Phryganides
(1834) and two parts of Histoirs naturelle, generate et particuliere
des insectes Neuropteres (1842-1845). Feeling the want of a
hand-book, he prepared his Traite elementaire de paleontologie
(4 vols. 1 844-1 846). In the first edition Pictet, while adopting
the hypothesis of successive creations of species, admitted that
some may have originated through the modification of pre-
existing forms. In his second edition (1853-1857) he enters
further into the probable transformation of some species, and
discusses the independence of certain faunas, which did not
appear to have originated from the types which locally preceded
them. He now directed his attention to the fossils of his native
country, more especially to those of the Cretaceous and Jurassic

strata, and in 1854 he commenced the publication of his great
work, MaUriaux pour la paleontologie suisse, a series of quarto
memoirs, of which six were published (1854-1873). In this
work Pictet was aided by E Renevier, G. Campiche, P. de
Loriol and others, Pictet also brought out Melanges paleonto-
logiques (1863-1868). He died at Geneva on the 15th of March
1872.
Obituary by W. S. Dallas, Quart. J own. Ceol. Soc. (1873), vol. xxix.
PICTON, SIR. THOMAS (1758-1815), British general, was the
younger son of Thomas Picton, of Poyston, Pembrokeshire,
where he was born in August 1758. In 177 1 he obtained an
ensign's commission in the 12th regiment of foot, but he did
not join until two years afterwards. The regiment was then
stationed at Gibraltar, where he remained until he was made
captain in the 75th in January 1778, when he returned to
England. The regiment was disbanded five years later. On
the occasion of its disbandment Picton quelled a mutiny amongst
the men by his prompt personal action and courage, and was
promised a majority in reward for his conduct. This, however,
he did not receive, and after living in retirement on his father's
estate for nearly twelve years, he went out to the West Indies
in 1794 on the strength of a slight acquaintance with Sir John
Vaughan, the commander-in-chief, who made him his aide-de-
camp and gave him a captaincy in the 17th foot. Shortly
afterwards he was promoted major. Under Sir Ralph Aber-
cromby, who succeeded Vaughan in 1795, he took part in the
capture of St Lucia (for which he was promoted lieutenant-
colonel) and in that of St Vincent. After the reduction of
Trinidad Abercromby made him governor of the island. He
administered the island with such success that the inhabitants
petitioned against the retrocession of the island to Spain, and
their protest, with Picton's and Abercromby's representations,
ensured the retention of Trinidad as a British possession. In
October 1801 he was gazetted brigadier-general. But by this
time the rigour of his government, as reported by his enemies,
had led to a demand by humanitarians at home for his removal.
Colonel William Fullarton (1754-1808) procured the appointment
of a commission to govern the island, of which he himself was
the senior member, Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir Samuel)
Hood the second, and Picton himself the junior. Picton there-
upon tendered his resignation, and Hood, as soon as the nature
of Fullarton's proceedings became obvious, followed his example
(1803). On his way home Picton took part with great credit
in military operations in St Lucia and Tobago. Realizing,
however, that the attacks upon him were increasing in virulence,
he quickly returned to England, and in December 1803 he was
arrested by order of the privy council. He was tried in the
court of king's bench before Lord Ellenborough in 1806 on a
charge of unlawfully applying torture to extort a confession
from Luise Calderon, a mulatto woman of loose character who
was charged, along with a man, with robbery. The torture
consisted in compelling the woman to stand on one leg on a flat-
headed peg for one hour. The punishment was ordered under
Spanish law (which in default of a fresh code Picton had been
appointed to administer in 1801) by the local alcalde, and
approved by Picton. On these grounds the court returned a
merely technical verdict of guilty, which was superseded in
1808 by a special verdict on retrial. It should be mentioned
that the inhabitants of the island, who had already given him
a sword of honour, and had petitioned the king not to accept
his resignation, subscribed £4000 towards his legal expenses,
which sum Picton contributed in return to the relief of the
suffering caused by a widespread fire in Port of Spain. He had
meanwhile been promoted major-general, and in 1809 he had
been governor of Flushing during the Walcheren expedition.
In 1810, at Wellington's request, he was appointed to command
a division in Spain. For the remaining years of the Peninsular
War, Picton was one. of Wellington's principal subordinates.
The commander-in-chief, it is true, never reposed in him the
confidence that he gave to Beresford Hill and Craufurd. But
in the resolute, thorough and punctual execution of a well-
defined task Picton had no superior in the army. His debut,

PICTOU— PIEDMONT

587

iswing partly to his naturally stern and now embittered temper,
and partly to the difficult position in which he was placed, was
unfortunate. On the Coa in July 1810 Craufurd's division
became involved in an action, and Picton, his nearest neighbour,
refused to support him, as Wellington's direct orders were to
avoid an engagement. Details of the incident will be found in
Oman, Peninsular War, vol. iii. Shortly after this, however,
at Busaco, Picton found and used his first great opportunity
for distinction. Here he had a plain duty, that of repulsing
the French attack, and he performed that duty with a skill and
resolution which indicated his great powers as a troop-leader.
After the winter in the lines of Torres Vedras, he added to his
reputation and to that of his division, the 3rd, at Fuentes d'Onor.
In September he was given the local rank of lieutenant-general,
and in the same month the division won great glory by its rapid
and orderly retirement under severe pressure from the French
cavalry at El Bodon. In October Picton was appointed to the
colonelcy of the 77th regiment. In the first operations of 1812
Picton and Craufurd, side by side for the last time, stormed the
two breaches of Ciudad Rodrigo, Craufurd and Picton's second
in command, Major-GeneralMackinnon, being mortallywounded.
At Badajoz, a month later, the successful storming of the fortress
was due to his daring self-reliance and penetration in converting
the secondary attack on the castle, delivered by the 3rd division,
into a real one. He was himself wounded in this terrible engage-
ment, but would not leave the ramparts, and the day after,
having recently inherited a fortune, he gave every survivor of
his command a guinea. His wound, and an attack of fever,
compelled him to return .to England to recruit his health, but
he reappeared at the front in April 1813. While in England he
was invested with the collar and badge of a K.B. by the prince
regent, and in June he was made a lieutenant-general in the
army. The conduct of the 3rd division under his leadership
at the battle of Vittoria and in the engagements in the Pyrenees
raised his reputation as a resolute and skilful fighting general
to a still higher point. Early in 1814 he was offered, but after
consulting Wellington declined, the command of the British
forces operating on the side of Catalonia. He thus bore his
share in the Orthez campaign and in the final victory before
Toulouse.

On the break-up of the division the officers presented Picton
with a valuable service of plate, and on the 24th of June 1814
he received for the seventh time the thanks of the House of
Commons for his great services. Somewhat to his disappoint-
ment he was not included amongst the generals who were raised
to the peerage, but early in 1815 he was made a G.C.B. When
Napoleon returned from Elba, Picton, at Wellington's request,
accepted a high command in the Anglo-Dutch army. He was
severely wounded at Quatre Bras on the 16th of June, but
concealed his wound and retained command of his troops, and at
Waterloo on the 18th, while repulsing with impetuous valour
" one of the most serious attacks made by the enemy on our
position," he was shot through the head by a musket ball. His
body was brought home to London, and buried in the family
vault at St George's, Hanover Square. A public monument
was erected to his memory in St Paul's Cathedral, by order of
parliament, and in 1823 another was erected at Carmarthen by
subscription, the king contributing a hundred guineas thereto.

See Rob.inson's Life of Sir Thomas Picton (London, 1836), with
which, however, compare Napier's and Oman's histories of the
Peninsular War as to controversial points.

PICTOU, a seaport, port of entry, and capital of Pictou
county, Nova Scotia, 90 m. N.E. by N. of Halifax, on a branch
of the Intercolonial railway. Pop. (1001), 3235. It has
several valuable industries, and is the shipping port for the
adjacent coal-mines. The Academy, founded in 1818, played
an important part in the early educational history of the
province, and still enjoys a high reputation.

PICUS, in Roman mythology, originally the woodpecker, the
favourite bird and symbol of Mars as the god of both nature
and war. He appears later as a spirit of the forests, endowed
with the gift of prophecy, haunting springs and streams, with

a special sanctuary in a grove on the Aventine. As a god oi
agriculture, especially connected with manuring the soil, he is
called the son of Stercutus (from slercus, dung, a name of
Saturn). Again, Picus is the first king of Latium, son of Saturn
and father of Faunus. Virgil (Aen. vii. 170) describes the
reception of the ambassadors of Aeneas by Latinus in an ancient
temple or palace, containing figures of his divine ancestors,
amongst them Picus, famous as an. augur and soothsayer. Ac-
cording to Ovid (Metam. xiv., 320), Circe, while gathering herbs
in the forest, saw the youthful hero out hunting, and immediately
fell in love with him. Picus rejected her advances, and the
goddess in her anger changed him into a woodpecker, which
pecks impotently at the branches of trees, but still retains
prophetic powers. The purple cloak which Picus wore fastened
by a golden clasp is preserved in the plumage of the bird. In
the simplest form of art, he was represented by a wooden pillar
surmounted by a woodpecker; later, as a young man with the
bird upon his head.

Picumnus is merely another form of Picus, and with him is
associated his brother and double Pilumnus. Picumnus, a rustic
deity (like Picus) and husband of Pomona, is specially concerned
with the manuring of the soil and hence called Sterquilinus, while
Pilumnus is the inventor of the pounding of grain, so named from
the pestle (pilum) used by bakers. Under a different aspect, the
pair were regarded as the guardians of women in childbed and of
new-born children. Before the child was taken up and formally
recognized by the father, a couch was set out for them in the atrium,
where their presence guarded it from all evil. Augustine (De
civitate dei, vi. 9) mentions a curious custom: to protect a woman
in childbed from possible violence on the part of Silvanus, the
assistance of three deities was invoked — Intercidona (the hewer),
Pilumnus (the pounder) and Deverra (the sweeper). These deities
were symbolically represented by three men who went round the
house by night. One smote the threshold with an axe, another
with a pestle, the third swept it with a broom — three symbols of
culture (for trees were hewn down with the axe, grain pounded with
the pestle, and the fruits of the field swept up with the broom)
which Silvanus could not endure.

PIDGIN [or Pjgeon] ENGLISH, the lingua franca of the sea-
ports of China, the Straits Settlements in the Far East, con-
sisting in a jargon of corrupted English words with some inter-
mixture of Portuguese and Malay, following Chinese idiomatic
usage. It is employed as a means of communication between
foreigners and the native Chinese. The word " pidgin " is the
Chinese corruption of " business."

PIE. (1) The name of the bird more generally known as
the magpie (q.v.). The word comes through the French from
Lat. pica (q.v.). It is probably from the black and white or
spotted appearance of the bird that the name "pie" or "pye"
(Lat. pica) was given to the ordinal, a table or calendar which
supplemented that which gave the services for the fixed festivals,
&c, and pointed out the effect on them of the festivals rendered
movable by the changing date of Easter. An English act of
1549 (3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. 10) abolished " pie*" with manuals,
legends, primers and other service books. The parti-coloured
appearance of the magpie also gives rise to the term " piebald,"
applied to an animal, more particularly a horse, which is marked
with large irregular patches of white and black; where the colour
is white and some colour other than black, the more appropriate
word is " skew-bald," i.e. marked with " skew " or irregular
patches. (2) A dish made of meat, fish or other ingredients,
also of vegetables or fruit, baked in a covering of pastry; in
English usage, where " fruit " is the ingredient, the dish is
generally called a " tart," except in the case of " apple-pie."
The word appears early in the 14th century of meat or fish pies.

The expression " to eat humble-pie," i.e. to make an apology,
to retract or recant, is a facetious adaptation of " umbles "
(O. Fr. nombles, connected with Lat. lumbus, loin or umbilicus,
navel), the inner parts of a deer, to " humble " (Lat. humilis,
lowly). An " umble-pie," made of the inner parts of a deer
or other animal, was once a favourite dish. " Printers' pie,"
i.e. a mass of confused type, is a transferred sense of " pie," the
dish, or of " pie," the ordinal, from the difficulty of decipherment.

PIEDMONT (Ital. Piemonte; Low Lat. Pedemons and Pede-
montium), a territorial division (compartimento) of northern

5 88

PIENZA— PIER

Italy, bounded N. by Switzerland, W. by France, S. by Liguria
and E. by Lombardy. Physically it may be briefly described
as the upper gathering-ground and valley of the river Po,
enclosed on all sides except towards the Lombard plain by the
vast semicircle of the Pennine, Graian, Cottian, Maritime and
Ligurian Alps. In 1859 it was divided into the four provinces
of Alessandria, Cuneo, Novara and Torino (Turin). It has an
area of 11,340 sq. m. The people are chiefly engaged in agri-
culture — growing wheat, maize and rice, chestnuts, wine and
hemp; in the reeling and throwing of silk and in the manu-
facture of cotton, woollens and clothing; there are also
considerable manufactures at Turin, Savigliano, &c. The
Piedmontese dialect has been rather strongly influenced by
French. The chief towns in the several provinces are as follows,
with their communal populations in 1901: Alessandria (72,109),
Asti (39,251), Casale Monferrato (31,370), Novi Ligure (17,868)',
Tortona (17,419), Acqui (13,940), Valenza (10,956), Ovada
(10,284); total of province 825,745, number of communes 343;
Cuneo (26,879), Mondovi (18,982), Fossano (18,175), Savigliano
(17,340), Saluzzo (16,028), Bra. (15,821), Alba (13,637),
Boves (10,137); total of province 670,504, number of com-
munes 263; Novara (44,249), Vercelli (30,470), Biella (19,267)
Trino (12,138), Borgomanero (16,131); total of province 763,830;
number of communes, 437; Turin (329,691), Pinerolo (18,039),
Carmagnola (11,721), Ivrea (11,696), Moncalieri (11,467); total
of province 1,147,414; number of communes, 442. The total
population of Piedmont was 2,738,814 in 1859, and in 1901
3,407,493. The large number of communes is noticeable, as
in Lombardy, and points to a village life which, owing to greater
insecurity and the character of the country, is not to be found
in central and southern Italy as a whole. There are numerous
summer resorts in the Alpine valleys. The chief railway centres
are Turin, communicating with the Mont Cenis line, and with
the Riviera by the railway over the Col di Tenda (in process of
construction), Novara, Vercelli, Asti, Alessandria, Novi. The
communications with Liguria are difficult owing to the approach
of the mountains to the coast, and the existing lines from Genoa
to Turin and Milan are hardly sufficient to cope with the traffic.
Piedmont in Roman times until 49 B.C. formed a part of Gallia
Transpadana, and in Augustus' division of Italy formed with
what was later known as Lombardy the nth region. It formed
part of the Lombard kingdom, and it was not till about A.D. 1000
that the house of Savoy (q.v.) arose. The subsequent history
of Piedmont is that of its dynasty.

PIENZA, a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Siena,
9 m. west of the town of Montepulciano by road, 1611 ft. above
sea-level. Pop. (1901), 2730 (town); 3836 (commune). The
place was originally called Corsignano and owes its present name
to Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini, Pope Pius II. (q.v.) who was born
here in 1405. The buildings which he caused to be erected by
Bernardo Rossellmo in 1460-1463 form a noble group of early
Renaissance architecture round the Piazza del Duomo. The
latter retains Gothic details in the interior, but the facade is
simple Renaissance work. The ether three sides are occupied
by the episcopal and municipal palaces, and the Palazzo Picco-
lomini; the last, resembling the Palazzo Rucellai at Florence,
is the finest, and in front of it is a beautiful fountain. The
episcopal palace contains a museum with some fine ecclesiastical
vestments, enamels and other works of art.

PIER (older forms per or pere, from Med. Lat. pera; the word
is of obscure origin, and the connexion with Fr. pierre, Lat.
pctra, stone, is doubtful; equivalents are Fr. piedroit, pilier,
trumcau; Ital. pila; Ger. Pfeiler), the term given in architecture
to a vertical support in masonry or brickwork, usually rect-
angular on plan, which carries an arch or superstructure. The
term is also sometimes given to the great circular columns which
in some English cathedrals and churches carry the nave arches.
In early Christian churches, when antique columns, such as
abounded in Rome, were not procurable, square piers took the
place of columns and sometimes alternated with them. The
introduction of vaulting, however, in the nth century, neces-
sitated a support of much greater dimensions than those which

had been deemed sufficient when the roof was of timber only,
and led to the development of the compound or clustered pier.
To give extra support to the subordinate arches of the nave
arcade, semicircular shafts or pilasters were added, carried up
to the transverse and diagonal ribs of the main vault. In
Romanesque work the pier was generally square on plan with
semicircular shafts attached, the angles of the pier being worked
with smaller shafts. As the rings or orders of the nave arches
increased in number, additional shafts were added to carry
tnem, and the pilaster facing the nave had central and side shafts
rising to carry the transverse and diagonal ribs of the vault ; this
development of the compound pier obtains throughout Europe
in all vaulted structures. In the Early English period the piers
become loftier and lighter, and in most important buildings a
series of clustered columns, frequently of marble, are placed
side by side, sometimes set at intervals round a circular centre,
and sometimes almost touching each other. These shafts are
often wholly detached from the central pier, though grouped
round it, in which case they are almost always of Purbeck or
Bethersden marbles. In Decorated work the shafts on plan are
very often placed round a square set angle-wise, or a lozenge,
the long way down the nave; the centre or core itself is often
worked into hollows or other mouldings, to show between the
shafts, and to form part of the composition. In this and the
latter part of the previous style there is generally a fillet on the
outer part of the shaft, forming what has been called a " keel
moulding " (q.v.). They are also often tied together by bands,
formed of rings of stone and sometimes of metal. About this
period, too, these intermediate mouldings run up into and form
part of the arch moulds, there being no impost. This arrange-
ment became much more frequent in the Perpendicular period;
in fact it was almost universal, the commonest section being a
lozenge set with the long side from the nave to the aisle, and not
towards the other arches, as in the Decorated period, with four
shafts at the angles, between which were shallow mouldings,
one of which was in general a wide hollow, sometimes with wave
moulds. The small columns at the jambs of doors and windows,
and in arcades, and also those attached to piers or standing
detached, are generally called " shafts " (q.v.).

The term pier is sometimes applied to the solid parts of a wall
between windows or voids, and also to the isolated masses of
brickwork or masonry to which gates are hung. (R. P. S.)

Piers of Bridges. — The piers of bridges and viaducts on land
are constructed of masonry or brickwork and occasionally, in
the. case of high piers, of open braced ironwork, as exemplified
by the old Crumlin viaduct in Wales and the Pecos viaduct in
Texas. These piers, besides being proportioned in cross-section
to the weight they have to support, are widened out at their base,
so as to distribute the load over a sufficient area for it to be borne
by the stratum on which it rests without risk of settlement.
Special provisions have to be made for the foundations of piers
where the ground is soft for some depth, or loose water-bearing
strata are encountered, and especially where the piers of large
bridges crossing rivers have to be constructed under water.
In soft ground, bearing piles driven down to a firm stratum, and
surmounted by a planked floor or a layer of concrete, provide a
convenient foundation for a pier; and in places where timber is
abundant, wooden cribs filled with rubble stone or concrete
have been used in the United States for raising the foundations
for piers out of water. For river piers, where a firm, watertight
stratum is found at a moderate depth below the river-bed, the
site is often enclosed within a coffer-dam or a plate iron caisson
carried down into the stratum and raised out of water; and then,
after the water has been pumped out and the surface layers
removed, the pier is readily built within the enclosure in the
open air. When, however, a river-bed consists of silt, sand or
other soft materials extending down to a considerable depth,
brickwork wells are gradually sunk to a firm stratum by removing
the material within them with grabs, and on them the piers are
built out of water; or bottomless caissons are carried down by
excavating their interiors under compressed air, and the piers
are built on top of them within a plate-iron enclosure, a system

PIER

589

adopted for the piers of the Brooklyn, St Louis, Forth and other
large bridges, and essential for forming foundations on sloping
rock, such as was encountered in places under the Firth of
Forth.

The methods indicated above as employed for the foundations
of the piers of bridges under favourable conditions belong
equally to the foundations of other structures (see Founda-
tion's) ; but there are some methods which, by combining bridge
piers and their foundations in a single structure, appertain
entirely to piers. Thus iron screw piles, sunk by turning into

Scale

20 Feet

Fig. 1. — Pier with Disk Piles.

the soft bed of a river till they reach a firm stratum or one
sufficiently consolidated by the superincumbent layers to enable
it to support the wide blades of the screws with the weight
imposed on them, were formerly often arranged in converging
clusters joined together at the top, so as to serve as the piers of
bridges having several comparatively small spans, and intended
for carrying lightly constructed railways across rivers in India
and elsewhere. Hollow, cast-iron, cylindrical piles also, with a
broad circular disk at the bottom to increase their bearing
surface, have been used for piers founded in sandy or silty strata

bolted together with a specially strong bottom ring, sometimes
made of wrought iron and having a cutting edge, have been often
employed for the construction of the river piers of bridges, being
gradually carried down to a watertight stratum by excavating
inside, and subsequently filled up solid with concrete and brick-
work; the piers of the Charing Cross and Cannon Street bridges
across the Thames are notable instances of the adoption of this
method, which is well illustrated by the piers of the bridges across
the River Chittravati in India
(fig. 2). Sometimes, instead of two
or more independent cylinders being
sunk, the whole site of a pier is
enclosed within a wrought-iron
caisson, usually divided into sections
by vertical partitions, which is sunk
and filled up solid in the same way
as cylinders, a system adopted, for
instance, for the piers of the bridge
across the Hawkesbury River in New
South Wales.

Promenade Piers. — The term pier
is often applied to works sheltering
harbours, such as the Tynemouth
piers, which are strictly breakwaters.
Landing stages also, whether solid
or open, have for a long time been
called piers, as the Admiralty Pier
and the Prince of Wales's Pier at
Dover; but the open promenade
piers which form a common feature
at seaside resorts are the type of
pier best known to the general
public. These piers are supported
upon open pilework of timber or
iron, and consequently expose little surface to waves in storms
and do not interfere with the drift of shingle or sand along the
coast (fig. 3). 1 Timber piles are best suited for withstanding
the shocks of vessels at landing stages, at which places they
are generally used; but since they are subject to the attacks of
the teredo, and expose a considerable surface to the waves, iron
piles are generally adopted for the main portion of these piers.

The pioneer of these piers was the old chain pier at Brighton,
which was erected in 1822-1823. It was founded upon oak piles,
was 1 136 ft. long, and had a timber landing-stage at the end. It
consisted of four spans suspended from chains on the model of the
Menai Suspension Bridge, then in course of construction, and was
destroyed by a gale in December 1896. A wider and more modern
type of pier was erected at the west end of Brighton in 1865-1866,

Rock.

Fig. 2. — Cylindrical Piers
for River Bridges.

Fig. 3. — Promenade Pier.

of considerable thickness; they are sunk to the requisite depth
by lowering a pipe down the inside of the pile to the bottom and
emitting a powerful jet of water which, stirring up the soft
material and scouring it away from under the disk, causes the
pile to descend. This system was first adopted for the piers
of a railway viaduct crossing the wide, sandy Kent and Leven
estuaries opening into Morecambe Bay (fig. 1). Cast-iron
cylinders, consisting of a series of rings formed of segments all

and subsequently extended; whilst a new pier was completed in
1900 near the site of the old chain pier, 1700 ft. long. The Southport
pier, erected in 1859-1860 and afterwards prolonged, furnishes
an example of an iron pier supported on disk piles sunk in sand as
described above (fig. 1); whilst the much more commonly used
iron screw piles, adopted as early as 1847 for an open landing-pier
on the Irish coast at Courtown, which was exposed to a great
littoral drift of sand, are shown as the mode of support for the pier

1 The Engineer (1888), i. 380, 381 and 384.

59°

PIERCE— PIERO DI COSIMO

at St Leonards (fig. 3). The length given to these promenade
{tiers depends mainly on the slope of the foreshore, which deter-
mines the distance from the shore at which a sufficient depth is
reached for steamers of moderate draught to come alongside the
end of the pier. Thus, whereas a length of 900 ft. has sufficed for
the St Leonards pier on a somewhat steep, shingly beach, the pier
at Ryde, constituting the principal landing-place for the Isle of
Wight passengers, has had to be carried out about half a mile across
a flat alluvial foreshore to reach water deep enough for the access
of the steamboats crossing the Solent. The vast sands, moreover.,
at the outlet of the Ribble estuary, stretching two or three miles
in front of Southport at low water of spring tides, have necessitated
the construction of a pier 4395 ft. long merely to get out to an
old flood-tide channel, which is now completely severed by the
sands at low water from all connexion with the river.

(L. F. V.-H.)

PIERCE, FRANKLIN (1804-1869), fourteenth president of
the United States, was born at Hillsborough, New Hampshire,
on the 23rd of November 1804. His father, Benjamin Pierce
(1757-1839), served in the American army throughout the War
of Independence, was a Democratic member of the New Hamp-
shire House of Representatives from 1789 to 1803, and was
governor of the state in 1827-1829. The son graduated in 1824
at Bowdoin College, at Brunswick, Maine, where he formed a
friendship with Nathaniel Hawthorne. Pierce then studied law,
and in 1827 was admitted to the bar and began] to practise
at Hillsborough. He at once took a lively interest in politics,
and from 1829 to 1833 served in the state House of Representa-
tives, for the last two years as Speaker. In 1833 he entered the
national House of Representatives, and although he achieved
no distinction in debate he was a hard worker, and a loyal sup-
porter of the policies of President Jackson. After four years
in the House he entered the Senate, being its youngest member.
In 1842, before the expiration of his term, he resigned his seat,
and at Concord, New Hampshire, began his career at the bar in
earnest, though still retaining an interest in politics. In 1845
he declined the Democratic nomination for governor, and also
an appointment to the seat in the United States Senate made
vacant by the resignation of Judge Levi Woodbury. He
accepted, however, an appointment as Federal District Attorney
for New Hampshire, as the duties of this office, which he held in
1845-1847, were closely related to those of his profession. In
1846 he again declined public honours, when President Polk
invited him to enter the cabinet as attorney-general. Soon
after the outbreak of the war with Mexico, in 1846, Pierce
enlisted as a private at Concord, but soon (in February 1847)
became colonel of the Ninth Regiment (which joined General
Winfield Scott at Pueblo on the 6th of August 1847), an< i later
(March, 1847) became a brigadier-general of volunteers. At the
battle of Contreras, on the 19th of August 1847, he was thrown
from his horse and received severe injuries. At the end of the
war he resigned his commission and returned to Concord. In
1850 Pierce became president of a convention assembled at
Concord to revise the constitution of his state, and used his
influence to secure the removal of those provisions of the con-
stitution of 1792 which declared that only Protestants should be
eligible for higher state offices. This amendment passed the
convention in April 1852, but was rejected by the electorate of
the state; a similar amendment was adopted by popular vote in
1877. In January 1852 the legislature of New Hampshire
proposed him as a candidate for the presidency, and when the
Democratic national convention met at Baltimore in the follow-
ing June the Virginia delegation brought forward his name on
the thirty-fifth ballot. Although both parties had declared
the Compromise of 1850 a finality, the Democrats alone were
thoroughly united in support of this declaration, and therefore
seemed to offer the greater prospect of peace. This fact, com-
bined with the colourless record of their candidate, enabled
them to sweep the country at the November election. Pierce
received 254 electoral votes, and General Winfield Scott, his
Whig opponent, only 42. The Democrats carried every state
except Massachusetts, Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee. No
president since James Monroe had received such a vote.

Pierce was the youngest man who had as yet been elevated
to the presidency. For his cabinet he chose William L. Marcy

of New York, secretary of state; Jefferson Davis of Mississippi,
secretary of war; James Guthrie (1792-1869) of Kentucky,
secretary of the treasury; James C. Dobbin (1814-1857) of
North Carolina, secretary of the navy; Robert McClelland
(1807-1880) of Michigan, secretary of the interior; James
Campbell (1813-1893) of Pennsylvania, postmaster-general;
and Caleb Cushing of Massachusetts, attorney-general. Thib
was an able body of men, and is the only cabinet in American
history that has continued unbroken throughout an entire
administration. Although Pierce during his term in the Senate
had severely criticized the Whigs for their removals of Demo-
crats from office, he himself now adopted the policy of replacing
Whigs by Democrats, and the country acquiesced. Pierce had
no scruples against slavery, and opposed anti-slavery agitation
as tending to disrupt the Union. The conduct of foreign
relations was on the whole the most creditable part of his adminis-
tration. The Koszta Affair (1853) gave the government an
opportunity vigorously to assert the protection it would afford
those in the process of becoming its naturalized citizens. When
the British government refused to prevent recruiting for the
Crimean War by their representatives in America, their minister,
John F. Crampton, received his passports, and the exequaturs
of the British consuls at New York, Philadelphia and Cincinnati
were revoked. A commercial treaty was negotiated with Japan
in 1854 after Perry's expedition in the previous year. As an
avowed expansionist, Pierce sympathized with the filibuster
government set up in Nicaragua by William Walker, and finally
accorded it recognition. It was during this term also that the
Gadsden Purchase was consummated, by which 45,535 sq. m. of
territory were acquired from Mexico, and that three routes were
surveyed for railways from the Mississippi river to the Pacific
coast.

When the Democratic national convention met at Cincinnati
in June 1856, Pierce was an avowed candidate for renomination,
but as his attitude on the slavery question, and especially his
subserviency to the South in supporting the pro-slavery party
in the Territory of Kansas, had lost him the support of the
Northern wing of his party, the nomination went to James
Buchanan. After retiring from the presidency Pierce returned
to Concord, and soon afterwards went abroad for a three years'
tour in Europe. Many Southern leaders desired his renomina-
tion by the Democratic party in i860, but he received such
suggestions with disfavour. After his return to America he
remained in retirement at Concord until the day of his death,
the 8th of October 1869.

Pierce was not a great statesman, and his fame has been
overshadowed by that of Benton, Calhoun, Clay and Webster.
But he was an able lawyer, an orator of no mean reputation,
and a brave soldier. He was a man of fine appearance and
courtly manners, and he possessed personal magnetism and the
ability to make friends, two qualities that contributed in great
measure to his success.

A portion of Pierce's correspondence has been published in the
American Historical Review, x. 1 10-127, SS ^? - D. W. Bartlett's
Franklin Pierce (Auburn, New York, 1852), and Nathaniel Haw-
thorne's Franklin Pierce (Boston, 1852), are two " campaign "
biographies, and are very eulogistic. J. R. Irelan's History of the
Life, Administration and Times of Franklin Pierce (Chicago, 1888),
being vol. xiv. of his Republic, is a more critical work, but inaccu-
rate as to details. J. E. Cooley's Review of the Administration of
General Pierce (New York, 1854) and Anna E. Carroll's Review of
Pierce's Administration (Boston, 1856) are hostile anti-administra-
tion tracts. The best accounts of Perce's administration are to
be found in James Schouler's History of the United States, vol. v. (new
ed., New York, 1894); J. F. Rhodes's History of the United States,
vols. i. and ii. (New York, 1893-1894); and J. W. Burgess's Middle
Period (New York, 1900).

PIERO DI COSIMO (1462-1521), the name by which the
Florentine painter Pietro di Lorenzo is generally known. He was
born in Florence about 1462, and worked in the bottega of
Cosimo Rosselli (from whom he derived his popular name).
Other influences that can be traced in his work are those of
Filippino Lippi, Luca Signorelli, and Leonardo da Vinci, and, as
has been recently suggested by Professor R. Muther, that of
Hugo van der Goes, whose Portinari altar-piece (now at the

PIERRE— PIERREPONT

59 1

Spedale of S. Maria Novella in Florence) helped to lead the whole
of Florentine painting into new channels. From him, most
probably, he acquired the love of landscape and the intimate
knowledge of the growth of flowers and of animal life. The
influence of Hugo van der Goes is especially apparent in the
" Adoration of the Shepherds," at the Berlin Museum. He had
the gift of a fertile fantastic imagination, which, as a result of a
journey to Rome in 1482 with his master, Rosselli, became
directed towards the myths of classic antiquity. He proves
himself a true child of the Renaissance in such pictures as the
" Death of Procris," at the National Gallery, the " Mars and
Venus," at the Berlin Gallery, the " Perseus and Andromeda "
series, at the Uffizi in Florence, and the " Hylas and the
Nymphs " belonging to Mr Benson. If, as we are told by
Vasari, he spent the last years of his life in gloomy retire-
ment, the change was probably due to Savonarola, under whose
influence he turned his attention once more to religious art.
The " Immaculate Conception," at the Uffizi, and the " Holy
Family," at Dresden, best illustrate the religious fervour to
which he was stimulated by the stern preacher.

With the exception of the landscape background in Rosselli's
fresco of the " Sermon on the Mount," in the Sistine Chapel,
we have no record of any fresco work from his brush. On the
other hand, he enjoyed a great reputation as a portrait painter,
though the only known examples that can be definitely ascribed
to him are the portrait of a warrior, at the National Gallery,
(No. 895), the so-called "Bella Simonetta," at Chantilly, the
portraits of Giuliano di San Gallo and his father, at the Hague,
and a head of a youth, at Dulwich. Vasari relates that Piero
excelled in designing pageants and triumphal processions for
the pleasure-loving youths of Florence, and gives a vivid descrip-
tion of one such procession at the end of the carnival of 1507,
which illustrated the triumph of death. Piero di Cosimo
exercised considerable influence upon his fellow pupils Alberti-
nelli and Bartolommeo della Porta and was the master of Andrea
del Sarto. Examples of his work are also to be found at the
Louvre in Paris, the Harrach and Liechtenstein collections in
Vienna, the Borghese Gallery in Rome, the Spedale degli
Innocenti in Florence, and in the collections of Mr John Burke
and Colonel Cornwallis West in London. A " Magdalen " from
his brush was added to the National Gallery of Rome in 1907?

See Piero di Cosimo, by F. Knapp (Halle, 1899); Piero di Cosimo,
by H. Haberfeld (Breslau, 1901).

PIERRE, the capital of South Dakota, U.S.A., and the
county-seat of Hughes county, situated on the east bank of the
Missouri river, opposite the mouth of the Bad river, about
185 m. N.W. of Yankton. Pop. (1905) 2794; (1910) 3656.
Pierre is served by the Chicago & North- Western railway; the
Missouri is navigable here, but river traffic has been practically
abandoned. Among the principal buildings are the state
capitol (1909) and the post office building. Pierre has a public
library, and is the seat of the Pierre Industrial School (co-educa-
tional, opened in 1890), a government boarding school (non-
reservation) for Indian children. The city has a large trade in
livestock, and is a centre for the mining districts of the Black
Hills and for a grain-growing country. Natural gas is used for
lighting, heating and power. A fur-trading post, Fort La
Framboise, was built in 1817 by a French fur-trader (from
whom it took its name) at the mouth of the Teton or Little
Missouri river (now called the Bad River) , on or near the site of
the present village of Fort Pierre (pop. in 1910, 792). In 1822
Fort Tecumseh was built about 2 m. up-stream by the Columbia
Fur Company, which turned it over in 1827 to the American Fur
Company. The washing away of the river bank caused the
abandonment of this post and the erection about a mile farther
up-stream, and a short distance west of the river, of Fort Pierre
Chouteau (later called Fort Pierre), occupied in 1832, and named
in honour of Pierre Chouteau, jun. (1789-1865). 1 For twenty
1 Pierre Chouteau in 1804 succeeded his father, one of the founders
of St Louis, in the Missouri Fur Company; and about 1834 Pratt,
Chouteau & Company, of which he was the leading member, bought
the entire western department of the American Fur Company, and
in 1838 reorganized under the name of Pierre Chouteau, jun., &

years thereafter Fort Pierre was the chief fur-trading depot
of the Upper Missouri country. In 1855 the United States
government bought the post building and other property for
$45,000, and laid out around them a military reservation of
about 270 sq. m. The fort was the headquarters of General
William S. Harney (1800- 1889) in his expedition against the
Sioux in 1856, and in March of that year an important council
between General Harney and the chiefs of all the Sioux bands,
except the Blackfeet, was held here. The fort was abandoned
in 1857. Pierre was laid out in 1880, was incorporated as a
village in 1883, and was chartered as a city in 1000.

See Major Frederick T. Wilson, " Fort Pierre and Its Neighbors,"
in South Dakota Historical Collections, vol. i. (Aberdeen, S.D., 1902);
and Hiram M. Chittenden, The American Fur Trade of the Far
West (3 vols., New York, 1902).

PIERRE DE CASTELNAU (d. 1208), French ecclesiastic, was
born in the diocese of Montpellier. In 1199 he was archdeacon
of Maguelonne, and was appointed by Pope Innocent III. as
one of the legates for the suppression of heresy in Languedoc.
In 1202, when a monk in the Cistercian abbey of Fontfroide,
Narbonne, he was designated to similar work, first in Toulouse,
and afterwards at Viviers and Montpellier. In 1207 he was in
the Rhone valley and in Provence, where he became involved
in the strife between the count of Baux and Raymond, count
of Toulouse, by one of whose agents he was assassinated on the
15th of January 1208. He was beatified in the year of his death
by Pope Innocent III.

See De la Bouillerie, Le Bienheureux Pierre de Castelnau et les
Albigeois au XIII. siecle (Paris, 1866).

PIERREFONDS, a town of northern France, in the depart-
ment of Oise, 9 m. S.E. of Compiegne by road. Pop. (1906),
1482. It is celebrated for its feudal stronghold, a masterpiece
of modern restoration. The building is rectangular in shape,
with a tower at each corner and at the centre of each of the walls,
which are strengthened by crenelation and machicolation. A
lofty keep defends the principal entrances on the south-west.
The interior buildings are chiefly modern, but the exterior
reproduces faithfully that of the medieval fortress. Pierrefonds
has a church dating from various periods from the nth to the
1 6th century, and its mineral springs are in some repute. The
chateau was begun in the last decade of the 14th century by
Louis d'Orleans, to whom the domain was given by Charles VI.,
and finished early in the 15th century. It was subsequently
held by the Burgundians, the English and the adherents of the
League, from whom it passed to Henry IV. It was dismantled
in 1622. The ruins, bought by Napoleon I., were restored, by
order of Napoleon III., from 1858 to 1895, under the direction,
first of Viollet-le-Duc and afterwards of E. Boeswillwald.

PIERREPONT, WILLIAM (c. 1607-1678), English politician,
was the second son of Robert Pierrepont, 1st earl of Kingston.
Returned to the Long Parliament in 1640 as member for Great
Wenlock, he threw his influence on the side of peace and took
part for the parliament in the negotiations with Charles I. at
Oxford in 1643. Pierrepont was a member of the committee
of both kingdoms, and represented the parliamentary party
during the deliberations at Uxbridge in 1645; but from that
time, according to Clarendon, he forsook his moderate attitude,
and " contracted more bitterness and sourness than formerly."
This statement, however, is perhaps somewhat exaggerated,
as Pierrepont favoured the resumption of negotiations with the
king in 1647, and in the following year his efforts on behalf of
peace at Newport, where again he represented the parliament-
arians, brought upon him some slight censure from Cromwell.
For his services at Newport he was thanked by parliament; but
he retired from active political life soon afterwards, as he
disliked the " purging " of the House of Commons by Colonel
Pride and the proceedings against the king. In spite of his

Company. Chouteau built (in 1830-1831) the " Yellowstone,"
which went up the river to the present site of Pierre in 1 83 1, and
was the first steamboat to navigate the upper waters of the Mis-
souri. Chouteau lived for some years in New York City, and while
living in St Louis was a member of the convention (1820) which
drafted the first constitution of Missouri.

592

PIERROT— PIETERSBURG

moderate views Pierrepont enjoyed the personal friendship of
Cromwell; but, although elected, he would not sit in the parlia-
ment of 1656, nor would he take the place offered to him in the
Protector's House of Lords. When Richard Cromwell suc-
ceeded his father, Pierrepont was an unobtrusive but powerful
influence in directing the policy of the government, and after a
short period of retirement on Richard's fall he was chosen,
early in 1660, a member of the council of state. He represented
Nottinghamshire in the Convention Parliament of 1660, and
probably was instrumental in saving the lives of some of the
parliamentary leaders. At the general election of 1661 he was
defeated, and, spending the remainder of his life in retirement,
he died in 1678. Pierrepont married Elizabeth, daughter of
Sir Thomas Harris, Bart., of Tong Castle, Shropshire, by whom
he had five sons and five daughters. His eldest son, Robert
(d. 1666), was the father of Robert, 3rd earl, William, 4th earl,
and Evelyn, 1st duke of Kingston; and his third son, Gervase
(1649-17 1 5), was created in 17 14 baron Pierrepont of Hanslope,
a title which became extinct on his death.

PIERROT (Ital. Pedrolino), the name given to the leading
character in the French pantomime plays since the 18th century;
transferred from the Italian stage, and revived especially in
recent times. He is always in white, both face and costume,
with a loose and daintily clownish garb, and is represented as of
a freakish disposition. Modern pierrot plays have converted
the pierrot into a romantic and even pathetic figure.

PIERSON, HENRY HUGO [properly Henry Hugh Pearson],
(1S15-1873), English composer, was the son of the Rev. Dr
Pearson of St John's College, Oxford, where he was born in
181 5; his father afterwards became dean of Salisbury. Pierson
was educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge, and
was at first intended for the career of medicine. His musical
powers were too strong to be repressed, and after receiving
instruction from Attwood and A. T. Corfe he went in 1839 to
Germany to study under C. H. Rink, Tomaschek and Reissiger.
He was elected Reid Professor of Music in Edinburgh in 1844,
but, owing to a disagreement with the authorities, he resigned
in the following year, and definitely adopted Germany as his
country about the same time, making the change in his names
noted above. His two operas, Leila (Hamburg, 1848) and
Contarini (Hamburg, 1872), have not retained their hold upon
the German public as his music to Faust has done, a work which
until quite recently was frequently associated with Goethe's
drama. He was never recognized in England as he was in
Germany, for most of his career fell in the period of the Mendels-
sohn fashion. His ' most important work was the oratorio
Jerusalem, produced at the Norwich Festival of 1852, and
subsequently given in London (Sacred Harmonic Society, 1853)
and Wurzburg (1862). For the Norwich Festival (at one of
the meetings a selection from his Faust music was given with
success) he began an oratorio, Hezekiah, in 1869; it was not
finished, but was given in a fragmentary condition at the festival
of that year. These two large works and a number of Pierson's
songs, as well as the three overtures played at the Crystal
Palace, reveal undeniable originality and a wealth of melodic
ideas. He was weak in contrapuntal skill, and his music was
wanting in outline and coherence; but in more fortunate con-
ditions his great gifts might have been turned to better account.
He died at Leipzig on the 28th of January 1873, and was buried
at Sonning, Berks., of which parish his brother, Canon Pearson,
was rector.

PIETAS, in Roman mythology, the personification of the sense
of duty towards God and man and the fatherland. According
to a well-known story, a young woman in humble circumstances,
whose father (or mother) was lying in prison under sentence
of death, without food, managed to gain admittance, and
fed her parent with milk from her breast. To commemorate
her filial affection a temple was dedicated (181 B.C.) by
Manius Acilius Glabrio to Pietas in the Forum Holitorium
at Rome, on the spot where the young woman had formerly
lived. The temple was probably originally vowed by the
elder Glabrio out of gratitude for the pietas shown during

the engagement by his son, who may have saved his life, as the
elder Africanus that of his father at the battle of Ticinus (Livy
xxi. 46) ; the legend of the young woman (borrowed from the
Greek story of Mycon and Pero, Val. Max. v. 4, ext. 1) was then
connected with the temple by the identification of its site with
that of the prison. There was another temple of Pietas near the
Circus Flaminius, which is connected by Amatucci (Rivista di
sloria antica, 1903) with the story of the pietas of C. Flaminius
(Val. Max. v. 4, 5), and regarded by him as the real seat of the
cult of the goddess, the Pietas of the sanctuary dedicated by
Glabrio being a Greek goddess. Pietas is represented on coins
as a matron throwing incense on an altar, her attribute being a
stork. Typical examples of " piety " are Aeneas and Antoninus
Pius, who founded games called Eusebeia at Puteoli in honour of
Hadrian.

See Val. Max. v. 4, 7; Pliny, Nat. hist. vii. 121; Livy xl. 34;
Festus, s.v. ; G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Rbmer (1902J;
F. Kuntze, " Die Legende von der guten Tochter," in Jahrbiicher
fur das klassische Altertum (1904), xiii. 280.

PIETERMARITZBURG, the capital of Natal, situated in
29° 46' S., 30 13' E., 45 m. in a direct line (71 by rail) W.N.W.
of Durban. It lies, 2200 ft. above the sea, north of the river
Umsunduzi, and is surrounded by wooded hills. Of these the
Town Hill, flat-topped, rises 1600 ft. above the town. Pop.
(1904), 31,119, of whom 15,087 were whites, 10,752 Kaffirs, and
5280 Indians. The town is laid out on the usual Dutch South
African plan — in rectangular blocks with a central market square.
The public buildings include the legislative council chambers
and the legislative assembly buildings, government house, the
government offices, college, post office and market buildings.
The town-hall, a fine building in a modified Renaissance style
(characteristic of the majority of the other public buildings),
has a lofty tower. It was completed in 1901, and replaces a
building destroyed by fire in 1898. St Saviour's is the cathedral
church of the Anglican community. The headquarters of the
Dutch Reformed Church are also in the town. There are
monuments of Queen Victoria and Sir Theophilus Shepstone,
and various war memorials — one commemorating those who
fell in Zululand in 1879, and another those who lost their lives
in the Boer War 1899-1902. A large park and botanical gardens
add to the attractions of the town. A favourite mode of con-
veyance is by rickshaw. The climate is healthy and agreeable,
the mean annual temperature being 65 F. (55 in June, 7i°in
February). The rainfall is about 38 in. a year, chiefly in the
summer months (Oct.-Mar.), when the heat is tempered by
violent thunderstorms.

Pietermaritzburg was founded early in 1839 by the newly-
arrived Dutch settlers in Natal, and its name commemorates
two of their leaders — Piet Retief and Gerrit Maritz. From the
time of its establishment it was the seat of the Volksraad of the
Natal Boers, and on the submission of the Boers to the British
in 1842 Maritzburg (as it is usually called) became the capital
of the country. It was given a municipal board in 1848, and in
1854 was incorporated as a borough. Railway connexion with
Durban was made in 1880, and in 1895 the line was extended
to Johannesburg. The borough covers 44 sq. m. and includes
numerous attractive suburbs. The rateable value is about
£4,000,000. Various industries are carried on, including brick-
making, tanning, brewing, and cart and wagon building.

See J. F. Ingram, The Story of an African City (Maritzburg,
1898).

PIETERSBURG, a town of the Transvaal, capital of the
Zoutpansberg district, and 177 m. N.N.E. of Pretoria by rail.
Pop. (1904), 3276, of whom 1620 were whites. The town is
pleasantly situated, at an elevation of 4200 ft., on a small tribu-
tary of the Zand river affluent of the Limpopo, and is the place
of most importance in the province north of Pretoria. From it
roads run to Klein Lelaba and other gold-mining centres in the
neighbourhood, and through it passes the old route to Mashona-
land, which crosses the Limpopo at Rhodes Drift. The Zout-
pansberg district contains a comparatively dense Kaffir popula-
tion, and a native newspaper is published at Pietersburg.

PIETISM

593

PIETISM, a movement in the Lutheran Church, which arose
towards the end of the 17th and continued during the first half
of the following century. The name of Pietists was given to
the adherents of the movement by its enemies as a term of
ridicule, like that of " Methodists " somewhat later in England.
The Lutheran Church had, in continuing Melanchthon's attempt
to construct the evangelical faith as a doctrinal system, by
the 17th century become a creed-bound theological and sacra-
mentarian institution, which orthodox theologians like Johann
Gerhard of Jena (d. 1637) ruled with almost the absolutism of
the papacy. Christian faith had been dismissed from its seat
in the heart, where Luther had placed it, to the cold regions of
the intellect. The dogmatic formularies of the Lutheran Church
had usurped the position which Luther himself had assigned to
the Bible alone, and as a consequence only they were studied
and preached, while the Bible was neglected in the family, the
study, the pulpit and the university. Instead of advocating
the priesthood of all believers, the Lutheran pastors had made
themselves a despotic hierarchy, while they neglected their
practical pastoral work. In the Reformed Church, on the other
hand, the influence of Calvin had made less for doctrine than the
practical formation of Christian life. The presbyterian constitu-
tion gave the people a share in church life which the Lutherans
lacked, but it involved a dogmatic legalism which imperilled
Christian freedom and fostered self-righteousness.

As forerunners of the Pietists in the strict sense, not a few
earnest and powerful voices had been heard bewailing the
shortcomings of the Church and advocating a revival of practical
and devout Christianity. Amongst them were Jakob Boehme
(Behmen), the theosophic mystic; Johann Arndt, whose work
on True Christianity became widely known and appreciated;
Heinrich Miiller, who described the font, the pulpit, the con-
fessional and the altar as the four dumb idols of the Lutheran
Church; the theologian, Johann Valentin Andrea, the court
chaplain of the landgrave of Hesse; Schuppius, who sought to
restore to the Bible its place in the pulpit; and Theophilus
Grossgebauer (d. 1661) of Rostock, who from his pulpit and by
his writings raised " the alarm cry of a watchman in Sion."
The direct originator of the movement was Philip Jacob Spener,
who combined the Lutheran emphasis on Biblical doctrine with
the Reformed tendency to vigorous Christian life. Born at
Rappoltsweiler, in Alsace on the 13th of, January 1635, trained
by a devout godmother, who used books of devotion like Arndt's
True Christianity, accustomed to hear the sermons of a pastor
who preached the Bible more than the Lutheran creeds, Spener
was early convinced of the necessity of a moral and religious
reformation of the German Church. He studied theology, with
a view to the Christian ministry, at Strassburg, where the
professors at the time (and especially Sebastian Schmidt) were
more inclined to practical Christianity than to theological
disputation. He afterwards spent a year in Geneva, and was
powerfully influenced by the strict moral life and rigid ecclesias-
tical discipline prevalent there, and also by the preaching and
the piety of the VValdensian professor, Antoine Leger, and the
converted Jesuit preacher, Jean de Labadie. 1 During a stay in
Tubingen he read Grossgebauer's Alarm Cry, and in 1666 he
entered upon his first pastoral charge at Frankfort-on-the-Main,
profoundly impressed with a sense of the danger of the Christian
life being sacrificed to zeal for rigid orthodoxy. Pietism, as a
distinct movement in the German Church, was then originated
by Spener by religious meetings at his house {collegia pietatis),
at which he repeated his sermons, expounded passages of the
New Testament, and induced those present to join in conversa-
tion on religious questions that arose. They gave rise to the
name " Pietists." In 1675 Spener published his Pia desideria,
cr Earnest Desires for a Reform of the True Evangelical Church.
In this publication he made six proposals as the best means of
restoring the life of the Church: (1) the earnest and thorough
study of the Bible in private meetings, ecclesiolae in ecclesia;

1 Labadie had formed the ascetic and mystic sect of " The
Regenerati " in the Church of Holland (c. 1660), and then in other
parts of the Reformed Church.

(2) the Christian priesthood being universal, the laity should
share in the spiritual government of the Church; (3) a knowledge
of Christianity must be attended by the practice of it as its
indispensable sign and supplement; (4) instead of merely didactic,
and often bitter, attacks on the heterodox and unbelievers, a
sympathetic and kindly treatment of them; (5) a reorganization
of the theological training of the universities, giving more
prominence to the devotional life; and (6) a different style of
preaching, namely, in the place of pleasing rhetoric, the implant-
ing of Christianity in the inner or new man, the soul of which is
faith, and its effects the fruits of life. This work produced a
great impression throughout Germany, and although large
numbers of the orthodox Lutheran theologians and pastors
were deeply offended by Spener's book, its complaints and its
demands were both too well justified to admit of their being
point-blank denied. A large number of pastors at once practi-
cally adopted Spener's proposals. In Paul Gerhardt the move-
ment found a singer whose hymns are genuine folk poetry. In
1686 Spener accepted an appointment to the court-chaplaincy
at Dresden, which opened to him a wider though more difficult
sphere of labour. In Leipzig a society of young theologians
was formed under his influence for the learned study and devout
application of the Bible. Three magislri belonging to that
society, one of whom was August Hermann Francke, subse-
quently the founder of the famous orphanage at Halle (1695),
commenced courses of expository lectures on the Scriptures of a
practical and devotional character, and in the German language,
which were zealously frequented by both students and townsmen.
The lectures aroused, however, the ill-will of the other theo-
logians and pastors of Leipzig, and Francke and his friends left
the city, and with the aid of Christian Thomasius and Spener
founded the new university of Halle. The theological chairs
in the new university were filled in complete conformity with
Spener's proposals. The main difference between the new
Pietistic school and the orthodox Lutherans arose from the
conception of Christianity as chiefly consisting in a change of
heart and consequent holiness of life, while the orthodox
Lutherans of the time made it to consist mainly in correctness
of doctrine.

Spener died in 1705; but. the movement, guided by Francke,
fertilized from Halle the whole of Middle and North Germany.
Among its greatest achievements, apart from the philanthropic
institutions founded at Halle, were the organization of the
Moravian Church in 1727 by Count von Zinzendorf, Spener's
godson and a pupil in the Halle Orphanage, and the estab-
lishment of the great Protestant missions, Ziegenbalg and
others being the pioneers of an enterprise which until this time
Protestantism had strangely neglected.

Pietism, of course, had its weaknesses. The very earnestness
with which Spener had insisted on the necessity of a new birth,
and on a separation of Christians from the world, led to exaggera-
tion and fanaticism among followers less distinguished than
himself for wisdom and moderation. Many Pietists soon main-
tained that the new birth must always be preceded by agonies
of repentance, and that only a regenerated theologian could
teach theology, while the whole school shunned all common
worldly amusements, such as dancing, the theatre, and public
games. There thus arose a new form of justification by works.
Its ecclesiolae in ecclesia also weakened the power and meaning
of church organization. Through these extravagances a reac-
tionary movement arose at the beginning of the 18th century,
one of the most distinguished leaders of which was Loescher,
superintendent at Dresden.

As a distinct movement Pietism had run its course before the
middle of the 18th century; by its very individualism it had
helped to prepare the way for another great movement, the
Illumination (Aufkldrung) , which was now to lead the world
into new paths. Yet Pietism could claim to have contributed
largely to the revival of Biblical studies in Germany, and to have
made religion once more an affair of the heart and the life, and
not merely of the intellect. It likewise vindicated afresh the
rights of the Christian laity in regard to their own beliefs and

594

PIETRO DELLA VIGNA— PIG

the work of the Church, against the assumptions and despotism
of an arrogant clergy. " It was," says Rudolf Sohm, " the last
great surge of the waves of the ecclesiastical movement begun
by the Reformation; it was the completion and the final form
of the Protestantism created by the Reformation. Then came
a time when another intellectual power took possession of the
minds of men."

Some writers on the history of Pietism — e.g. Heppe and
Ritschl — have included under it nearly all religious tendencies
amongst Protestants of the last three centuries in the direction
of a more serious cultivation of personal piety than that preva-
lent in the various established churches. Ritschl, too, treats
Pietism as a retrograde movement of Christian life towards
Catholicism. Some historians also speak of a later or modern
Pietism, characterizing thereby a party in the German Church
which was probably at first influenced by some remains of
Spener's Pietism in Westphalia, on the Rhine, in Wurttemberg,
and at Halle and Berlin. The party was chiefly distinguished
by its opposition to an independent scientific study of theology,
its principal theological leader being Hengstenberg, and its
chief literary organ the Evangelische Kirchenzeitung. The party
originated at the close of the wars with Napoleon I.

Amongst older works on Pietism are J. G. Walch, Historische und
theologische Einleitung in die Religionsstreitigkeiten der evangelisch-
Lutherischen Kirche (1730); A. Tholuck, Geschichte des Pietismus
und des ersten Stadiums der Aufkldrung (1865); H. Schmid, Die
Geschichte des Pietismus (1863) ; M. Goebel, Geschichte des christlichen
Lebens in der Rheinisch-Westfalischen Kirche (3 vols., 1849-1860);
and the subject is dealt with at length in J. A. Dorner's and
W. Gass's Histories of Protestant theology. More recent are
Heppe's Geschichte des Pietismus und der Mystik in der reformirten
Kirche (1879), which is sympathetic; A. Ritschl's Geschichte des
Pietismus (3 vols., 1880-1886), which is hostile; and C. Sachsse,
Vrsprung und Wesen des Pietismus (1884). See also Fr. Nippold's
article in Theol. Stud, und Kritiken (1882), pp. 347-392; H. von
Schubert, Outlines of Church History, ch. xv. (Eng. trans., 1907) ;
and Carl Mirbt's article, "Pietismus," in Herzog-Hauck's Realen-
cyklopadie fur prot. Theologie u. Kirche, end of vol. xv.

PIETRO DELLA VIGNA, or Pier delle Vigne [Petrtjs de
Vineas or df. Vineis] (c. 1190-1249), chancellor and secretary
to the emperor Frederick II., was born at Capua in humble
circumstances. He studied law at Padua, and through his
classical education, his ability to speak Latin and his poetic
gifts, he gained the favour of Frederick II., who made him
his secretary, and afterwards judex magnae curiae, councillor,
governor of Apulia, prothonotary and chancellor. The emperor,
" of whose heart he held the keys," as Dante says, sent him to
Rome in 1232 and 1237 to negotiate with the pope, to Padua
in 1239 to induce the citizens to accept imperial protection, to
England in 1 234-1 235 to arrange a marriage between Frederick
and Isabella, sister of King Henry III. He proved a skilful
and trustworthy diplomat, and he persistently defended the
emperor against his traducers and against the pope's menaces.
But at the Council of Lyons, which had been summoned by Pope
Innocent IV., Pietro della Vigna entrusted the defence of his
master to the celebrated jurist Taddeo of Suessa, who failed
to prevent his condemnation. Frederick, whose suspicions had
been awakened by the slanders of the envious, had him im-
prisoned and blinded without giving him a chance to rebut his
accusers. Unable to bear his disgrace, he committed suicide
in his prison at Pisa in 1 249. The exact date, place and manner
of his death are, however, subject to controversy, and Flaminio
del Borgo states that it occurred in the church of S. Andrea, at
Pisa, in 1256. The tragic fate of this man gave rise to many
legends. The Guelphic tradition accuses Pietro della Vigna, as
well as the emperor and the court, of heresy; it was even stated,
probably without any foundation, that they were the authors
of the famous work, De tribus impostoribus, wherein Moses,
Christ and Mahomet are blasphemed.

Pietro della Vigna was a man of great culture; he encouraged
science and the fine arts, and contributed much to the welfare
of Italy by wise legislative reforms. He was the author of some
delicate verse in the vernacular tongue, of which two canzoni
and a sonnet are still extant. His letters, mostly written in
the name of the emperor and published by Iselin (Epistolarum

libri in., 2 vols., Basel, 1740), contain much valuable information
on the history and culture of the 13th century. A collection
of the laws of Sicily, a Tractatus de potestate imperiali, and
another treatise, " On Consolation," in the style of Boethius, are
also attributed to him.

See Huillard-Bre'holles, Vie et correspondence de Pierre de la Vigne
(Paris, 1864); Presta, Pier delle Vigne (Milan, 1880); Capasso and
Ianelli, Pier delle Vigne (Caserta, 1882) ; also Frederick II.

PIG (a word of obscure origin, connected with the Low Ger.
and Dut. word of the same meaning, bigge), a common name
given to the domesticated swine of agricultural use. (For the
zoology, see Swine.)

British breeds of pigs are classified as black, white and red.
In some places, notably Wales and Gloucester, a remnant of a
spotted breed lingers; and a large proportion of common pigs,
often parti-coloured, are mongrels. The white breeds are liable
to sun-scald, and black pigs (like black men) are much better
adapted than white to exposure in strong sunlight, conforming
to the rule that animals in the tropics have black skins.

The Large Whites may have in the skin a few blue spots which
grow white hair. The head is long, light in the jowl, and wide
between the eyes, with long thin ears inclined slightly forward
and fringed with long fine hair. The neck is long, but not
coarse, the ribs are deep, the loin wide and level, the tail set
high, and the legs straight and set well outside the carcase. The
whole body, including the back of the neck, is covered with
straight silky hair, which denotes quality and lean meat. Pigs
of this breed are very prolific, and they may be grown to
enormous weights— over n cwt. alive.

The Middle Whites are built on a smaller scale than the Large
Whites. They are shorter in the heads and legs, and fuller at
the jowl, thicker and more compact in the body. The sows are
quite as prolific as those of the Large White breed, and, as their
produce matures earlier, they are much in demand for breeding
porkers.

The Small White pigs are beautifully proportioned. The head
and legs are very short, and the body short, thick and wide;
the jowl is heavy, the ears pricked, and the thin skin laden with
long silky, wavy, but not curly, hair, whilst the tail is very fine.
A deficiency of lean meat is a common characteristic of the breed,
which is almost extinct.

The above three breeds were designated Yorkshire Whites,
and are still so named at times. The Middle White, formed by
crossing the large and the small breeds, is not so symmetrical
as the parent stocks, and the type is not uniform.

The Lincolnshire Curly Coated or Boston pig is a local breed
of great size and capacity for producing pork. It is very hardy
and prolific, but somewhat coarse in the bone. It has an
abundance of long curly hair, a short face and a straight nose,
and the ears, not too long and heavy, fall over the face. It
crosses well with the Large White, the Large Black and the
Berkshire.

The Large Black breed, which vies with the Large White breed
for size, and is probably its superior as a bacon pig, has only
since 1900 received national show-yard recognition; but there is
ample evidence that, with its characteristic whole black colour
with a mealy hue, length, fine hair and lop ear, the Large Black
existed in the south of England for generations. It has been
continuously and carefully bred in Cornwall, Devon, Essex and
Suffolk, and from these centres it has rapidly spread all over the
country. Large Blacks are exceedingly docile, and the ears,
hanging well forward over the eyes, contribute materially to a
quietness of habit which • renders them peculiarly adapted to
field grazing. On account of their hardiness and disposition to
early maturity they have proved valuable for crossing purposes.
The Large Black Pig Society was incorporated in 1899.

The Berkshire is a black pig with a pinkish skin, and a little
white on the nose, forehead, pasterns, and tip to the tail. It has
a moderately short head with heavy jowl, a deep, compact
carcase, and wide, low and well-developed hind-quarters, with
heavy hams. The skin carries an abundance of fine hair. The
Berkshire is an early-maturity breed which has been somewhat

PIG

Plate.

LARGE BLACK SOW. TAM WORTH BOAR.

ENGLISH BREEDS OF PIG, from photographs of F. Babbage. The comparative sizes of the animals are indicated by

the scale of reproduction of the photographs.

PIGALLE— PIGEON

595

inbred, and is not so hardy and prolific as most breeds. The
boars cross well with common stock. It merits the most credit
in raising the quality of Irish pigs. In America it is in the front
rank for numbers and quality as a lard-hog. There it often
grows to be a larger and finer animal than it is in England.

The Small Black or Black Suffolk was produced from the old
Essex pig by crossing with the Neapolitan. It resembles the
Small White, except that the skin is coal-black in colour, and
the coat of hair is not usually profuse. The Small Black, more-
over, is rather longer, and stands somewhat higher, whilst it
yields more lean meat than the Small White. It matures early
and is quick to fatten.

The Tamworth is one of the oldest breeds of pigs. It is hardy,
active and prolific, and nearly related to the wild boar. The
colour is red or chestnut, with at times darkish spots on the
skin. The head, body and legs are long, and the ribs deep and
flat. Originally a local breed in the districts around the Stafford-
shire town from which it takes its name, it is now extensively
bred, and highly valued as a bacon pig. (W. FR. ; R. W.)

In America nearly all the breeds may be classified as lard-
hogs. Bacon-pigs fed on Indian corn degenerate into lard-
hogs, run down in size and become too small in the bone and
less prolific by inbreeding.

The Poland-China, the most popular breed in the United
States, is thus degenerating. It is a black pig like the Berk-
shire, but has short lop-ears, a more pointed, straight nose, a
more compact body, and more white markings. It is a breed
of mixed blood, and is believed to have originated from the
" Big China " pig — a large white hog with sandy spots, taken to
Ohio in 1816, and blended with Irish graziers in 1839, and with a
breed known as Bayfields, as well as with Berkshires. In Iowa
' the Berkshire is a combined lard and bacon pig in high favour.
The Duroc Jersey or Duroc, of a red or cherry-red colour —
not sandy or dark — is the most popular pig in Nebraska and
equal to any other in Iowa. It is a large prolific lard-hog, easily
making 300 lb in eight months. It has gained rapidly in
popularity since the beginning of this century, and is spreading
to other centres.

The Chester White, named from Chester county, Pennsyl-
vania, is one of the four leading breeds of lard-hogs in
America. It is of mixed origin and bears a strong family
resemblance to the Lincolnshire curly-coated pig. The early
English ancestors, the breed of which is not on record in
America, were most probably of Lincoln origin. The sow is
a prolific breeder and good mother, weighing, when mature but
not fat, 450 lb — the boar averaging 600 lb, and barrows at six
to eight months 350 lb. At Vermont Station, in a 127 days'
test, Chester Whites made an average gain of 1-36 lb and
dressed 84-5% carcase, and they can gain fully 1 lb of live
weight for 3 lb of grain consumed.

Management. — The brood sow should be lengthy and of a prolific
strain, known to milk well. She is moderately fed and put to a
boar of her own age when large enough, i.e. seven to eight months
old. She remains in a state of oestrum for about three days, and
if not pregnant comes in heat again in three weeks. Breeding
swine, male and female, run most of their time at pasture and
receive a liberal allowance of green food or raw roots. The period
of gestation is sixteen weeks. Six to eight pigs are reared of the
first litter, and ten to twelve afterwards. Many brood sows are
fattened to greatest profit after the second or third litter. Two
litters are produced in one year, as pigs are usually weaned at two
months old, and the sow will take the boar at from three days to
a week after the pigs are removed, according to condition. A
convenient sty to hold five or six pigs has a southern aspect, and
consists of a covered compartment and outer court, each 10 ft.
square. When the animals are fed outside the inner court is kept
clean and dry, and there the pigs lie. The labouring man's pig
is his bank, and is fed on scraps, small potatoes and waste products.
In connexion with cheese dairies pigs are largely fed on sour whey
thickened with mixed meal produced from any or all of the grains
or pulses, the choice depending upon the market price. Food
may with advantage be cooked for very young pigs; but, with the
exception of potatoes, which should never be given raw, roots and
meals are best given uncooked. Meal mixed with pulped roots
for a few hours improves in digestibility, and a sprinkling of salt
is an improvement. Meal derived from leguminous seeds makes
the flesh firm and improves the quality. Fattening pigs are fed

three times a day and supplied with coal-ashes or a few handfuls
of earth. Of the fatted live weight of a pig 83 % is butcher's
carcase, and 91 % of the increase from 100 to 200 lb is carcase.
From 3 to 5 lb of meal consumed results in an increase of I lb of
live weight in a pig, which is the most economical meat producer on
a farm. Concentrated and digestible foods give best results, a
pig has a small stomach. Fjord's Danish experiments show that
for fattening pigs 1 ft) of rye- or barley-meal is equivalent to 6 lb
of skim-milk or 12 lb of whey, and I tt> of meal equivalent to 8 lb
of mangolds or 4 lb of potatoes.

Literature. — J. Coleman, Pigs of Great Britain (1877); Sanders
Spencer, Pigs: Breeds and Management (1905); G. M. Rommel,
The Hog Industry (1904; Bull.. No. 47, U.S.A. Bureau of Animal
Industry) ; J. Long, The Book of the Pig (1906) ; F. D. Coburn,
Swine Husbandry (1904) ; R. Wallace, Farm Live Stock of Great
Britain (4th ed., 1907) ; Douglas Encyclopaedia (1906) ; C. S. Plumb,
Types and Breeds of Farm Animals (1906) the Herd Books of the
Breed Societies, and Reports of the Agricultural Departments of
Great Britain, Canada and the United States. (R. W.)

PIGALLE, JEAN BAPTISTE (1714-1785), French sculptor,
was born in Paris on the 26th of January 17 14. He was the
seventh child of a carpenter. Although he failed to obtain the
grand prix, after a severe struggle he entered the Academy and
became one of the most popular sculptors of his day. His
earlier work, such as " Child with Cage " (model at Sevres) and
" Mercury Fastening his Sandals " (Berlin, and lead cast in
Louvre), is less commonplace than that of his maturer years,
but his nude statue of Voltaire, dated 1776 (Institut), and his
tombs of Comte d'Harcourt (c. 1764) (Notre Dame) and of
Marshal Saxe, completed in 1777 (Lutheran church, Strassburg),
are good specimens of French sculpture in the 18th century.
He died on the 28th of August 1785.

See P. Tarb6, Vie el ceuv. de Pigalle (1859) ; Suard, Eloge de Pigalle;
Melanges de Uttirature.

PIGAULT-LEBRUN (Pigault de l'Epinoy), CHARLES
ANTOINE GUILLAUME (1753-1835), French novelist, was born
at Calais (he is said to have traced his pedigree on the mother's
side to Eustache de St Pierre) on the 8th of April 1753. His
youth was stormy. He twice carried off young ladies of some
position, and was in consequence twice imprisoned by lettre de
cachet. The first, a Miss Crawford, the daughter of an English
merchant whose office Pigault had entered, died almost
immediately after her elopement; the second, Mile de Salens,
he married. He became a soldier in the Queen's Guards, then
a very unsuccessful actor, and a teacher of French. At the
breaking out of the great war he re-enlisted and fought at
Valmy. He wrote more than twenty plays, and a large number
of novels, the first of which appeared in 1787. In his old age
he took to graver work, and executed an abridgement of French
history in eight volumes, besides some other work. His (Euvres
computes were published in twenty volumes between 1822 and
1824, but much of his work is subsequent to this collection.
He died on the 24th of. July 1835. The style of Pigault's novels
is insignificant, and their morality very far from severe. As
almost the father of a kind of literature which later developed
enormously, Pigault-Lebrun deserves a certain place in literary
history. Among the most celebrated of his novels may be
mentioned L' Enfant du Carnaval (1792) and Angelique et Jeanne-
ton de la place Maubert (1799). His Cilateur (2 vols., 1803), a
collection of quotations against Christianity, was forbidden
and yet several times reprinted.

PIGEON (Fr. pigeon,- Ital. piccione and pipione, Lat. pipio,
literally a nestling-bird that pipes or cries out, a " piper " —
the very name now in use among some pigeon-fanciers, though
"squeaker" in the more usual term). The name pigeon,
doubtless of Norman introduction as a polite term, seems to
bear much the same relation to dove, the word of Anglo-Saxon
origin, that mutton has to sheep, beef to ox, veal to calf, and
pork to bacon; no sharp zoological distinction can be drawn
(see Dove) between dove and pigeon, and the collective members
of the group Columbae are by ornithologists ordinarily called
pigeons. Perhaps the best-known species to which the latter
name is exclusively given in common speech 1 is the wild pigeon
1 ft may be observed that the " rock-pigeons " of Anglo-Indians
are Sand-grouse (q.v.), and the " Cape pigeon " of sailors is a petrel
(q.v.).

596

PIGEON-FLYING

or passenger pigeon of North America, Eclopisles migrarius,
which is still found in many parts of Canada and the United
States, though now almost extinct and never appearing in the
countless numbers that it did of old, when a flock seen by A.
Wilson was estimated to consist of more than 2230 millions.
The often-quoted descriptions given by him and J. J. Audubon
of pigeon-haunts in the then " backwoods " of Kentucky, Ohio
and Indiana need not here be reproduced. That of the latter
was declared by C. Waterton to be a gross exaggeration; but
the critic would certainly have changed his tone had he known
that, some hundred and fifty years earlier, passenger-pigeons so
swarmed and ravaged the colonists' crops near Montreal that
a bishop of his own church was constrained to exorcise them
with holy water, as if they had been demons. 1 The passenger-
pigeon is about the size of a common turtle-dove, but with a
long, wedge-shaped tail. The male is of a dark slate-colour
above, and purplish-bay beneath, the sides of the neck being
enlivened by violet, green and gold. The female is drab-
coloured above and dull white beneath, with only a slight trace
of the brilliant neck-markings. 2 (See plate illustration under
Dove.)

Among the multitudinous forms of pigeons very few can here
be noticed. A species which might possibly repay the trouble
of domestication is the wonga-wonga or white-fleshed pigeon
of Australia, Leucosarcia picata, a bird larger than the ring-dove,
of a slaty-blue colour above and white beneath, streaked on
the flanks with black. It is known to breed, though not very
freely, in captivity, and is said to be excellent for the table.
As regards flavour, the fruit-pigeons of the genus Treron (or
Vinago of some authors) and its allies surpass all birds. These
inhabit tropical Africa, India, and especially the Malay Archi-
pelago; but the probability of domesticating any of them is
very remote. Hardly less esteemed are the pigeons of the genus
Ptilopus and its kindred forms, which have their headquarters
in the Pacific Islands, though some occur far to the westward and
also in Australia. There may be mentioned the strange Nicobar
pigeon, Caloenas (see plate illustration under Dove), an inhabi-
tant of the Indian Archipelago, not less remarkable for the long
lustrous hackles with which its neck is clothed than for the
structure of its gizzard, which has been described by Sir W. H.
Flower (Proc. Zool. Soc, i860, p. 330), though this peculiarity
is matched or even surpassed by that of the same organ in the
Phaenorrhina golialh of New Caledonia (Rev. de zoologie, 1862,
p. 138) and in the Carpophaga latrans of Fiji. In this last the
surface of the epithelial lining is beset by horny conical processes,
adapted, it is believed, for crushing the very hard fruits of
Onocarpus vitiensis on which the bird feeds (Proc. Zool. Soc,
1878, p. 102). The modern giants of the group, consisting of
about half a dozen species of the genus Goura and known as
crowned pigeons (see plate illustration under Dove), belong to
New Guinea and the neighbouring islands, and are conspicuous
by their large size, beautiful filmy fan-shaped crest, and the
reticulated instead of scutellated covering of their " tarsi."

A very distinct type of pigeon is that represented by Didun-
culus strigirostris, the " Manu-mea " of Samoa, still believed by
some to be the next of kin to the Dodo (q.v.), but really presenting
only a superficial resemblance in the shape of its bill to that
extinct form, from which it differs osteologically quite as
much as do other pigeons (Phil. Trans., 1869, p. 349). It
remains to be seen whether the Papuan genus Otidiphaps, of
which several species are now known, may not belong rather
to the Didunculidae than to the true Columbidae.

Pigeons are now regarded as belonging to the Charadriiform
or plover-like birds (see Birds) and are placed in the sub-order

1 Voyages du Baron de la Hontan dans VAmerique septentrionale ,
i. 93, 94 (2nd ed., Amsterdam, 1705). In the first edition, published
at the Hague in 1703, the passage, less explicit in details but to
the same effect, is at p. 80. The author's letter, describing the cir-
cumstance, is dated May 1687.

2 There are several records of the occurrence in Britain of this
pigeon, but in most cases the birds noticed cannot be supposed to
have found their own way hither. One, which was shot in Fife in
1825, may, however, have crossed the Atlantic unassisted by man.

Columbae, near the sand-grouse (q.v.). They are divided into
three families, Dididae, which includes the Dodo (q.v.) and
Solitaire, the Columbidae, which includes the doves and pigeons,
and the Didunculidae, of which the curious tooth-billed pigeon,
of Samoa is the only example. The body is always compact,
and the bill has a soft skin or cere covering the nostrils. The
pigeons are chiefly vegetable feeders and have a hard gizzard,
and all drink much w r ater; they perch, and have a note of the
nature of a " coo." The nest is a rough platform or is in holes
on the ground or in rocks. The eggs are two or three and
white, and the young, which are helpless when hatched, are
fed by a secretion from the crop of the parents. (A. N.)

PIGEON-FLYING, the sport of racing homing-pigeons bred
and trained for the purpose. It is of very recent date, although
the use of birds as a means of carrying messages (see Pigeon
Post) is of great antiquity. Belgium may be considered as
par excellence the home of the sport, the first birds flown there
probably coming from Holland. Long-distance flying began
in 1818, with a match of 100 m., while in 1820 there was a
race from Paris to Liege, and three years later the first race
from London to Belgium. The sport is now a favourite one in
Great Britain, the United States, France, and, to a less degree,
in some other countries, although nowhere attaining the general
popularity which it enjoys in Belgium, where nearly every
village has its Societe colombophile, millions of pigeons being
sent over the French border to be raced back. The annual
Belgian concours national, a race of about 500 m. from Toulouse
to Brussels, was inaugurated in 1881, in which year the first
regular races in Great Britain, from Exeter, Plymouth and
Penzance to London, took place. The velocity attained at
that time was about 1250 yds. per minute, but this was soon
surpassed in the races of the London Columbarian Society, one
of the winners in which attained a speed of 1836 yds. per
minute.

The sport was introduced into the United States about the
year 1875, although regular racing did not begin until 1878.
Since then it has gained widespread popularity, the American
record for old birds at 300 m. being 1848 yds. per minute
and for young birds (yearlings) 1665 yds., while the distance
record is 1004 m. The American " blue ribbon " champion-
ships are held at 100, 200, 300, 400, 500 and 600 m. The
speed of homing-pigeons depends very greatly upon the state
of the atmosphere. In the race from Montargis to Brussels in
1876 in bright and clear weather, all the prize-winners made the
distance of 270 m. within three and one-quarter hours, while
in the same race in 1877, on a thick and stormy day, thirty hours
passed before the first bird arrived.

Training. — The loft should be on a commanding site. It is best
made in the shape of a large room, suitably subdivided, protected
from vermin, and provided with drinking troughs, rock salt and
crushed mortar for the birds' use. It should be fitted with a
sufficient number of nests about 2 ft. long, 20 in. in breadth and
height. Arrangements should be made for allowing the pigeons
to fly out daily for exercise; and they should be trained to re-enter
the loft through bolting wires, which open inwards only, into a
small chamber, to which an electric arrangement may be fitted. so
as to sound a bell and warn the owner of the arrival of a bird. The
food of birds in training consists of vetch, beans, maize, peas, broken
rice and millet, in various proportions, according to the country,
climate and season of the year, the daily allowance for each bird
being about 40 grammes weight. Young birds may be fed on rice
in the husk and bread. They are called " squealers " for a week or
two after birth, and then " squeakers " until about three months
old. Each brood consists of two eggs, on which, both parents sit
in turn, the cock only for a few hours in the middle of the day.
When the young are being brought up, only one of the parent, birds
is taken out at a time. One meal per day, given before the birds
are let out in the morning, is sufficient. Training should commence
in warm weather, when the bird is about four months old, and it
consists in taking it out in a closed wicker basket and liberating or
" tossing " it at gradually increasing distances from its loft, with
several days interval of rest between the flights. The usual pre-
liminary distances are I, 2, 5, ro and 15 or 20 m. These tosses
should all be made on the same line between the loft and, say,
some neighbouring city, in order that a bird may always have to
fly in the same general direction during the season. About 100 m.
may be expected of birds the first season; they reach their full
distances only about the fifth year. It is considered better to

PIGEON POST— PIGMENTS

597

train the young homers alone, so that they may become independent
of the older birds. When thoroughly trained they may be flown
over long distances about once a week. The Belgian fanciers
generally divide their birds into two classes, one for breeding and
the other for racing, though the latter are allowed to breed within
certain limits. Some fanciers always choose birds with chicks in
the nest for long journeys, claiming that they return faster with
this incentive. A seamless metal ring marked with the owner's
name is slipped over the foot of the pigeon when only a few days
old, and during its racing career the longer wing-feathers are stamped
with the bird's records. At the start of a race the competing birds
are tossed together by a starter who takes the time. Upon being
released the homer ascends rapidly in spirals until, apparently des-
crying some familiar landmark on the horizon, it will fly straight
and swiftly towards it. As the birds enter their home-lofts the
time is taken by the owner. A bird is not considered to have got
'' home " until it has actually passed through the door of its loft.

PIGEON POST. The use cf homing pigeons to carry messages
is as old as Solomon, and the ancient Greeks, to whom the art
of training the birds came probably from the Persians, conveyed
the names of Olympic victors to their various cities by this
means. Before the electric telegraph this method of communi-
cation had a considerable vogue amongst stockbrokers and
financiers. The Dutch government established a civil and
military pigeon system in Java and Sumatra early in the igth
century, the birds being obtained from Bagdad. Details of
the employment of pigeons during the siege of Paiis in 1870-71
will be found in the article Post and Postal Service: France.
This led to a revival in the training of pigeons for military
purposes. Numerous private societies were established for
keeping pigeons of this class in all important European countries;
and, in time, various governments established systems of com-
munication for military purposes by pigeon post. When the
possibility of using the birds between military fortresses had
been thoroughly tested attention was turned to their use for
naval purposes, to send messages between coast stations and
ships at sea. They are also found of great use by news agencies
and private individuals. Governments have in several countries
established lofts of their own. Laws have been passed making
the destruction of such pigeons a serious offence; premiums to
stimulate efficiency have been offered to private societies, and
rewards given for destruction of birds of prey. Pigeons have
been used by newspapers to report yacht races, and some yachts
have actually been fitted with lofts. It has also been found of
great importance to establish registration of all birds. In order
to hinder the efficiency of the systems of foreign countries,
difficulties have been placed in the way of the importation of
their birds for training, and in a few cases falcons have been
specially trained to interrupt the service in war-time, the
Germans having set the example by employing hawks against
the Paris pigeons in 1870-71. No satisfactory method of
protecting the weaker birds seems to have been evolved, though
the Chinese formerly provided their pigeons with whistles and
bells to scare away birds of prey.

In view of the development of wireless telegraphy the modern
tendency is to consider fortress warfare as the only sphere in
which homing pigeons can be expected to render really valuable
services. Consequently, the British Admiralty has discontinued
its pigeon service, which had attained a high standard of effici-
ency, and other powers will no doubt follow the example.
Nevertheless, large numbers of birds; are, and will presumably
continue to be, kept at the great inland fortresses of France,
Germany and Russia.

See L. du Puy de Podio, Die Brieftaube in der Kriegskunst (Leipzig,
1872); Brinckmeier, Anzucht, Pflege, und Dressur der Brieftauben
(Ilmenau, 1891).

PIGEON-SHOOTING, a form of sport consisting of shooting
at live pigeons released from traps. The number of traps,
which are six-sided boxes, falling flat open at the release of a
spring, is usually five; these are arranged 5 yds. apart on
the arc of a circle of which the shooter forms the centre. The
distance (maximum) is 31 yds., handicapping being deter-
mined by shortening the distance. The five traps are each
connected by wires with a case (" the puller "); a single string
pulled by a man stationed at the side of the shooter works an

arrangement of springs and cog-wheels in the " puller," and
lets fall one of the traps; it is impossible to know beforehand
which trap will be released. At a fixed distance from the centre
of the traps is a boundary within which the birds hit must fall
if they are to count to the shooter. This line varies in distance
in the various clubs; the National Gun Club boundary being
65 yds., that of the Monaco Club being only 20 yds. The
charge of shot allowed must not exceed ij oz. The best type
of pigeon is the blue rock. From the start of the Hurlingham
Club at Fulham in 1867 pigeon-shooting was a favourite sport
there; it was, however, stopped in 1906. The principal pigeon-
shooting centre in England is now at the National Gun Club
grounds at Hendon. The great international competitions and
sweepstakes take place at Monaco. An artificial bird of clay,
now more usually of a composition of pitch, is often substituted
for the live pigeon. These clay birds are also sprung from
traps. This sport originated in the United States, where, under
the name of " trap-shooting," or inanimate bird shooting, it is
extremely popular. At first the traps invented threw the birds
with too great regularity of curve; now the traps throw the
birds at different and unknown angles, and the skill required
is great. In clay-bird shooting the traps usually number
fifteen, and are out of sight of the shooter. The Inanimate
Bird Shooting Association in England was started in 1893.

PIGMENTS (Lat. pigmentum, from pingere, to paint). It is
convenient to distinguish between pigments and paints, the
latter being prepared from the former by the addition of a
vehicle or medium. Nor are pigments and dyes identical,
although there are cases in which the same colouring matter
which yields a dye or stain may give rise to a pigment. A
pigment is, in fact, a substance which is insoluble in the vehicle
with which it is mixed to make a paint,- while a dye is soluble.
Pigments exhibit various degrees of transparency and opacity,
and ought to possess such qualities as these: ease in working,
chemical indifference to each other and, generally, to the vehicles
employed, also stability under exposure to light and air. As a
rule, it is desirable that pigments should not be seriously affected
in hue by the vehicle; at all events, whatever change does occur
ought to admit of calculation. In the case of oil colours it
should be remembered that a thorough drying of the paint is
preferable to the formation of a surface-skin, and that a few
pigments, notably white lead, possess properties conducing
to this desirable result. It is scarcely necessary to add to
these general observations concerning pigments that their
artistic value depends primarily upon the nature and amount
of the optical sensation which they are competent to produce.

Although the number of available pigments is great, the
number of chemical elements which enter into their composition
is not large. Very many richly-coloured compounds _
cannot be employed because they lack the properties
of insolubility, inertness and stability. Pigments are drawn
from various sources. Some are natural, some artificial; some
are inorganic, some organic, some are elements, some mixtures,
some compounds. It is not unusual to arrange them into two
groups, substantive and adjective. Amongst the members of
the former group such a pigment as vermilion, where each
particle is homogeneous, may be cited as an example. Amongst
the adjective pigments rose-madder may be named, for each
particle consists of a colourless base on which a colouring matter
(alizarin) has been thrown. Most of the inorganic pigments,
whether natural or artificial, belong to the substantive group;
while there are many organic pigments, notably those of artificial
origin, which are of adjective character. The following table
presents a summary classification of pigments according to
their source or origin: —

Mineral pigments
Organic pigments

Natural ; as terre verte.

Artificial ; as aureolin.
( Animal ; as carmine.
\ Vegetable; as madder-lake.
( Artificial ; as alizarin-orange.

A variety of processes are in use in order to fit natural coloured
substances for employment as pigments. The first step is,

59 8

PIGMENTS

in many cases, to select, or " pick over," the raw material,
rejecting whatever impurities may weaken or injure the char-
acteristic hue of the product. It is occasionally
tion*™' necessary to treat the finely-ground substance with
water by the method of elutriation or washing-over;
the wash-waters will then deposit, on standing, various grades
of the coloured body required. With rare exceptions native
pigments need careful grinding, either by means of a muller on
a slab or by edge rollers, or horizontal mill-stones, or special
machines. The substance is usually ground in spirits of turpen-
tine, or alcohol, or water; oil-paints are of course finally ground
in a drying-oil, such as linseed oil or poppy oil; water-colours
require gum-water, or gum-water and glycerin if they are to be
" moist " paints. In the case of all pigments, whether mineral
or organic, whether natural or artificial, it is of the highest
importance to make sure that they are free from saline matters
soluble in water. Such salts are removed by thorough washing
with distilled water. A treatment of this kind is essential in
the case of a large number of pigments formed by chemical
reactions in the " wet way." Characteristic examples are
furnished by Prussian blue, viridian and lakes. Sometimes
it is necessary to remove dangerous impurities by solvents
other than water, such as carbon bisulphide, which is used to
extract free sulphur from cadmium yellow. Mention may here
be made of another kind of preparative treatment which is
adopted with some pigments: they are subjected to the action
of heat — moderate in some cases, strong in others. Thus, a few
substances, such as ivory black and yellow ochre, which in
ordinary circumstances contain much non-essential moisture,
before they are ground in oil may with advantage be gently
dried at a temperature not above that of boiling water. Again,
there are pigments, such as Prussian brown, light red and burnt
sienna, which owe their hues to a process of actual calcination,
the first of these being thus made from Prussian blue, the second
from yellow ochre, and the third from raw sienna. The pigments
known as burnt carmine and burnt madder are prepared at a
much lower temperature, and ought to be described as roasted
rather than as burnt.

The substitution of one pigment for another is rarely practised,
but it is not so unusual to find that a costly substance has
received an admixture of something cheaper, and
that an inferior grade of a genuine pigment has had
its hue exalted or enhanced by some unlawful or
dangerous addition. In fact, these two kinds of sophistication
are often associated. Thus vermilion is adulterated with red
lead, with red antimony sulphide, or with baryta white and lead
sulphate, and then the hue of the mixture is restored to the
proper pitch by the introduction of the powerful but fugitive
colouring matter eosin. Amongst other adulterations which
may be named here are the addition of chrome-yellow (lead
chromate) to yellow ochre, of green ultramarine to terre verte,
and of indigo to ivory black; this last mixture being a substitute
for vine-black, the natural blue-black. The detection of the
above-named sophistications is by no means difficult even in
the hands of persons unacquainted with chemical manipulation,
but it needs a trained analyst when quantitative results are
required. If we are dealing with an oil-colour, the first step
is to remove the oil by means of a solvent, such, for example,
as ether. The residual pigment is then allowed to dry, and the
dry powder submitted to the appropriate physical and chemical
tests. Thus a suspected vermilion, having been freed from oil,
is heated in a small hard glass bulb-tube: it should prove
practically volatile, leaving a mere trace of residue. In this
particular case the presence of a red hue in the ether-extract
affords evidence of adulteration with an organic colouring
matter, such as eosin. Then, again, we may detect the presence
in yellow ochre of lead chromate by pouring a little sulphuretted
hydrogen water and dilute hydrochloric acid upon one portion
of the dry pigment, and boiling another portion with dilute
sulphuric acid and some alcohol: in the former experiment
blackening will occur, in the latter the liquid part of the mixture
will acquire a greenish tint. So also green ultramarine may be

Adultera-
tion.

recognized in adulterated terre verte by the addition of dilute
hydrochloric acid, which destroys the colour of the adulterant
and causes an abundant evolution of the evil-smelling sulphur-
etted hydrogen. Moreover, nothing is easier than the recogni-
tion of indigo in vine or charcoal-black, for the dry powder,
heated in a glass tube, gives off purple vapours of indigo, which
condense in the cooler part of the tube into a blackish sublimate.

A word must be said here as to the adulteration of white
lead, and the examination of this most important pigment.
The best variety of white lead or flake white contains two
molecules of lead carbonate to one of lead hydrate, and is wholly
soluble in dilute nitric acid, while barium sulphate, its most
frequent adulterant, is wholly insoluble. China-clay and lead
sulphate will also remain undissolved; but whitening or chalk
cannot be detected in this way — indeed, the thorough examina-
tion of white lead, not only for sophistications but also for
correspondence with the best type in composition, cannot be
carried out save by a skilled chemist.

Pigments may be classified on two systems: (i) based on
the chemical composition; (2) based on the colour. On the
first system pigments fall into nine groups, seven
of which are fairly well defined, but the eighth and Won<
ninth have a somewhat miscellaneous character.
The groups of elements, oxides, sulphides, hydrates, carbon-
ates and silicates present this characteristic, namely, that each
member of any one group is without action upon the other
members of the group; any two or more may therefore be mixed
together without fear of mutual injury. The same statement
may be made with reference to the various inorganic salts of
Group VIII. and to the organic compounds of Group IX.,
although in this large final group there are two pigments con-
taining copper (verdigris and emerald green) which must be
regarded with suspicion. The inertness of the members of
the same group towards each other may be explained in the
majority of cases by the following consideration. An oxide
does not act upon an oxide, nor does a sulphide affect a sulphide,
because all the pigment oxides have taken up their full comple-
ment of oxygen, and can neither give nor lose this element to
similar oxides; so also with sulphur in the sulphides, A few
details regarding the several members of the nine groups are
now offered : —

Group I. Elements. — All the black pigments in ordinary use —
ivory black, lamp black, charcoal black, Indian ink, and graphite,
less correctly termed black-lead and plumbago — consist of or contain
carbon, an element not liable to change. The metallic pigments,
gold, silver, aluminium and platinum, belong here ; of these, silver
alone is easily susceptible of change, tarnishing by combination
with sulphur.

Group II. Oxides. — The oxides have generally been" formed
at a high temperature an3 are not easily amenable to physical or
chemical change; they are, moreover, not liable to affect other
pigments, being practically inert, red lead only being an exception.
The oxides include zinc white, green chromium oxide, burnt umber
(a mixture of iron and manganese oxide), cobalt green (CoO.raZnO),
cobalt blue (CoO,»Al 2 3 ), coeruleum (CoO.wSnOs), Venetian red,
light red, Indian red and burnt sienna (all chiefly composed of ferric
oxide), and red lead (PbsO^.

Group III. Sulphides. — Some of the members of this group are
liable to contain free sulphur, and some may give up this element
to the metallic bases of other pigments. Thus cadmium yellow
blackens emerald green, producing copper sulphide. Another
pigment of this group, vermilion, is prone to a molecular change
whereby the red form passes into the black variety. This change,
frequent in water-colour drawings, is scarcely observable in works
painted in oil. The sulphides comprise cadmium yellow (CdS),
king's yellow (As 2 S 2 ), realgar (As^), antimony red (Sb 2 S 3 ) and
vermilion (HgS). It is convenient to give places in the same group
to the various kinds of ultramarine, blue, green, red, violet and
native, for in all of them a part of the sulphur present occurs in the
form of a sulphide. It may be stated that the sulphides of _ arsenic
and antimony just named are dangerous and changeable pigments
not suited for artistic painting.

Group IV. Hydrates or Hydroxides. — Several native earths
belong here, notably yellow ochre, raw umber, raw sienna and
Cappagh brown. These substances owe their colours mainly to
hydrates and oxides of iron and of manganese, but the presence of
a colourless body such as white clay or barium sulphate is usual
with the paler pigments. A false yellow ochre from Cyprus is
really a basic ferric sulphate, and does not properly belong to this

PIGMENTS

599

group. Besides the yellow and brown pigments, there is a magnifi-
cent deep green pigment in this group, known as emerald oxide of
chromium or viridian. The blue copper preparation which goes
under the name of bleu lumiere and mountain blue, a very unstable
pigment, is also essentially a hydrate, though by no means pure.
It should be stated that all the earthy or native hydrates belonging
to this group contain water in two states, namely, hygroscopic or
loosely-attached and constitutional. Before grinding them in oil,
the reduction in the amount of the hygroscopic moisture by means
of a current of dry air or a gentle warmth often improves the hue
and working quality of these pigments.

Group V. Carbonates. — There is but one really important
member of this group, namely, the old and typical variety of white
lead (2PbC0 3 , PbH 2 2 ). Like green verditer (2CuCO a . CuH 2 2 ),
and blue verditer (CuCC>3. CUH2O2), it is a basic carbonate. Purified
chalk or whitening (CaC0 3 ) belongs here also.

Group VI. Silicates. — Terre verte, which is a natural green
ochre containing a silicate of iron, potassium and magnesium, and
one other silicate, smalt, an artificial glass containing a silicate of
cobalt and potassium, constitute this small group. However, some
of the ochreous earths contain silicates of iron, manganese and
aluminium, as well as hydrates of the two former 'metals, and so
have some claim to be ranked with the silicates.

Group VII. Chromates. — These salts are rich in oxygen. When
in contact with some of the more alterable organic pigments belong-
ing to Group IX. the chromates may lose oxygen, acquiring a
somewhat greenish or greyish hue, owing to the formation of the
lower or green oxide of chromium. The chromates cannot be
trusted as pigments. The yellow chromates, those of barium,
strontium, zinc and lead, are represented by the general formula
M"Cr04; chrome red is basic, and is PbjCrGv

Group VIII. Various Inorganic Salts. — This group is intended
to receive a number of pigments which are solitary, or almost
solitary, examples of various classes of salts. There is one cobalti-
nitrite, aureolin (K3Co(N0 2 )6, associated with one or more molecules
of water), called sometimes cobalt yellow; one antimonate, that
of lead, the true Naples yellow; one tungstate, that of chromium,
known as tungsten green; a metaphosphate of manganese, which
goes under the name of Niirnberg or manganese violet; and several
mixed cobalt compounds containing arsenates and phosphates of
that metal, and represented by cobalt violet and Thenard's blue.
Two sulphates also belong here, namely, baryta white (BaSCi)
and lead sulphate (PbSO,i) ; also Schweinfurt green, a basic copper
arsenite. It is obvious that of the members of so miscellaneous
a group of pigments no general characteristics can be predicated.
But it may be stated that the two sulphates, the tungstate and the
cobalt compounds are practically inert and unalterable, while the
copper arsenite and the lead antimonate are sensitive to the action
of sulphur and of sulphides. The cobaltinitrite, aureolin, cannot
be safely mixed with some of the organic pigments belonging to
the next and last group.

Group IX. Organic Compounds. — Most of the members of this
large and unwieldy group of pigments possess this character in
common, proneness to oxidation and consequent deterioration in
the presence of light, moisture and air. Such oxidation is acceler-
ated by the action of some highly oxidized pigments belonging to
other groups, such as the chromates of Group VII. and aureolin
of Group VIII., this action being particularly marked in the case
of the yellow lakes, the cochineal lakes and indigo. There are two
pigments consisting of copper salts in this group. They are verdigris
— both the blue-green and the green varieties being basic copper
acetates — and the pigment known in England as emerald-green,
which is a basic cupric aceto-arsenite. These copper pigments
present the usual sensitiveness to the attack of sulphur which dis-
tinguishes compounds of this metal, and cannot therefore be safely
mixed with the members of Group III., and more particularly with
the cadmium colours. About nine members of Group IX. may be
regarded as substantive pigments. These include Indian yellow
(mainly magnesium and calcium euxanthates), gamboge, sap green,
indigo. Prussian blue, bitumen or asphalt, bistre, sepia, and the
bituminous variety of Vandyck brown. The adjective pigments
include a great variety of lakes where different kinds of colouring
matters of more or less acid character have been thrown upon a
base, generally of colourless aluminium hydrate, aluminium phos-
phate, stannous hydrate, stannic oxide, bartya or lime; sometimes
coloured bases containing such metals as copper, chromium,
manganese or iron are introduced in small quantities. The colour-
ing matters used are both natural and artificial. Amongst the
former may be named Indian lake, from the resinous exudation
produced in certain trees by the attacks of Coccus lacca; carmine,
crimson and purple lake, from the colouring matter obtained from
the cochineal insect, Coccus cacti; rose-madder and the madder-
lakes, from the alizarin and allied bodies derived from the root of
the ordinary madder plant Rubia tinctorum; and yellow lakes, from
quercitron bark (Quercus tinctoria), and from Persian and Avignon
berries (species of Rhamnus or Buckthorn). The lakes derived
from alkanet root, archil, Brazil wood, and red sanders wood are
of very small interest and value. The same judgment may be
pronounced upon the large number of artificial lakes which owe
their colours to coal-tar derivatives, with the single exception of

the important class of pigments obtained from artificial alizarin,
and from its congeners and derivatives. Of these, alizarin (q.v.)
itself, in its purest state and associated with alumina and a little
lime, yields those pigments which possess a pink or rosy hue. When
purpurin and its isomers, anthrapurpurin and flavopurpurin, are
present, the red hue is more pronounced, and may even tend
towards a golden colour, or, when some copper or iron or manganese
is introduced, may become decidedly brown. Many of the alizarin
crimsons sold as paints are not made from alizarin itself, but from
the sulphonic acids of alizarin.. These lakes present a wide range
of hues. Another derivative of alizarin, known as /3-nitro-alizarin,
yields a rich orange lake, to which such names as pure orange,
orange madder and marigold have been applied.

Stability. — Some notion of the relative stability of pigments
will have been derived from the remarks already made under
" Classification." But as permanence is of no less importance
than chromatic quality in the case of pigments used in the fine
art of painting, to which the present article is mainly devoted,
further particulars concerning certain selected pigments may
profitably be given here. Beginning with white pigments, these
three may be named as useful: white lead, Freeman's white, zinc
white. As an oil-colour, white lead of the old type is generally
the best to use, but among water-colours its place must be
taken by zinc white in the condensed form known as Chinese
white. Zinc white, in spite of the qualities which recommend
its use in oil, namely, the fact of its being not only unaffected
by sulphur, but odourless and non-poisonous, lacks toughness
as an oil-paint, and has a tendency to scale. Freeman's white,
which consists essentially of lead sulphite, is the best substitute
for white lead yet devised. The small percentages of zinc white
and baryta white which it contains are not to be regarded as
adulterations, for they greatly increase its body, and though of
less specific gravity than lead sulphate, actually raise the weight
per cubic foot of the dry pigment. Out of a dozen or more
familiar yellow paints, a selection may be made of these six:
yellow ochre, raw sienna, mars orange, cadmium yellow, aureolin
and baryta yellow. Concerning two of these, cadmium yellow
and aureolin, the following observations may be set down.
Cadmium sulphide, CdS, exists in two forms, which in some
measure correspond to the two modifications of mercuric and
antimonious sulphides. One of these forms is yellow and the
other reddish orange. When sulphuretted hydrogen is sent
into a weak, cold, and neutral solution of cadmium salt, the
sulphide which separates is pale and yellow — the orange variety
is obtained from a strong, hot, and acid solution. The pale
variety is more prone to change than the darker one; but as oil
colours both forms are sufficiently stable for use, provided they
are pure. The value of aureolin as a pigment depends much
upon its mode of preparation. A new variety of bright yellow
hue was described by Adie and Wood in 1900, and is represented
by the formula K 2 NaCo(N02)6, H 2 0. Of red pigments, six claim
special mention. These are vermilion, light red, Venetian red,
Indian red, red ochre, and the red lakes derived from madder
or alizarin. Vermilion is stable in oils, but as water-colour
paint is prone to change, under exposure to strong light, into
the black modification of mercuric sulphide. The iron-reds
named above, whether natural or artificial, are quite permanent,
but so much cannot be said of the various madder-paints. They
are of far greater stability under exposure to light than any other
red organic pigments, and are absolutely necessary to the artist,
It must be noted that those madder and alizarin lakes which
contain an element of yellow and brown are less stable than
those of a crimson hue. Five green pigments may be recom-
mended, namely, viridian, or the emerald Oxide of chromium,
the ordinary green oxide, cobalt green, green ultramarine, and
terre verte. Except for minor decorative work, where perma-
nence is of secondary moment, one is obliged to exclude from the
palette emerald green, green verditer, verdigris, sap-green, and
the numerous preparations which owe their colour to mixtures
of Prussian blue and chrome yellow, and are sold under the names
of green vermilion, chrome green, Brunswick green, and so on.
All these pigments usually contain much barium sulphate.
Similarly, amongst blue pigments, ultramarine, cobalt blue
and coeruleum may be retained, while smalt, indigo and all

6oo

PIGOT— PIKE, Z. M.

copper blues should be rejected. Prussian blue, or the mixture
of this pigment with a white base which is usually called Antwerp
blue, can scarcely be spared, but care should be taken to choose
a sample containing no potassium compounds. Coeruleum,
which may be described as cobalt stannate presents the peculiar-
ity of appearing a greenish blue in artificial light, not a purplish
blue like that of ordinary cobalt blue. Cobalt violet is a sound
pigment, while manganese metaphosphate or Nurnberg violet
is said not to be safe in oil. Mars violet, an artificially prepared
ferric oxide, is dull in hue but permanent. Passing on to brown
pigments, it is matter for regret that there are no permanent
colours possessing the artistic capacities of asphalt, madder
brown, and the old bituminous Vandyke brown. Cappagh
brown, burnt sienna, and raw and burnt umber may be employed
safely. Little need be said as to the selection of black pigments,
for all are permanent. The soot from burning acetylene,
which has recently been introduced, forms a black pigment of
remarkable intensity.

Uses. — Hitherto pigments have been considered chiefly in
relation to the requirements of the painter of pictures. In
many merely decorative arts, such as the manufacture of wall-
papers and the painting of woodwork and of iron, the pigments
available are in one direction, that of cost, more restricted, but,
on the other hand, many alterable or weak pigments are com-
monly employed. In paints intended for the protection of
iron-work, the nature of the pigment introduced is a matter of
great moment, for red lead, zinc white and white lead are found
to exert a strong protective influence, which is not observed in
the case of the vast majority of pigments. There are a number
of other uses besides those just named for which special pigments,
or, more precisely, special paints, are employed. Amongst
such preparations may be named luminous paints, anti-fouling
paints, metallic paints, damp-proof paints, and asbestos and
other fire-proof paints.

Authorities. — -J. Bersch, Manufacture of Pigments, translated
from the 2nd German edition by A. C. Wright (London, 1900) ;
Cennino Cennini, The Booh of the Art, translated by Mrs
Herringham (London, 1899); Sir A. H. Church, Chemistry of Paints
and Painting (London, 1901); G. H. Hurst, Painters' Colours, Oils
and Varnishes (London, 1901); S. Mierzinski, Handbuch der
Farben-Fabrikation (Vienna, 1898); Riffault (and others), Fabricant
de couleurs (Paris, 1884). (A. H. C.)

PIGOT, GEORGE, Baron (1719-1777), English governor of
Madras, was born on the 4th of March 17 19 and entered the
service of the East India Company in 1736; after nineteen years
he became governor and commander-in-chief of Madras in 1755.
Having defended this place against the French in 1758-59 and
occupied Pondicherry on behalf of the company, he resigned his
office in November 1763 and returned to England, being made a
baronet in 1764. In the following year he obtained a seat in
parliament, and this'he retained until his death; in 1766 he was
created an Irish peer as Baron Pigot. Returning to India in
1775 to occupy his former position at Madras, Pigot was at once
involved in a fierce quarrel with the majority of his council,
which arose out of the proposed restoration of the rajah of
Tanjore. The governor was arrested by order of his opponents,
and was still a prisoner when he died on the nth of May 1777.
Meanwhile the conduct of Pigot was censured by the court of
directors in England and the order for his restoration was
followed immediately by another for his recall. This happened
about a month after his death, but before the news had reached
England. In 1779 the matter was discussed in parliament,
and four of those who were responsible for his arrest were tried
and were fined £1000 each. Pigot, who left several illegitimate
children, was never married, and his barony became extinct.

Two of the governor's brothers were men of repute. Sir Robert
Pigot (1 720-1 796), who succeeded to the baronetcy, commanded his
regiment (the 38th) at the battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill
during the War of American Independence. He became a lieutenant-
general in 1782. The other brother, Hugh Pigot (c. 1721-1792),
was a sailor. After some years of service he became an admiral
and commander-in-chief in the West Indies in 1782. One of his
sons was General Sir Henry Pigot (1750-1840), and another was
Hugh Pigot (1769-1797), a captain in the navy, who was murdered

during a mutiny in September 1797 while in command of the
" Hermione."

PIG-STICKING, or Hog-Hunting, the chase of the wild
boar, as a sport, on horseback with the spear. The chase on
foot was common among ancient peoples, and in central Europe
has lasted to the present day, although, on account of the
introduction of fire-arms, the spear has gradually become an
auxiliary weapon, used to give the coup de grace to a wounded
animal. The modern sport is the direct descendant of bear-
spearing which was popular in Bengal until the beginning of
the 19th century, when the bears had become so scarce that
wild pigs were substituted as the quarry. The weapon used
by the Bengalese was a short, heavy, broad-bladed javelin.
British officers introduced the spear or lance and this has become
the recognized method of hunting wild pigs in India. The
season for hunting in northern India, the present headquarters
of the sport, is from February to July. The best horses should
be quick and hot too big. Two kinds of weapon are used. The
long, or underhand, spear, weighing from two to three pounds,
has a light, tough bamboo shaft, from seven to eight feet long,
armed with a small steel head of varying shape. This spear is
held in the hand about two-thirds the distance from the point,
with the knuckles turned down and the thumb along the shaft.
The short, or jobbing, spear is from six to six and a half feet
long, and somewhat heavier than the longer weapon. It is
grasped near the butt, with the thumb up. Although easier
to handle in the jungle, it permits the nearer approach of the
boar and is therefore more dangerous to man and mount.

Having arrived at the bush-grown or marshland haunt of
the pigs, the quarry is " reared," i.e. chased out of its cover,
by a long line of beaters, usually under the command of a
mounted shikari. Sometimes dogs and guns loaded with small
shot are used to induce an animal to break cover. The mounted
sportsmen, placed on the edge of the cover, attack the pig as
soon as it appears, the honour of " first spear," or " spear of
honour," i.e. the thrust that first draws blood, being much
coveted. As a startled or angry wild boar is a fast runner and
a desperate fighter the pig-sticker must possess a good eye, a
steady hand, a firm seat, a cool head and a courageous heart.
For these reasons the military authorities encourage the sport,
which is for the most part carried on by the tent clubs of the
larger Indian stations.

The following technical terms are used. " Frank," a boar
enclosure. " Jhow," the tamarisk, a common cover for boars.
" Jink " (of the boar), to turn sharply to one side. " Nullah,"
a dry water-course. " To pig," to hunt, the boar. " Pug," the
boar's footprint. " Pugging," tracking the boar. " Ride to hog,"
to hunt the boar. " Rootings," marks of the pig's snout in the
ground. " Sanglier " (or " singular "), a boar that has separated
from the " sounder." " Sounder," a family of wild swine.
" Squeaker," a pig under three years. " Tusker," a full-grown
boar.

See Pig-Sticking or Hog-Hunting, by R. S. S. Baden-Powell
(London, 1889).

PIKE, ZEBULON MONTGOMERY (1779-1813), American
explorer and soldier, was born in Lamberton (now a part of
Trenton), New Jersey, on the 5th of January 1779, son of
Zebulon Pike (1751-1834), an officer in the American army.
He entered his father's company as a cadet about 1794, and
became an ensign (or second lieutenant) in 1799 and first lieu-
tenant in the same year. On the 9th cf August 1805 he started
with twenty men from St Louis to explore the head-waters of
the Mississippi. At Prairie du Chien he met some Chippewa
chiefs and induced them to expel the whisky-traders among
them and to make peace with the Sioux; at the Falls of St
Anthony (Sept. 23) he bought a tract 9 m. square at the mouth
of the St Croix for a fort; and at Little Falls (in the middle of
October) he built a stockade, where he left seven men. He
reached Leech Lake ("Lake La Sang Sue"), which he called
" the main source of the Mississippi," on the 1st of February
1806; went 30 m. farther to Cass Lake (" Red Cedar "); and,
after working against British influences among the Indians,
turned back, and went down the Mississippi from Dean Creek
to St Louis, arriving on the 30th of April. In 1806 he was

PIKE

601

ordered to restore to their homes 50 Osages, redeemed by the
United States government from Potawatami, and to explore
the country. He started on the 15th of July; and went north
along the Missouri and the Osage into the present state of
Kansas and probably to the Republican river in the south of
the present Nebraska, where on the 29th of September he held a
grand council of the Pawnees. Then (early in October), turning
nearly south, he marched to the Arkansas river, which he reached
on the 14th of October, and up which (after the 28th with only
16 men) he went to the Royal Gorge (Dec. 7), having first
seen the mountain called in his honour Pike's Peak on the
23rd of November; and then went north-west, probably up Oil
Creek from Canon City. In searching for the Red river he came
to the South Platte, marched through South Park, left it by Trout
Creek pass, struck over to the Arkansas, which he thought was
the Red River for which he was searching, and, going south and
south-we,st, came to the Rio Grande del Norte (about where
Alamosa, Conejos county, Colorado, is now) on the 30th of
January 1807. There on the 26th of February he and a small
number of his men were taken prisoners by Spanish authorities,
who sent him first to Santa Fe, then to Chihuahua to General
Salcedo, and by a roundabout way to the American frontier,
where he was released on the 1st of July 1807. He was promoted
captain (August 1806), major (May 1808), lieutenant-colonel
(Dec. 1809) and colonel (July 1812). In 1808 he tried in vain to
get an appropriation from Congress for himself and his men. He
was military agent in New Orleans in 1809-1810, was deputy
quartermaster-general in April-July 181 2, and was in active
service in the War of 181 2 as adjutant and inspector-general in
the campaign against York (now Toronto), Canada, and in the
attack on York on the 27th of April 1813 was in immediate
command of the troops in action and was killed by a piece of
rock which fell on him when the British garrison in its retreat
set fire to the magazine.

His Account of an Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi and
through the Western Parts of Louisiana . . . and a Tour through
the Interior Parts of New Spain was published at Philadelphia
in 1810; was reprinted and rearranged in London in 181 1 ; and was
published in a French version in Paris in 1812, and a Dutch version
at Amsterdam in 1812-1813. The standard edition with memoir
and notes by Elliott Coues was published in three volumes in New
York in 1895. Some of Pike's papers taken from him in Mexico
are now in the Mexican archives (Seccion de Asuntos Inter-
nacionales caxa 181 7-1 824), and the more important were pub-
lished by H. E. Bolton in the American Historical Review,
(1907-1908), xiii. 798-827. See the sketch by Henry Whiting in
vol. v., series 2, of Jared Sparks's Library of American Biography.

PIKE, fresh-water fishes generally distributed over the rivers
and lakes of Europe, northern Asia, and North America, and
forming a small family (Esocidae) of soft-rayed fishes. They are
readily recognized by their elongate compressed body covered

European Pike (Esox lucius).
with small scales, a long head, long and spatulate snout, and very
large mouth armed with strong and long teeth in the jaws and
broad bands of smaller teeth on the palate and tongue. The
teeth point backwards or can be depressed so as to offer no
obstruction to any object entering the gape, but prevent its
withdrawal in the opposite direction. The dorsal and anal
fins are placed far back on the tail, thus greatly increasing the
propelling power of the fish, and, although pike are bad swim-
mers and lead rather a sedentary than a roving life, they are
excelled by no other fresh-water fish in rapidity of motion when,

by a single stroke of the tail, they dash upon their prey or dart
out of reach of danger. In the Old World one species only is
known (Esox lucius), which prefers lakes and sluggish reaches
of rivers to strong currents or agitated waters. Its eastward
range in northern Asia is not known; it extends into Lapland in
the north and into central Italy and the vicinity of Constanti-
nople in the south, but is absent in the Iberian Peninsula. The
European species occurs also in North America, and is common
in the eastern United States southwards to northern Ohio. But
North America is tenanted by other species of pike besides, of
which the largest is the muskelunge or maskinonge of the Great
Lakes (Esox nobilior); it commonly attains to the large size which
is exceptionally recorded of Esox lucius. The other American
pike are of smaller size, and generally named " pickerel "; but
opinions as to the distinction of the species differ widely among
American ichthyologists. The European pike, like its brethren,
is the most voracious of fresh-water fishes; it probably exceeds
the shark, to which it has been compared by many writers, in
the relative quantity of food it consumes. Large specimens
will seize rats or water-voles, and are said to attack even foxes
and small dogs. Individuals of from 40 lb to 50 lb are
not scarce, but captures of much larger ones are on record.
Pike are wholesome food, and much esteemed in inland countries
— the smaller (of 20 to 24 in. in length) being preferred to
the larger individuals. They are prolific, and not easily exter-
minated in a water in which they have been once allowed to
spawn. According to season and climate they spawn in April
or May, and sometimes as early as February.

PIKE, a word which, with its collateral forms " pick " and
" peak," has as its basic meaning that of anything pointed or
tapering to a point. The ultimate etymology is much disputed,
and the interrelation of the collaterals is very confused. In
Old English there are two forms (pic), one with a long and the
other with a short vowel, which give " pike " and " pick "
respectively. The first form gave in the 15th century the
variant " peak," first with reference to the peaked shoes then
fashionable, pekyd schone. In Romanic languages are found
Fr. pic, Span, pico, Ital. piccare, to pierce, &c. There are also
similar words in Welsh, Cornish and Breton. The Scandinavian
forms, e.g. Swed. and Nor. plk, are probably taken from English.
While some authorities take the Celtic as the original, others
look to Latin for the source. Here the woodpecker, picus, is
referred to, or more probably the root seen in spica, ear of corn,
and spina, prickle (English spike, spine). The current differen-
tiation in meanings attached to pike, pick and peak are more or
less clearly marked, though in dialects they may vary. (1) Pike:
Apart from the use as the name of the fish (see above),
probably a shortened form of pike-fish, from its sharp, pointed
beak, the common uses of the word are for a long hafted weapon
with sharply pointed head of iron or steel, the common weapon
of the foot-soldier till the introduction of the bayonet (see Spear
and Bayonet), and for a hill with a pointed summit, appearing
chiefly in the names of such hills in Cumberland, Westmorland
and North West Lancashire. It may be noticed that the
proverbial expression " plain as a pike-staff " appears originally
as " plain as a pack-staff," the flat plain sided staff on which a
pedlar carried and rested his pack. The use of " pike " for a
highway, a toll-gate, &c, is merely short for " turnpike." (2)
Pick : As a substantive this form is chiefly used of the common
tool of the navvy and the miner, consisting of a curved double-
ended head set at right angles to the handle, one end being
squared with a chisel edge, the other pointed, and used for
loosening and breaking hard masses of earth, coal, &c. (see
Tools). The other name for this tool, " pickaxe," is a corrup-
tion of the earlier pikoys, Fr. picois, M. Lat. picosium, formed
from Fr. pic, the termination being adapted to the familiar
English " axe." The sense-development of the verb " to pick "
is not very clear, but the following meanings give the probable
line: to dig into anything like a bird with its beak, in order to
extract or remove something, to gather, pluck, hence to select,
choose. (3) Peak: The chief uses are for the front of a cap
or hat projecting sharply over the eyes, for the part of a ship's

602

PIKE-PERCH— PILATE

hold where it narrows towards the bows, the fore-peak, or
towards the stern, the after-peak, for the top corner of a sail
extended by a gaff, or for the projecting end of the gaff itself,
and for a pointed or conical top of a hill or mountain. The
name of the high table-land district in Derbyshire is not to be
connected with this word, but probably retains the name of an
old English demon, Peac (see Peak, The).

PIKE-PERCH (Lucioperca), fresh- water fishes closely allied
to the perch, but with strong canine teeth standing between
the smaller teeth of the jaws and palate. They resemble the pike
in their elongate body and head, and they are also most danger-
ous enemies to other fresh-water fishes, though they compensate
for their destructiveness by the excellent flavour of their flesh.
In Europe two species occur, the more celebrated being the
" Zander " of North Germany or " Schiel " of the Danube
(Lucioperca sandra); strange to say, it is absent in the system
of the Rhine. It prefers the quiet waters of large rivers
and clear deep lakes, in which it reaches a weight of 25 lb
or 30 lb. The second (Lucioperca wolgensis) is limited to rivers
in southern Russia and Hungary. In North America several
pike-perches have been described, but in the most recent works
only two are distinguished, viz. Lucioperca americana, which
grows to a weight of 20 lb, and the much smaller Lucioperca
canadensis; both are abundant in the Canadian lakes and
upper Mississippi, and the latter also in the Ohio.

PIKE'S PEAK, a famous peak of the Rampart range of the
Rocky Mountains in El Paso county, Colorado, U.S.A., about
6 m. W. of Colorado Springs. Though surpassed in altitude
(14,108 ft.) by many summits in the state, no other is so well
known. The commanding appearance of the peak is very
fine. To the south are Cameron Cone (10,685 ft.), Mt Sachett,
Mt Bald (13,974), Mt Rosa (11,427), and Mt Cheyenne (9407).
From the summit the magnificent Sangre de Cristo range is in
the foreground, while on a clear day not only its southernmost
summit, Blanca Peak (14,390 ft.) is visible, but also the Spanish
Peaks (12,708 and 13,623 ft.) 100 m. to the south, and Long's
Peak 100 m. to the north, and between them Mt Lincoln, Gray's
Peak and other giants. At the base of the mountain are
Manitou and Colorado Springs, whence tourists can make the
ascent of the peak (in summer safe and relatively simple) on
horseback or by a cog-railway, 8-75 m. long (opened in 1891),
which makes a total ascent of 8100 ft. (maximum gradient
1 in 4) to the summit. In 1905 a powerful searchlight was
erected on the summit.

Pike's Peak was discovered in November 1806 by Lieut.
Zebulc M. Pike. He attempted to scale it, but took the wrong
path and found himself at the summit of Cheyenne Mountain.
He pronounced the mountain unclimbable. In 1819 it was
successfully climbed by the exploring party of Major S. H.
Long.

PILASTER (Fr. pilastre, med. Lat. pilaslrum, from pila, a
pillar), in architecture, an engaged pier projecting slightly from
the wall, and employed to divide up and decorate a wall surface
or to serve as respond to a column. One of the earliest examples
(c. 100 B.C.) exists in the propylaea at Priene in Asia Minor,
where it tapers towards the top. Pilasters have bases
and capitals and are frequently fluted like columns. The
Romans would seem to have preferred semi-detached columns,
but for their amphitheatres sometimes pilasters are employed,
as in the upper story of the Colosseum. In the revival of
Classic architecture, and especially in Italy, architects seem
to have considered that no building was complete without a
network of pilasters on every storey, and France and England
followed their example; and not only externally but inside the
great cathedrals and churches the pilaster is adopted as the
simplest and best way of dividing the bays.

PILATE, PONTIUS, the Roman governor of Judaea under
whom Jesus Christ suffered crucifixion. Of equestrian rank,
his name Pontius suggests a Samnite origin, and his cognomen
in the gospels, pileatus (if derived from the pileus or cap of
liberty), descent from a freedman. In any case he came in
a.d. 26 from the household of Tiberius, through the influence

of Sejanus, to be procurator over part of the imperial province
of Syria, viz. Judaea, Samaria and Idumea. He ruled ten years,
quarrelled almost continuously with the Jews — whom Sejanus,
diverging from the Caesar tradition, is said to have disliked —
and in a.d. 36 was recalled. Before he arrived Tiberius died, and
Pilate disappears from history. Eusebius relates (Hist. eccl.
ii. 7) — but three centuries later and on the authority of earlier
writers unnamed — that he was exiled to Gaul and committed
suicide at Vienne.

Pilate kept the Roman peace in Palestine but with little
understanding of the people. Sometimes he had to yield; as
when he had sent the standards, by night, into the Holy City,
and was besieged for five days by suppliants who had rushed to
Caesarea (Jos. Ant. 31; B. J. ii. ix. 2, 3); and again when
he hung up inscribed shields in Jerusalem, and was ordered by
Tiberius to remove them to the other city (Philo ad Gaium 38).
Sometimes he struck more promptly; as when the mob protested
against his using the temple treasure to build an aqueduct
for Jerusalem, and he disguised his soldiers to disperse them
with clubs (Jos. Ant. xviii. 3, 2); or when he "mingled the
blood " of some unknown Galileans " with their sacrifices "
(Luke xiii. 1); or slew the Samaritans who came to Mt
Gerizim to dig up sacred vessels hidden by Moses there (Jos.
Ant. xviii. 4, 1) — an incident which led to his recall. Philo,
who tells how any suggestion of appeal by the Jews to Tiberius
enraged him, sums up their view of Pilate in Agrippa's words,
as a man " inflexible, merciless, obstinate."

A more discriminating light is thrown upon him by the New
Testament narratives of the trial of Jesus. They illustrate
the right of review or recognitio which the Romans retained,
at least in capital causes; the charge brought in this case of
acting adversus majestatem populi romani; the claim made by
Jesus to be a king; and the result that his judge became
convinced that the claimant was opposed neither to the public
peace nor to the civil supremacy of Rome. The result is
explained only by the dialogue, recorded exclusively in John,
which shows the accused and the Roman meeting on the highest
levels of the thought and conscience of the time. " I am come
to bear witness unto the truth . . . Pilate answered, What
is truth?" Estimates of Pilate's attitude at this point have
varied infinitely, from Tertullian's, that he was " already in
conviction a Christian " — -jam pro sua conscientia Christianus —
to Bacon's " jesting Pilate," who would not stay for a reply.
We know only that to his persistent attempts thereafter to get
his proposed verdict accepted by the people, came their fatal
answer, " Thou art not Caesar's friend," and that at last he
unwillingly ascended the bema (in this case a portable judgment-
seat, brought for the day outside the Praetorium), and in such
words as Ibis ad crucem " delivered Him to be crucified."

Pilate's place in the Christian tragedy, and perhaps also in
the Creed, stimulated legend about him in two directions, equally
unhistorical. The Gospel of Nicodemus, written by a Christian
(possibly as early, Tischendorf thought, as the middle of the
2nd century), repeats the trial in a dull and diluted way; but
adds not only alleged evidence of the Resurrection, but the
splendid vision of the descensus ad inferos — the whole professing
to be recorded in the Acta Pilati or official records of the governor.
The Epistola Pilati gives Pilate's supposed account to Tiberius
of the Resurrection; and the Paradosis Pilati relates how
Tiberius condemned him and his wife Procla or Procula, both
Christian converts. All this culminates in Pilate being canon-
ized in the Abyssinian Church (June 25), and his wife in the
Greek (Oct. 27). On the other hand the Mors Pilati tells how
when condemned by the emperor he committed suicide; and
his body, thrown first into the Tiber and then the Rhone,
disturbed both waters, and was driven north into " Losania,"
where it was plunged in the gulf near Lucerne and below Mt
Pilatus (originally no" doubt Pileatus or cloud-capped), from
whence it is raised every Good Friday to sit and wash unavailing
hands.

Bibliography. — For legends see Tischendorf's Evangelia apoc-
rypha (1863) and Apocryphal Gospels, Ante-Nicene Lib. (1880).

PILATUS— PILGRIM

603

The earlier Pilate literature, to the extent of no treatises, chiefly
of the 17th and 1 8th centuries, is enumerated in G. A. Muller s
Pontius Pilatus der funfte Prokurator von Judaa (Stuttgart, 1888).
See in loco in the following English or translated histories of the
life or time of Jesus, Theodor Keim, E. Schiirer, A. Edersheim,
J. P. Lange, Bernhard Weiss and F. W. Farrar ; Expositor (1884)
p. 107 and (1900) p. 59; also H. Peter," Pontius Piiatus, der romische
Landpfleger in Judaa," in Neue Jahrb. f. d. kl Altertum (1907).
Sir James Fitzjames Stephen, in his Liberty, Equality and Fraternity
(!873), p. 87, starts the question, " Was Pilate right in crucifying
Christ:" his somewhat paradoxical answer is criticised in The Trial
of Jesus Christ, a legal monograph, by A. Taylor Innes (1899).

(A. T. I.)

PILATUS, LEO, or Leontius [Leonzio Pilato] (d. 1366),
one of the earliest promoters of Greek studies in -western
Europe, was a native of Thessalonica. According to Petrarch, he
was a Calabrian, who posed as a Greek in Italy and as an Italian
abroad. In 1360 he went to Florence at the invitation of
Boccaccio, by whose influence he was appointed to a lectureship
in Greek at the Studio, the first appointment of the kind in the
west. After three years he accompanied Boccaccio to Venice
on a visit to Petrarch, whom he had already met at Padua.
Petrarch, disgusted with his manners and habits, despatched
him to Constantinople to purchase MSS. of classical authors.
Pilatus soon tired of his mission and, although Petrarch refused
to receive him again, set sail for Venice. Just outside the
Adriatic Gulf he was struck dead by ' lightning. His chief
importance lies in his connexion with Petrarch and Boccaccio.
He made a bald and almost word for word translation of Homer
into Latin prose for Boccaccio, subsequently sent to Petrarch,
who owed his introduction to the poet to Pilatus and was anxious
to obtain a complete translation. Pilatus also furnished
Boccaccio with the material for his genealogy of the gods,
in which he made an ostentatious display of Greek learning.

See Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. 66 ; G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung
des classischen Alterthums (1893); H. Hody, De Graecis illustribus
(1742); G. Tiraboschi, Storia delta letteratura italiana, v. 691.

PILAU, a favourite Eastern dish, consisting essentially of
rice, boiled with mutton or other meat, fowl or fish, and flavoured
with spices, raisins, &c. The word appears in Persian, Turkish
and Urdu, and has been adopted in European languages. The
form pilaff, showing the Turkish pronunciation, is also common.

PILCHARD (in earlier 16th century forms pylcher, pilchar;

of unknown origin; the Fr. piiseir is adapted from Eng.), Clupea

pilchardus, a fish of the herring family (Clupeidae), abundant

in the Mediterranean and on the Atlantic coasts of Europe,

north to the English Channel. Sardine is another name for the

same fish, which on the coast of Britanny and Normandy is also

called cclan or celeren. It is readily distinguished from the

other European species of Clupea. The operculum is sculptured

with ridges radiating and descending towards the suboperculum;

the scales are large, about thirty along the lateral line, deciduous;

the ventral fins are inserted below, or nearly below, the middle

of the base of the dorsal fin; the dorsal fin has seventeen or

eighteen, the anal from nineteen to twenty-one rays. A small

blackish spot in the scapulary region is very constant, and

sometimes succeeded by other similar marks. There are no

teeth on the palate; pyloric appendages exist in great numbers;

the vertebrae number fifty-three. The pilchard is one of the

most important fishes of the English Channel. It spawns at

a distance from the shore, and its eggs are buoyant, like those

of many other marine fishes and unlike those of the herring,

which are adhesive and demersal, i.e. develop under water.

The egg of the pilchard is very easily distinguished from other

pelagic eggs by the unusually large space separating the vitelline

membrane from the contained ovum. Spawning takes place

in summer, the season extending from June to October. When

commencing their migrations towards the land the shoals

consist of countless numbers, but they break up into smaller

companies near the shore. Pilchards feed on minute crustaceans

and other pelagic animals and require two or three years before

they attain their full size, which is about 10 in. in length.

The sardines of the west coast of France, which are tinned in oil

for export, are immature fish of the same stock as those taken

on the coasts of Cornwall; they are 5 to i\ in. in length, and
though such fish occur also on the Cornish coast it is only in
small numbers and for brief periods. In the Mediterranean
the sardine does not exceed 7J in. in length when mature.
On the Pacific coast of America, in New Zealand and in Japan
a pilchard occurs {Clupea sagax) which in its characters and habits
is so similar to the European pilchard that its general utilization
is deserving of attention. Immense shoals are reported to visit
the east coast of Otago every year in February and March,
Clupea scombrina is the " oil sardine " of the east coast of India.

(J. T. C.)
PILE, an homonymous word, of which the main branches
are (1) a heap, through Fr. from pila, pillar; (2) a heavy beam
used in making foundations, literally a pointed stake, an adapta-
tion of Lat. pllum, javelin; (3) the nap on cloth, Lat. pilus,
hair. In the first branch the Lat. pila (for pigla, from root of
pangere, to fasten) meant also a pier or mole of stone, hence any
mass of masonry, as in Fr. pile. In English usage the word
chiefly means a " heap " or " mass " of objects laid one on the
top of the other, such as the heap of faggots or other combustible
material on which a dead body is cremated, " funeral pile,"
or on which a living person is burnt as a punishment. It also is
applied to a large and lofty building, and specifically, to a stand
of arms, " piled " in military fashion, and to the series of plates,
"galvanic" or " voltaic piles," in an electric battery. The
modern " head and tail " of a coin was formerly " cross and pile,"
Fr. croix et pile, in modern Fr. face et pile. In the older apparatus
for minting the die for the reverse was placed on a small upright
pillar, pile, the other on a puncheon known as a " trussell "
(Fr. trousseau). The common name of the disease of haemor-
rhoids (<?.».) or " piles " is probably an extension of this word,
in the sense of mass, swelling, but may be referred to the Lat.
pila, ball. The name of the pilum, or heavy javelin (lit.
pounder, pestle, from pinsere, pisere, to beat), the chief weapon
of the ancient Roman infantry, was adopted into many Teutonic
languages in the sense of dart or arrow, cf . Germ. Pfeil; in English
it was chiefly used of a heavy stake with one end sharpened,
and driven into swampy ground or in the bed of a river to form
the first foundations for a building; the primitive lake-dwellings
built on " piles " are also known as " pile-dwellings." For the
use of piles in building see Foundations and Bridges. In
heraldry a charge represented by two lines meeting in the form
of an arrow head is known as a " pile," a direct adaptation pro-
bably of the Lat. pilum. The division of this intricate word,
followed here, is that adopted by the New English Dictionary;
other etymologists {e.g. Skeat, Etym. Diet., 1898) arrange the
words and their Latin originals somewhat differently.

PILGRIM, a wanderer, traveller, particularly to a holy place
(see Pilgrimage). The earliest English forms are pileg/im or
pelegrim, through Fr. pelerin (the original O. Fr. pelegrin is
not found), from Lat. peregrinus, a stranger, foreigner, particu-
larly a resident alien in Rome (see Praetor, and Roman Law).
The Lat. pereger, from which peregrinus is formed, meant " from
abroad," " travelled through many lands " {per, through,
and ager, country).

It was customary for pilgrims to bring back as proof of their
pilgrimage to a particular shrine or holy place a badge, usually
made of lead or pewter, bearing some figure or device identifying
it with the name or place. These " pilgrim signs " are frequently
alluded to in literature — notably in the Canterbury Tales and in
Piers Plowman. The British Museum and the Musee Cluny in
Paris have fine collections of them, mainly dredged from the
Thames and the Seine. The badges were generally worn
fastened to the pilgrim's hat or cape. Among the best known
are those of the cockle or scallop shell of St. James of Compostella
in Spain; the " vernicle," a representation of the miraculous
head of Christ; the vera icon, true image, on St Veronica's
handkerchief, at Rome, or of the Abgar portrait at Genoa, of
" a vernicle hadde he sowed on his cappe " {Cant. Tales, " Prol."
685); the Amiens badge of the head of John the Baptist on the
charger, the cathedral claiming the custody of the relic from
1206 (fig. 1); and the palm branches or cross of palm leaf, the

604

PILGRIMAGE

badge of the " Palmers " pilgrimage to the Holy Land. The
most common of the English pilgrims' signs are those of the
shrine of Thomas Becket at Canterbury, the greatest centre
of pilgrimage in England. These take a variety of forms,

(From Andrews' Church Treasury.) (From Andrews' Church Treasury.)

Fig. I — Pilgrim's Sign, from Fig. 2. — Pilgrim's Sign, from

the cathedral at Amiens. Canterbury.

sometimes a simple T, sometimes a bell marked campana Thome,
the Canterbury bell, most often a figure of the saint, sometimes
seated, sometimes riding on a horse, and carrying his episcopal
cross, and with hand uplifted in benediction (fig. 2). Some-
times the badges took the shape of small ampullae, or vases,
as in the case of the badges of the shrine of Our Lady of
Walsingham, which were marked with a W and crown.

See W. Andrews, Church Treasury (1898), article " Pilgrims'
Signs," by Rev. G. S. Tyack; and Guide to Medieval Room, British
Museum, p. 69.

The English " Pilgrims' Way." — From Winchester, in Hamp-
shire, to Canterbury, in Kent, runs a road or way which can
still be traced, now on the present made roads, now as a lane,
bridle path, or cart track, now only by a line of ancient yews,
hollies or oaks which once bordered it. To this old track the
name of " pilgrims' way " has been given, for along it passed
the stream of pilgrims coming through Winchester from the south
and west of England and from the continent of Europe by way of
Southampton to Canterbury Cathedral to view the place of the
martyrdom of Thomas Becket, in the north transept, to the relics
in the crypt where he was first buried after his murder, in 1170,
and the shrine in the Trinity Chapel which rose above his tomb
after the translation of the body in 1220. There were two
festivals for the pilgrimage, on the 29th of December, the day
of the martyrdom, and on the 7th of July, the day of the transla-
tion. The summer pilgrimage naturally became the most
popular. In 1538 the shrine was destroyed and the relics of
the saint scattered, but the great days of the pilgrimage had
then passed. Erasmus gives a vivid picture of the glories of
the shrine and of all that was shown to the pilgrims on his visit
with Colet to Canterbury in 1514.

The principal villages, towns and places near or through which
the way passed are as follow: Winchester, Alresvord, Ropley,
Alton, Farnham (here the way follows the present main road),
Seale, Puttenham, by the ruined chapel of St Catherine, outside
Guildford, near where the road crosses the Wey above Shalford, 1
and by the chapel of St Martha, properly of " the martyr," now
restored and used as a church, Albury, Shere, Gomshall, Dorking
(near here the Mole is crossed), along the southern slope of Boxhill
to Reigate, then through Gatton Park, Merstham, Otford,
Wrotham, after which the Medway was crossed, Burham, past
the megalithic monument Kit's Coty House, and the site of
Boxley Abbey, the oldest after Waverley Abbey of Cistercian
houses in England, and famous for its miraculous image of the
infant saint Rumbold, and the still more famous winking rood
or crucifix. The road passes next by Hollingbourne, Lenham
and Charing. At Otford, Wrotham and Charing were manor-
houses or rather palaces of the archbishops of Canterbury; at
Hollingbourne was a manor of the priors of Christchurch. After

1 Shalford Fair, the chapels on the two hills and the Surrey hills
are probably the scene of Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, see E.
Renouard James, Notes on the Pilgrim's Way in West Surrey (1871).

Hollingbourne come Westwell, Eastwell, Boughton Aluph,
Godmersham, Chilham Castle, and then at Harbledown, where
are the remains of the Hospice of St Nicholas, the road joins
Watling Street, by which came the main stream of pilgrims
from London, the North and the Midlands.

This road, although its name of the Pilgrims' Way has for
long confined it to the road by which the pilgrims came to
Canterbury from Winchester, follows a far older track. Right
back into British and even older times the main direction which
commerce and travellers followed across southern and western
England to the Straits of Dover and the Continent lay from
Canterbury along the southern chalk slope of the North Downs
to near Guildford, then by the Hog's Back to Farnham. At
this point the oldest track went across Salisbury Plain towards
Stonehenge and so on to Cornwall. From Farnham westward
the only portion of this the oldest track that can now be traced
is a small portion that still bears the name of the Harrow {i.e.
hoary, old) road. It was in early times abandoned for the
road from Winchester to which the stream of travel and com-
merce from the Continent and the south and south-west of
England was diverted.

The " pilgrims' way " has been traced fully in Mrs Ady's book
The Pilgrims' Way (1893), and the older track in the fullest detail
in Hilaire Belloc's The Old Road (1904).

The American " Pilgrim Fathers." — In American history the
name " Pilgrims " is applied to the earliest settlers of the colony
of Plymouth, Massachusetts, and more specifically to the first
company of emigrants, who sailed in the " Mayflower " in 1620.
They were from the beginning Separatists from the Church of
England; they had established Independent (Congregational)
churches at Scrooby and Gainsborough early in the 17th century,
and some of them had fled to Amsterdam in 1608 to avoid
persecution, and had removed to Leiden in the following year.
They sailed from Delftshaven late in July 1620, from Southamp-
ton on the 5th of August, from Plymouth on the 6th of
September, and late in December 1620 founded the colony of
Plymouth, Massachusetts. See Massachusetts; Plymouth,
and Mayflower.

PILGRIMAGE (Fr. pelerinage, Lat. peregrinatio) , a journey
undertaken, from religious motives, to some place reputed as
sacred. These journeys play an important role in most pre-
Christian and extra-Christian religions: in the Catholic Church
their acceptance dates from the 3rd and 4th centuries.

I. The Pilgrimage in pre-Christian and non-Christian Religions.
— To the Germanic religions the pilgrimage is unknown. On
the other hand, it is an indigenous element, not only in the
creeds of Asia, but in those of the ancient seats of civilization
on the Mediterranean. The fundamental conception is always
that the Deity resides — or exercises a peculiarly powerful
influence — in some definite locality; and to this locality the
devout repair, either in reverence of their god, or in quest of his
assistance and bounty. Thus, as the cult of a particular divinity
spreads farther and farther, so the circle expands from which are
drawn those who visit his sanctuary.

One of the oldest homes of the pilgrimage is India. There
the army of devotees tends more especially to the Ganges —
the hallowed river of Hindu belief. On the Ganges lies Benares,
the holy city of Brahminism: and to look on Benares, to visit
its temples, and to be washed clean in the purifying river, is the
yearning of every pious Indian. Even Buddhism — originally
destitute of ceremonial — has adopted the pilgrimage; and the
secondary tradition makes Buddha himself determine its goals:
the place where he was born, where he first preached, where
the highest insight dawned on him, and where he sank into
Nirvana. The four ancient sacred resorts are Kapilavastu,
Gaya, Benares and Kusinagara.

In Syria, the temple of Atargatis in Hierapolis was an im-
memorial resort of pilgrims. In Phoenicia, a similar significance
was enjoyed by the shrine of Astarte, on the richly-watered
source of the river Adonis, till, as late as the 4th century after
Christ, it was destroyed by Constantine the Great. In Egypt,
the great annual and monthly festivals of the indigenous gods

PILGRIMAGE

605

Origin.

gave rise to all manner of religious expeditions. Even among
the Israelites, the visitation of certain cult-centres prevailed
from remote antiquity; but, when the restriction of Yahweh-
worship to Jerusalem had doomed the old shrines, the Jewish
pilgrimages were directed solely to the sanctuary on Mt Moria.
Among the Greeks the habit was no less deeply rooted. Just
as the inhabitants of each town honoured their tutelar deity
by solemn processions to his temple, so, at the period of the
Olympic games, the temple of Zeus at Olympia formed the
goal of multitudes from every Hellenic country. No less power-
ful was the attraction exercised by the shrines of the oracular
divinities, though the influx of pilgrims was not limited to certain
days, but, year in and year out, a stream of private persons,
or embassies from the city-states, came flowing to the temple
of Zeus in Dodona or the shrine of Apollo at Delphi.

The unification of the peoples of antiquity in the Roman
Empire, and the resultant amalgam of religions, gave a powerful
impetus to the custom. For, as East and West still met at the
old sanctuaries of Greece, so — and yet more — Greece and Rome
repaired to the temples of the southern and eastern deities. In
the shrine of Isis at Philae, Europeans set up votive inscriptions
on behalf of their kindred far away at home, and it may be
surmised that even among the festival- crowds at Jerusalem a
few Greeks found place (John xii. 20).

The pilgrimage, however, attained its zenith under Islam.
For Mahomet proclaimed it the duty of every Mussulman, once
at least in his life, to visit Mecca; the result being that the birth-
place of the Prophet is now the religious centre of the whole
Mahommedan world (see Mahommedan Religion; Caravan;
Mecca).

II. The Pilgrimage under Christianity. — The pilgrimages
of Christianity presuppose the existence of those of paganism;
but it would be an error to maintain that the former
were a direct development of the latter. For primitive
Christianity was devoid of any point by which these journeys of
devotion might naturally have been suggested. It was a religion
without temples, without sanctuaries, and without ceremonial.
The saying of the Johannine Gospel — that God is to be adored
neither in Jerusalem nor on Gerizim" but that His true worshipper
must worship Him in spirit and in truth — is in complete harmony
with the old Christian piety. And, accordingly, in the ancient
Christian literature, we find no trace of a conception that the
believer should visit a definite place in order to pay homage to
his Master. The evolution of the Christian pilgrimage moved
on other lines.

Cicero finely observes that, in Athens, the glorious architecture
caused him less pleasure than did the thought of the great men
whose work was done in its midst — " how here one had lived,
and there fallen asleep; how here another had disputed, and
there lay buried " {De Legg. ii. 2). This feeling was not weakened
by the advent of Christianity, in fact, we may say that it was
appreciably strengthened. Cicero had already compared the
sites consecrated by the memory of some illustrious name with
those hallowed by recollections of a loved one. But with the
Christian, when his Redeemer was in question, both motives
coincided : for there the greatest was also the dearest.

In this devotion to the memory of Jesus, we find the key
to the origin of the Christian pilgrimage: the faithful repaired to
those places which were invested with memories of their Lord's
earthly life. And these journeys must certainly date from the
2nd century. For Origen (d. 254) mentions that in Bethlehem
the cave was shown where Christ was born, and in it the manger
in which Mary made the bed of her child. The site must have
been much visited long before this, since Origen remarks that
it was common knowledge, even among the infidels, that there
was the birthplace of that Jesus whom the Christians worshipped
(Contr. Cels. i. 51). But those who visited Bethlehem must
certainly have visited Jerusalem and the places there, so rich in
memorials of their Master. And the sympathy of Christendom
soon led them beyond this immediate circle. The anonymous
author of the Cohortatio ad Graecos, a work of the 2nd century,
visited the remnants of those cells, in which — so legend related —

the seventy interpreters laboured on their version of the Old
Testament: nor, when he came to Cumae in Campania, did he
fail to have shown him the old shrine of the Sibyl (Coh. ad Gr.
13 and 37). Soon we begin to hear the names of the pilgrims.
In the course of the 3rd century, as Jerome relates, Firmilian,
bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, travelled to Palestine to
view the sacred places (De Vir. ill. 54); while, according to
Eusebius, a second bishop from Cappadocia, Alexander by name,
visited Jerusalem in order to pray and acquaint himself with
the holy sites, and was there invited by the community to
remain with them and assume the episcopate of the aged
Narcissus [Hist. eccl. vi. n). With regard to his own times —
the early years of the 4th century — the same authority recounts
that believers kept streaming to Palestine from all regions,
there to offer their prayers at a cavern shown on the Mount
of Olives (Demonstr. evang. vi. 18).

This statement, that the Christians of the 3rd and 4th centuries
were in the habit of visiting Jerusalem for prayer, proves that
the non-Christian conception of the religious pilgrimage had
already entered the sphere of Christian thought. That men
travelled for purposes of prayer implies acceptance of the heathen
theory of sanctuaries which it is an act of piety to visit. We
may regret the fact, for it sullied the purity of primitive
Christian thought. Nevertheless, it is clear that the develop-
ment was inevitable. As soon as the non- Christian ideas of
priests, sacrifices, houses of the god, and so forth, were naturalized
in the Christianity of the 3rd century, it was but a short step
to the belief in holy places.

III. The Pilgrimage in the Ancient Church. — In the passages
cited above, Bethlehem and the Mount of Olives figure as the
main goal of the pilgrim: and on the Mount of The East.
Olives the mind must naturally turn to the Garden
of Gethsemane and the scene of the Ascension. It may seem
surprising that there is no mention of Golgotha and the Sepulchre.
But the visitation of these sites was rendered impossible to the
Christians by the destruction of Jerusalem and the erection
of the town of Aelia Capitolina. They had not forgotten them;
but the grave was concealed under a mound of earth and stones
— a profanation probably dating from the siege of the city and
Titus's attack on the second wall. On the summit of this
mound there stood, in the days of Eusebius, a sanctuary of
Venus (Eus. Vit. Const, iii. 26, 30). The Sepulchre and the
Hill of the Crucifixion were lost to the Christian pilgrim; and,
consequently, before the era of Constantine, the one holy site
in the town of Jerusalem was the so-called Coenaculum, which
received its name in later years. It lay south of the city, near the
outer wall, and, if Epiphanius is to be believed, was already in
existence when Hadrian (130-131) visited Jerusalem (De mens.
14). It was regarded as the house, in which — according to the
Acts of the Apostles (xii. 12 sqq.) — Mary, the mother of John
Mark, lived; and the belief was that there the Lord held the
Last Supper, and that there the eleven assembled after the
Ascension. It was there, also, that the scene of the Pentecostal
effusion of the Spirit was laid (cf. Cyrill. Hierus. Cat. xvi. 4).

The pilgrimage to Palestine received a powerful impetus
from the erection of the memorial churches on the holy sites,
under Constantine the Great, as described by Eusebius in his
biography of the emperor (iii. 25 sqq.). At the order of Con-
stantine, the shrine of Venus above mentioned was destroyed,
and the accumulated rubbish removed, till the ancient rock-
foundation was reached. There the cave was discovered in
which Joseph of Arimathea had laid the body of Jesus; and
above this cave and the Hill of the Crucifixion the imposing
church of the Holy Sepulchre was built (a.d. 326-336). The
churches in Bethlehem and on the Mount of Olives were erected
by Helena, the mother of Constantine, who herself undertook
the pilgrimage to the Holy Land. These churches were then
endowed with new sanctuaries of miraculous powers; and relics
of Christ were found in the shape of the Cross and the nails.
Eusebius, the contemporary of Constantine, is silent on this
point. To his continuators, on the other hand, it is an established
fact that Helena brought all three crosses to light, and ascertained

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PILGRIMAGE

the genuine Cross by the instrumentality of a miracle,
in addition to discovering the nails of the Crucifixion (Rufin.
i. 7; Socr. i.17; Sozomen. ii. 1; Theod. i. 17). It is impossible
to fix the date at which the supposititious relics were introduced
into the church of the Sepulchre: it is certain, however, that
in the 5th century the Cross was there preserved with scru-
pulous reverence, and accounted the highest treasure of the
sanctuary.

After the 4th century, monks and nuns begin to form no
inconsiderable part of the pilgrimages — a fact which is especially
manifest from the numerous notices to be found in Jerome,
and the narratives of Theodoret in the Historia religiosa. In
fact, many were inclined to regard a journey to Jerusalem as
the bounden duty of every monk — an exaggerated view which
led to energetic protests, especially from Gregory of Nyssa,
who composed a monograph on the pilgrimages (De Us qui
adeunt Hierosol.). Jerome, like Gregory, insists on the point
that residence in Jerusalem has in itself no religious value:
it is not locality, but character, that avails, and the gates of
Heaven are as open in Britain as in Jerusalem (Ep. 58, 3).
These utterances, however, must not be misinterpreted. They
are not directed against the pilgrimage in itself, nor even against
the belief that prayer possesses special efficacy on sacred
ground, but solely against the exaggerated developments of
the system.

The theologians of the 4th and 5th centuries were at one
with the masses in recognizing the religious uses of the pilgrim-
ages. Jerome in particular considered it an act of faith for a
man to offer his prayers where the feet of the Lord had stood,
and the traces of the Birth, of the Cross, and of the Passion were
still to be seen (Ep. 47, 2).

We may gain some impression of the mood in which the
pilgrims completed their journey, when we read how Paula,
the friend of Jerome, expresses herself on her visit to the church
of the Sepulchre: " As oft as we enter its precincts we see the
Saviour laid in the shroud, and the angel seated at the feet of
the dead!" (Hieron. Ep. 46, 2). She assured Jerome that,
in the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem, she beheld, with
the eye of faith, the Christ-child wrapped in swaddling clothes
(Ep. 108, 10). But with these thoughts, others of an entirely
different stamp were frequently blended. Pilgrimages were
conceived as means to ensure an answer to particular prayers.
So, for example, Eudocia, the wife of Theodosius II., vowed
to undertake a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, if she should see her
daughter married. (Socr. Hist. eccl. vii. 47). And, closely
as this approaches to pagan ideas, the distinction between
paganism and Christianity is completely obliterated when we
find the hermit Julian and his companions travelling to Sinai
in order to worship the Deity there resident (Theod. Hist.
rel. 2).

With the number of the pilgrims the number of pilgrim-resorts

also increased. Of Jerusalem alone Jerome relates that the

places of prayer were so numerous that it was impossible to

visit them all in one day (Ep. 46, 9). In the Holy Land the

list was still longer: the natives were ready to show everything

for which the foreigners inquired, and the pilgrim was eager to

credit everything. In her expedition to the East, the Paula

mentioned above visited, among other places, Sarepta and

Caesarea. In the first-named place she was shown the tower

of Elijah; in the second, the house of Cornelius, that of Philip,

and finally the grave of the four virgins. At Bethlehem she

saw, in addition to the church of the Nativity, the grave of

Rachel; at Hebron the hut of Sarah, in which the swaddling

clothes of Isaac and the remains of Abraham's oak were on

view (Hieron. Ep. 108). A similar picture is given in the

Travels of the so-called Silvia Aquitana, who seems, in reality,

to have been a Spanish nun, named Etheria or Eucheria. She

went as a pilgrim to Jerusalem (c. 380), and from there traversed

the whole of Palestine, in order to visit every site which was

consecrated by memories of the Lord's earthly life. Nor did

she neglect the scenes of patriarchal history. Of greater

antiquity is the concise account of his travels by an anonymous

pilgrim, who, in a.d. 333, undertook the journey from Bordeaux
to Palestine. The Itinerary of the African Theodosius who
visited the East between a.d. 520 and a.d. 530 is of later date
(P. Geyer, Ilin. hierosol. saec. iv-viii.).

While pilgrim-resorts were thus filling the East, their counter-
parts began to emerge in the West. And here the starting-
point is to be found in the veneration of martyrs. ln tbeWest
Care for the tombs of martyrs was sanctioned by
immemorial custom of the Church; but, in this case
also, a later age failed to preserve the primitive conception in
its purity; and Augustine himself was obliged to defend the
usage of the Church from the imputation that it implied a
transference of heathen ceremonial to the sphere of Christianity
(Contr. Faust, xx. 21). The martyrs were the local heroes of
particular communities; but there were men whose life and death
were of significance for the whole of Christendom — the apostles.
Of these Peter and Paul had suffered martyrdom in Rome,
and it was inevitable, from the nature of the case, that their
graves should soon become a resort, not only of Romans born,
but of strangers also. True, the presbyter Caius (c. 200) who
first mentions the situation of the apostolic tombs on the Vatican
and the road to Ostia, and refers to the memorials there erected,
has nothing to say of foreign Christians journeying to Rome
in order to visit them. And though Origen travelled to Rome,
it was not to view the graves of dead men, but to establish
relations with the living flock (Euseb. Hist. eccl. ii. 25, 7; vi.
14, 10); still, it is certain that the Roman cemeteries were
visited by numerous pilgrims even in the 3rd century: for the
earliest graffiti in the papal crypt of the Coemeterium Callisti
must date from this period (De Rossi, Roma softer, i. 253
sqq.; Kraus, Rom. Sott. 148 sqq.). And if the tombs of the popes
were thus visited, so much more must this hold of the tombs
of the apostles. After these, the most frequented resort at
Rome in the 4th century was the grave of Hippolytus. The
poet Prudentius describes how, on the day of the martyr's
death, an innumerable multitude of pilgrims flocked round the
site. Even on ordinary days arrivals and departures were
almost incessant — foreigners being everywhere seen mingled
with the native Latins. They poured balsam on the sepulchre
of the saint, washed it with their tears, and covered it with their
kisses, in the belief that they were thus assuring themselves of
his intercession or testifying their gratitude for his assistance.
Prudentius says of himself, that whenever he was sick in soul
or body, and prayed there, he found help and returned in
cheerfulness: for God had vouchsafed His saint the power to
answer all entreaties (Perist. xi. 175 sqq.). Paulinus of Nola
(d. 431) concurs — his custom being to visit Ostia each year,
and Rome on the apostolic anniversaries (Ep. 20, 2; 45, 1).
Next to Rome the most popular religious resort was the tomb
of Felix of Nola (August. Ep. 78, 3); while in Gaul the grave of
St Martin at Tours drew pilgrims from all quarters (Paul.
Nol. Ep. 17, 4). Africa possessed no sanctuary to compete
with these; but we learn from Sulpicius Severus (c. 400) that
the tomb of Cyprian seems to have been visited even by a Gaul
(Dial. i. 3).

The motive that drew the pilgrims to the graves of the saints
is to be found in the conviction, expressed by Prudentius, that
there divine succour was certain; and hence came the belief in
a never-ending series of miracles there performed (cf., e.g.
Ennod. Ticin. Lib. pro syn. p. 315). Doubt was unknown.
St Augustine observes that, though Africa was full of martyrs'
tombs, no miracle had been wrought at them so far as his
knowledge extended. This, however, did not lead him to doubt
the truth of those reported by others — a fact that is somewhat
surprising when we reflect that the phenomenon caused him
much disquiet and perplexity. Who, he asks, can fathom the
design of God in ordaining that this should happen at one place
and not at another? And eventually he acquiesces in the
conclusion that God, who gives every man his individual gift
at pleasure, has not willed that the same powers should have
efficacy at every sepulchre of the saints (Ep. 78, 3).

IV. The Pilgrimage in the Middle Ages. — The medieval Church

PILGRIMAGE

607

New
Motives.

adopted the custom of the pilgrimage from the ancient Church.
The young Germanic and Romance nations did precisely as the
Greek and Romans had done before them, and the
motives of these devotional journeys — now much
more difficult of execution in the general decay of
the great world-system of commerce — remained much the
same. They were undertaken to the honour of God {Pip p.
Cap. 754-755, c. 4), for purposes of prayer {Ann. Hild. 992),
or in quest of assistance, especially health {Vita Galli, ii. 37; Vita
Liudg. iii. 10). But the old causes were reinforced by others of
at least equal potency. The medieval Church was even more
profoundly convinced than its predecessor that the miraculous
power of Deity attached to the bodies of saints and their relics.
But the younger nations — French, English and German —
were scantily endowed with saints; while, on the other hand,
the belief obtained that the home-countries of Christianity,
especially Rome and Jerusalem, possessed an inexhaustible
supply of these sanctified bodies. Pilgrimages were consequently
undertaken with the intention of securing relics. At first it
was enough to acquire some object which had enjoyed at least
a mediate connexion with the hallowed corpse. Gregory of
Tours (d. 594) mentions one of his deacons who made a pilgrim-
age into the East, in order to collect relics of the Oriental saints;
and, on his return, visited the grave of the bishop Nicetius
(St Nizier, d. 573) in Lyons, where he still further increased
his store. His testimony showed how relics came to be distri-
buted among the populace: one enthusiast took a little wax
dropped from the taper; another, a portion of the dust which lay
on the grave; a third, a thread from the cloth covering the sar-
cophagus; and he himself plucked the flowers which visitors
had planted above the tomb. Such were the memorials with
which he returned; but the universal belief was that something
of the miraculous virtue of the saint had passed into these
objects {Vit. patr. 8, 6). Before long, however, these humble
trophies failed to content the pilgrims, and they began to devote
their efforts to acquiring the actual bodies, or portions of them
• — frequently by honest means, still oftener by trickery. One of
the most attractive works of early medievalism — Einhard's little
book, Translalio Marcellini et Petri — gives a vivid description
of the methods by which the bodies of the two saints were
acquired and transported from Rome to Seligenstadt on the
Main.

Far more important consequences, however, resulted from the
fact that the medieval mind associated the pilgrimage with the
forgiveness of sins. This conception of the pilgrimage, as a
means of expiation or a source of pardon for wrong, was foreign
to the ancient Church. It is quite in accordance with the
keener consciousness of sin, which prevailed in the middle ages,
that the expiatory pilgrimage took its place side by side with
the pilgrimage to the glory of God. The pilgrimage became an
act of obedience; and, in the books of penance {Poenitentialia)
which date from the early middle ages, it is enjoined— whether
for a definite period {e.g. Poen. Valicell. i. c. 19; Theod. Cant.
i. 2, 16) or for life {Poen. Cummeani, vii. 12, Casin. 24) — as
an expiation for many of the more serious sins, especially
murder or the less venial forms of unchastity. The place to
be visited was not specified; but the pilgrim, who was bound
by an open letter of his bishop to disclose himself as a pentitent,
lay under the obligation, wherever he went, to repair to the
churches and — more especially — the tombs of the saints, and
there offer his prayers. On occasion, a chain or ring was
fastened about his body, that his condition might be obvious
to all; and soon all manner of fables gained currency: how,
here or there, the iron had sprung apart by a miracle, in token
that the sinner was thereby absolved by God. For instance,
the Vita Liudgeri recounts the history of a fratricide who was
condemned to this form of pilgrimage by Jonas, bishop of
Orleans (d. 843); he wore three iron rings round his body and
arms, and travelled bare-footed, fasting, and devoid of linen,
from church to church till he found pardon, the first ring breaking
by the tomb of St Gertrude at Nivelles, the second in the crypt
of St Peter, and the third by the grave of Liudger. The pilgrim-

age with a predetermined goal was not recognized by the books
of penance; but, in 1059, Peter Damiani imposed a pilgrimage
to Rome or Tours on the clerics of Milan, whom he had absolved
{Acta mediol. patrol, lat. 145, p. 98).

As the system of indulgences developed, a new motive came
to the fore which rapidly overshadowed all others: pilgrimages
were now undertaken to some sacred spot, simply in order to
obtain the indulgence which was vested in the respective church
or chapel. In the nth century the indulgence consisted in a
remission of part of the penance imposed in the confessional,
in return for the discharge of some obligation voluntarily
assumed by the penitent. Among these obligations, a visit
to a particular church, and the bestowal of pious gifts upon it,
held a prominent place. The earliest instance of the indulgential
privilege conferred on a church is that granted in ici6 by Pontius,
archbishop of Aries, to the Benedictine abbey of Montmajour
(Mons Major) in Provence (d'Achery, Spicil. iii. 383 seq.)„ But
these dispensations, which at first lay chiefly in the gift of the
bishops, then almost exclusively in that of the popes, soon
increased in an incessant stream, till at the close of the middle
ages there were thousands of churches in every western country,
by visiting which it was possible to obtain an almost indefinite
number of indulgences. But, at the same time, the character
of the indulgence was modified. From a remission of penance
it was extended, in the 13th century, to a release from the
temporal punishment exacted by God, whether in this life or
in purgatory, from the repentant sinner. And, from an absolu-
tion from the consequences of guilt, it became, in the 14th and
15th centuries, a negation or the guilt itself; while simultaneously
the opportunity was offered of acquiring an indulgence for the
souls of those already in purgatory. Consequently, during
the whole period of medievalism, the number of pilgrims was
perpetually on the increase.

So long as the number of pilgrims remained comparatively
small, and the difficulties in their path proportionately great,
they obtained open letters of recommendation from „.,„_,
their bishops to the clergy and laity, which ensured n esor ts\
them lodging in convents and charitable foundations,
in addition to the protection of public officials. An instance
is preserved in Markulf's formulary (ii. 49). To receive the
pilgrim and supply him with alms was always considered the
duty of every Christian: Charlemagne, indeed, made it a legal
obligation to withhold neither roof, hearth, nor fire from them
{Admon. gent. 789, c. 75; Cap. Miss. 802, c. 27).

The most important places of resort both for voluntary and
involuntary pilgrimages, were still Palestine and Rome. On
the analogy of the old Itineraria, the abbot Adamnan of Iona
(d. 704) now composed his monograph Dc locis Sanctis, which
served as the basis of a similar book by the Venerable Bede
(d. 735) — both works being edited in the Itin. hierosol. His
authority was a Frankish bishop named Arculf, who resided for
nine months as a pilgrim in Jerusalem, and visited the remaining
holy sites of Palestine in addition to Alexandria and Constanti-
nople. Of the later itineraries the Descriptio terrae sanctae,
by the Dominican Burchardusde Monte Sion, enjoyed the widest
vogue. This was written between the years 1285 and 1295;
but books of travel in the modern tongues had already begun to
make their appearance. The initiative was taken by the French
in the 12th and 13th centuries, and the Germans followed in the
14th and 15th ; while the Book of Wayes to Jerusalem of John de
Maundeville (c. 1336) attained extreme popularity, and was
translated into almost all the vernacular languages. Most
pilgrims, probably, contented themselves with the brief guide-
books which seem to have originated in the catalogues of indul-
gences. In later periods, that of Romberch a Kyrspe, printed at
Venice (15 19), stood high in favour.

A long list might be compiled of men of distinction who per-
formed the pilgrimage to Palestine. In the 8th century one
of the most famous is the Anglo-Saxon Willibald, who died
in 781 as bishop of the Frankish diocese of Eichstatt. He
left his home in the spring of 720, accompanied by his father and
brother. The pilgrims traversed France and Italy, visiting

6o8

PILGRIMAGE

every religious resort; in Lucca the father died, and the brother
remained behind in Rome. Early in 722 Willibald began his
expedition to the Holy Land alone, except for the presence of
two companions. He travelled past Naples to Syracuse, then
on shipboard by Cos and Samos to Ephesus, and thence through
Asia Minor to Damascus and Jerusalem. On St Martin's
day, in 724, he arrived in the Holy City. After a prolonged
stay in the town and its environs, Willibald proceeded (727)
to Constantinople, and in 729 returned to Italy. Such is the
account given by the nun of Heidenheim in her biography of
Willibald; and her version is probably based on notes by the
pilgrim himself (Mon. Germ. hist. scr. xv. 80 sqq.). In the
Qth century the French monk Bernard visited Palestine with
two companions, and afterwards wrote a simple and trust-
worthy account of his journey (Patrol, lat. 121, 569 sqq.). In
the 10th century Conrad, bishop of Constance (934-976), per-
formed the pilgrimage to Jerusalem three times (Vila Chuonr. 7) ;
and to the same period belong the first women-pilgrims to
Jerusalem of whom we have any cognisance — Hidda, mother
of Gero, archbishop of Cologne (Thietm. Chron. ii. 16), and the
countess Hademod of Ebersberg (Chron. ebersb.). The leaders,
moreover, of the monkish reform movement in the 10th and
nth centuries, Richard of St Vanne in Verdun and Poppo,
abbot of Stavelot (978-1048), had seen the Holy Land with
their own eyes (Vila Rich. 17; Vita Popp. 3). In the year 1028
Archbishop Poppo of Trier (d. 1047) undertook a pilgrimage
which led him past Jerusalem to the .banks of the Euphrates,
his return taking place in 1030 (Gesla Trevir. Cont. i. 4 seq.).
But the most celebrated devotional expedition before the Crusades
was that of the four bishops — Sigfrid of Mainz, Gunther of
Bamberg, William of Utrecht, and Otto of Regensburg. They
set out in 1064, with a company whose numbers exceeded
seven thousand. The major portion, however, fell in battle
against the Mahommedans, or succumbed to the privations of
the journey, and only some two thousand saw their homes
again(.4««a/. Allah., Lamb., Disib., Marian. Scot. &c). Among
the followers of the bishops were two clerics of Bamberg, Ezzo
and Wille, who composed on the way the beautiful song on the
miracles of Christ — one of the oldest hymns in the German
language. The text was due to Ezzo, the tune to Wille (Miillen-
hoff and Scherer, Denkmaler, i. p. 78, No. 31). A few years later
Count Dietrich of Trier began a pilgrimage to Jerusalem with
113 companions, in atonement for the murder of Archbishop
Kuno. The ship, however, which conveyed them went down
with all hands in a storm (Berth. Ann. 1073).

As a result of this steady increase in the number of pilgrims,
the old arrangements for their accommodation were found
deficient. Consequently hospices arose which were designed
exclusively for the pilgrim. Those on the Alpine passes are
common knowledge. The oldest, that on the Septimer pass,
dates from the Carolingian period, though it was restored in
1 1 20 by the bishop Wido of Chur: that on the Great St Bernard
was founded in the 10th century, and reorganized in the 13th.
To this century may also be assigned the hospice on the Simplon;
to the 14th those on the St Gothard and the Lukmanier.
Similarly, the Mediterranean towns, and Jerusalem in particular,
had their pilgrirn-refuges. Service in the hospices was regularly
performed by the hospital-fraternities — that is to say, by lay
associations working under the authorization of the Church.
The most important of these was the fraternity of the Hospilale
hierosolymitanutn, founded between 1065 and 1075; for hence
arose the order of St John, the earliest of the orders of
knighthood. In addition to the hospital of Jerusalem, numerous
others were under its charge in Acre, Cyprus, Rhodes, Malta,
&c. Associations were formed to assist pilgrims bound for the
East; one being the Confrerie des pelerins de Terre-Sainte in
Paris, founded in 1325 by Louis de Bourbon, count of Clermont
(afterwards first duke of Bourbon). Its church was in the rue
des Cordeliers. Similar institutions existed also in Amsterdam,
Utrecht, Antwerp and elsewhere in the Netherlands.

But since, in the middle ages, the Holy Land was no longer
held by a Christian Power, the protection of the pilgrims was

no less necessary than their sustenance. This fact, after the
close of the nth century, led to the Crusades (q.v.), which in
many respects are to be regarded as armed pilgrimages. For the
old dream of the pilgrim, to view the country where God had
walked as man, lived on in the Crusades — a fact which is demon-
strated by the letters of Bernard of Clairvaux, with the songs of
Walther von der Vogelweide and other Crusaders. And, since
the strongest motive in the pilgrimage was the acquisition of
indulgences, unnumbered thousands were moved to assume
the Cross, when, in 1095, Urban II. promised them plenary
indulgence (Cone. Claram. c. 2). The conquest of Jerusalem,
and the erection of a Christian empire in Palestine, naturally
welled the influx of pilgrims. And though in 1187 the Holy
City again fell into the hands of the infidel, while in 1291 the
loss of Acre eliminated the last Christian possession in Palestine,
the pilgrimages still proceeded. True, after the fall of the city
and the loss of Acre, they were forbidden by the Church; but the
veto was impracticable. In the 12th century these religious
expeditions were still so common that, every Sunday, prayers
were offered in church for the pilgrims (Honor. Aug. Spec. eccl.
p. 828). In the 13th century the annual number of those who
visited Palestine amounted to many thousands: in the 14th and
15th it had hardly shrunk. In fact, between the years 1300 and
1600, no fewer than 1400 men of distinction can be enumerated
from Germany alone who travelled to the Holy Land
(Rohricht and Meissner, Deutsche Pilgerreisen, pp. 465-546).
It was not till the Reformation, the wars of the 16th century,
and the loss of Rhodes, Candia and Cyprus to the Turks, that
any appreciable alteration was effected. When Ignatius de
Loyola (q.v.) set sail in 1523 from Venice to Palestine, only
some thirteen souls could be mustered on the pilgrim-ship, while
eight or nine others sailed with the Venetian state-vessel as far as
Cyprus. A considerable number had abandoned their pilgrim-
age and returned home on the news of the fall of Rhodes (Dec.
25, 1522: see Acta sand. Jul. vii. 642 seq.).

For pilgrimage overseas, as it was styled, the permission of
the Church was still requisite. The pilgrims made their journey
in grey cowls fastened by a broad belt. On the cowl they wore
a red cross; and a broad-brimmed hat, a staff, sack and gourd
completed their equipment. During their travels the beard was
allowed to grow, and they prepared for departure by confession
and communion. Of their hymns many are yet extant (" Jeru-
salem mirabilis," "In gottes namen faren wir," &c). The
embarcation took place either in France or Italy. In France,
Marseilles was the main harbour for the pilgrims. From there
ships belonging to the knights of St John and the knights
templars conducted the commerce with Palestine, and carried
annually some 6000 passengers. In the Italian ports the number
of shipments was still greater — especially in Venice, whence the
regular passagium started twice a year. The Venetian pilgrim
ships, moreover, carried as many as 1500 souls. The pilgrims
formed themselves into unions, elected a " master " and con-
cluded their agreements, as to the outward voyage and return,
in common. After Venice, Genoa and Pisa occupied the most
prominent position. The voyage lasted from six to eight weeks,
the stay in Jerusalem averaging ten days. The visitation of the
holy places was conducted in processions headed by the Fran-
ciscans of the Convent of Zion.

The expenses of the journey to Palestine were no light matter.
In the 1 2th century they may be estimated at 100 marks of
silver (£200) for the ordinary pilgrim. This was the amount
raised in 1147 by one Goswin von Randerath to defray the
expenses of his pilgrimage (Niederrhein. Urk. Buck. i. No. 361).
Later the cost was put at 280-300 ducats (£i4o-£i5o). In the
13th century a knight with two squires, one groom, and the requi-
site horses, had to disburse 8j marks of silver for his passage,
while for a single pilgrim the rate was rather less than 1 mark.
In the 1 6th century Ignatius de Loyola calculated the cost of
the voyage from Venice to Jaffa at some 6 or 7 gold florins (£3).
The expenses of the princes and lords were, of course, much
heavier. Duke William of Saxony, who was in Jerusalem in
1461, spent no less than £10,000 on his journey (see Prutz,

PILGRIMAGE

609

Kullurgeschichte tier Kreuzziige, pp. 106 sqq. ; Rohricht, Deutsche
Pilgerreisen, p. 42).

Great as was the number of pilgrims oversea, it was yet
far exceeded by that of the visitants to the " threshold of
the apostles," i.e. Rome. As was the case with Jerusalem,
guide-books to the city of the apostles were now composed.
The oldest is the Notilia ecclesiarum urbis Romae, which was
probably compiled under Honorius I. (625-638). The mono-
graph De locis s. martyrum is of somewhat later date. Both
are to be found in De Rossi, Roma sotterranea, i. 138 sqq.).
The Itincrarium einsidlense (ed. G. Hanel, Archill, f. Philologie,
v. 1 10^ belongs to the second half of the 8th century. Its
composer would seem to have been a disciple of Walahfrid; for
his interests are not confined to the churches, their reliquaries,
and the ecclesiastical ceremonial of saint-days, but he takes
a pleasure in transcribing ancient inscriptions. William of
Malmesbury, again, when relating the crusade of Count Robert
of Normandy (1096), transfers into his Gesta regmn anglorum
(iv. § 351) an old description of Rome, originally intended for
the use of pilgrims. This may have dated from the 7th century.
The pilgrimages to Rome received their greatest impetus
through the inauguration of the so-called Year of Jubilee (q.v.).
On the 22nd of February 1300 the bull of Boniface VIII.,
Antiqucrum habet fidem, promised plenary indulgence to every
Roman who should visit the churches of the apostles Peter and
Paul on thirty days during the year, and to every foreigner who
should perform the same act on fifteen days. At the close of the
Jubilee this dispensation was extended to all who had expired
on the way to Rome. This placed the pilgrimage to Rome on
a level with the crusades — the only mode of obtaining a plenary
indulgence. The success of the papal bull was indescribable.
It is computed that, in the Year of Jubilee, on an average,
200,000 strangers were present in the city during the day.
The greatest number of the pilgrims came from southern France,
England sending comparatively few on that occasion (see
Gregorovius, Gesch. d. Stadt Rom. v. 546 sqq.). The Jubilee
dispensation according to the edict of Boniface VIII. was to be
repeated each century; but this period was greatly abridged by
succeeding popes (see Jubilee, Year of), so that in the years
1350, 1390, 1423, 1450, 1475, 1500, the troops of pilgrims again
came streaming into Rome to obtain the cherished dispensation.
Of the other pilgrim-resorts, we shall only emphasize the most
important. Priority of mention is due to St James of Compo-
stella (Santiago, in the Spanish province of Galicia). Here the
attraction for the pilgrim was the supposed possession of the
body of James the son of Zebedee. The apostle was executed
(a.d. 44) by command of Herod Agrippa (Acts xii. 1); and at
the beginning of the medieval period it was believed that his
corpse was laid in Palestine ( Venant. Fortun.carm.~v. 144, viii.3).
The first connexion of the apostle with Spain is to be traced in
the Poema de aris b. Mar. et xii. aposl. dedic, which is ascribed to
Aldhelm (d. 709) and contains a story of his preaching in that
country. The earliest account of the transference of his relics to
the Peninsula is found in Notker Balbulus (d. 912, Marlyrol. in
Jul. xxv.). But in Spain belief in this cherished possession was
universal; and, step by step, the theory won credence through-
out the West. In 1059, Archbishop Wido of Milan journeyed
to St James (Damiani, Acta mediol. p. 98); and a little later we
hear of bands of pilgrims from Germany and France. In
England, indeed, the shrine of St James of Compostella became
practically the most favoured devotional resort; and in the 12th
century its visitation had attained such popularity that a pil-
grimage thither was ranked on a level with one to Rome or
Jerusalem (Honor. August. Spec. eccl. p. 828). In Paris, after
1419, there existed a special hospice for the "fraternity of St
James," in which from 60 to 80 pilgrims were received each day,
fed. and presented with a quarter of a denarius (Dulaure, Hist,
de Paris (1842), i. 531). Even in the period of the Reformation
the " Song of St James " was sung in Germany (Wackernagel,
Kirchcnlied, ii. No. 1246); and in 1478 pilgrimages to that, shrine
were placed by Sixtus IV. on official equality with those to Rome
and Jerusalem (Extrav. comm. c. 5; De poenit. v. 9).

In France St Martin remained the chief goal of the pilgrim;
while Notre Dame de Sous-Terre in Chartres (with a portrait
of the " black Virgin "), Le Puy-en-Velay (dep. Haute Loire),
and others, also enjoyed considerable celebrity. In England
pilgrimages were made to the tomb of the murdered archbishop,
Thomas Becket, in Canterbury Cathedral. The setting of
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales gives a vivid idea of the motley
company of pilgrims; but it seems probable that Germany also
sent a contingent (Gervas. Cantuar. chr. ann. 1184; Ralph de
Diceto, Ymag. hist. ann. 1184). In addition, Walsingham,
Peterborough, St Davids, Holywell, and St Andrews in Scotland
were much frequented. In lower Germany, Cologne and Aix-la-
Chapelle, in Switzerland Einsiedeln, were the principal resorts.

In Italy the church of the Archangel on Mt Gargano was one
of the most ancient centres of the pilgrimage, being visited even by
the monk Bernard (vide supra). Later the Portiuncula church
at Assisi displaced all other religious resorts, with the exception
of Rome; but in the 15th century it was overshadowed in turn
by the " Holy House " at Loretto on the Adriatic. According
to an extravagant legend, the house of Joseph and Mary in
Nazareth was transported by angels, on the night of the 9th-ioth
of May 1 29 1 to Dalmatia, then brought to the Italian coast
opposite (Dec. 10, 1294), till, on the 7th of September 1295 it
found rest on its present site. The pilgrimage thither must have
attained great importance as early as the 15th century; for the
popes of the Renaissance found themselves constrained to erect
an imposing pilgrim church above the " Holy House."

The significance of the pilgrimage for the religious life of later
medievalism cannot be adequately estimated. The possession
of an extraordinary relic, a bloody Host, or the like, was every-
where considered a sufficient claim for the privileges of indul-
gences; and wherever this privilege existed, there the pilgrims
were gathered together. All these pilgrimages, great and small,
were approved and encouraged by the Church. And yet,
during the whole of the middle ages, the voice of suspicion in
their regard was never entirely stilled. Earnest men could not
disguise from themselves the moral dangers almost inevitably
consequent upon them; they recognized, moreover, that many
pilgrims were actuated by extremely dubious motives; and they
distrusted the exaggerated value set on outward works. The
Roman papacy had no more zealous adherent than Boniface;
yet he absolutely rejected the idea that Englishwomen should
make the journey to Rome, and would willingly have seen the
princes and bishops veto these pilgrimages altogether (Ep. 78).
The theologians who surrounded Charlemagne held similar
views. When the abbess Ethelburga of Fladbury (Worcester-
shire) found her projected pilgrimage impracticable, Alcuin wrote
to her, saying that it was no great loss, and that God had better
designs for her: " Expend the sum thou hast gathered for the
journey on the support of the poor; and if thou givest as thou
canst, thou shalt reap as thou wilt "(Ep. 300). Bishop Theodulf
of Orleans (d. 821) made an energetic protest against the delu-
sion that to go to Rome availed more than to live an upright life
(Carm. 67). To the same effect, the synod of Chalon-sur-Saone
(813) reprobated the superstition which was wedded to the
pilgrimage (c. 13); and it would be easy to collect similar judg-
ments, delivered in every centre of medievalism. But, funda-
mentally, pilgrimages in themselves were rejected by a mere
handful: the protest was not against the thing, but against its
excrescences. Thus Fridank, for instance, in spite of his emphatic
declaration that most pilgrims returned worse than they went,
himself participated in the crusade of Frederick II.

V. The Modem Pilgrimage. — The Reformation eradicated the
belief in the religious value of visits to a particular locality. It
is only pious memory that draws the Protestant to the site*
consecrated by ecclesiastical history. On the other hand,
while in the Eastern Church things have undergone little change,
— the pilgrims, in addition to the Holy Land, visiting Mt
Athos and Kiev — the developments in the Roman Church show
important divergences. The Year of Jubilee, in 1525, was
unprecedented in its scant attendance, but the jubilees of 1575
and 1600 again saw great armies of pilgrims marching to Rome.

6io

PILIBHIT— PILLORY

Fresh pilgrim resorts now began to spring up, and medieval
shrines, which had fallen on evil days, to emerge from their
obscurity. In the 16th century we must mention the pilgrimages to
the " Holy Mount " at Gorz on the Austrian coast, and to Mont-
serrat in the Spanish province of Barcelona: in the 17th century,
those to Luxemburg, Kevelaer (Gelderland), Notre Dame de
Fourviere in Lyons, Hciligenberg in Bohemia, Roermond in
the Netherlands, &c. The 18th century, which witnessed the
religious Aufklarung, was not favourable, to the pilgrimage.
Enlightened bishops and princes prohibited it altogether:
so, for instance, Joseph II. of Austria. Archbishop Clement
Wenceslaus of Trier forbade, in 1777, the much-frequented,
medieval " leaping-procession " of Echternach (duchy of Luxem-
burg). The progressive theologians and clergy, moreover,
assumed a hostile attitude, and, in 1800, even the Curia omitted
the Year of Jubilee. The 19th century, on the other hand, led
to an extraordinary revival of the pilgrimage. Not only did
new resorts spring into existence — e.g. La Salette in Dauphine
(1846), and more particularly Lourdes (1858) in the department
of Hautes Pyrenees — but the numbers once more attained a
height which enables them to compete with the medieval figures.
It is computed that 60,000 pilgrims were present in La Salette on
the 29th of September 1847, the first anniversary of the appear-
ance of Mary which gave rise to the shrine. The dedication of
the church of Lourdes, in 1876, took place in the presence of 30
bishops, 3000 priests and 100,000 pilgrims. In 1877 the number
rose to 250,000; and similar statistics are given of the German and
Austrian devotional resorts. The sanctuaries of Aix-la-Chapelle
are said to have been visited by 65,000 pilgrims on the 15th of
July i860; and on the following Sunday by 52,000. From
25,000 to 30,000 persons take part each year in the resuscitated
'' leaping-procession " at Echternach; and the annual visitants
to the " Holy Mount " at Gorz are estimated at 50,000. No new
motives for the pilgrimage emerged in the 19th century, unless
the ever-increasing cultus of the Virgin Mary may be classed
as such, all of the new devotional sites being dedicated to
the Virgin. For the rest, the desire of acquiring indulgences
maintains its influence: but doubting voices are no more heard
within the pale of the Roman Catholic Church.

Bibliography. — Itinera hierosolymitana saec. IV '.-VIII., rec.
P. Geyer (Vienna, 1898); I tin. hierosol. et descr. terrae sanctae,
ed. T. Toller and A. Molinier (Geneva, 1879-1885); H. Michclant
and G. Raynaud, Itineraires a Jerusalem rediges en francais au
XI"',XII e , Xlll'siccles (Geneva, 1882) ; R. Rohricht and H. Meisncr,
Deutsche Pilgerreisen nach dem heiligen Land (Berlin, 1882, new ed.,
Innsbruck, 1900); L. Conradi, Vier rheinische Paldstina-Pilger-
schriften desXIV., XV.,XVI. Jahrhunderts (Wiesbaden, 1882) ; G. B.
de Rossi, Roma sotterranea, i. 128 sqq. (Rome, 1864); J. Marx,
Das Wallfahrlen in der katholischen Kirche (Trier, 1842); W. E.
Scudamore, Diet, of Christ. Antiquities, vol. ii. (London, 1880).

• (A. H.*)

PILIBHIT, a town and district of British India, in the Bareilly
division of the United Provinces. The town— pop. (1901),
33,490 — contains the mosque of Hafiz Rahmat Khan, the'
Rohilla chieftain, built in the second half of the 18th century.
Trade is mainly in agricultural produce, and in the products of
the neighbouring Himalayan territory and Nepal.

The District of Pilibhit has an area of 1350 sq. m.; pop.
(1901), 470,339, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade.
Though so near the Himalayas it is entirely a plain. In its
midst is the Mala swamp. The east is forest-clad, poor and
unhealthy; on the other side of the Mala the land becomes more
fertile. The chief river is the Sarda, and the Gumti rises in the
east. The principal crops are rice, pulses, wheat and sugar-cane.
Sugar-refining is carried on, and sugar, wheat, rice and hemp
are exported. The Lucknow-Bareilly section of the Oudh &
Rohilkhand railway runs through the district, a portion of which
is watered by the Rohilkhand canals.

PILLAR (O. Fr. piler, Mod. pilier, Late Lat. pilare, from pila,
column), an isolated upright structure, of narrow width in
relation to its height, which is either employed as a support for a
superincumbent load of some sort or is set up for commemorative
or ornamental purposes. In the first sense the word has many
common applications, as to columns supporting the girders of a

warehouse floor or the deckbeams of a ship, to the single central
support or pedestal of a table, machine-t6ol, &c, and to the masses
of coal which the miner leaves in certain methods of working
as supports to the roof (see Coal) ; it is also used figuratively of
persons in such phrases as a " pillar of the state." In archi-
tecture it has strictly the second sense. The column erected
in honour of Diocletian at Alexandria is known as Pompey's
pillar, and the so-called columns of Trajan and Antoninus are
in reality pillars, performing no structural function beyond that
of carrying a statue. In India the only example is the iron
pillar at Delhi, which is an extraordinary specimen of the iron-
worker's art considering the remote date at which it was made.
Up to the middle of the 19th century the term " pillar " was
employed to designate the masses of masonry in a church, which
carry the arcades, but now the term " pier " is invariably adopted
in preference.

PILLAU, a seaport and watering-place of Germany, in the
Prussian province of East Prussia, on the spit of sand (Nehrung)
which separates the Frische Haff from the Baltic, on the north
of the entrance channel, and 29 m. by rail from Konigsberg.
Pop. (1905), 7374. It is fortified and has a harbour, which serves
as the outer port of Konigsberg, and to some extent also of Elbing
and Braunsberg. A new navigable channel was in 1900-1901
constructed across the Frische Haff from Pillau to Konigsberg.
Pillau has a school of navigation, and is a well-known pilot
station. Ship-building, sail-making, fishing and the working
of amber are carried on.

Pillau is memorable as the place where Gustavus Adolphus of
Sweden landed in 1626. It did not obtain civic privileges until
1725, but was fortified shortly after that date. In 1807 it offered
a stout resistance to the French. By a treaty of the 24th of
February 1812 it was ceded to Napoleon, but on the 6th of
February in the following year it was restored to Prussia.

PILLION, a light saddle without pommel or bow, especially
a pad fastened to the back of an ordinary saddle, as a seat for
another person, generally a woman. Pillions were also used to
support baggage. They were in common use from the 16th to
the 18th centuries. The word appears to have been adapted
into English from the Irish pillin, cushion, formed from Lat.
pellis, skin. In the sense of a hat worn by a priest or doctor of
divinity, " pillon " or " pylion " occurs in the 1 5th and 16th
centuries. This is probably from Lat. pileus, a conical felt hat
or cap, Gr. ttTXos.

PILLNITZ, a village in the kingdom of Saxony, situated on
the right bank of the Elbe, 5 m. above Dresden. Pop. (1905),
770. The new palace of the king of Saxony was built in 1818
on the site of a building which was destroyed by fire. The place
became a residence of the electors of Saxony about 1700, and the
different parts of the palace were erected at various times during
the 18th century. By the convention of Pillnitz in August 1791
the emperor Leopold II. and Frederick William II., king of
Prussia, agreed to take common action against any attack on the
part of France; this compact may be regarded as the basis of
the first coalition against that country.

See A. von Minchwitz, Geschichte van Pillnitz (Dresden, 1893).

PILLORY (O. Fr. pilori, Prov. espitlori, from Lat. specuio-
torium, a place of observation or " peep-hole "), an instrument
of punishment which consisted of a wooden post and frame fixed
on a platform raised several feet from the ground, behind which
the culprit stood, his head and his hands being thrust through
holes in the frame (as are the feet in the stocks) so as to be held
fast, exposed in front of it. This frame in the more complicated
forms of the instrument consisted of a perforated iron circle,
which secured the heads and hands of several persons at the same
time, but it was commonly capable of holding only one.

In the statutes of Edward I. it is enacted that every pillory or
" stretch-neck " should be made of convenient strength so that
execution might be done on offenders without peril of their
bodies. It was customary to shave the heads wholly or partially,
and the beards of men, and to cut off the hair and even in extreme
cases to shave the heads of female culprits. Some of the offences
punished in England by the pillory will be found enumerated in

PILLOW— PILOT

611

a statute of Henry III. (1266). By this "Statute of the Pillory"
it was ordered as the penalty for " forestalled and regrators,
users of deceitful weights, perjurers and forgers." Stow, describ-
ing Cornhill pillory, says: " On the top of the cage (a strong
prison of timber) was placed a pillory for the punishment of
bakers offending in the assize of bread, for millers stealing corn
at the mill, for bawds, scoids and other offenders." Until 1637
the pillory was reserved for such offenders. In that year an
attack was made on the Press, and the pillory became the recog-
nized punishment of those who published books without a
licence or libelled the government. Alexander Leighton, John
Lilburn, Prynne and Daniel Defoe were among those who
suffered. These were popular favourites, and their exposures in
the pillory were converted into public triumphs. Titus Oates,
however, was put in the pillory in 1685 and nearly killed. In
1816 the pillory was abolished except for perjury and suborna-
tion, and the perjurer Peter James Bossy was the last to stand
in the pillory at the Old Bailey for one hour on the 22nd of June
1830. It was finally abolished in 1837 at the end of William
IV. 's reign. In France the pillory, called carcan, was employed
till 1832. In Germany it was known as pranger. The pillory
was used in the American colonies, and provisions as to its
infliction existed in the United States statute books until 1839;
it survived in the state of Delaware until 1905.

Finger-pillories were at one time in common use as instru-
ments of domestic punishment. Two stout pieces of oak, the
top being hinged to the bottom or fixed piece, formed when
closed a number of holes sufficiently deep to admit the finger to
the second joint, holding the hand imprisoned. A finger-
pillory is preserved in the parish church of Ashby-de-la-Zouch,
Leicestershire, and there is one, still in its original situation
against the wall, at Littlecote Hall, Wilts.

PILLOW (O. Eng. pylu; Lat. pulvinus, a cushion), a support for
the head during sleep or rest. The pillow of Western nations is
a cushion of linen or other material, stuffed with feathers, down,
hair or wool. In the East it is a framework made of bamboo
or rattan with a depression in the top to receive the neck; similarly
blocks of wood with a concave-shaped top are used by the natives
of other countries. The word is found in various technical uses
for a block or support, as for a brass bearing for the journal of a
shaft, and the like. In architecture the term " pillowed," or
" pulvinated," is given to the frieze of an order which bulges out
in the centre and is convex in section. It is found in friezes of
some of the later works of the Roman school and is common in
Italian practice.

PILOCARPINE, CiiH 16 N 2 02, an alkaloid found, together with
isopilocarpine and other related compounds, in the leaves of
jaborandi {Pilocarpus pennatif alius) . It was first isolated by E.
Hardy in 1875 (Ber., 8, p. 1594), and is a crystalline, very hygro-
scopic solid. It is a strong poison. It has the properties of a
monacid base and contains the methylamino group, -NCH3.
When heated with hydrochloric acid it gives isopilocarpine.
Isopilocarpine was isolated in 1900 by H. A. D. Jowett (Journ.
C/iem. Soc. 77, p. 473), and is a colourless oil which boils at 261°
C. (10 mm.). It is a monacid base which is readily soluble
in solutions of the causric alkalis. Jowett is of the opinion
that pilocarpine and isopilocarpine are stereo-isomers of the
structure:— ^CH-N-CH s C 2 H 5 -CH-CO\

\CH: C— CH 2 — CH-CH 2 /

PILOfiA, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo;
between the right bank of the river Pilona, a left-hand tributary
of the Sella, and the Sierra de Abes (3268 ft.). Pop. (1900),
18,228. Though officially classed as a town, Pilona is rather a
densely populated mining and agricultural district. It is served
by the railway from Infiesto, on the river Pilona, to Oviedo and
Gijon.

PILOT, the name applied either to a particular officer serving
on board a ship during the course of a voyage and having the
charge of the helm and the ship's route, or to a person taken on
-»oard at a particular place for the purpose of conducting a ship
through a river, road or channel, or from or into a port. The

latter kind is the only one to which the term is now applied
either in British or foreign countries. The word " pilot " is
not the early name for the man who guides or steers a ship..
In Old English the name is Iddman, i.e. the man who leads the
way. " Pilot " does not appear in English till the 16th century.
The origin of the word has been much debated. Many etymolo-
gists find it in the Dutch pijloot (Hexham's Dictionary, 1658).
This has been identified with peillood, peil-loth, sounding lead, cf.
German peilen, to sound; the last part of these words is the same
as English "lead," the metal; the first part, peilen, is for pegclen,
to mark with pegs or points for measuring, cf . pegel, gauge. The
New English Dictionary, on the other hand, finds that the Dutch
piloot, the earlier form, is taken from the French. The source is,
therefore, to be looked for in Romance languages. Du Cange
(Gloss. Med. et Inf. Lat.) gives Pedottae, defined as quorum est
scire intrare et exire portus, a gloss on pedotte e timonieri in F.
Ubaldini's edition, 1640, of I documenti d'amore by Francesco
da Barberino (1 264-1348). It is therefore conjectured that the
Italian pilota is a popular conception of pedotta, and a possible
source may be found in the Greek vrjSov, oar.

In England, formerly, pilots were subject to the jurisdiction
of the lord high admiral; and in the 16th century there are many
instances of the admiralty court dealing with pilots disciplinarily
as well as civilly, holding them liable in damages to owners of
ships lost or damaged by their negligence. For some consider-
able time throughout the United Kingdom the appointment
and control of pilots have been in the hands of numerous societies
or corporations established at the various ports by charter or
act of Parliament, such as the Trinity Houses of Deptford
Strond (London), Kingston-upon-Hull, Newcastle-on-Tyne, and
Leith, and the Society of Cinque Ports Pilots and Court of
Lodemanage (now extinct). These societies had jurisdiction
over the pilots exercising their employment within Autborit!eSt
the limits of such ports, and in many cases made it
compulsory for ships resorting thither to employ them. By
degrees the London Trinity House acquired a leading position,
which was confirmed and extended by the general Pilotage Acts
passed in the 18th and 19th centuries, with the object of intro-
ducing a uniform system throughout the realm. At the present
day the United Kingdom is divided into districts for the purpose
of .pilotage jurisdiction. The (London) Trinity House has
jurisdiction over the London district, which extends from
Orfordness to Dungeness, and comprises the Thames and Med-
way up to London and Rochester bridges; the English Channel
district, comprising the sea between Dungeness and the Isle of
Wight;, and the Trinity outport districts, which include any
pilotage districts for the appointment of pilots within which no
particular provision is made by act of Parliament or charter,
and the number of which is 40, all English and Welsh'. There are
66 other districts, within which other pilotage authorities have
jurisdiction.

The present general pilotage law is contained in the Merchant
Shipping Acts 1894 to 1906. Pilotage authorities are defined
as bodies or persons authorized to appoint or license pilots, or
to fix and alter rates of pilotage or to exercise any jurisdiction
in respect of pilotage. They are subject to the control of the
Board of Trade as the supreme mercantile marine authority.
Those bodies, however, which existed at the time of the passing
of the act retain their powers and jurisdiction, so far as is
consistent with it. The board has power to appoint
a new pilotage authority in any area where there is
none, and to include a new area where there is none within
an already existing one (but in either case pilotage cannot be
made compulsory), or to transfer pilotage jurisdiction over
a port other than that where the pilotage authority for
that port resides, from that pilotage authority to the
harbour or other local authority for that port, or to the
Trinity House, or to a new authority; and the board has all
powers necessary to effectuate such transfer and constitute
the new authority. The board may also, by provisional order
(which requires parliamentary confirmation), provide for the
representation of pilots or shipowners on the pilotage authority

Law.

6l2

PILOT

of any district, and the exemption of ships from compulsory
pilotage in any district. Where pilotage is not compulsory,
and the power of obtaining pilotage licences unrestricted, the
board can in the same way give the pilotage authority powers
with respect to licences, amount of pilotage rates, and the like.
Pilotage authorities may, by by-laws under the act (which
require confirmation by order in council), exempt wholly or
partly any ships or classes of ships from compulsory pilotage,
and regulate the means of obtaining licences, and the amount
of pilotage rates, subject to a maximum limit. They must
make yearly returns to the Board of Trade of their by-laws, the
names, ages and services of their licensed pilots, the rates of
pilotage, the amounts received for pilotage and their receipts
and expenditure; and if they fail to do so, the board may
suspend their authority, which is then exercised by the Trinity
House.

The statu tes also provide generally for the qualifications of pilots.
A " qualified " pilot is one duly licensed by a pilotage authority
to conduct ships to which he does not belong.
Qualities- Q n j,j s a pp om t men t he receives a licence, which is re-
gistered with the chief officer of customs at the nearest
place to the pilot's residence, and must be delivered up by the
pilot whenever required by the licensing pilotage authority. On
his death this licence must be returned to that authority. By an
act of 1906 no pilotage certificate shall be granted to the master
or mate of a British ship unless he is a British subject; this
does not, however, refer to the renewal of a certificate granted
before 1906 to one not a British subject. Pilotage dues are
recoverable summarily from the owner, master, or consignees of
the ship, after a written demand for them has been made. A
pilot may not be taken beyond the limits of his district without his
consent, and if so taken he is entitled to a fixed daily sum in
addition to the dues; if he cannot board the ship, and leads her
from his boat, he is entitled to the same dues as if he were on
board; and he must be truly informed of the ship's draught of
water. An unqualified pilot may in any pilotage district take
charge of a ship without subjecting himself or his employer to any
penalty, where no qualified pilot has offered himself, or where a
ship is in distress, or in circumstances where the master must take
the best assistance he can, or for the purpose of changing the
moorings of any ship in port on docking or undocking her; but
after a qualified pilot has offered himself any unqualified pilot
continuing in charge, or any master continuing him in charge of
the ship, is liable to a penalty. A qualified pilot may not be
directly or indirectly interested in licensed premises or in the
selling of dutiable goods, or in the unnecessary supply. of gear
or stores to a ship for his personal gain or for the gain of any other
person. He can be punished for quitting a ship before the com-
pletion of his duty without the consent of the master, refusing or
delaying to perform his duty without reasonable cause when
required by lawful authority, lending his licence, acting as pilot
when suspended or when intoxicated, and any pilot who through
wilful breach of or neglect of duty, or by reason of his drunken-
ness, endangers ship, life or limb, is guilty of a misdemeanour
and liable to suspension or dismissal; but the pilot has an appeal
in cases of fines over £2, of suspension or dismissal, suspension or
revocation of his licence, or the application of a pilotage fund to
which he has contributed. This appeal lies in England to a
county court judge having jurisdiction over the port where he is
licensed, or a metropolitan police magistrate or stipendiary magis-
trate with the like power; in Scotland, to a sheriff; in Ireland,
to a county court judge, chairman of quarter sessions, recorder,
or magistrate. Pilotage certificates may also be granted by
pilotage authorities, available within their districts, to masters
and mates of ships; and the holder of such a certificate may pilot
any ship in respect of which it is available without incurring any
penalty for not employing a qualified pilot.

The statute further makes special regulation for Trinity House
pilots. Every such pilot, on his appointment, must execute a
bond for £roo conditioned for due observance of the Trinity
House regulations and by-laws, and thereupon he is not liable
for neglect or want of skill to anybody beyond the penalty of the

bond and the amount payable to him for pilotage on the voyage
on which he was engaged at the time of his so becoming liable.
The licence may be revoked or suspended by the Trinity .House
when it thinks fit; it only continues in force for a year, and the
Trinity House has absolute discretion whether it shall be renewed
or not.

A pilot boat is approved and licensed by the district pilotage
authority who appoints or removes the master thereof. In order
to be easily recognized, she has printed on her stern
in legible white letters the name of her owner and ^sil,^
her port, and on her bows the number -of her licence;
the remainder of the boat is usually black. The pilot flag is a red
and white horizontal flag of a comparatively large size, and is
flown from a conspicuous position. When the flag is flown from
a merchant vessel, it indicates that a licensed pilot is on board
or that the master or mate holds a certificate entitling him to
pilot the ship. By order in council of 1900, on and after the 1st
day of January 1901 the signals for a pilot displayed together or
separately are: In daytime, there is (1) hoisted at the fore the
pilot jack (Union Jack having round it a white border, one-fifth
of the breadth of the flag); (2) the international code pilotage
signal indicated by P.T.; (3) the international code flag S. (white
with small blue square centre), with or without the code pennant;
(4) the distant signal consisting of a cone point upwards, having
above it two balls or shapes resembling balls. By night, (1) the
pyrotechnic light commonly known as a blue light, every fifteen
seconds; (2) a bright white light, flashed or shown at short or
frequent intervals just above the bulwarks, for about a minute
at a time.

Pilotage in British waters may be either compulsory or free
for all or certain classes of ships. From parliamentary pilotage
returns, it appears that it is compulsory in about
64 districts of the United Kingdom (of which two- %™Jtagl°' 7
thirds are the Trinity House districts), free in 32, free
and compulsory in 8, while in 3 cases (Berwick, Dingwall and
Coleraine) no particulars are given. British war-ships in British
waters are not compelled to employ a pilot, the navigating officer
becoming the pilot under the direction of the captain. If a
pilot be employed, the captain and navigating officer are
not relieved from responsibility. They supervise the pilot,
and should, if necessary, remove him from the ship. In the
majority of foreign ports British war-ships are exempted from
employing pilots, but the Suez Canal and the ports of France
are exceptions. The Merchant Shipping Act 1894 continues the
compulsory employment of pilots in all districts where it was
already compulsory, and also the already existing exemptions;
and there is no power in any pilotage authority or the Board of
Trade to increase the area of compulsory pilotage, though there
is to diminish it. Compulsion is enforced by a provision in the
act, that within a district where compulsory pilotage exists, the
master of an unexempted ship who pilots her himself without
holding the necessary certificate, after a qualified pilot has offered
or signalled to take charge of the ship, shall be liable for each
offence to a fine of double the amount of the pilotage dues
demandable for the conduct of the ship. The exemptions from
compulsory pilotage still existing in British territorial waters
are as follows: Ships or vessels with British registers trading
to Norway or the Cattegat or the Baltic (except vessels on
voyages between any port in Sweden or Norway and the port of
London), or round the North Cape, or into the White Sea on
their inward or outward voyages, whether coming up by North or
South Channels; any constant British traders inwards from ports
between Boulogne inclusive and the Baltic coming up by North
Channel, and any British ships or vessels trading to ports
between the same limits on their outward passages and when
coming up by the South Channels; Irish traders using the navi-
gation of the Thames and Med way; ships engaged in the regular
coasting trade of the kingdom; ships or vessels wholly laden with
stone produced in the Channel Islands and Isle of Man and brought
thence; ships or vessels not exceeding 60 tons, whether British
or belonging to a foreign country specified by order in council;
ships within the limits of the port or place to which they belong, if

PILOT

613

this is not a place particularly provided for by act of Parliament
or charter as regards the appointment of pilots; ships passing
through the limits of any pilotage district in their voyages from
one port to another port, and not being bound to any port or
place within such limits or anchoring therein, but not including
ships loading or discharging at any place situate within the
district, or at any place situate above the district on the same
river or its tributaries. Ships whose masters or mates are owners
or part-owners of them, and living at Dover, Deal, or the Isle of
Thanet, may be piloted by them from any of these places up and
down the Thames or Medway, or into or out of any place or port
within the jurisdiction of the Cinque Ports. The following
ships in the London district and Trinity outport districts are
also exempt when not carrying passengers, namely: Ships
employed in the coasting trade of the United Kingdom; ships of
not more than 60 tons burden; ships trading to or from any port
in Great Britain within the above districts to or from the port
of Brest in France, and any port in Europe (which does not
include the United Kingdom) north and east of Brest, or to the
Channel Islands or Isle of Man; and ships navigating within the
limits of the port to which they belong. The port to or from
which the ship must be " trading " in this provision has been
interpreted by the decisions to mean the port where the cargo
is substantially discharged or loaded respectively; and the word
" coaster " similarly has been held to apply only to a vessel
carrying to one port of the United Kingdom a cargo which has
been taken in at another. Every ship carrying passengers
between any place in the British Islands and any other place so
situate must carry a compulsory pilot, unless her master or mate
have a pilotage certificate. The effect in law of the ship (British
or foreign) being in charge of a compulsory pilot under the act
is that her owner and master are not answerable to any person
whatever for any loss or damage occasioned by the fault or
incapacity of any qualified pilot acting in charge of such ship
within any district where the employment of such pilot is com-
pulsory by law. In order to take advantage of this privilege,
the shipowner must show (r) that a properly qualified pilot was
acting in charge of the ship; there are, however, various kinds of
qualified pilots — the qualified pilot who is always capable of acting,
and the qualified pilot who is liable to be superseded if a better
can be obtained; (2) that that charge was compulsory; the pilot,
however, need not be compulsorily employed at the place where
the accident happened, so long as he is compulsorily employed
within the district where it happens; (3) that it was solely the
pilot's fault or incapacity which caused the damage. Similarly,
under the Harbours, Piers and Docks Clauses Act, the owner of a
vessel is not liable for damage done thereby to docks or piers
when she is in charge of a duly licensed pilot.

This statutory exemption of a ship in charge of a compulsory
pilot from any liability for her negligent navigation by that
pilot, is only declaratory of the common law of England, and is
based on the principle that the pilot is a state official put in
charge of a ship, and is not the servant of the shipowner so as to
make him liable for his negligence; and a British court gives the
same effect to any foreign or colonial law which makes it com-
pulsory on shipowners to put a pilot in charge of their ship when
within their jurisdiction. Most foreign codes, however, while
agreeing with English law in making the presence of a pilot on
board compulsory, differ from it in not putting him in charge of
the ship; and in this case the defence of compulsory pilotage
cannot be pleaded successfully in British courts. Judicial
decisions have established that French, Suez Canal, Danube and
Dutch pilots are not compulsory pilots in the British sense of the
word, being only advisers of the master, or " living charts."
But if the pilot is put in charge by the foreign or colonial law,
although that law expressly provides that in spite of the owner
surrendering the charge of the ship to him the owner shall still
remain liable, a British court will hold the owner free from
liability, on the ground that to make any person liable for a tort
committed abroad, the act complained of must be wrongful not
only according to the foreign law, but also by English law.
This consequence which English law attaches to the employment

of a compulsory pilot has been much criticized in recent times,
and it would seem that the foreign view is much more satisfactory
in regarding the pilot merely as the adviser and not the superior
of the master. Moreover, the adoption of the foreign law on this
point would restore the old general maritime law. The policy
of the law was at one time inclined to extend this principle of
compulsory pilotage, on the ground that it was for the benefit of
commerce and the safety of seamen's lives, t but it now restricts
it within as narrow limits as possible, e.g. the presence of a
compulsory pilot on board a tow who is directing the navigation
of a tug does not protect the tug-owner from liability for negligent
navigation. As already pointed out, pilotage authorities have •
no power to extend its scope.

A pilot who is compulsorily in charge of a ship under English
law has supreme control over her navigation, superseding the
master for the time being; and if she is a tow he has also control of
the navigation of her tug. The judicial decisions establish that
it is within his province to decide whether the ship shall get under
way, the proper time and place for her to anchor, the way of carrying
her anchor, the proper orders for the helm, her rate of speed, and
whether the statutory rules of navigation shall be complied with;
and the master and crew must not interfere with his control, and
only remain liable for the proper execution of the pilot's orders
and the trim and general efficiency as to look-out, &c, of the ship.
The master, however, is bound to supersede the pilot in case of
his intoxication or manifest incapacity, and to interfere if there
is a clear and plain prospect of danger to the ship in following the
pilot's directions, e.g. getting under way in a thick fog. The
pilot is entitled to receive from the master assistance in having his
attention called to anything which a competent mariner would
see that he ought to know. A pilot taken voluntarily, and not by
compulsion of law, is considered as the servant of the shipowner,
and as such renders him liable for his acts of negligence towards
third parties. He does not, it seems, supersede the master in
the control of the ship, but only advises him. The Admiralty
and the Board of Trade and the Trinity House all take the view
that the captain or master is bound to keep a vigilant eye on the
navigation of the vessel by the pilot, and insist on all proper
precautions being taken. For the purposes of a policy of marine
insurance a ship is not seaworthy without a pilot in compulsory
pilotage waters; and where there is no legal compulsion to have
one, but the locality requires navigation by a person having local
knowledge, it has been said that a ship must take a pilot, certainly
when leaving a port, and probably on entering a port if a pilot is
available.

A pilot can sue for his pilotage fee at common law or in
Admiralty (q.v.), in the latter case provided that the contract
was made and the work done not within the body of a county;
but he has a 'summary remedy by statute which is of easier
application. He cannot be sued in Admiralty for damage done
by a collision caused by his negligence' (e.g. on the Admiralty side
of a county court having Admiralty jurisdiction) ; but he can be
made liable at common law or in the Admiralty Division of the
High Court, although in the case of a Trinity House pilot his
liability is limited to the amount of his bond and pilotage fee
then being earned (see above) ; but the court has refused to join
him as a defendant to an action in rem brought against the ship
of which he had the charge. A pilotage authority cannot be
made liable for the negligent navigation of a ship by a pilot which
it has licensed, for he is not its servant, though it has been held
liable for the negligence of a person not licensed by it as a pilot,
but employed by it for wages to pilot ships into a harbour under
its jurisdiction, itself taking the pilotage dues and applying them
for harbour purposes. A pilot is not in common employment
with the master and crew of a ship, and can recover for any
injury done him by their negligence. He may be entitled to
claim salvage from a ship of which he has charge, if the services
he renders are beyond the scope of his pilotage contract, either
from the outset or owing to supervening circumstances, but not
otherwise, whether he is on board her or leading her from his
boat. (See Salvage.)

In the United States pilotage laws are regulated by the respective

614.

PILOT-FISH— PIMENTO

states. If the waters are the boundary between two states a
duly licensed pilot of either state may be employed, but no dis-
crimination can be made in the rates of pilotage between vessels
of different states. In the German Empire the pilotage laws
are very complicated. In the majority of the maritime states
each one has its own regulations and laws. In Prussia there are
government pilots who enter the service as apprentices, and are
placed under a department of state. In France the general organi-
zation of pilots is regulated by the Statute on Pilots of the 12th
of December 1806, a»d the pilotage regulations for each port are
made by the minister of marine at the request of his local repre-
sentative and the Chamber of Commerce. French pilots are
exempt from military service.

See Abbott, Shipping (London, 1901); Maude and Pollock,
Shipping (London. 1 881) ; Marsden, Collisions at Sea (London, 1910) ;
Select Pleas of the Admiralty (Selden Society, London, 1892 and
1897); Temperley, Merchant Shipping Acts (1907); Twiss, Black
Book of Admiralty (London, 1871). (G. G. P.*; J. W. D.)

PILOT-FISH (Naucrates doctor), a pelagic fish of the family
of horse-mackerels or Carangidae, well known to sailors from its
peculiar habit of keeping company with ships and large fishes,
especially sharks. It occurs in all tropical and sub-tropical
seas, and is common in the Mediterranean, but becomes scarcer
in higher latitudes. In summer pilots will accompany ships
as far north as the south coast of England into port. This
habit was known to the ancients, who describe the Pompilus as

Pilot-fish.

a fish which points out the way to dubious or embarrassed
sailors, and by its sudden disappearance indicates to them the
vicinity of land; the ancient seamen of the Mediterranean re-
garded it, therefore, as a sacred fish. That the pilot accompanies
sharks is an observation which first appears in works of travel
of the 17th century, the writers asserting that it is of great use
to its big companion in conducting it and showing it the way to
its food. It is, however, extremely doubtful whether the pilot's
connexion with a shark serves a more special purpose than its
temporary attachment to a ship. It accompanies both on account
of the supply of food which it derives from them. The pilot,
therefore, stands to both in the relation of a so-called " com-
mensal," like the Echeneis or sucking-fish. All observers,
however, agree that neither the pilot nor the sucker is ever
attacked by the shark. The pilot attains to a length of about
12 in. In the shape of its body it resembles a mackerel,
but is rather shorter, especially in the head, and covered with
small scales. A sharp keel runs along the middle of each side of
the tail. The first dorsal fin consists of a few short spines not
connected by a membrane; the second dorsal and the anal are
composed of numerous rays. The teeth, which occupy the jaws,
vomer and palatine bones, are all small, in villiform bands.
The coloration of the pilot renders it conspicuous at a distance;
on a bluish ground-colour from five to seven dark-blue or violet
cross-bands traverse the body from the back to the belly. The
pilot-fish spawns in the open sea, and its fry is constantly caught
in the tow-net. But young pilot-fish differ considerably from
the adult, having the spines of the first dorsal connected by a
membrane, and some bones of the head armed with projecting
spines. These little fishes were therefore long considered to be a
distinct genus, Nauclcrus.

PILOTY, KARL VON (1826-1886), German painter, was born
at Munich, on the 1st of October 1826. His father, Ferdinand
Piloty (d. 1844), enjoyed a great reputation as a lithographer.
In 1840 he was admitted as a student of the Munich Academy,
under the artists Schorn and Schnorr. After a journey to
Belgium, France and England, he commenced work as a painter
of genre pictures, and in 1853 produced a work, Die Amme
(" The Wet Nurse "), which, on account of its originality of style,

caused a considerable sensation in Germany at the time. But
he soon forsook this branch of painting in favour of historical
subjects, and produced in 1854 for King Maximilian II. " The
Adhesion of Maximilian I. to the Catholic League in 1609."
It was succeeded by " Seni at the Dead Body of Wallenstein "
(1855), which gained for the young painter the membership of
the Munich Academy, where he succeeded Schorn (his brother-in-
law) as professor. Among other well-known works by Piloty
are the " Battle of the White Mountain near Prague," " Nero
Dancing upon the Ruins of Rome " (1861), " Godfrey of Bouillon
on a Pilgrimage to the Holy Land " (1861), " Galileo in Prison "
(1864), and " The Death of Alexander the Great " (unfinished),
his last great work. He also executed a number of mural paint-
ings for the royal palace in Munich. For Baron von Schach he
painted the justly celebrated " Discovery of America." In 1874
he was appointed keeper of the Munich Academy, being after-
wards ennobled by the king of Bavaria. Piloty was the fore-
most representative of the realistic school in Germany. He was
a most successful teacher, and among his more famous pupils
may be mentioned Makart, Lenbach, Defregger, Max and
Griitzner. He died at Munich on the 21st of July 1886.

PILSEN (Czech, Plzen), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 68 m.
W.S.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 68,292, of which 94%
are Czech. It is the second town of Bohemia, and lies at the
confluence of the Radbusa and the Mies. It consists of the
town proper, which is regularly built and surrounded with
promenades on the site of the old ramparts, and of three suburbs.
The most prominent buildings are the Gothic church of St
Bartholomew, said to date from 1292, whose tower (325 ft.) is
the highest in Bohemia, and the fine Renaissance town hall
dating from the 16th century. The staple article of manufacture
and commerce is beer, which is exported to all parts of the world.
Other industrial products are machinery, enamelled tinware,
leather, alum, paper, earthenware, stoves and spirits, while a
tolerably brisk trade is carried on in wool, feathers, cattle and
horses. In the neighbourhood are several coal-pits, iron-works
and glass-works, as well as large deposits of kaolin.

Pilsen first appears in history in 976, as the scene of a battle
in the war between Prince Boleslaus and the emperor Otto II.,
and it became a town in 1272. During the Hussite wars it was
the centre of Catholic resistance to the Hussites; it was three
times unsuccessfully besieged by Prokop the Great, and it took
part in the league of the Romanist lords against King George of
Podebrad. During the Thirty Years' War the town was taken
by Mansfield in 1618 and not recaptured by the Imperialists till
1 62 1. Wallenstein made it his winter-quarters in 1633, an< l it
was in the great hall of the Rathaus that his generals took the
oath of fidelity to him (January 1634). The town was unsuccess-
fully besieged by the Swedes in 1637 and 1648. The first
Bohemian printing press was established here in 1468.

PIMA, a tribe and stock of North American Indians. Their
range was southern Arizona and northern Mexico. The ruined
Pima village, known to the Spanish as Casa Grande on the south
bank of the Gila, is an example of their early civilization and skill
in building. Driven out of their homes by neighbouring tribes,
they lived a more or less nomadic life. They were always good
farmers, showing much skill in irrigation. At first submitting
to the Spaniards, they revolted in 1751, destroying all the
missions. The war lasted two years, but since then the Pima
Indians have been friendly with the settlers. As a race they are
brave, honest and hard working. They number some 5000 on
two reservations in Arizona. The Piman stock includes such
tribes as the Papago, Huichol, Opata, Tarumari, and numbers
upwards of a hundred thousand.

PIMENTO, also called Allspice (from a supposed combination
of various flavours) and Jamaica Pepper, the dried immature
fruit of Eugenia pimenta or Pimento, officinalis, an evergreen tree
about 30 ft. high, belonging to the natural order Myrlaceae.
It is indigenous in the West India Islands, growing on limestone
hills near the sea, and is especially grown in Jamaica. The spice
derives its name from the Portuguese pimenta, Spanish pimienla,
pepper, which was given to it from its resemblance to

91

PIN— PINA, RUY DE

6i5

pepper-corns. The berries are gathered in July and August, when
of full size, but still unripe— the small branches bearing fruit being
broken off and dried in the sun and air for some days, when the
stalks are removed and the berries are ready for packing. These
owe their aromatic properties to an essential oil present to the
extent of 3 to 4!% and consisting largely of eugenol or allyl
guaiacol, HO(CH 3 0)C6HrC3H 5 . The chief use of pimento is as
a spice. The oil, the action of which resembles that of cloves,
is occasionally used in medicine, and is also employed in perfum-
ing soaps. The " bay rum " used as a toilet article is a tincture
scented with the oil of the leaves of an allied species, Pimento,
acris, commonly known as the bayberry tree.

PIN (a doublet with " pen " from Lat. pinna, feather, pinnacle,
which is said to contain the same root as irirvs, pine tree,
and properly to mean a sharp point or end), a small peg or bolt
of metal or wood, not necessarily pointed, employed as a fasten-
ing to connect together different parts of an article, as a stop to
limit the motion of some moving piece in a machine, as a support
on which a small wheel may turn, &c, but most commonly a
small metal spike, used for fastening portions of fabrics together,
having one end pointed and at the other a bulbed head, or some
other arrangement for preventing the spike from passing entirely
through the cloth or other material with which it is employed.
In one form or another pins of this last kind are of the highest
antiquity, the earliest form doubtless being a natural thorn.
Pins of bronze, and bronze brooches in which the pin is the essen-
tial feature, are of common occurrence among the remains of the
bronze age. The ordinary domestic pin had become in the 15th
century an article of sufficient importance in England to warrant
legislative notice, as in 1483 the importation of pins was prohibited
by statute. In 1540 Queen Catherine received pins from
France, and again in 1543 an act was passed providing that " no
person shall put to sale any pinnes but only such as shall be double
headed, and have the heads soldered fast to the shank of the
pinnes, well smoothed, the shank well shapen, the points well
and round filed, canted and sharpened." At that time pins
of good quality were made of brass; but a large proportion of
those against which the legislative enactment was directed were
made of iron wire blanched and passed as brass pins. To a large
extent the supply of pins in England was received from France
till about 1626, in which year the manufacture was introduced
into Gloucestershire by John Tilsby. His business flourished so
well that he soon gave employment to 1500 persons, and Stroud
pins attained a high reputation. In 1636 the pinmakers of
London formed a corporation, and the manufacture was subse-
quently established at Bristol and Birmingham, the latter town
ultimately becoming the principal centre of the industry. So
early as 1775 the attention of the enterprising colonists in Caro-
lina was drawn to the manufacture by the offer of prizes for the
first native-made pins and needles. At a later date several
pin-making machines were invented in the United States.
During the war of 1812, when the price of pins rose enormously,
the manufacture was actually started, but the industry was not
fairly successful till about the year 1836 when the Howe Manu-
facturing Company was formed at Birmingham, Connecticut.
Previous to this an American, Lemuel W. Wright, had in 1824
secured in England a patent for a machine to make solid-headed
pins, which established the industry on its present basis.

The old form of pin consisted of a shank with a separate head of
fine wire twisted round and secured to it. Fine wire for heads was
first wound on a lathe round a spit the exact circumference of the
pin shanks to be headed. In this way a long elastic spiral was
produced which had next to be cut into heads, each consisting
of two complete turns of the spiral. These heads were softened
by annealing and made into a heap for the heading boy, whose
duty was to thrust a number of shanks into the heap and let as
many as might be fit themselves with heads. Such shanks as came
out thus headed were passed to the header, who with a falling block
and die arrangement compressed together shank and head of such
a number as his die-block was fitted for. All the other operations
of straightening the wire, cutting, pointing, &c, were separately
performed, and these numerous details connected with the pro-
duction of a common pin were seized on by Adam Smith as one of
the most remarkable illustrations of the advantages of the division
of labour.

The beautiful automatic machinery by which pins are now made
of single pieces of wire is an invention of the 19th century. In
1817 a communication was made at the Patent Office by Seth Hunt,
describing a machine for making pins with " head, shaft and point
in one entire piece." By this machine a suitable length of wire
was cut off and held in a die till a globular head was formed on one
end by compression, and the other end was pointed by the revolu-
tion around it of a roughened steel wheel. This machine does not
appear to have come into use; but in 1824 Wright patented the
pin-making apparatus above referred to as the parent form pf the
machinery now employed. A factory equipped with his machines
was established in London, but the company which owned it was
not successful. The plant passed into the hands of Daniel Foote-
Tayler of Birmingham, who obtained an extension of Wright's
patent for five years from 1838, and his firm was the first to carry
on the production of machine-made solid-headed pins on a com-
mercial basis. In a modern pin-making machine wire of suitable
gauge running off a reel is drawn in and straightened by passing
between straightening pins or studs set in a table. When a pin
length has entered it is caught by lateral jaws, beyond which enough
of the end projects to form a pin-head. Against this end a steel
punch advances and compresses the metal by a die arrangement
into the form of a head. The pin length is immediately cut off
and the headed piece drops into a slit sufficiently wide to pass the
wire through but retain the head. The pins are consequently
suspended by the head while their projecting extremities are held
against a revolving cutter, by which they are pointed. They are
next cleaned by being boiled in weak beer, and then arranged in
a copper pan in layers alternating with layers of grained tin. The
contents of the pan are covered with water over which a quantity
of argol (bitartrate of potash) is sprinkled, and after boiling for
several hours the brass pins are coated with a thin deposit of tin,
which gives them their silvery appearance. They are then washed
in clean water, and dried and polished by being revolved in a barrel,
mixed with dry bran or fine sawdust, from which they are winnowed
finished pins. A large proportion of the pins sold are stuck into
paper by an automatic machine not less ingenious than the pin-
making machine itself. Mourning pins are made of iron wire,
finished by immersing in black japan and drying in a stove. A
considerable variety of pins, including the ingeniously coiled,
bent and twisted nursery safety pin, ladies' hairpins, &c, are also
made by automatic machinery. The sizes of ordinary pins range
from the 31-in. stout blanket pin down to the finest slender gilt
pin used by entomologists, 4500 of which weigh about an ounce.

PINA, RUY DE (1440-1521), Portuguese chronicler, was a
native of Guarda. He acted as secretary of the embassy sent
by King John II. to Castile in the spring of 1482, and in the
following September returned there as sole envoy. He was
present at the execution of the duke of Braganza at Evora in
1483, and in 1484 went to Rome as secretary of an embassy to
Pope Innocent VII. On his return, the king charged him to
write a history of his reign and gave him a pension for his
support. Following the arrival of Columbus from his first
voyage in 1493, Pina was one of the commissaries despatched to
Barcelona by John II. to negotiate with the Catholic sovereigns
respecting the Hmits of their) respective jurisdictions. In
September 1495 he attested the will of John II. in his capacity as
a notary public, and on the 25th of October of the same year he
was present at his master's death at Alvor and opened and read
his testament. King Manoel confirmed his pension and appointed
him in 1497 chronicler of the kingdom, keeper of the archives
and royal librarian, with a suitable salary. By 1304 Pina had
completed his chronicles of Alphonso V. and John II. King
John III. charged him with a history of his father, Manoel, and
at his death Pina had carried it down to the capture of Azamor, as
we know from Damiao de Goes, who used it in preparing his own
chronicle of that monarch.

It is probable that the chronicles of the early kings of Portugal
from Sancho I. to Alphonso IV. which were published under
Pina's name in the 18th century were written by Fernao Lopes
and edited by Pina, while that of King Duarte seems to have
been the joint production of Lopes and Azurara, with Pina again
as the editor only. Pina was a favourite of fortune during his
life, for, apart from royal benefactions, he received presents from
public men who wished to figure well in his books, and after his
death he obtained the credit for work that was not his. His
authority as an historian is considerable, and his frankness is
said to have provoked remark from contemporaries.

Pina's chronicle of King Alphonso IV. was first published in
Lisbon in 1853; those of King Duarte and King Alphonso V. in
vol. i. of the Collecao de livros ineditos da historia portugueza

6i6

PINACOTHECA— PINCKNEY, C. C.

(Lisbon, 1790), and his chronicle of John II. in vol. ii. of the same
collection (Lisbon, 1792). The introduction to the chronicle of
King Duarte contains the fullest account of Pina's life. (E. Pr.)

PINACOTHECA, a picture-gallery (Gr. Tnvaxo6i)Krt, from 7rii>a£,
a tablet or picture) . The name is especially given to the building
containing pictures which formed the left wing of the Propylaea
on the Acropolis at Athens. Though Pausanias (Bk. II., xxii. 6)
speaks of the pictures " which time had not effaced," which
seems to point to fresco painting, the fact that there is no trace
of any preparation for stucco on the walls rather shows that the
paintings were easel pictures (J. G. Frazer, Pausanias' s Descrip-
tion of Greece, 1898, ii. 252). The Romans adopted the term
for the room in a private house containing pictures, statues,
and other works of art. It is used for a public gallery on the
continent of Europe, as at Bologna and Turin. At Munich there
are two galleries known as the Old and New Pinakothek.

PINAR DEL RIO, capital of Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba,
about 107 m. S.W. by railway from Havana. Pop. (1907),
10,634. The city is in the fertile valley of the Guama. It is the
centre of the tobacco industry of the Vuelta Abajo region. Its
port is La Coloma, on the southern coast. The pueblo was
created after 1773; but the history of the settlement goes back
to 1 571, and the parochial church dates from 17 10.

PINCKNEY, CHARLES (1757-1824), American statesman,
was born on the 26th of October 1757 at Charleston, South
Carolina; he was the son of Charles Pinckney (1 731-1784), first
president of the first South Carolina Provincial Congress (Jan.
to June 1775), and a cousin of Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and
Thomas Pinckney. He was studying law at the outbreak of
the War of Independence, served in the early campaigns in the
South, and in 1779 was elected to the South Carolina House of
Representatives. He was captured by the British at the fall
of Charleston (1780), and remained a prisoner until the close
of hostilities. He was elected a delegate to the Congress of the
Confederation in 1784, 1785 and 1786, and in 1786 he moved
the appointment of a committee " to take into consideration
the affairs of the nation," advocating in this connexion an en-
largement of the powers of Congress. The committee having
been appointed, Pinckney was made chairman of a sub-commit-
tee which prepared a plan for amending the articles of confedera-
tion. In 1787 he was a delegate to the Federal constitutional
convention, and on the same day (May 29) on which Edmund
Randolph iq.v.) presented what is known as the Virginia plan,
Pinckney presented a draft of a constitution which is known as
the Pinckney plan. Although the Randolph resolutions were
made the basis on which the new constitution was framed,
Pinckney's plan seems to have been much drawn upon.
Furthermore, Pinckney appears to have made.valuable sugges-
tions regarding phrasing and matters of detail. On the 18th of
August he introduced a series of resolutions, and to him should
probably be accredited the authorship of the substance of some
thirty-one or thirty-two provisions of the constitution. 1 Pinck-

1 The " Pinckney Plan " has been the subject of considerable
discussion. When, in 1818, John Qiiincy Adams was preparing
the journal of the convention for publication and discovered that
the Pinckney plan was missing, he wrote to Pinckney for a copy,
and Pinckney sent him what he asserted was either a copy of his
original draft or a copy of a draft which differed from the original
in no essentials. But as this was found to bear a close resemblance
to the draft reported by the committee of detail, Madison and others,
who had been members of the convention, as well as historians,
treated it as spurious, and for years Pinckney received little credit
for his work in the convention. Later historians, however, notably
J. Franklin Jameson and Andrew C. McLaughlin, have accredited
to him the suggestion of a number of provisions of the constitution
as a result of their efforts to reconstruct his original plan chiefly
from his speeches, or alleged speeches, and from certain papers
of James Wilson, a member of the committee of detail, one of
which papers is believed to be an outline of the Pinckney plan.
See J. F. Jameson, " Studies in the History of the Federal Con-
vention of 1787," in the Annual Report of the American Historical
Association for 1902, vol. i.; A. C. McLaughlin, " Outline of Pinck-
ney's Plan for a Constitution," in The Nation, April 28, 1904; an
article entitled " Sketch of Pinckney's Plan for a Constitution,"
in the American Historical Review for July 1904; and C. C. Nott,
The Mystery of the Pinckney Draught (New York, 1908), an attempt
by a former chief-justice of the U.S. Court of Claims to prove that

ney was president of the State Convention of 1790 that framed
a new constitution for South Carolina, was governor of the
state from 1 789 to 1792, a member of the state House of Represen-
tatives in 1 792-1 796, and again governor from 1796 to 1798.
From 1799 to 1801 he was a member of the United States
Senate. He entered public life as a Federalist, but later became
the leader in organizing the Democratic-Republican party in
his state, and contributed largely to the success of Thomas
Jefferson in the presidential election of 1800. By Jeiferson's
appointment he was American minister to Spain from 1801 to
1805. In general his mission was a distinct failure, his arrogance
and indiscretions finally causing the Spanish government to
request his recall. He was elected to the state House of Repre-
sentatives in 1805, was again governor of South Carolina from
1806 to 1808, in 1810-1814 was once more a member of the
state House of Representatives, in which he defended President
Madison's war policy, and from 1819 to 1821 was a member of
the National House of Representatives, in which he opposed
the Missouri Compromise in a brilliant speech. He died at
Charleston, South Carolina, on the 29th of October 1824.

His son, Henry Laurens Pinckney (1794-1863), was a mem-
ber of the state House of Representatives in 1816-1832, founded
in 1819 and edited for fifteen years the Charleston Mercury,
the great exponent of state's rights principles, and was a member
of the National House of Representatives in 1833-1837.

PINCKNEY, CHARLES COTESWORTH (1746-1825), Ameri-
can statesman, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the
25th of February 1746, the son of Charles Pinckney (d. 1758), 2
by his second wife, the celebrated girl planter, Eliza Lucas.
When a child he was sent to England, like his brother Thomas
after him, to be educated. Both of them were at Westminster
and Oxford and were called to the bar, and for a time they
studied in France at the Royal Military College at Caen. Return-
ing to America in 1769, C. C. Pinckney began the practice of
law at Charleston, and soon became deputy attorney-general of
the province. He was a member of the first South Carolina
provincial congress in 1775, served as colonel in the South
Carolina militia in 1 776-1 777, was chosen president of the
South Carolina Senate in 1779, took part in the Georgia expedi-
tion and the attack on Savannah in the same year, was captured
at the fall of Charleston in 1780 and was kept in close confine-
ment until 1782, when he was exchanged. In 1783 he was
commissioned a brevet brigadier-general in the continental
army. He was an influential member of the constitutional
convention of 1787, advocating the counting of all slaves as a
basis of representation and opposing the abolition of the slave-
trade. He opposed as " impracticable " the election of represen-
tatives by popular vote, and also opposed the payment of
senators, who, he thought, should be men of wealth. Subse-
quently Pinckney bore a prominent part in securing the ratifica-
tion of the Federal constitution in the South Carolina convention
called for that purpose in 1788 and in framing the South Carolina
State Constitution in the convention of 1790. After the
organization of the Federal government, President Washington
offered him at different times appointments as associate justice of
the Supreme Court (1791), secretary of war (1795) and secretary
the document sent by Pinckney to Adams in 1818 is a genuine
copy of his original plan.

2 Charles Pinckney, the father, was long prominent in colonial
affairs; he was attorney-general of the province in 1733, speaker of
the assembly in 1 736-1 738 and in 1740, chief justice of the province
in 1 752-1 753, and agent for South Carolina in England in 1753-
1758. He was the uncle of Charles Pinckney (1731-1784), and the
great-uncle of Charles Pinckney (1757-1824). Eliza Lucas Pinckney
(c. 1722-1793) was the daughter of Lieut. -Colonel George Lucas
of the British army, who about 1738 removed from Antigua to
South Carolina, where he acquired several plantations. He was
almost immediately recalled to Antigua, and his daughter under-
took the management of the plantations with conspicuous success.
She is said to have been the first to introduce into South Carolina
(and into continental North America) the cultivation and manu-
facture of indigo, and she also imported silkworms — in 1753 she
presented to the princess of Wales a dress made of silk from her
plantations. She was married to Charles Pinckney in 1744. See
Harriott H. Ravenel, Eliza Pinckney (New York, 1896), in the
" Women of Colonial and Revolutionary Times " series.

PINCKNEY, T.— PINDAR

617

of state (1795), each of which he declined; but in 1796 he suc-
ceeded James Monroe as minister to France. The Directory
refused to receive him, and he retired to Holland, but in the next
year, Elbridge Gerry and John Marshall having been appointed
to act with him, he again repaired to Paris, where he is said to
have made the famous reply to a veiled demand for a " loan "
(in reality for a gift), " Millions for defence, but not one cent
for tribute," — another version is, " No, not a sixpence." The
mission accomplished nothing, and Pinckney and Marshall left
France in disgust, Gerry {q.v.) remaining. When the correspon-
dence of the commissioners was sent to the United States
Congress the letters " X," " Y " and " Z," were inserted in
place of the names of the French agents with whom the com-
mission treated — hence the " X Y Z Correspondence," famous
in American history. In 1800 he was the Federalist candidate
for vice-president, and in 1804 and again in 1808 for president,
receiving 14 electoral votes in the former and 47 in the latter
year. From 1805 until his death, on the 16th of August 1825,
he was president-general of the Society of the Cincinnati.

PINCKNEY, THOMAS (1750-1828), American statesman and
diplomat, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the 23rd
of October 1750, a younger brother of Charles Cotesworth
Pinckney (q.v.). Educated in England, he returned to Charles-
ton in 1773, and was admitted to the bar in 1774. During the
War of Independence his early training at the French military
college at Caen enabled him to render effective service to General
Benjamin Lincoln in 1778-1779, to Count d'Estaing (1779), to
General Lincoln in the defence of Charleston and afterwards
to General Horatio Gates. In the battle of Camden he was
badly wounded and captured, remaining a prisoner for more
than a year. Subsequently he was governor of South Carolina
in 1787^-1789; presided over the state convention which ratified
the Federal constitution in 1788; was a member of the state
legislature in 1791; and was United States minister to Great
Britain in 1792-1796. During part of this time (1794-1795) he
was also envoy extraordinary to Spain, and in this capacity nego-
tiated (1795) the important Treaty of San Lorenzo el Real; by
that treaty the boundary between the United States and East and
West Florida and between the United States and " Louisiana "
was settled (Spain relinquishing all claims east of the Mississippi
above 31 N. lat.), and the United States secured the freedom
of navigation of the Mississippi to its mouth with the right of
deposit at New Orleans for three years, after which the United
States was to have the same right either at New Orleans or at
some other place on the Mississippi to be designated by Spain.
In 1796 Pinckney was the Federalist candidate for vice-president,
and in 1 797-1801 he was a Federalist representative in Congress.
During the War of 1812 he was a major-general. In 1825 he
succeeded his brother as president-general of the Society of the
Cincinnati. He died in Charleston on the 2nd of November
1828. Pinckney, like many other South Carolina revolutionary
leaders, was of aristocratic birth and politics, closely connected
with England by ties of blood, education and business relations.
This renders the more remarkable their attitude in the War
of Independence, for which they made great sacrifices. Men
of Pinckney's type were not in sympathy with the progressive
democratic spirit of America, and they began to withdraw from
politics after about 1800.

See C. C. Pinckney, Life of General Thomas Pinckney (Boston,
1895).

PINDAR (Gr. Uivdapos, c. 522-443 b.c), the great lyric
poet of ancient Greece, was born at Cynoscephalae, in Boeotia,
at the time of the Pythian games (Jr. 175, Bergk 4 , 193)/ which
is taken by Bockh to be 522 B.C. He would thus be some
thirty-four years younger than Simonides of Ceos. He was the
son of Daiphantus and Cleodice (or Cleidice). The traditions
of his family have left their impress on his poetry, and are not
without importance for a correct estimate of his relation to his
contemporaries. The clan of the Aegidae — tracing their line
from the hero Aegeus— belonged to the " Cadmean " element

1 The references are to the edition of Pindar by C. A. M. Fennell
(1803-1899), and the fourth edition of Bergk's Poetae lyrici graeci.

of Thebes, i.e. to the elder nobility whose supposed date went
back to the days of the founder Cadmus. A branch of the
Theban Aegidae had been settled in Achaean times at Amyclae
in the valley of the Eurotas (Pind. Isthm. vi. 14), and after
the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus had apparently been
adopted by the Spartans into one of the three Dorian tribes.
The Spartan Aegidae helped to colonize the island of Thera
(Pyth. v. 68-70). Another branch of the race was settled at
Cyrene in Africa; and Pindar tells how his Aegid clansmen at
Thebes " showed honour " to Cyrene as often as they kept the
festival of the Carnea (Pyth. v. 75). Pindar is to be conceived,
then, as standing within the circle of those families for whom the
heroic myths were domestic records. He had a personal link
with the memories which everywhere were most cherished by
Dorians, no less than with those which appealed to men of
" Cadmean " or of Achaean stock. And the wide ramifications
of the Aegidae throughout Hellas rendered it peculiarly fitting
that a member of that illustrious clan should celebrate the glories
of many cities in verse which was truly Panhellenic.

Pindar is said to have received lessons in flute-playing from
one Scopelinus at Thebes, and afterwards to have studied at
Athens under the musicians Apollodorus (or Agathocles) and
Lasus of Hermione. In his youth, as the story went, he was
defeated in a poetical contest by the Theban Corinna — who,
in reference to his profuse employment of Theban mythology,
is said to have advised him " to sow with the hand, not with the
sack." There is an extant fragment in which Corinna reproves
another Theban poetess, Myrtis, " for that she, a woman,
contended with Pindar " (on fiava 4>ova' e/3a Ili.v8a.pou) tot' tpw)
— a sentiment which hardly fits the story of Corinna's own
victory. The facts that stand out from these meagre traditions
are that Pindar was precocious and laborious. Preparatory
labour of a somewhat severe and complex kind was, indeed,
indispensable for the Greek lyric poet of that age. Lyric com-
position demanded studies not only in metre but in music, and
in the adaptation of both to the intricate movements of the
choral dance (opxt^tikti) . Several passages in Pindar's extant
odes glance at the long technical development of Greek lyric
poetry before his time, and at the various elements of art which
the lyrist was required to temper into a harmonious whole
(see, e.g. 01. iii. 8, vi. 91, xiii. 18, xiv. 15; Pyth. xii. 23, &c).
The earliest ode which can be dated (Pyth. x.) belongs to the
twentieth year of Pindar's age (502 B.C.) ; the latest (Olymp. v.)
to the seventieth (452 B.C.). 2 He visited the court of Hiero at
Syracuse; Theron, the despot of Acragas, also entertained him;
and his travels perhaps included Cyrene. Tradition notices
the special closeness of his relations with Delphi: " He was
greatly honoured by all the Greeks, because he was so beloved
of Apollo that he even received a share of the offerings; and at
the sacrifices the priest would cry aloud that Pindar come in
to the feast of the god." 3 His wife's name was Megacleia
(another account says Timoxena, but this may have been a
second wife), and he had a son named Daiphantus and two
daughters, Eumetis and Protomache. He is said to have died
at Argos, at the age of seventy-nine, in 443 B.C.

Among the Greeks of his own and later times Pindar was
pre-eminently distinguished for his piety towards the gods.
He tells us that, " near to the vestibule " of his house (Pyth. iii.
78), choruses of maidens used to dance and sing by night in
praise of the Mother of the Gods (Cybele) and Pan— deities
peculiarly associated with the Phrygian music of the flute, in
which other members of Pindar's family besides the poet himself
are said to have excelled. A statue and shrine of Cybele, which
he dedicated at Thebes, were the work of the Theban artists,
Aristomedes and Socrates. He also dedicated at Thebes a
statue to Hermes Agoraios, and another, by Calamis, to Zeus
Ammon. The latter god claimed his especial veneration because
Cyrene, one of the homes of his Aegid ancestry, stood " where
Zeus Ammon hath his seat," i.e. near the oasis and temple

2 According to others, his latest poem is the eighth Pythian
ode, 450 or 446.

5 T3.ivbb.pov yivos, in ed. Aid.

6i8

PINDAR

(Pyth. iv. 16). The author of one of the Greek lives of Pindar
says that, " when Pausanias the king of the Lacedaemonians
was burning Thebes, some one wrote on Pindar's house, ' Burn
not the house of Pindar the poet ' ; and thus it aloro escaped
destruction." This incident, of which the occasion is not further
denned, has been regarded as a later invention. 1 Better
attested, at least, is the similar clemency of Alexander the Great,
when he sacked Thebes one hundred and eight years after the
traditional date of Pindar's death (335 B.C.). He spared only

(1) the Cadmeia, or citadel, of Thebes (thenceforth to be occupied
by a Macedonian garrison); (2) the temples and holy places; and
(3) Pindar's house. While the inhabitants were sold into
slavery, exception was made only of (1) priests and priestesses;

(2) persons who had been connected by private i;evia with
Philip or Alexander, or by public £e«a with the Macedonians;

(3) Pindar's descendants. It is probable enough, as Dio Chry-
sostom suggests (ii. 33), that Alexander was partly moved by
personal gratitude to a poet who had celebrated his ancestor
Alexander I. of Macedon. But he must have been also, or
chiefly, influenced by the sacredness which in the eyes of all
Hellenes surrounded Pindar's memory, not only as that of a
1,'reat national poet, but also as that of a man who had stood
in a specially close relation to the gods, and, above all, to the
Delphian Apollo. 2 Upwards of six hundred years after Pindar's
death the traveller Pausanias saw an iron chair which was
preserved among the most precious treasures of the temple in
the sanctuary at Delphi. It was the chair, he was told, " in
which Pindar used to sit, whenever he came to Delphi, and to
chant those of his songs which pertain to Apollo " (x. 24, 5).

During the second half of Pindar's life, Athens was rising
to that supremacy in literature and art which was to prove more
lasting than her political primacy. Pindar did not live to see
the Parthenon, or to witness the mature triumphs of Sophocles;
but he knew the sculpture of Calamis, and he may have known
the masterpieces of Aeschylus. It is interesting to note the
feeling of this great Theban poet, who stands midway between
Homeric epos and Athenian drama, towards the Athens of which
Thebes was so often the bitterest foe, but with which he himself
had so large a measure of spiritual kinship. A few words remain
from a dithyramb in which he paid a glowing tribute to those
" sons of Athens " who " laid the shining foundations of free-
dom " (7rat56s 'hBavaiiov epakovro (paevvav KptjirlS' eXevdepias,
fr. 55, Bergk 4 , ^ 77),^ while Athens itself is thus invoked:
w ral Xnrapai mi locTt^avoi. koX aolSiiioi, "EXXdSos iptiapja., KXeirat
'Aflarai, 8aLij.6vi.ov TroXkdpov (fr. 54, Bergk 4 , 76). Isocrates,
writing in 353 b.c, states that the phrase 'EXXdSos tpeio-p.0.,
" stay of Hellas," so greatly gratified the Athenians that they
conferred on Pindar the high distinction of wpo&via (i.e.
appointed him honorary consul, as it were — for Athens at Thebes),
besides presenting him with a large sum of money (Antidosis,
166). One of the letters of the pseudo-Aeschines (Ep. iv.) gives
an improbable turn to the story by saying that the Thebans
had fined Pindar for his praise of Athene, and that the Athenians
repaid him twice the sum. 3 The notice preserved by Isocrates
—less than one hundred years after Pindar's death — is good
warrant for the belief that Pindar had received some exceptional
honours from Athens. Pausanias saw a statue of Pindar at
Athens, near the temple of Ares (i. 8, 4). Besides the fragment
just mentioned, several passages in Pindar's extant odes bespeak
his love for Athens. Its name is almost always joined by him
with some epithet of praise or reverence. In alluding to the
great battles of the Persian wars, while he gives the glory of
Plataea to the Spartans, he assigns that of Salamis to the
Athenians (Pyth. i. 76). In celebrating (Pyth. vii.) the Pythian

1 A. Schafer, Demosthenes und seine Zeit. iii. 119.

2 It - wi il. 1 ? e remarked that history requires us to modify the state-
ment in Milton's famous lines :—

" The great Emathian conqueror bade spare
The house of Pindarus, when temple and tower
Went to the ground."
Indeed, the point of the incident depends much on the fact that the
temples and Pindar's house were classed together for exemption

3 Compare Jebb, Attic Orators, ii. 143.

Works.

victory of the Athenian Megacles, he begins thus: " Fairest of
preludes is the renown of Athens for the mighty race of the
Alcmaeonidae. What home, or what house, could I call mine
by a name that should sound more glorious for Hellas to hear ?"
Referring to the fact that an Aeginetan victor in the games had
been trained by an Athenian, he says (Nem. v. 49) " meet it is
that a shaper of athletes should come from Athens" — and
recollecting how often Pindar compares the poet's efforts to the
athlete's, we may well believe that he was thinking of his own
early training at Athens.

Pindar's versatility as a lyric poet is one of the characteristics
remarked by Horace (Odes, iv. 2), and is proved by the fragments,
though the poems which have come down entire
represent only one class of compositions — the
Epinicia, or odes of victory, commemorating successes in the
great games. The lyric types to which the fragments belong,
though it cannot be assumed that the list is complete, are at
least numerous and varied.

(1) "Tpvot., Hymns to deities — as to Zeus Ammon, to Persephone,
to Fortune. The fragmentary iinvos entitled 07j/3auHs seems to
have celebrated the deities of Thebes. (2) Haiaves, _.
paeans, expressing prayer or praise for the help of Fra Z ments -
a protecting god, especially Apollo, Artemis or Zeus. (3)
AiBbpanfioi, Dithyrambs, odes of a lofty and impassioned strain,
sung by choruses in honour of Dionysus (cf. Pind. 01. xiii. 18,
Tat Aiavbo-ov iroBev i^icpavfu aiv 0o7/\ora Xaptres SiSvpafifkp — where
Pindar alludes to the choral form given to the dithyramb,
c. 600 B.C., by Arion — /SoijXa-n;?, " ox-driving," perhaps meaning
"winning an ox as prize "). (4) UpoaSdia, Processional Songs,
choral chants for worshippers approaching a shrine. One was
written by Pindar for the Delians, another for the Aeginetans.
(.5) TLapeivia, Choral Songs for Maidens. The reference in Pyth.
iii. 78 to maidens worshipping Cybele and Pan near the poet's
house is illustrated by the fact that one of these Uapdivia invoked
" Pan, lord of Arcadia, attendant of the Great Mother, watcher of
her awful shrine" (fr. 72, Bergk 4 , 95). (6) 'TTopx^ara, Choral
Dance-Songs, adapted to a lively movement, used from an early
date in the cult of Apollo, and afterwards in that of other gods,
especially Dionysus. To this class belongs one of the finest frag-
ments (84, Bergk 4 , 107), written for the Thebans in connexion with
propitiatory rites after an eclipse of the sun, probably that of
the 30th of April 463 B.C. (7) 'E7<«W«a, Songs of Praise (for men,
while vjivoi were for gods), to be sung by a k&ixos or festal company.
In strictness ctkw/x'oj' was the genus of which imvUiov was a
species; but the latter is more conveniently treated as a distinct
kind. Pindar wrote encomia for Theron, despot of Acragas, and
for Alexander I. (son of Amyntas), king of Macedon. (8) Xko\m,
Festal Songs. The usual sense of hkoKiov is a drinking-song, taken
up by one guest after another at a banquet. But Pindar's cubkia,
were choral and antistrophic. One was to be sung at Corinth by
a chorus of the UpdSovXoi attached to the temple of Aphrodite
Ourania, when a certain Xenophon offered sacrifice before going to
compete at Olympia. Another brilliant fragment, for Theoxenus
of Tenedos, has an erotic character. (9) Opfjvoi, Dirges, to be sung
with choral dance and the music of the flute, either at the burial
of the dead or in commemorative rituals. Some of the most
beautiful fragments belong to this class (106-110, Bergk 4 , 129-133).
One of the smaller fragments (114, Bergk 4 , 137)— in memory of an
Athenian who had been initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries
(ISwv K&va) — has been conjecturally referred to the Bpijvos which
Pindar is said to have written (schol. Pyth. vii. 18) for Hippocrates,
the grandfather of Pericles. A number of small fragments, which
cannot be certainly classified, are usually given as e£ aZ-qKuv tihuiv,
" of uncertain class." On comparing the above list with Horace,
Odes, iv. 2, it will be seen that he alludes to No. 3 (dithyrambos) ;
to Nos. 1, 2, and 7 (seu deos regesve canit); and to No. 9 (flebili
sponsae juvenemve raptum Plorat) — as well as to the extant Epinicia
(sive quos Elea domum reducit Palma caelestes).

j The Epinicia.— The kirivlua (sc. jueXi?), or brivUioi, (sc.
vfivoi), " Odes of Victory," form a collection of forty-four odes,
traditionally divided into four books, answering to the four
great festivals: (1) 'OXvp.wtov'iKai (sc. v/xvol): fourteen odes for
winners of the wild olive-wreath in the Olympian games, held
at Olympia in honour of Zeus once in four years; (2) ILvOioviKai:
twelve odes for winners of the laurel-wreath in the Pythian
games held at Delphi in honour of Apollo, once in four years,
the third of each Olympiad; (3) NejueoviKai: eleven odes for
winners of the pine-wreath in the Nemean games, held at Nemea,
in honour of _ Zeus, once in two years, the second and fourth oi
each Olympiad; and (4) To-dp.iovlKai: seven odes for winners
of the parsley wreath in the Isthmian games, held at the Isthmus

PINDAR

619

of Corinth, in honour of Poseidon, once in two years, the first
and third of each Olympiad. The Greek way of citing an ode
is by the nomin. plur. followed by the numeral, e.g. " the ninth
Olympian " is ' OXu/uiticti'Tkcu 6'. The chronological range of
the collection (so far as ascertainable) is from 502 B.C. (Pyth.x.)
to 452 B.C. (01. v.). With respect to the native places of
the victors, the geographical distribution is as follows: for the
mainland of Greece proper, 13 odes; for Aegina, n, for Sicily,
15; for the Epizephyrian Locrians (southern Italy), 2; for
Cyrene (Africa), 3.

The general characteristics of the odes may be briefly con-
sidered under the following heads: (1) language; (2) treatment
of theme; (3) sentiment — religious, moral and political; (4)
relation to contemporary art.

1. The diction of Pindar is distinct in character from that of
every other Greek poet, being almost everywhere marked by the
greatest imaginative boldness. Thus (a) metaphor is used
even for the expression of common ideas, or the translation of
familiar phrases, as when a cloak is called (01. ix. 07) " a warm
remedy for winds." (b) Images for the highest excellence are
drawn from the farthest limits of travel or navigation, or from
the fairest of natural objects; as when the superlative hospitality
of a man who kept open house all the year round is described
by saying, " far as to Phasis was his voyage in summer days,
and in winter to the shores of Nile " (Isthm. ii. 41); or when
Olympia, the " crown " or " flower " of festivals, is said to be
excellent as water, bright as gold, brilliant as the noonday sun
(01. i. ad init.). This trait might be called the Pindaric imagery
of the superlative, (c) Poetical inversion of ordinary phrase is
frequent; as, instead of, " he struck fear into the beasts," " he
gave the beasts to fear " (Pyth. v. 56). (d) The efforts of the
poet's genius are represented under an extraordinary number of
similitudes, borrowed from javelin-throwing, chariot-driving,
leaping, rowing, sailing, ploughing, building, shooting with the
bow, sharpening a knife on a whetstone, mixing wine in a bowl,
and many more, (e) Homely images, from common life, are
not rare; as from account-keeping, usury, sending merchandise
over sea, the anvraXri or secret dispatch, &c. And we have
such homely proverbs as, " he hath his foot in this shoe," i.e.
stands in this case (01. vi. 8). (/) The natural order of words in
a sentence is often boldly deranged, while, on the other hand,
the syntax is seldom difficult, (g) Words not found except in
Pindar are numerous, many of these being compounds which
(like kvapinflporos, KarcHpvWopoeCv, &c.) suited the dactylic
metres in their Pindaric combinations. Horace was right in
speaking of Pindar's " nova verba," though they were not
confined to the " audaces dithyrambi."

2. The actual victory which gave occasion for the ode is
seldom treated at length or in detail — which, indeed, only
exceptional incidents could justify. Pindar's method is to take
some heroic myth, or group of myths, connected with the
victor's city or family, and, after a brief prelude, to enter on
this, returning at the close, as a rule, to the subject of the victor's
merit or good fortune, and interspersing the whole with moral
comment. Thus the fourth Pythian is for Arcesilaus, king of
Cyrene, which was said to have been founded by men of Thera,
descendants of one of Jason's comrades. Using this link,
Pindar introduces his splendid narrative of the Argonauts.
Many odes, again, contain shorter mythical episodes — as the
birth of Iamus (01. vi.), or the vision of Bellerophon (01. xiii.)
— which form small pictures of masterly finish and beauty.
Particular notice is due to the skill with which Pindar often
manages the return from a mythical digression to his immediate
theme. It is bold and swift, yet is not felt as harshly abrupt-
justifying his own phrase at one such turn — kox riva olpov taapx
fipaxiiv (Pyth. iv. 247). It has been thought that, in the
parenthesis about the Amazons' shields (quibus Mos wide
deductus . . . quaerere distuli, Odes, iv. 4, 18), Horace was
imitating a Pindaric transition; if so, he has illustrated his own
observation as to the peril of imitating the Theban poet.

3. a. The religious feeling of Pindar is strongly marked in
the odes. " From the gods are all means of human excellence."

He will not believe that the gods, when they dined with Tantalus*
ate his son Pelops; rather Poseidon carried off the. youth to
Olympus. That is, his reason for rejecting a scandalous story
about the gods is purely religious, as distinct from moral; it
shocks his conception of the divine dignity. With regard to
oracles, he inculcates precisely such a view as would have been
most acceptable to the Delphic priesthood, viz. that the gods
do illumine their prophets, but that human wit can foresee
nothing which' the gods do not choose to reveal. A mystical
doctrine of the soul's destiny after death appears in some
passages (as 01. ii. 66 sq.). Pindar was familiar with the idea
of metempsychosis (cf. ibid. 68), but the attempt to trace Pytha-
goreanism in some phrases (Pyth. ii. 34, iii. 74) appears unsafe.
The belief in a fully conscious existence for the soul in a future
state, determined by the character of the earthly life, entered
into the teaching of the Eleusinian and other mysteries. Com-
paring the fragment of the Qprjvos (114, Bergk 4 , 137), we may
probably regard the mystic or esoteric element in Pindar's
theology as due to such a source.

b. The moral sentiment pervading Pindar's odes rests on a
constant recognition of the limits imposed by the divine will on
human effort, combined with strenuous exhortation that each
man should strive to reach the limit allowed in his own case.
Native temperament (4>vrj) is the grand source of all human
excellence (apery), while such excellences as can be acquired by
study (SidaKrai aperai, 01. ix. 100) are of relatively small
scope — the sentiment, we may remark, of one whose thoughts
were habitually conversant with the native qualities of a poet
on the one hand and of an athlete on the other. The elements
of vylas oX(3os — ''' sane happiness," such as has least reason to
dread the jealousy of the gods — are substance sufficing for daily
wants and good repute (evkoyla). He who has these should
not " seek to be a god." " Wealth set with virtues " (ir\ovros
aptTcus St8at.da.\ij.evos) , as gold with precious gems, is the most
fortunate lot, because it affords the amplest opportunities for
honourable activity. Pindar does not rise above the ethical
standard of an age which said, " love thy friend and hate thy
foe " (cf. Pyth. ii. 83; Isthm. iii. 65). But in one sense he has
a moral elevation which is distinctively his own; he is the
glowing prophet of generous emulation and of reverent self-
control.

c. The political sentiments of the Theban poet are suggested
by Pyth. xi. 52; " In polities I find the middle state crowned
with more enduring good; therefore praise I not the despot's
portion; those virtues move my zeal which serve the folk."
If in Pyth. ii. 87, a democracy is described as 6 Xd/3pos
(TTparos, " the raging crowd, " it is to be noted that the ode is
for Hiero of Syracuse, and that the phrase clearly refers to the
violence of those democratic revolutions which, in the early
part of the 5th century B.C., more than once convulsed Sicilian
cities. At Thebes, after the Persian wars, a " constitutional
oligarchy " (oKiyapxia. l<xovop,os, Thuc. iii. 62) had replaced
the narrower and less temperate oligarchy of former days
(bwaorda. ov juerd vb/Mv); and in this we may probably
recognize the phase of Greek political life most congenial to
Pindar. He speaks of a king's lot as unique in its opportunities
(01. i. 113); he sketches the character of an ideal king (Pyth.
iii. 71); but nothing in his poetry implies liking for the tvpavvis
as a form of government. Towards the Greek princes of Sicily
and Cyrene his tone is ever one of manly independence; he
speaks as a Greek citizen whose lineage places him on a level
with the proudest of the Dorian race, and whose office invests
him with an almost sacred dignity. In regard to the politics
of Hellas at large, Pindar makes us feel the new sense of leisure
for quiet pursuits and civilizing arts which came after the
Persian wars. He honours " Tranquillity, the friend of cities "
('Acruxta, (^iXoiroXis, 01. iv. 16). The epic poet sang of wars;
Pindar celebrates the " rivalries of peace."

4. Pindar's genius was boldly original; at the same time he
was an exquisite artist. " Mine be it to invent new strains,
mine the skill to hold my course in the chariot of the Muses;
and may courage go with me, and power of ample grasp " (01.

620

PINDARICS

ix. 80). Here we see the exulting sense of inborn strength;
in many other places we perceive the feeling of conscious art
— as in the phrase daidaWnv , so apt for his method of inlaying
an ode with mythical subjects, or when he compares the opening
of a song to the front of a stately building (01. vi. 3). Pindar's
sympathy with external nature was deeper and keener than is
often discernible in the poetry of his age. It appears, for
example, in his welcome of the season when " the chamber of
the hours is opened, and delicate plants perceive the fragrant
spring" (Jr. 53, Bergk 4 , 75); in the passage where Jason invokes
" the rushing strength of waves and winds, and the nights, and
the paths of the deep" {Pyth. iv. 195); in the lines on the
eclipse of the sun (Jr. 84, Bergk, 4 107); and in the picture of
the eruption, when Etna, " pillar of the sky, nurse of keen snow
all the year," sends forth " pure springs of fire unapproachable "
(Pyth. i. 20). The poet's feeling for colour is often noticeable
— as in the Deautiful story of the birth of Iamus — when Evadne
lays aside her silver pitcher and her girdle of scarlet web; the
babe is found, " its delicate body steeped in the golden and deep
purple rays of pansies " (01. vi. 55).

The spirit of art, in every form, is represented for Pindar
by x^pw — " the source of all delights to mortals " (01. i. 30) —
or by the personified Charites (Graces). The Charites were
often represented as young maidens, decking themselves with
early flowers — the rose, in particular, being sacred to them as
well as to Aphrodite. In Pindar's mind, as in the old Greek
conception from which the worship of the Charites sprang, the
instinct of beautiful art was inseparable from the sense of natural
Sculpture. beauty. Tne period from 500 to 460 B.C., to which
most of Pindar's extant odes belong, marked a stage
in the development of Greek sculpture. The schools of Argos,
Sicyon and Aegina were effecting a transition from archaic
types to the art which was afterwards matured in the
age of Pheidias. Olympia forms the central link between
Pindar's poetry and Greek sculpture. From about 560 B.C.
onwards sculpture had been applied to the commemoration of
athletes, chiefly at Olympia. In a striking passage (Nem. v.
ad. init.) Pindar recognizes sculpture and poetry as sister arts
employed in the commemoration of the athlete, and contrasts
the merely local effect of the statue with the wide diffusion of
the poem. " No sculptor I, to fashion images that shall stand
idly on one pedestal for aye; no, go thou forth from Aegina,
sweet song of mine, on every freighted ship, on each light bark."
Many particular subjects were common to Pindar and contem-
porary sculpture. Thus (1) the sculptures on the east pediment
of the temple at Aegina represented 'Heracles coming to seek
the aid of Telamon against Troy — a theme brilliantly treated
by Pindar in the fifth Isthmian; (2) Hiero's victory in the
chariot-race was commemorated at Olympia by the joint work
of the sculptors Onatas and Calamis; (3) the Gigantomachia,
(4) the wedding of Heracles and Hebe, (5) the war of the Centaurs
with the Lapithae, and (6) a contest between Heracles and
Apollo, are instances of mythical material treated alike by the
poet and by sculptors of his day. The contemporary improve-
ments in town architecture, introducing spacious and well-
paved streets, such as the cKVfxcrri 656s at Cyrene (Pyth. v.
87), suggests his frequent comparison of the paths of song to
broad and stately causeways (7rX<xre«H wpocroSoi. — e/carojuireSot
KtXtvdoL. Nem. vi. 47; Isthm. vi. 22). A song is likened to
cunning work which blends gold, ivory and coral (Nem. vii. 78).
Pindar's feeling that poetry, though essentially a divine gift,
has a technical side (<ro4>ia), and that on this side it has had
an historical development like that of other arts, is forcibly
illustrated by his reference to the inventions (<ro<£>ia-jucu-a) for
which Corinth had early been famous. He instances (1) the
development of the dithyramb, (2) certain improvements in
the harnessing and driving of horses, and (3) the addition of
the pediment to temples (01. xiii. 21).

In the development of Greek lyric poetry two periods are
broadly distinguished. During the first, from about 600 to
500 B.C., lyric poetry is local or tribal — as Alcaeus and Sappho
write for Lesbians, Alcman and Stesichorus for Dorians. During

the second period, which takes its rise in the sense of Hellenic
unity created by the Persian wars, the lyric poet addresses all
Greece. Pindar and Simonides are the great representatives
of this second period, to which Bacchylides, the nephew of
Simonides, also belongs. These, with a few minor poets, are
classed by German writers as die universalen Mcliker. The
Greeks usually spoke, not of " lyric," but of " melic " poetry
(i.e. meant to be sung, and not, like the epic, recited); and
" universal melic " is lyric poetry addressed to all Greece. But
Pindar is more than the chief extant lyrist. Epic, lyric and
dramatic poetry succeeded each other in Greek literature by a
natural development. Each of them was the spontaneous
utterance of the age which brought it forth. In Pindar we can
see that phase of the Greek mind which produced Homeric
epos passing over into the phase which produced Athenian
drama. His spirit is often thoroughly dramatic — witness such
scenes as the interview between Jason and Pelias (Pyth. iv.),
the meeting of Apollo and Chiron (Pyth. ix.), the episode of
Castor and Polydeuces (Nem. x.), the entertainment of Heracles
by Telamon (Isthm. v.). Epic narrative alone was no longer
enough for the men who had known that great trilogy of national
life, the Persian invasions; they longed to see the heroes moving
and to hear them speaking. The poet of Olympia, accustomed
to see beautiful forms in vivid action or vivid art, was well
fitted to be the lyric interpreter of the new dramatic impulse.
Pindar has more of the Homeric spirit than any Greek lyric
poet known to us. On the other side, he has a genuine, if less
evident, kinship with Aeschylus and Sophocles. Pindar's work,
like Olympia itself, illustrates the spiritual unity of Greek art.

The fact that certain glosses and lacunae are common to all cur
MSS. of Pindar make it probable that these MSS. are derived from
a common archetype. Now the older scholia on Pindar, which
appear to have been compiled mainly from the commentaries of
Didymus (c. 15 B.C.), sometimes presuppose a purer text than
ours. But the compiler of these older scholia lived after Herodian
(a.d. 160). The archetype of our MSS., then, cannot have been
older than the end of the 2nd century. Our MSS. fall into two
general classes: (1) the older, representing a text which, though
often corrupt, is comparatively free from interpolations; (2) the
later, which exhibit the traces of a Byzantine recension, in ether
words, of lawless conjecture, down to the 14th or 15th century.
To the first class belong Parisinus 7, breaking off in Pyth. v. ;
Ambrosianus I, which has only 01. i.-xii.; Mediceus 2; and
Vaticanus 2 — the two last-named being of the highest value.
The editio princeps is the Aldine (Venice, 1513). A modern study of
Pindar may be almost said to have begun with C. G. Heyne'a
edition (1773). Hermann did much to advance Pindaric criticism.
But August Bockh (1811-1821), who was assisted in his commentary
by L. Dissen, is justly regarded as the founder of a scientific treat-
ment of the poet. The edition of Theodor Bergk (Poetae lyrici
graeci, new ed. by O. Schroder, 1900) is marked by considerable
boldness of conjecture, as that of Tycho Mommsen (1864) by a
sometimes excessive adherence to MSS. A recension by W. Christ
has been published in Teubner's series (2nd ed., 1896), also with
Prolegomena and commentary (1896); and by O. Schroder (1908).
The complete edition of J. W. Donaldson (1841) has many merits;
but that of C. A. M. Fennell (1879-1883; new ed., 1893-1899)
is better adapted to the needs of English students. The Olympia
and Pythia have been edited by B. L. Gildersleeve (1885), the
Nemea and Isthmia by J. B. Bury (1890-1892); the Scholia by
E. Abel (1890, unfinished) and A. B. Brachmann (1903). There
is a special lexicon by J. Rumpel (1883). The translation into
English prose by Ernest Myers (2nd ed., 1883) is excellent; verse
translation by T. C. Baring (1875), and of the Olympian Odes by
Cyril Mayne (1906). Pindar's metres have been analysed by
J. H. H. Schmidt, in Die Kunstformen der grieckischen Poesie
(Leipzig, 1868-1872). On Pindar generally, see monographs by
A. F. Villemain (1859), L. Schmidt (1862), G. Lubbert (1882),
A. Croiset (1880), W. Christ, Geschichte der griechiscken Litteratur
(1898) ; and the little volume by F. D. Morice in Blackwood's Ancient
Classics for English Readers. Exhaustive bibliographical information
on the earlier literature will be found in Engelmann, Scriptores
graeci (1881); see also L. Bornemann, in Bursian's Jahresbericht,
(cxvi. 1904), with special reference to chronological questions and
Pythia, i., ii., iii. Some considerable fragments of the paeans
were discovered in 1906 by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt (see
Oxyrhynchus papyri, pt. v. pp. 24-81); some critical notes will be
found in Classical Review, Feb. 1908 (A. E. Housman).

(R.C. J.;X.)

PINDARICS, the name by which was known a class of loose
and irregular odes greatly in fashion in England during the close

PINDARIS— PINE

621

of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century. The inven-
tion is due to Abraham Cowley, who, probably in Paris — " a
place where he had no other books to direct him " — and perhaps
in 1650, found a text of Pindar and determined to imitate the
Greek poetry in English, without having comprehended the
system upon which Pindar's prosody was built up. Cowley
published, however, in 1656, fifteen Pindarique Odes, which
became the model on which countless imitators founded their
pindarics. The erroneous form of these poems, which were
absolutely without discipline of structure, was first exposed by
Congreve, exactly half a century later, he very justly describing
them as " bundles of rambling incoherent thoughts, expressed
in a like parcel of irregular stanzas, which also consist of such
another complication of disproportioned, uncertain and per-
plexed verses and rhymes." This is harsh, but it describes a
pindaric with absolute justice. Cowley had not been aware
that " there is nothing more regular than the Odes of Pindar,"
and that his poems were constructed in harmony with rigid
prosodical laws in strophe, antistrophe and epode; " the liberty
which Pindar took in his numbers, which has been so much
misunderstood and misapplied by his pretended imitators, was
only in varying the stanzas in different odes; but in each par-
ticular ode they are ever correspondent one to another in their
turns, and according to the order of the ode." These excellent
critical remarks were made by Congreve in his Discourse on the
Pindarique Ode of 1706, and from that date forward the use of
pindarics ceased to be so lax and frantic as it had been during
the previous fifty years. The time had now passed in which
such a critic as Sprat could praise " this loose and unconfined
measure " as having " all the grace and harmony of the most
confined." It began to be felt that the English pindaric was a
blunder founded upon a misconception. If we examine Cowley's
" Resurrection," which was considered in the 17th century to
be a model of the style, and " truly pindarical," we find it to be
a shapeless poem of 64 lines, arbitrarily divided, not into
strophes, but into four stanzas of unequal volume and structure:
the lines which form these stanzas are of lengths varying from
three feet to seven feet, with rhymes repeated in wilful disorder,
the whole forming a mere vague caricature of Pindar's brilliant
odes. The very laxity of these pindarics attracted the poets
of the unlyrical close of the 17th century, and they served the
purpose not only of Dryden and Pope, but of a score of lesser
poets, among whom Oldham, Mrs Behn, Otway, Sprat, Flatman
and many others were prominent. The pindaric became the
almost necessary form in which to indite a poem of compliment
on a birth, a wedding or a funeral. Although the vogue of these
forms hardly survived the age of Anne, something of the vicious
tradition of them still remained, and even in the odes of
Wordsworth, Shelley and Coleridge the broken versification of
Cowley's pindarics occasionally survives. Tennyson's Ode on
the Death of the Duke of Wellington (1852) is the latest important
specimen of a pindaric in English literature. (E. G.)

PINDARIS, a word of uncertain origin, applied to the irregular
horsemen who accompanied the Mahratta armies in India
during the 18th century when the Mughal Empire was breaking
up; loosely organized under self -chosen leaders, each band was
usually attached to one or other of the great Mahratta chieftains.
Their special characteristic was that they received no pay,
but rather purchased the privilege of plundering on their, own
account. The majority of them seem to have been Mahom-
medans: when the regular forces of the Mahrattas had been
broken up in the campaigns conducted by Sir Arthur Wellesley
and Lord Lake in 1802-04, the Pindaris made their headquarters
in Malwa, under the tacit protection of Sindhia and Holkar.
They were accustomed to assemble every year at the beginning
of November, and sally forth into British territory in search
of plunder. In one such raid upon the Masulipatam coast they
plundered 339 villages, killing or wounding 682 persons, torturing
3600 and carrying off property worth a quarter of a million.
In 1808-09 they plundered Gujarat, and in 181 2 Mirzapur. In
1814 they were reckoned at 25,000 to 30,000 horsemen, half of
them well armed. At last the evil became intolerable, and in

181 7 the marquess of Hastings obtained the consent of the East
India Company to the organized campaign, known as the Pindari
War. The Pindaris were surrounded on all sides by a great
army, consisting of 120,000 men and 300 guns, which converged
upon them from Bengal, the Deccan and Gujarat under the
supreme command of Lord Hastings in person. Sindhia was
overawed and forced to sign the treaty of Gwalior, consenting
to aid in the extirpation of the Pindaris, whom he had hitherto
protected. The Peshwa at Poona, the Bhonsla raja at Nagpur
and the army of the infant Holkar each took up arms, but were
separately defeated. The Pindaris themselves offered little
opposition. Amir Khan, by far their most powerful leader,
accepted the conditions offered to him; and his descendant is
now Nawab of the state of Tonk in Rajputana. The rest
surrendered or were hunted down, the fate of Chitu, one of the
most notorious, being to perish in a tiger's den. These military
operations were followed by the pacification of Central India
under the administration of Sir John Malcolm.

See J. Grant Duff, History of the Mahrattas (1826) ; and Major
Ross of Bladensburg, Marquess of Hastings (Rulers of India
Series) (1893).

PIND DADAN KHAN, a town of British India, in the Jhelum
district of the Punjab, situated near the right bank of the river
Jhelum, on the Sind-Sagar branch of the North- Western railway.
Pop. (1901), 13,770. It is an important centre of trade,, and
its manufactures include boats, brass- ware, pottery, embroidered
scarves and riding-whips.

PINDUS, the ancient name of the rugged group of mountains
which separates Thessaly from Epirus, and branches south in
various directions. The geographical name is sometimes
extended over ail these branches, and so reaches from Aetolia
to the Gulf of Lamia. The northern part of the ridge was known
as Lacmon. There is no modern name covering the whole
range, but its different parts have separate names. Several of
them attain a height of 7000 ft. or more.

PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. irlrvs), a name given by the ancients
to some of the resinous cone-bearing trees to which it is now
applied, and, as limited by modern botanists, the designation
of a large genus of true conifers, differing from the firs in their
hard woody cone-scales being thickened at the apex, and in
their slender needle-shaped leaves growing from a membranous
sheath, either in pairs or from three to five together — each tuft
representing an abortive branch, springing from the axil of a
partially deciduous scale-leaf, the base of which remains closely
adherent to the stem. The numerous male catkins are generally
arranged in dense whorls around the bases of the young shoots;
the anther-scales, surmounted by a crest-like appendage, shed
their abundant pollen by longitudinal slits; the two ovules at
the base of the inner side of each fertile cone-scale develop into
a pair of winged seeds, which drop from the opening scales when
mature — as in the allied genera.

The pines are widely distributed over the north temperate
zone, in the southern portions chiefly confined to the mountains,
along which, in Central America, a few are found within the
tropic; in more northern regions they frequently form extensive
forests, sometimes hardly mingled with other trees. Their
soft, straight-grained, resinous and often durable wood gives
to many kinds a high economic value, and some are among, the
most esteemed of timber trees.

Of the two-leaved species, P. sylveslris, the pine of northern
Europe, may be taken as a type. When growing in perfection
it is one of the finest of the group, and perhaps the most pictur-
esque of forest trees; attaining a height of from 70 to 120 ft.,
it is of conical growth when young, but in maturity acquires a
spreading cedar or mushroom-like top, with a straight trunk
of from 2 to 4 ft. in diameter at the base, and gnarled twisted
boughs, densely clothed at the extremities with glaucous green
foliage, which contrasts strongly with the fiery red-brown bark.
The leaves are rather short, curved, and often twisted; the male
catkins, in dense cylindrical whorls, fill the air of the forest
with their sulphur-like pollen in May or June, and fecundate
the purple female flowers, which, at first sessile and erect, then

622

PINE

become recurved on a lengthening stalk; the ovate cones, about
the length of the leaves, do not reach maturity until the autumn
of the following year, and the seeds are seldom scattered until
the third spring; the cone-scales terminate in a pyramidal

Fig. i. — Scotch Fir (Pinus sylvestris).
a, Male flower and young cones; b, male catkin; c, d, outer and
inner side of anther-scale.

recurved point, well marked in the green state and in some
varieties in the mature cone, but in others scarcely projecting.
P. sylvestris is found, in greater or less abundance, from the hills
of Finmark and the plains of Bothnia to the mountains of Spain
and even the higher forest-slopes of Etna, while in longitude its
range extends from the shores of the North Sea to Kamchatka.
Nowhere more abundant than in the Scandinavian peninsula,
this tree is the true fir (fur, fura) of the old Norsemen, and still
retains the name among their descendants in Britain, though
botanically now classed as a pine. It grows vigorously in Lap-
land on the lower ground, and is found even at an elevation of
700 ft., while in south Norway it occurs up to 3000 ft., though
the great forests from which " Norway pine " timber is chiefly
derived are on the comparatively lower slopes of the south-
eastern dales: in the highest situations it dwindles to a mere
bush. It furnishes the yellow deal of the Baltic and Norway.
In Germany, both on the mountains and the sandy plains,
woods of " kiefer " are frequent and widely spread, while vast
forests in Russia and Poland are chiefly composed of this species;
in many northern habitats it is associated with the spruce and
birch. In Asia it abounds in Siberia and on the mountains of
the Amur region; on the European Alps it occurs at a height of
5600 ft., and on the Pyrenees it is found at still higher elevations;
on the northern side of Etna it is said to grow at above 7000 ft.
In Britain natural forests of Scotch fir of any extent are only now
found in the Highlands, chiefly on the declivities of the Gram-
pians. In former ages the tree covered, a large portion of the
more northern part of the island, as well as of Ireland; the
numerous trunks found everywhere in the mosses and peat-bogs

of the northern counties of England attest its abundance there
in prehistoric times; and in the remoter post-Glacial epoch its
range was probably vastly more extended. The tree is not at
present indigenous in southern Britain, but when planted in
suitable ground multiplies rapidly by the wind-sown seeds; on
many of the sandy moors and commons natural pine woods of
large extent have been thus formed during the last fifty years.
The Scotch fir is a very variable tree, and certain varieties have
acquired a higher reputation for the qualities of their timber
than others; among those most prized by foresters is the one
called the Braemar pine, the remaining fragments of the great
wood in the Braemar district being chiefly composed of this kind ;
it is mainly distinguished by its shorter and more glaucous
leaves and ovoid cones with blunt recurved spines, and especially
by the early horizontal growth of its ultimately drooping
boughs; of all varieties this is the most picturesque. On the
European continent the Hagenau pine of Westphalia is esteemed
for the straightness and good quality of its timber. The heart-
wood of the finer kinds of Scotch fir is of a deep brownish-red
colour, abounding in the resin to which its durability is probably
due. For all indoor and most outdoor purposes it is as lasting
as oak, and for ship planking is perhaps little inferior; from its
lightness and elasticity it is well adapted for the construction
of yachts and other small fast-sailing craft, and is said to be the
best of all wood for masts and large spars; its weight varies from
30 to 40 lb the cubic foot. The sap-wood is more perishable,
but it is useful for fences, casks and a variety of other purposes;
soaking in lime-water renders it more lasting; great numbers of
young pines are annually cut for railway sleepers, mining timber
and numerous agricultural applications; large quantities are
consumed for wood-pavement. The quality of the timber

Fig. 2. — Scotch Fir (Pinus sylvestris).
a, Fertile flower of mature cone; 6, winged seed; c, fertile catkin
(or cone) ; d, scale and bract; e, inner side of scale.

depends greatly on the soil and position in which the trees are
grown: the dry slopes of granitic or gneissic mountains, or the
deep well-drained sandy gravels of the lower country seem to
answer equally well; but on clay or wet peat the tree rarely

PINE

Plate I.

SCOTCH FIR (Finns sylvestris)
A, Cone, seed and needles.

CORSICAN PINE (Pinus Laricio).
B, Cone, seed and needles.

STONE PINE (Pinus Pinea).
D, Cone and seed.

CLUSTER PINE (Pinus Pinaster).
C, Cone, needle and seed.

Photo ; by Henry Irving,

Plate II.

PINE

«v ^ >r ^ ■ : * h

CEDAR OF LEBANON (Cednts Libani).
Cy Cone, foliage and seed.

DEODAR (Cedrus Deodar a) .

Photos by Henry Irving

PINE

623

flourishes, and the timber is always indifferent; it is usually
said that the wood is best in the cold climate of its more northern
habitats, but a trunk (4 ft. in diameter) grown on the sands of
Surrey had heart-wcod quite equal to any produced in Glenmore
or Rothiemurchus. The rapidity of growth is still more vari-
able: in Britain full maturity is attained in from seventy to one
hundred and twenty years, but in Norway the trunk increases
much more slowly; Schiibeler states that a tree felled in the
Alten "district (about 70 lat.), measuring 2 ft. 10 in. in diameter
without the bark, showed four hundred circles of annual growth.
In Norway the tree, growing in dense forests, is generally of but
moderate girth, and probably this pine nowhere reaches a greater
size than in the Scottish woods; a plank from Glenmore forest
measured nearly si ft. across, and from 3 to \\ ft. is not an
unusual diameter for a British pine tree.

Vast numbers of Scotch firs are raised in nurseries for artificial
planting; the seed is sown in the spring, being just covered with
earth, and the seedlings transplanted in the second year into
rows for further culture, or taken direct from the seed-bed for
final planting; sometimes the seed is sown where the trees are
intended to grow. A plantation of Scotch fir requires frequent
and careful thinning as the young trees increase in size; but
pruning should be avoided as much as possible, excepting for
the removal of dead wood. Plantations in England are generally
ready for final cutting in from sixty to seventy years, and many
are cleared at a much earlier stage of growth. P. sylvestris in
Britain is liable to many insect depredations: the pine-chafer,
Hylurgus piniperda, is destructive in some places, the larva of
this beetle feeding on the young succulent shoots, especially
in young plantations; HyJobius abietis, the fir-weevil, eats away
the bark, and numerous lepidopterous larvae devour the leaves;
the pine-sawfly is also injurious in some seasons; the removal of
all dead branches from the trees and from the ground beneath
them is recommended, as most of these insects lay their eggs
among the decaying bark and dead leaves. In common with
other pines, P. sylvestris is subject to the attacks of various
fungi. Trametes radiciperda attacks the roots and penetrates
to the stem, causing rotting of the wood; the disease is difficult
to eradicate, as the mycelium of the fungus travels from root to
root in the soil. Rotting of the wood at the base of the trunk
is also caused by Agaricus mclleus, which spreads from root to
root in the soil by means of its long purple-black, cord-like
mycelial strands known as Rhizomorpha. Much damage is often
caused by species of Peridermium, which often invade the cortex
and cambium to such an extent as to " ring " the stem or branch,
or to cause an abnormal formation of turpentine which soaks
into the wood and stops the upward passage of water; this
causes the parts above the diseased area to perish. In England
the pine is largely employed as a " nurse " for oak trees, its
conical growth when young admirably adapting it for this
purpose; its dense foliage renders it valuable as a shelter tree
for protecting land from the wind; it stands the sea gales better
than most conifers, but will not flourish on the shore like some
other species.

The pine is an important tree in the economy of the northern
nations of Europe. In Scandinavia and Russia houses are
chiefly constructed of its timber; and log-huts are made of the
smaller trunks and lined and roofed with the bark. The inner
bark is twisted into ropes, and, like that of the spruce, is kiln
dried, ground up, and mixed with meal in times of scarcity; in
Kamchatka it is macerated in water, then pounded, and made
into a kind of substitute for bread without any admixture of
flour. In recent days the fibre of the leaves has been extracted
in some quantity and applied to textile purposes under the name
of waldwolle, both in Germany and Sweden. It is prepared by
boiling the needles in a solution of soda to remove the resin,
which process loosens the fibre and renders its separation easy;
it has some resemblance to coarse wool, and is spun and woven
into blankets and garments that are said to be warm and durable;
it is also used for stuffing cushions; an essential oil, obtained by
a previous distillation of the leaves, has medicinal virtues
attributed to it by some German practitioners.

Large quantities of turpentine are extracted from this pine
in Sweden and Russia by removing a strip of bark, terminating
below in a deep notch cut in the wood, into which the turpentine
runs, and from which it is scooped as it accumulates; but the
product is not equal to that of the silver fir and other species.
Tar is prepared largely from P. sylvestris; it is chiefly obtained
from the roots, which, mingled with a few logs, are arranged in a
conical or funnel-shaped hollow made on the steep side of a hill
or bank; after filling up, the whole is covered with turf and fired
at the top, when the tar exudes slowly and runs into an iron
vessel placed below, from the spout of which it is conveyed
into barrels. Most of the so-called Stockholm tar is thus
prepared, chiefly in the province of Bothnia.

Closely allied to the Scotch pine, and perhaps to be regarded as
a mere alpine form of that species, is the dwarf P. montana (or
P. Pumilio), the " krummholz " or " knieholz " of the Germans — a
recumbent bush, generally only a few feet high, but with long zigzag
stems, that root occasionally at the knee-like bends where they
rest upon the ground. The foliage much resembles that of the
Scotch fir, but is shorter, denser and more rigid; the cones are
smaller but similar in form. Abounding on the higher slopes of the
Bavarian and Tirolese Alps, it is a favourite shelter for the chamois;
the hunters call it the " latschen," from its recumbent straggling
habit. Krummholz oil, valued in Germany as an outward applica-
tion in rheumatism and for bruises and sprains, is distilled from
the young branches, and a fragrant white resin that exudes in
some quantity from the buds is used for similar purposes and as a
perfume, under the name of Hungarian balsam it is sold in the
towns of Germany, being probably obtained from the Carpathians.
The red pine of Canada and New England (so called from the
colour of its bark), P. resinosa, is a tree of considerable size, some-
times attaining the dimensions of P. sylvestris. The somewhat
glaucous leaves form dense tufts at the ends of the branches, and'
are 4 or 5 in. long; the ovate blunt cones are about half that
length. The tree is of quick growth and the wood strong and
resinous, but it is less durable than Scotch fir, though much em-
ployed in ship-building; according to Emerson, trunks exist in
Maine 4 ft. in diameter. A sandy soil seems to suit it best, and
the quality of the wood probably much depends on its place of.
growth. Red pines abound in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland,
and the tree is rather widely distributed over the northern parts of
the continent; it rarely forms extensive woods, but grows chiefly
in clumps among other trees, at least in its more southern habitats.
Nearly allied is P. Banksiana, the grey or Labrador pine, some-
times called the scrub pine from its dwarfish habit; it is the most
northerly representative of the genus in America, and is chiefly
remarkable for its much recurved and twisted cones, about 2 in.
long. The trunks are too small to be of great economic value, but
the light wood is used by the natives for their canoes.

P. Laricio, the Corsican pine, is one of the noblest trees of this
group, growing to a height of 100 or even 150 ft., with a straight
trunk and branches in regular, whorls, forming in large trees a
pyramidal head ; the slender leaves, of a dark green tint, are from
4 to 7 in. long; the cones, either in pairs or several together, project
horizontally, and are of a light brown colour. This pine abounds
in Corsica, and is found in more or less abundance in Spain,
southern France, Greece, and many Mediterranean countries; it
occurs on the higher mountains of Cyprus. The tree is of very
rapid growth, but produces good timber, much used in southern
dockyards, and very durable, though less strong than that of
P. sylvestris; the heart- wood is of a brownish-tint. In southern
France it has been planted with success on the drift-sands of the
Bay of Biscay, though it does not bear the full force of the sea-
blast as well as the pinaster. In England it grows well in sheltered
situations and well-drained soils.

The black pine, P. austriaca, generally now regarded as a variety
of P. Laricio, derives its name from the extreme depth of its foliage
tints — the sharp, rigid, rather long leaves of a dark green hue
giving a sombre aspect to the tree. The light-coloured, glossy,
horizontal cones are generally in pairs, but sometimes three or
four together. The tree is conical when young, but when old
forms a spreading head; it often attains a large size. Southern
Austria and the adjacent countries are the natural habitats of
this pine; it seems to flourish best on rocky mountain sides, but
in England grows well on sandy soils. The timber is valued in
its native country, and is said to be durable and to stand exposure
to the weather well; various resinous products are extracted from
it. P. pyrenaica is a handsome species of pyramidal form, attaining
a large size on the mountains of northern Spain, whence it extends
through the Mediterranean region to Asia Minor, northern Persia
and Afghanistan. The leaves are long and of a light bright green;
the cones are solitary, oblong, conical and of a yellow tint. The
timber is used in Spanish dockyards, but opinions vary as to its
quality. In plantations its bright foliage, with the orange cones and
young shoots, render it an ornamental tree, hardy in southern
Britain. P. brutia, the Calabrian pine, is regarded as the same

624

PINE

species. P. halepensis, another Mediterranean form, is valued for
its timber, which is white with a fine grain, and resinous products.
P. pinaster, the cluster pine or pinaster, is an important species
from its vigorous growth in the sand-drifts of the coast, for the
purpose of binding which it has been grown more extensively and
successfully than any other tree, especially on the dunes of the Bay
of Biscay. Giowing to a height of from 40 to 80 ft., the deeply-
furrowed trunk occasionally reaches a diameter of 3 ft. or more
at the base, where, like most sand trees, it usually curves upward
gradually, a form that enables the long tap-roots to withstand
better the strain of the sea gale; when once established, the tree
is rarely overthrown even on the loosest sand. The branches
curve upwards like the stem, with their thick covering of long dark
green leaves, giving a massive rounded outline to the tree; the
ovate cones are from 4 to 6 in. long, of a light shining brown hue,
with thick scales terminating in a pyramidal apex; they are arranged
around the branches in the radiating clusters that give name to
the tree. The pinaster grows naturally on sandy soils around
the Mediterranean from Spain to the Levant. On the drift-sands
of France, especially in the Gironde, forests have been formed
mainly of this pine; the seeds, sown at first under proper shelter
and protected by a thick growth of broom sown simultaneously,
vegetate rapidly in the sea-sand, and the trees thus raised have,
by their wind-drifted seed, covered much of the former desert
of the Landes with an evergreen wood. These forests of pinaster,
apart from the production of timber in a once treeless district,
have a great economic value as a source of turpentine, which is
largely obtained from the trees by a process analogous to that
employed in its collection from P. sylvestris; the resin is yielded
from May to the end of September, the cuts being renewed as the
supply fails, until the tree is exhausted; the trunks are then felled
and used in the manufacture of charcoal and lamp black; much
tar and pitch is also obtained from these pinaster forests. In
England the cluster-pine has been largely planted on sandy districts
near the sea, and has become naturalized in Purbeck and other
wild tracts in the southern counties, but the summer heat is too
small to permit of its resinous products acquiring any value; the
soft coarse wood, though perishable in the natural state, has been
used for railway sleepers after saturation with creosote or pre-
servative solutions.

P. Pinea is the stone pine of Italy; its spreading rounded canopy
of light green foliage, supported on a tall and often branchless
trunk, forms a striking feature of the landscape in that country,
as well as in some other Mediterranean lands. The beautiful
reddish-brown shining cones, roundly ovate in shape, with pyrami-
dal scale apices, have been prized from the ancient days of Rome
for their edible nut-like seeds, which are stiil used as an article of
food or dessert. They do not ripen until the fourth year, and are
kept in the cone until required, as their abundant oil soon turns
rancid. The tree has been naturalized in many warm countries,
even in China; in England it seldom attains any large size, as the
deficient summer heat prevents the wood from maturing; but trees
occur occasionally in plantations 20 or 30 ft. in height; the wood,
though soft and deficient in the resin that gives durability to the
timber of some species, is valued by the southern carpenter and
cabinetmaker for its lightness, its fineness of grain, and the ease
with which it is worked.

P. mitis, the yellow pine of the northern and middle states of
America, is rather allied to the three-leaved section, but the leaves
are mostly in pairs. It is a tree of large size, often attaining a
height of 70 ft. and upwards, though rarely more than 2 ft. in
diameter at the root; the lower branches spread horizontally, the
upper, converging towards the trunk, give the tree somewhat the
aspect of a spruce, hence it is called in some districts the " spruce-
pine." The leaves are long, slender, and of a bluish-green hue;
the pendant cones are about \\ in. long, with a slender point to
each scale. The yellow pine is one of the most important timber
trees of the genus; the heart-wood being very durable is largely
employed in ship-building and for house timber, being nearly equal
to that of P. sylvestris; large quantities are exported to Britain
under the name of " New York yellow pine "; the sapwood is
perishable.

The three-leaved group includes several of the most valuable trees
of America ; among them is P. rigida, the pitch pine of the northern
states, a tree of from 40 to 50 ft. in height with rugged trunk,
occasionally 3 ft. in diameter; the short dark-green leaves are in
thick tufts, contrasting with the pale yellowish, usually clustered
cones, the scales of which are furnished with small curved spines.
The wood is very hard and abounds with resin, but on swampy
land is of inferior quality and of little value except for fuel, for
which the pitch-pine is highly prized; on drier ground the grain
is fine from the numerous knots. Large quantities of tar and pitch
are obtained from this species. The tree is one of the few that will
flourish in salt-marshes.

P. palustris (or P. australis) is the " Georgia pitch pine," or
yellow pine of the southern states; it abounds on the sandy soils
that cover so much of Georgia, the Carolinas, and Florida, and on
those dry lands attains its highest perfection, though occasionally
abundant on moist ground, whence its name. The most marked
feature of the tree is its long tufted foliage — the leaves, of a bright

green tint, springing from long white sheaths, being often a foot in
length. The tall columnar trunk furnishes the most valued pine
timber of the states; close-grained and resinous, it is very durable
and polishes well ; it is largely employed in American shipyards, and
immense quantities are exported, especially to Britain and the West
Indies. This tree yields an abundant supply of tar and turpentine
of good quality, which products are collected and manufactured
in the " pine-barrens " on a large scale.

P. Taeda, the " loblolly pine " of the backwoodsman, a tall tree
with straight trunk and spreading top, covers great tracts of the
" pine-barrens " of the southern states, but also frequently spreads
over deserted arable lands that have been impoverished by long and
bad farming; hence the woodsmen call it the " old-field " pine,
while, from the fragrance of its abundant resin, it is also known as
the frankincense pine. It is a fine species 80 or 90 ft. high, having
sometimes a girth of 6 or 8 ft., with a broad spreading head; the
leaves are rather long and of a light green tint, the cones generally
in pairs, the scales terminating in a sharp incurved prickle. The
timber of this pine is indifferent, but the forests of it are of im-
portance from the quantity of turpentine they yield; the trees also
furnish much firewood of good quality.

P. ponderosa, the yellow pine of the Pacific coast of America,
belongs to this section; it is a fine timber tree deserving of notice
from the extreme density of its wood, which barely floats in water;
it abounds in some parts of the western range of the Rocky
Mountains, and is the most widely distributed pine tree of the
mountain forests of western North America. The leaves are very
long and twisted, the small oval cones armed with recurved prickles;
the tree is said to be of rapid growth. In Oregon and California
several large pines of this group are found. P. Coulteri or macro-
carpa, is remarkable for its enormous cones (sometimes a foot long,
6 in. in diameter, and weighing more than 4 lb) ; the scales end
in long hooked points curving upwards; the leaves are long, rigid,
and glaucous in hue. Nearly related to this is P. Sabiniana, the
nut-pine of California, the cones of which are 7 to 9 in. long and
5 to 6 in. in diameter, also with hooked scales; the large nut-like
seeds are eaten by the Indians; the tree is one of the largest of the
section, sometimes attaining a height of 120 ft., and upwards,
while trunks have been found, it is said, 10 or 12 ft. in diameter.
P. longifolia, a Himalayan species, is remarkable for the great length
of its lax slender leaves, of a grass-green tint; the cones have the
points of the scales recurved. It is known in India as the " cheer
pine "; the wood is good, resinous, and moderately durable; the
tree is common on the foot-hills of the Himalayas. P. Gerardiana,
a north-west Himalayan species, is a medium-sized tree with a
conical head, growing on the more elevated parts of the mountain
range; it furnishes edible seeds. The leaves, short and glaucous,
like those of the Scotch fir, have deciduous sheaths ; the cones have
recurved scale-points like those of the cheer pine. P. canariensis,
which forms forests on the mountains of Grand Canary and Teneriffe,
growing at an elevation of 6000 ft., also belongs to this group. The
leaves are long, lax, and of a bright green tint ; the cone-scales are
without spines; the trunk attains a large size, and yields good and
durable timber. The beautiful Monterey pine, P. insignis, dis-
tinguished by the brilliant colour of its foliage, has the leaves in
tufts of three or four; the lower cone-scales have recurved points.
This fine pine has been planted in the south-west of England, but
is scarcely hardy.

The pines with five leaves in each tuft have generally deciduous
sheaths. The most important economic species is the well-known
white pine, P. Strobus, from its large growth and abundance, as
well as the soft even grain of its white wood, one of the most valuable
of North American timber trees. The tree abounds from Canada
to Georgia, but in the eastern states has been so long sought for
by the lumberer that most of the old trees have long disappeared,
and large white pine timber is now only found in quantity in the
Canadian Dominion. Formerly Maine and Vermont were celebrated
for the size of their pines, but few of these great trees now exist
in New England. On a deep rich soil P. Strobus attains a height
of 150 ft., and trunks without a branch are sometimes found 80
or 90 ft. long; in the earlier stages of growth it has a pyramidal
form, in open glades the lower boughs often touching the ground,
but in old age it acquires a wide almost cedar-like top. The light
bluish-green foliage is somewhat lax, very dense in young trees;
the cones are long and rather curved, with thin smooth scales a
little thickened at the apex, and generally more or less covered
with exuding white resin; they are about 5 or 6 in. in length and
1 J to 2 in. broad; the male catkins are of a bluish tint; the cones
ripen in the autumn of the second year. The wood of the white
pine is durable for indoor use, especially when protected by paint,
but when exposed to moist air it rapidly decays, and it is very liable
to dry rot ; it is said to be best when grown on sandy soils. Immense
quantities are still exported, especially from Canada, its smooth
easily-worked grain rendering it a favourite wood for the house-
carpenter and joiner; it weighs about 28 lb per cubic foot. In England
where it is generally known as the " Weymouth pine," it succeeds
well on deep light soils when well-drained; trees have attained
occasionally a height of 100 ft. and upwards in British plantations;
but it is apt to be infested with American blight (Eriosoma). In
northern Germany it also grows well. The climate of Scotland

PINE-APPLE— PINERO

625

appears less suitable for it, probably from the want of summer
heat, and it can hardly be recommended for British planting other-
wise than for ornamental purposes.

Nearly approaching this is P. excelsa, the Bhotan pine, which
differs chiefly in its longer cones and drooping glaucous foliage. It
is found in Kumaon and Bhotan and on some of the Nepal ranges,
but does not grow in the moist climate of the Sikkim Himalayas; it
is found at a height of 7000 to 12,000 ft., and attains large dimen-
sions ; the wood is highly resinous, and is said to be durable ; great
quantities of a white clear turpentine exude from the branches when
injured. The Bhotan pine is quite hardy in southern England, and
has been largely planted of late as an ornamental tree.

P. Lambertiana, the giant pine or sugar pine of California, is the
largest of the genus, rising to the height of 200 ft., with a trunk
20 to 30 ft. in girth, and, it is said, occasionally attaining much
larger dimensions. The head is of a pyramidal form, the lower
branches drooping like those of a Norway spruce; its foliage is of
a light bright green colour. The pendent cones are very large,
sometimes 18 in. long and 4 in. in diameter, with large nut-like
seeds, which, pounded and baked, are eaten by the Indians. The
tree abounds in some sandy districts, but more generally occurs
singly or in small groups dispersed through the woods, attaining
its greatest dimensions in light soils. The wood is soft and nearly
white, but contains much resin, which when fire has run through
the forest exudes, and, having in this half-burnt condition a sweetish
taste, has given the common name to the tree; the wood seems
to be formed slowly; from its smooth grain it is valued for indoor
carpentry; the saccharine burnt resin is used as a laxative in
California.

P. Cembra is the stone pine of Siberia and central Europe. It
abounds on the Alps, the Carpathians and the Siberian ranges, in
Switzerland being found at an altitude of 4000 to 6000 ft. It is
a straight-growing tree, with grey bark and -whorls of horizontal
branches giving a cylindro-conical outline; the leaves are short,
rigid and glaucous; the cones, oblong and rather pointing upwards,
grow only near the top of the tree, and ripen in the second autumn;
the seeds are oily like those of P. Pinea, and are eaten both on the
Alps and by the inhabitants of Siberia; a fine oil is expressed from
them which is used both for food and in lamps, but, like that of the
Italian pine, it soon turns rancid. The growth of P. Cembra is
slow, but the wood is of remarkably even grain, and is employed
by the Swiss wood-carvers in preference to any other. The Cembra
is the " zirbel " or " zirbel-kiefcr " of the Germans, and is known
locally in Switzerland as the " aroile," " aloics," and " arve."

P. occidentalis, a five-leaved pine with pale-green foliage and
small ovate cones, is found on the high mountains of Santo Domingo
and Cuba. Many members of the group occur on the Mexican
isthmus, one of which, P. cetnbroides, produces edible seeds; another,
P. Montezumae, is a valuable timber tree. P. Ayacahuite, the
common white pine of Mexico, spreads southwards on to the
mountains of Guatemala, it is a large tree with glaucous foliage
like P. Strobus, and yields a valuable resin. P. filifolia and P.
macrophylla, likewise natives of Central America, are remarkable
for the extreme length of their leaves; the former is said to attain
a large size. (C. P. J.)

PINE-APPLE. The pine-apple so called consists in reality
of the inflorescence of the plant, the originally separate flowers of
which, together with the bracts supporting them, become fleshy
and consolidated into one mass. The swelling and fusion of
the tissues take place after the process of fertilization, and it
may be that the richly perfumed succulent mass is an aid in the
distribution of seed by affording food to certain animals. In
the highly developed cultivated pines, however, it frequently
happens that the seeds do not ripen properly. The pine,
Ananas salivas, is a member of the natural order Bromeliaceae,
of tropical American origin, where it is widely spread; and it is
now naturalized in the tropical regions of the Old World.

Evelyn in his Diary mentions tasting a pine-apple from
Barbados at the table of Charles II., and this is we believe
the first mention of the fruit in English literature. A picture,
of which a copy may be seen at the rooms of the Royal Horticul-
tural Society of London, represents the royal gardener, Mr Rose,
presenting on bended knee the first pine-apple grown in Britain,
and it is surmised that this may have been grown from the
"suckers" of the fruit above alluded to by Evelyn, though it is
generally considered that the pine was not cultivated in England
till 1712. For many years pine-apples were cultivated in large
private gardens, but owing to the great developments in culture
in the West Indies, the Azores, Canary Islands, &c, they are
no longer cultivated in Britain or Europe.

PINE BLUFF, a city and the county-scat of Jefferson county,
Arkansas, U.S.A., situated at an altitude of about 200 ft. in the
alluvial bottoms of the Arkansas river, about 107 m. from its

mouth, and about 42 m. S. by E. of Little Rock. Pop. (1910),
15,102. It has an active river trade with St Louis, Memphis
and New Orleans, and five railway outlets — the Missouri Pacific
and its branch, the Pine Bluff & Western, and the St Louis
South- Western and its two branches, the Pine Bluff & Arkan-
sas River and the Altheimer. The city has many schools, and a
business college, the state normal school for negroes, and
Merrill institute, endowed by Joseph Merrill of Pine Bluff with
$100,000. Large quantities of cotton and lumber are shipped
from the city. Among the manufactures are cotton-seed oil,
lumber and staves, and furniture. Pine Bluff has shops of the
St Louis South-Western railway. The city's factory products
were valued at- $2,989,242 in 1905, an increase of 94% over their
value in 1900. Pine Bluff was laid out in 1832 and chartered
as a city in i?

Pine-apple (Ananas sativus) much reduced.
PINEL, PHILIPPE (1 745-1826), French physician, was born
at the chateau of Rascas, Saint-Andre, in the department of
Tarn, France, on the 20th of April 1745. He studied at Lavaur
and afterwards at the university of Toulouse, where he took his
doctor's degree in 1773. From Montpellier he removed in 1778
to Paris, engaging there chiefly in literary work connected with
his profession. His first publication was a French translation
of William Cullen's Nosology (1785); it was followed by an
edition of the works of G. Baglivi (1788), and in 1791 he published
a Traite medico-philosophique de V alienation mentale. In 1792
he became head physician of the Bicetre, and two years after-
wards he received the corresponding appointment at the Salpe-
triere, where he began to deliver a course of clinical lectures;
these formed the basis of his Nosographie pkilosophique (1798;
6th ed., 1818), which was further developed in La Medecine
chnique (1802). Pinel was made a member of the Institute in
1803, and soon afterwards was appointed professor of pathology
in the Ecole de Medecine. His fame rests entirely upon the
fact that he was among the first to introduce the humane treat-
ment of the insane. He died at Paris on the 26th of October
1826.

PINERO, SIR ARTHUR WING (1855- ), English dramatist,
was born in London on the 24th of May 1855, the son of John
Daniel Pinero, a Jewish solicitor, whose family was of Portuguese
origin, long established in London. A. W. Pinero was engaged
in 1874 as an actor at the Theatre Royal, Edinburgh, and came
to London in 1876, to play at the Globe Theatre. Later in the
year he joined the Lyceum company, of which he remained a
member for five years. The first piece of his to see the footlights

626

PINEROLO— PINK

was £200 a year, played in October 1877 at the Globe Theatre
for the benefit of Mr F. H. Macklin. The first play to make
a hit was The Money Spinner (Theatre Royal, Manchester,
Nov. 1880); but in The Squire (St James's Theatre, Dec. 1881)
he attempted serious drama, and gave promise of the qualities
of his later work. In 1883 and 1884 Pinero produced seven
pieces, but the most important of his works at this period were
the successful farces produced at the Court Theatre: The Magis-
trate (March 1885), which ran for more than a year; The School-
mistress (March 1886); Dandy Dick (Jan. 1887), revived in Febru-
ary 1900; The Cabinet Minister (April 1890), and The Amazons
(March 1893). Two comedies of sentiment, Sweet Lavender
(Terry's, March 1888) and The Weaker Sex (Theatre Royal, Man-
chester, Sept. 1888), met with success, and Sweet Lavender has
enjoyed numerous revivals. With The Profligate (Garrick,
April 1889) he returned to the serious drama which he had
already touched on in The Squire. Out of deference to the
wishes of John Hare the play was fitted with the conventional
" happy ending," but the original denouement was restored,
with great advantage to the unity of the play, in the printed
version. The Second Mrs Tanqueray (St James's, May 27, 1893)
dealt with the converse of the question propounded in The
Profligate, but with more art and more courage. The piece
aroused great discussion, and placed Pinero in the front rank
of living dramatists (see Drama: Recent English). It was
translated into French, German and Italian, and the part of
Paula Tanqueray, created in the first place by Mrs Patrick
Campbell, attracted many actresses, among others Eleonora
Duse. His later plays were The Notorious Mrs Ebbsmith
(Garrick, March 13, 1895), The Benefit of the Doubt (Comedy,
Oct. 1895), The Princess and the Butterfly (St James's, April 7,
1897), Trelawney of the Wells (Court, Jan. 30, 1898), The Gay
Lord Quex (Globe, April 8, 1899), Iris (Garrick, Sept. 21, 1901),
Lctty (Duke of York's, Oct. 8, 1903), A Wife Without a Smile
(Wyndham's, Oct. 9, 1904), His House in Order (St James's,
Feb. 1, 1906), The Thunderbolt (St James's, May 9, 1908) and
Mid-Channel (St James's, Sept. 2, 1909). Pinero was knighted
in 1909.

His Plays (11 vols. 1891-1895) have prefaces by M. C. Salaman.
See also H. Hamilton Fyfe, A. W. Pinero (1902).

PINEROLO [Pionerol], a city and episcopal see of Piedmont,
Italy, in the province of Turin. Pop. (1901), 12,608 (town);
18,039 (commune). It is built on a hill-side just above the
valleys of the Chisone and the Lemina, at a height of 1234 ft.
above the sea, 24 m. by rail S.W. of Turin. The railway goes
on to Torre Pellice; and steam tramways run from Pinerolo
to Perosa, and to Cavour and Saluzzo. Till 1696 it was strongly
fortified with a citadel on Santa Brigida, a castle on S. Maurizio,
and city walls constructed by Thomas I. of Savoy. It has a
cathedral (St Donatus), the palace of the princes of Acaia and
other buildings of some interest. Cotton, silk, wool and hemp
are among the local manufactures.

Pinerolo was bestowed on the bishops of Turin by Otto III. in
996; but in 1078 the countess Adelaide made it over to the
Benedictine abbey of Santa Maria, in whose possession it
remained till n 59. Thomas I. of Savoy captured the castle
in 1 188, and in 1246 the commune formally recognized the
supremacy of Savoy. Passing in 1295 into the hands of Philip,
son of Thomas III., Pinerolo became his residence and capital,
a distinction which it retained under Amadeus VIII. of Savoy.
Francis I. of France obtained possession of the town in his
descent into Italy, but Emmanuel Philibert received it back
from Henry III. in 1574. A second occupation by the French
occurred under Cardinal Richelieu; the French language was
imposed on the people, great fortifications were constructed, and
the fortress (Pignerol) was used as a state prison for such men as
Fouquet, De Caumont and the Man with the Iron Mask (see
Iron Mask). Victor Amadeus bombarded the place in 1693,
and ultimately compelled Louis XIV. to relinquish his hold
on it; but before the withdrawal of the French troops the
defences were demolished. In 1748 the town was made a
bishop's see.

PIN-EYED, a botanical term for flowers which occur in two
forms, one of which shows the stigma at the mouth of the corolla,
as in the primrose; the term is contrasted with thrum-eyed.

PING-PONG, or Table-Tennis, a miniature variety of lawn-
tennis played on a table, which may be of any size not less than
5I ft. long by 3 ft. broad. Various attempts were made to adapt
lawn-tennis to the house, but the real popularity of the game
began when, near the close of the 19th century, celluloid balls
were introduced, and the game was called ping-pong from the
sound of the balls as they were struck by the racket or rebounded
from the table. In 1900 the ball was improved and made
heavier, and for the next two years ping-pong enjoyed a popular-
ity never before attained by a game in so short a time, not only
in Great Britain but in France, the British Colonies and America.
Two leagues were formed, the " Table-Tennis Association " and
the " Ping-Pong Association," whose laws were practically
identical. The regular tournament table is 9 ft. long by 5 ft.
broad, and the net is a little less than 7 in. high. The balls,
which are of hollow celluloid, are about f in. in diameter. The
racket has a blade, shaped like a lawn-tennis racket, about 6 in
long and a handle long enough to grasp comfortably, all in one
piece. Rackets are made either wholly of wood covered with
vellum, cork, sand-paper or rubber, or of light frames covered
with vellum or some other material. The table was at first
marked out in courts, but is now plain. It should be unpolished
and stained. In serving, a player must stand directly behind
his end of the table and use an underhand motion only. The
ball must clear the net and strike the table anywhere on the
other side. The game is then continued until the ball misses
the table or fails to pass over the net. Only one service is
allowed, except in case of a let. The scoring is the same as in
lawn-tennis.

See Ping-Pong, by Arnold Parker (London, 1902) ; Table Tennis,
by A. Sinclair (London, 1902).

PINK, in botany, the common name corresponding to a genus
of Caryophyllacae, the Dianthus of botanists. It is characterized
by the presence of simple leaves borne in pairs at the thickened
nodes, flowers terminating the axis and having a tubular calyx
surrounded by a number of overlapping bracts, a showy corolla
of five free long-stalked petals, ten stamens proceeding, together
with the petals, from a short stalk supporting the ovary, which
latter has two styles and ripens into a cylindric or oblong pod-
like one-chambered many-seeded capsule which opens at the
apex by four cults or valves. The species are herbaceous
perennials of low stature, often with very showy flowers. They
are natives chiefly of southern Europe and the Mediterranean
region, a few being found in temperate Asia and South Africa.
Four species are wild in Britain. Of these, D. armeria, Deptford
pink and D. deltoides, maiden pink, are generally distributed,
D. caesius, Cheddar pink, occurs only on the limestone rocks
at Cheddar. Two others, D. plumarius and D. caryophyllus,
are more or less naturalized, and are interesting as being the
originals of the pinks and of the carnations and picotees of
English gardens. Garden pinks are derivatives from Dianthus
plumarius, a native of central Europe, with leaves rough at the
edges, and with rose-coloured or purplish flowers. The use of
" pink " for a colour is taken from the name of the plant.*

The pink is a favourite garden flower of hardy constitution.
It has been in cultivation in England since 1629, and is a great
favourite with florists, those varieties being preferred which

1 The etymology of "pink" is disputed; it may be connected
with " to pink " (apparently a naturalized form of " pick "),
properly to prick or punch holes in material for the purpose of
ornament, hence, later, to scallop or cut a pattern in the edge of
the material. The flower has jagged edges to the petals, but the
name occurs in the 16th century, and the later meaning, " to
scallop," not till the 19th. Others connect with " pink," half-
shut blinking of the eyes, as in " plumpie Bacehus, with pinke
eyne " (Shakspeare Ant. and CI. II. vii. 121); this word is seen in
Dutch pinken, to blink, shut the eyes, and may be connected wfrr;
" pinch." The French name for the flower, oeillet, little eye, may
point to this derivation. The disease of horses, known as " pink-
eye," a contagious influenza, is so-called from the colour of the
i inflamed conjunctiva, a symptom of the affection

PINKERTON, A.— PINKNEY

627

aave the margin of the petals entire, and which are well marked
in the centre with bright crimson or dark purple. Its grassy
but glaucous foliage is much like that of the carnation, but the
whole plant is smaller and more tufted. Pinks require a free
loamy soil deeply trenched, and well enriched with cow-dung.
They are readily increased by cuttings (pipings), by layers and
by seed. Cuttings and layers should be taken as early in July
as practicable. The former should be rooted in a cold frame or
in a shady spot out of doors. When rooted, which will be about
August, they should be planted 4 in. apart in a nursery bed,
where they may remain till the latter part of September or the
early part of October. The chief attention required during
winter is to press them down firmly should they become lifted
by frosts, and in spring the ground should be frequently stirred
and kept free from weeds. The pink is raised from seeds, not
only to obtain new varieties, but to keep up a race of vigorous-
growing sorts. The seeds may be sown in March or April in
pots in a warm frame, and the young plants may be pricked off
into boxes and sheltered in a cold frame. They should be planted
out in the early part of the summer in nursery beds, in which,
if they have space, they may remain to flower, or the alternate
ones may be transplanted to a blooming bed in September or
the early part of October; in either case they will bloom the
following summer. These will grow in any good garden soil,
but the richer it is the better.

The border varieties are useful for forcing during the early
spring months. These are propagated from early pipings and
grown in nursery beds, being taken up in October, potted in a
rich loamy compost, and wintered in a cold pit till required for
the forcing house.

The following varieties are among the best. For borders and
forcing: Ascot, Carnea, Delicata, Derby Day, Her Majesty,
Hercules, Anne Boleyn, Lady Blanche, Mrs Sinkins, Mrs James
Welsh, Pilrig Park, Rubens, Snowdon, Tom Welsh. Florists'
show and laced varieties: Attraction, Beauty of Bath, Clara,
Criterion,. Ensign, Galopin, Harry Hooper, John Ball, Malcolm
Dunn, Mrs D. Gray, Reliance, William Paul.

The Carnation (q.v.) and Picotee are modifications of Dianthus
Caryophyllus, the Clove Pink. This is a native of Europe, growing
on rocks in the south, but in the north usually found on old walls.
Its occurrence in England on some of the old Norman castles,
as at Rochester, is supposed by Canon Ellacombe to indicate its
introduction by the Normans; in any case the plant grows in
similar situations in Normandy. The carnation includes those
flowers which are streaked or striped lengthwise — the picotees
are those in which the petals have a narrow band of colour along the
edge, the remainder of the petal being free from stripes or blotches.
These by the old writers were called " gillyflowers." The Sweet
William of gardens is a product from Dianthus barbatus.

The Sea-Pink, or Thrift, Statice Armeria (Armeria vulgaris), is a
member of the natural order Plumbagineae ; it is a widely distributed
plant found on rocky and stony sea-shores and on lofty moun-
tains. There are many improved varieties of it now in cultivation,
one with almost pure white flowers.

PINKERTON, ALLAN (1819-1884), American detective, was
born in Glasgow, Scotland, on the 25th of August 1819. His
father, a sergeant of the Glasgow municipal police, died in 1828
of injuries received from a prisoner in his custody. In 1842
• \llan emigrated to Chicago, Illinois. In 1843 he removed to
Dundee, Kane county, Illinois, where he established a cooper-
age business. Here he ran down a gang of counterfeiters,
md he was appointed a deputy-sheriff of Kane county in 1846
and immediately afterwards of Cook county, with headquarters
in Chicago. There he organized a force of detectives to capture
thieves who were stealing railway property, and this organization
developed in 1852 into Pinkerton's National Detective Agency,
of which he took sole charge in 1853. He was especially success-
ful in capturing thieves who stole large amounts from express
companies. In 1866 his agency captured the principals in the
theft of $700,000 from Adams Express Company safes on a train
of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and recovered
all but about $12,000 of the stolen money. In February 1861
Pinkerton found evidence of a plot to assassinate President-elect
Lincoln upon his arrival in Baltimore on his way to Washington;
as a result, Lincoln passed through Baltimore at an early hour
in the morning without stopping. In April 1861 Pinkerton, on

the suggestion of General George B. McClellan, organized a
system of obtaining military information in the Southern states.
From this system he developed the Federal secret service, of
which he was in charge throughout the war, under the assumed
name of Major E. J. Allen. One of his detectives, James
McParlan, in 1873-1876 lived among the Molly Maguires (q.v.)
in Pennsylvania and secured evidence which led to the breaking
up of the organization. In 1869 Pinkerton suffered a partial
stroke of paralysis, and thereafter the management of the
detective agency devolved chiefly upon his sons, William Allan
(b. 1846) and Robert (1848-1907). He died in Chicago on the
1st of July 1884. He published The Molly Maguires and the
Detectives (1877), The Spy of the Rebellion (1883), in which he
gave his version of President-elect Lincoln's journey to Washing-
ton; and Thirty Years a Detective (1884).

PINKERTON, JOHN (1758-1826), Scottish archaeologist,
numismatist and author, was born at Edinburgh on the 17th
of February 1758. He was articled as a law clerk in Edinburgh,
and his Elegy on Craigmillar Castle (1776) was printed during
his clerkship. In 1781 he removed to London to devote himself
to literary work, publishing in the same year a volume of Rimes
of no great merit, and Scottish Tragic Ballads. These were
followed in 1782 by Two Dithyrambic Odes on Enthusiasm and
Laughter, and by a series of Tales in Verse. Under the title of
Select Scottish Ballads he reprinted in 1783 his tragic ballads,
with a supplement comprising Ballads of the Comic Kind.
Ritson pointed out in 1784 that the so-called ancient ballads
were some of them of modern date, and Pinkerton confessed that
he was the author of the second part of Hardy Kanute and part-
author of some others. He published an Essay on Medals in
1784, and in 1785, under the pseudonym of " Robert Heron," his
bold but eccentric Letters of Literature depreciating the classical
authors of Greece and Rome. In 1786 he edited Ancient Scottish
Poems from the MS. collections of Sir Richard Maitland of Leth-
ington — a genuine reproduction. It was succeeded in 1787 by a
compilation, under the new pseudonym of " H. Bennet," entitled
The Treasury of Wit, and by his first important historical work,
the Dissertation on the Origin and Progress of the Scythians or
Goths, to which Gibbon acknowledged himself indebted. Pinkerton
next collected and printed in 1789 certain Vitae sanctorum
scotiae, and, a little later, published his Enquiry into the History
of Scotland preceding the Reign of Malcolm III. His assertion
that the Celtic race was incapable of assimilating the highest
forms of civilization excited " violent disgust," but the Enquiry
was twice reprinted, in 1794 and 1814, and is still of value for
the documents embodied in it. His edition of Barbour's Bruce
and a Medallic History of England to the Revolution appeared in
1790; a collection of Scottish Poems reprinted from scarce
Editions in 1792; and a series of biographical sketches, the
Iconographia scotica, in the years 1795-1797. In 1797 he
published a History of Scotland from the Accession of the
House of Stuart to that of Mary, containing much valuable
material. A new biographical collection, the Gallery of Eminent
Persons of Scotland (1799), was succeeded after a short interval
by a Modern Geography digested on a New Plan (1802;
enlarged, 1807). About this time he left London for Paris, where
he made his headquarters until his death on the 10th of March
1826. His remaining publications were the Recollections of Paris
in the years 1802-3-4.- 5 (1806); a very useful General Collection
of Voyages and Travels (1808-1814); a New Modem Atlas (1808-
1819); and his Petrology (1811).

PINKNEY, WILLIAM (1764-1822), American lawyer- and
statesman, was born in Annapolis, Maryland, on the 17th of
March 1764. He was admitted to the bar in 1786, and in 1788-
1792 practised in Harford county. In 1788 he was a member
of the state convention which ratified the Federal constitution
for Maryland, in 1 788-1 792 and in 1795 of the House of Delegates
(where in 1788 and 1789 he defended the right of slave-owners
to manumit their slaves), and in 1792-1795 of the state executive
council. In 1 796-1 804 he was a commissioner under article
7 of Jay's Treaty of 1794 to determine the claims of American
merchants for damage through " irregular or illegal captures

628

PINNACE— PINOCHLE

or condemnations," and during this time adjusted on behalf of
Maryland a claim of the state to stock in the Bank of England.
In May 1806, with James Monroe, then minister at London, he
was commissioned to treat with the British government con-
cerning the capture of neutral ships in time of war; in 1807-1811,
after Monroe's return to America, he was resident minister in
London. He was elected to the Maryland senate in September
1811, and from December 1811 to January 1814 was attorney-
general of the United States. In August 1814 he was wounded
at Bladensburg. He served in the National House of Repre-
sentatives in January-April 1816, and in 1816-1818 was minister
plenipotentiary to Russia and special minister to Naples, where
he attempted to secure indemnity for the losses to American
merchants by seizure and confiscation during the rule of Murat
in 1809. From 1820 until his death, at Washington, on the 25th
of February 1822, he was a member of the United States Senate.
He was a member of the conference committee on the bill for
the admission of Maine and Missouri, which in its final form
embodied what is known as the Missouri Compromise. Pinkney
was a remarkably able lawyer and an orator of the old school.

See The Life of William Pinkney (New York, 1853) by his nephew,
William Pinkney (1810-1883), who was Protestant Episcopal
bishop of Virginia in 1879-1883; and Henry Wheaton, Some Account
of the Life, Writings, and Speeches of William Pinkney (New York,
1828).

PINNACE, the name of two types of vessel or boat, one a light
sailing vessel with two schooner-rigged masts, the other a heavy
eight-oared man-of-war's boat. The word is usually referred
to Lat. pimis, pine, but this derivation is at variance with the
earlier form " spinace."

PINNACLE (from Lat. pinnaculum, a little feather, pinna;
the Gr. irrepvyiov, diminutive of wrepv^, wing, is also used in
this sense), an architectural ornament originally forming the
cap or crown of a buttress or small turret, but afterwards used
on parapets at the corners of towers and in many other situations.
Some writers have stated that there were no pinnacles in the
Romanesque styles, but conical caps to circular buttresses, with
finial terminations, are not uncommon in France at very early
periods. Viollet-le-Duc gives examples from St Germer and St
Remi, and there is one of similar form at the west front of
Rochester Cathedral. In the 12th-century Romanesque two ex-
amples have been cited, one from Bredon in Worcestershire, and
the other from Cleeve in Gloucestershire. In these the buttresses
run up, forming a sort of square turret, and crowned with a
pyramidal cap, very much like those of the next period, the
Early English. In this and the following styles the pinnacle
seems generally to have had its appropriate uses. It was a
weight to counteract the thrust of the vaults, particularly where
there were flying buttresses; it stopped the tendency to slip of
the stone copings of the gables, and counterpoised the thrust
of spires; it formed a pier to steady the elegant perforated
parapets of later periods; and in France especially served to
counterbalance the weight of overhanging corbel tables, huge
gargoyles, &c. In the Early English period the small buttresses
frequently finished with gablets, and the more important with
pinnacles supported with clustered shafts. At this period the
pinnacles were often supported on these shafts alone, and were
open below; and in larger work in this and the subsequent
periods they frequently form niches and contain statues. About
the Transition and during the Decorated period, the different
faces above the angle shafts often finish with gablets. Those
of the last-named period are much richer, and are generally
decorated with crockets and finials, and sometimes with ball-
flowers. Very fine groups are found at Beverley Minster and
at the rise of the spire of St Mary's, Oxford. Perpendicular
pinnacles differ but little from Decorated, except that the
crockets and finials are of later character. They are also
often set angle-ways, particularly on parapets, and the shafts
are panelled. In France pinnacles, like spires, seem to have
been in use earlier than in England. There are small pin-
nacles at the angles of the tower in the abbey of Saintes. At
Roullet there are pinnacles in a similar position, each com-
posed of four small shafts, with caps and bases surmounted with

small pyramidal spires. In all these examples the towers have
semicircular-headed windows.

PINNOCK, WILLIAM (1782-1843), English publisher and
educational writer, was born at Alton, Hampshire, on the 3rd
of February 1782, and was at first a schoolmaster, then a book-
seller. In 181 7 he went to London and, in partnership with
Samuel Mander, began to publish cheap educational works.
The firm's first productions were a series of Catechisms, planned
by Pinnock, consisting of short popular manuals, arranged in
the form of question and answer, of the different departments
of knowledge. They were followed by abridged editions of
Goldsmith's histories of England, Greece and Rome, and a series
of county histories which were no less profitable. Pinnock lost
nearly all his money in outside speculation, and died in London
on the 21st of October 1843. His son > William Henry Pinnock
(1813-1885), a clergyman, was the editor and author of several
elementary textbooks and scriptural manuals, and of various
works on ecclesiastical law and usage.

PINOCHLE, or Penuchle (Ger. Pinochet or Binochel, of
uncertain etymology), a game of cards probably invented by
Germans in the United States about the middle of the 19th
century. It bears a general resemblance to Bezique (q.v.),
and has almost entirely usurped the place of the older game in
America. Pinochle may be played by two, three or four
persons. Two packs, from which all cards below the nines have
been deleted, are shuffled together, forming one pack of 48
cards. The object of the game is to make 1000 points. The
cards rank as follows: ace n, ten 10, king 4, queen 3, knave 2.
The nine counts nothing unless it be turned for trumps, when it
scores 10. The last trick scores 10. The term "to meld"
(Ger. melden, to announce), as used in pinochle, means " to
declare." " Melds " are combinations which are declared
during the play of the hands. They are of three classes: (1)
" marriages " and " sequences," (2) " pinochles," and (3)
"fours." The "melds" of the first class score as follows:
"marriage" (king and queen of any plain suit), 20; "royal
marriage" (king and queen of trumps), 40; "sequence" (the
five highest trumps), 150. In the second class the " melds "
are " pinochle " (queen of spades and knave of diamonds), 40;
" double pinochle " (both queens of spades and knaves of •
diamonds), 300; " grand pinochle " (king and queen of spades
and knave of diamonds), 80; this " meld " is not often played
in America. Of the third class the " melds " are: four aces of
different suits, 100; four kings of different suits, 80; four queens
of different suits, 60; four knaves of different suits, 40; eight
aces, 1000; eight kings, 800; eight queens, 600; eight knaves,
400.

In single pinochle (two players) each player receives twelve
cards, four at a time, the twenty-fifth being turned up beside the
stock for trumps. The non-dealer leads a card, to which the dealer
plays. There is no obligation either to take, follow suit or trump.
The winner of the trick leads again, before which, however, he may
" meld " any one combination he holds. After he has " melded,"
or refused to do so, he draws a card from the top of the stock and
adds it to his hand without showing it, his adversary doing the
same, so that each player continues to hold twelve cards. Playing,
announcing, and drawing then go on until the stock is exhausted.
All combinations " melded " must be laid face upward on the table
but still belong to the player's hand, though they may not be taken
up until the stock has given out. When this happens all announce-
ments cease, and all cards exposed are replaced in the hands. The
last twelve tricks are then played, but now both players must
follow suit and must win the trick if possible, either with a superior
card or a trump. A failure to do this is a " revoke " and is
penalized by the loss of all points made by " cards," i.e. for the
five highest cards in each suit, which after all the tricks have been
played, are counted for the player holding them. Ace counts n
points, ten 10, king 4, queen 3, and knave 2, whatever the suit,
so that 240 points for " cards " are divided between the two players.
Though points are not counted during the play, a mental count is
kept, and whenever a player sees that, by adding the value of his
" melds " to what he thinks his cards will count, he has enough
to win the game, namely 1000 points, he " calls out " or knocks on
the table, and proceeds to expose his cards. If he fails to show
enough to win, he loses the game. If neither player knocks, the
game continues until one of them scores 1250; if still a tie, 1500.
If a player fails to make good a " meld " he is set back that number
of points. The game is scored by counters or on a cribbage-board

PINSK— PINTO

„!?: th T " ha , "ded pinochle the "melds" are exposed before a

tnthP* «£/?•' > /° P a - yer may - " meld " after he has P^yed
to the first trick. A rule is sometimes made that an overlooked
combination may be scored by the other players. Four handed
pinochle is played either with partners or each player for himself.

PINSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Minsk

at the confluence of the Strumen and Pina rivers, 196 m S W*

by rail of Minsk. Pop., 27,938, two-thirds being Jews The

town carries on considerable trade, due to the navigable river

Fina, which connects it with the fertile regions in the basin of the

Dnieper, and, by means of the Dnieper-and-Bug canal, with

I oland and Prussia, while the Oginsky canal connects it with

the basin of the Niemen. Pottery, leather, oil, soap and beer

are the chief products of the local industries. The draining of

the marshes around Pinsk was begun by the government in

1872, and by 1897 8,000,000 acres had been drained at an average

cost of 3 s. per acre. Pinsk (Pinesk) is first mentioned in 1097 as

a town belonging to Sviatopolk, prince of Kiev. In 1132 it

formed part of the Minsk principality. After the Mongol

invasion of 1239-42 it became the chief town of a separate

principality, and continued to be so until the end of the 13th

century. In 1320 it was annexed to Lithuania; and in 1569

after the union of Lithuania with Poland, it was chief town of

the province of Brest. During the rebellion of the Cossack

chief, Bogdan Chmielnicki (1640), the Poles took it by assault

killing 14,000 persons and burning 5000 houses. Eight years

later the town was burned by the Russians. Charles XII took

it in 1706, and burned the town with its suburbs. Pinsk was

annexed to Russia in 1795.

PINSUTI, CIRO (1829-1888), Anglo-Italian composer, was
born at Siena, and was educated in music, for a career as a
pianist partly in London and partly at Bologna, where he was
a pupil of Rossini. From 1848 he made his home in England
where he became a teacher of singing, and in 1856 he was made
a professor at the Academy of Music in London. He became
well known as a composer of numerous favourite songs and
part-songs, as well as of three operas brought out in Italy, and
it is by the former that he is still remembered.

PINT (derived probably through Spanish, from Lat. pincta,
puta, a painted or marked vessel), a liquid measure of capacity
equivalent to J of a gallon. The imperial British pint = - S7 of
a litre, 34-66 cub. in. The United States standard pint = -47
of a litre, 2 8f cub. in. The word appears in French as pinte
tor a liquid measure as early as the 13th century

PINTO, ANIBAL (1825-1884), Chilean president, was born at
Santiago, Chile. After a diplomatic training in the legation at
Rome he learned the practice of administration as intendente
of Concepcion, and from 1871 to 1876 was minister of war and
marine under Errazuriz. During his term of office as president
(1876 to 1881) Pinto had to deal first with a severe financial
crisis and then to conduct the struggle with Peru and Bolivia,
in which he displayed great coolness of judgment and devotion
to duty.

PINTO, FERNAO MENDES (1509-1583), Portuguese adven-
turer, was born at Montemor-o-Velho, of poor and humble
parents, and entered the service of a noble lady in Lisbon, being
afterwards for two years page to the duke of Aveiro in Setubal
Desiring to try his fortune in the East, he embarked for India
in 1537 in a fleet commanded by the son of Vasco da Gama, and
for twenty-one years travelled, fought and traded in China,
f artary, Pegu and the neighbouring countries, sailing in every
sea, while m 1 542-1 543 he was one of the 'first Europeans to
visit Japan, where he introduced the musket. Though he was
thirteen times a captive and seventeen times sold into slavery
his gay and dauntless spirit brought him through every mis-
fortune. He was soldier and sailor, merchant and doctor,
missionary and ambassador; moreover, as the friend and travel-
ling companion of St Francis Xavier, he lent the apostle of the
Indies the money with which to build the first Jesuit establish-
ment in Japan. In January 1554 Mendes Pinto was in Goa
waiting for a ship to take him to Portugal, when he took a sudden
resolution to enter the company of Jesus and devote a large part
of the capital he had accumulated to the evangelization of Japan.

629

The viceroy appointed him ambassador to the king of Bungo
in order to give the mission an official standing, and on the 18th
of April he set sail with the provincial, Father Belchior Nunes
Owing to bad weather and contrary winds, however, the mis-
sioned did not reach Japan until July 1556, but the success of
the mission represented a notable service to the cause of Chris-
tianity and civilization. On the 14th of November 1556 Father
Belchior and Mendes Pinto began their return voyage and reached
Goa on the 17th of February 1557. During his stay of a twelve-
month there, the latter left the company, being dispensed from
his vows for want of vocation at his own request, though a
modern authority states that he was expelled because he was
found to be a marrano, i.e. to possess Jewish blood. He finally
returned to Portugal on the 22nd of September 1558, and settled
at Pragal near Almada, where he married and wrote his famous*
book, the Peregrination; the MS., in fulfilment of his wishes
was presented by his daughter to the Casa Pia for penitent
women m Lisbon, and it was published by the administrators
in 1614. When Philip II. of Spain came to Portugal as its
kmg, he listened with pleasure to the account of Mendes
Pinto s travels, and by letter of the 15th of January 1583
gave him a pension for his services in the Indies But
the reward came too late, for the great traveller died on the
8th of July.

_ In the light of our present-day knowledge of the East, Pinto
is regarded as having been on the whole a careful observer and
truthful narrator, but this was not always the case. Some witty
countryman of his own parodied his name into Fernao, mentes?
Mmtol { Ferdinand, do you lie? I do!"); and the English
dramatist Congreve only expressed the general opinion of the
unlearned when he wrote in Love for Love " Mendez Pinto was
but a type of thee, thou liar of the first magnitude." It must
be remembered that Pinto wrote the Peregrination long sub-
sequent to the events he records, and this fact and a certain
fertility of imagination sufficiently account for inexactitudes
furthermore as the book was only published posthumously,
he never had the opportunity of correcting the proofs. Some of
his most marvellous stories are expressly given on the authority
of writers belonging to the countries he describes; others he
tells from hearsay, and Oriental informants are prone to ex-
aggeration. But if he somewhat adorned the truth, he did not
wilfully misrepresent it. The book itself gives the impression
of sincerity, and the editors of the first edition bear witness to
the probity, good faith and truthfulness of Mendes Pinto as a
man Herrera Maldonado prefaced his Spanish translation of
the Peregrination (1620) by a lengthy and erudite apology to
demonstrate its authenticity, and Castilho has reinforced his
arguments by modern testimonies. In the narrative portions
of his work Pinto's style is simple, clear and natural, his diction
rich, particularly m sea terms, and appropriate to his varying
subjects. There is an entire absence of artifice about the book
which must always rank as a classic, and it might fairly be argued
that Mendes Pinto did for the prose of Portugal what Camoens
did for its poetry; this is the more remarkable, because it does
not appear that he ever received any education in the ordinary
sense. He wrote the book for his children to learn to read by
and modestly excused its literary defects by alleging his rudeness
and lack of talent. Tradition has it that the MS. was entrusted
to the chronicler Francisco de Andrade for the purpose of being
polished m style and made ready for press, but that all he did
was to divide it into chapters.

tJtllt F Z e£ ^ a J i0n i 1 ^ 8 go L e t ^ rou S h man y editions subsequent
Livraria rl^'/^ m l86 5 Castilho published excerpts in his
p 7 classica portugueza with an interesting notice of Mendes
FWh ', w W " U ^. . Versions exist in German (3 editions),
rnc^n I 3 e 3 It,0n , s) « Spamsh ( 4 editi °ns), and in English by Henry
Logan, London (1663 1692 and— abridged and illustrated, with
introduction by Arminius Vambery— 1891). Cogan omits the
chapters relating to Mendes Pinto's intercourse with, and the last
uays 01, stfrancis Xavier, presumably as a concession to anti-
Catholic prejudice.

F„™I Sr ris j° va n- Ayres ' Vern&0 denies Pinto (Lisbon, 1904),
Fernao Mendes Ptnto e Japao (Lisbon, 1906); also Subsidies...
para a bwgraphm de Fernao Mendes Pinto by Jordao de FreitaE
(Coimbra, 1905). J ■ ^ p R ^

630

PINTO— PINTURICCHIO

PINTO. The remarkable brown, black and blue spots of
discoloration of the whole body met with endemically in Mexico,
Panama, Colombia and Venezuela, and known under the
name of " pinto" or " mal de los pintos," were first claimed by
Gastambide (Presse med. Beige, 1881, Nos. 33-41) as due to
the presence of a vegetable parasite, whose spores and even
mycelial filaments may be detected among the deeper rows of
cells of the rete mucosum. The disease appears to be one
of the many forms of morbus miseriae; but it is contagious, and
is sometimes seen in the well-to-do. In some villages of the
western districts of Tabasco (Mexico) it has been estimated
that 9% of the inhabitants suffer from the pinto; M'Clellas
says that in 1826 in the City of Mexico he saw a whole regiment
•f " pintados."

PINTURICCHIO (1454-1513), Italian painter, whose full name
was Bernardino di Betti, the son of a citizen of Perugia,
Benedetto or Betto di Biagio, was one of a very important group
who inherited the artistic traditions and developed the style of
the older Perugian painters, such as Bonfigli and Fiorenzo di
Lorenzo. According to Vasari he was a pupil of Perugino; and
so in one sense no doubt he was, but rather as a paid assistant
than as an apprentice. The strong similarity both in design
and methods of execution which runs through the works of this
later Perugian school is very striking; paintings by Perugino,
Pinturicchio, Lo Spagna and Raphael (in his first manner) may
often be mistaken one for the other. In most cases, especially
in the execution of large frescoes, pupils and assistants had a
large share in the work, either in enlarging the master's sketch
to the full-sized cartoon, in transferring the cartoon to the wall,
or in painting backgrounds, drapery and other accessories.
After assisting Perugino in the execution of his frescoes in the
Sistine Chapel, Pinturicchio was employed by various members
of the Delia Rovere family and others to decorate a whole series
of chapels in the church of S. Maria del Popolo in Rome, where
he appears to have worked from 1484, or earlier, to 1402 with
little interruption. The earliest of these is an altarpiece of the
" Adoration of the Shepherds," in the first chapel (from the west)
on the south, built by Cardinal Domenico della Rovere; a portrait
of the cardinal is introduced as the foremost of the kneeling
shepherds. In the lunettes under the vault Pinturicchio painted
small scenes from the life of St Jerome. The frescoes which he
painted in the next chapel, that built by Cardinal Innocenzo Cibo,
were destroyed in 1700, when the chapel was rebuilt by Cardinal
Alderano Cibo. The third chapel on the south is that of Giov.
della Rovere, duke of Sora, nephew of Sixtus IV., and brother
of Giuliano, who was afterwards Pope Julius II. This contains
a fine altarpiece of the " Madonna enthroned between Four
Saints," and on the east side a very nobly composed fresco of
the " Assumption of the Virgin." The vault and its lunettes
are richly decorated with small pictures of the life of the Virgin,
surrounded by graceful arabesques; and the dado is covered
with monochrome paintings of scenes from the lives of saints,
medallions with prophets, and very graceful and powerfully
drawn female figures in full length in which the influence
of Signorelli may be traced. In the fourth chapel Pintu-
ricchio painted the Four Latin Doctors in the lunettes of the
vault. Most of these frescoes are considerably injured by
damp, but happily have suffered little from restoration; the
heads are painted with much minuteness of finish, and the whole
of the pictures depend very largely for their effect on the final
touchings a seeco. The last paintings completed by Pinturicchio
in this church were the frescoes on the vault over the retro-choir,
a very rich and well-designed piece of decorative work, with
main lines arranged to suit their surroundings in a very skilful
way. In the centre is an octagonal panel of the coronation of
the Virgin, and round it medallions of the Four Evangelists — the
spaces between them being filled up by reclining figures of the
Four Sibyis. On each pendentive is a figure of one of the Four
Doctors enthroned under a niched canopy. The bands which
separate these pictures have elaborate arabesques on a gold
ground, and the whole is painted with broad and effective
touches, very telling when seen (as is necessarily the case) from

a considerable distance below. No finer specimen of the decora-
tion of a simple quadripartite vault can anywhere be seen.

In 1492 Pinturicchio was summoned to Orvieto, where he
painted two Prophets and two of the Doctors in the duomo. In
the following year he returned to Rome, and was employed by
Pope Alexander VI. (Borgia) to decorate a suite of six rooms
in the Vatican, which Alexander had just built. These rooms,
called after their founder the Appartamenti Borgia, now form
part of the Vatican library, and five of them still retain the fine
series of frescoes with which they were so skilfully decorated
by Pinturicchio. The upper part of the walls and vaults, not
only covered with painting, but further enriched with delicate
stucco work in relief, are a masterpiece of decorative design
applied according to the truest principles of mural ornament — a
much better model for imitation in that respect than the more
celebrated Stanze of Raphael immediately over the Borgia
rooms. The main subjects are: (1) the Annunciation, the
Nativity, the Magi, and the Resurrection; (2) Scenes from the
lives of St Catherine, St Antony and other saints; (3) allegorical
figures of music, arithmetic and the like; (4) four figures in half
length, with rich arabesques; (5) figures of the planets, the
occupations of the various months, and other subjects. The
sixth room was repainted by Perino del Vaga. 1

Though not without interruption, Pinturicchio, assisted by
his pupils, worked in these rooms from 1492 till 1498, when they
were completed. His other chief frescoes in Rome, still existing
in a very genuine state, are those in the Cappella Bufalini at the
south-west of S Maria in Ara Coeli, probably executed from
1497 to 1500. These are well-designed compositions, noble in
conception, and finished with much care and refinement. On
the altar wall is a grand painting of St Bernardino of Siena
between two other saints, crowned by angels; in the upper part
is a figure of Christ in a vesica-glory, surrounded by angel
musicians; on the left wall is a large fresco of the miracles done
by the corpse of St Bernardino, very rich in colour, and full of
very carefully painted heads, some being portraits of members
of the Bufalini family, for whom these frescoes were executed.
One group of three females, the central figure with a child at her
breast, is of especial beauty, recalling the grace of Raphael's
second manner. The composition of the main group round the
saint's corpse appears to have been suggested by Giotto's paint-
ing of St Francis on his bier in S. Croce at Florence. On the
vault are four noble figures of the Evangelists, usually attributed
to Luca Signorelli, but certainly, like the rest of the frescoes in
this chapel, by the hand of Pinturicchio. On the vault of the
sacristy of S. Cecilia in Trastevere, Pinturicchio painted the
Almighty surrounded by the Evangelists. During a visit to
Orvieto in 1496 Pinturicchio painted two more figures of the
Latin Doctors in the choir of the duomo — now, like the rest of
his work at Orvieto, almost destroyed. For these he received
fifty gold ducats.

Among his panel pictures the following are the most important.
An altarpiece for S Maria de' Fossi at Perugia, painted in
1496-1498, now moved to the picture gallery, is a Madonna
enthroned among Saints, graceful and sweet in expression, and
very minutely painted; the wings of the retable have standing
figures of St Augustine and St Jerome; and the predella has
paintings in miniature of the Annunciation and the Evangelists.
Another fine altarpiece, similar in delicacy of detail, and probably
painted about the same time, is that in the cathedral of San
Severino — the Madonna enthroned looks down towards the
kneeling donor. The angels at the sides in beauty of face and
expression recall the manner of Lorenzo di Credi or Da Vinci.
The Vatican picture gallery has the largest of Pinturicchio's
panels — the Coronation of the Virgin, with the apostles and
other saints below. Several well-executed portraits occur among
the kneeling saints. The Virgin, who kneels at Christ's feet to
receive her crown, is a figure of great tenderness and beauty, and
the lower group is composed with great skill and grace in arrange-
ment. Other important panel paintings by Pinturicchio exist

'See Guattani, Quadri nell' appart. Borgia (Rome, 1820).

PINWELL— PINZON

631

in the cathedral of Spello, in the Siena gallery, at Florence, at
Perugia, and in other collections.

In 1 501 Pinturicchio painted several fine frescoes in S. Maria
Maggiore at Spello — all very decorative and full of elaborate
architectural accessories. One of them, the Annunciation, is
signed " Bernardinvs Pintvrichivs Pervsinvs." The most striking
of all Pinturicchio's frescoes, both for brilliance of colour and
their wonderful state of preservation, are those in the cathedral
library at Siena, a large room built in 1495 by Cardinal
Francesco Piccolomini, afterwards Pius III. In 1502 the
cardinal contracted with Pinturicchio to decorate the whole
room with arabesques on the vault, and on the walls ten
scenes from the life of Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, Pius II., the
uncle of Cardinal Francesco.

The contract specially provided that the cartoons, their trans-
ference on to the walls, and all the heads, were to be by Pinturic-
chio's own hand, thus contradicting Vasari's assertion that the
cartoons were the work of Raphael. The document provides for the
price of these frescoes, namely one thousand gold ducats, to be
paid in various instalments. The work was begun early in 1503,
but was interrupted for a while by the death of Pius III. His
will, however, provided for the completion of the work by his
executors, and the whole series were finished in 1507. The subjects
are (1) the journey of the young Sylvius Piccolomini to the Council
of Basel, in the suite of Cardinal Capranica; (2) his reception by
James I. of Scotland as envoy from the Council of Basel ; (3) his being
crowned with the poet's laurel by Frederick III.; (4) his reception
by Pope Eugenius IV. as ambassador from Frederick III. ; (5) outside
the wall of Siena he presents to Frederick III. his bride Leonora,
infanta of Portugal ; (6) he receives the cardinal's hat from Pope
Calixtus III. ; (7) he is borne in procession after his election as Pope
Pius II.; (8) he presides at a council at Mantua; (9) he canonizes
St Catherine of Siena; (10) he arrives in Ancona to promote the
crusade against the Turks. In addition to these there is, outside
the library, over the door, the coronation of Pius III. In the
lower part of the scene of St Catherine's canonization he has intro-
duced his own portrait, and standing by him is a youth who bears
some resemblance to Raphael.

In 1508 Pinturicchio painted another panel of the Madonna
enthroned among saints for the church of the Minori Conventuali
at Spello. It is now over the altar in the sacristy. On his
return to Siena he painted a whole series of frescoes on the walls
of the Palazzo Petrucci, now all destroyed except one scene of
the return of Ulysses to Penelope (or possibly Collatinus and
Lucretia), which is now in the National Gallery of London,
transferred to canvas. One of his last works, painted in 1513,
the year of his death, is a very beautiful and highly finished
panel with Christ bearing His Cross, now in the Palazzo Bor-
romeo in Milan. Pinturicchio married Grania di Niccolo, and
had by her two sons and four daughters; there is probably no
truth in the story of his being starved by his wife during his last
illness.

Pinturicchio's worth as a painter has been for the most part
undervalued, partly owing to the very strong prejudice and dislike
which tinges Vasari's biography of him. Even Crowe and Caval-
caselle hardly did him justice. A fairer estimate of his position
in the history of art is given by Vermiglioli, Memorie di Pinturic-
chio (Perugia, 1837); and in the valuable notes and appendix of
Milanesi's edition of Vasari, iii. 493-531 (Florence, 1878). See also
Schmarsow , Raphael und Pinturicchio in Siena (Stuttgart, 1880), and
Pinturicchio in Rom (Stuttgart, 1882), both well illustrated by
photo-lithography. (J. H. M.)

PINWELL, GEORGE JOHN (1842-1875), British water-colour
painter, was born at Wycombe, and educated at Heatherley's
Academy. He is one of the most interesting personalities in
the little group of water-colour painters which included Frederick
Walker and A. B. Houghton, a group whose style was directly
derived from the practice of drawing upon wood for book
illustration. He was one of the most delightful book illustrators
of his day, poetic in imagination, with considerable inventive
power and an admirable sense of colour. As he died young his
works are few, but their promise was so great that had he lived
he would probably have attained a very high position. His
early life was one of considerable privation. In 1862 he entered
at Heatherley's studio and there obtained his art education.
His earliest drawings appeared in Lilliput Levie. He did a little
work for Fun and executed several designs for the silversmiths,
Elkingtons. In 1863 his first drawing appeared in Once a Week,

and from that time his work was in constant demand. There
are many of his compositions in Good Words, The Sunday
Magazine, The Quiver and London Society, but his most important
productions made for the Dalziel brothers were illustrations ol
Goldsmith, of Jean Ingelow's poems, Robert Buchanan's Ballads
of the Affections, and the Arabian Nights.

Of Pinwell's pictures in colour, which are distinguished by a
remarkable, jewel-like quality and marked by his strong love
of pure, bright colour and opalescent effect, the chief are the
two scenes from the Pied Piper of Hamelin, Gilbert & Becket's
Troth, Out of Tune or The Old Cross, A Seat in St James's Park,
and The Elixir of Life.

In 1874 Pinwell fell seriously ill and went to Africa for the
winter. He painted several remarkable pictures at Tangier,
but his strength gradually broke down and he returned to die in
his wife's arms on the 8th of September 1875. Pinwell was an
exhibitor at the Dudley gallery, and in 1869 was elected associate
of the Royal Water-Col our Society and full member in 1870;
to this gallery he contributed fifty-nine works. A posthumous
exhibition of his works was held in 1876 in Bond Street.

See Life of George J. Pinwell, by George C. Williamson, quarto,
1900. (G. C. W.)

PINZON, a family of wealthy Spanish navigators, of Palos
in Andalusia, three members of which — Martin Alonzo, Francisco
and Vicente Yanez, brothers — were associated with Columbus
in the discovery of America.

Martin Alonzo Pinzon, born about the middle of the 1 5th
century, gave material assistance to Columbus in carrying out
his project. " If Colon was the head, Pinzon was the right arm "
(Asensio). In the expedition of 1492 he commanded the " Pinta,"
on which his brother Francisco was pilot; another brother,
Vicente Yanez, commanded the " Nina." On the 6th of
October Martin Alonzo suggested to Columbus (when already
in the longitude of the Bermudas) to change the course of the
expedition from due west to south-west; on the 7th of October
this suggestion — strengthened by the observation of a flight
of birds to the south-west — was adopted, bringing the fleet, four
days later, to the landfall at Guanahani (San Salvador, Watling
Island) in the Bahamas (Oct. 12, 1492). On the 21st of Novem-
ber 1492, near the east end of the north coast of Cuba, Martin
Alonzo left Columbus, making eastward in search of the
gold-land of which they had heard the natives speak. On the
6th of January 1493 he rejoined the admiral, who accepted his
excuses. But on the return journey he again left his leader,
and when Columbus arrived at Palos on the 15th of March 14Q3
he learned that Alonzo had already landed at Bayona in Galicia.
If his object was to forestall Columbus and pose as discoverer of
the New World, he was foiled; audience was refused him by Ferdi-
nand and Isabella; and soon after he died, perhaps of chagrin. ■
Vicente Yanez Pinzon, who commanded the " Nina" in
1492-1493, also gave Columbus material help, and remained
loyal to his leader throughout. In after years he made important
discoveries on his own account. Late in December 1499 he
sailed with four caravels across the Atlantic to the south-west,
and on the 7 th of February 1500 he struck the South American
continent at Cape S. Agostinho, near its most easterly projection
(called by him Cape Santa Maria de la Consolacion) almost three
months before the Portuguese navigator Cabral reached Brazil,
the discovery of which is generally attributed to him. Proceed-
ing southwards a short distance, he then turned north, followed
the coast to the north-west, discovered the Amazon estuary,
and went at least as far as what is now Costa Rica. After touch-
ing at Haiti, and losing two of his vessels among the Bahamas,
Vicente returned to Palos in the end of September 1500.
Although concessions were made to him, and he was created
governor of the newly discovered lands by Ferdinand and
Isabella, he does not seem to have ever taken possession. In
1507 we find Vicente sailing with Juan Diaz de Solis along the
east coast of Central America. In 1509, again with De Solis,
he coasted the Atlantic side of South America as far as the La
Plata estuary, hoping to find an opening westwards leading to
I the Spice Islands. According to Herrera, he even reached 40° S.,

632

PIO DI SAVOIA— PIOZZI

passing the La Plata without recognizing it, and turning back
about the mouth of the Rio Negro, but this is probably an
exaggeration. After 1523 all traces of Vicente are lost.

See Navarrete, Coleccion de viajes; Washington Irving's Columbus,
Bk. XIV'., ch. ii. ; bibliography in Joaquim Caetano da Silva's
L'Oyapoc et V Amazone (Paris, 1861) ; Herrera, Indias Occid., Dec. I.,
lib. vi. cap. 17; lib. vii., caps. 1 and 9 (Madrid, 1730); Oviedo,
Hist, general de las Indias, lib. xxiii. cap. 1 (Madrid, 1852); O.
Peschel, Geschichte der Erdkunde, pp. 230, 233, 249 (Munich, 1865);
Zeitalter der Entdeckungen, pp. 305, &c, 426; Jose Maria Asensio,
Cristoval Colon, su vida, sus viajes, sus descobrimientos (Barcelona,
1891) ; Cesareo Fernandez Duro, Colon e Pinzon.

PIO DI SAVOIA, an ancient noble Italian family, first men-
tioned by good authorities in the 14th century. From the house
of Este (q.v.) they received the lordship of Carpi, and later they
acquired the fiefs of Meldola, Sassuolo, &c. Many members of
the family were distinguished as condotlicri, diplomats and
ecclesiastics. Alberto Pio obtained from the house of Savoy
in 1450 the privilege of adding " di Savoia" to his name as a
reward for his military services. Another Alberto Pio (1475-
1531), who was French ambassador in Rome, won fame as a man
of learning, and Cardinal Rodolfo Pio (1516-1564) was a trusted
adviser to Pius III. and helped to establish the Inquisition at
Milan. Ascanio Pio (d. 1649) was a dramatic poet of some merit.
Spain conferred the title of prince on the family, and one branch
of it is to this day established in Spain.

See P. Litta, Le Famiglie celcbri italiane (Milan) ; G. Campori
Memorie storiche di Marco Pio di Savoia (Modena, 1876); A. Ceriani
and G. Porro, " II Rotolo epistografo dei principi Pio di Savoia," in
the Archivio storico lombardo, ser. II. an. XI. fasc. I, ser. III. an.
VIII. 96, and ser. III. an. XIX. 453.

PIOMBINO, a seaport of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of
Pisa, 8 m. by rail W.S.W. of Campiglia Marittima (which is 53 m.
S.S.E. of Pisa), 62 ft. above sea-level, at the southern extremity
of the peninsula of the Monte Massoncello. Pop. (1901), 5979
(town); 7703 (commune). It is surrounded by old walls, and
contains some interesting Renaissance works by a master of
about 1458 under the influence of Alberti. It is the port of
embarcation for Elba, the nearest point of which is about 6 m.
to the south-west, and originally belonged to Pisa. It gives
the title of prince to the Buoncompagni Ludovisi family, who,
however, no longer own it.

PIONEER, properly a foot-soldier (Med. Lat. pedo, pedonis,
through O. Fr. peonnier, pionnier, cf. " pawn ") who with spade,
axe and other implements, precedes an army or smaller military
body, and clears or makes a road, digs intrenchments, prepares
a camping ground, &c. The word is thus applied to all who,
actually or figuratively, are first in exploring or working an
undiscovered or undeveloped country or field of inquiry.

PIOTRKOW (Ger. Petrikau), a government of Russian Poland,
hounded by the government of Warsaw on the N., Radom and
Kielce on the E., Kalisz on the W. and Prussian Silesia on the S.
Area, 4729 sq. m.; pop. (1906, estimate), 1,675,200. Geologically
it represents a continuation of Upper Silesia, and is built up of
Upper Carboniferous deposits, containing near Bendzin a bed
of coal 265 sq. m. in extent. Permian and Jurassic deposits,
containing zinc ores, as also lignite and limonite iron ores, overlie
the Carboniferous. The surface consists of a series of heights,
1000 to 1600 ft. above sea-level, intersected by ravines, and
stretching from south-west to north-east. The government is
drained by the Warta and the Pilica, and was formerly covered
with thick forests. It was colonized by Mazurs and Poles
(Veliko-Polyans and Malo-Polyans). The government, which
is the most densely peopled in the Russian Empire, is divided
into eight districts, of which the chief towns are Piotrkow,
Bendzin, Brzeziny, Czenstochowa, Lask, Lodz, Nowo-Radom and
Rawa. Agriculture and cattle-breeding are extensively carried on;
and coal and iron are mined. Textile industries developed with
extraordinary rapidity during the closing years of the 19th and
the opening years of the 20th centuries, the towns of Lodz,
Pabianice, Zgerz and Bendzin all being important centres.
Other branches of productive industry are distilleries, breweries,
flour-mills, brickyards, sugar, cement, glass and candle factories.
Granica and Sosnowice, in this government, are two of the most

important custom-houses in Russia, and the annual trade is
estimated at £12,000,000.

PIOTRKOW, a town of Russian Poland, capital of the govern-
ment of the same name, and formerly the seat of the high court
of Poland, on the railway from Warsaw to Vienna, 90 m. south-
west of the former and 5 m. west of the river Pilica. Pop. (1900),
32,173. It is a well-kept town, with numerous gardens, and has
flour-mills, saw-mills, tanneries, agricultural machinery works,
and breweries. One of the oldest towns in Poland, Piotrkow
was in the 15th and 16th centuries the place of meeting of the
diets, and here the kings were elected. In the 14th century
Casimir the Great built here a castle (now a military church)
and surrounded the town with walls. Here in 1769 the Russians
defeated the (Polish) forces of the Bar Confederation.

PIOZZI, HESTER LYNCH (1741-1821), English writer, well
known as the friend (Mrs Thrale) of Samuel Johnson {q.v.), was
born on the 16th of January 1741, her father being John Salus-
bury of Bobbel, Carnarvonshire. Her maternal uncle, Sir
Robert Salusbury Cotton, contemplated providing for his niece,
but he died without having carried out his intention. She and
her mother lived in London, and amongst her childish recollec-
tions were meetings with James Quin and David Garrick. She
received a solid education, for she was acquainted with Latin
as well as with French, Italian and Spanish. In 1763 she was
married to Henry Thrale, a rich Southwark brewer, whose house
was at Streatham on the south-east corner of Tooting Bee
Common. There was very little sympathy between the lively
girl and Thrale, who was thirteen years her senior, but gradually
she drew round her a distinguished circle of friends. She was
introduced to Samuel Johnson in 1765 by Arthur Murphy, who
was an old friend of her husband's. In 1766 Johnson paid a long
visit to Streatham, and from that time was more or less domesti-
cated with the Thrales. In time it became his custom to spend
the middle of the week at Streatham, devoting the remaining
days to his own heterogeneous " family." He was genuinely
attached to his hostess, and thoroughly appreciated the luxury
in which the Thrales lived. They were able to soften some of
his eccentricities, and they certainly made him happy. He
travelled with them in Wales in 1774, and in France in 1775.
Dr Burney gave lessons to one of the Miss Thrales, and in 1778
he brought his daughter Fanny to Streatham. She became a
warm friend of Mrs Thrale, and has left an account of the
Streatham household in her diary. This friendship was by no
means always unclouded. Fanny Burney was very sensitive,
and sometimes thought that Mrs Thrale gave herself airs of
patronage. Meanwhile, in 1772, Thrale's business was seriously
injured, and he was threatened with bankruptcy. The situation
was saved by his wife's efforts, and in the next year Thrale
travelled, leaving her in charge of his affairs. He was twice
returned for the borough of Southwark, chiefly through her
efforts. In 1781 Mr Thrale died, and Dr Johnson helped the
widow with her business arrangements, advising her to keep on
the brewery, until she " cured his honest heart of its incipient
passion for trade, by letting him into some, and only some, of
its mysteries." The brewery was finally sold for £135,000.
Mrs Thrale had met Gabriele Piozzi, an Italian musician, in 1780.
Johnson was now in failing health, and soon began to feel himself
slighted. His suspicions were definitely aroused when she laid
aside her mourning for Thrale in 1782, and the Streatham house
was sold. In 1783 her engagement to Piozzi was announced.
The objections of her daughters and her friends induced her
to break it off for a time, but it was soon resumed, and in 1784
they were married. Johnson told Miss Burney that he drove
the memory of Mrs Thrale from his mind, burning every letter
of hers on which he could lay his hand. The Piozzis presently
left England to travel in Italy. At Florence they fell in with
Robert Merry and the other " Delia Cruscan" writers ridiculed
by William Gifford in his Maeviad and Baviad, and she con-
tributed some verses to their Florence Miscellany in 1785. In
1786 she published Anecdotes of Ihe late Samuel Johnson, during
the last twenty years of his life, which was severely criticized by
Boswell. She was ridiculed by " Peter Pindar " in Bozzy and

PIPE

633

Piozzi; or the British Biographers, A Town Eclogue (1786).
But though Miss Burney and some others held aloof, the Piozzis
found plenty of friends when they returned to London in 1787.
Piozzi died at Brynbella, a villa he had built on his wife's
Carnarvonshire estate in 1809, and Mrs Piozzi gave up her
Welsh property to her husband's son, and spent most of the rest
of her life at Bath and Clifton. When long past seventy she took
a fancy to William Augustus Conway, the actor. She retained
her vivacity to the last, celebrating her 80th birthday by a ball
to six or seven hundred people at Bath. She died at Clifton
on the 2nd of May 1821.

From 1776 to 1809 she kept a note-book which she called
" Thraliana." Her well-known poem of the " Three Warnings "
is to be found in many popular collections. Letters to and from the
late Samuel Johnson appeared in 1788; Observations and Reflections
made in the course of a Journey, through France, Italy and Germany,
in 1789; and in 1801 she published Retrospection; or a review of the
most striking and important events, characters, and situations . . .
which the last eighteen hundred years have presented to the view of
mankind (1801).

See Letters and Literary Remains of Mrs Piozzi (Thrale), edited
with notes and an Introductory Account of her Life and Writings
by A. Hayward (1861); Piozziana; or Recollections of the late Mrs
Piozzi by a Friend (1833), the anonymous friend being Edward
Mangin (1772-1852); L. B. Seeley, Mrs Thrale, afterwards Mrs
Piozzi . . . (1891), and G. Birkbeck Hill, Johnsonian Miscellanies
(1897). Also works noted in bibliography to Johnson, Samuel

PIPE, a term used of a musical wind-instrument of tubular
form, and hence of any cylindrical hollow tube. The original
application of the term is to the musical instrument (see Pipe
and Tabor below), and the source is to be found in Lat. pipare,
to chirp, of a bird. The general meaning of " pipe," in the sense
of a tube for such purposes as carrying water, gas, sewage, &c, is
treated under Tube. Among specific uses of the word are those
for the hollow stem of clay, wood or other material with a bowl at
one end in which tobacco is smoked (see below) ; for the metal or
wooden sound tubes in an organ (q.v.) ; and for various forms of
cylindrical veins, hollows, channels, &c, in mining and geology.
The Great Roll of the Exchequer was known as the "Pipe
Roll "; this contained the various "pipes" or enrolled accounts
of the sheriffs, &c, which were so called either from being sent
in a cylindrical case or as resembling a pipe in shape when
rolled (see Records).

Tobacco Pipe. — The smoking of tobacco in pipes is a custom
which prevailed in America for a period of unknown duration
previous to the discovery of that continent by Columbus. The
most ancient pipes of which remains exist have been found in
mounds or tumuli called pipe mounds, principally in Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois and Iowa. These mound pipes, which are
carved in porphyry and other hard stones, are very uniform in
type. The pipe, cut out of a single piece of stone, consists of a
slightly convex platform or base, generally from 3 to 4 in. in
length, and about an inch broad, with the bowl on the centre. A

fine hole is pierced from one
end of the platform to the
bottom of the bowl, the
opposite end being obviously
for holding in the hand while
the pipe is being smoked.
In the commonest forms the
bowl is a simple cylinder or
urn (fig. 1), but in many cases remarkable artistic skill has
been displayed in carving the bowls into miniature figures of
birds,mammals,reptiles and
human heads, often gro-
tesque and fantastic, but
always vigorously expressed
(fig. 2). These mound or
platform pipes with carved
human andanimal formsare
objects of the highest ethno-
graphic interest and im-
portance, being among the

Monitor " Pipe.

Fig. 2.-

Heron Pipe.

most characteristic remains of the ancient inhabitants of the
Mississippi valley. The wide area over which they, as well as

remains of baked clay pipes, are found throughout the American
continent testifies to the universal prevalence of smoking in the
pre-Columbian era. Many of the ancient clay pipes found in
Mexico, &c, are elaborately moulded and ornamented, while
others show considerable similarity to the early clay pipes of
Europe. Among the North-American Indian tribes the tobacco
pipe occupies a position of peculiar symbolic significance in
connexion with the superstitious rites and usages of the race.
The calumet, peace pipe or medicine pipe, is an object of the
most profound veneration, entrusted to the care of a highly
honoured official, and produced and smoked with much ceremony
only on occasions of great importance and solemnity. It is
remarkable that, whilst the most ancient American pipes had
no separate stem, it is the stem only of the medicine pipe which .
is the object of veneration among the Indians, the bowl used
being a matter of indifference. The favourite material for
Indian pipe bowls is the famous red pipe stone (catlinite), a
fine-grained easily-worked stone of a rich red colour of the
Coteau des Prairies, west of the Big Stone Lake in S. Dakota.
The quarries were formerly neutral ground among the warring
Indian tribes, many sacred traditions being associated with the
locality and its product.

It is disputed whether pipes for smoking were at all known
in Europe previous to the discovery of America. That tobacco-
smoking was unknown is certain; but pipes of iron, bronze and
clay have been so frequently found associated with Roman
remains and other antiquities as to lead many authorities to
maintain that such pipes must have been anciently used for
burning incense or for smoking aromatic herbs or hemp. Through-
out Great Britain and Ireland small clay pipes are frequently
dug up, in some instances associated with Roman relics. These
are known amongst the people as elfin, fairy or Celtic pipes, and
in some districts supernatural agencies have been called in to
account for their existence. The elfin pipes have commonly
flat broad heels in place of the sharp spur now found on clay
pipes, and on that flat space the mark or initials of the maker
is occasionally found. There is no reason to believe that these
pipes are older than the 17 th century. The introduction of the
tobacco pipe into Europe is generally ascribed to Ralph Lane,
first governor of Virginia, who in 1586 brought an Indian pipe
to Sir Walter Raleigh, and taught that courtier how to use the
implement. The pipe-makers of London became an incorporated
body in 1619, and from England the other nations of Europe
learned the art of making clay pipes.

The habit of smoking with pipes spread with incredible
rapidity; and among the various peoples the pipe assumed special
characteristics, and its modifications became the medium of
conveying social, political and personal allusions, in many cases
with no little artistic skill and humour. The pipe also became
the object of much inventive ingenuity, and it varied as greatly
in material as in form — wood, hern, bone, ivory, stone, precious
and other metals, amber, glass, porcelain and, above aE, clay
being the materials employed in various forms. By degrees
pipes of special form and material came to be associated with
particular people, e.g. the elongated painted porcelain bowls
and pendulous stem of the German peasantry, the red clay bowl
and long cherry wood stem of the Turk, and the very small
metallic bowl and cane stem of the Japanese, &c. Among other
kinds of pipe which have been popular at various times are the
" corn-cob," where the bowl is made of the cob of maize or
Indian corn, and the " calabash " with the bowl of a small gourd.
The " churchwarden " is a clay pipe with a slender stem, some
16 or 20 in. long. The most luxurious and elaborate form of
pipe is the Persian kaiyun, hookah or water tobacco pipe. This
consists of three pieces, the head or bowl, the water bottle or
base, and the snake or long flexible tube ending in the mouthpiece.
The tobacco, which must be previously prepared by steeping
in water, is placed in the head and lighted with live charcoal, a
wooden stem passes from its bottom down into the water which
fills the base, and the tube is fitted to a stem which ends in the
bottle above the water. Thus the smoke is cooled and washed
before it reaches the smoker by passing through the water in

634

PIPE AND TABOR— PIPER

the bottle, and by being drawn through the coil of tube fre-
quently some yards in length. The bottles are in many cases
made of carved and otherwise ornamented coco-nut shells,
whence the apparatus is called narglla, from n&rgil, a coco-
nut. Silver, gold, damascened steel and precious stones are
freely used in the making and decoration of these pipes for
wealthy smokers.

Pipe Manufacture. — The regular pipe-making industries divide
into many branches, of which the more important are the clay pipe,
meerschaum (real and artificial), and wooden bowl trades. Clay
pipes are made In prodigious numbers by hand labour with an iron
mould and a steel wire for forming the tube of the stem. Pipe-
moulding is a very simple operation in pottery, and the work is
Cerformed with astonishing celerity. A number of machines have
een devised for automatic pipe-moulding; but the manual opera-
tions are so rapid and inexpensive that there is little margin for
saving by the substitution of machinery. The pipes are very [
slightly fired so as to keep them soft and porous; and so cheaply
made are they that the commoner kinds can be retailed at a profit
for a farthing each. The principal early centres of the clay-pipe
industry were at Broseley in Staffordshire, where the trade has been
established since the early part of the 17th century, and at Amesbury
in Wiltshire. The manufacture is still carried on at Broseley.
Meerschaum pipes (see Meerschaum) are the luxury of the European
smoker. The favourite wooden pipe generally known as a briar-
wood or briar-root pipe is really made from the roots of the tree
heath, Erica arborea (Fr. bruyire), principally obtained on the
hills of the Maremma and taken thence to Leghorn. There the
roots are shaped into blocks each suitable for a pipe, the cutting
of the wood so as to avoid waste requiring considerable skill. These
blocks are simmered in a vat for twelve hours, which gives them
the much-appreciated yellowish-brown hue of a good " briar- root."
So prepared the blocks are exported for boring and finishing. Many
devices have been invented for the purpose of preventing the
nicotine liquor from reaching the smoker's mouth or collecting in
and fouling the pipe.

PIPE and TABOR (Fr. galoubet; Ger. Schwegel or Stamm-
tienpfeiff), a popular medieval combination of a small pipe or
flageolet, and a small drum. The pipe consists of a cylindrical
tube of narrow bore, pierced with three holes, two in front and
one at the back, all very near the end of the pipe; and of a
mouthpiece of the kind known as whistle, fipple or beak common
to the flutes & tec or recorder family. The compass of this
instrument, with no more than three holes, exceeds two octaves
in the hands of a good player, and is chromatic throughout.
The fundamental notes of the open pipe and of the three holes
cannot be produced; the scale consists, therefore, entirely of
harmonics, the and, 3rd and 4th of the series being easily
obtained, and, by half stopping the holes, also the semitones
which are required to complete the chromatic scale. The
tabor being fastened to the performer's left elbow, the hands
remained free, the right beating the little drum with a stick to
mark the rhythm, while the left held and fingered the pipe with
thumb and first two fingers.

Mersenne mentions a wonderful virtuoso, John Price, who could
rise to the twenty-second on the galoubet. Praetorius mentions
and figures three sizes of the Stamentienpfeiff, the treble 20 in.
long, the tenor 26 in. and the bass 30, the last being played by
means of a crook about 23 in. long. A specimen of the bass
in the museum of the Brussels Conservatoire has for its lowest
note middle C. The pipe and tabor are said to be of Provengal
origin ; it is certain that they were most popular in France, England
and the Netherlands, and they figure largely among the musical and
social scenes in the illuminated MSS. of those countries. (K. S.)

PIPE-FISHES (Syngnalhim) , small fishes, which with the Sea-
horses form a distinct family, Syngnathidae, of Lophobranchiate

Fig. i.—Syngnathus acus, Male, with sub-caudal pouch.
Thoracostei. The name is derived from the peculiar form of their
snout, which is produced into a more or less long tube, ending in a

narrow and small mouth which opens upwards and is toothless.
The body and tail are long and thin, snake-like, encased in hard
integuments which are divided into regularly arranged segments.
This dermal skeleton shows several longitudinal ridges, so that

a vertical section through the body represents an angular figure,

not round or oval as in the majority of other fishes. A dorsal

fin is always present, and is the principal

(in some species, the only) organ of

locomotion. The ventral fins are as

constantly absent, and the other fins

may or may not be developed. The

gill-openings are extremely small and

placed near the upper posterior angle

of the gill-cover. Most of the pipe-
fishes are marine, only a few being

fluviatile. Pipe-fishes are abundant on

such coasts of the tropical and temperate

zones as offer by their vegetation shelter

to these defenceless creatures. They

are very bad swimmers, slowly moving

through the water by means of the rapid

undulatory movement of the dorsal fin.

Their tail, even when provided with a

caudal fin, is of no use in swimming,

and not prehensile as in sea-horses. Speci-
mens, therefore, are not rarely found at

a great distance from land, having been

resistlessly carried by currents into the

open ocean; one species, Syngnathus

pelagicus, has an extraordinarily wide

range over the tropical seas, and is one

of the common fishes inhabiting the

vegetation of the Sargasso Sea. The

colour of these fishes often changes with

the sea-weeds among which they may be

found, passing from brown to green or

even brick-red. In pipe-fishes the male

is provided with a pouch — in some species

on the abdomen, in others on the lower

side of the tail — in which the ova are lodged during their

development. This marsupial pouch is formed by a fold of

the skin developed from each side of the trunk or tail, the free

margins of the fold being firmly united in the median line

throughout the period during which the eggs are being hatched.

When the young are hatched the folds separate, leaving a wide

slit, by which the young gradually escape when quite able to

take care of themselves. Nearly a hundred different species of

pipe-fishes are known, of which Siphono stoma typhle, Syngnathus

acus (the Great Pipe-fish up to 18 in. in length), Nerophis

aequoreus (Ocean Pipe-fish), Nerophis ophidion (Straightnosed

Pipe-fish), and Nerophis lumbriciformis (Little Pipe-fish) are
British species. The last three are destitute of a caudal fin.

A review of the extensive literature on the breeding habits of the
Syngnathidae is given by E. W. Gudger, " The Breeding habits and
the Segmentation of the Egg of the Pipefish," Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.
(1905), xxix. 447.

PIPER, CARL, Count (1647-1716), Swedish statesman, was
born at Stockholm on the 29th of July 1647. He entered the
foreign office after completing his academical course at Upsala,
accompanied Benedict Oxenstjerna on his embassage to Russia
in 1673, and attracted the attention of Charles XL during the
Scanian War by his extraordinary energy and ability. In 1679 he
was appointed secretary to the board of trade and ennobled. In
1689 he was made one of the secretaries of state, and Charles XL
recommended him on his deathbed to his son and successor,
Charles XII. Piper became the most confidential of the new
sovereign's ministers. In 1697 he was made a senator and set
over domestic affairs while still retaining his state-secretaryship.
In 1698 he was created a count, in 1702 appointed chancellor
of Upsala University, and during the first half of the Great
Northern War, as the chief of Charles's perambulating chancel-
lery, he was practically prime minister. It was his misfortune,
however, to be obliged to support a system which was not his

Fig. 2. — Sub-caudal
pouch of Syngnathus
acus,] with the young
ready to leave the
pouch. One side of
the membrane of the
pouch is pushed aside
to admit of a view
of its interior. (Nat.
size.)

PIPERAZIN— PIPPIN

635

own. He belonged to the school of Benedict Oxenstjerna and
was therefore an avowed advocate of a pacific policy. He
protested in vain against nearly all the military ventures of
Charles XII., e.g. the War of Deposition against Augustus of
Saxony and Poland, the invasion of Saxony, the raid into the
Ukraine. Again and again he insisted that the pacific overtures
of Peter the Great should at least be fairly considered, but his
master was always immovable. Piper's career came to an end
at Poltava (1709), where he was among the prisoners. The last
years of his life were spent in exile in Russia. He died at
Schliisselburg on the 29th of May 17 16.

See W. L. Svedelius, Count Carl Piper (Stockholm, 1869).

(R. N. B.)

PIPERAZIN, a substance formed by the action of sodium
glycol on ethylene-diamine hydrochloride, consisting of small
alkaline deliquescent crystals with a saline taste and soluble
in water. It was originally introduced into medicine as a
solvent for uric acid. When taken into the body the drug is
partly oxidized and partly eliminated unchanged. Outside
the body piperazin has a remarkable power of dissolving uric
acid and producing a soluble urate, but in clinical experience
it has not proved equally successful. Lycetol, lysidine and
sidonal are bodies having similar action.

PIPERINE, C17H19NO3, an alkaloid found in the fruits of
Piper nigrum and P. longum. It forms white prisms, which
melt at i28°-2i9°. It is almost insoluble in water, but readily
soluble in alcohol and ether. It is a very weak base, salts being
only formed with mineral acids, and these are dissociated by
water. Alcoholic potash decomposes it into piperidine, C 5 H U N,
and piperic acid, C 12 H 10 O4. The constitution of piperic acid
was elucidated by R. Fittig and his pupils {Ann., vols. 152, 159,
168, 216, 227) and shown to be (1). Piperine consequently
is (2). ~ *

CH

CH:CH-CH:CH-COOH ,(1)

— CH:CH-CH:CH-CO-N(CH 2 ) 6 (2)

Oxidation with potassium permanganate converts piperic acid
into piperonal, C 8 H 6 3 , and piperonylic acid, CsHjO* The latter
when heated with hydrochloric acid to 170°, or water to 200°,
separates carbon with the formation of protocatechuic acid,
i-2-dioxy-3-benzoic acid, C 6 H 3 (OH) 2 COOH. Conversely, by
heating protocatechuic acid with potash and methylene iodide,
piperonylic acid was regained. These results show that pipero-
nylic acid is the methylene ether of protocatechuic acid.
Piperonal (q.v.)_ is the corresponding aldehyde. Piperic acid differs
from piperonylic acid by the group C 4 H 4 , and it was apparent that
these carbon atoms must be attached to the carbon atom which
appears in the carboxyl group of piperonylic acid, for if they were
directly attached to the benzene ring polycarboxylic acids would
result in oxidation. The above formula for piperic acid was con-
firmed by its synthesis by A. Ladenburg and M. Scholtz {Ber., 1894,
27, p. 2958) from piperonyl acrolein (the condensation product of
piperonal and acetaldehyde) and acetic acid. The synthesis of
piperine fojlows_ from the interaction of piperyl chloride (formed
from piperic acid and phosphorus pentachloride) and piperidine
(L. Rtigheimer, Ber., 1882, 15, p. 1390.)

PIPERNO (anc. Privernum) , a town of the province of Rome,
Italy, 61 m. S.E. of Rome by rail. Pop. (1901), 6736. The
medieval town was founded in the 10th century (?) on a hill
490 ft. above sea-level, by refugees from the Roman town of
Privernum, lower down (118 ft. above sea-level) on the highroad,
1 \ m. to the north, at the mouth of a low pass leading through
the Volscian mountains to the valley of the Sacco. Here are
remains of an arch crossing the road and other ruins (mostly
buried) of the Roman period; but the remains above ground
are largely medieval. It is improbable, however, that the
ancient Volscian town should have occupied so easily accessible
a site; it is not unlikely that it stood on the site occupied by
the medieval and modern town, but there is no proof of this,
rrivernum was a Volscian town, and took up arms against
Rome after the foundation of a Latin colony at Setia in 382 B.C.
It was finally captured in 329 B.C., and eleven years later the

tribus Oufentina was founded, taking its natne from the river
Oufens (mod. Uffente) in the territory of Privernum. Little
is known of it subsequently. The medieval town has a pic-
turesque piazza, with a Gothic cathedral (1283), which pre-
serves a fine porch, though the interior was modernized
in 1782; a Gothic palazzo pubblico; and other Gothic
churches exist in the town. Polygonal terrace walls of the
Roman or pre-Roman period exist at various places in the
vicinity (G. B. Giovenale and L. Mariani in Notizie degli Scavi,
1899,88). (T.As.)

PIPERONAL (heliotropine, protocatechuic aldehyde methylene
ether), C 8 H 6 03, an aromatic aldehyde. It is prepared by
oxidizing piperic acid with potassium permanganate (R. Fittig,
Ann., 1869, 152, p. 35); by condensing methylene iodide with
protocatechuic aldehyde (R. Wegscheider, Monats., 1893, 14,
p. 388) ; or by oxidizing isosafrol with chromic acid. It forms long
colourless crystals which melt at 37° C. and boil at 263 C. It
has an agreeable smell, resembling that of heliotrope, and is
much used in perfumery. It is only slightly soluble in cold
water, but is readily soluble in alcohol and in ether. When
heated with dilute hydrochloric acid to 200 C. it yields proto-
catechuic aldehyde, C 7 H 6 3 , and carbon. It readily combines
with sodium bisulphite and with various bases (ammonia,
aniline, methylamine, &c).

PIPIT (cognate with the Lat. Pipio; see Pigeon), the name
applied by ornithologists to a group of birds having a great
resemblance both in habits and appearance to the larks {q.v.).
They differ however from larks in several important characters,
and, having been first separated to form the genus Anthus,
which has since been much broken up, are now generally asso-
ciated with the wagtails {q.v.) in the Passerine family Motacillidae.
Pipits, of which over fifty species have been described, occur in
almost all parts of the world, but in North America are repre-
sented by only two species — Neocorys spraguii, the prairie-lark
of the north-western plains, and Anthus ludovicianus , the
American titlark, which last is very nearly allied to the so-called
water-pipit of Europe, A. spipoletta. To most English readers
the best known species of pipit is the titlark or meadow-pipit,
A. pratensis, a bird too common to need description, and abundant
on pastures, moors, and uncultivated districts generally; but
in some localities the tree-pipit, A. trivialis, or A. arbor eus of
some authors, takes its place, and where it does so it usually
attracts attention by its loud song, which is not unlike that
of a canary, but delivered (as appears to be the habit of all the
pipits) on the wing and during a short circuitous flight. Another
species, the rock-lark, A. obscurus, scarcely ever leaves the sea-
coast and is found almost all round the British Islands. The
South-African genus Macronyx, remarkable for the extreme
length of its hind claw, is generally placed among the pipits,
but differs from all the rest in its brighter coloration, which
has a curious resemblance to the American genus Sturnella
(see Icterus), though the bird is certainly not allied thereto.

(A. N.)

PIPPIN, or Pepin, the name of three members of the Caro-
lingian family.

Pippin I. (d. 640), incorrectly called Pippin of Landen, was
mayor of the palace to the youthful Dagobert I., whom
Clotaire II. had placed over the kingdom of Austrasia. He was
disgraced when Dagobert became sole king in 629, and had to
seek' refuge in Aquitaine. Returning at Dagobert's death (639),
he governed Austrasia in Sigebert's name, but died in the
following year.

Pippin II. (d. 714), incorrectly called Pippin of Herstal,
was son of Adalgiselus (son of Arnulf, bishop of Metz) by a
daughter of Pippin I., called in later documents Begga. Towards
678 he placed himself at the head of the great nobles in Austrasia
to combat Ebrom, the mayor of the palace, and Neustria. After
some reverses he gained a great victory after Ebroin's death
at the battle of Tertry, not far from St Quentin. This victory
made Pippin almost entire master of Gaul. He appointed
one of his sons mayor of the palace of Neustria, reserving for
another of his sons the mayoralty of Austrasia. He made war

6 3 6

PIPRAWA

on the Frisians and defeated their duke Radbod; and part of
this people became converts to Christianity. He also defeated
Willari, the duke of the Alamanni, and subdued his country.
The Bavarians, too, recognized the Frankish suzerainty. The
plans he had formed for reforming the church and convoking
councils were interrupted by his death, which took place on
the 16th of December 714.

Pippin III. (d. 768), the Short, 1 was son of Charles Martel.
Before his death in 741 Charles Martel had divided the Frankish
kingdom between his two sons, Carloman and Pippin, giving
Carloman the eastern part and Pippin the western. Since 737
there had been no king in the Frankish realm; in the diplomas
the two brothers bear the title of majores palatii, while the
chroniclers call them simply principes. In 743, however, the
mayors decided to appoint a king in the person of Childeric III.,
who was apparently connected with the Merovingian family.
But Childeric was a mere figure-head, and had no power.
The two brothers presided over the tribunals, convoked
the councils at which the Frankish Church was reformed,
assembled the host and made war, jointly defeating and subdu-
ing Duke Hunald of Aquitaine. In 747 Carloman unexpectedly
abdicated, became a monk, and retired to a monastery near
Rome, subsequently founding on Mt Soracte the monastery
of St Silvester. From the time of the abdication Pippin
was sole master; and in 751, after consulting Pope Zacharias,
he took the title of king and removed the feeble Childeric
to a monastery. He then got himself crowned by St Boniface,
a ceremony which was new to France and which gave the
sovereign immense prestige; henceforth the king of the Franks
called himself Gratia Dei rex Francnrum.. Pippin's reign is
marked by many important events. He received in France a
personal visit from Pope Stephen II., who conferred on him the
title of Patrician of the Romans and recrowned him. In return
for these honours Pippin, at the appeal of the pope, made two
expeditions into Italy, in 754 and 756; and he became the
veritable creator of the papal state by conferring on the pope
the exarchate of Ravenna, which he had wrested from Aistulf,
the king of the Lombards. Pippin took Septimania from the
Arabs, and after a stubborn war of nearly eight years' duration
(760-68) succeeded in taking Aquitaine from its duke, Waiter.
He also intervened in Germany, where he forced the duke of
Bavaria, Tassilo, to become his vassal. In 763, however,
Tassilo abandoned Pippin during an expedition against Aqui-
taine. Pippin made several expeditions against the Saxons,
but failed to subdue them. He entered into relations with the
Eastern Empire, exchanging ambassadors with the emperor
Constantine Copronymus. During Pippin's reign Frankish
institutions underwent some modification. The Frankish
assemblies, previously held in the month of March [champs de
mars), but under Pippin deferred to May {champs de mai),
came to be more numerous, and served the king of the Franks
as a means of receiving the gifts of his subjects and of promul-
gating his capitularies. At the head of the administration was
placed the archchaplain, and an ecclesiastical chancellor was
substituted for the ancient referendarius. Ecclesiastical reform
was continued under Pippin, Bishop Chrodegans of Metz
uniting the clergy of Metz in a common life and creating
canons (see Canon). Pippin died on the 24th of September
768 at St Denis, leaving two sons, Charles (Charlemagne) and
Carloman.

See H. Bonnell, Die Anfange des karolingischen Hauses (Berlin,
1866); K. Hahn, Jahrbiicher des frankischen Retches 741-752 (Berlin,
1863); L. Oelsner, Jahrbiicher des frankischen Reiches unter Kbnig
Pippin (Leipzig, 1871); J. F. Bohmer and E. Miihlbacher, Regesten
des Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern (2nd ed., 1899); and E.
Miihlbacher, Deutsche Geschichte unter den Karolingern (Stuttgart,
1896). (C. Pf.)

PIPRAWA, a village on the Birdpur estate in the Basti district,
United Provinces, India. It lies on the Uska-Nepal road at
mile 19-75; and about half a mile south of the boundary pillar
numbered 44 on the frontier line between British and Nepalese

1 A surname given to Pippin III. on the strength of a legendary
anecdote related by the monk of St Gall.

territory. The village is celebrated as the site of the following
discovery: —

In 1896 interest having been aroused by the discovery, only
twelve miles away, of the Buddha's birthplace (see Lumbini),
William Peppe, then resident manager of the Birdpur estate,
opened a ruined tope or burial mound situate at Piprawa, but
nothing of importance was found. In January 1897 he carried
the work of excavation farther. A well, 10 ft. sq., was dug
down the centre of the mound. After digging through 18 ft.
of solid brickwork set in clay a massive stone coffer was found
lying due magnetic north and south. Its dimensions were,
4 ft. 4 in. by 2 ft. 8J in. and 2 ft. 2j [in. high. The stone lid
of the coffer was split into four pieces; but the coffer remained
perfectly closed, so accurately was the lid fitted into flanges
on the sides of the box. The pieces were thus firmly held in
their place, and the contents of the coffer were found intact.
These consisted of five vessels, two vases, a bowl and a casket
being made of steatite, and the fifth, also a bowl, of crystal.
All these vessels are beautifully worked, the crystal bowl
especially, with its fish-shaped cover handle, being as a work of
art of high merit. 2 The coffer is of fine hard sandstone of
superior quality, and has been hollowed out, at the cost of vast
labour and expense, fjrom a solid block of rock. Peppe cal-
culates its weight, lid included, at 1537 lb. It is only the great
solidity of this coffer which has preserved the contents. A
cover of one of the vases was found dislodged and lying on the
bottom of the stone coffer. As this cover fits very well it must
have required a quite violent shock to remove' it. This was
almost certainly the shock of an earthquake, and the same shock
probably caused the split in the stone lid of the coffer itself.

The vessels contained a dark dust, apparently disintegrated
ashes, small pieces of bone, and a number of small pieces of
jewelry in gold, silver, white and red cornelian, amethyst, topaz,
garnet, coral and crystal. Most of these are perforated for
mounting on threads or wires, and had been, no doubt, originally
connected together to form one or more of the elaborate girdles,
necklaces and breast ornaments then worn by the women. 3
On the bottom of the stone box there was similar dust, pieces
of bone and jewelry, and also remains of what had been vessels
of wood. The knob forming the handle of one of these wooden
receptacles was still distinguishable. The total quantity of
scraps of bone may have amounted to a wineglassful.

An inscription ran round one of the steatite vases just below
the lid. 4 The words mean : This shrine for ashes of the Buddha,
the Exalted One, is the pious work of the Sakiyas, his brethren,
associated with their sisters, and their children, and their wives.
The thirteen words, in a local dialect of Pali, are written in very
ancient characters, and are the oldest inscription as yet dis-
covered in India. Twelve out of the thirteen are well-known
words, the interpretation of which is not open to doubt. One
word, rendered above by " pious work," has not been found else-
where, and its derivation is open to discussion-. The explanation
here adopted as most probable was put forward by Professor
Pischel of Berlin. 6 The phrase " pious work " probably had a
precise technical connotation like the English " benefaction."

The monument must have been of imposing appearance. The
diameter (on the ground level) of the dome is 116 ft. For 8 ft.
from the summit of the ruin it was not possible to trace the
outline. At that point the outer wall, if one may so call it,
of the solid dome could be traced, and had a diameter of 68 ft.
The dome, therefore, sloped inwards 1 ft. for every 3 ft. in height,
in other words, it was, like all the most ancient of these artificial
burial domes in India, a shallow dome, and cannot have been
more than about 35 ft. high exclusive of the ornament or "tee"
on the summit. We have in bas-reliefs of the 3rd century
representations of what these ornaments were like — small

2 An illustration from a photograph is given in Rhys Davids'
Buddhist India, p. 131.

3 For figures of the jewelry found see the plate in Mr Peppers
article, reproduced in Rhys Davids' Buddhist India, p. 89. For
the jewelry of the time, ibid., pp. 90, 91.

4 See illustration ibid., p. 129.

6 Zvitschrift der deutschen morgenlundischen Gesellschaft, Ivi. 1 57-

PIQUA— PIQUET

637

square erections, like a shrine or small temple, surmounted
by a canopy called from its shape a T. They were then more
than a third of the height of the dome itself. The total height
of this Sakiya tope will therefore have been approximately
a little under 50 ft. It was probably surrounded by a carved
wooden railing, but this has long since disappeared.

All such monuments hitherto discovered in India were put
up in honour of some religious teacher, not in memory of royal
persons, generous benefactors, politicans, or soldiers or private
persons, however distinguished. And we need have no hesita-
tion in accepting this as a monument put up over a portion of
the ashes from the funeral pyre of Gotama the Buddha. The
account of the death and cremation of the Buddha, preserved
in the Buddhist canon, states that one-eighth portion of the
ashes was presented to the Sakiya clan, and that they built a
thfipa. or memorial mound, over it. 1

Mr Peppe presented the coffer and vases with specimens of
the jewelry to the museum at Calcutta where they still are.
He also gave specimens of the trinkets to the Asiatic Society in
London.

Peppe" s original article is in the JowmC of the Royal Asiatic
Society for 1898, pp. 573 sqq. CommeU? upon it, one or two of
them sceptical, are in the same joun'.ai 1898, pp. 579, 588, 387,
868; 1899, P- 425; 1901, p. 398; 190= p. 679; 1906, pp. 149 sqq.
See also A. Barth, Comptes rendues de Vacademie des inscriptions
(1898), xxvi., 147, 233; Sylvain Levy. Journal des savants (1905)
pp. 540 sqq.; and R. Pischel and Rhys Davids as quoted above.

(T. W. R. D.)

PIQUA, a city of Miami county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Miami
River and the Miami & Erie Cana), 73 m. W. by N. of Columbus.
Pop. (1890), 9000; (1900), 12,172, of whom 901 were foreign-born
and 4S7 were negroes; ( 1910 census), 13,388. It is served
by the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the
Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton railways, and by inter-urban
electric lines to Lima, Dayton and Covington. It has a park,
a public library and a public hospital. There are quarries of
blue limestone in the vicinity. The city has various manu-
factures, the factory products being valued in 1905 at $4,035,706.
The municipality owns and operates its waterworks. On or
near the site of Piqua was one of the principal villages of the
Chillicothc division of the Shawnee tribe; the village also w T as
called Chillicothc. It was destroyed by George Rogers Clark
in 17S2. A town was laid out here in 1809 under the name of
Washington, and the present name, that of another division
of the Shawnee tribe, was substituted in 1823. Piqua was
chartered as a city in 1846. During the French and Indian
War, in 1763, a battle was fought in this vicinity chiefly between
the Miamis, Wyandots, Ottawas and other Indian allies of the
French, and the Dclawares, Shawnees, Cherokees, Catawbas
and other Indian allies of the English, the English allies making
an unsuccessful attempt to drive the French allies from their
fortified position, Fort Piqua.

See Henry Howe, Historical Collections of Ohio (Columbus, 1891).

PIQUET, a game at cards, probably a development of ronfa,
a game mentioned by Berni in 1526; la ronjlc (included in
Rabelais's list, c. 1530) may be regarded as the same game.
The point at piquet was anciently called ronjlc. The Spanish
name of the game was cienlos (centum, a hundred). Piquet
was played in England under the name of cent, or sant, probably
as early as 1550 (contemporaneously with the marriage of
Mary to Philip of Spain). About the middle of the 17th century
(shortly after the marriage of Charles I. to Henrietta Maria of
France) the name cent was dropped in England, and the French
equivalent, piquet, adopted. It is played by two persons,
with a pack of thirty-two cards — the sixes, fives, fours, threes
and twos being thrown out from a complete pack. At one time
the partic was the best of five games of a hundred up (a player
not obtaining fifty losing a double game) . But now the partie
is generally determined in six hands, the player making the
largest aggregate score being the winner. The number of points
won is the difference between the two scores, with a hundred

'Translated in Rhys Davids' Buddhist Suttas (Oxford, 1881).

added for the game. If, however, the loser fails to make a
hundred in six hands, the number of points won is the sum of
the two scores, with a hundred for the game. Piquet played
in this way is called Rubicon Piquet.

The dealer deals twelve cards to his adversary and twelve to
himself, two at a time, or three at a time. He then places the
eight undealt cards, called the " stock," face downwards on the
table, the top five being for the elder hand (non-dealer) to take
from first in exchange for his own. The players now look at their
hands, and carte blanche (see later) having been declared, if there
is one, put out (without showing them) such cards as they deem
advisable in order to improve their hands, and take in an equiva-
lent number from the stock. Each player must discard at least
one card. If the elder hand discards less than the five he is entitled
to, he must state how many he leaves. He is entitled to look at
the cards he leaves, replacing them face downwards on the top of
the stock. The younger hand then makes the exchange from the
remainder of the stock. If the elder hand leaves any of the top
five, the younger may exchange as many as remain in the stock,
discarding an equal number. If the younger hand leaves any
cards, he announces the number left. He may look at the cards
he leaves. If he looks at them he must show them to the elder hand,
after the elder has named the suit he will lead first, or has led a
card.

If the younger hand elects not to look at the cards left the elder
cannot see them. The younger hand must make his election before
he plays to the card first led, or, if so required, after the dealer has
named the suit he will first lead. Each player may examine his
own discard at any time during the hand; but he must keep it
separate from his other cards.

The elder hand next makes a declaration of what he has in his
hand.

The " point " must be called first or the right to call it is lost.
It is scored by the player who announces the suit of greatest strength,
valued thus: ace 11 ; court cards, 10 each; other cards, the number
of pips on each. Thus if the elder hand's best suit is ace, king,
knave, nine, eight, he calls " five cards." If the younger hand
has no suit of five cards, he says " good." The elder hand then
says " in spades," or whatever the suit may be, or shows his point
face upwards. If the younger hand has a suit of more than five
cards, he says " not good." If the younger hand has also five
cards, he says "equal" or "what do they make ? " when the elder
calls " forty-eight " (or " making eight," short for forty-eight).
The younger must not inquire what the point makes unless he has
an equal number of cards. If the younger hand's five cards make
less than forty-eight he says "good"; if exactly forty-eight,, he
says " equal "; if more than forty-eight he says " not good." The
player whose point is good reckons one for each card of it; if the
points are equal neither player scores for point.

" Sequences " are usually called next, the elder hand stating
what his best sequence is, and the younger saying, " good," " equal,"
or " not good," as in the case of the point. Any three or more
consecutive cards of the same suit held in hand constitute a sequence.
The order of the cards is as follows: ace (highest), king, queen,
knave, ten, nine, eight, seven (lowest). A sequence of three cards
is called a " tierce "; of four, a " quart "; of five, a " quint "; of
six, a " sixieme "; of seven, a " septieme "; of eight, a " huitieme."
A tierce of ace, king, queen is called a " tierce major "; a tierce of
king, queen, knave is called a " tierce to a king " (and sc on for
other intermediate sequences according to the card which heads
them); a tierce of nine, eight, seven is called a "tierce minor."
Sequences of four or more cards follow the same nomenclature;
e.g. ace, king, queen, knave is a quart major; knave, ten, nine,
eight, is a quart to a knave; and so on A sequence of a greater
number of cards is good against a sequence of a smaller number;
thus, a quart minor is good against a tierce major. As between
sequences containing the same number of cards, the one headed
by the highest card is good ; thus, a quart to a queen is good against
a quart to a knave. Only identical sequences can be equal. The
player whose sequence is good reckons one for each card of it,
and ten in addition for quints or higher sequences. Thus a tierce
counts three; a quart, four; a quint, fifteen; a sixieme, sixteen; and so
on. If the elder hand's sequence is good, he names the suit, or shows
it face upwards. If the highest sequence (or the sequence first
called) is good, all lower sequences can be reckoned, notwithstanding
that the adversary has a sequence of intermediate value. For
example, A has a quart to a queen (good,) and a tierce minor. He
calls and reckons seven, notwithstanding that B has a quart to a
knave. B's quart counts nothing. If the highest sequence is
equal, neither player scores anything for sequence, even though
one player may hold a second sequence of equal or inferior value.

" Quatorzes " and " trios " are the next calls. " Quatorzes " are
composed of four aces, four kings, four queens, four knaves, or
four tens, in order of value; " trios " of three of any of these A
quatorze, if good, reckons fourteen ; a trio, if good, reckons three ; .
one that is good establishes any smaller quatorzes or trios in his
hand.

When the elder hand has done calling he leads a card. Before

6 3 8

PIRAM— PIRATE AND PIRACY

playing to this card, the younger hand reckons all that he has
good, stating of what cards his claims are composed, or showing
the cards claimed for. The elder hand leads any card he pleases;
the younger plays to it. The younger hand must follow suit if
able; otherwise he may play any card he thinks fit. It is not
compulsory to win the trick. The leader counts one for each card
led, whether it wins the trick or not. If the second player wins
the trick he also counts one. The winner of the last trick counts
an additional one for the last card. The tricks are left face upwards
in front of the player who wins them. They may be examined
by either player.

If each player wins six tricks the cards are " divided," and there
is no further score. If one player wins more than six tricks he wins
" the cards," and adds ten to his score. If one player wins every
trick, he wins a capot, and scores forty for the cards, instead of
ten.

During the play of the hand, a player is entitled to be informed
as to any cards his adversary holds which he has reckoned as good,
or has declared to be equal. A player may require his adversary
to exhibit any such cards. But if a player, having played three
cards of a sixieme, declared as a quint, is asked how many he has
left, he need only reply " Two."

During the progress of the hand each player repeats aloud the
amount of his score for the time being. At the end of the hand
the points scored are recorded by each player. If there is any
difference in the written scores, a player's score of his own hand is
deemed to be the correct one.

Example. — A (elder hand) has dealt him ace, king, knave of
spades; ace, queen, knave, eight of hearts; knave, eight, seven of
clubs; and nine, eight of diamonds. He discards king of spades;
eight, seven of clubs; and nine, eight of diamonds. He takes in
nine, eight of spades; king of hearts; nine of clubs; and king of
diamonds.

B (younger hand) has ten, seven of spades; ten, nine, seven of
hearts; king, queen, ten of clubs; and ace, queen, knave, ten of
diamonds. He discards seven of spades; and nine, seven of hearts.
He takes in queen of spades; ace of clubs; and seven of diamonds.
The hand then proceeds thus. A (calling his point) " five cards."
B says " equal," or " what do they make?"

A " forty-nine," or " making nine." B " good."
A (counting his point) " five " and, counting his sequence, which
is good) " a quart major, nine. Three knaves?" B " not good."

A (leads ace of hearts and says) " ten." B " four tens, fourteen,
and three queens, seventeen " (plays the ten of hearts).

A (leads the remaining hearts and says) " eleven, twelve, thirteen,
fourteen." B (plays seven, ten, knave, queen of diamonds, and
repeating his score says) " seventeen."

A has now five tricks, and in order to win the cards should lead any
card but a high spade. He leads king of diamonds, and says
" fifteen." B (wins with ace and says) " eighteen" (and then leads
the winning clubs, saying) " nineteen, twenty, twenty-one, twenty-
two. ' '

A (keeps ace, knave of clubs, and repeating his score says)
" fifteen." B (leads queen of spades and says) " twenty-three. "

A (wins with ace and says) ." sixteen " (and leads knave, saying)
" eighteen " (and adding ten for the cards) " twenty-eight. "

A then writes on his scoring card 28; 23. B writes on his 23;
28. The pack is collected, and the next hand commences.
Three scores (omitted in order to simplify the description of the
game) have yet to be mentioned.

Carte Blanche. — If either player has no king, queen or knave in
the hand dealt him, he holds carte blanche, for which he scores ten.
As soon as a player discovers he has a carte blanche, he must tell
his adversary; this he usually does by saying "discard for carte
blanche." The adverse discard is then made (as explained under
discarding), after which the carte blanche is shown by dealing the
cards, face upwards on the table; they are then taken back into
the hand.

Pique. — If the elder hand scores, in hand and play, thirty or
more, before the younger hand counts anything in that deal, he
gains a pique, for which he scores thirty.

Rcpique. — If a player scores in hand alone thirty or more before
his adversary reckons anything, he gains a repique, for which he
adds sixty to his score. Equalities do not prevent piques or repiques.
A player who has an equal point or sequence scores nothing for it.
Therefore if, notwithstanding the equality, a player makes thirty,
in hand and play, or in hand, by scores which reckon in order
before anything his adversary can count, he gains a pique or a
repique.

The order in which the scores accrue is of importance. For the
sake of convenience, the elder hand finishes his reckoning before
the younger begins. The scores, however, whether made by the
elder or younger hand are recordable in the following order: (1)
carle blanche; (2) point; (3) sequences; (4) quatorzes and trios;
(5) points made in play; (6) the cards. This will often affect a
pique or repique. Thus, a pique can only be made by the elder
hand, as the one he reckons in play when he leads his first card
counts before points subsequently made in play by the younger
hand. The younger, therefore, cannot make thirty in hand and
play before the elder scores one. But the one reckoned by the

elder hand when he leads his first card does not prevent his being
repiqued, because scores made in hand have precedence of points
made in play. The elder leads his first card and counts for it
before the younger reckons, simply as a convenient way of stating
that he has nothing in hand which is good. Again, say A has a
quint (good), a tierce, and a quatorze (good). He scores thirty-two
in hand alone; but, if his point is not good, he does not gain a
repique, because the younger hand's point is recordable in order
before the sequences and quatorze. Carte blanche, taking pre-
cedence of all other scores, saves piques and repiques. It also
counts towards piques and repiques. A capot does not count
towards a pique, as the capot is not made in play. It is added
after the play of the hand is over. A player who reckons nothing
that hand as a penalty is not piqued or repiqued if he holds any
cards which, but for the penalty, would have reckoned before his
adversary reached thirty.

See " Cavendish," The Laws of Piquet and of Rubicon Piquet,
adopted by the Portland Club, with a Treatise on the Game (1882);
" Cavendish," Guide to Piquet (1898).

PIRAM, or Perim, an island in the Gulf of Cambay, forming
part of Ahmadabad district, Bombay. Formerly notorious
as the stronghold of a pirate chieftain, it has attained fame
among palaeontologists for the large quantity of fossil remains
discovered here in 1836, similar to the better-known Siwalik
fauna.

PIRANESI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, Italian engraver of ancient
architectural subjects, was born in the earlier half of the 18th
century, and studied his art at Rome. The great remains of
that city kindled his enthusiasm and demanded portrayal.
His hand faithfully imitated the actual remains of a fabric;
his invention, catching the design of the original architect,
supplied the parts that were wanting; his skill introduced groups
of vases, altars, tombs; and his broad and scientific distribution
of light and shade completed the picture, and threw a striking
effect over the whole. One engraving after another was executed
with much brilliancy; and, as the work went on, the zeal of
the artist only waxed stronger. In course of time it was found
necessary to call in the aid of all his children and of several
pupils. He did not, in fact, slacken in his exertions till his
death in 1778.

The plates of Piranesi, in which the severity of burin work is
largely supplemented by the freer lines of the etching-needle, were
collected and preserved by his son and coadjutor Francesco. They
were published, to the number of about 2000, in 29 vols. fol. (Paris,
I835-I837)-

PIRANO, a seaport of Austria, in Istria, 22 m. S.W. of Trieste
by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,339, mostly Italians. In addition to
viticulture and the cultivation of the olive, its principal resources
are ship-building and fishing. In the neighbourhood are the
most extensive works in Istria for the extraction of salt from the
sea-water, which produce about 50,000 tons of salt annually.
Pirano is celebrated for the victory of the Venetians over the
fleet of the emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1177. It passed
under the domination of Venice in 1283 and became definitely
incorporated with Austria, together with the other possessions of
Venice in the Istrian Peninsula, in 181 3.

PIRATE and PIRACY. Sir Edward Coke (Instil, iii. 113)
describes a pirate (Lat. pirata, from Gr. ireiparijs, ■Ktipo.v, to
attempt or attack), as hostis humani generis, and as a robber
upon the sea. Sir J. Fitzjames Stephen in his Digest of Criminal
Law defined piracy as follows: " Taking a ship on the High Seas
or within the jurisdiction of the Lord High Admiral from the
possession or control of those who are lawfully entitled to it
and carrying away the ship itself or any of its goods, tackle,
apparel or furniture under circumstances which would have
amounted to robbery if the act had been done within the body
of an English county " (cf . A . G. for Hong-Kong v. Kwok-a-Sing,
1873, L.R. 5 P.C. 179). Piracy, being a crime not against
any particular state but against all mankind, may be punished
in the competent court of any country where the offender may
be found or into which he may be carried. But, whilst the
practice of nations gives to every one the right to pursue and
exterminate pirates without any previous declaration of war
(pirates holding no commission or delegated authority from any
sovereign or state), it is not allowed to kill them without trial
except in battle. Those who surrender or are taken prisoners.

PIRATE AND PIRACY

639

must be brought before the proper tribunal and dealt with
according to law.

Piracy has been dealt with in a large number of English
statutes, from 1536 down to the Territorial Waters Jurisdiction
Act 1878 (41 & 42 Vict. c. 73), which provided for the mainten-
ance of the existing jurisdiction for the trial of " any act of
piracy as defined by the law of nations."

During the Spanish-American War the Spanish government
issued(i898)a decree declaring that "captains, masters and officers
of vessels, which, as well as two-thirds of their crew, are not
American, captured while committing acts of war against Spain,
even if they are provided with letters of marque issued by the
United States" would be regarded and judged as pirates. This was
not in accordance with the international practice on the subject.
A public ship or one which is entitled to fly the flag of a belligerent
/nd navigates under the cover of state papers, by the very sense
of the term, is not a pirate. Again, during the Russo-Japanese
War, the word " piracy " was freely applied in British news-
papers to the seizure of the " Malacca " and other vessels held
up by the " Peterburg " and " Smolensk," two cruisers belonging
to the Russian Black Sea volunteer fleet, which in July 1904
passed as merchantmen through the Bosporus and Dardanelles
and were transformed to their real character on the open sea.
The application of the term in this case was equally inaccurate.

The conversion of merchant into war ships was one of the
subjects dealt with by the second Hague Conference (1907),
but it was agreed that "the question of the place where such
conversion is effected remains outside the scope " of the
agreement."

Piracy is essentially a crime under international law, and
although any state may apply its penalties to its own subjects
by analogy, as was done by Great Britain and the United States
in connexion with the repression of the slave trade, they cannot
be lawfully applied to subjects of other states. (T. Ba.)

Historical Sketch. — It has at all times been more difficult to
enforce good order on the sea than on the land; or perhaps we
ought to say that the establishment of law and order on the sea
has in all ages of the world's history followed, but has not
accompanied, and has still less preceded, the creation of a good
police on the land. The sea robber, or pirate, cannot make a
profit from any part of his booty except the food which he
consumes, or the vessels which he may use, unless he can find
a market. But so long as he is sure that he will somewhere meet
a purchaser for the goods he has taken by violence, he has every
encouragement to pursue his trade. Therefore from the times
described in the Odyssey, down to the days when Sir Henry
Keppel sailed in H.M.S. " Dido " to suppress the pirates of
Borneo, and when Rajah Brooke of Sarawak co-operated with
him on land, we find that the prevalence of piracy and the
suppression of it have been closely dependent on the efforts
made to rout it out from its lurking-places on the coast, and the
degree of success achieved.

Very different types of men have been named pirates. They
have in fact been so unlike that to class them all together would
be in the last degree unjust. The Greek in the youth of the
world, and the Malay of Borneo in the 19th century, knew of
no rule of morals which should restrain them from treating all
who lay outs>de the limits of their city or their tribe as enemies,
to be traded with when strong and plundered when weak. They
might be patriotic, and law-abiding men towards the only
authority they recognized. Their piracy was a form of war,
not without close moral analogies to the seizure of Silesia by
Frederick the Great, the attempted seizure of Spain by
Napoleon. Indeed the story of this latter venture, with its
deceitful preliminary success and its final disaster, may fairly
be compared with the fall of Ulysses and his companions on the
Cicones, as told in the ninth book of the Odyssey. Yet it would
be highly uncritical to class Ulysses or Napoleon with Captain
Avery, or Captain Kidd, or Bartholomew Roberts. We are not
here concerned with the legal aspects of piracy, but with the
true character of the persons to whom the name pirate has been
applied at various times. The term was applied by the Romans

to the adventurers against whom Pompey was commissioned to
act by the Gabinian Law, by the English of the 9th and 10th
centuries to the Vikings, and by the Spaniards to the English,
French and Dutch who were found sailing beyond the line.
Sufferers by naval commerce-destroyers call it " a piratical
form of warfare." But the pirates of the Roman Republic
were no mere " gang of robbers." They were the victims
of a time of conquest and " general overture " — " the ruined
men of all nations, the hunted refugees of all vanquished parties,
everyone that was wretched and daring — and where was there
not misery and violence in this unhappy age? If was no longer
a gang of robbers who had flocked together, but a compact
soldier state, in which the freemasonry of exile and of crime took
the place of nationality, and within which crime redeemed
itself, as it so often docs in its own eyes, by displaying the most
generous public spirit." Such men are akin to the fuorusciti
bf Italian history or the Dutch Beggars of the Sea, the victims
of party strife in the cities, who took to the sword because they
had no other resource. Mutatis mutandis we may say as much
for the intruders beyond the line, whom history calls the "Buc-
caneers " (g.v.). The " Vikings " (q.v.) were a portion of the
Barbarian invasions. The " Barbary Pirates " {q.v.) stand
apart. As for the piratical character of the commerce-destroyer,
or privateer — why are we to brand Captain Fortunatus Wright,
the Englishman who captures a French merchant ship, or
Captain Robert Surcouf, the Frenchman who captures a British
East Indiaman, as piratical, and not make the same reproach,
against Admiral Lord Howe, or Admiral Don Luis de Cordoba,
who with a fleet captures whole convoys?

The pirate pure and simple is that member of an orierfy
community who elects to live on the sea, by violence and robbery,
making no distinction between his own city or tribe and any
other. The old adage that " war makes thieves and peace
hangs them " has ever been peculiarly true of the sea. War
has always been conducted there by the capture of an enemy's
property, and by division of the spoil. A portion of the naval
forces of all nations has been composed of privateers, letters of
marque or corsairs, who plundered with a licence. They
have ever found a difficulty in drawing the line between enemy
and neutral; when peace returned some of them found it hard
to be content with honest wages earned by dull industry. Nelson
declared that all privateers were no better than pirates. He
was borne out by the experience of Great Britain, which at the
beginning of the Seven Years' War had to take strong measures
to repress the excesses of its privateers, and to hang a good few
of them as mere pirates. The pirates suppressed by Pompey did
not all submit to remain in the settlements he made. Some
continued to rob at sea. If we can trust the Pastoral of Longus,
and the other Greek romances, the pirate was a known type
even under the Reman peace, but it is highly probable that he
was more of a stock literary figure than a reality. Before the
Roman peace, and during long centuries after it had been
shattered, piracy was common. It grew out of a state of war.
In modern times — even down to 181 5 — a recrudescence of piracy
has followed regular hostilities. But there are other conditions
which have a material influence, such as the need for a lurking-
place and for a receiver of the plundered goods. An archipelago
provides the best lurking-places, and next to it a coast of many
inlets. Therefore the Greek Islands, the British Isles, the
Antilles, the Indian Ocean, the coast of Cilicia in Asia Minor,
of Dalmatia, of Malabar and of Norway, have all at one time
or other, and some of them for centuries, been haunts of pirates.
The convenience of the place had to be completed by the con-
venience of the market. In the ancient world, and the middle
ages, the market never failed. One city or tribe had little care
for the sufferings of another. The men of the Cinque Ports
who plundered the men of Yarmouth knew that their own
townsmen would never call them to account, and therefore they
had a safe refuge. Even when the medieval anarchy had come
to an end on land, the sea was lawless. When peace was made
with Spain after the death of Queen Elizabeth there were many
who could not settle down to a life of industry. Some took the

640

PIRATE AND PIRACY

plain course of betaking themselves to Algiers or Salee. But
there were many who prowled nearer home. Sir William
Monson, in his Naval Tracts, tells how he was sent in 1605 to hunt
pirates out of the Shetlands and the Hebrides. He found none
at sea near Scotland, but some unemployed, whom he shipped
and used as guides and informers, on the coast of Ireland. At
Broad Haven he discovered an Irish gentleman of the name of
Cormat (presumably Cormac) living in some dignity. His
house was " the well-head of all pirates," and their captains
were the lovers of his daughters. Monson found agents of
merchants of London and of Galway, who came to buy the goods
which the pirates had to sell at a bargain. He put that inter-
esting family under the gallows, and frightened them into
turning king's evidence. It was his boast that he had cleared
the Irish coast of pirates, but we know that they were common
late in the reign of Charles I., and that under the name of " sea
Tories " they abounded during the Civil War both in Ireland
and in the Scilly Isles. Their existence was prolonged by the
weakness of the government, which when piracy became very
rampant took the disastrous course of offering pardon to all
who would come in by a certain date. As a matter of course
many did, and when their booty was spent returned to their
piratical trade. Monson says that the pirates he caused to be
executed had already tasted of the king's mercy. While there
were friendly harbours to anchor in, purchasers to be met and a
very fair prospect of a free pardon, piracy was not likely to
cease.

As the 17th century drew on the law and the police became
too strong for such persons as Mr Cormat at Broad Haven,
and his pirate friends. But the pirate class did not ■ cease.
It was only driven to a wider field of operations — to a field
which in fact stretched from the Red Sea to New England.
On this wide portion of the earth's surface everything combined
to favour the pirate. In the West Indies there was a " well-
head " of immense capacity. Spain was forced late and reluc-
tantly to recognize the legitimacy of any foreign settlement.
She would rather put up with the lawless adventurers known
as the " Brothers of the Coast " and the " Buccaneers " than
co-operate with foreign governments to suppress them. Even
when she renounced her full pretensions, several of the islands
remained unoccupied except by the lingering remnants of the
native races. Swine and cattle had been let loose on many of
them, and had multiplied. The turtle was abundant and
succulent. There was no want of food. A population with
predatory instincts had been formed in the early days of hostile
settlement and buccaneering. Jamaica was full of the so-called
" private men-of-war " whose doings are prominent in the
correspondence of the early governors, who were not uncom-
monly their associates. Add to this that the commercial
policy of Spain denied to her colonists the right of trading
with foreigners, and yet that she could not supply their needs
herself. Hence arose a smuggling trade which had affinities with
piracy. The lawless trader was not liable to be asked awkward
questions, as to the origin of his cargo, by the Spanish American
who purchased it on the sly for money or by barter. Nor were
any questions asked him when he brought his cargo to Jamaica,
San Domingo, the Carolinas, New England or even Europe.
In the decay of Spain her navy was not to be feared. But it
was not the commercial policy of Spain alone which helped the
pirate. Great Britain, and France also, insisted that their
colonists should trade exclusively with or through them. The
colonists were always ready to buy " good cheap " from the
smuggler, and never ask him whether the East Indian produce
— tea, silk, spices and so forth — he offered for sale were pur-
chased or plundered in the Red Sea or on the coast of Malabar
or of Coromandel. Add to all this that the police and patrol
work of regular navies was but superficially done even in peace,
and hardly at all in war, and that in the British colonies there
was no judicial machinery for trying pirates till the nth and
12th years of William III. (1700, 1701), and it will be seen
that all the conditions favoured the pirate. In the East the
decadence of the Mogul Empire was plunging India into anarchy,

and it had no navy. Yet a large native trade existed, conducted
by "Moors," as they were called, and Madagascar, a great
" no-man's-land," afforded ample anchorage and food. To
get possession of a ship, to sail to the East, to plunder the
" Moors," to sell the booty in New England or the Carolinas,
to spend the produce in riotous living, and go to sea on the same
errand again, was the round of life of the large class of known
pirates, who formed a recognized element of the population of
Massachusetts and New York at the end of the 17th century.
These are the men we know best, for they were encouraged by
the tolerance shown them to come into the light. Others are
buried in, or only dimly visible in, obscurity. Some trace of
these latter may be found in the Letter Books of the Old
Providence Company, a puritan society formed in the reign of
Charles I., of which Pym and the earl of Warwick, afterwards
the Parliamentary admiral of the Civil War, were governors. It
was founded to colonize Old Providence on the coast of Honduras,
a place not to be confused with another pirate haunt, New
Providence in the Bahamas. It took to plain piracy and was
suppressed by the Spaniards in 1638. Warwick made a regular
business and large profits by fitting out " privateers," which
were in fact pirates on the " Spanish main," not the seas of
America, as some have thought, but the coast of the mainland.

The lives of the later and better known pirates may be illus-
trated by the career of Captain Avery, or Every (alias Bridg-
man), whose renown was great at the end of the 17th century,
and who has the credit of having inspired Defoe's Life, Adven-
tures and Piracies of Captain Singleton. Avery was mate
of a Bristol ship hired by the Spaniards in 1694 to serve as a
coastguard vessel in South America. She was called the
" Charles II.," commanded by one Captain Gibson, and mounted
40 guns. While the " Charles II. " was lying at Corunna, in
company with another vessel also hired by the Spaniards,
waiting for the payment of wages which was delayed, Avery
persuaded part of the two crews to seize her and sail with her
on a piratical voyage to the East. The enterprise was carried
out without bloodshed or, apparently, coercion of those who were
unwilling to go. Avery and his crew sailed to Madagascar,
a regular haunt of the pirates. Many of them ended by remain-
ing for life among the natives. The adventurers in the " Charles
II.," who had already made some small prizes, English and
Danish, were joined at the island by others of the same character
who had come from the West Indies. From Madagascar they
went to the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, to lie in wait for the
trade from India. Several prizes were taken, and finally a large
and valuable ship, belonging " to the Great Mogul and his
subjects." was captured about ten miles from Surat. Avery
and his crew now hastened to New England to sell their booty.
The " Charles II." was disposed of as a privateer at Providence,
and the pirates bought a sloop in which they sailed along the
coast of the English colonies, selling their spoil, with the consent
of the colonists and the connivance of the officials, who were
bribed. In an evil hour for themselves they decided to come
to England. The Indian governments, exasperated by the
piracy practised at the expense of their subjects, were threatening
reprisals on the East India Company. The Company made
complaints to the government at home, and energetic measures
of repression were taken. Avery himself escaped capture,
but several of his men were brought to trial, condemned and
executed. It is to be noted that when first tried, on the 19th
of October 1696, they were acquitted. They were, however,
re-tried on other counts, on the 31st of October. The charge
of Lord Chief Justice Holt to the jury, and the address of Sir
Charles Hedges, the admiralty judge, shows that they felt
both the importance and the uncertainty of securing a verdict.

The cruise of Avery is not only a typical example of a piratical
venture, but it is an important date in the history of the policing
of the sea. The English government was roused to a sense of
the necessity for strong measures to repiess piracy. All the
steps taken were not according to knowledge. The extra-
ordinary private venture of Lord Bellamont and his associates
who sent out Captain Kidd (q.v.), a man of piratical antecedents,

PIRKE ABOTH

641

to suppress pirates in the Eastern seas, brought deserved discredit
upon them. The decision taken on the advice of Burchett,
the secretary of the admiralty, to offer a pardon to all who would
surrender by a given date — for all piracies committed before the
30th of April to the east of the Cape of Good Hope, and the 30th
of June 1699 to the west — was an error. It induced many to
come in, but it also gave all pirates the hope that they would
in the future be provided with similar means of escape. The
establishment of admiralty courts in the East Indies and America
and the despatch of warships were more effectual methods.
Yet it was long before piracy was thoroughly checked; indeed the
signing of the Peace of Utrecht was followed by a recrudescence
of this form of crime. The privateers who swarmed in the West
Indies and, as long as the war lasted, used, in the phrase of the
time, to join the squadrons of war-ships " on the plundering
account," could not settle down to dull industry. They leagued
themselves into a species of pirate republic, with its capital at
Providence in the Bahamas. In 1718 a special force had to be
sent against them under Woodes Rogers, who is best remem-
bered now for having taken Alexander Selkirk from the island
of Juan Fernandez, in the course of a privateering voyage into
the Pacific with the " duke " and " duchess " of Bristol. Rogers
broke up the Providence settlement, and did a similar piece
of service on the coast of Madagascar. Piracy did not, however,
die. The Asiento (q.v.) Treaty having given Great Britain a
monopoly of the slave trade with Spanish America, the monopol-
ists, i.e. the South Sea Company and Royal African Company,
were of course subject to the competition of interlopers. The
interlopers were the natural friends of the pirates, who divided
their activity between the Antilles and the west coast of Africa,
plundering in the second, selling and re-fitting, not without
further plunder, in the first. The most notorious of these free-
booters was Bartholomew Roberts, who was introduced to
piracy by Howel Davis. Roberts was the nearest known
approach to the pirate of romance, ostentatious, brave, not
without touches of generosity. He was killed in action with
Captain Chaloner Ogle, of H.M.S. " Swallov/," on the coast of
Africa, in 1722.

As the American colonies grew more settled piracy became
intolerable to them. Yet it lingered on the coast of North
Carolina, where the pirates could either terrorize the scattered
inhabitants, or were encouraged by dishonest officials. Here
flourished the grotesque brute known as Blackbeard, Edward
Teach, till he was run down and slain by Lieut. Milvain
in 1 7 18. It was noted that several of those who helped to
suppress him afterwards " went a-pirating " themselves. So
strong was the piratical tradition of the New World that even
men of some standing fell into it. " Major " or Captain Stede
Bonnet, who was condemned and executed at Charleston,
South Carolina, as a pirate, in 17 18, was a gentleman of some
property in Barbadoes, who first ventured to sea in a ship
of his own. Stede Bonnet had taken advantage of an act
of grace, had come in on a proclamation, and had returned
to a pirate's life. The last great explosion of piracy in the
West Indies followed the peace of 1815. Here again we
find the old conditions — privateers and other unsettled men,
the safe lurking-place and the receiver. The refuge and the
market were supplied by the Spanish colonies, which were
plunged into anarchy by their revolt against Spain. The
pirates were able to masquerade as " patriot " navies. The
sloth and corruption of Spanish captains-general of Cuba were
no less favourable to the pirates. The south coast of the
island became a haunt of these villains till the British and
American governments were driven to combine for their sup-
pression. When they had been followed into their hiding-places
and their vessels sunk, they took to brigandage on land, and
were garrotted by the Spanish authorities in self-defence. The
piracy of the Greek islands went on to later years, and the
Malays were not tamed till nearly 1850. On the coast and the
rivers of China piracy was and is endemic, but the sailing junk
has no chance with the modern steamer. When cases of piracy
have occurred in the Straits of Malacca or in the China seas,
Xxi. 21

by which Europeans have been the sufferers, the crime has
generally been perpetrated by men who shipped as passengers
or as crew, and who surprised the vessel. The pirate has been
as useful to the author of modern tales and poems as to the
writers of the Greek romances. When he is seen in authentic
evidence he is found to have been for the most part a pitiful
rogue. His gains were but small. A share of £200 was wealth
to a mere sailor, and one of £1000 wealth beyond the dreams of
avarice. He rarely fought a warship if he could help it, and
indeed nothing is more surprising than his readiness to surrender
when the fate before him was the gallows.

Authorities. — The pirates of the ancient world are admirably
dealt with in Mommsen's History of Rome. For the modern pirate,
see Monson's " Naval Tracts " in Churchill's Voyages, v. 5 (London,
1744-1746), and in the edition of the Navy Record Society (1902).
But the best accounts are to be found in the State Trials, vols, xiii.,
xiv., xv. (London, 1812). Captain Charles Johnson's General
History of the Pyrates (London, 1724) must be used with caution.
He no doubt learnt much from pirates who, having come in on a
proclamation, were free to talk, but he cannot always be reconciled
with authentic records. The Documents relative to the Colonial
History of the State of New York (Albany, 1 856-1 858) contain many
curious details. For the eastern seas, the Compendious History
of the Indian Wars; with an account of the Rise, Progress, Strength
and Forces of Angria, the Pyrate, &c, by Clement Downing (London,
1737) is useful. (D. H.)

PIRKE ABOTH. The penultimate tract of the fourth part
of the Mishnah is the booklet of proverbs in five chapters called
Massecheth Aboth (tractalus patrum), better known with a
sixth chapter as Pirke Aboth (capitula patrum). For Pirke
Aboth in English see The Authorized Daily Prayer Book of the_
united Hebrew congregations of the British Empire, with a new
translation by the Rev. S. Singer. The six chapters are there
appointed to be read one on each Sabbath afternoon between
Passover and New Year. Formerly they were read, in places
at least, on the six Sabbaths between Passover and Pentecost
only. The subsections of the chapters are hereinafter numbered
as in the Authorized Prayer Book.

Chapters i., ii. — The Mosaic succession has first to be established.
Moses (i., 1-3) having received the Torah from Sinai, it was handed
down to Joshua, the Elders (Josh. xxiv. 31), the Prophets and the
men of the Great Synagogue, from one of the last of whom, Simon
Justus, it was received by Antigonus of Socho. Next are named
(i. 4-15), without any title, as links in the chain of tradition, five
pairs of teachers, the last Hillel and Shammai, elsewhere in the
Mishnah called mundi patres (Surenh. iv. 324). Rabban Jochanan
ben Zacchai (ii. 9) " received from Hillel and Shammai." Sayings
of Jochanan and his five disciples follow, and chap. ii. ends with
words of their somewhat younger contemporary, Rabbi Tarphon
(Tp60oif), to the effect Ars longa vita brevis. These sections (i. 1-15,
ii. 9-21) contain the " Kern der Sammlung " (Strack). After the
sayings of Shammai (i. 15) come interpolated sayings (i. 16— ii. 8) .
of Rabban Gamaliel I., Rabban Simeon, " Rabbi," i.e. R. Jehudah
ha-Nasi (cent. a.d. 1-2), the traditional redactor of the Mishnah,
Rabban Gamaliel II. and Hillel, which break the sequence.

Chapters Hi., iv. — Maxims of numerous authorities, mostly
Mishnah teachers and called Rabbis (Matt. xxii. 7 seq. ; J. F. p. 27),
not in exact chronological order.

Chapters v., vi. — Chap. v. which is sui generis, is presumably of
later date than what precedes. Naming no teacher until the end,
it combines historical, legendary and didactic elements. It touches
upon the miraculous and its place in nature (v. 9). In form it is
a series of numbered groups of things, from the ten creative Sayings
to the triads of qualities which differentiate the disciples of Balaam
and Abraham. R. Jacob ben Shimshon's commentary makes
Aboth end with the saying of Jehudah ben Tema (v. 23), " Be
bold as a leopard, and swift as an eagle, and fleet as a hart, and
strong as a lion, to do the will of thy Father who is in heaven."
Chapter vi., on acquisitio legis, is thought to have been added for
use on the last of the six sabbaths above-mentioned (Strack, J. F.
Ap. p. 61). In some manuscripts there are seven chapters.

Pirke Aboth serves as a primer to the student of rabbinic
Judaism. For the most part in simple Hebrew, it has a few
sayings in Aramaic (i. 13— ii., 7, v. 25, 26) and some adopted Greek
words, as paraclete (iv. 13; Philo). He who would be pious should
fulfil the dicta of Aboth (Baba Kam. 30a). It gives favourite
aphorisms of leading Jewish teachers who flourished in or
before the earliest Christian centuries, and supplies material for
some interesting illustrations of the New Testament. Too
heterogeneous to be represented by a few extracts, the collection

11

642

PIRMASENS— PIROT

must be read through to be appreciated. Among the sayings
of Hillel we miss the best known one, What is hateful to thee
do not, &c. (/. F. p. 142), with which we may now compare
Ecclus. xxxi. 15 Heb., " Know (?) thy neighbour is as thyself,
and consider what thou hatest." Of the precept, " Make a
fence to the Torah " (i.i; cf. iii. 17) it may be said that " every-
thing is therein." As a doctrine of development and as an
ethical principle it is reflected in Clement of Alexandria's view
of philosophy as a <j>paynbs of the vineyard (Strom, i. 20), and
Polycarp's saying. " He that has love is far from all sin." The
use of Aboth in the synagogue stamps it as authoritative, and,
with its intrinsic excellence, has led to its being " the most
popular of all rabbinical writings." For midrashic comments
upon it see the Aboth of Rabbi Nathan (ed. S. Schechter,
Vienna, 1887), or the rendering of it (new ed., New York, 1900)
in M. L. Rodkinson's translation of the Babylonian Talmud
into English. (See also Apocryphal Literature, § Old

Testament, II. d.)

Bibliography. — Aboth is included in editions of the Mishnah
and the Talmud Babli, and in many prayer-books. For separate
editions from about 1484-1485, see Montz Steinschneider's Bodleian
Catalogus, col. 228-239, 2 7^5, and other works cited in Herm.
L. Strack's very useful rips* 'pis, Die Spruche der Vater (ed. 3,
1901). See also C. Taylor's Sayings of the Jewish Fathers (ed. 2,
1897, referred to above as /. F.) a separate Appendix (1900) describes
or enumerates manuscripts of Aboth — and Jewish Encyclopedia,
art. " Abot." (C. T.*)

PIRMASENS, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate,
40 m. W. by S. of Spires, on the railway from Biebermuhle.
Pop. (1905), 34,002. The only noteworthy buildings are the
town-hall and the principal Evangelical church, which contains a
fine monument to Louis IX. (d. 1790), landgrave of Hesse-
Darmstadt, who made the town his residence. The staple
industry is the production of boots and shoes; but musical
instruments, leather and machines are also manufactured.
Pirmasens owes its name to a St Pirmin, who is said to have
preached Christianity here in the 8th century. It originally
belonged to the count of Hanau-Lichtenberg, but passed to
Hesse-Darmstadt in 1736. In September 1793 the Prussians
gained a victory here over a body of French troops.

See T. Weiss, Pirmasens in der Franzosenzeit (Pirmasens, 1905).

PIRMEZ, OCTAVE (1832-1883), Belgian author, was born at
Chatelineau in 1832. He belonged to a well-known Belgian
family, and his cousin, Edouard Pirmez, was distinguished for
his works on literary and political subjects. He lived an un-
eventful life at his chateau of Acoz, in Hainaut, where he died in
May 1883. Pirmez was an ardent admirer of the French
romanticists. His works include Les Feuillees: pensees et maximes
(1862); Victor Hugo (1863); Jours de solitude (1869); Remo;
Souvenirs d'unfrere (1880); Heures de philosophie (1881); and the
posthumous Lettres d Josi (1884). ' These books form a history
of his emotional life, and reveal an extreme melancholy.

See Vie et correspondance d'Octave Pirmez (1888), by Adolphe
Siret and Jose de Coppin.

PIRNA, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, on the left bank of
the Elbe, 1 1 m. above Dresden, and on the railway to Bodenbach
and Prague. Pop. (1905), 19,220. The town is regularly built,
with promenades covering the site of the old fortifications;
the most notable edifices are the fine Gothic parish church, built
in the 16th century and restored in 1890, and the old town-hall.
Excellent sandstone is found on both banks of the Elbe. There
are manufactures of glass, machinery, cigars, pottery and enam-
elled goods; and there is a trade in grain, fruit and timber, mainly
carried on by river, and a little shipbuilding. Pima, originally
a Slavonic settlement, was for many years in the alternate
possession of Bohemia and Meissen, but it became permanently
united with the latter, and thus with Saxony, in 1405. The
Sonnenstein, a fortress on a commanding eminence above the
town, was erected in the 16th century on the site of an older
castle by the elector of Saxony, Augustus I. It was once con-
sidered the most important fortress on the Elbe, and successfully
withstood the Swedes in 1639, but it was captured and dis-
mantled by the Prussians in 1758, and in 1813 was occupied by
the French.

See R. Hofmann, Zur Geschichte der Stadt Pima (Pirna, 1891);
E. Kiingel, Fuhrer durch Pirna (Pirna, 1889); the Urkundenbuch
der Stddte Dresden und Pirna, edited by C. F. von Posern-Klett
(Leipzig, 1875) ; and the publications of the Verein fur Geschichte
der Stadt Pirna (Pirna, 1897 seq.).

PIROGUE, or Piragua (the French and Spanish forms respec-
tively of a Caribbean word for this type of vessel; it has at various
times taken many corrupt forms, e.g. periagua, peltiaugua, pelty-
oagar), originally the native name of a vessel made by hollowing
out the trunk of a tree, a " dug-out "; hence applied to many
different developments of this type of vessel used in the West
Indies and along the American coast. An early improvement
was to split the " dug-out " into two sections and insert a flat
bottom of planking to widen it; another form had a leeboard, was
decked in at either end, and had two masts.

PIRON, ALEXIS (1689-1773), French epigrammatist and
dramatist, was born at Dijon on the 9th of July 1689. His
father, Aime Piron, was an apothecary, who wrote verse in the
Burgundian patois. Alexis began life as clerk and secretary to
a banker, and then studied law. In 17 19, when nearly thirty
years old, he went to seek his fortune at Paris. An accident
brought him money and notoriety. The jealousy of the regular
actors produced an edict restricting the Theatre de la Foire, or
licensed booths at fair times, to a single character on the stage.
None of the ordinary writers for this theatre would attempt a
monologue-drama for the purpose, and Piron made a great
success with a piece called Arlequin Deucalion, representing
Deucalion immediately after the Deluge, amusing himself with
recreating in succession the different types of man. In 1728 he
produced Les Fits ingrats (known later as L'Ecole des peres) at
the Comedie Frangaise. He attempted tragedy in Callisthene
(1730), Gustavo Vasa (1733) and Fernand Cortes (1744), but none
of these succeeded, and Piron returned to comedy with La Mltro-
manie (1738), in which the hero, Damis, suffers from the verse
mania. His most intimate associates at this time were Mile
Quinault, the actress, and her friend Marie Therese Quen-
audon, known as Mile de Bar. This lady was slightly older than
Piron and not beautiful, but after twenty years' acquaintance
he married her in 1741. He died on the 21st of January 1773,
in his eighty-fourth year. He was elected in 1753 to the Academy,
but his enemies raked up a certain Ode d Priape, dating from his
early days, and induced Louis XV. to interpose his veto. Piron
however was pensioned, and during the last half-century of his
life was never in any want. His best title to remembrance lies
in his epigrams. The burlesque epitaph on himself, in which he
ridicules the Academy —

" Ci-git Piron, qui ne fut rien,
Pas mSme academicien " —

is well-known, while many others are as brilliant. Grimm called
him a "machine a saillies."

Piron published his own theatrical works in 1758, and after his
death his friend and literary executor, Rigoley de Juvigny, pub-
lished his CEuvres completes. M. Bonhomme produced a critical
edition in 1859, completed by Poesies choisies el pieces inedites in
1879.

PIROT (Turkish Shehr-Kcey) , a Servian town, i2fm. from the
Bulgarian frontier at Tsaribrod, on the railway line between
Nish and Sofia. Pop. (1900), 10,428. Pirot is the seat of the
prefecture for the department of the same name, with a tribunal,
several schools and a custom-house. It is the only proper
industrial town in Servia, having numerous small factories for
the manufacture of thin cloth (shayak), woollen braiJ (gaytan),
and especially carpets. Its carpets have a, great reputation in
the Balkan Peninsula for their quaint designs, durability and
freshness of colour. Pirot has a medieval fortress, believed to
have been built on the site of the Roman fortress Quimedava, on
the military road leading from Old Naissus to Philippopolis.
The town is of great strategical importance, for which reason
the Russian plenipotentiaries at the Berlin congress (1878)
stubbornly tried to include it within the Bulgarian frontier,
while Austria and some other Powers insisted that it should be
given to Servia. In the war between Servia and Bulgaria in
1885 the Bulgarians occupied and held it until the conclusion of
>• 9«ace,

PISA

643

PISA, a town, archiepiscopal see and capital of a province of
the same name, Tuscany, Italy, on the Arno, 7 m. from the sea 1
and 49 m. west of Florence by rail. Pop. (1881), 42,779; (1900,,
61,279. It still retains its ancient walls, 6jm. in circuit, and is
defended by a citadel on the south-west. The principal streets
run alongside the river, and are lined with fine buildings. Besides
the cathedral, the baptistery and the famous leaning tower, the
city possesses several notable churches, as the Renaissance
church of the Tuscan order of St Stephen, built in 1562 from
plans by Vasari; San Niccolo, with a four-storeyed tower (1230),
built by Niccola Pisano, and the tomb of John of Swabia, the
parricide; Santa Caterina (1262); Santa Maria della Spina, in
the Italo-Gothic style, built in 1230 and restored in 1872; San
Sepolchro, erected in n 50 by Diotisalvi; San Francesco, with
frescoes byTaddeo Gaddi; and the basilica of San Michele (1018).
Amongst the secular buildings may be mentioned the royal
palace; the archiepiscopal palace; the palace of the order of St
Stephen, built by Niccola Pisano and reconstructed by Vasari;
the Upezzinghi (formerly Lanfreducci) palace, built of Carrara
marble in 1590; the Lanfranchi, Agostini and other palaces;
the university (1472); a large hospital (1258); and fine market
halls. There are statues to Cosimo I. (by Francavilla), Arch-
duke Leopold, and Ferdinand I. The city possesses also an
academy of the fine arts, with a gallery of paintings; and the
university a library of 120,000 volumes, a natural history
museum, botanical garden and agricultural schools. The univer-
sity, founded in 1338, has faculties of law, medicine, mathematics
and philosophy and literature, and is to this day one of the most
famous in Italy.

The architects of the cathedral were Boschetto and Rinaldo,
both Italians, probably Pisans. It is in plan a Latin cross, with
an internal length of 31 if ft. and a breadth of 252 ft. The nave,
109 ft. high, has double vaulted aisles and the transepts single
aisles ; and at the intersection of nave and transepts there is a cupola.
The basilica is still the predominent type, but the influence of
the domed churches of Constantinople and the mosques of Palermo
is also apparent. The pillars which support the nave are of marble
from Elba and Giglio ; those of the side aisles are the spoils of ancient
Greek and Roman buildings brought by the Pisan galleys. Extern-
ally the finest part of the building is the west front, in which the
note struck by the range of arches running round the base is repeated
by four open arcades. Of the four doors three are by John of
Bologna, who waS greatly helped by Francavilla, Tacca and others;
that of the south side, of much older date, is generally supposed
to be the work of Bonanno. Of the interior decorations it is enough
to mention the altars of the nave, said to be after designs by Michel-
angelo, and the mosaics in the dome and the apse, which were among
the latest designs of Cimabue. The baptistery was completed
only in 1278, and marred in the 14th century by the introduction
of Gothic details. The building is a circle 100 ft. in diameter,
and is covered with a cone-surmounted dome 190 ft. high on which
stands a statue of St Raniero. The lowest range of semicircular
arches consists of twenty columns and the second of sixty; and
above this is a row of eighteen windows in the same style separated
by as many pilasters. In the interior, which is supported by four
pilasters and eight columns, the most striking features are the
octagonal font and the hexagonal pulpic, erected in 1260 by Niccola
Pisano. The campanile or " leaning tower of Pisa " is a round
tower, the noblest, according to Freeman, of the southern Roman-
esque. Though the walls at the base are 13 ft. thick, and at the
top about half as much, they are constructed throughout of marble.
The basement is surrounded by a range of semicircular arches sup-
ported by fifteen columns, and above this rise six arcades with thirty
columns each. The eighth storey, which contains the bells, is of much
smaller diameter than the rest of the tower, and has only twelve
columns. The height of the tower is 179 ft., but the ascent is
easy by a stair in the wall, and the visitor hardly perceives the
inclination till he reaches the top and from the lower edge of the
gallery looks " down " along the shaft receding to its base. The
tower leans or deviates from the perpendicular, to a striking extent,
which has gradually increased: it was 15J ft. out of the perpendicular
when measured in 1829, and 16J ft. in 1910. There is no reason
to suppose that the architects, Bonanno and William of Innsbruck,
intended that the campanile should be built in an oblique position ;
it would appear to have assumed it while the work was still in
progress. The foundations are not more than 10 ft. deep, and their
circumference only that of the tower. The Campo Santo, lying
to the north of the cathedral, owes its origin to Archbishop Ubaldo

1 In Strabo's time it was only 2 m. away, but the increase of
the delta at the mouth of the river has since then pushed forward
the coast-line.

(1 188-1200), who made the spot peculiarly sacred by bringing
fifty-three shiploads of earth from Mount Calvary. The building,
erected in the Italian Gothic style between 1278 and 1283, by Gio-
vanni Pisano, is of special interest chiefly for its famous frescoes.

There are numerous industries, the most important being the
manufacture of cottons. In the vicinity are the royal stud-farm
(horses and dromedaries) of Cascine di San Rossore, and the
minera I baths of San Giuliano, alkaline-ferruginous, with tempera-
ture 91-4° to 105-8° Fahr. At the mouth of the Arno, joined
to the city by a steam tramway, is the seaside resort of Marina di
Pisa, also known as Bocca d'Arno. a well-known centre for land-
scape painters.

The old town occupied the site of the ancient Pisae on the
right bank of the Arno. The foundation of Pisae is by tradition
ascribed to a very remote period, and it was often (possibly only
owing to the similarity of name) believed to have been founded
from Pisae in Elis. It is first mentioned in history as the place
at which a Roman army from Sardinia landed in 225 B.C., its
harbour being at the mouth of the south branch of the Arno,
north of Livorno. Being situated on the coast road (Via
Aemilia) it was important as a frontier fortress against Liguria,
to which, and not to Etruria, it really belonged, perhaps, up to
the time of Sulla, the actual boundary lying between it and Vada
Volaterrana (mod. Vada). It became a colony in 180 B.C., and
was important for the fertility of its territory, for its quarries,
and for the timber it yielded for ship-building. Augustus gave
it the name of Colonia Julia Pisana; his grandsons Gaius and
Lucius were patrons of the colony, and after their death monu-
ments were erected in their honour, as is recorded in two long
inscriptions still extant. Greek vases have been found within
the city itself, seeming to point to the presence of Etruscan
tombs (G. Ghirardini in Notizie degli Scavi, 1892, 147); but no
remains now exist except of the Roman period — some scanty
ruins of baths and of a temple, while the Piazza dei Cavalieri
follows the outline of the ancient theatre.
See E. Bormann, Corp. inscr. lat. xi. 272 (1888).
Little is known of the history of Pisa during the barbarian
invasions, but it is an ascertained fact that it was one of the first
towns to regain its independence. Under the Byzantine
dominion Pisa, like many other of the maritime cities of Italy,
profited by the weakness of the government at Constantinople
to reassert its strength. And even during the first years of the
harsh Lombard rule the need recognized by these oppressors of
defending the Italian coast from the attacks of the Byzantines
was favourable to the development of the Pisan navy. Few
particulars are extant concerning the real condition of the town;
but we occasionally find Pisa mentioned, almost as though it
were an independent city, at moments when Italy was over-
whelmed by the greatest calamities. According to Amari's
happy expression, " it was already independent by sea, while
still enslaved on land." Its prosperity notably declined after
the establishment of the Lombard rule and under the Franks.
It again began to flourish under the marquises of Tuscany, who
governed it in the name of the emperor.

In 1003 we find records of a war between Pisa and Lucca,
which, according to Muratori, was the first waged between
Italian cities in the middle ages. But the military development
and real importance of Pisa in the nth century must be attri-
buted to the continuous and desperate struggle it maintained
against the tide of Saracenic invasion from Sicily. And, although
the numerous legends and fables of the old chroniclers disguise
the true history of this struggle, they serve to attest the im-
portance of Pisa in those days. In 1004 the Saracens forced the
gates and sacked a quarter of the town; and in ion they re-
newed the attack. But the Pisans repulsed them and assumed
the offensive in Calabria, Sicily, and even in Africa. Still more
memorable was the expedition afterwards undertaken by the
united forces of Pisa and Genoa against Mogahid, better known
in the Italian chronicles as Mugeto. This Moslem chief had
made himself master of Sardinia, and was driven thence by the
allied fleets in 1015. Again invading the island, he was again
attacked and defeated by the same adversaries, leaving a

644-

PISA

brother and son, or, as some authorities aver, a wife and son,
prisoners in their hands. Sardinia continued to be governed
by native " judges " who were like petty sovereigns, but were
now subject to the sway of Pisa. This was the primary cause
of the jealousy of the Genoese, and of the wars afterwards
made by them upon Pisa and carried on until its power
was crushed. Meanwhile the Pisans flourished more and
more, and continued hostilities against the Saracens. In 1062
their ships returned from Palermo laden with spoil. Thus
it is not surprising that Pisa should already have had its own
code of laws (Consuetudini di mare), which in 1075 were
approved by Gregory VII., and in 1081 confirmed by a patent
from the emperor Henry IV., a document which mentions for
the first time the existence of a magistrate analogous to the
consuls of the republic, although the latter, according to some
writers, already existed in Pisa as early as the year 1080; the
point, however, is doubtful, and other writers place the first
authentic mention of the consuls in the year 1094. l The oldest
of Pisan statutes still extant is the Breve dei consoli di mare of
1162.

In 1090 the Pisans joined in the second crusade, proved their
valour at the capture of Jerusalem, and derived many commercial
advantages from it; for within a short time they had banks,
consuls, warehouses and privileges of all kinds in every Eastern
port. Thus, while the commune of Pisa was still under the rule
of the marquises of Tuscany, all negotiations with it were
carried on as with an independent state officially represented
by the archbishop and consuls. The aristocrats were the
dominant party, and filled the highest offices of the republic,
which, in the 12th century, rose to great power, both on sea and
land, by its wars with the Lucchese, Genoese and Moslems. In
mo Pisa made peace with Lucca after six years of continuous
hostilities. And in the years n 13 and n 15 it achieved a still
greater enterprise. The Pisan fleet of three hundred sail, com-
manded by the archbishop Pietro Moriconi, attacked the
Balearic Isles, where as many as 20,000 Christians were said to
be held captive by the Moslems, and returned loaded with spoil
and with a multitude of Christian and Moslem prisoners. The
former were set at liberty or ransomed, and among the latter
was the last descendant of the reigning dynasty. The chief
eunuch who had governed Majorca perished in the siege. Im-
mediately afterwards the fourteen years' war with Genoa broke
out. The two republics contested the dominion of the sea, and
both claimed supreme power over the islands of Corsica and
Sardinia. A papal edict awarding the supremacy of Corsica
to the Pisan church proved sufficient cause for the war, which
went on from 1118 to 1132. Then Innocent II. transferred the
supremacy over part of Corsica to the Genoese church, and
compensated Pisa by grants in Sardinia and elsewhere. Accord-
ingly, to gratify the pope and the emperor Lothair II., the Pisans
entered the Neapolitan territory to combat the Normans. They
aided in the vigorous defence of the city of Naples, and twice
attacked and pillaged Amalfi,in ir35 and 1137, with such effect
that the town never regained its prosperity. It has been said
that the copy of the Pandects then taken by the Pisans from
Amalfi was the first known to them, but in fact they were already
acquainted with those laws. The war with Genoa never came
to a real end. Even after the retaking of Jerusalem by the
Moslems (1187) the Pisans and Genoese again met in conflict
in the East, and performed many deeds of valour. They were
always ready to come to blows, and gave still more signal proofs
of their enmity during the Sicilian War in behalf of the emperor
Henry VI. From that moment it was plain that there could
be no lasting peace between these rival powers until the one or
the other should be crushed. The greatness and wealth of the
Pisans at this period of their history is proved by the erection of
the noble buildings by which their city is adorned. The founda-
1 It must be remembered that the Pisans and Florentines dated
the beginning of the year ab incamatione, i.e. from the 25th of March.
But the Florentines dated it from the 25th following and the Pisans
from the 25th of March preceding the commencement of the common
year. The new or common style was adopted throughout Tuscany
in the year 1750.

tions of the cathedral were laid in 1063, and its consecration
took place in n 18; the baptistery was begun in 1152, and the
campanile (the famous leaning tower) in n 74. And all three
magnificent structures were mainly the work of Pisan artists,
who gave new life to Italian architecture, as they afterwards
renewed the art of sculpture.

It is asserted by some writers, especially by Tronci, that in the
1 2th century Pisa adopted a more democratic form of govern-
ment. But in fact the chief authority was still vested in the
nobles, who, both in Pisa and in Sardinia, exercised almost
sovereign power. They formed the real strength of the republic,
and kept it faithful to the empire and the Ghibelline party.
The Guelph and popular element which constituted the force
and prosperity of Florence was hostile to Pisa, and led to its
downfall. The independence of the former city was of much
later origin, only dating from the death of Countess Matilda
(11 1 5), but it rapidly rose to an ever-increasing power, and to
inevitable rivalry with Pisa. Owing to the political and com-
mercial interests binding Florence to the Roman court, the Guelph
element naturally prevailed there, while the growth of its trade
and commerce necessarily compelled that state to encroach oa
waters subject to Pisan rule. And, although Pisa had hitherto
been able to oppose a glorious resistance to Genoa and Lucca, it
was not so easy to continue the struggle when its enemies were
backed by the arms and political wisdom of the Florentines, who
were skilled in obtaining powerful allies. The chroniclers
ascribe the first war with Florence, which broke out in 1222,
to a most ridiculous motive. The ambassadors of the rival states
in Rome are said to have quarrelled about a lapdog. This
merely shows that there were already so many general and
permanent reasons for war that no special cause was needed to
provoke it. In 1228 the Pisans met and defeated the united
forces of Florence and Lucca near Barga in the Garfagnana, and
at the same time they despatched fifty-two galleys to assist
Frederick II. in his expedition to the East. Shortly after this
they renewed hostilities with the Genoese on account of Sardinia.
The judges who governed the island were always at strife, and,
as some of them applied to Pisa and some to Genoa for assistance
against one another, the Italian seas were once more stained with
blood, and the war burst out again and again, down to 1259,
when it terminated in the decisive victory of the Pisans and the
consolidation of their supremacy in Sardinia. But meanwhile
Florence had made alliance with Genoa, Lucca and all the
Guelph cities of Tuscany against its Ghibelline rival. The pope
had excommunicated Frederick II. and all his adherents. And,
as a crowning disaster, the death of Frederick in 1250 proved a
mortal blow to the Italian Ghibelline cause. Nevertheless, the
Pisans were undaunted. Summoning Siena, Pistoia and the
Florentine exiles to their aid, they boldly faced their foe, but
were defeated in 1254. Soon after this date we find the old
aristocratic government of Pisa replaced by a more popular
form. Instead of the consuls there were now twelve elders
(anziani); besides thepodesta., there was a captain of the people;
and there was a general council as well as a senate of forty
members. The rout of the Tuscan Guelphs on the field of Monta-
perto (1260) restored the fortunes of Pisa. But the battle o£
Benevento (1266), where Manfred fell, and the rout of Taglia-
cozzo (1268), sealing the ruin of the house of Hohenstaufen in
Italy and the triumph of that of Anjou, were fatal to Pisa. For
the republic had always sided with the empire and favoured
Conradin, whose cruel end struck terror into the Ghibelline
faction. The pope hurled an edict against the Pisans and
tried to deprive them of Sardinia, while their merchants were
driven from Sicily by the Angevins. The internal condition of
the city was affected by these events. Owing to the increasing
influence of the Guelph and popular side, to which the more
ambitious nobles began to adhere for the furtherance of personal
aims, the aristocratic Ghibelline party was rapidly losing ground.
The first man to step to the front at this moment was Count
Ugolino della Gherardesca of the powerful house of that name.
He had become the virtual head of the republic, and, in order
to preserve its independence and his own sway, inclined to the

PISA

645

Guelphs and the popular party, in spite of the Ghibelline tradi-
tions of his race. He was supported by his kinsman Giovanni
Visconti, judge of Gallura; but almost all the other great families
vowed eternal hatred against him, and proclaimed him a
traitor to his party, his country and his kin. So in 1274 he and
Visconti were driven into exile. Both then joined the Florentines,
took part in the war against their native city, and laid waste its
surrounding territories. In 1276 the Pisans were compelled to
agree to very grievous terms — to exempt Florentine merchandise
from all harbour dues, to yield certain strongholds to Lucca, and
to permit the return of Count Ugolino, whose houses they had
burnt, and whose lands they had confiscated. Thus the count
again became a powerful leader in Pisa. Visconti, however, was
dead.

This was the moment chosen by Genoa for a desperate and
decisive struggle with her perpetual rival. For some years the
hostile fleets continued to harass each other and engage in petty
skirmishes, as if to measure their strength and prepare for a final
effort. On the 6th of August 1284 the great battle of Meloria
took place. Here seventy-two Pisan galleys engaged eighty-
eight Genoese, and half the Pisan fleet was destroyed. The
chroniclers speak of 5000 killed and 11,000 prisoners; and,
although these figures must be exaggerated, so great was the
number of captives taken by the Genoese as to give rise to the
saying — " To see Pisa, you must now go to Genoa." This
defeat crushed the power of Pisa. She had lost her dominion
over the sea, and the Tuscan Guelphs again joined in attacking
her by land. Count Ugolino had taken part in the battle of
Meloria and was accused of treachery. At the height of his
country's disasters he sought to confirm his own power by making
terms with the Florentines, by yielding certain castles to Lucca,
and by neglecting to conclude negotiations with the Genoese for
the release of the prisoners, lest these should all prove more or
less hostile to himself. This excited a storm of opposition against
him. The archbishop Ruggieri, having put himself at the head
of the nobles, was elected podesta by the Lanfranchi, Sismondi
and Gualandi, and a section of the popular party. The city was
plunged into civil war. The great bell of the commune called
together the adherents of the archbishop; the bell of the people
summoned the partisans of the count. After a day's fighting
(July 1, 1288) the count, his two sons and his two grandsons
were captured in the palazzo del popolo (or town hall), and cast
into a tower belonging to the Gualandi and known as the
" Tower of the Seven Streets." Here they were all left to die of
hunger. Their tragic end was afterwards immortalized in the
Divina commedia. The sympathies of Dante Alighieri, the
Florentine patriot and foe of Rome, were naturally in favour of
the victims of an aristocratic prelate, opposed to all reconciliation
with Florence.

The Florentines were now allied with Lucca and Genoa, and
a few of their vessels succeeded in forcing an entry into the Pisan
port, blocked it with sunken boats, and seized its towers. Their
own internal dissensions of 1293 put a stop to the campaign,
but not before they had concluded an advantageous peace.
They and all the members of the Guelph league were freed from
all imposts in Pisa and its port. In addition to these privileges
the Genoese also held Corsica and part of Sardinia; and through-
out the island of Elba they were exempted from every tax.
They likewise received a ransom of 160,000 lire for their Pisan
prisoners. These were no longer numerous, many having suc-
cumbed to the hardships and sufferings of all kinds to which
they had been exposed.

In 13 1 2 the arrival of the emperor Henry VII. gladdened the
hearts of the Pisans, but his sudden death in 1313 again over-
threw their hopes. He was interred at Pisa, and Uguccione della
Faggiuola remained as imperial lieutenant, was elected podesta
and captain of the people, and thus became virtual lord of the
city. As a Ghibelline chief of valour and renown he was able
to restore the military prestige of the Pisans, who under his com-
mand captured Lucca and defeated the Florentines at Montecatini
on the 29th of August 13T5. So tyrannical, however, was his
rule that in 1316 he was expelled by the popular fury. But

Pisa's freedom was for ever lost. He was succeeded by other
lords or tyrants, of whom the most renowned was Castruccio
Castracane, a political and military adventurer of much the same
stamp as Uguccione himself. With the help of Louis the Bavar-
ian, Castruccio became lord of Lucca and Pisa, and was victorious
over the Florentines; but his premature death in 1328 again left
the city a prey to the conflicts of opposing factions. New lords,
or petty tyrants, rose to power in turn during this period of civil
discord, but the military valour of the Pisans was not yet
extinguished. By sea they were almost impotent — Corsica and
Sardinia were lost to them for ever; but they were still formidable
by land. In 1341 they besieged Lucca in order to prevent the
entry of the Florentines, to whom the city had been sold for
250,000 florins by the powerful Mastino della Scala. Aided by
their Milanese, Mantuan and Paduan allies, they gave battle to
their rivals, put them to rout at Altopascio (Oct. 2), and
then again excluded them from their port. Thereupon the
Florentines obtained Porto Talamone from Siena and established
a navy of their own. By this means they were enabled to capture
the island of Giglio, and, attacking the Pisan harbour, carried off
its chains, bore them in triumph to Florence, and suspended them
in front of the baptistery, where they remained until 1848.
Then, in pledge of the brotherhood of all Italian cities, they were
given back to Pisa, and placed in the Campo Santo.

The war was now carried on by the free companies with varying
fortune, but always more or less to the hurt of the Pisans. In
1369 Lucca was taken from them by the emperor Charles IV.;
and afterwards Giovan Galeazzo Visconti, known as the count of
Virtu, determined to forward his ambitious designs upon the
whole of Italy by wresting Pisa from the Gambacorti. For at
this time the conflicts of the Raspanti faction, headed by the
Gherardesca, with the Bergolini led by the Gambacorti, had left
the latter family masters of the city. At Visconti's instigation
Piero Gambacorti, the ruler of the moment, was treacherously
assassinated by Jacopo d'Appiano, who succeeded him as tyrant
of Pisa, and bequeathed the state to his son Gherardo. The latter,
a man of inferior ability and daring, sold Pisa to the count of
Virtu, receiving in exchange 200,000 florins, Piombino, and the
islands of Elba, Pianosa and Monte Cristo. Thus in 1399
Visconti took possession of Pisa, and left it to his natural son
Gabriele Maria Visconti, who was afterwards expelled from its
gates. But even during this century of disaster the Pisans
continued to cherish not only commerce, but also the fine arts.
In the year 1278 they had entrusted the erection of their fine
Campo Santo to Niccola and Giovanni Pisano, by whom the
architectural part of it was completed towards the end of the
century. In the following year the first artists of Italy were
engaged in its decoration, and the celebrated frescoes attributed
to Orcagna (q.v.) were painted on its walls. Others were after-
wards supplied by Benozzo Gozzoli and men of lesser note, and
the labour of ornamentation was only discontinued in 1464.

Meanwhile, in 1406, the Florentines made another attack upon
Pisa, besieging it simultaneously by sea and land. Owing to
the starving condition of its defenders, and aided by the treachery
of Giovanni Gambacorti, they entered the city in triumph on
the 9th of October, and sought to " crush every germ of rebellion
and drive out its citizens by measures of the utmost harshness
and cruelty." Such were the orders sent by the Ten of War to
the representatives of the Florentine government in Pisa, and
such was then the established policy of every Italian state.
Consequently for a long time there was a continual stream of
emigration from Pisa. The Medici pursued a humaner course.
In 1472 Lorenzo the Magnificent tried to restore the ancient
renown of the Pisan university. To that end he filled it with
celebrated scholars, and, leaving only a few chairs of letters and
philosophy in Florence, compelled the Florentines to resort to
Pisa for the prosecution of their studies. But nothing could
now allay the inextinguishable hatred of the conquered people.
When Charles VIII. made his descent into Italy in r494, and came
to Sarzana on his way to Tuscany, he was welcomed by the Pisans
with the greatest demonstrations of joy. And, although that
monarch was ostensibly the friend of Florence, they did" not

6 4 6

PISA, COUNCIL OF— PISACA LANGUAGES

hesitate, even in his presence, to assert their own independence,
and, casting the Florentine ensign, the Marzocco, into the
Arno, made instant preparations for war. Between 1499
and 1505 they heroically withstood three sieges and repulsed
three attacking armies. But their adversaries always returned
to the assault, and, what was worse, yearly laid waste their
territories and destroyed all their crops. Soderini, who was
perpetual gonfalonier of Florence, and Machiavelli, the secretary
of the Ten, urged on the war. In 1509 Florence encamped her
forces on three sides of the distressed city, which at last, reduced
to extremity by famine, was compelled to surrender on the
8th of June 1509. Thenceforth the Florentines remained lords
of Pisa. But now, mainly owing to the efforts of Soderini and
Machiavelli, the conquerors showed great magnanimity. They
brought with them large stores of provisions, which were freely
distributed to all; they tried to succour the suffering populace in
every way, and gave other assistance to the wealthier classes.
Nevertheless, emigration continued even on a larger scale than
in 1406, and the real history of Pisa may be said to have ended.
In Naples, in Palermo, in all parts of Italy, Switzerland and the
south of France, we still find the names of Pisan families who
quitted their beloved home at that time. The Florentines
immediately built a new citadel, and this was a great bitterness
to the Pisans. The Medici, however, remained well disposed
towards the city. Leo X. was an active patron of the university,
but it again declined after his death. The grand duke Cosmo I.,
a genuine statesman, not only restored the university, but
instituted the " uffizio dei fossi," or drainage office for the
reclamation of marsh lands, and founded the knighthood of
St Stephen. This order played a noble part in the protection of
Tuscan commerce, by fighting the Barbary pirates and establish-
ing the prestige of the grand-ducal navy (see Medici). Under
the succeeding Medici, Pisa's fortunes steadily declined.
Ferdinand I. initiated a few public works there, and above all
restored the cathedral, which had been partly destroyed by fire
in 1595. These dreary times, however, are brightened by one
glorious name — that of Galileo Galilei.

The population of Pisa within the wails had been reduced
in 1551 to 8574 souls, and by 1745 it had only risen to the
number of 1 2,406. Under the house of Lorraine, or more correctly
during the reign of that enlightened reformer the grand duke
Peter Leopold (1765-1790), Pisa shared in the general prosperity
of Tuscany, and its population constantly increased. By 1840
it contained 21,670 souls, exclusive of the suburbs and outlying
districts.

Authorities. — Paolo Tronci, Annali di Pisa, edited by E. V.
Montazio (2 vols., Lucca, 1842-1843), which comes down to 1840;
Ranieri Grassi, Pisa e le sue adiacenze (Pisa, 1851), which is a
useful historical guide; Roncioni, " Istorie Pisane," in the Archivio
storico italiano, vol. vi., pt. 1; " Cronache Pisane," in the same
Archivio, vol. vi., pt. 2; for the early constitution of the city, see
G. Volpe's Studii sulk istituzioni, comunali di Pisa (Pisa, 1902),
and for the laws, F. Bonaini's Statuti inediti della cittd, di Pisa
(3 vols., Florence, 1851, &c). The maritime and commercial
history of the republic is dealt with in A. Schaube's Das Konsulat
des Meeres in Pisa (Leipzig, 1888) and in Pawinski's Zur Entstehungs-
geschichte des Konsulats in den Ccmmunen Nord- und Mittel-Italiens
(Berlin, 1867); for the monuments and inscriptions see A. Da
Morrona, Pisa illustrata (Leghorn, 1812) and G. R. de Fleury's
Les Monuments de Pise au moyen dge (Paris, 1866); also Repetti's
Dizionario geografico della Toscana, s.v. " Pisa." For Dante's
connexion with Pisa, see Dante e i Pisani, by Giovanni Sforza
(Pisa, 1873). Among the more recent historical guides to Pisa
of a popular character is The Story of Pisa and Lucca, by Janet
Ross' and Nellie Erichsen-, in Dent's " Medieval Towns " (London,
1007), and T. B. Supino's Pisa, in the" Italia artistica Series."

(P. V.)

PISA, COUNCIL OF (1409). The great schism of the west
had already lasted thirty years, and the efforts which had been
made to restore unity within the Church by the simultaneous
resignation of the two rival pontiffs had been in vain, when in the
spring of 1408, the state of affairs being desperate, the idea arose
of assembling a council to effect a union without the co-operation
of the popes. The initiative came from those cardinals who had
one after the other seceded either from Gregory XII. or
Benedict XIII. They were forestalled by the popes, who each

summoned a council, the former to Cividale (in Friuli), the
latter to Perpignan, so the dissident cardinals sent out antedated
letters inviting Christendom to assemble at Pisa on the 25th
of March 1409. Their appeal met with a response in a great
part of Italy, France, Navarre, Portugal and England, and in
Germany in the states subject to Wenceslas king of the Romans,
the electors of Cologne and Mainz, the margrave of Branden-
burg, &c. For a time the number of the fathers exceeded five
hundred.

The day after the opening of the council, proceedings were
started against the two popes, who, it was agreed, were to be
eliminated. An act of accusation, containing in 37 articles the
chief complaints against them, was read out to the people; not
only their policy, but their orthodoxy was attacked, and there
was even an insinuation of sorcery. The reason is, that in order
to depose them with some show of legality, it was necessary, as a
preliminary, to convict them of heresy, and it began to be seen
that their tenacity of power, and the ruses by which they evaded
the necessity of abdicating, however harmful might be their
consequences, did not in themselves constitute a clearly-defined
heresy. On the 5th of June 1409 was read the definitive sentence:
that as heretics, and therefore separated from the Church, Pedro
de Luna (Benedict XIII.) and Angelo Corrario (Gregory XII.)
were ipso facto deposed from any office; they must not be
obeyed, nor assisted, nor harboured. In the course of the
rejoicings which followed this sentence among the populace of
Pisa, occurred the somewhat scandalous event of the burning
of two images crowned with parchment mitres, representing
Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. It was in vain that the
ambassadors of Benedict XIII. presented themselves at Pisa.
The crowd greeted their arrival with mockery and derision, and
being treated as the envoys of heretics they escaped without
having obtained a hearing.

In order to complete their .task the cardinals present at Pisa,
authorized by delegation of the council, shut themselves up in
conclave, and elected one of their number, Peter Philarges,
cardinal of Milan, as the new pope, who assumed the name of
Alexander V. They had hoped to save the Church, but unfortun-
ately the result of their efforts, generous as they were, was that
the schism increased in bitterness, and that instead of the unity
for which the Church craved, three popes continued to flourish.
Both the deposed pontiffs protested against the legality of the
council of Pisa; each had numerous partisans, and the thesis,
constructed rather to meet the exigencies of the case, which
attributed to a synod assembled by the cardinals the right of
constituting itself judge of a sovereign pontiff, was far from being
established.

Originally the council of Pisa was to have occupied itself not
only with effecting the union, but also with the reform of the
Church. As a matter of fact, it confined itself to expressing
certain desiderata in a " libellus supplicatorius " which it sub-
mitted to the new pope. Alexander V. only partially acceded
to these demands, many of which constituted serious encroach-
ments on the prerogative of the Holy See; he then declared the
work of reform suspended, and dissolved the council (August 7,
1409).

See Jacques Lenfant, Histoire du concile de Pise (Utrecht, 1731);
Mansi, Concil., xxvii.; F. Stuhr, Die Organisation und Geschdfts-
ordnung des Pisaner und Konstanzer Konzils (Schwerin, 1891); N.
Valois, La France et le grand schisme d'occident, iv. 3-107, 175 seq.
(Paris, 1902). (N. V.)

PISACA LANGUAGES, the name which has been given to a
family of languages spoken immediately to the south of the
Hindu Kush, and north of the frontier of British India. The
family includes the group of Kafir languages spoken in Kafiristan,
Khowar, spoken in the Chitral country, and the group of Shina
languages, which includes the Shina of Gilgit, KohistanI, spoken
in the Kohistans of the Indus and Swat rivers, and Kashmiri.
Of all these Kashmiri is the only one which has received any
literary cultivation, and of which the number of speakers is
known. The Pisaca languages are Aryan by origin, but are
neither Iranian nor Indo-Aryan. (See Indo-Aeyan Languages
and Kashmiri.) (G. A. Gr.)

PISACANE— PISANO, A.

647

PISACANE, CARLO, duke of San Giovanni (1818-1857),
Italian revolutionary, was born at Naples, and entered the
Neapolitan army in 1839; but having become imbued with
Mazzinian ideas he emigrated in 1847, and after a short stay
in England and France served in the French army in Algeria.
The revolution of 1848 recalled him to Italy; he played a part
in the brief but glorious history of the Roman Republic, and was
the life and soul of the war commission in the defence of the city.
After its capture by the French he again went into exile, first to
London and then to Genoa, maintaining himself by teaching.
He regarded the rule of the house of Savoy as no better than that
of Austria. When Mazzini, undeterred by the failure of the
abortive Milan rising on the 6th of February 1853, determined to
organize an expedition to provoke a rising in the Neapolitan
kingdom, Pisacane offered himself for the task, and sailed from
Genoa with a few followers (including Giovanni Nicotera) on
board the " Cagliari " on the 25th of June 1857. They landed
on the island of Ponza, where the guards were overpowered
and some hundreds of prisoners liberated, and on the 28th
arrived at Sapri in Calabria and attempted to reach the Cilento.
But hardly any assistance from the inhabitants was forthcoming,
and the invaders were quickly overpowered, Pisacane himself
being killed.

See P. M. Bilotti, La Spedizione di Sapri (Salerno, 1907).

PISAN, CHRISTINE DE (1364-c. 1430), French poet, of
Italian birth, was born at Venice in 1364. When she was four
years old she was brought to her father, a councillor of the
Venetian Republic, in Paris, where he held office as astrologer
to Charles V. At fifteen Christine married Etienne du Castel,
who became Charles's notary and secretary. After the king's
death in 1380 her father lost his appointment, and died soon after ;
and when Christine's husband died in 1389 she found herself
without a protector, and with three children depending on her.
This determined her to have recourse to letters as a means of
livelihood. Her first ballads were written to the memory of her
husband, and as love poems were the fashion she continued to
write others — lais, virelais, rondeaux and jeux a vendre — though
she took the precaution to assure her readers (Cent balades, No.
50) that they were merely exercises. In 1399 she began to study
the Latin poets, and between that time and 1405, as she herself
declares, she composed some fifteen important works, chiefly
in prose, besides minor pieces. The earl of Salisbury, who was in
Paris on the occasion of the marriage of Richard II. with Isabella
of France (1396), took her elder son, Jean du Castel (b. 1384),
and reared him as his own; the boy, after Salisbury's death
(1400). being received by Philip of Burgundy, at whose desire
Christine wrote Le Livre des faitz et bonnes mceurs du sayge roy
Charles 1 (1405), valuable as a first-hand picture of Charles V.
and his court. Her Mutation de fortune, in which she finds
room for a great deal of history and philosophy, was presented to
the same patron on New Year's Day, 1404. It possesses an
introduction of great autobiographical interest. In La Vision
(1405) she tells her own history, by way of defence against those
who objected to her pretensions as a moralist. Henry IV. of
England desired her to make his court her home, and she received
a like invitation from Galeazzo Visconti, tyrant of Milan. She
preferred, however, to remain in France, where she enjoyed the
favour of Charles VI., the dukes of Berry and Burgundy, the
duchess of Bourbon and others.

Christine was a champion of her own sex. In her DU de la
rose (1402) she describes an order of the rose, the members of
which bind themselves by vow to defend the honour of women.
Her Epitre au dieu d 'amour (1399) is a defence of women against
the satire of Jean de Meun, and initiated a prolonged dispute with
two great scholars of her time, Jean de Montreuil (d. 141 5) and
Gonthier Col, who undertook the defence of the Roman de la
rose. Christine wrote about 1407 two books for women, La
Cite des dames and Le Livre des trois vertus, or Le Trisor de la
cite des dames. She was devoted to her adopted country.
During the civil wars she wrote a Lamentation (141s) and a Livre

1 See C. B. Petitot, Collection complete des mSmoires relatifs d.
I'histoire de France (1st series, vols. v. and vi.. 1819, &c.).

de la paix (1412-1413), but after the disasters of the campaign
of Agincourt she retired to a convent. We have no more of her
work until 1429, when she broke her silence to write a song
in honour of Joan of Arc. Of the circumstances of her death
nothing is known but it probably took place about this time.
Her Cite des dames contains many interesting contemporary
portraits, and her Livre des trois vertus contains details of
domestic life in the France of the early 15th century not
supplied by more formal historians.

Her poems were edited by Maurice Roy for the Societe des anciens
Textes frangais (1886, &c), and her Livre du chemin du long estude,
by Puschel (Berlin, 1887). There are monographs by Raimond
Thomassy (Paris, 1838); E. M. D. Robineau (Saint-Omer, 1882);
and Friedrich Koch (Goslar, 1885). It is possible that Jean Castel,
who was chronicler of France under Louis XL, was Christine's
grandson. Hoccleve imitated her Epitre au dieu d'amour, in his
" Letter of Cupid " (Chaucerian and other Pieces, ed. W. W- Skeat,
1897). A translation of her Hpitre d'Olhea was made (c. 1440)
by Stephen Scrope for his stepfather, Sir John Fastolf, and is pre-
served in a MS. at Longleat. This was edited (1904) for the Rox-
burghe Club by W. G. F. Warner as The Epistle of Othea to Hector,
or the Boke of Knyghthode. The Moral Proverbs of Christyne de
Pise, translated by Earl Rivers, was printed in 1 478 by Caxton,
who himself translated, by order of Henry VII., her Livre des faitz
d'armes, et de chevalerie, a treatise on the art of war, based chiefly
on Vegetius. Her Cite des dames was translated by Brian Anslay
(London, 1521).

PISANI, VETTOR (d. 1380), Venetian admiral, was in command
of the Venetian fleet in 1378 during the war against the Genoese,
whom he defeated off Capo d'Anzio; subsequently he recaptured
Cattaro, Sebenico and Arbe, which had been seized by the
Hungarians, the allies of the Genoese. But the Genoese fleet
completely defeated Pisani at Pola in May 1379, and on his return
to Venice he was thrown into prison. The enemy now pressed
home their victory, and besieged and captured Chioggia, whereby
Venice itself was in danger. The people thereupon demanded
the liberation of Pisani, in whose skill they had the fullest con-
fidence. The government gave way and appointed the aged
commander admiral of the fleet once more. Through his able
strategy and daring he recaptured Chioggia, defeated the Genoese
and threatened Genoa itself until that republic agreed to peace
terms. Pisani died in 1380 while on his way to Manfredonia
with a squadron to ship provisions.

See Vittorio Lazzarini, " La morte e il mohumento di Vettor
Pisani," in the Nuovo archivio veneto, vol.xi., pt. ii. (1896).

PISANO, ANDREA, also known as Andrea da Pontadera
(c. 1270-1348), Italian sculptor, was born about 1270, and first
learned the trade of a goldsmith. He became a pupil of Giovanni

Part of the first Bronze Door of the Baptistery at Florence,
by Andrea Pisano.

Pisano about 1300, and worked with him on the sculpture for
S. Maria deila Spina at Pisa and elsewhere. But it is at Florence

648

PISANO, G.— PISANO, N.

that his chief works were executed, and the formation of his mature
style was due rather to Giotto than to his earlier master. Of the
three world-famed bronze doors of the Florentine baptistery,
the earliest one — that on the south side — was the work of Andrea;
he spent many years on it; and it was finally set up in 1336. 1 It
consists of a number of small quatrefoil panels — the lower eight
containing single figures of the Virtues, and the rest scenes from
the life of the Baptist. Andrea Pisano, while living in Florence,
also produced many important works of marble sculpture, all
of which show strongly Giotto's influence. In some cases
probably they were actually designed by that artist, as, for in-
stance, the double band of beautiful panel-reliefs which Andrea
executed for the great campanile. The subjects of these are the
Four Great Prophets, the Seven Virtues, the Seven Sacraments,
the Seven Works of Mercy and the Seven Planets. The duomo
contains the chief of Andrea's other Florentine works in marble.
In 1347 he was appointed architect to the duomo of Orvieto,
which had already been designed and begun by Lorenzo Maitani.
The exact date of his death is not known, but it must have been
shortly before the year 1349.

Andrea Pisano had two sons, Nino and Tommaso — both, especi-
ally the former, sculptors of considerable ability. Nino was very
successful in his statues of the Madonna and Child, which are full
of human feeling and soft loveliness — a perfect embodiment of
the Catholic ideal of the Divine Mother. Andrea's chief pupil was
Andrea di Cione, better known as Orcagna (q.v.). Balduccio di
Pisa, another, and in one branch (that of sculpture) equally gifted
pupil, executed the wonderful shrine of S. Eustorgio at Milan — ■
a most magnificent mass of sculptured figures and reliefs.

PISANO, GIOVANNI (c. 1250-1330), Italian architect and
sculptor, was the son of Niccola Pisano. Together with Arnolfo
del Cambio and other pupils, he developed and extended into
other parts of Italy the renaissance of sculpture which in the
main was due to his father's talent. After he had spent the
first part of his life at home as a pupil and fellow worker of

Part of the Tomb of Benedict XI., by Giovanni Pisano.

Niccola, the younger Pisano was summoned between 1270 and
1274 to Naples, where he worked for Charles of Anjou on the
Castel Nuovo. One of his earliest independent performances was
the Campo Santo at Pisa, finished about 1283; along with this he
executed various pieces of sculpture over the main door and inside
the cloister. The richest in design of all his works (finished
about 1 286) is in the cathedral of Arezzo — a magnificent marble
high altar and reredos, adorned both in front and at the back
with countless figures and reliefs — mostly illustrative of the lives
of St Gregory and St Donato, whose bones are enshrined there.
The actual execution of this was probably wholly the work of his
pupils. In 1290 Giovanni was appointed architect or " capo
maestro " of the new cathedral at Siena, in which office he suc-
ceeded Lorenzo Maitani, who went to Orvieto to build the less
ambitious but equally magnificent duomo which had just been
founded there. The design of the gorgeous facade of that duomo
has been attributed to him, but it is more probable that he only
carried out Maitani's design. At Perugia, Giovanni built the

1 The date on. the door, 1330, refers to the original wax model.

church of S. Domenico in 1304, but little of the original structure
remains. The north transept, however, still contains his beauti-
ful tomb of Benedict XL, with a sleeping figure of the pope,
guarded by angels who draw aside the curtain. One of Giovanni's
most beautiful architectural works was the little chapel of
S. Maria della Spina (now rebuilt, " restored "), on the banks of
the Arno in Pisa; the actual execution of this chapel, and the
sculpture with which it is adorned, was mostly the work of his
pupils. 2 The influence of his father Niccola is seen strongly in
all Giovanni's works, but especially in the pulpit of S. Andrea at
Pistoia, executed about 1300. Another pulpit, designed on the
same lines, was made by him for the nave of Pisa Cathedral
between 1310 and 131 1. The last part of Giovanni's life was
spent at Prato, near Florence, where with many pupils he worked
at the cathedral till his death about 1330.

See M. Sauerlandt, fiber die Bildwerke des Giovanni Pisano, &c.
(1904); A. Brach, Nicola und Giovanni Pisano und die Plastik des
XIV. Jahrhunderts in Siena (1904).

PISANO, NICCOLA (c. 1206-1278), Italian sculptor and archi-
tect. Though he called himself Pisanus, from Pisa, where most
of his life was spent, he was not a Pisan by birth. There are two
distinct accounts of his parentage, both derived mainly from
existing documents. According to one of these he is said to
have been the son of " Petrus, a notary of Siena;" but this
statement is very doubtful, especially as the word " Siena " or
" de Senis " appears to be a conjectural addition. Another
document among the archives of the Sienese Cathedral calls
him son of " Petrus de Apulia." Most modern writers accept
the latter statement, and believe that he not only was a native
of the province of Apulia in southern Italy, but also that he
gained there his early instruction in the arts of sculpture and
architecture. Those, on the other hand, who, with most of the
older writers, prefer to accept the theory of Niccola's origin
being Tuscan, suppose that he was a native of a small town
called Apulia near Lucca.

Except through his works, but little is known of the history
of Niccola's life. As early as 1221 he is said to have been sum-
moned to Naples by Frederick II., to do work in the new Castel
del l'Uovo. This fact supports the theory of his southern origin,
though not perhaps very strongly, as, some years before, the
Pisan Bonannus had been chosen by the Norman king as the
sculptor to cast one of the bronze doors for Monreale Cathedral,
where it still exists. The earliest existing piece of sculpture
which can be attributed to Niccola is a beautiful relief of the
Deposition from the Cross in the tympanum of the arch of a side
door at San Martino at Lucca; it is remarkable for its graceful
composition and delicate finish of execution. The date is about
1237. In 1260, as an incised inscription records, he finished the
marble pulpit for the Pisan baptistery; this is on the whole the
finest of his works.

It is a high octagon, on semicircular arches, with trefoil cusps,
supported by nine marble columns, three of which rest on white
marble lions. In design it presents that curious combination of
Gothic forms with classical details which is one of the character-
istics of the medieval architecture of northern Italy; though much
enriched with sculpture both in relief and in the round, the general
lines of the design are not sacrificed to this, but the sculpture is
kept subordinate to the whole. In this respect it is superior to
the more magnificent pulpit at Siena, one of Niccola's later works,
which suffers greatly from want of repose and purity of outline,
owing to its being overloaded with reliefs and statuettes. Five
of the sides of the main octagon have panels with subjects — the
Nativity, the Adoration of the Magi, the Presentation in the Temple,
the Crucifixion and the Doom. These are all, especially the first
three, works of the highest beauty, and a wonderful advance on
anything of the sort that had been produced by Niccola's prede-
cessors. The drapery is gracefully arranged in broad simple folds;
the heads are full of the most noble dignity; and the sweet yet
stately beauty of the Madonna could hardly be surpassed. The
panel with the Adoration of the Magi is perhaps the one in which
Niccola's study of the antique is most apparent (see figure). The
veiled and diademed figure of the Virgin Mother, seated on a
throne, recalls the Roman Juno;' the head of Joseph behind her
might be that of Vulcan; while the youthful beauty of an Apollo
and the mature dignity of a Jupiter are suggested by the standing

2 See Schultz, Denkmdler der Kunst in Unter-Italien. vii. 5.

PISANO, V.— PISCICULTURE

649

and kneeling figures of the Magi. Certain figures in others of the
panels are no less deeply imbued with classical feeling.

The next important work of Niccola in date is the Area di San
Domenico, in the church at Bologna consecrated to that saint,
who died in 1221. Only the main part, the actual sarcophagus
covered with sculptured reliefs of St Dominic's life, is the work
of Niccola and his pupils. The sculptured base and curved roof
with its fanciful ornaments are later additions. This " Area "

The Adoration of the Magi, one of the panels in the pulpit of the
Pisan Baptistery, by Niccola Pisano.

was made when St Dominic was canonized, and his bones trans-
lated; it was finished in 1267, not by Niccola himself, but by his
pupils. The most magnificent, though not the most beautiful,
of Niccola's works is the great pulpit in Siena cathedral (1268).
It is much larger than that at Pisa, though somewhat similar in
general design, being an octagon on cusped arches and columns.
Its stairs, and a large landing at the top, with carved balusters
and panels, rich with semi-classical foliage, are an addition of
about 1 500. The pulpit itself is much overloaded with sculpture,
and each relief is far too crowded with figures. An attempt to
gain magnificence of effect has destroyed the dignified simplicity
for which the earlier pulpit is so remarkable.

Niccola's last great work of sculpture was the fountain in the
piazza opposite the west end of the cathedral at Perugia. This
is a series of basins rising one above another, each with sculptured
bas-reliefs; it was begun in 1274, and completed, except the
topmost basin, which is of bronze, by Niccola's son and pupil
Giovanni.

Niccola Pisano was not only pre-eminent as a sculptor, but
was also the greatest Italian architect of his century; he designed
a number of very important buildings, though not all which
are attributed to him by Vasari. Among those now existing
the chief are the main part of the cathedral at Pistoia, the church
and convent of Sta Margherita at Cortona, and Sta Trinita at
Florence. The church of Sant' Antonio at Padua has also been
attributed to him, but without reason. Unfortunately his archi-
tectural works have in most cases been much altered and modern-
ized. Niccola was also a skilled engineer, and was compelled
by the Florentines to destroy the great tower, called the Guarda-
morto, which overshadowed the baptistery at Florence, and had
for long been the scene of violent conflicts between the Guelphs
and Ghibellines. He managed skilfully so that it should fall
without injuring the baptistery. Niccola Pisano died at Pisa
in the year 1278, leaving his son Giovanni a worthy successor to
his great talents both as an architect and sculptor.

Though his importance as a reviver of the old traditions of
beauty in art has been to some extent exaggerated by Vasari, yet
it is probable that Niccola, more than any other one man, was the
means of starting that " new birth " of the plastic arts which, in
the years following his death, was so fertile in countless works of
the most unrivalled beauty. Both Niccola and his son had many
pupils of great artistic power, and these carried the influence of the
Pisani throughout Tuscany and northern Italy, so that the whole
art of the succeeding generations may be said to have owed the
greater part of its rapid development to this one family.

See Sculpture, and general histories of Italian art; Symonds,

Renaissance in Italy; A. Brach, Nicola unA Giovanni Pisano und
die Plastik des XIV. Jahrhunderts in Siena (Strassburg, 1904).

PISANO, VITTORE (c. 1380-1456), commonly called Pisa-
nello, Italian medallist, was a native of San Vigilio sul Lago in
the territory of Verona. Specimens of his work as a painter are
still extant in Rome, Venice, Verona and Pistoia, and entitle
him to a place of some distinction in the history of that art.
The National Gallery in London possesses a very fine specimen
of Pisanello's work— a panel painted with miniature-like delicacy.
During the latter portion of his life he lived in Rome, where he
enjoyed great repute.

PISAURUM (mod. Pesaro, q.v.), an ancient town of Umbria on
the Via Flaminia, 26 m. from Ariminum and 8 from Fanum
Fortunae. A Roman colony was founded here in the territory
of the Galli Senones in 184 B.C., at the mouth of the river Pisaurus
(mod. Foglia; the sea has since then receded about half a mile).
Whether it took the place of an earlier town or not, is not known:
an important Gaulish cemetery has been discovered near the
village of Novilara between Pisaurum and Fanum, but to which of
these centres (if either) it belonged is uncertain (E. Brizio in
Monumenti dei Lincei [1895], v. 85 sqq.). In 174 B.C. we hear that
the censors built a temple of Jupiter here and paved a road.
T. Accius, the counsel who opposed Cicero in the case when he
defended Cluentius in a still extant speech, was a native of Pisau-
rum. Catullus refers to the town as decadent or unhealthy, but
this may be merely malicious, and does not seem to be borne out
by facts : for it is not infrequently mentioned by classical authors.
It was occupied by Caesar in 49 B.C., and was made a colony
under the second triumvirate. Hence it bears the name Colonia
Julia Felix. We hear little of it under the empire. It was
destroyed by the Goths in 539, and restored by Belisarius in 545.
From the inscriptions, nearly 200 in number, an idea of the im-
portance of the town may be gained. Among them are a group
of cippi found on the site of a sacred grove of the matrons of
Pisaurum, bearing dedications to various deities, and belonging
probably to the date of the foundation of the colony. There are
some remains of the town walls, and an ancient bridge over the
Foglia. It was, like Ariminum, 'a considerable place for the
manufacture of bricks and pottery, though the factories cannot
always be precisely localized.

PISCES (the fishes), in astronomy, the twelfth sign of the
zodiac (q.v.), represented by two fishes tied together by their
tails and denoted by the symbol }{. It is also a constellation,
mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.c.)and Aratus (3rd century
B.C.); and catalogued by Ptolemy (38 stars), Tycho Brahe (36)
and Hevelius (39). In Greek legend Aphrodite and Eros, while
on the banks of the Euphrates, were surprised by Typhon, and
sought safety by jumping into the water, where they were
changed into two fishes. This fable, however, as in many other
similar cases, is probably nothing more than an adaptation of an
older Egyptian tale, a Piscium, is a fine double star of magnitude
3 and 4; 35 Piscium, is another double star, the components
being a white star of the 6th magnitude and a purplish star of
the 8th magnitude.

Piscis australis, the southern fish, is a constellation of the
southern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus and Aratus, and cata-
logued by Ptolemy, who described 18 stars. The most important
star is a Piscis australis or Fomalhaut, a star of the first magnitude.

Piscis volans, the flying fish, is a new constellation introduced
by John Bayer in 1603.

PISCICULTURE (from Lat. piscis, fish). The species of
fish which can be kept successfully in captivity throughout their
lives from egg to adult is exceedingly limited in number. The
various breeds of goldfish are familiar examples, but the carp
is almost the only food-fish capable of similar domestication.
Various other food-fishes, both marine and fresh-water, can be
kept in ponds for longer or shorter periods, but refuse to breed,
while in other cases the fry obtained from captive breeders will
not develop. Consequently there are two main types of pisci-
culture to be distinguished: (1) the rearing in confinement
of young fishes to an edible stage, and (2) the stocking of
natural waters with eggs or fry from captured breeders.

650

PISCICULTURE

Fish-rearing. — Of the first type of pisciculture there are few
examples of commercial importance. The pond-culture of
carp is an important industry in China and Germany, and has
been introduced with some success in the United States, but
in England it has long fallen out of use, and is not likely to be
revived so long as fresh fish can be obtained and distributed so
readily as is now the case. Other examples are to be found in
the cultivation of the lagoons of the Adriatic, and of the salt-
marshes of various parts of France. Here, as in ancient Greece
and Rome, it is the practice to admit young fish from the sea
by sluices, into artificial enclosures or " viviers," and to keep
them there until they are large enough to be used. An in-
teresting modification of this method of cultivation has been
introduced into Denmark. The entrances to the inner lagoons
of the Limf jord are naturally blocked against the immigration
of flatfish by dense growths of sea-grass (Zostera), although
the outer lagoons are annually invaded by large numbers of
small plaice from the North Sea. The fishermen of the dis-
trict consequently combined to defray the expenses of trans-
planting large numbers of small plaice from the outer waters
to the inner lagoons, where they were found to thrive far better
than in their natural habitat. The explanation has been shown
by Dr Petersen to be due to the abundance of food, coupled
with the lack of overcrowding of the small fish. This trans-
plantation of plaice in Denmark has been annually repeated
for several years with the most successful results, and a suitable
subvention to the cost is now an annual charge upon the govern-
ment funds.

As a result of the international North Sea fishery investigations,
it has been proposed to extend the same principle for the develop-
ment of the deep sea fishery in the neighbourhood of the Dogger
Bank. Experiments with labelled plaice, carried out in 1904 by
the Marine Biological Association, showed that small plaice trans-
planted to the Dogger Bank in spring grew three times as rapidly
as those on the inshore grounds, and the same result, with in-
significant variations, has been obtained by similar experiments
in each succeeding year. In this case the deep water round the
Dogger Bank acts as a barrier to the emigration of the small plaice
from the shores. It has consequently been proposed that the small
plaice should be transplanted in. millions to the Bank by well vessels
every spring. It is claimed, as a further result of the experiments,
that from May to October the young fish would be practically free
on the shallow part of the Bank from the risk of premature capture
by trawlers, and that the increased value of the fish, consequent
upon their phenomenal growth-rate, would greatly exceed the cost
of transplantation.

The methods of oyster- and mussel-culture are similar in principle
to those just described. A breeding stock is maintained to supply
the ground, or the " collectors," with spat, and the latter, when
sufficiently grown, is then transplanted to the most favourable
feeding-grounds, care being taken to avoid the local over-crowding
which is so commonly observed among shell-fish under natural
conditions.

Fish-hatching. — The second, and more familiar, type of
pisciculture is that known as fish-hatching, with which must
be associated the various methods of artificial propagation.

The fertilization of the spawn is very easily effected. The
eggs are collected either by " stripping " them from the mature
adult immediately after capture, or by keeping the adults
alive until they are ready to spawn, and then stripping them
or by keeping them in reservoirs of sea-water and allowing
them to spawn of their own accord. In the two former cases
a little milt is allowed to fall from a male fish into a vessel con-
taining a small quantity of water — fresh or salt as required —
and the eggs are pressed from the female fish into the same
vessel. In fresh-water culture the eggs thus fertilized may be
at once distributed to the waters to be stocked, or they may be
kept in special receptacles provided with a suitable stream of
water until the fry are hatched, and then distributed, or again
they may be reared in the hatchery for several months until
the fry are active and hardy.

The hatching of eggs, whether of fresh-water or salt-water
fishes, presents no serious difficulties, if suitable apparatus is
employed; but the rearing of fry to an advanced stage, without
serious losses, is less easy, and in the case of sea-fishes with
pelagic eggs, the larvae of which are exceedingly small and

tender, is still an unsolved problem, although recent work,
carried out at the Plymouth laboratory of the Marine Bio-
logical Association, is at least promising. It has been found
possible to grow pure cultures of various diatoms, and by feeding
these to delicate larvae kept in sterilized sea-water, great suc-
cesses have been attained. In fresh-water culture little advan-
tage, if any, has been found to result from artificial hatching,
unless this is followed by a successful period of rearing. Thus
the Howietown Fishery Company recommend their customers
to stock their streams either with unhatched ova or with three-
month-old fry. Their experience is " that there is no half-way
house between ova sown in redds and three-month-old fry.
Younger fry may do, but only where ova would do as well, and
at half the cost." In marine hatcheries, on the other hand,
it is the invariable practice to hatch the eggs, although the
fry have to be put into the sea at the most critical period of
their lives. If it is a risky matter to plant out the robust
young fry of trout under an age of three months, it would seem
to be an infinitely more speculative proceeding to plant out
the delicate week-old larvae of sea-fishes in an environment
which teems with predaceous enemies.

Objects and Utility of Fish-hatcheries. — The earlier advocates
of artificial propagation and fish-hatching seem to have been
under the impression that the thousands of fry resulting from
a single act of artificial propagation meant a corresponding
increase in the numbers of edible fish when once they had been
deposited in suitable waters; and also that artificial fertilization
ensured a greater proportion of fertilized eggs than the natural
process. For the second of these propositions there is no evi-
dence, while the first proposition is now everywhere discredited.
It is recognized that the great fertility of fishes is nature's
provision to meet a high mortality — greater in sea-fishes with
minute pelagic eggs than in fresh-water fishes with larger-yolked
eggs, partly because of the greater risks of marine pelagic life,
and partly because of the greater delicacy of marine larvae
at the time of hatching. Artificially propagated eggs and fry
after planting must submit to the same mortality as the other
eggs and fry around them. Consequently it is useless to plant
out eggs or fry unless in numbers sufficiently great to appre-
ciably increase the stock of eggs and fry already existing.

It is this, combined always with the suitability of the ex-
ternal conditions, which accounts for the success of the best
known experiments of American pisciculturists. The artifi-
cially propagated eggs of the shad from the eastern rivers of
the United States were planted in those of California and the
Mississippi, where the species did not naturally occur. The
conditions were suitable, and the species became at once accli-
matized. Similarly reservoirs and streams can be stocked
with various kinds of fish not previously present. But in the
case of indigenous species the breeding stock must be very
seriously reduced before the addition of the eggs or fry of a
few score or hundreds of fish can appreciably increase the local
stock.

In the case of sea-fishes it is becoming increasingly recog-
nized that the millions of cod fry which are annually turned out
of the American, Newfoundland and Norwegian hatcheries
are but an insignificant fraction of the billions of fry which are
naturally produced. A single female cod liberates, according
to its size, from one to five million eggs in a single season. Yet
the annual output of fry from each of these hatcheries rarely
exceeds 200 millions, i.e. the natural product of a few hundred
cod at most. In Britain marine hatcheries have been estab-
lished by the Fishery Board for Scotland in the bay of Nigg,
near Aberdeen, by the Lancashire Sea Fisheries Committee at
Peel, and by the government of the Isle of Man at Port Erin.
These establishments have been principally devoted to the
hatching of the eggs of plaice. But again the maximum out-
put of fry from any one of these establishments has not exceeded
40 millions in any single year. As a single female plaice
produces about 200,000 eggs per annum, this output does not
exceed the natural produce of a few hundred fish. Under these
circumstances the probable utility of the operations muld be

PISCINA— PISIDIA

651

admitted only if the fry were sedentary and could be planted
in suitable localities where young fish were naturally scarce.
But the fry drift with the currents as helplessly as the eggs,
and the a priori objections to the utility of the operations have
in no case been met by evidence of tangible results. The
plaice fry hatched in the Scottish establishment have been dis-
tributed for many years in the waters of Loch Fyne. Yet in
this area, according to the investigations of Mr Williamson
{Report of the Scottish Fishery Board for 1898), nearly 500
millions of plaice eggs are naturally produced in one spawning
season. Evidence is still lacking as to whether the 20 to 30
million fry annually added from the hatchery have appre-
ciably increased the quantities of young plaice on the surround-
ing shores. Supposing this could be established, the question
would still remain whether the same result could not be obtained
at far less expense by dispensing with the hatching operations
and distributing the eggs directly after fertilization.

In the United States the utility of the cod-hatching opera-
tions has been constantly asserted by representatives of the
Bureau of Fisheries, but practically the only evidence adduced
is the occasional appearance of unusual numbers of cod in the
neighbourhood. It has not been established that the fluctua-
tions in the local cod fisheries bear any fixed relation to the ex-
tent of the hatching operations, while the earlier reports of the
Commissioners of Fisheries contain evidence that similar fluctu-
ations occurred before the hatching of " fish commission
cod " had begun.

The situation may be summed up in the words of Mr Fryer,
H.M. Superintending Inspector of Fisheries, who critically
examined the evidence bearing upon the operations of the
Newfoundland Hatchery at Dildo (Reports x.-xii. of the
Inspectors of Sea Fisheries, E. & W.): "Where the estab-
lishment of a hatchery, even on the smallest scale, is followed
by an increased take of fish, there is a tendency to connect
the two as cause and effect on insufficient evidence, and
without any regard to the many conditions which have always
led to fluctuations in the case of any particular kind of fish."

The most exact investigations bearing upon this problem are
those which have been recently undertaken in Norway in con-
nexion with the cod-hatching operations at Arendal under
Captain Dannevig. Four fjords were selected in the south
coast of Norway in proximity to the hatchery, and the usual
number of fry (10-30 millions) were planted in the spring in
alternate fjords, leaving the intermediate fjords unsupplied.
The relative number of young cod in the various fjords was
then carefully investigated throughout the succeeding summer
and autumn months. It was found that there was no relation
between the abundance of young fish and the presence or ab-
sence of " artificial " fry. In 1904, 2>5 million fry were planted
in Sondelefjord and young fish were exceptionally abundant
in the following autumn (three times as abundant as in 1903
when no fry were planted). But their abundance was equally
striking in other fjords in which no fry had been planted,
while in 1905 all the fjords were deficient in young cod whether
they had been planted with fry from the hatchery or not.

For a summary of these investigations see papers on " Artificial
Fish-hatching in Norway," by Captain Dannevig and Mr Dahl,
in the Report of the Lancashire Sea Fisheries Laboratory for 1906
(Liverpool, 1907).

It would thus seem clear that the attempts hitherto made to
increase the supply of sea-fish by artificial hatching have been
unsuccessful. The experience gained has doubtless not been
wasted, but the direction to be taken by future work is plain.
The energy and money devoted to hatching operations should
be diverted to the serious attempt to discover a means of rearing
on a large scale the just-hatched fry of the more sedentary
species to a sturdy adolescence. When that has been done (it
has been achieved by the present writer in the case of the sea
fish Coitus with demersal eggs,) it would be possible to deposit
the young fish in suitable localities on a large scale, with a
reasonable prospect of influencing the local abundance of the
species of fish in question.

For further details, see J. T. Cunningham, Natural History of
the Marketable Marine Fishes of the British Islands (London, 1896);
A Manual of Fish-Culture (Washington, 1897); Rochd, La Culture
des mers (Paris, 1898); W. Garstang, Experiments on the Trans-
plantation of Marked Plaice (First Report of the North Sea Fisheries
Investigation Committee, 1905). (W. Ga.)

PISCINA, a Latin word first applied to a fish-pond, and later
used for any pool of water for bathing, &c, either natural or
artificial, and also for a tank or reservoir. In ecclesiastical
usage the term was given to a shallow stone basin (the French
cuvette) placed near the altar in a church, with drains to take
away the water used in the ablutions at the mass. " Piscinae "
seem at first to have been mere cups or small basins, supported
on perforated stems, placed close to the wall, and afterwards to
have been recessed therein and covered with niche heads, which
often contained shelves to serve as aumbries. They are rare
in England till the 13th century, after which there is scarcely an
altar without one. They frequently take the form of a double
niche, with a shaft between the arched heads, which are often
filled with elaborate tracing.

PISEK, a town of Bohemia, 55 m. S. of Prague by rail. Pop.
(1900), 13,608, mostly Czech. It lies on the right bank of the
Wottawa, which is here crossed by an interesting stone bridge
of great antiquity. The most prominent buildings are the
church of the Nativity, the town-hall, and a castle dating from
the 1 5th*century. The industries are iron and brass founding,
brewing, and the manufacture of shoes, paper, cement and
Turkish fezes. Feldspar, quartz and granite are quarried in
the environs. The name of Pisek, which is the Czech for sand, is
said to be derived from the gold-washing formerly carried on
in the bed of the Wottawa (1571-1621).

In 1 619 it was captured by the imperialist general, Karl
Bonaventura de Longueval, Graf von Buquoy, and suffered so
severely that the citizens opened their gates to his opponent,
Ernst von Mansfeld. This was punished in October of the
following year, when Duke Maximilian of Bavaria sacked the
town and put nearly all the inhabitants to the sword. Pisek
was one of the chief centres of the Hussites. It was occupied
by the French in 174 1.

PISIDIA, in ancient geography, the name given to a country
in the south of Asia Minor, immediately north of Pamphylia
by which it was separated from the Mediterranean, while it
was bounded on the N. by Phrygia, on the E. by Lycaonia,
Isauria and Cilicia, and on the W. and S.W. by Lycia
and a part of Phrygia. It was a rugged and mountainous dis-
trict, comprising some of the loftiest portions of the great range
of Mt Taurus, together with the offshoots of the same chain
towards the central table-land of Phrygia. Such a region was
naturally occupied from a very early period by wild and lawless
races of mountaineers, who were very imperfectly reduced to
subjection by the powers that successively established their
dominion in Asia Minor. The Pisidians are not mentioned by
Herodotus, either among the nations that were subdued by
Croesus, or among those that furnished contingents to the army
of Xerxes, and the first mention of them in history occurs in
the Anabasis of Xenophon, when they furnished a pretext to the
younger Cyrus for levying the army with which he designed to
subvert his brother's throne, while he pretended only to put
down the Pisidians who were continually harassing the neigh-
bouring nations by their lawless forays (Anab. i. 1, n; ii. 1, 4,
&c). They are afterwards mentioned frequently by later
writers among the inland nations of Asia Minor, and assume a
more prominent part in the history of Alexander the Great, to
whose march through their country they opposed a deter-
mined resistance. In Strabo's time they had passed under
the Roman dominion, though still governed by their own petty
chiefs and retaining to a considerable extent their predatory
habits (giving rise to such wars as that carried on by Quirinius,
about 8-6 B.C.).

The boundaries of Pisidia, like those of most of the
inland provinces or regions of Asia Minor, were not clearly
defined, and appear to have fluctuated at different times. This
was especially the case on the side of Lycia, where the upland

652

PISO— PISSARRO

district of Milyas was sometimes included in Pisidia, at other
times assigned to Lycia. Some writers, indeed, considered the
Pisidians as the same people with the Milyans, while others
regarded them as descendants of the Solymi, but Strabo speaks
of the language of the Pisidians as distinct from that of the
Solymi, as well as from that of the Lydians. The whole of
Pisidia is an elevated region of table-lands or upland valleys in
the midst of the ranges of Mt Taurus which descends abruptly
on the side of Pamphylia. It contains several small lakes, and
two of large size, Bey-Sheher Lake, the ancient Karalis, and
the double lake now called the Egerdir Geul, of which the ancient
came was Limnai. The latter is a fresh-water lake of about
30 m. in length, situated in the north of Pisidia on the frontier
of Phrygia, at an elevation of 3007 ft. Karalis is a larger
body, also of fresh water, and at a distinctly higher level above
the sea. The only rivers of importance are the Cestrus and
the Eurymedon, both of which take their rise in the highest
ranges of Mt Taurus, and flow down through deep and narrow
valleys to the plain of Pamphylia, which they traverse on their
way to the sea.

Notwithstanding its rugged and mountainous character,
Pisidia contained in ancient times several considerable towns,
the ruins of which have been brought to light by the re-
searches of recent travellers (Arundell, Hamilton, Daniell, G.
Hirschfeld, Radet, Sterrett, Lanckoronski, Ramsay, &c), and
show them to have attained under the Roman Empire to a degree
of opulence and prosperity far beyond what we should have
looked for in a country of predatory mountaineers. The most
important of them are Termessus, near the frontier of Lycia, a
strong fortress in a position of great natural strength and
commanding one of the principal passes into Pamphylia;
Cremna, another mountain fortress, north of the preceding,
impending over the valley of the Cestrus; Sagalassus, a little
farther north, a large town in a strong position, the ruins of
which are among the most remarkable in Asia Minor; Selge, on
the right bank of the Eurymedon, surrounded by rugged moun-
tains, notwithstanding which it was in Strabo's time a large and
opulent city; and Antioch, known for distinction's sake as
Antioch of Pisidia, and celebrated for the visit of St Paul. This
was situated in the extreme north-east of the district imme-
diately on the frontier of Phrygia, between Lake Egerdir and
the range of the Sultan Dagh and was reckoned in the Greek
and earlier Roman period, e.g. by Strabo, as a city of Phrygia.

Besides these there were situated in the rugged mountain
tract west of the Cestrus Cretopolis, Olbasa, Pogla, Isinda,
Etenna and Comama. Pednelissus was in the upper valley
of the Eurymedon above Selge. The only place in the district
at the present day deserving to be called a town is Isbarta, the
residence of a pasha; it stands 'at the northern foot of the
main mass of Mt Taurus, looking over a wide and fertile plain
which extends up to the northern chain of Taurus. North of
this and immediately on the borders of Phrygia stood Apollonia,
called also Mordiaeum. Large estates in Pisidia and the
adjoining parts of Phrygia belonged to the Roman emperors;
and their administration has been investigated by Ramsay and
others.

We have no clue to the ethnic character and relations of
the Pisidians, except that we learn from Strabo that they were
distinct from the neighbouring Solymi, who were probably a
Semitic race, but we find mention at an early period in these
mountain districts of various other tribes, as the Cabali, Milyans,
&c, of all which, as well as the neighbouring Isaurians and
Lycaonians, the origin is wholly unknown, and the absence of
monuments of their languages must remain so. A few short
Pisidian inscriptions have been published by Ramsay in Revue
des etudes anciennes (1895, PP- 353~362). No inscriptions in these
other languages are known. (W. M. Ra.)

PISO, the name of a distinguished Roman plebeian family
of the Calpurnian gens which continued in existence till the end
of the 2nd century a.d. Nearly fifty of its members were
prominent in Roman history, but the following deserve particular
mention.

1. Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, Roman statesman,
was the father-in-law of Julius Caesar. In 58 B.C., when consul, he
and his colleague Aulus Gabinius entered into a compact with
P. Clodius, with the object of getting Cicero out of the way.
Psio's reward was the province of Macedonia, which he adminis-
tered from 57 to the beginning of 55, when he was recalled,
perhaps in consequence of the violent attack made upon him
by Cicero in the senate in his speech De provinciis consularibus.
On his return Piso addressed the senate in his defence, and
Cicero replied with the coarse and exaggerated invective known
as In Pisonem. Piso issued a pamphlet by way of rejoinder,
and there the matter dropped, Cicero being afraid to bring the
father-in-law of Caesar to trial. At the outbreak of the civil
war Piso offered his services as mediator, but when Caesar
marched upon Rome he left the city by way of protest. He did
not, however, definitely declare for Pompey, but remained
neutral, without forfeiting the respect of Caesar. After the
murder of the dictator he insisted on the provisions of his will
being strictly carried out, and for a time opposed Antony.
Subsequently, however, he became one of his supporters, and
is mentioned as taking part in an embassy to Antony's camp at
Mutina with the object of bringing about a reconciliation.

2. Lucius Calpurnius Piso, surnamed Frugi (the worthy),
Roman statesman and historian, was tribune in 149 B.C.
He is known chiefly for his lex Calpurnia repetundarum,
which brought about the system of quaestiones perpetuae and a
new phase of criminal procedure. As praetor (136) and consul
(133) Piso fought against the slaves in Sicily. He energetically
opposed GaiusGracchus,especiallyinconnexion'withhis corn law.

See Annalists; C. Cichorius in Pauly-Wissowa's Real encyclo-
pddie (1897), vol. iii., pt. 1; H. Peter, Historicorum romanorum
reliquiae (1870), vol. i.; Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Lit. (Eng.
trans.), § 132, 4. On the lex Calpurnia, Corpus inscr. latinarum, i.,
No. 198, with Mommsen's commentary; A. H. J. Greenidge, Hist,
of Rome, 133-104 b.c. (1904).

3. Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, Roman statesman, was consul
in 7 B.C., and subsequently governor of Spain and proconsul of
Africa. In a.d. 17 Tiberius appointed him governor of Syria,
with secret instructions to thwart Germanicus, to whom the
eastern provinces had been assigned. The indignation of the
people at the death of Germanicus, and the suspicion that Piso
had poisoned him, forced Tiberius to order an investigation.
Piso committed suicide, though it was rumoured that Tiberius,
fearing incriminating disclosures, had put him to death.

See H. Schiller, Geschichte der rbmischen Kaiserzeit (1883), vol. i.

4. Gaius Calpurnius Piso, Roman statesman, orator and
patron of literature in the 1st century a.d., is known chiefly for
his share in the conspiracy of a.d. 65 against Nero (q.v.). He was
one of the most popular men in Rome, partly for his skill in
poetry and music, partly for his love of luxury and generosity.

It is probably the last-named who is referred to by Cajpurnius
Siculus under the name of Meliboeus, and he is the subject of the
panegyric De laude Pisonis.

PISSARRO, CAMILLE (1831-1903), French painter, was
born at St Thomas in the Danish Antilles, of Jewish parents
of Spanish extraction. He went to Paris at the age of twenty,
and, as a pupil of Corot, came into close touch with the Barbizon
masters. Though at first he devoted himself to subjects of
the kind which will ever be associated with the name of Millet,
his interest was entirely absorbed by the landscape, and not by
the figures. He subsequently fell under the spell of the rising
impressionist movement and threw in his lot with Monet and
his friends, who were at that time the butt of public ridicule.
Like Monet, he made sunlight, and the effect of sunlight on the
objects of nature, the chief subjects of his paintings, whether in
the country or on the Paris boulevards. About 1885 he took
up the laboriously scientific method of the pointiHists, but after
a few years of these experiments he returned to a broader and
more attractive manner. Indeed, in the closing years of his
life he produced some of his finest paintings, in which he set
down with admirable truth the peculiar atmosphere and colour
and teeming life of the boulevards, streets and bridges of Paris
and Rouen. He died in Paris in 1903.

PISTACHIO NUT— PISTOIA, SYNOD OF

653

Pissarro is represented in the Caillebotte room at the Luxem-
bourg, and in almost every collection of impressionist paintings.
A number of his finest works are in the collection of M. Durand-
Ruel in Paris.

PISTACHIO NUT, the fruit of Pistacia vera (natural order
Anacardiaccae), a small tree which is a native of Syria and
generally cultivated in the Mediterranean region. Although a
delicious nut and much prized by the Greeks and other Eastern
nations, it is not well known in Britain. It is not so large as a
hazel nut, but is rather longer and much thinner, and the shell
is covered with a somewhat wrinkled skin. The pistachio
nut is the species named in Gen. xliii. n (Heb. 1 9 a, At. botm) as
forming part of the present which Joseph's brethren took with
them from Canaan, and in Egypt it is still often placed along
with sweetmeats and the like in presents of courtesy. The
small nut of Pistacia Lentiscus, not larger than a cherry stone,
also comes from Smyrna, Constantinople and Greece. P.
Lentiscus is the mastic tree, a native of the Mediterranean
region, forming a shrub or small tree with evergreen pinnately-
compound leaves with a winged stalk. " Mastic " (from
maslicare, to chew) is an aromatic resinous exudation obtained
by making incisions in the bark. It is chiefly produced in Asia
Minor and is used by the Turks as a chewing gum. It is also
used as a varnish for pictures. P. Terebinthus, the Cyprus
turpentine tree, a native of southern Europe, Asia Minor and
North Africa, yields turpentine from incisions in the trunk. A
gall is produced on this tree, which is used in dyeing and tanning.
PISTIL, a term in botany for the female or seed-bearing
organ of a flower (q.v.). The Lat. pistillum (diminutive from
pinsere, pistum, to pound), a pestle, a club-headed instrument
used for crushing or braying substances in a mortar (q.v.), was
taken as the name for this organ from its similarity in shape,
and thence adapted in Fr. pistil about the middle of the 18th
century. In its complete form a pistil consists of three parts —
ovary, at the base, containing the bodies which become seeds,
style (Gr. orDXos, pillar), and stigma (Gr. ariy/xa, mark, oti^uv,
to brand), the part which in impregnation receives the pollen.

PISTOIA, or Pistoja (anc. Pistoriae), a town and episcopal
see of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Florence, from which it
is 21 m. N.W. by rail. Pop. (1906), 27,127 (town); 68,131
(commune). It is situated on a slight eminence (210 ft.) near
the Ombrone, one of the tributaries of the Arno. It is on the
site of the Roman Pistoriae, which is hardly mentioned in ancient
times, except for the destruction of Catiline's forces and the
slaughter of their leader near it in 62 B.C., and as a station on
the road between Florentia and Luca; and earlier still by
Plautus, but only with jesting allusion to the similarity of the
name to the word pistor (baker). Hardly any inscriptions of
the ancient town have been found; but excavations in 1902 (see
G. Pellegrini in Notizie degli Scavi, 1904, p. 241) in the Piazzo del
Duomo led to the discovery of a large private house, which
belonged to the end of the 1st century B.C. Some mosaic
pavements were found, belonging perhaps to the 3rd century
a.d., while the hous.e appears to have fallen into ruin at the
beginning of the 5th. Remains of four subsequent periods
were discovered above it. It was found that the tradition that
the cathedral occupied the site of a temple of Mars was ground-
less; for the house appears to have extended under it. Ammi-
anus Marcellinus (5th century) mentions Pistoriae as a city of
Tuscia Annonaria. During the middle ages Pistoia was at
times a dangerous enemy to Florence, and the scene of constant
conflicts between the Guelphs and Ghibellines; it was there
that the great party struggle took place which resulted in the
creation of the Bianchi and Neri factions (see Dante, Inferno,
xxiv. 121 to end). In 1302-06 it was besieged and eventually
taken by the armies of Florence and Lucca, and in 1325 it
became subject to Castruccio of Lucca. In 13 51 it was obliged
to surrender to Florence, and thenceforth shared its fate.

The city is still surrounded by walls, dating from shortly after
the siege of 1302-06; while two inner lines of streets represent
two earlier and inner lines of wall. In the early development
of architecture and sculpture Pistoia played a very important

part; these arts, as they existed in Tuscany before the time of
Niccola^Pisano, can perhaps be better studied in Pistoia than
anywhere else; nor is the city less rich in the later works produced
by the school of sculptors founded by Niccola. In the 14th
century Pistoia possessed a number of the most skilful artists
in silver-work, a wonderful specimen of whose powers exists now
in the cathedral — the great silver altar and frontal of St James,
originally made for the high altar, but now placed in a chapel
on the south side. The cathedral is partly of the 1 2th century,
with a porch and facade with small arcades— in black and white
marble, as is the case with several other churches of Pistoia —
but was remodelled in the 13th century, and modernized inside
in the worst taste. Besides the silver altar it contains many
fine works of sculpture; the chief are the monument of Cino da
Pistoia, lawyer and poet, Dante's contemporary (1337), by
Cellino di Nese, surrounded by his scholars, and Verrocchio's
finest work in marble, the monument to Cardinal Forteguerra
(1474), with a large figure of Christ, surrounded by angels, in
high relief. The clay model for it is in the South Kensington
Museum. The monument has unfortunately been altered.
The octagonal baptistery is by Cellino di Nese (1339). Among
the earlier churches the principal is Sant' Andrea, enriched with
sculpture, and probably designed by Gruamons and his brother
Adeodatus in 1136; in the nave is Giovanni Pisano's magnificent
pulpit, imitated from his father's pulpit at Pisa. Other churches
of almost equal interest are S. Giovanni Fuorcivitus (so called
because it was outside the line of the earliest, pentagonal,
enceinte of the middle ages), with one of the long sides elabor-
ately adorned with small arcades in the Pisan style, in black and
white marble, also with sculpture by Gruamons (1162) on the
facade. Within is a beautiful group of the Visitation by Luca
della Robbia. There is also a fine pulpit by Fra Guglielmo
dell' Agnello of Pisa (1270). S. Bartolomeo in Pantano is an
interesting basilica of 1167. San Francesco al Prato is a fine
church of the end of the 13th century with interesting frescoes
of the school of Giotto. San Domenico, a noble church, begun
in 1294, contains the beautiful tomb of Filippo Lazari by
Bernardo and Antonio Rossellino (1462-1468). In addition to its
fine churches, Pistoia contains many noble palaces and public
buildings. The Palazzo del Commune and the Palazzo Pretorio,
once the residence of the podesta, are both fine specimens of
14th-century domestic architecture, in good preservation. The
quadrangle of the latter contains many well-painted armorial
bearings of the podestas. The Ospedale del Ceppo, built
originally in the 13th century, but remodelled in the 15th, is
remarkable for the reliefs in enamelled and coloured terra-cotta
with which its exterior is richly decorated. Besides various
medallions, there is a frieze of figures in high relief extending
along the whole front, over its open arcade. The reliefs consist
of a series of groups representing the Seven Works of Mercy and
other figures; these were executed by Giovanni Delia Robbia
between 1514 and 1525, and, though not equal to the best work
of Luca and Andrea, are yet very fine in conception and model-
ling, and extremely rich in their general decorative effect. The
last on the right was added in 1 585 by Paladini.

The industries of Pistoia include iron and steel works, especi-
ally manufactures of glass, silk, macaroni, woollens, olive oil,
ropes, paper, vehicles and fire-arms. The word "pistol" is
derived (apparently through pistolese, a dagger — dagger and
pistol being both small arms) from Pistoia, where that weapon
was largely manufactured in the middle ages.

PISTOIA, SYNOD OF, a diocesan synod held in 1786 under
the presidency of Scipione de' Ricci (1741-1810), bishop of
Pistoia, and the patronage of Leopold, grand-duke of Tuscany,
with a view to preparing the ground for a national council and
a reform of the Tuscan Church. On the 26th of January the
grand-duke issued a circular letter to the Tuscan bishops
suggesting certain reforms, especially in the matter of the
restoration of the 1 authority of diocesan synods, the purging of
the missals and breviaries of legends, the assertion of episcopal
as against papal authority, the curtailing of the privileges of
the monastic orders, and the better education of the clergy.

^54

PISTOL

In spite of the hostile attitude of the great majority of the
bishops, Bishop de' Ricci issued on the 31st of July a summons
to a diocesan synod, which was solemnly opened on the 18th of
September. It was attended by 233 beneficed secular and 13
regular priests, and decided with practical unanimity on a
series of decrees which, had it been possible to carry them into
effect, would have involved a drastic reform of the Church on
the lines advocated by " Febronius " (see Febronianism) .

The first decree (Decretum de fide et ecclesia) declared that the
Catholic Church has no right to introduce new dogmas, but only
to preserve in its original purity the faith once delivered by Christ
to His apostles, and is infallible only so tar as it conforms to Holy
Scripture and true tradition; the Church, moreover is a purely
spiritual body and has no authority in things secular. Other
decrees denounced the abuse of indulgences, of festivals of saints,
and of processions and suggested reforms; others again enjoined
the closing of shops on Sunday during divine service, the issue of
service-books with parallel translations in the vernacular, and
recommended the abolition of all monastic orders except that of
St Benedict, the rules of which were to be brought into harmony
with modern ideas; nuns were to be forbidden to take the vows
before the age of 40. The last decree proposed the convocation
of a national council.

These decrees were issued together with a pastoral letter of
Bishop de' Ricci, and were warmly approved by the grand-duke,
at whose instance a national synod of the Tuscan bishops met
at Florence on the 23rd of April 1787. The temper of this
assembly was, however, wholly different. The bishops refused
to allow a voice to any not of their own order, and in the end the
decrees of Pistoia were supported by a minority of only three.
They were finally condemned at Rome by the bull Auctorem
fidei of the 28th of August 1794. De' Ricci, deprived of the
personal support of the grand-duke (now the emperor Leopold I.),
exposed to pressure from Rome, and threatened with mob
violence as a suspected destroyer of holy relics, resigned his see
in 1 791, and lived in Florence as a private gentleman until his
death in 1810. In May 1805, on the return of Pope Pius VII.
from Paris, he had signed an act of submission to the papal
decision of 1794.

De' Ricci's own memoirs, Memorie di Scipione de' Ricci, vescovo
di Prato e Pistoia, edited by Antonio Galli, were published at Florence
in 2 vols, in 1865. Besides this his letters to Antonio Marini were
published by Cesare Guasti at Prato in 1857; these were promptly
put on the Index. See also De Potter, Vie de Scipion de' Ricci
(3 vols., Brussels, 1825), based on a MS. life and a MS. account of
the synod placed on the Index in 1823. There are many documents
in Zobi, Storia civile delta Toscana, vols. ii. and iii. (Florence, 1856).
The acts of the synod of Pistoia were published in Italian and Latin
at Pavia in 1788.

PISTOL, a small fire-arm designed for quick work and personal
protection at close quarters, and for use in one hand. It was
originally made as a single and also double-barrelled smooth
bore muzzle-loader, involving no departure in principle from the

History. — Pistols are understood to have been made for the
first time at Pistoia in Italy, whence they receive their name.
Caminelleo Vitelli, who flourished in 1540, is the accredited
inventor. The first pistols, in the 16th century," had short single
barrels and heavy butts, nearly at right angles to the barrel.
Shortly afterwards the pattern changed, the butts being length-
ened out almost in a line with the barrels. These early
pistols 1 were usually fitted with the wheel-lock (see Gun).
Short, heavy pistols, called " daggs," were in common use
about the middle of the 17th century, with butts of ivory, bone,
hard wood or metal. A chiselled Italian dagg of 1650, for
example, had a slightly bell-nosed barrel of about 8 in. in length
and 14 bore. The German wheel-lock military pistols used
by the Reiters, and those made for nobles and gentlemen, were
profusely and beautifully ornamented. Pistols with metal
hafts were common in the 16th and 17th centuries, many
beautiful specimens of which, silver-mounted, were made in
Edinburgh and used by Highlanders. Duelling, when in vogue,
caused the production of specially accurate and well-made
single-barrelled pistols, reliable at twenty paces. The pattern
of this pistol seldom varied, its accuracy at short range equalling
that of more modern ones, the principle of a heavy bullet and
light charge of powder being employed. The first double-
barrelled pistols were very bulky weapons made with the
barrels laid alongside one another, necessitating two locks and
two hammers. There was also the "over and under" pistol,
one barrel being laid over the other. This was a more portable
weapon, only requiring one lock and hammer, the second barrel
being turned round by hand, after the first had been fired, or,
as an alternative, the flash-hole being adjusted to the second
barrel by a key. These pistols were first made with flint and
steel locks and subsequently for percussion caps. Double
" over and under " pistols were also made with a trigger
mechanism that served to discharge both barrels in turn.

Revolvers. — A revolver is a single-barrelled pistol with a
revolving breech containing several chambers for the cartridges,
thus enabling successive shots to be rapidly fired from the same
weapon without reloading. The ordinary pistol is now, and has
been for many years past, superseded by the revolver. The
first revolver, fired with the percussion cap, was made with the
whole of the barrels, six, seven or eight, revolving in one piece,
and was known as the " pepper-box." It was " single action,"
i.e. the hammer was raised and the barrels revolved by the pull
of the trigger. This weapon was cumbrous and no accurate
aim could be taken with it owing chiefly to the strength and
resistance of the main-spring and the consequent strong pull
required on the trigger. The principle of a revolving breech to
one barrel, which superseded the " pepper-box," is an old one

in the history of fire-arms, dating from the 16th century. At

■P INS.

Fig. 1. — Dagg (Royal United Service Institution).

ordinary fire-arms of the day. With the introduction of revol-
vers and breech-loading pistols and the application of " rifling "
to musket barrels, came also, in the early half of the 19th century,
the rifling of pistol-barrels.

first the breech cylinder was revolved by hand, as in the revolving
arquebus or matchlock, a specimen of which is now in the

1 For the use of long heavy pistols by cavalry in the 16th and
17th centuries, see Army: History; and Cavalry.

PISTOL

655

Tower of London, but this was subsequently improved by
introducing geared mechanism, by which the pull of the trigger
or the cocking of the hammer, or both, do the work. There
exists a pistol of the time of Charles I. which is rotated auto-
matically as the hammer is raised.

rapidly fired, if necessary, by the trigger action alone. Many
revolvers on the Colt principle were in use during the Crimean
War and the Indian Mutiny, and proved of valuable service to
British officers.

As rim-fire, pin-fire and central-fire cartridges were succes-

Fig. 2. — Wheel-lock pistol (Royal United Service Institution).

In 1814 a self-acting revolver mechanism of a crude pattern
was produced in England. Four years later Collier used a
separate spring to rotate the chamber. In 1835, an American,
Samuel Colt, produced and patented the first practical revolving
pistol, the idea of which was obtained by him, it is stated, from
an ancient " revolving " weapon in the Tower of London. The
chambers of the first Colt revolver were loaded with powder and
bullets from the muzzle end, and each thamber had a nipple
that required to be capped. It was the invention of the copper
cap that made the Colt revolver possible. Under the old

sively introduced, breech-loading revolvers were constructed
to use them. Messrs Smith & Wesson, of Springfield, U.S.A.,
produced the first metal cartridges for revolvers. Pin-fire
cartridges, paper and metallic, were used on the continent of
Europe for Lefaucheux and other revolvers, and these and rim-
! fire cartridges are still used for revolvers of small calibre. But
since the central-fire cartridge has proved its superiority for
guns, its principle has been generally applied to pistol cartridges,
at first to the larger bores.

The alteration of the muzzle-loading to the breech-loading

10 INCHES

Fig. 3. — Wheel-lock pistol (Royal United Service Institution).

priming system with exposed powder in a pan the difficulty
of separate and effective ignition with the revolving cylinder
was almost insuperable.

The first American revolver makers caused the cocking of
the hammer to revolve the cylinder, while the English makers
effected this by the pull of the trigger. In 1855, Adams of
London, and also Tranter of Birmingham, brought out the
double-action revolver, in which the revolution of the cylinder
could be effected by both these methods. When the revolver
is cocked and fired by pressing the trigger, greater rapidity of

chamber in the revolver involved no decided change of type.
The original Colt, as a breech-loader, remained practically
the same weapon as before, with a changed chamber. A
hinged flap uncovered the breech-chamber on the right, and as
each chamber reached that point the empty cartridge case was
ejected by means of an ejecting-rod carried in a tube attached
to the under side of the barrel and kept in place by a spiral
spring, and the chamber reloaded. The next improvement
was greater ease and rapidity of extraction, obtained first by
Thomas's invention of making the barrel and chamber slide

FlG. 4. — Flint-lock pistol (Royal United Service Institution).

fire is obtained than when the hammer is cocked with the thumb,
but accuracy is impaired, as the trigger requires a long pull and
considerable force in order to compress the mainspring and
revolve the cylinder. The double action revolver was, there-
fore, a great advance on the single action, enabling the first and
also following shots, if desired, to be accurately fired by a
moderate pressure of the trigger after the hammer had been
cocked by the thumb; or, alternatively, the revolver could be

forward on the frame of the pistol. The extractor, being fast to
the pivot, retained the cartridges until the chamber was pushed
clear of them. Then the chamber was made to swing on one
side, as in the Colt pistol illustrated, enabling all the cartridges
to be simultaneously extracted. Finally, self-extracting revol-
vers with jointed frames were introduced, in which the dropping
of the barrel forces out the extractor as in an ordinary double
gun, the extractor acting simultaneously in all the chambers of

6 5 6

PISTOL

the pistol. A spring returns the extractor to its place when the
empty cartridge cases have been ejected, and brings the barrel
to an angle of about 45°, for convenience in loading. The
soundness and rigidity of the weapon depend upon the efficiency
of the connexion between the barrels and the standing breech,
and a top snap bolt has proved the strongest and handiest with
the pistol, as with the shot-gun.

This type of revolver originated with Messrs Smith &
Wesson, but they and other gunmakers have greatly improved
upon the original model. Between the American pattern and
the English, as made by Messrs F. Webley & Son, the chief
difference is that in the Smith & Wesson the holding-down
bolt or catch is upon the barrel, and it engages with the top of

hammer and trigger when the latch is pushed to the rear for open-
ing the cylinder, and does not unlock them until the cylinder is
positively closed and is locked by the latch. The cylinder revolves
and is supported on a central arbour of the crane (E). The crane
fits in a recess in the frame below the barrel and turns on its pivot
arm (A). The ejector rod with its spring passes through the centre
of the cylinder arbour and is terminated in rear by the ejector
with a ratchet (y). Pushing against the front end of the ejector
rod will empty the chambers, the cylinder being swung out for
loading. The thumb-piece of the latch (j) slides to the rear in the
left side of the frame, unlocking the cylinder for opening, but upon
closing the cylinder, the body of the latch firmly enters a recess in
the ejector, locking the cylinder in position for firing.

One great disadvantage of revolvers is the escape of gas at
the opening between the breech of the barrel and the cylinder.

Fig. 5. — Percussion-lock pistol (Royal United
Institution).

the standing breech; whereas in the Webley the bolt is upon the
standing breech and grips the extremity of the hinged barrel.
Neither mechanism is as strong as could be wished if heavy
charges of smokeless nitro-compounds are to be used. This
hinged type of revolver is most convenient for use on horseback,
as the pistol can be opened, the cartridges extracted and the
weapon reloaded with one hand.

The Colt's Double-action Revolver, calibre -38, model 1896, used in
the United States army, consists (figs. 7 and 8) of the barrel (B), the
cylinder (C) with six chambers, the frame (F), and the firing mechan-
ism, all of steel. The muzzle velocity, with a charge of 16 grains
of black powder and a bullet of 150 grains of lead, is about 708 ft.
per second, giving at 25 yards a penetration of about 5 in. in pine.

The lock mechanism consists of the hammer (h), with its stirrup
(r), stirrup pin (p), strut (s), strut pin (i), strut spring (g) ; the
trigger {t) ; the rebound lever {I); the hand (a), with the spring (2);
the cylinder bolt (b), with its spring (x) ; the locking lever (11);
the main spring (m), and rebound lever spring (re). The hammer
(h), trigger (t), and rebound lever (/) are pivoted on their respective
pins, which are fastened in the left side of the frame. The lower
end of the rebound lever spring (n) is secured to the frame and the
free end bears under the rear end of the rebound lever so that the
latter, when the trigger is released, cams the hammer back to its
safety position, and forces the trigger forward. Pressure upon
the trigger causes its upper edge to engage the strut, and thereby
raises the hammer until nearly in the full-cock position, when the
strut will escape from the trigger, and the hammer, under the action
of the main-spring, will fall and strike the cartridge. A projection
on the upper part of the trigger, working in a slot in the frame,
prevents the cylinder from making more than one-sixth of a revolu-
tion at a time by entering one of the grooves nearest the rear end
of the surface of the cylinder. When the cylinder is swung out
of the frame, the parts are arranged to prevent the cocking of the
hammer. The cylinder bolt is pivoted on the trigger pin, and its
spring, bearing on the rebound lever arm, causes the nose of the
bolt to project through a slot in the frame ready to enter one of
the rectangular cuts in the cylinder surface. During the first
movement of the trigger in cocking the revolver, the nose of the
bolt is withdrawn, allowing free rotation of the cylinder. The
object of the bolt is to prevent rotation of the cylinder in trans-
portation. The hand is attached by its pivot to the trigger, and,
as the latter swings on its pin when the hammer is being cocked,
the hand is raised and revolves the cylinder, and also serves to lock
the cylinder in position at the time of firing. An abutment on the
side plate supports the hand spring in rear. The spring ensures
the engagement of the hand with the ratchet (y). The revolver is
cocked by hand by withdrawing the hammer by the pressure of
the thumb until its full-cock notch engages in the rear sharp corner
of the trigger. Pulling the trigger then releases the hammer,
allowing its firing pin (/) to move forward and strike the cartridge.

The locking lever is pivoted by its screw in a recess in the left
side of the frame, and so connected with the latch that it locks the

Service

Fig. 6. — Pepper-box revolver. '

This efcape corrodes the surrounding parts and
also materially diminishes the pressure in the
barrel and the consequent velocity of the bullet.
In the Nagant revolver, adopted by Russia,
this disadvantage has been overcome by em-
ploying a long cartridge case which extends beyond the nose
of the bullet and bridges the gap between barrel and cylinder
as the cylinder is moved forward. A " mitrailleuse " pistol has
also been constructed by the Braendlin Armoury Co., Ltd., on
the " pepper-box " principle, with fixed barrels, either four or
six, arranged in pairs, and a special striking mechanism, in which
there is no revolving chamber and no escape of gas at the breech.
It gives stronger shooting than a revolver, but is more cum-
brous, and has the serious defect that the shock of the dis-
charge of one barrel sometimes prematurely fires a second barrel.
In 1865, Sharp, an American, patented an invention to
remedy the escape of gas, in which the four barrels of the pistol

Figs. 7 and 8. — Colt double-action revolver.

were drilled the full length out of one block of metal. The
barrels were slid forward by an under lever to load, and the
firing was effected by a revolving head to the hammer, set by the
action of cocking the pistol.

About 1878 Messrs Lancaster introduced both two- and four-
barrelled hammerless pistols, in which an internal hammer was
worked by the pull of the trigger. In all the three weapons

PISTOL

657

above mentioned, extraction and reloading were slow processes,
which made them unsuited for use on horseback.

Hammerless Revolver. — The Smith & Wesson pocket pistol
is one of the safest weapons of the size made. There is no

and fires a charge of if drams of powder without unpleasant
recoil. The duelling pistol, as made by Gartinne Renette of
Paris, is capable of wonderfully accurate shooting, firing a 9
millimetre spherical bullet and about 12 grs. of powder. This

Maker's Name.

Colt

Smith S; Wesson

Webley

Description of Revolver.

New Service

New Army

New Police

New Pocket or Pocket Positive

Police Positive

Double Action

Safety Hammerless
Single Action Target .
Single Action Bisley model
Military and Police

Hand Ejector

British Govt. Mark IV . .
" W.G." Army model .
"W.G." Target . . . .

Mark III

" W.P." Pocket model . . .
R.I.C. No. 1

No. of
Shots.

6
6
6
6
6
5
5
6
6
6

7
6
6
6
6
6
6

Calibre.

hammer or equivalent protuberance to catch as the pistol is
drawn from the pocket; or to entangle if the weapon falls. An
automatic safety bolt, whose length lies half across the palm
of the hand, and ensures certainty of freedom at the time of
shooting, blocks the action until the pistol is firmly gripped
for use.

Breech-loading Pistols. — Although the revolver has for many
years practically superseded the pistol, some breech-loading

Fig. 9. — Mauser pistol {Text-book of Small
Arms, by permission of the Controller of
H. M. Stationery Office).

•45
•38
•32
•32

•38
•32

•32
•3S/-44
•45
•38
•22
•455
•455
•455
•380
•320
•45°/-455

Length

of
Barrel.

In.
5*
4*

u

4

3

3

6

8

6}

3

4

6

3
3

4i

Length
over all.

In.
iof
9l

a

I2i

i3i

12

61
9i

9i

Weight.

lb
2
2
I
I
I
o
o
1
2
1
o

2
2
2
I
I
I

OZ.

8
o
2
o

5i
12J

%

3i

9

i5i

9f
3
8
10

4
I

14

Cartridge.

Powder
Weight.

gr-
40
21

13
12

14
IO
10
20

2ii
5

18
18
18

3 Cor
6

18

Bullet

Weight.

gr.

250

158
98
82

150

146
226
158
40
265
265
265

145

80

265

varieties of pistols are still made — the small pocket pistol, for
example, and occasionally the heavy double-barrelled horse
pistol. At one time these latter were much used, of -577 bore,
as well as the well-known short, large-bore pistol known as the
Derringer, usually of -41 calibre. The double horse pistol is
now usually made for a 20-bore cartridge and spherical bullet,
and weighs about 35 lb. It is a clumsy, but effective weapon,

weapon is far superior in accuracy to a revolver. Single-barrelled
pistols, chambered for the -22 or 297/230 calibre cartridges,
with a barrel of from 6 to 10 in. in length, are also made, and
when fitted with a detachable metal stock form excellent little
weapons for target practice.

Automatic Revolver. — The Webley-Fosbery automatic revolver
is a weapon of a distinctly new design, in which for the first time
the principle of utilizing the recoil of each shot to operate the
mechanism is applied to the revolver. In appearance the weapon
is very similar to the Webley service model. The simple pressure
of the forefinger on the trigger, the pressure being released
between each shot, is all that is required to fire the six successive
shots of the revolver. It is supplied with a safety bolt worked
by a thumb-piece, and Messrs Webley have introduced a clip
loader which enables the six chambers to be reloaded at the same
time. This weapon has met with considerable success, and is
made in two calibres, the -455, 6 shot, 2 lb Sj oz. in weight;
and the -38 model, 8 shot, 2 R> 3 oz. in weight.

Automatic Pistols. — These weapons are the latest and most
advanced type of pistol, and it is anticipated by experts that
they will ultimately supersede the revolver. They are made
with one barrel and a magazine, on the principle of the repeating
rifle, thus doing away with the escape of gas that takes place in
revolvers between the chamber and the barrel.

Automatic pistols are so constructed that the force of the recoil
is utilized to open the breech, extract the empty case, cock the
pistol, reload the chamber with the top cartridge from the
magazine, and close the breech, leaving the pistol ready to fire on
again pressing the trigger.

The Mauser " self-loading " pistol (fig. 9) is one of the earliest
of the successful automatic weapons. It is usually -300 calibre,
10 shot, with a metal clip loader from which the cartridges are
" stripped " into the magazine, weight 2| lb, length of barrel
5 1 in.; bullet 85 grains, initial velocity about 1394 f.s.

The barrel (1) and body (2) are in one piece; the latter contains
the bolt (3). The barrel and body slide on the frame (4) ; the 10-shot
magazine (5) and the stock are in one piece with, the frame, and the
lock frame (6) and lock-work are contained in the rear part of it.
The bolt (3), which is square, slides in the body, and is kept pressed
up to the chamber by the bolt spring (8) ; the rear end of this bolt
spring bears against the block (9). The striker and extractor are
contained in the bolt. The bolt is locked by the bolt-lock (10).
This is slotted through the centre and fits on to the projection
(11) under the body; it is supported at the moment of firing by
a projection on the lock frame (12) ; the top of the bolt-lock has
two teeth (13), which in the loaded and cocked position fit into
two recesses in the bolt, and the bottom of its front end_ [in front of
the body attachment (11)] has another tooth (14) which bears on the
rocker (15). This rocker is pivoted at its bottom corner. The
main-spring (16) bears in front against the rocker, and in rear
against the hammer mechanism. The action of the mechanism U

6 5 8

PISTOL

as follows: on pressing the trigger, the trigger nose lifts the lever
(18) which is attached to the sear (19), the lifting of the sear allows
the main-spring to act backwards on the hammer, which impinges
on the striker and fires the cartridge. At this moment the bolt
is locked by the two upper teeth (13) of the bolt-lock, which is
itself held up by the lock frame projection (13). But, the barrel
body and bolt recoiling together fa of an in., the rear end of the
bolt-lock (10) is no longer supported, the rocker (15) acting on the
forward tooth (14) pulls down the bolt-lock and its upper teeth,
the nose of the bolt-lock falling into the recess just behind the
projection (12). Thus the barrel and body come to a standstill
and the remaining recoil energy is used in driving back the bolt
(now free) and extracting the cartridge case. When this energy
is used up the bolt spring (8) reasserts itself, drives the bolt forward
and pushes another cartridge into the chamber as in the magazine
rifle, and the main-spring, acting on the rocker, pulls up the bolt-
lock again and engages the teeth (13) in the bolt, locking it for

10. — Colt automatic

pistol.

the next shot. The releasing of the trigger brings the sear" (19)
to its former position, cocking the pistol.

This pistol is usually supplied with a wooden holster which
can also be attached to the grip of the pistol and so form a
shoulder-stock for long-range shooting. It is sighted from 50 to
IOOO yards.

The Colt Automatic Pistol, calibre -38 (fig. 10) consists of four
main parts, namely the frame (F), the barrel (B), the slide (S), and
the magazine (M). The frame forms, at its rear and lower part,
the handle (A), which is hollow, and contains the seat for the maga-
zine. After being charged with seven cartridges, the magazine is
seated from below and held in place by the magazine catch («)
which slightly projects from the bottom of the handle. This pro-
jection serves to release the magazine from the catch, when it
can be readily drawn from the handle for re-charging. In front
of the handle is the trigger guard (g), in which the trigger _(<) is
found, and in the rear and above the grip the firing mechanism is
placed in the part of the frame called the receiver (R). The firing
mechanism consists of the hammer (h), the sear (w), the trigger (/),
a safety device (a), the main-spring (2) and sear spring (e), the lower
part of the latter serving to operate the magazine catch. The top
of the receiver extends forward from the handle, and to it the barrel
is attached by two short links, one (/) near the front end of the barrel,
and the other (0) at its rear end; these links are pivoted to the
receiver and also to the barrel, and allow the barrel to swing rear-
wards thereon. As both links are of the same length, the rearward
movement of the barrel in swinging on these links _ carries the
barrel slightly downwards, but keeps its longitudinal axis in parallel
positions during all its movements. Below the barrel the receiver
forms a tubular seat for the retractor spring (r), which in front is
closed by a plug (ii) fastened in the receiver by the lower pivot-pin
(j) of the front barrel-link. The upper surface of the receiver and
two longitudinal grooves on its sides form the seat for the slide,
which is guided thereon in its rearward and forward movements.
The rear part of the slide forms the bolt or breech block (K), and
the front part forms a partly tubular cover (s) which encloses the
barrel. In the forward part of the receiver is a transverse mortice
extending through the retractor spring seat, and transverse re-
cesses in the forward part of the slide serve to admit a key (m)
which, passing through the sides of the slide and through the
mortice, serves to lock the slide to the frame. The retractor
spring (r), in its seat in the frame, consists of a spiral spring, the
rear end of which rests against the receiver, and the front end of
which carries a piston (p). The rear face of the key (m) has a slight
recess, and when the key is in its place the front end of the retractor
spring rests in this recess, thereby confining the key laterally.
The tension of the retractor spring is exerted to force the key and
the slide to their forward position. Upon the barrel are provided
three transverse ribs (6), and in the interior of the slide are three
corresponding recesses. These serve to lock the barrel and the
slide firmly together when in their forward position. Between the
locking recesses and the bolt, the slide has an opening on its right
side for the ejection of the cartridge cases (J), and the bolt is pro-
vided with an extractor, a firing pin (/), a firing pin retraction

spring (g), and a firing pin lock (y). This latter is pivoted at the
rear end in the top of the slide, and when depressed, locks the firing
pin in its retracted position, thus preventing its point from coming
in contact with the cartridge primer. When raised, the firing pin
lock releases the firing pin, and in this position also serves as the
rear sight, being provided on the top with a sighting notch.

The operation of the pistol is as follows: When a charged maga-
zine (M) is inserted, the slide (S) is drawn once to -the rear by
hand, thereby cocking the hammer (k). In this position of the
slide, the carrier (c) and carrier spring in the magazine raise the
topmost cartridge so as to bring it into the path of the bolt (K).
On releasing the slide, it, with the bolt, is carried forward by the
retractor spring (r), and during this movement the bolt forces the
topmost cartridge into the barrel (B). As the slide approaches its
forward position the front of the bolt encounters the rear end of the
barrel and forces the latter to its forward position. During this
forward movement the barrel swings forward and upward on the
links (/, 0), and thus the locking ribs (b) on the barrel are carried
into the corresponding locking recesses in the slide. The barrel
and slide are thereby interlocked, and the pistol ready for firing.

A slight pull on the trigger (/) now serves to move the sear (w)
so as to release the hammer (h) and fire a shot. The force of the
powder gases driving the bullet from the barrel is exerted rear-
wardly against the bolt, and, overcoming the inertia of the slide
and the tension of the retractor spring, causes the slide and the
barrel to recoil together. After moving rearwards together, for a
distance, enough to ensure the bullet having passed from the barrel,
the downward swinging movement of the barrel releases the latter
from the slide and stops the barrel in its rearmost position. The
momentum of the slide causes the latter to continue its rearward
movement, thereby again cocking the hammer and compressing
the retractor spring, until, as the slide arrives at its rearmost posi-
tion, the empty shell is ejected from the side of the pistol and
another cartridge raised in front of the bolt. During the return or
forward movement of the slide, caused by the retractor spring,
the cartridge is driven into the barrel, and the slide and barrel are
interlocked, thus making the pistol ready for another shot. These
operations may be continued so long as there are cartridges in the
magazine, each discharge requiring only the slight pull on the
trigger. The pistol is provided with a safety device (a) which
makes it impossible to release the hammer unless the slide and
barrel are in their first forward position and interlocked.

In the Borchardt-Leuger pistol (fig. 11) the bolt is solidly supported

at the moment of firing by a toggle joint. The barrel (1 A) and
body (1 B) slide in the frame (1 C), the bolt (2) slides in the body
and is held up to the breech by the toggle joint 3 and 4 and the pins
5 and 7, which secure the links of the toggle to the body. The centre
of pin (6) is below those of the other pins so that the joint cannot
bend at the moment of firing. On the rear link (4) there is a swivel
(9) which is connected to the recoil spring (10) in the grip. This
pistol is fired by a spring striker, like a rifle, instead of by a hammer.
The striker is within the bolt ; it is cocked in the recoil position by
a claw on the end of the front link (3 A) and held thus when ready
to fire by the nose of the trigger sear, these engaging with a pro-
jection (8 A) on the side of the striker. The magazine (8 shot) is
in the grip. The action is as follows: the first cartridge is loaded
from the magazine by pulling back the toggle joint. As soon as
the toggle joint is released the recoil spring acts and forces the
bolt home, with the cartridge in front of it. On pressing the trigger
the barrel and body recoil a little. Then the toggle joint comes

PISTOLE— PITCAIRN

&59

against curved ramps on the sides of the non-recoiling frame and
is forced up, so that thereafter the bolt alone recoils (the ejector is
similar in principle to that of a rifle). The recoil spring then acts
as before on reloading.

Other varieties of the automatic pistol are the " Mannlicher,"
the " Mars," the " Bergmann " and the " Webley." The last,
being simple in construction, small and light, weight 18 oz. and
length over all only 6J in., may be classed as a pocket pistol.

Qualities of Automatic Pistols.— In reference to the general
qualities of automatic pistols, while these weapons have the
advantage over revolvers of longer range and greater rapidity
of fire and recharging, on the other hand they are necessarily
more complicated in their mechanism, which has to do the work
of extraction, reloading and cocking that in the revolver is done
by hand. A stoppage may occur through a cartridge missing
fire, or continuous uncontrolled fire may take place through
the trigger spring breaking until the magazine is exhausted.
Their action is also to some extent uncertain, as it depends on
the recoil of the discharge, which may be affected by variables
in the cartridge; also the effective automatic working of the
moving parts depends upon their cleanliness and lubrication. As
automatic pistols, like revolvers, are intended for personal
defence at short range and for sudden use in emergencies,
simplicity of mechanism and certainty of action are in their case
of paramount importance. There is usually no time to rectify
a stoppage or jam, however slight. From a military point of
view, therefore, before the revolver is altogether superseded by
the automatic pistol, it is most desirable that the latter should be
as certain in its action under service conditions as the former.
Some automatic pistols, as already stated, are sighted up to
1000 yards, and provided with attachable butts. The practical
value of these improvements is open to question, as the sighting
of a pistol differs materially when used with and without a butt,
and under no circumstances can the accuracy of shooting of a
pistol, even with a butt, equal that of a carbine.

The tendency in automatic pistols has been to reduce the bore to
•3 in., and increase the muzzle velocity, on the lines of modern
small-bore rifles. These, again, would appear to be advantages
of minor importance in a weapon intended for use at short range
in the field, where a heavy bullet of fairly large diameter, with a
moderate muzzle velocity, has a more immediate and paralysing
effect, and is therefore, from this point of view, and particularly
in savage warfare, preferable to a small projectile of high muzzle
velocity. (H. S.-K.)

PISTOLE, the French name given to a Spanish gold coin in
use from 1537; it was a double escudo, the gold unit, and was
worth 16s. iijd. sterling. The name was also given to the
louis d'or of Louis XIII. of France, and to other European gold
coins of about the value of the Spanish coin.

PISTON (through Fr. from Ital. pistone or pestone, a great
pestle, from Late Lat. pistare, to pound, a frequentative form of
classical Lat. pinsere), in the steam engine, a disk or partition
placed inside the cylinder, from end to end of which it moves
alternately under the pressure of the steam. By means of the
" piston-rod " attached to it this forward and backward
motion is communicated to the machinery which the engine
is employed to drive, and is in most cases converted into rotary
motion by a " connecting-rod," one end of which is jointed to
the " cross-head " carried at the end of the piston-rod, while
the other turns the crank on the crank-shaft. The piston in
gas, oil and air engines has a. similar function, but in a pump,
instead of imparting motion, it has motion imparted to it by
some prime-mover. In every case the piston must fit the
cylinder so accurately that as little as possible of the working
fluid, whether it be steam, gas or water, can escape past it,
packing of various forms being commonly placed round its
periphery in order to secure this fit. In music, the valves which
in certain wind instruments, such as the cornet, enable the
player to increase the length of the air-column and thus lower
the note produced, are known as pistons. (See Valves.)

PIT (0. E. pytt, cognate with Du. put, Ger. Pfutze, &c, all
ultimately adaptations of Lat. puteus, well, formed from root
pu-, to cleanse, whence purus, clean, pure), a term of wide
application for a hole, cavity or excavation in the earth or other

surface ; thus it is applied to the excavations made in the ground
for the purpose of extracting minerals, e.g. chalk, gravel or sand,
or for carrying on some industry, e.g. tan-pit, saw-pit, or to the
group of shafts which form a coal-mine. Roots and other
vegetables can be stored in the winter in a pit, and the term is
thus transformed to a heap of such vegetables covered with
earth or straw. The word is also used of any hollow or depression
in a surface, as in the body, the arm-pit, the pit of the stomach,
or on the skin, as the scars left by small-pox or chicken-pox.
As applied to a portion of a building or construction, the word
first appears for an enclosure, often sunk in the ground, in which
cock-fighting was carried on, a " cock-pit." It would seem a
transference of this usage that gave the common name to that
part of the auditorium of a theatre which is on the floor, the
French parterre. In the United States a special usage is that
of its application to that part of the floor space in an exchange
where a particular branch of business is transacted; thus in
the Chicago Board of Trade, transactions in the grain trade are
carried on in what is known as the " Wheat Pit."

In Scottish legal history there was a baronial privilege which
in Latin is termed furca et fossa, "fork (i.e. gallows) and pit";
here the term has usually been taken to refer to the drowning-pit,
in which women criminals were put to death ; others take it to refer
to an ordeal pit. There is a parallel phrase in M. Dutch, putte
ends galghen ; here putte is the pit in which women were buried alive
as a penalty.

PITCAIRN, an island in the mid-eastern Pacific Ocean, in
2 S° 3' S., 130° 6' W., belonging to Great Britain. It lies south
of the Paumotu archipelago, 100 m. from the nearest member of
this group. Unlike the majority of the islands in this region, it
is without coral reefs, but rises abruptly with steep and rugged
cliffs of dark basaltic lava. The extreme elevation is over
2000 ft., and the area 2 sq. m. The soil in the valleys is volcanic
and fertile, but the gradual utilization of natural timber increases
the liability to drought, as there are no streams. The climate
is variable and rainy. Stone axes, remains of carved stone
pillars similar to those of Easter Island, and skeletons with a
pearl-mussel beneath the head have been found in the island,
though it was uninhabited when discovered by Philip Carteret
in 1767. Pitcairn was the name of the midshipman who first
observed it.

The island was destined to become the scene of a curious
social experiment. On the 28th of April 1789 a mutiny broke
out on board the " Bounty," then employed by the British
government in conveying young bread-fruit trees from Tahiti
to the West Indies. The commander, Lieutenant William
Bligh, was set adrift in the launch with part of the crew, but
managed to make his way to Timor in the Malay Archipelago.
The twenty-five mutineers at first all returned to Tahiti. Some
remained, and six of these were ultimately court-martialled in
England, three being executed in 1792. Meanwhile in 1790
a party consisting of Fletcher Christian, the leader of the
mutiny, eight Englishmen, six Polynesian men and twelve
Polynesian women had taken possession of Pitcairn Island and
burned the " Bounty." Treachery and debauchery filled the
first years of the annals of the beautiful island. By 1800 all
the men were dead except Alexander Smith, afterwards known
as John Adams, who rose to a sense of his responsibility and
successfully trained up the youthful generation left in his charge.
An American vessel, the " Topaze," discovered the strange
colony in 1808; again, by accident, it was visited by the
" Briton," Captain Sir F. Staines, and the " Tagus," Captain
Pipon, in 181 7; and by the exploring ship " Blossom " in 1825.
On the death of John Adams on the 29th of March 1829 George
Hunn Nobbs, who had settled at Pitcairn in 1828, was appointed
pastor and chief magistrate. Through fear of drought the
islanders removed to Tahiti in 1830, but disapproved of both the
climate and the morals of this island, and returned to Pitcairn
in 1 83 1. Shortly after this an adventurer named Joshua Hill
appeared, and, claiming government authority, tyrannized
over the islanders till his removal by a British man-of-war in
1838. In 1856 the whole of the islanders — 60 married persons
and 134 young men, women and children — were landed on

66o

PITCAIRNE, A.— PITCH, MUSICAL

Norfolk Island, but in 1858 two families chose to return, and
their example was afterwards followed by a few others. Visited
in 1873 and 1878 the colony was found in excellent order, but
by the end of the century it was stated that intermarriage was
bringing a deterioration of intellect, morals and energy, and
that the islanders would probably drift into imbecility. Later
accounts made it appear that this was an exaggeration, although
the standard of morality was unquestionably low on the
whole.

In religion the islanders are Seventh Day Adventists. " They
have adopted an extraordinary patois, derived from the language
of the Tahitian women who accompanied the mutineers of the
" Bounty " to Pitcairn Island, although most of the adults
can speak the English language fairly well " (R. T. Simons,
Report, 1905). The island is a British colony by settlement,
and is within the jurisdiction of the High Commissioner for the
Western Pacific (since 1898). There is a governing body chosen
from among the islanders, the constitution of which has been
altered more than once owing to internal jealousies, &c. The
island produces sweet potatoes, yams, melons, bananas and other
fruits, arrowroot and coffee. Goats and chickens run wild.
Some trade is carried on with Mangareva in a vessel owned by
the islanders. The population is about 1 70.

Bibliography. — J. Shillibeer, The " Briton's " Voyage to Pit-
cairn's Island (London, 1818); F. W. Beechey, Voyage to the Pacific
(London, 1831) ; Sir J. Barrow, History of the Mutiny of the " Bounty "
(London, 1831); W. Brodie, Pitcairn' s Island ... in 1850
(London, 1851); C. E. Meinicke, Die Insel Pitcairn (Prenzlau,
1858); T. B. Murray, Pitcairn (London, i860), revised to date by
C. C. Elcum (1885); Lady Belcher, The Mutineers of the " Bounty "
(London, 1870); J. A. Brown, "Stone Implements from Pitcairn
Island," in Journ. Anthropol. Instit. (1900), xxx. ; R. A. Hermann,
" Die Bevolkerung der Insel Pitcairn," in Pelermanns Mitleilungen
(1901), xlvii. ; Parliamentary Papers C. 9148, and Cd. 754 (London,
1899, 1901); Cd. 2397 (ibid., 1905; Mr R. T. Simon's report).

PITCAIRNE, ARCHIBALD (1652-1713), Scottish physician,
was born at Edinburgh on the 25th of December 1652. After
obtaining some classical education at the school of Dalkeith,
Pitcairne entered Edinburgh University in 1668, and took his
degree of M.A. in 167 1. Having been sent to France for the
benefit of his health, he was induced at Paris to begin the study
of medicine, and after courses at Edinburgh and Paris he
obtained in 1680 the degree of M.D. at Rheims. He began
practice at Edinburgh, and in a short time acquired so great a
reputation that in 1692 he was appointed professor of medicine
at Leiden. Among his pupils were Richard Mead and H.
Boerhaave, and both of them attributed much of their skill
to what they had learned from Pitcairne. In 1693 Pitcairne
returned to Scotland to marry a daughter of Sir Archibald
Stevenson, an eminent physician in Edinburgh. The family
objected to her going abroad, so he did not return to Leiden,
but settled once more in Edinburgh. He rose to be the first
physician in Scotland, and was frequently called into consulta-
tion both in England and Holland. Soon after his return to Edin-
burgh, feeling the great want of the means of anatomical study,
he importuned the town council to permit himself and certain
of his medical friends to treat without fee the sick paupers in
" Paul's Work," on condition of being allowed to dissect such
of the bodies as were unclaimed by their relatives, and therefore
had to be buried at the town's expense. Strangely enough
this proposal was strongly opposed by the chief surgeons of the
place, but ultimately the town council had the good sense to
comply with Pitcairne's request, and in this way he may be said
to have the credit of laying the foundation of the great Edinburgh
school of medicine.

Pitcairne's medical opinions are chiefly contained in a volume
of Dissertationes medicae which he published in 1701 (2nd ed.
1 7 13). In these he discusses the application of geometry to
physic, the circulation of the blood in the smaller vessels, the
difference in the quantity of the blood contained in the lungs
of animals in the womb and of the same animals after birth,
the motions by which food becomes fit to supply the blood, the
question as to inventors in medicine (in which he repels the idea
of certain medical discoveries of modern times having been

known to the ancients, especially vindicating for Harvey the
discovery of the circulation of the blood, and refuting the view
that it was known to Hippocrates), the cure of fevers by evacua-
ting medicines, and the effects of acids and alkalis in medicine.
Pitcairne was a good classical scholar, and wrote Latin verses,
occasionally with something more than mere imitative cleverness
and skill. He was supposed to be the author of a comedy,
The Assembly, or Scotch Reformation, and of a satirical poem
Babel, containing witty sketches of prominent Presbyterian
divines of the time, whom, as a loudly avowed Jacobite, he
strongly disliked. He was prone to irreverent and ribald jests,
and thus gained the reputation of being an unbeliever and an
atheist, though he was a professed deist. The stories about his
over-indulgence in drink are probably exaggerated. He was
repeatedly involved in violent quarrels with his medical brethren
and others, and once or twice got into scrapes with the govern-
ment on account of his indiscreet political utterances. Among
his friends, however, he was evidently well liked, and he is known
to have acted with great kindness and generosity to deserving
men who needed his help. Thomas Ruddiman, the Scottish
scholar, for example, was rescued from a life of obscurity by
his encouragement and assistance, and by no one was his
memory more gratefully cherished. Mead, too, appears never
to have forgotten what he owed to his old teacher at Leiden.
A son of Pitcairne's had gone out in the rebellion of 1715, and,
having been condemned to death, was saved by the earnest
interposition of Mead with Sir Robert Walpole. He pleaded,
very artfully, that if Walpole's health had been bettered by his
skill, or if members of the royal family were preserved by his
care, it was owing to the instruction he had received from Dr
Pitcairne. Pitcairne died in Edinburgh on the 20th of October
1713. He had been a great collector of books, and his library,
which is said to have been of considerable value, was, through
the influence of Ruddiman, disposed of to Peter the Great of
Russia.

PITCH. (1) (O. Eng. pic, an adaptation of Lat. pix, picis,
Gr. Trio-era, ixlrro., allied with Gr. ttLtvs, pine-tree, Lat. pinus),
the name of various substances of dark colour and of extremely
viscid and tenacious consistency when subjected to heat.
Strictly the term is applied to the resinous substance obtained
as a solid residuum by the distillation of wood-tar (see Tab),
or the non-resinous substance similarly produced from Coal-tar
(q.v.). The name is also applied to the natural mineral sub-
stances, i.e. asphalt or bitumen (qq.v.). (2) A noun of various
meanings which are somewhat difficult to connect with the
verb from which they apparently must be derived. " To
pitch " means primarily to thrust in or fix a stake or other
pointed object into the ground, hence to place in a fixed
position, set in order, cast or throw, hence to incline or slope.
The etymology is obscure, but it appears in Northern dialects
as " pick," of which it may be a variant ; there is some difficulty
in connecting this form with " pick," variant of " pike " (q.v.).
PITCH, MUSICAL. The pitch of a musical sound is aurally
defined by its absolute position in the scale and by its relative
position with regard to other musical sounds. It is precisely
defined by a vibration number recording the frequency of the
pulsations of a tense string, a column of air, or other vibrator,
in a second of time. In Great Britain and America the complete
vibration to and fro (swing both ways of a pendulum) is taken as
the unit; elsewhere the vibration in one direction only (swing
one way of the pendulum). The only official standard is the
French, dating from 1859, preserved by a tuning-fork vibrating
870-9 (double vib. 43S - 4S) at a temperature of 15 Centigrade
(59° Fahr.) in a second. The vibration number stated in the
edict establishing the Diapason Normal is 870 (435), which for
comparison will be here adhered to. The natural basis for a
standard musical pitch is the voice, particularly the male
voice, which has been of greater importance historically. There
is no reason to suppose the human voice has varied, during the
period of which we have evidence, more than other physical
attributes. The only difference to be reckoned with may be
in recent tendencies of solo vocalists to sing for effect, and so to

PITCH, MUSICAL

661

extend the compass of the voice upwards. Otherwise we may
assume no disturbing alteration has taken place for more than
2000 years in its position and extent. Vibrations increase in
rapidity as a note rises and decrease as jt falls. Any note may
be a pitch note; for orchestras custom has settled upon a 1 in
the treble clef, for organs and pianos in Great Britain c 2 , and for
modern brass instruments b flat 1 .

We are not without a. clue to the pitch usual in the classic
Greek and Alexandrian ages: the vocal octave to which the lyre
was adapted was noted as from e to e l . As in choruses baritone
and low tenor singers always prevail, d-d 1 , at French or at
medium pitch, would really be the Greek singing octave; we
may therefore regard it as a tone lower than that to which we
are accustomed. But to sing the lower Greek modes in or near
the vocal octave it was necessary to transpose (neraftoXri) a
fourth upwards, which is effected in modern notation by a flat
placed upon the b line of the staff; thus modulating from our
major key of C to that of F. This transposition has had, as we
shall see. much to do with the history of our subject, ultimately
influencing the ecclesiastical chant and lasting until the 17th
century of our era. It does not appear from any evidence that
the keyboards — when there were more than one — of the early
organs were arranged for transposition, but it is certain that the
Flemish harpsichords to 1650 were made with double keyboards
to accommodate it (see Hipkins' History of the Pianoforte, 1897).
But a positive identity of pitch cannot be claimed for any period
of time, and certainly not for the early organs; the foot-rule of
the organ-builder, which had to do with the lengths of the
pipes, and which varied in every country and province, could
easily cause a difference of a semitone. Scale and wind-pressure
are also important factors. But with all these often opposed
conditions, we find less variation than might be expected, the
main and really important divergence being due to the necessity
of transposition, which added a very high pitch to the primarily
convenient low one.

The first to attempt to define pitch would seem to have been
Arnold Schlick {Musica ausgetcutscht und ausgezogen, Heidelberg,
1 511), who gives a measure, a fine of 4! Rhenish inches, which,
he says, multiplied sixteen times, should be the lowest F of a
small organ. He gives no diameter or wind-pressure. Dr A. J.
Ellis used this indication to have an organ pipe made which
with one-sixteenth diameter and a wind-pressure of 31 in., at
one-fourth Schlick's length, gave/ 1 301-6, from which he derived
a just major third of a 1 377, which would compare very well with
an old Greek a 1 . Schlick goes on to say the organ is to be suited
to the choir and properly tuned for singing, that the singer
may not be forced to sing too high or too low and the organist
have to play chromatics, which is not handy for every one.
Further, he says pitch cannot be exactly defined, because
voices vary; he nevertheless gives the measure above men-
tioned for the low F, but if a larger organ is built to include the
still lower C, then this C must be of the same measurement, the
reason being that a greater part of church music ends in " gram-
bus," a word understood by Schlick's editor to mean the trans-
position of a fourth. The larger high-pitch organ will therefore
be at a 1 502-6. The Halberstadt organ, about which so much
has been written, was, according to Praetorius {Syntagma
musician, Wolffenbuttel, 1618), built in 1361, and repaired or
rebuilt 1495. He gives the longest pipe of this organ, B natural,
as 31 Brunswick feet, and the circumference 35 ft. He further
tells us this pitch was a tone, nearly a tone and a half, higher
than a suitable church pitch (Chorton), for which he gives a
diagram. Dr Ellis had pipes (now preserved in the Royal
Institution, London) made to reproduce both these pitches at
3j in. wind-pressure. The Halberstadt pitch was found to be
a 1 505-8; the Chorton, 424-2. Ellis used mean-tone tempera-
ment in calculating this lower pitch; but as he used just intona-
tion for the Halberstadt, it seems preferable to substitute it for
the Chorton, thus reducing it to a 1 422-8. Praetoaus's Cammer-
ton, or chamber pitch, formulated in his diagrams for voices
and instruments, is, he says, a whole tone higher; equivalent,
therefore, to a 1 475-65. ^Nearly all the German organs in his

time were tuned to this higher pitch. Ellis offered the suggestion
of a much higher pitch for this Cammerton in his lecture " On
the History of Musical Pitch," read before the Society of Arts,
London {J own. Soc. Arts, March 5, 1880), but the present writer
is unable to accept it. The lower vibration number is justified
by due consideration of the three divisions of the male voice,
bass, tenor and alto, as given by Praetorius, whose Cammerton
very closely corresponds with Bernhardt Schmidt's Durham
organ, 1663-1668, the original pitch of which has been proved by
Professor Armes to have been a 1 474-1. The Halberstadt pitch
is nearly a semitone higher, which again agrees with the state-
ment of Praetorius, and also Schlick's high C organ. Yet it
would seem there had been a still higher pitch used in the old
ecclesiastical music. Upon this interesting question Praetorius
is confused and difficult to understand, but he never wavers
about the transposition of a fourth. In one passage he distinctly
says the old organ high pitch had been a whole tone above his
Cammerton, with which we shall find his tertia minore combines
to make the required interval. The term tertia minore, or
inferiore, is used by Praetorius to describe a low pitch, often
preferred in England and the Netherlands, in Italy and in some
parts of Germany. An organist, instead of transposing a whole
tono down from the Cammerton, would for the tertia minore
have to transpose a minor third. A corroboration of this pitch
is found in A. Silbermann's great organ in Strasburg minster
(1713-1716), the pitch of which, taken in 1880 and reduced to
59 Fahr. (as are all pitches in this article), is a 1 393-2. An old
organ at Versailles (1789) was very near this example, a 1 395-8.
Sir Frederick Gore Ouseley (vide Ellis's lecture) regarded the
French ton de chapelle as being about a minor third below the
Diapason Normal, a 1 435, and said that most of the untouched
organs in the French cathedrals were at this low pitch. Stras-
burg was French territory in 17 13, but Silbermann's organ is
not quite a whole tone below. Ellis quotes an organ at Lille,
a 1 374-2, but no other instance of the very low Schlick pitch is
recorded, although trial of the French cathedral organs might
perhaps result in the finding of examples. Ellis gives Dom
Bedos (L'Art du facture d'orgues, Paris, 1766) as authority for a
mean tone a 1 376-6. To return to the tertia minore. Dr R.
Smith, of Cambridge, in 1759, had the organ of Trinity College,
built by Bernhardt Schmidt, lowered a whole tone, to reduce it
to certain Roman pitch pipes made about 1720. His deter-
minations of pitch by a weighted wire are not trustworthy;
Ellis thinks they are not safe within four or five vibrations per
second, but gives a mean pitch for this organ, when altered, of
a 1 395-2. St Michael's church at Hamburg, built as late as
1762 and unaltered in 1880, had a 17th-century pitch, a 1 407-9.
This is about a semitone below the Diapason Normal, and a
just minor third lower than the St Jacobi organ in the same
city (1688), measured by Herr Schmahl, a 1 489-2. What was
remarkable in this organ was that it had one stop which was an
equal minor third lower, a 1 41 1 -4 1 . The difference of a minor
third, or, as we shall see later, a whole tone, had replaced the
earlier fourth. Sir Frederick Gore Ouseley's comparison of the
church and chamber pitches of Orlando Gibbons (vide Ellis's
lecture) clearly shows the minor third in Great Britain in the first
half of the 17th century. But the narrowing continued. Bern-
hardt Schmidt, better known in England as Father Smith, was
invited about 1660 to build the organ for the Chapel Royal,
Whitehall; two years later he built the organ in Durham
Cathedral a 1 474-1, difference a whole tone, and practically agree-
ing with the Cammerton of Praetorius. The Hampton Court
organ of 1690 shows that Schmidt had further lowered his pitch
a semitone, to a 1 441-7. What happened at Durham was that
at some subsequent date the pipes were shifted up a semitone
to bring the organ into conformity with this lower pitch, with
which it is probable Schmidt's organs in St Paul's and the
Temple, and also Trinity College, Cambridge, agreed. This
lowering tendency towards the low church pitch, and the final
adoption of the latter as a general mean pitch throughout the
1 8th century, was no doubt influenced by the introduction of
the violin, which would not bear the high tension to which the

662

PITCH, MUSICAL

lutes and viols had been strained. Harpsichords had long been
preferred at the tertia minore. The Chorton of Praetorius,
a 1 422-8, is practically the same pitch as that of the fork the
possession of which has been attributed to Handel, a 1 422-5.
It is a very fair mean between G. Silbermann's 18th-century
Dresden pitch, a 1 415, and the organs of Renatus Harris, a 1
428-7. Stein tuned Mozart's piano to a fork a 1 421-6, and the
Broad wood pianos used at the London Philharmonic Society
in its first concerts (1813) were tuned to a fork <? 506-8, which
gives a mean tone a 1 423-7.

According to Schindler (Niederrheinische Musik-Zeitung,
1855, Nos. 8 and 9) and the report of the French Commission,
1859, the rise in pitch began at the Congress of Vienna in 1816,
the military bands being the cause. With the improvements
in wind instruments this continued, as a more brilliant effect
was gained. In 1823 Weber's Euryanthe is recorded as having
been played in Vienna at a 1 437-5, and in 1834 Kreutzer's
Nachllager at a 1 440. The measurements are doubtful, but the
upward tendency is clear. Scheibler, by his simple and accurate
tonometer, has recorded pitches in Vienna about 1834 from a 1
433-9 to 440-2. About that time, or it may be a few years
earlier, Sir George Smart established a fork for the Philharmonic
Society, a 1 433-2. Forks intended for this vibration number,
stamped "Philharmonic," were sold as late as 1846. But about
that year the performing pitch of the Society had reached
452-5. Sir Michael Costa was the conductor 1846-1854, and from
his acceptance of that high pitch the fork became known as
Costa's, and its inception was attributed to him, though on
insufficient grounds. In 1874 a further rise in the fork to a 1 454
was instigated by Sir Charles Halle. The British army is bound
by His Majesty's Rules and Regulations to play at the Philhar-
monic pitch, and a fork tuned to a 1 452-5 in 1890 is preserved
as the standard for the Military Training School at Kneller Hall.
But the Philharmonic Society adopted the Diapason Normal in
1896, and the military bands have not gone with it. In point
of fact, they are gradually going higher, and the brass bands,
which are so important in the North of England and in Wales,
are not behind them.

It was the irrepressible upward tendency that caused the
French government in 1859, acting with the advice of Halevy,
Meyerbeer, Auber, Ambroise Thomas and Rossini, to establish
by law the Diapason Normal. Other countries have gradually
followed, and, with few exceptions, the low pitch derived from
the Diapason Normal may be said to prevail throughout the
musical world. Great Britain has been the last to fall in, but
the predominance of the low pitch, introduced at Covent Garden
Opera since 1880, is assured. The proprietors of Queen's Hall,
London, did much for it when they undertook the alteration, at
great expense, of their large concert organ, which had only just
been erected. In 1896 the Philharmonic Society decided upon a
performing pitch, ostensibly at 68° Fahr., of a 1 439; and in 1899
Messrs Broadwood made a successful effort to get this vibration
number accepted by their competitors in Great Britain. The
high pitch remains only where there are large concert organs
not yet lowered, and with the military and brass bands.

The consideration of temperature as affecting the use of a
standard pitch was not attended to when the French government
issued its ordonnance. The 15 Centigrade attached to the
description of the standard fork in Paris was intended for the
definition and verification of the fork only. The alteration of
the fork due to heat is scarcely perceptible, but wind instruments,
and particularly the organ, rise almost proportionately to the
increase in temperature of the surrounding air, because sound
travels at an enhanced rate as the temperature rises. The
coefficient of this rise is equivalent to half a vibration (0-5)
per degree Fahr. per second. D. J. Blaikley (Essay on Musical
Pilch, Catalogue of the Royal Military Exhibition, Chelsea,
1 890) , and Victor Mahillon (Catalogue descriptif et analytique du
Musse, Bruxelles, troisieme volume, appendice, 1900) have
recorded their experience of wind instruments under changes
of temperature. The French Commission, in establishing the
Diapason Normal, should have chosen a temperature of 20 C.

There would then have been less disturbance owing to the breath
of the players and heat of the theatres or concert-rooms. It
would be a great advantage to get this higher grade generally
adopted. It was proposed in the Stimm-Conferenz at Vienna
in 1885, but not carried. Table III., showing orchestral pitches
obtained in 1899, for the measurements of which the writer is
responsible, prove how chimerical it is to hope for greater
accuracy than is found between 435 and 440 vibrations a second
for a 1 , inasmuch as temperature must always be reckoned with.

Table I.

149S to 1690. Pitch descending.

Halberstadt organ
Arnold Schlick, Heidelberg
St Jacobi, Hamburg . 1688
St Catharinen, Hamburg
Praetorius. Cammerlon .
Durham organ
Great Franciscan organ,

Vienna c

Hampton Court organ .

1495
15"
-1693

1543
1618
1683

1640
1690

Authority.

V.at59°F.

Ellis ....
Ellis ....
Schmahl
Degenhardt . .
Hipkins . .
Armes and Ellis

Ullmann . .
Ellis ....

a> 505-8
502-6
489-2
480-8

475-65
474-1

457-6
441-7

Table II.

151 1 to 1900. Pitch ascending.

Arnold Schlick, Heidelberg .
Strasburg Minster. A. Sil-

bermann . . . 1713-1716
Trinity College, Cambridge. 1759
Versailles organ .
Praetorius " Tertia minore '
St Michael's, Hamburg .
Pascal Taskin's tuning-fork

Paris

St Jacobi, Hamburg, " Tertia

minore " stop . . 1688
Hofcapelle, Dresden
St Sophie, Dresden, G

Silbermann
Freiberg. G. Silbermann

Seville Cathedral.

1511

1789
1618
1762

1783

-1693

1754

1722
1714

1785-1790
1715

Old English tuning-fork c

Imperial Russian Court

Church Band .... i860

Stein's tuning-fork, Vienna 1780

Handel's tuning-fork . . .1751

Praetorius. Chorton . . .1618

Peppercorn's tuning-fork

(Broadwood) .... 1813

Renatus Harris, St Andrew's,
Undershaft ..... 1696

Renatus Harris, Newcastle-
on-Tyne 1670

C.Meerens, proposed standard
derived from c 2 512, and
favoured by Boi'to and
other Italian musicians . 1876

Sir George Smart, Philhar-
monic .... 1826-1834

Scheibler No. I., Vienna
orchestra 1834

Montal's tuning-fork, Paris
opera 1829

Scheibler No. II., Paris
opera. ...... 1834

Reissiger's tuning-fork, Dres-
den 1826

Paris Diapason Normal.

Ordonnance 1859

Scheibler No. III., Paris
Conservatoire .... 1834

Paris Diapason Normal.

Standard fork .... 1859

Paris opera 1836

Scheibler, Stuttgart, proposed
standard (440 at 69 F.) . 1834

Scheibler No. IV., Vienna
opera 1834

Hullah's tuning-fork . . . 1842

Naples opera. San Carlo . 1857

Society of Arts intended for
444. (Since 1886 the
Society of Arts has advo-
cated the Diapason Normal) 1 860

Authority. V. at59°F.

Ellis ....

Stockhausen
Smith and Ellis
M'Leod and Ellis
Hipkins . .
Schmahl . .

Lissajous

Schmahl

Nake . .

Nake ...
Nake ....
Ellis ....
Ellis ....

Nake and Ellis .
Nake and Ellis.
Ellis ....
Ellis andHipkins

Ellis ....

Ellis ....

Ions and Ellis .

Meerens . .

Ellis . . .

Scheibler

CagnarddelaTour

Scheibler

Nake

Fr. Comm. . .

Scheibler

Koenig .
CagnarddelaTour

Scheibler .

Scheibler

Ellis ....

Lissajous

Ellis ....

o 1 377-0

393-2
395-2
395-8
396-4
407-9

409-0

411-4
415-0

415-5
419-5
419-6
419-9

421-2
421-6

422-5
422-8

423-5

427-7
428-7

432-0 I

433-2

433-9

434-o

434-0

435-o

435-0

435-2

435-45
437-0

440-2

440-3
441-3
444-9

445-7

PITCHBLENDE— PITCHER PLANTS

663

151 1 to 1900. Pitch ascending.

Broadwood's medium . . 1850

Paris grand opera . . . 1858

Lazaru.s's clarinet . . . . 1843

Gewandhaus, Leipzig . . . 1869

Berlin opera 1857

Milan opera, La Scala . . 1856
Philharmonic, London 1846-1854

Kneller Hall . . . . . 1890

Philharmonic, London . 1874
Streicher's tuning - fork,

Vienna 1859

Strauss's Band, Imperial

Institute, London, open

air 1897

Authority.

V.at59°F.

Ellis. . . .

Lissajous

Ellis and Hipkins

Ellis. . . .

Lissajous

Lissajous

Ellis and Hipkins

Hipkins .

Hipkins .

Ellis ....

Hipkins

445-9
448-0
448-0
448-2
448-4
450-3
452-5
452-5
454-0

456-1

457-5

Table III.

Orchestral Pitch. 1899.

Leipzig

Berlin

New York

Boston

London

St Petersburg

Meiningen (and Bayreuth)

Stuttgart

Vienna

London. Covent Garden opera
Paris

Authority.

V.at68°F.

Blilthner
Bechstein
Stein way
Chickenng
Broadwood
Becker .
Miihlfeld'sclarinet
A. Schiedmayer
Bosendorf er .
Hipkins .
Erard

a'435-o
438-0
438-6
438-8
439-o
439-4
439-5
440-0
440-0
440-0
442-4

Verified by A. J. Hipkins. But for Leipzig a comparison with
the Gewandhaus Band may be sought. (A. J. H.)

PITCHBLENDE, or Uraninite, a mineral species consisting
essentially of uranium oxide, of importance as a source of
uranium and radium. It is a very heavy (specific gravity 9-0-
97), compact mineral with a conchoidal to uneven fracture, and
a brownish to velvet-black colour and pitchy lustre. Crystals
are rare; they have the form of regular octahedra or less
often of cubes. The hardness is 55, and the streak is brown
with a greenish tinge. The mineral has been known to occur
at Joachimsthal in Bohemia since 1727, and it was early called
pitchblende, because of its appearance; but its true nature
was not recognized until 1789, when M. H. Klaproth's analysis
of it resulted in the discovery of the element uranium. Analyses
of material from different localities exhibit wide variations in
chemical composition. In addition to uranium oxides, there
are thorium, cerium (and lanthanum), yttrium and lead oxides,
each varying in amount from a trace up to 10%. Calcium, iron,
magnesium, manganese, silica, water, &c, are also present in
small amounts. The amounts of uranous and uranic oxides
(U0 2 , 21-72; U0 3 , 13-59%) also vary considerably. The
mineral is often described as a uranate of uranyl, lead, thorium
and cerium; but in the least altered material from Branch ville
in Connecticut the uranous oxide predominates, whilst in altered
specimens uranic oxide is in excess. In the closely allied
mineral, thorianite, thorium predominates (Th0 2 , 76; U0 2 ,
1 2 %) . Since the dioxides of uranium, thorium and cerium may
be obtained artificially as cubic crystals, it seems probable
that pitchblende consists of isomorphous mixtures of these
dioxides, the uranic oxide being due to oxidation.

The radio-active properties of pitchblende are of special
interest. The fact that this mineral is more strongly radio-active
than metallic uranium led to the discovery in it of the elements
radium, polonium and actinium. When pitchblende is ignited
or dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid, a gas is evolved which
consists largely of helium and argon: terrestrial helium was first
recognized in this mineral.

The mineral occurs either as a primary constituent of granitic
rocks or as one of secondary origin in metalliferous veins. Octa-
hedral crystals (" cleveite "and" broggerite ") occur in the pegmatite
veins of southern Norway, being occasionally found in the felspar
quarries at Moss, Arendal and other places. Crystals are found
under similar conditions at Middletown and Branchville in Connecti-
cut, Llano county in Texas (" nivenite "), Mitchell county in North
Carolina, Villenveuve in Quebec, and other American localities.
Thorianitej found as water-worn cubes in the gem-gravels near

Balangoda in Sabaragamuwa province, Ceylon, has also no doubt
been derived from crystalline rocks. On the other hand, the mineral
found in metalliferous veins, and to which the name pitchblende is
more properly restricted, never occurs as crystals, but as compact
masses rendered more or less impure by admixture of other minerals,
the specific gravity being sometimes as low as 6-5; thorium, cerium,
&c, are absent, and radium and helium are present in smaller
amounts. This variety occurs with ores of silver, lead, copper,
nickel, cobalt, bismuth, &c, at Johanngeorgenstadt, Marienbergand
Schneeberg in Saxony, Joachimsthal and Przibram in Bohemia,
Rezbanya in Bihar Mountains in Hungary, Gilpin county in
Colorado, St Just, in Penwith, Redruth, Grampound Road and
elsewhere in Cornwall.

Often associated with pitchblende, and resulting from its altera-
tion, is an orange-yellow, amorphous, gum-like mineral called
gummite, which is a hydrous uranic oxide with small amounts of
lead, calcium, iron, &c. (L. J. S.)

PITCHER. (1) A large vessel for holding liquids, derived
through Fr. from Med. Lat. picarium; the Lat. variant bicarium,
Gr. /3Tkos, has given the Ger Becker, Eng. beaker {q.v.). (2) One
who " pitches," i.e. throws, casts, fixes; the name of the player
in the game of base-ball who pitches or delivers the ball to the
striker.

PITCHER PLANTS, in botany, the name given to plants in
which the leaves bear pitcher-like structures or are pitcher-like
in form. The plant generally understood by this name is
Nepenthes, a genus containing nearly sixty species, natives of
tropical Asia, north Australia and (one only) of Madagascar.
North Borneo is especially rich in species. They are shrubby
plants climbing over surrounding vegetation by means of tendril-
like prolongations of the midrib of the leaf beyond the leaf-tip.

Fig. 1. — Pitcher of Nepenthes distillatoria.

A, Honey-gland from attractive C, Transverse section of the
surface of lid. same.

B, Digestive gland from interior
of pitcher, in pocket-like de-
pression of epidermis, opening
downwards.

The pitcher is a development at the end of the tendril. It is
generally tubular in form, but in some species two forms are
produced on the same plant, lower or terrestrial goblet-shaped
pitchers and upper suspended pitchers retaining the more
primitive more or less tubular form; in a few species a third
form — funnel- or cornucopia-shaped pitchers — occurs in the
upper part. In the terrestrial type a pair of well-developed
wings traverse the length of the pitcher; in the tubular or funnel-
shaped form the wings are narrow or ridge-like. The mouth of
the pitcher has a corrugated rim (peristome) formed by in-
curving of the margin, the convex surface of which is firm and
shining. It is traversed by more or less prominent parallel

66 4

PITCHER PLANTS

ridges, which are usually prolonged as teeth beyond the in-
folded margin. Above the mouth is the lid (operculum), which
varies in size from a small narrow process to a large heart-
shaped expansion. A study of the development of the pitcher,
especially in the young pitchers of seedling plants, shows that
the inflated portion is a development of the midrib of the leaf,
while the wings, which are especially well represented in the
terrestrial type of pitcher, represent the upper portion of
the leaf-blade which has become separated from the lower
portion by the tendril; the lid is regarded as representing
two leaflets which have become fused. The short straight or
curved process from the back of the pitcher behind the lid
represents the organic apex of the leaf (A in fig. i).

The size of the pitcher varies widely in the different species,
from an inch to a foot or more in depth. The colour also varies
considerably, even in different pitchers of the same individual,

Fig. 2. — Leaves of Sarracenia purpurea.

A, Attractive surface of lid; B, conducting; C, glandular; and D,

detentive surface ; magnified. A and D are taken from 5. flpva.

according to age, light exposure or soil conditions. It is uni-
formly green or more or less spotted, blotched or suffused with
red or crimson, or sometimes, as in N. sanguinea or N. Edwards-
iana, largely or wholly of a rich scarlet or crimson colour. In-
sects are attracted to the mouth of the pitcher by a series of
glands, yielding a sweet excretion, which occurs on the stem and
also on the leaf from the base of the leaf-stalk to the lid and
peristome. Embedded in the incurved margin of the rim
which affords a very insecure foothold to insects, are a number
of large glands excreting a sweet juice. The cavity of the
pitcher is in some species lined throughout with a smooth
glistening surface over which glands are uniformly distributed;
these glands secrete a liquid which is found in the pitcher even
in the young state while it is still hermetically closed by the lid.
In other species the glands are confined to the lower portion of
the cavity surface, while the upper part bear a smooth waxy
secretion on which it is impossible, or at any rate extremely
difficult, for insects to secure a foothold. This area is termed
the " conducting " area, as distinguished from the lower or
" detentive " gland-bearing area. It has been proved that
the secretion contains a digestive ferment capable of rendering
proteid matter soluble. Insects, especially running insects,
which have followed the track of honey glands upwards from
the stem along the leaf, reach the mouth of the pitcher, and in
their efforts to sip the attractive marginal glands fall over into

the liquid. The smooth walls above the liquid afford no foot-
hold, and they are drowned; their bodies are digested and the
products of digestion are ultimately absorbed by the glands in
the pitcher-wall. . Thus Nepenthes secures a supply of nitro-
genous food from the animal world in a manner somewhat
similar to that adopted by the British sundew, butterwort,
and other insectivorous plants.

The side-saddle plant, Sarracenia, native of the eastern United
States, is also known as a pitcher-plant. There are about seven
species, herbs with clusters of radical leaves some or all of which
are more or less trumpet- or pitcher-shaped. The leaf has a
broadly sheathing base succeeded by a short stalk bearing the
pitcher, which represents a much enlarged midrib with a wing-
like lamina. Above the rim of the pitcher is a broad flattened
lid, which is also a laminar development. The surface of the
leaf, especially the laminar wing, bears glands which in spring
exude large glistening drops of nectar. The lid and mouth of the
pitcher are brighter coloured than the rest of the leaf, which

•Slfe-

Fig. 3. — Cephalotus follicularis , showing ordinary leaves and pitchers,
the right hand one cut open to show internal structure.

varies from yellow-green to deep crimson in different species
and in individuals according to exposure to sunlight and other
conditions. This forms the attractive area, and the inner sur-
face of the lid also bears numerous glands, as well as downward-
pointing hairs, each with a delicately striated surface (fig. 2, A).
Below it is the conducting surface (B) of glassy epidermal cells,
with short downward-directed points, which facilitate the
descent, but impede the ascent of an insect. Then come the
glandular surface (C), which is formed of smooth polished
epidermis with numerous glands that secrete the fluid contents
of the pitcher, and finally the detentive surface (D), of which
the cells are produced into long and strong bristles which point

A

Fig. 4. — Morphology of Pitchers.

A, Ordinary leaf of Cephalotus.

B, Monstrous leaf with spoon-shaped depression.

C and D, Other abnormal forms more deeply pouched,

showing formation of pitcher.
E, Ordinary pitcher of Cephalotus.
a, Apex of leaf.

downwards and meet in the centre of the diminishing cavity so
as to render escape impossible. The secretion wets an insect
very rapidly, but, so far as is known, seems to be completely
destitute of digestive power — indeed, rather to accelerate
decomposition. The pitchers accumulate vast quantities of
insects in the course of a season, and must thus abundantly
manure the surrounding soil when they die. Moreover, the

PITCHSTONE— PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS

665

feast is largely shared by unbidden guests. Not to speak of
insects which feed upon the pitcher itself, some drop their eggs
into the putrescent mass, where their larvae find abundant
nourishment, while birds often slit open the pitchers with their
beaks and devour the maggots in their turn.

Cephalotus follicularis, a native of south-west Australia,
a small herbaceous plant, bears
ordinary leaves close to the
ground as well as pitchers.
The latter somewhat resem-
ble in general form those of
Nepenthes. The lid is especially
attractive to insects from its bright colour and honey secretion;
three wings lead up to the mouth of the pitcher, on the
inside of which a row of sharp spines points downwards,
and below this a circular ridge (r, fig. 3) armed with papillae
serves as a conducting area. A number of glands on the in-
terior of the pitcher secrete a plentiful fluid which has digestive
properties. Comparison with monstrous forms shows that the
pitcher of Cephalotus arises by a calceolate pouching from the
upper surface of the ordinary spathulate leaves, the lid here
arising from the proximal side of the pitcher-orifice.

PITCHSTONE (German Pechstein, from its resemblance to
pitch), in petrology, a glassy igneous rock having a resinous
lustre and breaking with a hollow or conchoidal fracture. It
differs from obsidian principally in its rather dull lustre, for
obsidian is bright and vitreous in appearance; all pitchstones
also contain a considerable quantity of water in combination
amounting ' to from 5 to 10% of their weight or 10 to
20 % of their volume. The majority of the rocks of this
class occur as intrusive dikes or veins; they are glassy forms
of quartz porphyry and other dike rocks. Their dull lustre
may be connected with the great abundance of minute crystal-
lites and microlites they nearly always contain. These are
visible only in microscopic sections, and their varied shapes make
pitchstones very interesting to the microscopist. Although
pitchstones are known which are of Devonian age (e.g. the
glassy dacite of the Tay Bridge in Fife, Scotland, and the
andesite-pitchstones of the Cheviot Hills), most of them are
Tertiary or recent, as like all natural glasses they tend to crys-
tallize or become devitrified in course of time. In some of the
older pitchstones the greater part of the mass is changed to
a dull felsitic substance, while only nodules or kernels of
unaltered glass remain.

Some pitchstones are very acid rocks, containing 70 to 75 % of silica,
and have close chemical affinities to granites and rhyolites. Others
contain more alkalis and less silica, being apparently vitreous types
of trachyte or keratophyre; others have the composition of dacite
and andesite, but the black basaltic glasses are not usually classified
among the pitchstones. Very weli known rocks of this group
occur at Chemnitz and Meissen in Saxony. They are brown or dark
green, very often perlitic (see Petrology, Plate I., fig. 5), and show
progressive devitrification starting from cracks and joints and spread-
ing inwards through the mass. For a long time the pitchstone dikes
of Arran in Scotland have been famous among geologists for the
great beauty and variety of skeleton crystals they contain. These
pitchstones are dull green in hand specimens. Some of them con-
tain phenocrysts of felspar, augite, &c. ; others do not, but in all there
is great abundance of branching feathery crystalline growths in the
ground mass: they resemble the branches of fir trees or the fronds
or ferns, minute crystalline rods being built together in aggregates
which often recall the frost patterns on a window-pane. It is sup-
posed that the mineral they consist of is hornblende. In addition
to these larger growths there are many small microlites scattered
through the glass, also hair-like trichites, and fine rounded globulites.
When phenocrysts are present the small crystals are planted on their
surfaces like grass growing from a turf-covered wall. These pitch-
stones are believed to proceed from the great eruptive centres which
were active in western Scotland in early Tertiary times. Another
pitchstone of the same period forms a great craggy ridge or scuir
in the island of Eigg (Scotland). At one time regarded as a lava
flow occupying an old stream channel it has recently been described
as an intrusive sheet. It is from 200 to 300 ft. thick. The rock is
a dark, nearly black, pitchstone-porphyry, with glancing idiomor-
phic crystals of felspar in a vitreous base. It contains no quartz;
the felspars are anorthoclase, and with them there are numerous
crystals of green augite. The ground mass contains small crystallites
of felspar, and is of a rich brown colour in thin section with well
developed perlitic structure (see Petrology, Plate II., fig. 1). In

chemical composition this rock resembles the trachytes rather than
the rhyolites. In Eigg and Skye there arc many dikes of pitchstone,
mostly of intermediate rather than of acid character, all connected
with the great eruptive activity which characterized that region in
early Tertiary times.

The following analyses give the chemical composition of a few-
well-known pitchstones: —

Si0 2

Al 2 O a

Fe 2 3

MgO

CaO

Na 2

K 2

H 2

I. Meissen, Saxony .
II. Corricgills, Arran
III. Scuir of Eigg, Scotland .

72-42
72-07
65-81

11-26
11-26
14-01

o-75
3-24
4-43

0-28

tr.

0-89

1-35
i-53

2-01

2-86
o-6i
4-15

3-80
5-61

6-08

7-64

5"45
2-70

The first two of these contain much water for rocks the ingredients
of which are but little decomposed. They are of acid or rhyolitic
character, while the third is richer in alkalis and contains less silica ;
it belongs more naturally to the intermediate rocks (or trachytes.)

(J- S. F.)
PITESCI (Pitesti), also written Pitesti and Pitest, the
capital of the department of Argesh, Rumania; situated among
the outlying hills of the Carpathians, on the river Argesh, which
is here joined by several smaller streams. Pop. (1900), 15,570.
The surrounding uplands produce good wine, fruit and grain,
besides being rich in petroleum and salt; and, as the main
Walachian railway is met at Pitesci by lines from Campulung
and Hermannstadt in Transylvania, the town has a consider-
able trade. It has manufactures of lacquer and varnish.

PITH (O.E. pitha, cognate with Du. pit, kernel of a nut),
properly the medulla, the central column of spongy cellular
tissue, in the stems of dicotyledonous plants (see Plants :
Anatomy). The word is thence applied to the spinal cord or
marrow in animals, to the medullary end of a hair, and to
that which forms the central part or core of any object or
substance; hence, figuratively, vigour, energy, concentrated
force. Very light hats or helmets are made of the dried pith
of the Indian spongewood or hat plant (Asschynomene aspera,
the native name being Solah). These pith hats are worn by
Europeans in India and the East. The Chinese Ricepaper-tree
(Aralia or Fatsia papyrifera) , from the pith of which the deli-
cate white film known as " rice-paper " is made, is also known
as the pith-plant.

PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS (Erect Ape-Man), the
name given by Dr Eugene Dubois, of the Dutch army medical
service, to the imaginary creature which he constructed from
fossilized remains found by him in Java. These fragments
consisted of a thigh-bone, two teeth, and the upper part of a
skull, and were unearthed in 1891-1892 on the left bank of the
Bengawan River near Trinil. The skull appears to have been
low and depressed with strong supraciliary ridges; the teeth
are very large, and the femur is quite human. The teeth and
skull were found together, the femur a few yards away a year
afterwards. The discoverer, however, stated it as his belief
that the fragments were portions of the same skeleton and
belonged to a creature half-way between man and the higher
apes and of the Pleistocene age. Much discussion followed the
" find," and many authorities have given an opinion adverse to
Dr Dubois's theory. The prevailing opinion is that the bones
are human. They are not held to represent what has been
called " the missing link," bridging over the gulf between man
and the apes; but almost all authorities are agreed that they
constitute a further link in the chain, bringing man nearer
his Simian prototype. L. Manouvrier concludes that Homo
javanensis walked erect, was of about medium height, and was
a true precursor, possibly a direct ancestor, of man. He calls
attention to the fact that the cranial capacity decreases in
proportion to the antiquity of the human skulls found, and
that the pithecanthropus skull has a capacity of from 900 to
1000 cc. — that is, " stands at the level of the smallest which have
been occasionally found amongst the reputedly lowest savage
peoples."

See Dubois, Pithecanthropus erectus (Batavia, 1894) ; a later paper
read by Dr Dubois before the Berlin Anthropological Society was
translated in the Smithsonian Report for 1898. Also a paper read
by Dr D. J. Cunningham before the Royal Dublin Society, January
23. 1895 (reported in Nature, February 28, 1895); O. C. Marsh,

666

PITHIVIERS— PITMAN

American Journ. of Science (June 1896); " Le Pithecanthropus et
l'origine de l'homme," in Bull, de la soc. d'anthrop. de Paris (1896),
pp. 460-67; L. Manouvrier, " Discussion du pithecanthropus erectus
comme precurseur de l'homme," in Bull. soc. d'anthrop. de Paris
(1895), pp. 13-47 an d 216-220: L. Manouvrier, Bull. soc. d'anthrop.
(1896), p. 419 sqq. ; " The Trinil Femur contrasted with the Femora
of various savage and civilized races," in Journal of Anat. and
Physiol. (1896), xxxi. 1 seq. ; Virchow, " Tiber den Pithecanthropus
erectus Dubois " in Zeitschri.fi f. Ethnologic (1895), pp. 336, 435, 648.

PITHIVIERS, a town of north central France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Loiret, 28 m. N.N.E. of
Orleans, on the railway to Malesherbes. Pop. (1906), 5676.
The church of St Solomon, chiefly in the Renaissance style,
and remains of the ancient ramparts are of interest. Statues
have been erected of the mathematician Denis Poisson (d.
1840), and of the physician and agriculturist Duhamel de Mon-
ceau (d. 1782), natives of Pithiviers. The town is an agri-
cultural market, and an important centre for the saffron of the
region of Gatinaris the cultivation of which, originally intro-
duced by the Jews of Avignon in the 12th century was fostered
by Louis XIV. The shrine of St Solomon in the 9th century
and that of St Gregory, an Armenian bishop, in the 10th,
formed the nuclei of the town; and the donjon built at the end
of the 10th century for Heloise, lady of Pithiviers, was one of
the finest of the period.

PITHOM, one of the " treasure cities " stated to have been
built for Pharaoh by the Hebrews in Goshen during the Oppres-
sion (Exod. i. 11). We have here the Hebraized form of the
Egyptian Petom " House of (the sun-god) Etom," in Greek,
Patumos, capital of the 8th nome of Lower Egypt and situated
in the Wadi Tumilat on the canal from the Nile to the Red Sea.
Succoth (Egyptian Thuket) was identical with it or was in its
immediate neighbourhood. The site, now Tell el Maskhuta,
has yielded several important monuments, including the best
preserved of the trilingual stelae of Darius which commemorated
his work on the canal. The earliest name yet found is that of
Rameses II. of the XIX th Dynasty, but in one case he has
usurped earlier work, apparently of the XHth Dynasty (a
sphinx), and the city was evidently very ancient. Several of
the monuments from Pithom have been removed to Ismailia
on the Suez Canal.

See Ed. Naville, The Store City of Pithom and the route of the
Exodus (London, 1885); W. M. F. Petrie, Tanis, pt. i. (London,
1885); W. Golenischeff, "Stele de Darius" in Recueil de travaux
relatifs a la philologie et I'archeologie egyptiennes et assyriennes, xiii.
99, and the article Rameses. (F. Ll. G.)

PITHOU, PIERRE (1539-1596), French lawyer and scholar,
was born at Troyes on the 1st of November 1539. His taste for
literature was early seen, and his father Pierre (1496-1556)
cultivated it to the utmost. He was called to the Paris
bar in 1560. On the outbreak of the second war of religion
in 1567, Pithou, who was a Calvinist, withdrew to Sedan
and afterwards to Basel, whence be returned to France
on the publication of the edict of pacification. Soon after-
wards he accompanied the due de Montmorency on his
embassy to England, returning shortly before the massacre of
St Bartholomew, in which he narrowly escaped with his life.
Next year he followed the example of Henry of Navarre by
abjuring the Protestant faith. Henry, shortly after his own
accession to the throne of France, recognized Pithou's talents
and services by bestowing upen him various legal appointments.
The most important work of his life was his co-operation in the
production of the Satire Menippie (1593), which did so much
to damage the cause of the League; the harangue of the Sieur
d'Aubray is usually attributed to his pen. He died at Nogent-
sur-Seine on the 1st of November 1596. His valuable library,
specially rich in MSS., was for the most part transferred to
what is now the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris.

Pithou wrote a great number of legal and historical books, besides
preparing editions of several ancient authors. His earliest publica-
tion was Adversariorum subsecivorum lib. II. (1565). Perhaps his
edition of the Leges Visigothorum (1579) was his most valuable con-
tribution to historical science ; in the same line he edited the Capitula
of Charlemagne, Louis the Pious, and Charles the Bald in 1588, and
he also assisted his brother Francois in preparing an edition of the

Corpus juris canonici (1687). His Liberies de I'eglise gallicane
(1594) is reprinted in his Opera sacra juridica his orica miscellanea
collecta (1609). In classical literature he was the first who made the
world acquainted with the Fables of Phaedrus (1596) ; he also edited
the Pervigilium Veneris (1587), and Juvenal and Persius (1585).

Three of Pithou's brothers acquired distinction as jurists: Jean
(1524-1602), author of Traite de police et du gouvernement des repub-
liques, and, in collaboration with his twin brother Nicolas (1524-
!598), of Institution du mariage chretien; and Francois (1543-1621),
author of Glossarium ad libros capitularium (1588), Traite de I'ex-
communication et de I'interdit, &c. (1587).

PITIGLIANO, a town in Italy, province of Grosseto. Pop.
(1901), 4416. It is the cathedral city of the bishopric named
after the neighbouring town of Sovana, and possesses a 16th-
century cathedral and a church of tbe nth-i5th centuries,
Pitiglia.no was originally a fief of the countship of Sovana,
which in 1293 came by marriage into the possession of the
Orsini. In 1410 Sovana was taken by the Siennese, but by the
terms of a peace concluded in 141 7 the Orsini retained Pitigliano,
Gentile Orsini (assassinated 1434) assuming the title of count of
Pitigliano. The most famous of the line of counts was Niccolo
III. (1442-1510), a celebrated condottiere. Under his successors
Pitigliano became the scene of ceaseless family feuds culmin-
ating in assassinations. In 1562 the Medici of Florence seized
part of their territories, and acquired the rest by exchange in
1 580. The Orsini stronghold still stands in the town.

PITLOCHRY, a village of Perthshire, Scotland, 28^ m. N.W.
of Perth by the Highland railway. Pop. (1901), 1541. It lies
on the left bank of the Tummel, a little below the confluence
of that river and the Garry, 350 ft. above the sea. It is a
favourite health resort and tourist centre. Among the im-
mediate attractions are the pass of Killiecrankie, the falls of
Tummel, the exquisite prospect called " Queen's View " (named
after Queen Victoria) and Loch Tummel, 8 m. to the west.
One m. S.E. of the village is the Black Spout, a waterfall of
80 ft. formed by the Edradour.

PITMAN, SIR ISAAC (1813-1897), English phonographer,
was born at Trowbridge, Wiltshire, on the 4th of January 1813,
and was educated at the local grammar school. He started in
life as a clerk in a cloth factory, but in 1831 he was sent to the
Normal College of the British and Foreign School Society in
London. Between 1832 and 1839 he held masterships at
Barton-on-Humber and Wotton-under-Edge, but he was dis-
missed by the authorities when he became a Swedenborgian,
and from 1839 to 1843 he conducted a private school of his own
at Bath. In 1829 he took up Samuel Taylor's system of short-
hand, and from that time he became an enthusiast in developing
the art of phonography. In 1837 he drew up a manual of
Taylor's system and offered it to Samuel Bagster (1771-1852).
The publisher did not accept the work, but suggested that
Pitman should invent a new system (see Shorthand) of his
own. The result was his Stenographic Soundhand (1837).
Bagster's friendship and active help had been secured by Pit-
man's undertaking to verify the half-million references in the
Comprehensive Bible, and he published the inventor's books
at a cheap rate, thus helping to bring the system within the
reach of all. Pitman devoted himself to perfecting phono-
graphy and propagating its use, and established at Bath a
Phonetic Institute and a Phonetic Journal for this purpose;
he printed in shorthand a number of standard works, and his
book with the title Phonography (1840) went through many
editions. He was an enthusiastic spelling reformer, and adopted
a phonetic system which he tried to bring into general use.
Pitman was twice married, his first wife dying in 1857, and his
second, whom he married in 1861, surviving him. In 1894 he
was knighted, and on the 22nd of January 1897 he died at Bath.
Sir Isaac Pitman popularized shorthand at a time when the
advance of the newspaper press and modern business methods
were making it a matter of great commercial importance. His
system adapted itself readily to the needs of journalism, and
its use revolutionized the work of reporting. He was a non-
smoker, a vegetarian, and advocated temperance principles.

His Life was written by Alfred Baker (19.-.8) and (1902) by his
brother, Benn Pitman (1822-791 1).

PITONI-

-PITT, WILLIAM

667

P1T0NI, GIUSEPPE OTTAVIO (1657-1743), Italian musical
composer, was born at Rieti on the 18th of March 1657. He
came to Rome as a boy and sang in the choir of SS Apostoli.
Foggia gave him instructions in counterpoint, and he became
maestro di Cappella, first at Terra di Rotondo and later (1673)
at Assisi. In 1676 he went to Rieti, and in 1677 to Rome,
where he held various appointments, dying on the 1st of Feb-
ruary 1743 as maestro di Cappella at St Marco, where he was
buried. Pitoni appears to have devoted himself exclusively
to church music, and although he did not disdain the modern
style with instrumental accompaniment, he is best known by
his Masses and other works in the manner of Palestrina.

Several volumes of his autograph composition are in the Santini
Library at Miinster.

PITT, THOMAS (1653-1726), British East India merchant and
politician, usually called " Diamond Pitt," was born at Bland-
ford, Dorset, on the 5th of July 1653. In early life he went
to India, and from his headquarters at Balasore he made trading
journeys into Persia and soon became prominent among those
who were carrying on business in opposition to the East India
Company. Twice he was arrested by order of the company,
the second time being when he reached London in 1683, but
after litigation had detained him for some years in England he
returned to India and to his former career. Unable to check
him the East India Company took him into its service in 1695,
and in 1697 he became president of Fort St George, or Madras.
Pitt was now very zealous in defending the interests of his em-
ployers against the new East India Company, and in protecting
their settlements from the attacks of the natives; in directing
the commercial undertakings of the company he also appears
to have been very successful. Soon, however, he had a serious
quarrel with William Fraser, a member of his council, and con-
sequently he was relieved of his office in 1709, although he was
afterwards consulted by the company on matters of impor-
tance. During his residence in India Pitt bought for about
£20,000 the fine diamond which was named after him; in 171 7
he sold this to the regent of France, Philip duke of Orleans,
for £80,000 or, according to another account, for £135,000.
It is now the property of the French government. During
his former stay in England Pitt had bought a good deal of
property, including the manor of Old Sarum, and for a short
time he had represented this borough in parliament. After his
final return from India in 17 10 he added to his properties and
again became member of parliament for Old Sarum. He died at
Swallowfield near Reading on the 28th of April 1726. His
eldest son, Robert, was the father of William Pitt, earl of
Chatham {q.v.) ; and of Thomas Pitt (d.1761), whose son became
the first Lord Camelford; his second son, Thomas Pitt (c. 1688-
1729), having married Frances (d. 1772), daughter of Robert
Ridgeway, 4th earl of Londonderry (d. 17 14), was himself
created earl of Londonderry in 1726.

PITT, WILLIAM (1750-1806), English statesman, the
second son of William Pitt, earl of Chatham, and of Lady
Hester Grenville, daughter of Hester, Countess Temple,
was born at Hayes, near Bromley, Kent, on the 28th of
May 1759. The child inherited a name which, at the time
of his birth, was the most illustrious in the civilized world,
and was pronounced by every Englishman with pride, and
by every enemy of England with mingled admiration and
terror. During the first year of his life every month had
its illuminations and bonfires, and every wind brought some
messenger charged with joyful, tidings and hostile standards.
In Westphalia the English infantry won a great battle which
arrested the armies of Louis XV. in the midst of a career of
conquest; Boscawen defeated one French fleet on the coast of
Portugal; Hawke put to flight another in the Bay of Biscay;
Johnson took Niagara; Amherst took Ticonderoga; Wolfe died
by the most enviable of deaths under the walls of Quebec;
Clive destroyed a Dutch armament in the Hugli, and established
the English supremacy in Bengal; Coote routed Lally at Wande-
wash, and established the English supremacy in the Carnatic.
The nation, while loudly applauding the successful warriors,

considered them all, on sea and on land, in Europe, in America,
and in Asia, merely as instruments which received their direc-
tion from one superior mind. It was the great William Pitt
who had vanquished the French marshals in Germany and
French admirals on the Atlantic — who had conquered for his
country one great empire on the frozen shores of Ontario
and another under the tropical sun near the mouths of the
Ganges. It was not in the nature of things that popularity
such as he at this time enjoyed should be permanent. That
popularity had lost its gloss before his children were old enough
to understand that the earl of Chatham was a great man. The
energy and decision which had eminently fitted him for the
direction of war were not needed in time of peace. The lofty
and spirit-stirring eloquence which had made him supreme in
the House of Commons often fell dead on the House of Lords.
Chatham was only the ruin of Pitt, but an awful and majestic
ruin, not to be contemplated by any man of sense and feeling
without emotions resembling those which are excited by the
remains of the Parthenon and of the Colosseum. In one re-
spect the old statesman was eminently happy. Whatever
might be the vicissitudes of his public life, he never failed
to find peace and love by his own hearth. He loved all his
children, and was loved by them; and of all his children the
one of whom he was fondest and proudest was his second son.

The child's genius and ambition displayed themselves with a
rare and almost unnatural precocity. At seven the interest
which he took in grave subjects, the ardour with _. ,.,
which he pursued his studies, and the sense and
vivacity of his remarks on books and on events amazed
his parents and instructors. One of his sayings of this
date was reported to his mother by his tutor. In August
1766, when the world was agitated by the news that
Mr Pitt had become earl of Chatham, little William ex-
claimed, " I am glad that I am not the eldest son. I want
to speak in the House of Commons like papa." At fourteen
the lad was in intellect a man. Hayley, who met him
at Lyme in the summer of 1773, was astonished, delighted,
and somewhat overawed, by hearing wit and wisdom from so
young a mouth. The boy himself had already written a tragedy,
bad, of course, but not worse than the tragedies of his friend.
This piece (still preserved) is in some respects highly curious.
There is no love. The whole plot is political ; and it is remark-
able that the interest, such as it is, turns on a contest about a
regency. On one side is a faithful servant of the Crown, on
the other an ambitious and unprincipled conspirator. At
length the king, who had been missing, reappears, resumes his
power, and rewards the fathful defender of his rights. A reader
who should judge only by internal evidence would have no
hesitation in pronouncing that the play was written by some
Pittite poetaster at the time of the rejoicings for the recovery
of George III, in 1789.

The pleasure with which William's parents observed the
rapid development of his intellectual powers was alloyed by
apprehensions about his health. He shot up alarmingly fast;
he was often ill, and always weak; and it was feared that it
would be impossible to rear a stripling so tall, so slender, and
so feeble. Port wine was prescribed by his medical advisers;
and it is said that he was, at fourteen, accustomed to
take this agreeable physic in quantities which would, in our
more abstemious age, be thought much more than sufficient
for any full-grown man. It was probably on account of the
delicacy of his frame that he was not educated like other boys
of the same rank. Almost all the eminent English statesmen
and orators to whom he was afterwards opposed or allied —
North, Fox, Shelburne, Windham, Grey, Wellesley, Grenville,
Sheridan, Canning — went through the training of great public
schools. Lord Chatham had himself been a distinguished
Etonian; and it is seldom that a distinguished Etonian forgets
his obligations to Eton. But William's infirmities required
a vigilance and tenderness such as could be found only at hon?"
He was therefore bred under the paternal roof. His studies
were superintended by a clergyman named Wilson; and those

668

PITT, WILLIAM

studies, though often interrupted by illness, were prosecuted
with extraordinary success. He was sent, towards the close
of the year 1773, to Pembroke Hall, in the university of Cam-
bridge. The governor to whom the direction of William's
academical life was confided was a bachelor of arts named
Pretyman, 1 who had been senior wrangler in the preceding
year, and, who though not a man of prepossessing appearance
or brilliant parts, was eminently acute and laborious, a sound
scholar, and an excellent geometrician. A close and lasting
friendship sprang up between the pair. The disciple was able,
before he completed his twenty-eighth year, to make his pre-
ceptor bishop of Lincoln and dean of St Paul's; and the preceptor
showed his gratitude by writing a life of the disciple, which
enjoys the distinction of being the worst biographical work of
its size in the world. Pitt, till he graduated, had scarcely one
acquaintance, attended chapel regularly morning and evening,
dined every day in hall, and never went to a single evening
party. At seventeen he was admitted, after the fashion of those
times, by right of birth, without any examination, to the degree
of master of arts. But he continued during some years to
reside at college, and to apply himself vigorously, under
Pretyman's direction, to the studies of the place, while mixing
freely in the best academic society.

The stock of learning which Pitt laid in during this part of
his life was certainly very extraordinary. The work in which
he took the greatest delight was Newton's Principia. His
liking for mathematics, indeed, amounted to a passion, which,
in the opinion of his instructors, themselves distinguished mathe-
maticians, required to be checked rather than encouraged.
Nor was the youth's proficiency in classical learning less remark-
able. In one respect, indeed, he appeared to disadvantage
when compared with eveu second-rate and third-rate men from
public schools. He had never, while under Wilson's care, been
in the habit of composing in the ancient languages; and he
therefore never acquired the knack of versification. It would
have been utterly out of his power to produce such charming
elegiac lines as those in which Wellesley bade farewell to Eton,
cr such Yirgilian hexameters as those in which Canning described
the pilgrimage to Mecca. But it may be doubted whether any
scholar has ever, at twenty, had a more solid and profound
knowledge of the two great tongues of the old civilized world.
He had set his heart on being intimately acquainted with all the
extant poetry of Greece, and was not satisfied till he had
mastered Lycophron's Cassandra.

To modern literature Pitt paid comparatively little attention.
He knew no living language except French; and French he
knew very imperfectly. With a few of the best English writers
he was intimate, particularly with Shakespeare and Milton.
The debate in Pandemonium was, as it well deserved to be, one
of his favourite passages; and his early friends used to talk, long
after his death, of the just emphasis and the melodious cadence
with which they had heard him recite the incomparable speech
of Belial. He had indeed been carefully trained from infancy in
the art of managing his voice, a voice naturally clear and deep-
toned. At a later period the wits of Brookes's, irritated by
observing, night after night, how powerfully Pitt's sonorous
elocution fascinated the rows of country gentlemen, reproached
him with having been " taught by his dad on a stool ".

His education, indeed, was well adapted to form a great
parliamentary speaker. The classical studies of Pitt had the
effect of enriching his English vocabulary, and of making him
wonderfully expert in the art of constructing correct English
sentences. His practice was to look over a page or two of a
Greek or Latin author, to make himself master of the meaning,
and then to read the passage straight forward into his own
language. This practice, begun under his first teacher Wilson,

t 1 George Pretyman (1750-1827) was senior wrangler in 1772. In
1803, on falling heir to a large estate, he assumed the name of Tom-
line. From Lincoln, to which see he had been elevated in 1787,
he was translated to Winchester in 1820. Tomline, to whom
Pitt when dying had bequeathed his papers, published his Memoirs
of the Life of William Pitt (down to the close of 1792) in 1821 (3 vols.
8vo).]

was continued under Pretyman. Of all the remains of antiquity,
the orations were those on which he bestowed the most minute
examination. His favourite employment was to compare
harangues on opposite sides of the same question, to analyse
them, and to observe which of the arguments of the first speaker
were refuted by the second, which were evaded, and which were
left untouched. Nor was it only in books that he at this time
studied the art of parliamentary fencing. When he was at
home he had frequent opportunities of hearing important
debates at Westminster; and he heard them, not only with
interest and enjoyment, but with close scientific attention.
On one of these occasions Pitt, a youth whose abilities were
as yet known only to his own family and to a small knot of
college friends, was introduced on the steps of the throne in the
House of Lords to Fox, his senior by eleven years, who was
already the greatest debater, and one of the greatest orators, that
had appeared in England. Fox used afterwards to relate that,
as the discussion proceeded, Pitt repeatedly turned to him, and
said, " But surely, Mr Fox, that might be met thus," or " Yes;
but he lays himself open to this retort." What the particular
criticisms were Fox had forgotten; but he said that he was much
struck at the time by the precocity of a lad who, through the
whole sitting, seemed to be thinking only how all the speeches on
both sides could be answered.

He had not quite completed his nineteenth year when, on
the 7th of April 1778, he attended his father to Westminster.
A great debate was expected. It was known that France had
recognized the independence of the United States. The duke
of Richmond was about to declare his opinion that all thought
of subjugating those states ought to be relinquished. Chatham
had always maintained that the resistance of the colonies to the
mother country was justifiable. But he conceived, very errone-
ously, that on the day on which their independence should be
acknowledged the greatness of England would be at an end.
Though sinking under the weight of years and infirmities, he
determined, in spite of thb entreaties of his family, to be in his
place. His son supported him to a seat. The excitement
and exertion were too much for the old man. In the very act
of addressing the peers, he fell back in convulsions. A few
weeks later his corpse was borne, with gloomy pomp, from the
Painted Chamber to the Abbey. The favourite child and name-
sake of the deceased statesman followed the coffin as chief
mourner, and saw it deposited in the transept where his own
was destined to lie. His elder brother, now earl of Chatham,
had means sufficient, and barely sufficient, to support the
dignity of the peerage. The other members of the family were
poorly provided for. William had little more than £300 a year.
It was necessary for him to follow a profession. He had
already begun to " eat his terms." In the spring of 1780 he came
of age. He then quitted Cambridge, was called to the bar,
took chambers in Lincoln's Inn, and joined the western circuit.
In the autumn of that year a general election took place;
and he offered himself as a candidate for the university; but he
was at the bottom of the poll. He was, however, at the request of
an hereditary friend, the duke of Rutland, brought into parliament
by Sir James Lowther for the borough of Appleby.

The dangers of the country were at that time such as might
well have disturbed even a constant mind. Army after army
had been sent in vain against the rebellious colonists
of North America. Meanwhile the house of Bourbon, i"g 3me " '
humbled to the dust a few years before by the genius
and vigour of Chatham, had seized the opportunity of revenge.
France and Spain had united against England, and had recently
been joined by Holland. The command of the Mediterranean
had been for a time lost. The British flag had been scarcely
able to maintain itself in the British Channel. The northern
powers professed neutrality; but their neutrality had a menacing
aspect. In the East, Hyder Ali had descended on the Carnatic,
had destroyed the little army of Baillie, and had spread terror
even to the ramparts of Fort St George. The discontents of
Ireland threatened nothing less than civil war. In England
the authority of Lord North's government had sunk to the

PITT, WILLIAM

669

lowest point. The king and the House of Commons were
alike unpopular. The cry for parliamentary reform was scarcely
less loud and vehement than afterwards in 1830.

The Opposition consisted of two parties which had once been
hostile to each other, but at this conjuncture seemed to act
together with cordiality. The larger of these parties consisted
of the great body of the Whig aristocracy, headed by Charles,
marquess of Rockingham. In the House of Commons the adhe-
rents of Rockingham were led by Fox, whose dissipated habits
and ruined fortunes were the talk of the whole town, but whose
commanding genius, and whose sweet, generous and affectionate
disposition, extorted the admiration and love of those who
most lamented the errors of his private life. Burke, superior
to Fox in largeness of comprehension, in extent of knowledge,
and in splendour of imagination, but less skilled in that kind of
logic and in that kind of rhetoric which convince and persuade
great assemblies, was willing to be the lieutenant of a young chief
who might have been his son. A smaller section of the Opposi-
tion was composed of the old followers of Chatham. At their
head was William, earl of Shelburne, distinguished both as a
statesman and as a lover of science and letters. With him were
leagued Lord Camden, who had formerly held the Great Seal, and
whose integrity, ability and constitutional knowledge com-
manded the public respect; Barre, an eloquent and acrimonious
declaimer; and Dunning, who had long held, the first place at
the English bar. It was to this party that Pitt was naturally
attracted.

On the 26th of February 1781 he made his first speech in
favour of Burke's plan of economical reform. Fox stood up
at the same moment, but instantly gave way. The lofty yet
animated deportment of the young member, his perfect self-
possession, the readiness with which he replied to the orators
who had preceded him, the silver tones of his voice, the perfect
structure of his unpremeditated sentences, astonished and
delighted his hearers. Burke, moved even to tears, exclaimed,
" It is not a chip of the old block; it is the old block itself."
" Pitt will be one of the first men in parliament," said a member
of the Opposition to Fox. " He is so already," answered Fox,
in whose nature envy had no place. Soon after this debate
Pitt's name was put up by Fox at Brookes's Club. On two
subsequent occasions during that session Pitt addressed the
house, and on both fully sustained the reputation which he
had acquired on his first appearance. In the summer, after the
prorogation, he again went the western circuit, held several
briefs, and acquitted himself in such a manner that he was highly
complimented by Buller from the bench, and by Dunning at
the bar.

On the 27th of November the parliament reassembled. Only
forty-eight hours before had arrived tidings of the surrender of
Cornwallis and his army. In the debate on the report of the
address Pitt spoke with even more energy and brilliancy than
on any former occasion. He was warmly applauded by his allies;
but it was remarked that no person on his own side of the
house was so loud in eulogy as Henry Dundas, the lord advocate
of Scotland, who spoke from the ministerial ranks. From that
night dates his connexion with Pitt, a connexion which soon
became a close intimacy, and which lasted till it was dissolved
by death. About a fortnight later Pitt spoke in the committee
of supply on the army estimates. Symptoms of dissension had
begun to appear on the treasury bench. Lord George Germaine,
the secretary of state who was especially charged with the direc-
tion of the war in America, had held language not easily to be
reconciled with declarations made by the first lord of the treasury.
Pitt noticed the discrepancy with much force and keenness.
Lord George and Lord North began to whisper together; and
Welbore Ellis, an ancient placeman who had been drawing
salary almost every quarter since the days of Henry Pelham,
bent down between them to put in a word. Such interruptions
sometimes discompose veteran speakers. Pitt stopped, and,
looking at the group, said with admirable readiness, " I shall
wait till Nestor has composed the dispute between Agamemnon
and Achilles." After several defeats, or victories hardly to be

distinguished from defeats, the ministry resigned. The king,
reluctantly and ungraciously, consented to accept Rockingham
as first minister. Fox and Shelburne became secretaries of
state. Lord John Cavendish, cne of the most upright and
honourable of men, was made chancellor of the exchequer.
Thurlow, 'whose abilities and force of character had made him
the dictator of the House of Lords, continued to hold the Great
Seal. To Pitt was offered, through Shelburne, the vice-treasurer-
ship of Ireland, one of the easiest and most highly paid places
in the gift of the Crown; but the offer was without hesitation
declined. The young statesman had resolved to accept no post
which did not entitle him to a seat in the cabinet; and a few
days later (March 1782) he announced that resolution in the
House of Commons.

Pitt gave a general support to the administration of Rocking-
ham, but omitted, in the meantime, no opportunity of courting
that ultra-Whig party which the persecution of Wilkes and the
Middlesex election had called into existence, and which the
disastrous events of the war, and the triumph of republican
principles in America, had made formidable both in numbers
and in temper. He supported a motion for shortening the
duration of parliaments. He made a motion for a committee
to examine into the state of the representation, and, in the speech
(May 7, 1782) by which that motion was introduced, avowed
himself the enemy of the close boroughs, the strongholds of
that corruption to which he attributed all the calamities of
the nation, and which, as he phrased it in one of those exact and
sonorous sentences of which he had a boundless command, had
grown with the growth of England and strengthened with her
strength, but had not diminished with her diminution or decayed
with her decay. On this occasion he was supported by Fox.
The motion was lost by only twenty votes in a house of more
than three hundred members. The Reformers never again had
so good a divison till the year 1831.

The new administration was strong in abilities, and was more
popular than any administration which had held office since
the first year of George III., but was hated by the
king, hesitatingly supported by the parliament, l782 \

and torn by internal dissensions. It was all that
Rockingham could do to keep the peace in his cabinet; and
before the cabinet had existed three months Rockingham
died. In an instant all was confusion. The adherents of
the deceased statesman looked on the duke of Portland as
their chief. The king placed Shelburne at the head of the
treasury. Fox,' Lord John Cavendish, and Burke immediately
resigned their offices; and the new prime minister was left to
constitute a government out of very defective materials. It
was necessary to find some member of the House of Com-
mons who could confront the great orators of the Opposition;
and Pitt alone had the eloquence and the courage which were
required. He was offered the great place of chancellor of the
exchequer and he accepted it (July 1782). He had scarcely
completed his twenty-third year.

The parliament was speedily prorogued. During the recess
a negotiation for peace which had been commenced under
Rockingham was brought to a successful termination. England
acknowledged the independence of her revolted colonies; and
she ceded to her European enemies some places in the Mediter-
ranean and in the Gulf of Mexico. But the terms which she
obtained were quite as advantageous and honourable as the
events of the war entitled her to expect, or as she was likely
to obtain by persevering in a contest against immense odds.
There is not the slightest reason to believe that Fox, if he had
remained in office, would have hesitated one moment about
concluding a treaty on such conditions. Unhappily Fox was,
at this crisis, hurried by his passions into an error which made
his genius and his virtues, during a long course of years, almost
useless to his country. He saw that the great body of the House
of Commons was divided into three parties — his own, that of
North, and that of Shelburne; that none of those three parties
was large enough to stand alone; that, therefore, unless two of
them united there must be a miserably feeble administration,

670

PITT, WILLIAM

or, more probably, a rapid succession of miserably feeble
administrations, and this at a time when a strong government
was essential to the prosperity and respectability of the nation.
It was then necessary and right that there should be a coalition.
To every possible coalition there were objections. But of all
possible coalitions that to which there were the fewest objections
was undoubtedly a coalition between Shelburne and Fox. It
would have been generally applauded by the followers of both.
It might have been made without any sacrifice of public principle
on the part of either. Unhappily, recent bickerings had left
in the mind of Fox a profound dislike and distrust of Shelburne.
Pitt attempted to mediate, and was authorized to invite Fox
to return to the service of the Crown. " Is Lord Shelburne,"
said Fox, " to remain prime minister ? " Pitt answered in
the affirmative. " It is impossible that I can act under him,"
said Fox. " Then negotiation is at an end," said Pitt; " for
I cannot betray him." Thus the two statesmen parted. They
were never again in a private room together. As Fox and his
friends would not treat with Shelburne, nothing remained to
them but to treat with North. That fatal coalition which is
emphatically called " The Coalition" was formed. Not three-
quarters of a year had elapsed since Fox and Burke had threat-
ened North with impeachment, and had described him night
after night as the most arbitrary, the most corrupt, and the most
incapable of ministers. They now allied themselves with him
for the purpose of driving from office a statesman with whom
they cannot be said to have differed as to any important question.
Nor had they even the prudence and the patience to wait for
some occasion on which they might, without inconsistency,
have combined with their old enemies in opposition to the
government. That nothing might be wanting to the scandal,
the great orators who had, during seven years, thundered against
the war determined to join with the authors of that war in
passing a vote of censure on the peace.

The parliament met before Christmas 1782. But it was not
till January 1783 that the preliminary treaties were signed.
On the 17 th of February they were taken into consideration by
the House of Commons. There had been, during some days,
floating rumours that Fox and North had coalesced; and the
debate indicated but too clearly that those rumours were not
unfounded. Pitt was suffering from indisposition — he did not
rise till his own strength and that of his hearers were exhausted;
and he was consequently less successful than on any former
occasion. His admirers owned that his speech was feeble and
petulant. He so far forgot himself as to advise Sheridan to
confine himself to amusing theatrical audiences. This ignoble
sarcasm gave Sheridan an opportunity of retorting with great
felicity. " After what I have seen and heard to-night," he
said, " I really feel strongly tempted to venture on a competition
with so great an artist as Ben Jonson, and to bring on the stage
a second Angry Boy. " On a division, the address proposed
by the supporters of the government was rejected by a majority
of sixteen. But Pitt was not a man to be disheartened by a
single failure, or to be put down by the most lively repartee.
When, a few days later, the Opposition proposed a resolution
directly censuring the treaties, he spoke with an eloquence,
energy and dignity which raised his fame and popularity higher
than ever. To the coalition of Fox and North he alluded in
language which drew forth tumultuous applause from his
followers. " If," he said, " this ill-omened and unnatural
marriage be not yet consummated, I know of a just and lawful
impediment; -and, in the name of the public weal, I forbid the
banns." The ministers were again left in a minority, and
Shelburne consequently tendered his resignation (March 31,
1783). It was accepted; but the king struggled long and hard
before he submitted to the terms dictated by Fox, whose faults
he detested, and whose high spirit and powerful intellect he
detested still more. The first place at the board of treasury
was repeatedly offered to Pitt; but the offer, though tempting,
was steadfastly declined. The king, bitterly complaining of
Pitt's faintheartedness, tried to break the coalition. Every
art of seduction was Dractised on North, but in vain. During

several weeks the country remained without a government.
It was not till all devices had failed, and till the aspect of the
House of Commons became threatening, that the king gave
way. Tl 3 duke of Portland was declared first lord of the
treasury. Thurlow was dismissed. Fox and North became
secretaries of state, with power ostensibly equal. But Fox
was the real prime minister. The year was far advanced before
the new arrangements were completed; and nothing very
important was done during the remainder of the session. Pitt,
now seated on the Opposition Bench, brought the question of
parliamentary reform a second time (May 7, 1783) under the
consideration of the Commons. He proposed to add to the
house at once a hundred county members and several members
for metropolitan districts, and to enact that every borough of
which an election committee should report that the majority
of voters appeared to be corrupt should lose the franchise. The
motion was rejected by 293 votes to 149.

After the prorogation Pitt visited the Continent for the first
and last time. His travelling companion was one of his most
intimate, friends, William Wilberforce. That was the time of
Anglomania in France; and at Paris the son of the great Chatham
was absolutely hunted by men of letters and women of fashion,
and forced, much against his will, into political disputation.
One remarkable saying which dropped from him during this
tour has been preserved. A French gentleman expressed some
surprise at the immense influence which Fox, a man of pleasure,
ruined by the dice-box and the turf, exercised over the English
nation. " You have not," said Pitt, " been under the wand of
the magician."

In November 1783 the parliament met again. The govern-
ment had irresistible strength in the House of Commons, and
seemed to be scarcely less strong in the House of Lords, but
was, in truth, surrounded on every side by dangers. The king
was impatiently waiting for the moment at which he could
emancipate himself from a yoke which galled him so severely
that he had more than once seriously thought of retiring to
Hanover; and the king was scarcely more eager for a change
than the nation. Fox and North had committed a fatal error.
They ought to have known that coalitions between parties
which have long been hostile can succeed only when the wish
for coalition pervades the lower ranks of both. At the beginning
of 1783 North had been the recognized head of the old Tory
party, which, though for a moment prostrated by the disastrous
issue of the American war, was still a great power in the state.
Fox had, on the other hand, been the idol of the Whigs, and of
the whole body of Protestant dissenters. The coalition at once
alienated the most zealous Tories from North and the most
zealous Whigs from Fox. Two great multitudes were at once
left without any head, and both at once turned their eyes on Pitt.
One party saw in him the only man who could rescue the king;
the other saw in him the only man who could purify the parlia-
ment. He was supported on one side by Archbishop Markham,
the preacher of divine right, and by Jenkinson, the captain of
the praetorian band of the king's friends; on the other side by
Jebb and Priestley, Sawbridge and Cartwright, Jack Wilkes and
Home Tooke. On the benches of the House of Commons,
however, the ranks of the ministerial majority were unbroken;
and that any statesman would venture to brave such a majority
was thought impossible. No prince of the Hanoverian line
had ever, under any provocation, ventured to appeal from the
representative body to the constituent body. The ministers,
therefore, notwithstanding the sullen looks and muttered words
of displeasure with which their suggestions were received in
the closet, notwithstanding the roar of obloquy which was
rising louder and louder every day from every corner of the island,
thought themselves secure. Such was their confidence in their
strength that, as soon as the parliament had met, they brought
forward a singularly bold and original plan for the government
of the British territories in India. What was proposed in Fox's
India bill was that the whole authority which till that time had
been exercised oyer those territories by the East India Company
should be transferred to seven commissioners, who were to be

PITT, WILLIAM

671

named by parliament, and were not to be removable at the
pleasure of the Crown. Earl Fitzwilliam, the most intimate
personal friend of Fox, was to be chairman of this board, and the
eldest son of North was to be one of the members.

As soon as the outlines of the scheme were known all the
hatred which the coalition had excited burst forth with an
astounding explosion. Burke, who, whether right
Bill. or wron g m the conclusions to which he came, had

at least the merit of looking at the subject in the
right point of view, vainly reminded his hearers of that
mighty population whose daily rice might depend on a
vote of the British parliament. He spoke with even more
than his wonted power of thought and language, about the
desolation of Rohilcund, about the spoliation of Benares, about
the evil policy which had suffered the tanks of the Carnatic to go
to ruin ; but he could scarcely obtain a hearing. The contending
parties, to their shame it must be said, would listen to none but
English topics. Out of doors the cry against the ministry was
almost universal. Town and country were united. Corpora-
tions exclaimed against the violation of the charter of the
greatest corporation in the realm. Tories and democrats
joined in pronouncing the proposed board an unconstitutional
body. It was to consist of Fox's nominees. The effect of his
bill was to give, not to the Crown, but to him personally, whether
in office or in opposition, an enormous power, a patronage
sufficient to counterbalance the patronage of the treasury and
of the admiralty, and to decide the elections for fifty boroughs.
He knew, it was said, that he was hateful alike to king and
people; and he had devised a plan which would make him
independent of both. Some nicknamed him Cromwell, and
some Carlo Khan. Wilberforce, with his usual felicity of
expression, and with very unusual bitterness of feeling, described
the scheme as the genuine offspring of the coalition, as marked
with the features of both its parents, the corruption of one and
the violence of the other. In spite of all opposition, however,
the bill was supported in every stage by great majorities, was
rapidly passed, and was sent up to the Lords. To the general
astonishment, when the second reading was moved in the
upper house, the Opposition proposed an adjournment, and
carried it by eighty-seven votes to seventy-nine. The cause of
this strange turn of fortune was soon known. Pitt's cousin
Earl Temple, had been in the royal closet, and had there been
authorized to let it be known that his majesty would consider
all who voted for the bill as his enemies. The ignominious
commission was performed, and instantly a troop of lords of
the bedchamber, of bishops who wished to be translated, and
Prime of Scotch peers who wished to be re-elected, made
Minister haste to change sides. On a later day the Lords
rejected the bill. Fox and North were immediately
directed to send their seals to the palace by their under-secre-
taries; and Pitt was appointed first lord of the treasury and
chancellor of the exchequer (December 1783).

The general opinion was that there would be an immediate
dissolution. But Pitt wisely determined to give the public
feeling time to gather strength. On this point he differed from
bis kinsman Temple. The consequence was that Temple, who
had been appointed one of the secretaries of state, resigned his
office forty-eight hours after he had accepted it, and thus relieved
'he new government from a great load of unpopularity; for all
men of sense and honour, however strong might be their dislike
of the India Bill, disapproved of the manner in which that bill
had been thrown out. The fame of the young prime minister
preserved its whiteness. He could declare with perfect truth
that, if unconstitutional machinations had been employed, he
had been no party to them.

He was, however, surrounded by difficulties and dangers.
In the House of Lords, indeed, he had a majority; nor could any
orator of the Opposition in that assembly be considered as a
match for Thurlow,who was now again chancellor, or for Camden,
who cordially supported the son of his old friend Chatham.
But in the other house there was not a single eminent speaker
among the official men who sat round Pitt. His most useful

assistant was Dundas, who, though he had not eloquence, had
sense, knowledge, readiness and boldness. On the opposite
benches was a powerful majority, led by Fox, who was supported
by Burke, North and Sheridan. The heart of the young minis-
ter, stout as it was, almost died within him. But, whatever
his internal emotions might be, his language and deportment
indicated nothing but unconquerable firmness and haughty
confidence in his own powers. His contest against the House
of Commons lasted from the 17th of December 1783 to the 8th
of March 1784. In sixteen divisions the Opposition triumphed.
Again and again the king was requested to dismiss his ministers ;
but he was determined to go to Germany rather than yield.
Pitt's resolution never wavered. The cry of the nation in his
favour became vehement and almost furious. Addresses
assuring him of public support came up daily from every part of
the kingdom. The freedom of the city of London was presented
to him in a gold box. He was sumptuously feasted in Grocers'
Hall; and the shopkeepers of the Strand and Fleet Street
illuminated their houses in his honour. These things could not
but produce an effect within the walls of parliament. The
ranks of the majority began to waver; a few passed over to the
enemy; some skulked away; many were for • capitulating while
it was still possible to capitulate with the honours of war.
Negotiations were opened with the view of forming an adminis-
tration on a wide basis, but they had scarcely been opened when
they were closed. The Opposition demanded, as a preliminary
article of the treaty, that Pitt should resign the treasury; and
with this demand Pitt steadfastly refused to comply. While
the contest was raging, the clerkship of the Pells, a sinecure place
for life, worth three thousand a year, and tenable with a seat
in the House of Commons, became vacant. The appointment
was with the chancellor of the exchequer; nobody doubted that
he would appoint himself, and nobody could have blamed him
if he had done so; for such sinecure offices had always been
defended on the ground that they enabled a few men of eminent
abilities and small incomes to live without any profession, and
to devote themselves to the service of the state. Pitt, in spite
of the remonstrances of his friends, gave the Pells to his father's
old adherent, Colonel Barre, a man distinguished by talent and
eloquence, but poor and afflicted with blindness. By this
arrangement a pension which the Rockingham administration
had granted to Barre was saved to the public. Pitt had his
reward. No minister was ever more rancorously libelled; but
even when he was known to be overwhelmed with debt, when
millions were passing through his hands, when the wealthiest
magnates of the realm were soliciting him for marquisates and
garters, his bitterest enemies did not dare to accuse him of
touching unlawful gain.

At length the hard-fought fight ended. A final remon-
strance, drawn up by Burke with admirable skill, was carried
on the 8th of March by a single vote in a full house. The
supplies had been voted; the Mutiny Bill had been passed;
and the parliament was dissolved. The popular constituent
bodies all over the country were in general enthusiastic on the
side of the new government. A hundred and sixty of the
supporters of the coalition lost their seats. The first lord of the
treasury himself came in at the head of the poll for the university
of Cambridge. Wilberforce was elected knight of the great
shire of York, in opposition to the whole influence of the Fitz-
williams, Cavendishes, Dundases and Saviles. In the midst
of such triumphs Pitt completed his twenty-fifth year. He
was now the greatest subject that England had seen during
many generations. He domineered absolutely over the cabinet,
and was the favourite at once of the sovereign, of the parliament
and of the nation. His father had never been so powerful, nor
Walpole, nor Marlborough.

Pitt's first administration (1784-1801) lasted seventeen years.
That long period is divided by a strongly marked line into
two almost exactly equal parts. The first part put's First
ended and the second began in the autumn of 1792. Adminis-
Throughout both parts Pitt displayed in the highest trat ' on -
degree the talents of a parliamentary leader. During the first

672

PITT, WILLIAM

part he was fortunate and in many respects a skilful adminis-
trator. With the difficulties which he had to encounter during
the second part he was altogether incapable of contending;
but his eloquence and his perfect mastery of the tactics of the
House of Commons concealed his incapacity from the multitude.
The eight years which followed the general election of 1784
were as tranquil and prosperous as any eight years in the whole
history of England. Her trade increased. Her manufactures
flourished. Her exchequer was full to overflowing. Very idle
apprehensions were generally entertained that the public debt,
though much less than a third of the debt which we now bear
with ease, would be found too heavy for the strength of the
nation. But Pitt succeeded in persuading first himself and then
the whole nation, his opponents included, that a new sinking
fund, which, so far as it differed from former sinking funds,
differed for the worse, would, by virtue of some mysterious
power of propagation belonging to money, put into the pocket
of the public creditor great sums not taken out of the pocket
of the tax-payer. The minister was almost universally extolled
as the greatest of financiers. Meanwhile both the branches
of the house of Bourbon found that England was as formidable
an antagonist as she had ever been. France had formed a plan
for reducing Holland to vassalage. But England interposed,
and France receded. Spain interrupted by violence the trade
of the English merchants with the regions near the Oregon.
But England armed, and Spain receded. Within the island
there was profound tranquillity. The king was, for the first
time, popular. From the day on which Pitt was placed at the
head of affairs there was an end of secret influence. Any
attempt to undermine him at court, any mutinous movement
among his followers in the House of Commons, was certain to
be at once put down. He had only to tender his resignation
and he could dictate his own terms. For he, and he alone,
stood between the king and the coalition. The nation loudly
applauded the king for having the wisdom to repose entire
confidence in so excellent a minister. His people heartily
prayed that he might long reign over them; and they prayed
the more heartily because his virtues were set off to the best
advantage by the vices and follies of the prince of Wales, who
lived in close intimacy with the chiefs of the Opposition.

How strong this feeling was in the public mind appeared
signally on one great occasion. In the autumn of 1788 the king
The became insane. The Opposition, eager for office,

Regency, committed the great indiscretion of asserting that
1788. the heir apparent had, by the fundamental laws of

England, a right to be regent with the full powers of royalty.
Pitt, on the other hand, maintained it to be the constitutional
doctrine that when a sovereign is, by reason of infancy, disease
or absence, incapable of exercising the regal funcions, it belongs
to the estates of the realm to determine who shall be the vice-
gerent, and with what portion of the executive authority such
vicegerent shall be entrusted. A long and violent contest
followed, in which Pitt was supported by the great body of the
people with as much enthusiasm as during the first months
of his administration. Tories with one voice applauded him
for defending the sick-bed of a virtuous and unhappy sovereign
against a disloyal faction and an undutiful son. Not a few
Whigs applauded him for asserting the authority of parliaments
and the principles of the Revolution, in opposition to a doctrine
which seemed to have too much affinity with the servile theory
of indefeasible hereditary right. The middle class, always
zealous on the side of decency and the domestic virtues, looked
forward with dismay to a reign resembling that of Charles II.
That the prince of Wales must be regent nobody ventured to
deny. But he and his friends were so unpopular that Pitt could,
with general approbation, propose to limit the powers of the
regent by restrictions to which it would have been impossible
to subject a prince beloved and trusted by the country. Some
interested men, fully expecting a change of administration,
went over to the Opposition. But the majority, purified by
these desertions, closed its ranks, and presented a more firm
array than ever to the enemy. In every division Pitt was

victorious. When at length, after a stormy interregnum of
three months, it was announced, on the very eve of the inaugura-
tion of the regent, that the king was himself again, the nation
was wild with delight. Pitt with difficulty escaped from the
tumultuous kindness of an innumerable multitude which insisted
on drawing his coach from St Paul's Churchyard to Downing
Street. This was the moment at which his fame and fortune
may be said to have reached the zenith. His influence in the
closet was as great as that of Carr or Villiers had been. His
dominion over the parliament was more absolute than that of
Walpole or Pelham had been. He was at the same time as
high in the favour of the populace as ever Wilkes or Sacheverell
had been. But now the tide was on the turn. Only ten days
after the triumphant procession to St Paul's, the states-
general of France, after an interval of a hundred and seventy-
four years, met at Versailles.

The nature of the great Revolution which followed was long
very imperfectly understood in England. Burke saw much
further than any of his contemporaries; but what-
ever his sagacity descried was refracted and dis- «„„„/„«„„
coloured by his passions and his imagination. More
than three years elapsed before the principles of the English
administration underwent any material change. Nothing
could as yet be milder or more strictly constitutional than the
minister's domestic policy. Not a single act indicating an
arbitrary temper or a jealousy of the people could be imputed to
him. In office, Pitt had redeemed the pledges which he had,
at his entrance into public life, given to the supporters of parlia-
mentary reform. He had, in 1785, brought forward a judicious
plan for the representative system, and had prevailed on the
king, not only to refrain from talking against that plan, but to
recommend it to the houses in a speech from the throne. 1 This
attempt failed; but there can be little doubt that, if the French
Revolution had not produced a violent reaction of public feeling,
Pitt would have performed, with little difficulty and no danger,
that great work which, at a later period, Lord Grey could accom-
plish only by means which for a time loosened the very founda-
tions of the commonwealth. When the atrocities of the slave
trade were first brought under the consideration of parliament
no abolitionist was more zealous than Pitt. A humane bill,
which mitigated the horrors of the middle passage, was, in 1788,
carried by the eloquence and determined spirit of Pitt, in spite
of the opposition of some of his own colleagues. In 1791 he
cordially concurred with Fox in maintaining the sound constitu-
tional doctrine that an impeachment is not terminated by a
dissolution. In the course of the same year the two great
rivals contended side by side in a far more important cause.
They are fairly entitled to divide the high honour of having
added to the statute-book the inestimable law which places
the liberty of the press under the protection of juries. On one
occasion, and one alone, Pitt, during the first half of his long
administration, acted in a manner unworthy of an enlightened
Whig. In the debate on the Test Act he stooped to gratify
the master whom he served, the university which he represented,
and the great body of clergymen and country gentlemen on
whose support he rested, by talking, with little heartiness
indeed, and with no asperity, the language of a Tory. With
this single exception, his conduct from the end of 1783 to the
middle of 1792 was that of an honest friend of civil and religious
liberty.

Nor did anything, during that period, indicate that he loved
war, or harboured any malevolent feeling against any neighbour-
ing nation. Those French writers who have represented him
as a Hannibal sworn in childhood by his father to bear eternal
hatred to France, as having, by mysterious intrigues and lavish
bribes, instigated the leading Jacobins to commit those excesses
which dishonoured the Revolution, as having been the real

1 The speech with which the king opened the session of 1785
concluded with an assurance that his majesty would heartily con-
cur in every measure which could tend to secure the true principles
of the constitution. These words were at the time understood to
refer to Pitt's Reform Bill.

PITT, WILLIAM

6 73

author of the first coalition, know nothing of his character or
of his history. So far was he from being a deadly enemy to France
that his laudable attempts to bring about a closer connexion
with that country by means of a wise and liberal treaty of
commerce brought on him the severe censure of the Opposition.
He was told in the House of Commons that he was a degenerate
son, and that his partiality for the hereditary foes of our island
was enough to make his great father's bones stir under the
pavement of the Abbey.

And this man, whose name, if he had been so fortunate as to
die in 1792, would have been associated with peace, with free-
dom, with philanthropy, with temperate reform, with mild and
constitutional administration, lived to associate his name with
arbitrary government, with harsh laws harshly executed, with
alien bills, with gagging bills, with suspensions of the Habeas
Corpus Act, with cruel punishments inflicted on some political
agitators, with unjustifiable prosecutions instigated against
others and with the most costly and most sanguinary wars of
modern times. He lived to be held up to obloquy as the stern
oppressor of England and the indefatigable disturber of Europe.
Poets, contrasting his earlier with his later years, likened him
sometimes to the apostle who kissed in order to betray, and
sometimes to the evil angels who kept not their first estate.
By the French press and the French tribune every crime that
disgraced and every calamity that afflicted France was ascribed
to the monster Pitt and his guineas. While the Jacobins were
dominant it was he who had corrupted the Gironde, who had
raised Lyons and Bordeaux against the Convention, who had
suborned Paris to assassinate Lepelletier, and Cecilia Regnault
to assassinate Robespierre. When the Thermidorian reaction
came, all the atrocities of the Reign of Terror were imputed to
him. Collot D'Herbois and Fouquier Tinville had been his
pensioners. It was he who had hired the murderers of September,
who had dictated the pamphlets of Marat and the carmagnoles
of Barere, who had paid Lebon to deluge Arras with blood and
Carrier to choke the Loire with corpses. The truth is that he
liked neither war nor arbitrary government. He was a lover
of peace and freedom, driven, by a stress against which it was
hardly possible for any will or any intellect to struggle, out of
the course to which his inclinations pointed, and for which his
abilities and acquirements fitted him, and forced into a policy
repugnant to his feelings and unsuited to his talents.

Between the spring of 1789 and the close of 1792'the public
mind of England underwent a great change. If the change of
Pitt's sentiments attracted peculiar notice, it was not because
he changed more than his neighbours, for in fact he changed
less than most of them, but because his position was far more
conspicuous than theirs, because he was, till Bonaparte appeared,
the individual who filled the greatest space in the eyes of the
inhabitants of the civilized world. During a short time the
nation, and Pitt as one of the nation, looked with interest and
approbation on the French Revolution. But soon vast confisca-
tions, the violent sweeping away of ancient institutions, the
domination of clubs, the barbarities of mobs maddened by
famine and hatred, produced a reaction. The court, the nobility,
the gentry, the clergy, the manufacturers, the merchants, in
short nineteen-twentieths of those who had good roofs over their
heads and good coats on their backs, became eager intolerant
Antijacobins. This feeling was at least as strong among the
minister's adversaries as among his supporters. Fox in vain
attempted to restrain his followers. All his genius, all his vast
personal influence, could not prevent them from rising up against
him in general mutiny. Burke set the example of revolt;
and Burke was in no long time joined by Portland, Spencer,
Fitzwilliam, Loughborough, Carlisle, Malmesbury, Windham,
Elliot. In the House of Commons the followers of the great
Whig statesman and orator diminished from about a hundred
and sixty to fifty. In the House of Lords he had but ten or
twelve adherents left. There can be no doubt that there would
have been a similar mutiny on the ministerial benches if Pitt
had obstinately resisted the general wish. Pressed at once by
his master and by his colleagues, by old friends and by old
xxi. 22

opponents, he abandoned, slowly and reluctantly, the policy
which was dear to his heart. He laboured hard to avert the
European war. When the European war broke out he still
flattered himself that it would not be necessary for this country
to take either side. In the spring of 1792 he congratulated
the parliament on the prospect of long and profound peace, and
proved his sincerity by proposing large remissions of taxation.
Down to the end of that year he continued to cherish the hope
that England might be able to preserve neutrality. But the
passions which raged on both sides of the Channel were not to
be restrained. The republicans who ruled France were inflamed
by a fanaticism resembling that of the Mussulmans, who, with
the Koran in one hand and the sword in the other, went forth
conquering and converting, eastward to the Bay of Bengal, and
westward to the Pillars of Hercules. The higher and middle
classes of England were animated by zeal not less fiery than that
of the crusaders who raised the cry of Deus vult at Clermont.
The impulse which drove the two nations to a collision was not
to be arrested by the abilities or by the authority of any single
man. As Pitt was in front of his fellows, and towered high
above them, he seemed to lead them. But in fact he was
violently pushed on by them, and, had he held back but a
little more than he did, would have been thrust out of their
way or trampled under their feet.

He yielded to the current; and from that day his misfortunes
began. The truth is that there were only two consistent courses
before him. Since he did not choose to oppose

Pitt*s IVaf

himself, side by side with Fox, to the public feeling, p u cy ,
he should have taken the advice of Burke, and should
have availed himself of that feeling to the full extent. If it
was impossible to preserve peace, he should have adopted the
only policy which should lead to victory. He should have
proclaimed a holy war for religion, morality, property, order,
public law, and should have thus opposed to the Jacobins an
energy equal to their own. Unhappily he tried to find a middle
path; and he found one which united all that was worst in both
extremes. He went to war; but he could not understand the
peculiar character of that war. He was obstinately blind to the
plain fact that he was contending against a state which was also
a sect, and that a new quarrel between England and France
was of quite a different kind from the old quarrels about colonies
in America and fortresses in the Netherlands. It was pitiable
to hear him, year after year, proving to an admiring audience
that the wicked republic was exhausted, that she could not hold
out, that her credit was gone, that her assignats were not worth
more than the paper of which they were made — as if credit was
necessary to a government of which the principle was rapine,
as if Alboin could not turn Italy into a desert till he had
negotiated a loan at 5%, as if the exchequer bills of Attila
had, been at par. It was impossible that a man who so com-
pletely mistook the nature of a contest could carry on that
contest successfully. Great as Pitt's abilities were, his military
administration was that of a driveller. In such an emergency,
and with such means, such a statesman as Richelieu, as Louvois,
as Chatham, as Wellesley, would have created in a few months
one of the finest armies in the world, and would soon have
discovered and brought forward generals worthy to command
such an army. Germany might have been saved by another
Blenheim; Flanders recovered by another Ramillies; another
Poitiers might have delivered the Royalist and Catholic pro-
vinces of France from a yoke which they abhorred, and might
have spread terror even to the barriers of Paris. But the fact
is that, after eight years of war, after a vast destruction of life,
after an expenditure of wealth far exceeding the expenditure
of the American War, of the Seven Years' War, of the War of
the Austrian Succession and of the War of the Spanish Succes-
sion united, the English army under Pitt was the laughing-stock
of all Europe. It could not boast of one single brilliant exploit.
It had never shown itself on the Continent but to be beaten,
chased, forced to re-embark or forced to capitulate. To take
some sugar island in the West Indies, to scatter some irob of
half-naked Irish peasants — such were the most splendid victories

11

674

PITT, WILLIAM

won by the British troops under Pitt's auspices. The English
navy no mismanagement could ruin. But during a long period
whatever mismanagement could do was done. The earl of
Chatham, without a single qualification for high public trust,
was made, by fraternal partiality, first lord of the admiralty,
and was kept in that great post during two years of a war in
which the very existence of the state depended on the efficiency
of the fleet. Fortunately he was succeeded by George, Earl
Spencer, one of those chiefs of the Whig party who, in the great
schism caused by the French Revolution, had followed Burke.
Lord Spencer, though inferior to many of his colleagues as an
orator, was decidedly the best administrator among them.
To him it was owing that a long and gloomy succession of
days of fasting, and most emphatically of humiliation, was inter-
rupted, twice in the short space of eleven months, by days of
thanksgiving for great victories.

It may seem paradoxical to say that the incapacity which Pitt
showed in all that related to the conduct of the war is, in some
sense, the most decisive proof that he was a man of very extra-
ordinary abilities. Yet this is the simple truth. While his
schemes were confounded, while his predictions were falsified,
while the coalitions which he had laboured to form were falling
to pieces, while the expeditions which he had sent forth at
enormous cost were ending in rout and disgrace, while the enemy
against whom he was feebly contending was subjugating
Flanders and Brabant, the electorate of Mainz and the
electorate of Treves, Holland, Piedmont, Liguria, Lombardy,
his authority over the House of Commons was constantly
becoming more and more absolute. There was his empire.
There were his victories — his Lodi and his Areola, his Rivoli
and his Marengo. Of the great party which had contended
against him during the first eight years of his administration
more than one-half now marched under his standard, with his
old competitor the duke of Portland at their head; and the
rest had, after many vain struggles, quitted the field in despair.
Session followed session with scarcely a single division. In the
eventful year 1 799 the largest minority that could be mustered
against the government was twenty-five.

In Pitt's domestic policy there was at this time assuredly no
want of vigour. While he offered to French Jacobinism a
resistance so feeble that it only encouraged the
Policy. ev '' wn ' c h he wished to suppress, he put down English
Jacobinism with a strong hand. The Habeas
Corpus Act was repeatedly suspended. Public meetings were
placed under severe restraints. The government obtained
from parliament power to send out of the country aliens who
were suspected of evil designs; and that power was not suffered
to be idle. Writers who propounded doctrines adverse to
monarchy and aristocracy were proscribed and punished with-
out mercy. The old laws of Scotland against sedition, laws
which were considered by Englishmen as barbarous, and which
a succession of governments had suffered to rust, were now
furbished up and sharpened anew. Men of cultivated minds
and polished manners were, for offences which at Westminster
would have been treated as mere misdemeanours, sent to herd
with felons at Botany Bay. Some reformers, whose opinions
were extravagant, and whose language was intemperate, but
who had never dreamed of subverting the government by
physical force, were indicted for high treason, and were saved
from the gallows only by the righteous verdicts of juries.

One part only of Pitt's conduct during the last eight years of
the 1 8th century deserves high praise. He was the first English
minister who formed great designs for the benefit of
Ireland. Had he been able to do all that he wished,
it is probable that a wise and liberal policy would
have averted the rebellion of 1798. But the difficulties which
he encountered were great, perhaps insurmountable; and the
Roman Catholics were, rather by his misfortune than by his
fault, thrown into the hands of Jacobins. There was a third
great rising of the Irishry against the Englishry, a rising not less
formidable than the risings of 1641 and 1689. The Englishry
remained victorious; and it was necessary for Pitt, as it had been

Irish
Policy.

necessary for Oliver Cromwell and William of Orange before him,
to consider how the victory should be used. He determined to
make Ireland one kingdom with England, and, at the same time,
to relieve the Roman Catholic laity from civil disabilities, and
to grant a public maintenance to the Roman Catholic clergy.
Had he been able to carry these noble designs into effect the
union would have been a union indeed. But Pitt could execute
only one-half of what he had projected. He succeeded in obtain-
ing the consent of the parliaments of both kingdoms to the
union; but that reconciliation of races and sects without which
the union could exist only in name was not accomplished.
The king imagined that his coronation oath bound him to
refuse his assent to any bill for relieving Roman Catholics from
civil disabilities. Dundas tried to explain the matter, but was
told to keep his Scotch metaphysics to himself. Pitt and Pitt's
ablest colleagues resigned their offices (March 14, 1801).

It was necessary that the king should make a new arrangement.
But by this time his anger and distress had brought back the
malady which had, many years before, incapacitated him for
the discharge of his functions. He actually assembled his
family, read the coronation oath to them, and told them that,
if he broke it, the crown would immediately pass to the house
of Savoy. It was not until after an interregnum of several
weeks that he regained the full use of his small faculties, and that
a ministry after his own heart was at length formed. In an
age pre-eminently fruitful of parliamentary talents, a cabinet
was formed containing hardly a single man who in parliamentary
talents could be considered as even of the second rate. Henry
Addington was at the head of the treasury. He had been an
early, indeed an hereditary friend of Pitt, and had Addingtoa
by Pitt's influence been placed, while still a young Ministry,
man, in the chair of the House of Commons. He l80, - ,80 ' i -
was universally admitted to have been the best Speaker
that had sat in that chair since the retirement of Onslow.
But nature had not bestowed on him very vigorous faculties;
and the highly respectable situation which he long occupied
with honour had rather unfitted than fitted him for the dis-
charge of his new duties. Nevertheless, during many months,
his power seemed to stand firm. The nation was put into
high good humour by a peace with France. The enthusiasm
with which the upper and middle classes had rushed into the
war had spent itself. Jacobinism was no longer formidable.
Everywhere there was a strong reaction against what was
called the atheistical and anarchical philosophy of the 18th
century. Bonaparte, now first consul, was busied in construct-
ing out of the ruins of old institutions a new ecclesiastical
establishment and a new order of knighthood. The treaty of
Amiens was therefore hailed by the great body of the English
people with extravagant joy. The popularity of the minister
was for the moment immense. His want of parliamentary
ability was, as yet, of little consequence; for he had scarcely
any adversary to encounter. The old Opposition, delighted by
the peace, regarded him with favour. A new Opposition had
indeed been formed by some of the late ministers, and was
led by Grenville in the House of Lords and by Windham in the
House of Commons. But the new Opposition could scarcely
muster ten votes, and was regarded with no favour by the
country.

On Pitt the ministers relied as on their firmest support.
He had not, like some of his colleagues, retired in anger. He
had expressed the greatest respect for the conscientious scruple
which had taken possession of the royal mind; and he had
promised his successors all the help in his power. But it was
hardly possible that this union should be durable. Pitt,
conscious of superior powers, imagined that the place which he
had quitted was now occupied by a mere puppet which he had
set up, which he was to govern while he suffered it to remain,
and which he was to fling aside as soon as he wished to resume
his old position. Nor was it long before he began to pine for
the power which he had relinquished. Addington, on the
other hand, was by no means inclined to descend from his high
position. He took his elevation quite seriously, attributed it

PITT, WILLIAM

675

to his own merit, and considered himself as one of the great
triumvirate of English statesmen, as worthy to make a third
with Pitt and Fox. Meanwhile Pitt's most intimate friends
exerted themselves to effect a change of ministry. His favourite
disciple, George Canning, was indefatigable. He spoke; he
wrote; be intrigued; he tried to induce a large number of the
supporters of the government to sign a round robin desiring a
change; he made game of Addington and of Addington's rela-
tions in a succession of lively pasquinades. The minister's
partisans retorted with equal acrimony, if not with equal vivacity.
Pitt could keep out of the affray only by keeping out of politics
altogether; and this it soon became impossible for him to do.
The treaty of Amiens had scarcely been sigred when the restless
ambition and the insupportable insolence of the First Consul
convinced the great body of the English people that the peace
so eagerly welcomed was only a precarious armistice. As it
became clearer and clearer that a war for the dignity, the inde-
pendence, the very existence of the nation was at hand, men
looked with increasing uneasiness on the weak and languid
cabinet which would have to contend against an enemy who
united more than the power of Louis the Great to more than
the genius of Frederick the Great. They imagined that Pitt was
the only statesman who could cope with Bonaparte. This
feeling was nowhere stronger than among Addington's own
colleagues. The pressure put on him was so strong that he
could not help yielding to it. His first proposition was that
some insignificant nobleman should be first lord of the treasury
and nominal head of the administration, and that the real power
should be divided between Pitt and himself, who were to be
secretaries of state. Pitt, as might have been expected, refused
even to discuss such a scheme, and talked of it with bitter mirth.
" Which secretaryship was offered to you?" his friend Wilber-
force asked. " Really," said Pitt, " I had not the curiosity
to inquire." Addington was frightened into bidding higher.
He offered to resign the treasury to Pitt on condition that there
should be no extensive change in the government. But Pitt
would listen to no such terms. Then came a dispute such as
often arises after negotiations orally conducted, even when the
negotiators are men of strict honour. Pitt gave one account
of what had passed; Addington gave another; and, though
the discrepancies were not such as necessarily implied any
intentional violation of truth on either side, both were greatly
exasperated.

Meanwhile the quarrel with the First Consul had to come to
a crisis. On the 16th of May 1803 the king sent a message
calling on the House of Commons to support him in withstanding
the ambitious and encroaching policy of France; and on the
22nd the house took the message into consideration.

Pitt had now been living many months in retirement. There
had been a general election since he had spoken in parliament,
and there were two hundred members who had never heard him.
It was known that on this occasion he would be in his place, and
curiosity was wound up to the highest point. Unfortunately,
the shorthand writers were, in consequence of some mistake,
shut out on that day from the gallery, so that the newspapers
contained only a very meagre report of the proceedings. But
several accounts of what passed are extant; and of those accounts
the most interesting is contained in an unpublished letter
written by a very young member, John William Ward, after-
wards earl of Dudley. When Pitt rose he was received with
loud cheering. At every pause in his speech there was a burst
of applause. The peroration is said to have been one of the
most animated and magnificent ever heard in parliament.
'• Pitt's speech," Fox wrote a few days later, " was admired
very much, and very justly. I think it was the best he
ever made in that style." The debate was adjourned; and
on the second night Fox replied to it in an oration which,
as the most zealous Pittites were forced to acknowledge,
left the palm of eloquence doubtful. Addington made a
pitiable appearance between the two great rivals; and it
was observed that Pitt, while exhorting the Commons to stand
resolutely by the executive government against France, said

not a word indicating esteem or friendship for the prime
minister.

War was speedily declared. The First Consul threatened to
invade England at the head of the conquerors of Belgium and
Italy, and formed a great camp near the Straits of Dover. On
the other side of those straits the whole British population
was ready to rise up as one man in defence of the soil. In the
spring of 1804 it became evident that the weakest of ministries
would have to defend itself against the strongest of Oppositions,
an Opposition made up of three Oppositions, each of which would,
separately, have been formidable from ability, and which,
when united, were also formidable from number. It was
necessary to give way; the ministry was dissolved, and the
task of performing a government was entrusted (May 1804)
to Pitt. Pitt was of opinion that there was now an opportunity,
such as had never before offered itself, and such as might never
offer itself again, of uniting in the public service, on honourable
terms, all the eminent talents of the kingdom. pltt .
The treasury he reserved for himself; and to Fox Second
he proposed to assign a share of power little inferior Administra-
te his own. The plan was excellent; but the king tlon '
would not hear of it. Dull, obstinate, unforgiving, and at that
time half mad, he positively refused to admit Fox into his
service. In an evil hour Pitt yielded. All that was left was
to construct a government out of the wreck of Addington's
feeble administration. The small circle of Pitt's personal
retainers furnished him with a very few useful assistants,
particularly Dundas (who had been created Viscount Melville),
Lord Harrowby and Canning.

Such was the inauspicious manner in which Pitt entered on
his second administration (May 12, 1804). The whole history
of that administration was of a piece with the commencement.
Almost every month brought some new disaster or disgrace.
To the war with France was soon added a war with Spain.
The opponents of the ministry were numerous, able and active.
His most useful coadjutors he soon lost. Sickness deprived
him of the help of Lord Harrowby. It was discovered that
Lord Melville had been guilty of highly culpable laxity in trans-
actions relating to public money. He was censured by the
House of Commons, driven from office, ejected from the privy
council and impeached of high crimes and misdemeanours.
The blow fell heavy on Pitt. His difficulties compelled him
to resort to various expedients. At one time Addington was
persuaded to accept office with a peerage; but he brought no
additional strength to the government. While he remained
in place he was jealous and punctilious; and he soon retired
again. At another time Pitt renewed his efforts to overcome
his master's aversion to Fox; and it was rumoured that the
king's obstinacy was gradually giving way. But, meanwhile,
it was impossible for the minister to conceal from the public
eye the decay of his health and the constant anxiety which
gnawed at his heart. All who passed him in the park, all
who had interviews with him in Downing Street, saw misery
written in his face. The peculiar look which he wore during
the last months of his life was often pathetically described by
Wilberforce, who used to call it the Austerlitz look.

Still the vigour of Pitt's intellectual faculties and the intrepid
haughtiness of his spirit remained unaltered. He had staked
everything on a great venture. He had succeeded in forming
another mighty coalition against the French ascendancy. The
united forces of Austria, Russia and England might, he hoped,
oppose an insurmountable barrier to the ambition of the common
enemy. But the genius and energy of Napoleon prevailed.
While the English troops were preparing to embark for Germany,
while the Russian troops were slowly coming up from Poland,
he, with rapidity unprecedented in modern war, moved a hundred
thousand men from the shores of the ocean to the Black Forest (
and compelled a great Austrian army to surrender at Ulm. To
the first faint rumours of this calamity Pitt would give no
credit. He was irritated by the alarms of those around him.
"Do not believe a word of it" he said; "it is all a fiction."
The next day he received a Dutch newspaper containing the

6 7 6

PITT, WILLIAM

capitulation. He knew no Dutch. It was Sunday, and the
public offices were shut. He carried the paper to Lord Malmes-
bury, who had been minister in Holland; and Lord Malmesbury
translated it. Pitt tried to bear up, but the shock was too
great; and he went away with death in his face.

The news of the battle of Trafalgar arrived four days later,
and seemed for a moment to revive him. Forty-eight hours
after that most glorious and most mournful of victories had
been announced to the country came the Lord Mayor's Day;
and Pitt dined at Guildhall. His popularity had declined.
But on this occasion the multitude, greatly excited by the
recent tidings, welcomed him enthusiastically, took off his
horses in Cheapside, and drew his carriage up King Street.
When his health was drunk, he returned thanks in two or three
of those stately sentences of which he had a boundless command.
Several of those who heard him laid up his words in their hearts;
for they were the last words that he ever uttered in public:
" Let us hope that England, having saved herself by her energy,
may save Europe by her example."

This was but a momentary rally. Austerlitz soon completed
what Ulm had begun. Early in December Pitt had retired to
Bath, in the hope that he might there gather strength for the
approaching session. While he was languishing there on his
sofa arrived the news that a decisive battle had been fought
and lost in Moravia, that the coalition was dissolved, that the
Continent was at the feet of Prance. He sank down under the
blow. Ten days later he was so emaciated that his most
intimate friends hardly knew him. He came up from Bath by
slow journeys, and on the nth of January 1806 reached his
villa at Putney. Parliament was to meet on the 21st. On
the 20th was to be the parliamentary dinner at the house of the
first lord of the- treasury in Downing Street; and the cards were
already issued. But the days of the great minister were num-
bered. On the day on which he was carried into his bedroom
at Putney, the Marquess Wellesley, whom he had long loved,
whom he had sent to govern India, and whose administration
had been eminently able, energetic and successful, arrived in
London after an absence of eight years. The friends saw each
other once more. There was an affectionate meeting and a
last parting. That it was a last parting Pitt did not seem to
be aware. He fancied himself to be recovering, talked on various
subjects cheerfully and with an unclouded mind, and pronounced
a warm and discerning eulogium on the marquis's brother
Arthur. " I never," he said, " met with any military man
with whom it was so satisfactory to converse." The excitement
and exertion of this interview were too much for the sick man.
He fainted away; and Lord Wellesley left the house convinced
that the close was fast approaching.

And now members of parliament were fast coming up to
London. The chiefs of the Opposition met for the purpose of
considering the course to be taken on the first day of the session.
It was easy to guess what would be the language of the king's
speech, and of the address which would be moved in answer to
that speech. An amendment condemning the policy of the
government had been prepared, and was to have been proposed
in the House of Commons by Lord Henry Petty (afterwards
3rd marquess of Lansdowne). He was unwilling, however,
to come forward as the accuser of one who was incapable of
defending himself. Lord Grenville, who had been informed
of Pitt's state by Lord Wellesley, and had been
deeply affected by it, earnestly recommended
forbearance; and Fox, with characteristic generosity and good
nature, gave his voice against attacking his now helpless rival.
" Sunt lacrymae rerum," he said, " et mentem mortalia tang-
gunt." On the first day, therefore, there was no debate. It was
rumoured that evening that Pitt was better. But on the follow-
ing morning his physicians pronounced that there were no hopes.
It was asserted in many after-dinner speeches, Grub Street
elegies and academic prize poems and prize declamations that
the great minister died exclaiming, " Oh my country! " This
is a fable, but it is true that the last words which he uttered,
while he knew what he said, were broken exclamations about

Death.

Character.

the alarming state of public affairs. He ceased to breathe on
the morning of the 23 rd of January 1806, the twenty-fifth
anniversary of the. day on which he first took his seat in
parliament.

It was moved in the House of Commons that Pitt should be
honoured with a public funeral and a monument. The motion
was opposed by Fox in a speech which deserves to be studied
as a model of good taste and good feeling. The task was
the most invidious that ever an orator undertook; but it was
performed with a humanity and delicacy which were warmly
acknowledged by the mourning friends of him who was gone.
The motion was carried by 288 votes to 89. The 22nd of Feb-
ruary was fixed for the funeral. The corpse, having lain in
state during two days in the Painted Chamber, was borne with
great pomp to the northern transept of the Abbey. A splendid
train of princes, nobles, bishops and privy councillors followed.
The grave of Pitt had been made near to the spot where his great
father lay, near also to the spot where his great rival was soon
to lie. Wilberforce, who carried the banner before the hearse,
described the awful ceremony with deep feeling. As the coffin
descended into the earth, he said, the eagle face of Chatham
from above seemed to look down with consternation into the
dark house which was receiving all that remained of so much
power and glory.

Pitt was emphatically the man of parliamentary government,
the type of his class, the minion, the child, the spoiled child,
of the House of Commons. He was a distinguished
member of the House of Commons at twenty-one.
The ability which he had displayed in the House of Commons
made him the most powerful subject in Europe before he was
twenty-five. It was when the House of Commons was to be
convinced and persuaded that he put forth all his powers.
Of those powers we must form our estimate chiefly from
tradition; for, of all the eminent speakers of that age, Pitt has
suffered most from the reporters. Even while he was still living,
critics remarked that his eloquence could not be preserved, that
he must be heard to be appreciated. They more than once
applied to him the sentence in which Tacitus describes the fate
of a senator whose rhetoric was admired in the Augustan age:
" Haterii canorum illud et profluens cum ipso simul exstinctum
est." There is, however, abundant evidence that nature had
bestowed on Pitt the talents of a great orator; and those talents
had been developed in a very peculiar manner, first by his educa-
tion, and secondly by the high official position to which he rose
early, and in which he passed the greater part of his public
life.

At his first appearance in parliament he showed himself
superior to all his contemporaries in command of language.
He could pour forth a long succession of round and stately
periods, without premeditation, without ever pausing for a word,
without ever repeating a word, in a voice of silver clearness,
and with a pronunciation so articulate that not a letter was
slurred over. He had less amplitude of mind and less richness
of imagination than Burke, less ingenuity than Windham, less wit
than Sheridan, less perfect mastery of dialectical fence and less
of that highest sort of eloquence which consists of reason and
passion fused together than Fox. Yet the almost unanimous
judgment of those who were in the habit of listening to that
remarkable race of men placed Pitt, as a speaker, above Burke,
above Windham, above Sheridan and not below Fox. His
declamation was copious, polished and splendid. In power
of sarcasm he was probably not surpassed by any speaker,
ancient or modern; and of this formidable weapon he made
merciless use. In two parts of the oratorical art which are of
the highest value to a minister of state he was singularly expert.
No man knew better how to be luminous or how to be obscure.
When he wished to be understood, he never failed to make
himself understood. Nothing was out of place; nothing was
forgotten; minute details, dates, sums of money, were all faith-
fully preserved in his memory. On the other hand, when he
did not wish to be explicit — and no man who is at the head of
affairs always wishes to be explicit — he had a marvellous power

PITTA

677

of saying nothing in language which left on his audience the
impression that he had said a great deal.

The effect of oratory will always to a great extent depend
on the character of the orator. There perhaps never were two
speakers whose eloquence had more of what may be called the
race, more of the flavour imparted by moral qualities, than Fox
and Pitt. The speeches of Fox owe a great part of their charm
to that warmth and softness of heart, that sympathy with
human suffering, that admiration for everything great and
beautiful, and that hatred of cruelty and injustice, which interest
and delight us even in the most defective reports. No person,
on the other hand, could hear Pitt without perceiving him to be
a man of high, intrepid and commanding spirit, proudly con-
scious of his own rectitude and of his own intellectual superiority,
incapable of the low vices of fear and envy, but too prone to
feel and to show disdain. Pride, indeed, pervaded the whole
man, was written in the harsh, rigid lines of his face, was marked
by the way in which he walked, in which he sat, in which he
stood, and above all, in which he bowed. Such pride, of course,
inflicted many wounds. But his pride, though it made him
bitterly disliked by individuals, inspired the great body of his
followers in parliament and throughout the country with respect
and confidence. It was that of the magnanimous man so finely
described by Aristotle in the Ethics, of the man who thinks
himself worthy of great things, being in truth worthy. It was
closely connected, too, with an ambition which had no mixture
ef low cupidity. There was something noble in the cynical
disdain with which the mighty minister scattered riches and
titles to right and left among those who valued them, while he
spurned them out of his way. Poor himself, he was surrounded
by friends on whom he had bestowed three thousand, six
thousand, ten thousand a year. Plain Mister himself, he had
made more lords than any three ministers that had preceded
him. The garter, for which the first dukes in the kingdom were
contending, was repeatedly offered to him, and offered in vain.

The correctness of his private life added much to the dignity
of his public character. In the relations of son, brother, uncle,
master, friend, his conduct was exemplary. In the small
circle of his intimate associates he was amiable, affectionate,
even playful. He indulged, indeed, somewhat too freely in
wine, which he had early been directed to take as a medicine,
and which use had made a necessary of life to him. But it was
very seldom that any indication of undue excess could be
detected in his tones or gestures; and, in truth, two bottles of
port were little more to him than two dishes of tea. He had,
when he was first introduced into the clubs of St James's Street,
shown a strong sense for play; but he had the prudence and the
resolution to stop before this taste had acquired the strength
of habit. From the passion which generally exercises the most
tyrannical dominion over the young he possessed an immunity,
which is probably to be ascribed partly to his temperament and
partly to his situation. His constitution was feeble; he was
very shy; and he was very busy. The strictness of his morals
furnished such buffoons as Peter Pindar and Captain Morris
with an inexhaustible theme for merriment of no very delicate
kind. But the great body of the middle class of Englishmen
could not see the joke. They warmly praised the young
statesman for commanding his passions, and for covering his
frailties, if he had frailties, with decorous obscurity.

The memory of Pitt has been assailed, times innumerable,
often justly, often unjustly; but it has suffered much less from
his assailants than from his eulogists. For, during
many years, his name was the rallying cry of a class
of men with whom, at one of those terrible con-
junctures which confound all ordinary distinctions, he was
accidentally and temporally connected, but to whom, on almost
all great questions of principle, he was diametrically opposed.
The haters of parliamentary reform called themselves Pittites,
not choosing to remember that Pitt made three motions for
parliamentary reform, and that, though he thought that such
a reform could not safely be made while the passions excited
by the French Revolution were raging, he never uttered a word

indicating that he should not be prepared at a more convenient
season to bring the question forward a fourth time. The toast
of Protestant ascendancy was drunk on Pitt's birthday by a set
of Pittites who could not but be aware that Pitt had resigned his
office because he could not carry Catholic emancipation. The
defenders of the Test Act called themselves Pittites, though they
could not be ignorant that Pitt had laid before George III.
unanswerable reasons for abolishing the Test Act. The enemies
of free trade called themselves Pittites, though Pitt was far
more deeply imbued with the doctrines of Adam Smith than
either Fox or Grey. The very negro-drivers invoked the name
of Pitt, whose eloquence was never more conspicuously dis-
played than when he spoke of the wrongs of the negro. This
mythical Pitt, who resembles the genuine Pitt as little as the
Charlemagne of Ariosto resembles the Charlemagne of Eginhard,
has had his day. History will vindicate the real man from
calumny disguised under the semblance of adulation, and will
exhibit him as what he was — a minister of great talents, honest
intentions and liberal opinions, pre-eminently qualified,
intellectually and morally, for the part of a parliamentary
leader, and capable of administering with prudence and modera-
tion the government of a prosperous and tranquil country, but
unequal to surprising and terrible emergencies, and liable in
such emergencies to err grievously, both on the side of weakness
and on the side of violence. (M.)

Authorities. — Lord Macaulay's article, a classic on its subject,
written in 1859 for this Encyclopaedia and included in the 9th edition
unaltered, is preserved above in its essentials, but has been shortened
and readjusted. Among standard biographies are the 5th Earl
Stanhope's important Life (4 vols., 2nd ed., 1862), and Lord Rose-
bery's masterly study in the " Twelve English Statesmen Series "
(1891). See also the bibliographical note to the Rev. William Hunt's
article on Pitt in the Diet. Nat. Biog., and also the same historian's
app. i., pp. 461-462, to his vol. x. (for the years 1760-1801) of
The Political History of England (1905), dealing with the authorities
for the period.

PITTA, in ornithology, from the Telugu pitta, meaning a small
bird, latinized by Vieillot in 1816 {Analyse, p. 42) as the name
of a genus, and since adopted by English ornithologists as the
general name for a group of birds, called by the French Breves,
and remarkable for their great beauty. 1 For a long while the

Estimates
of Pitt.

Pitta elegans, male and female.

pittas were commonly supposed to be allied to the Turdidae,
and some English writers applied to them the name of " water-
thrushes " and " ant-thrushes," though there was no evidence
of their having aquatic habits or predilections, or of their preying
especially upon ants; but the fact that they formed a separate
1 In ornithology the word is first found as part of the native
name, " Ponnunky pitta," of a bird, given in 1713 by Petiver, in
the " mantissa " to Ray's Synopsis (p. 195), on the authority of
Buckley (see Ornithology). This bird is the Pitta bengalensis of
modern ornithologists, and is said by Jerdon {Birds of India, i. 503)
now to bear the Telugu name of Pona-inki.

678

PITT ACUS— PITTSBURG

family was gradually admitted. Their position was partly
determined by A. H. Garrod, who, having obtained examples
for dissection, in a communication to the Zoological Society of
London, printed in its Proceedings for 1876, proved (pp. 512, 513)
that the Pittidae belonged to that section of Passerine birds
which he named Mesomyodi, since their syrinx, like that of the
Tyrannidae (see King-Bird), has its muscles attached to the
middle of its half-rings, instead of to their extremities as in the
higher Passerines or Acromyodi. They are now placed as a
separate family Pittidae of the Clamatores division of the
Anisomyodine Passeres. There are about fifty species, divided
into a number of genera, confined to the Old World, and ranging
from India and North China to Australia, New Guinea and New
Britain, with one species in West Africa, the greatest number
being found in Borneo and Sumatra. Few birds can vie with
the pittas in brightly-contrasted coloration. Deep velvety
black, pure white and intensely vivid scarlet, turquoise-blue
and beryl-green — mostly occupying a considerable extent of
surface — are found in a great many of the species — to say
nothing of ether composite or intermediate hues; and, though in
some a modification of these tints is observable, there is scarcely
a trace of any blending of shade, each patch of colour standing
out distinctly. This is perhaps the more remarkable as the
feathers have hardly any lustre to heighten the effect produced,
and in some species the brightest colours are exhibited by the
plumage of the lower parts of the body. Pittas vary in size
from that of a jay to that of a lark, and generally have a strong
bill, a thick-set form, which is mounted on rather high legs with
scutellated " tarsi," and a very short tail. In many of the forms
there is little or no external difference between the sexes.

Placed originally among the Pittidae, but now created to form an
allied family Philepittidae, is the genus Philepitta, consisting of two
species peculiar to Madagascar. The two species which compose it
have little outward resemblance to the pittas, not having the same
style of coloration and being apparently of more arboreal habits.
The sexes differ greatly in plumage, and the males have the skin
round the eyes bare of feathers and carunculated. (A. N.)

PITTACUS, of Mytilene in Lesbos (c. 650-570 B.C.), one of the
Seven Sages of Greece. About 611, with the assistance of the
brothers of the poet Alcaeus, he overthrew Melanchrus, tyrant
of Lesbos. In a war (606) between the Mytilenaeans and
Athenians for the possession of Sigeum on the Hellespont he
slew the Athenian commander Phrynon in single combat. In
589 his fellow citizens entrusted Pittacus with despotic power
(with the title of Aesymnetes) for the purpose of protecting them
against the exiled nobles, at the head of whom were Alcaeus and
his brother Antimenides. He resigned the government after
holding it for ten years, and died ten years later. According to
Diogenes Laertius, who credits him with an undoubtedly spurious
letter to Croesus (with whom his connexion was probably
legendary), Pittacus was a writer of elegiac poems, from which
he quotes five lines. His favourite sayings were: " It is hard
to be good," and " Know when to act."

See Herodotus v. 27, 94; Diog. Laert. i. 4; Lucian, Macrdbii, 18;
Strabo xiii. 600, 617-618; Aristotle, Politics, ii. 12, iii. 14; T. Bergk,
Poetae lyrici graeci.

PITTANCE (through O. Fr. pitance, from Lat. pietas, loving-
Kindness), properly a gift to the members of a religious house for
masses, consisting usually of an extra allowance of food or wine
on occasions such as the anniversary of the donor's death,
festivals and the like. The word was early transferred to a
charitable donation and to any small gift of food or money.

PITT-RIVERS, AUGUSTUS HENRY LANE-FOX (1827-1900),
English soldier and archaeologist, son of W. A. Lane-Fox, was
born on the 14th of April 1827. It was not till 1880 that he
assumed the name of Pitt-Rivers, on inheriting the Dorsetshire
and Wiltshire estates of his great-uncle, the second Lord Rivers.
Educated at Sandhurst, he received a commission in the
Grenadier Guards in 1845, being captain 1850, lieutenant-
colonel 1857, colonel 1867, major-general 1877 and lieutenant-
general 1882. He served in the Crimean War, and was at
the Alma and the siege of Sebastopol. His talent for
experimental research was utilized in investigation into

improvements of the army rifle, and he was largely responsible
for starting the Hythe School of Musketry. It is not, how-
ever, for his military career, but for his work as an anthro-
pologist and archaeologist, that General Pitt-Rivers will
be remembered. His interest in the evolution of the rifle
early extended itself to other weapons and instruments in the
history of man, and he became a collector of articles illustrating
the development of human invention. His collection became
famous, and, after being exhibited in 1874-1875 at the Bethnal
Green Museum, was presented in 1883 to the university of
Oxford. When, in 1880, General Pitt-Rivers obtained possession
of his great-uncle's estates — practically untouched by the
excavator since they had been the battleground of the West
Saxons, the Romans and the Britons — he devoted himself to
exploring them. His excavations round Rushmore resulted in
valuable "finds"; he founded a local museum and published
several illustrated volumes. As a scientific archaeologist he
attained high rank. Oxford gave him the D.C.L. in 1886; he
was president of the Anthropological Institute, and F.R.S. He
married, in 1853, Alice Margaret, daughter of the second Lord
Stanley of Alderley, and had a numerous family; his second
daughter became in 1884 the wife of Sir John Lubbock (Lord
Avebury). General Pitt-Rivers died at Rushmore on the 4th
of May 1900.

PITTSBURG, a city of Crawford county, Kansas, U.S.A.,
about 130 m. S. of Kansas City. Pop. (1880), 624; (1890),
.6697; (1900) 10,112, of whom 860 were foreign-born; (1910
census), 14,755. It is situated at the intersection of four great
railway systems — the Atchison Topeka & Santa F6, the St
Louis & San Francisco, the Kansas City Southern (which main-
tains shops here), and the Missouri Pacific, and is served by
inter-urban electric railways. The city is the seat of the State
Manual Training Normal School (1903) and of the Pittsburg
Business College. Pittsburg is situated near the lead and zinc
region of south-east Kansas and south-west Missouri, is in the
midst of a large and rich bituminous coalfield, and lies near
natural gas and oil fields. Among the manufactures are zinc
spelter — there are large smelters here — clay products (chiefly
vitrified brick, sewer pipe and tile; the clay being obtained from
a great underlying bed of shale), blasting powder, packing-
house products and planing-mill products. The total value of
the city's factory products in 1905 was $1,824,929. Pittsburg
was settled about 1879, was chartered as a city in 1880, and
became a city of the first class in 1908.

PITTSBURG, or Pittsburgh, 1 the second largest city of
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Allegheny county,
on the Allegheny, Monongahela and Ohio rivers, 440 m. by rail
W. by S. of New York City, 360 m. W. by N. of Philadelphia,
368 m. N.W. of Washington and 468 m. E. by S. of Chicago.
Pop. (1890), 238, 617; 2 (190c), 321,616, of whom 84,878 were
foreign-born, 17,040 were negroes and 154 were Chinese; (1910
census, after the annexation of Allegheny), 533,905. Of the
84,878 foreign-born in 1900, 21,222 were natives of Germany,
18,620 of Ireland, 8902 of England, 6243 of Russian Poland,
5709 of Italy, 4107 of Russia, 3553 of Austria, 3515 of German
Poland, 2539 of Wales, 2264 of Scotland, 2124 of Hungary,
1072 of Sweden and 1023 of Austrian Poland. Area (including
Allegheny, annexed in 1906), 40-67 sq. m. Pittsburg is served
by the Pennsylvania (several divisions), the Baltimore & Ohio,,
the Pittsburg & Lake Erie (controlled by the New York Central
System) , the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (controlled
by the Pennsylvania Company), the Pittsburg, Chartiers &
Youghiogheny (controlled jointly by the two preceding railways;
21 m. of track), the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg, and the
Wabash-Pittsburg Terminal (60 m. to Pittsburg Junction,
Ohio; controlled by the Wabash railway), and the Pittsburg
Terminal (also controlled by the Wabash and operating the

1,1 Pittsburgh " is the official spelling of the charter and seal;
but " Pittsburg " is the spelling adopted by the U.S. Geographic
Board and is in more general use.

2 In previous census years the population was as follows: (1800),
1565 ; (1820), 7248; (1840), 21,115 ; (i860), 49,221 ; (1880), 156, 389-

PITTSBURG

679

West Side Belt, from Pittsburg to Clairton, 21 m.) railways, and
by river boats on the Ohio, Monongahela and Allegheny.

Picturesque rolling plateaus, the three rivers and narrow
valleys, from which rise high hills or precipitous bluffs, are the
principal natural features of the district over which the city
extends. Retail houses, wholesale houses, banks, tall office
buildings, hotels, theatres and railway terminals are crowded
into the angle, or "The Point," formed at the confluence of the
Alleghenj/ and Monongahela rivers, with Fifth Avenue as the
principal thoroughfare, especially for the retail houses, and
Fourth Avenue as the great banking thoroughfare. Factories
extend for miles along the banks of all three rivers into the
tributary valleys, and are the cause of Pittsburg's nickname,
" The Smoky City." The more attractive residential districts
are on the plateau in the eastern portion of the district between
the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers and on the hills over-
looking the Allegheny river from the north. Overlooking the
Monongahela river is Schenley Park (about 422 acres), the first
city park, of which about 400 acres were given to the city in 1890
by Mrs. Mary E. Schenley. About 2 m. to the north, overlooking
the Allegheny river, is Highland Park (about 366 acres), which
contains the city reservoirs and a picturesque lake. Adjacent
to Schenley Park are Homewood and Calvary cemeteries; and
adjacent to Highland Park is Allegheny cemetery. Across the
Allegheny river, in the Allegheny district, are the beautiful
Riverview Park (240 acres), in which is the Allegheny Observa-
tory, and West Park (about 100 acres). A number of bridges
span the rivers.

The city has some fine public buildings, office buildings and
churches. The Allegheny county court-house (1884-1888) is
one of H. H. Richardson's masterpieces. The Nixon theatre
is also notable architecturally. The high Frick Office building
has exterior walls of white granite; in its main hall is a stained-
glass window by John La Farge representing Fortune and her
wheel. A large government building of polished granite con-
tains the post office and the customs offices. St Paul's Cathedral
(Roman Catholic, 1903-1906) is largely of Indiana limestone.
The city is the see of a Roman Catholic and a Protestant Episco-
pal bishop. In Schenley Park is the Carnegie Institute (estab-
lished by a gift of $10,000,000 from Andrew Carnegie, who made
further contributions of $9,000,000 for its maintenance), with
a main building containing a library, a department of fine arts,
a museum (see Museums of Science) and a music hall, and
several separate buildings for the technical schools, which had
2102 students in 1909. The main building, dedicated in April
1907, is 660 ft. long and 400 ft. wide; in its great entrance ball
is a series of mural decorations by John White Alexander, a
native of the city. The library, in which the institution had
its beginning in 1895, contains about 306,000 volumes. The
Phipps Conservatory was presented to the city in 1893 by Henry
Phipps (b. 1839), a steel manufacturer associated with Andrew
Carnegie. It is the largest in America, and, with its Hall of
Botany, which is utilized in instructing school children in botany,
is situated in Schenley Park. The conservatory is maintained
by municipal appropriations. There is a zoological garden in
Highland Park. In December 1907 it was decided that the
several departments of the Western University of Pennsylvania,
then in different parts of the city, should be brought together
on a new campus of 43 acres near the Carnegie Institute. In
July 1908 the name was changed to " The University of Pitts-
burgh." The university embraces a college and engineering
school, the Western Pennsylvania School of Mines and Mining
Engineering, a graduate department, an evening school of
economics, accounts and finances, a summer school, evening
classes, Saturday clasess, and departments of astronomy (the
Allegheny Observatory, in the Allegheny district), law (the Pitts-
burg Law School), medicine (the Western Pennsylvania Medical
College), pharmacy (the Pittsburgh College of Pharmacy) and
dentistry (the Pittsburgh Dental College). The institution had
its beginning in the Pittsburgh Academy, which was opened about
1770 and was incorporated in 1787. It was incorporated
as the Western University of Pennsylvania in 1819,

but was only a college from that date until 1892, when
the Western Pennsylvania Medical College became its depart-
ment of medicine. In 1895 the department of law was added,
the Pittsburgh College of Pharmacy was united to the university,
and women were for the first time admitted. In 1896 the
department of dentistry was established. In 1909 the university
had 151 instructors and 1243 students. In the east end is
the Pennsylvania College for Women (Presbyterian; chartered
in 1869), with preparatory, collegiate and musical depart-
ments. In the Allegheny district are the Allegheny Theological
Seminary (United Presbyterian, 1825), the Western Theological
Seminary (Presbyterian, opened 1827), and the Reformed
Presbyterian Theological Seminary (1856). Although Alle-
gheny is now a part of Pittsburg, the two public school systems
remain independent. The Pittsburg High School (five buildings
in 1910) has a normal course; and there are various private
schools and academies.

The Pittsburg Gazette-Times is probably the oldest news-
paper west of the Alleghany Mountains ; the Gazette was founded
in 1786 and in 1906 was consolidated with the Times (1879).
Other prominent newspapers of the city are the Dispatch
(1846), the Chronicle Telegraph (1841), the Post (1792; daily,
1842), which is one of the few influential Democratic newspapers
in Pennsylvania, the Leader (Sunday, 1864; daily, 1870) and
the Press (1883). Two German dailies, one Slavonic daily, one
Slavonic weekly, two Italian weeklies, and iron, building, coal
and glass trade journals are published in the city. In Pittsburg
is the publishing house of the United Presbyterian Church, and
The Christian Advocate (weekly, Methodist Episcopal, 1834) is
published here under the auspices of the general conference.

The oldest hospital is the Reineman (private; 1803) for
maternity cases; the municipal hospital (1878) is for contagious
diseases; the Sisters of Charity, the Sisters of Mercy, the Institu-
tion of Protestant Deaconesses, the Presbyterian Church and
the United Presbyterian Woman's Association each have charge
of a hospital; and there is also an eye, ear and throat hospital
(1895). The Western Pennsylvania Institution for the instruc-
tion of the deaf and dumb (1876), in Edgewood Park, is in part
maintained by the state. And the state assists the Home for
Aged and Infirm Colored Women (1882), and the Home for
Colored Children (1881). Among other charitable institutions
are the Curtis Home (1894) for destitute women and girls, the
Bethesda Home (1890) for homeless girls and their children,
the Florence Crittenton Home (1893) for homeless and unfor-
tunate women, the Roselia Foundling Asylum and Maternity
Hospital (1891), the Protestant Home for Incurables (1883), the
Pittsburg Newsboys' Home (1894), the Children's Aid Society
of Western Pennsylvania, the Pittsburg Association for the
Improvement of the Poor and the Western Pennsylvania
Humane Society.

Pittsburg is in the midst of the most productive coalfields
in the country; the region is also rich in petrc^um and natural
gas. The city is on one of the main lines cf communication
between the east and the west, is the centre of a vast railway
system, and has freight yards with a total capacity for more
than 60,000 cars. Its harbour has a total length on the three
rivers of 27-2 m., and an average width of about 1000 ft., and
has been deepened by the construction (in 1877-1885) of the
Davis Island dam, by dredging, under a federal project of
1899. Slack water navigation has been secured on the Alle-
gheny by locks and dams (1890 and 1896 sqq.) at an expense
up to July 1909 of $1,658,804; and up to that time $263,625
had been spent for open-channel work. The Monongahela
from Pittsburg to the West Virginia state line (91-5 m.) was
improved in 1836 sqq. by a private company which built seven
locks and dams; this property was condemned and bought
for $3,761,615 by the United States government in 1897, and,
under the project of 1899 for rebuilding three of the locks and
enlarging another, and that of 1907 for a new lock and dam
and for other improvements, $2,675,692 was spent up to July
1909. Coal is brought to the city from the coalfields by boats
on the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers as well as by rail, and

68o

PITTSBURG

great fleets of barges carry coal and other heavy freight, such
as steel rails, cotton ties, sheet iron, wire and nails, down the
Ohio in the winter and spring. A ship canal to provide water
communication between Pittsburg and Lake Erie has been
projected. The railways have a heavy tonnage of coal, coke and
iron and steel products, and a large portion of the iron ore that
is produced in the Lake Superior region is brought to Pittsburg.
In 1908 the river traffic amounted to 9,090,146 tons, most of
which was carried on barges down the Ohio. Pittsburg is also
a port of entry; in 1907 the value of its imports amounted to
$2,416,367, and in 1909 to $2,062,162.

The value of the factory products in 1905 was $165,428,881,
and to this may be added $45,830,272 for those of the city of
Allegheny, making a total of $211,259,153. In the manufacture
of iron and steel products Pittsburg ranks first among the cities
of the United States, the value of these products amounting
in 1905 to $88,250,805 or 53-3% of the total for all manufactures;
if the manufactures of Allegheny be added they amounted to
$92,939,860 or 43-7%. Several neighbouring cities and towns
are also extensively engaged in the same industry, and in 1902
Allegheny county produced about 24% of the pig-iron, nearly
34% of the Bessemer steel, more than 44% of the open-hearth
steel, more than 53 % of the crucible steel, more then 24% of the
steel rails, and more than 59% of the structural shapes that were
made in that year in the United States. In 1905 the value of
Pittsburg's foundry and machine shop-products was $9,631,514;
of the product of steam railway repair shops, $3,726,990
(being 424-8% more than in 1900); of malt liquors, $3,166,829;
of slaughtering and meat-packing products, $2,732,027;
of cigars and cigarettes, $2,297,228; 'of glass, $2,130,540;
and of tin and terne plate, $1,645,570. Electrical machinery,
apparatus and supplies were manufactured largely in the city
(value in 1905, $1,796,557), and there was another large plant
for their manufacture immediately outside of the city limits.
Coke, cut cork, rolled brass and copper were other important
products in 1905. In 1900, and for a long period preceding,
Pittsburg ranked first among American cities in the manufacture
of glass, but in 1905 it was outranked in this industry by Muncie,
Indiana, Millville, New Jersey, and Washington, Pennsylvania;
but in the district outside of the city limits of Pittsburg much
glass is manufactured, so that the Pittsburg glass district is the
greatest in the country, and there are large glass factories
at Washington (18 m. south-west), Charleroi (20 m. south) and
Tarentum (15 m. north-east). In Pittsburg or the immediate
vicinity are the more important plants of the United States Steel
Corporation, including that of the Carnegie Company. Here,
too. are the plants of the Westinghouse Company for the
manufacture of electrical apparatus, of air brakes invented by
George Westinghouse (born 1846), and of devices for railway
signals which he also invented. In the Allegheny district the
H. J. Heinz Company has its main pickle plant, the largest
establishment of -he kind in the country.

The Pittsburg charter of 1816 vested the more important
powers of the city government in a common council of 15
members and a select council of 9 members, and until 1834 the
mayor was appointed annually by these city councils from their
own number. By the Wallace Act of the state legislature in
1874 a form of government was provided for cities of three
classes, and Pittsburg became a city of the second class (popula-
tion between 100,000 and 300,000) ; under the act of 1895 a new
classification was made, under which Pittsburg remains in the
second class. An act of 1887 had amended the provisions of
the Wallace Act in regard to second class cities by changing the
terms of select councilmen from two to four years and of common
councilmen from one to two years. In 1901 a new act was
passed for the government of cities of the second class. It
provided that the executive be a " city recorder "; this provision
was repealed in 1903, when the title of mayor again came into
use. The mayor holds office for three years, has the powers
and jurisdiction of a justice of the peace, appoints the heads of
departments (public safety, public works, collector of delinquent
taxes, assessors, city treasurer, law, charities and correction.

and sinking fund commission), and may remove any of the
officers he has appointed, by a written order, showing cause,
to the select council. The city controller is elected by popular
vote. The legislative bodies are the select and common council,
elected under the law of 1887; by a three-fifths vote it may pass
resolutions or ordinances over the mayor's veto. The depart-
ment of public safet}' controls the bureaus of police, detectives,
fire, health, electricity and building inspection; the department
of public works controls bureaus of surveys, construction,
highways and sewers, city property, water, assessment of water
rents, parks, deed registry, bridges and light. In 1909 the
taxable valuation was $100,771,321, and the tax rate was 138
mills for city property, 9-2 mills on rural property and
6-9 mills on agricultural property. The tax rate for separate
indebtedness varied from 6 mills in Allegheny to 16-2 mills
in the 43rd ward. The water-supply of Pittsburg is taken
from the Allegheny river and pumped into reservoirs, the
highest of which, in Highland Park, is 367 ft. above the river;
and there is a slow sand filtration plant for the filtration of the
entire supply.

Pittsburg owed its origin to the strategic value of its site in
the struggle between the English and the French for the posses-
sion of the North American continent. A few Frenchmen
attempted to establish a settlement here in 1731, but were soon
driven away by the Indians. In 1753, after the French had
laid formal claim to this region and the Ohio Land Company
had been formed with a view to establishing a settlement within
it, Robert Dinwiddie, governor of Virginia and a shareholder
in the Ohio Company, sent George Washington with a letter
to " the commandant of the French forces on the Ohio " (then
stationed at Fort LeBceuf, near the present Waterford, about
115 m. north of the head- waters of that river) asking him to
account for his invasion of territory claimed by the English.
This was Washington's first important public service. He
reached the present site of Pittsburg on the 24th of November
1753, and subsequently reported 1 that what is now called
" The Point," i.e. the tongue of land formed by the confluence
of the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers, was a much more
favourable situation for a fort and trading post than the one
about two miles up the Monongahela (near the present site of
McKees Rocks) which had been tentatively selected by the
Ohio Company. Accordingly, on the 17th of February 1754,
a detachment of about 40 soldiers, under the command of
Captain William Trent, 2 reached " The Point," and began to
build a fortification (under the auspices of the Ohio Company) ,
which it seems to have been the intention to call Fort Trent,
and which was the beginning of the permanent settlement here
by whites. On the 17th of the following April, however, Ensign
Edward Ward, commanding the soldiers, in the absence of
Captain Trent, was forced to evacuate the unfinished fortification
by a party of about 1000 French and Indians, under Captain
Contrecceur, who immediately occupied the works, which he
enlarged and completed, and named Fort Duquesne, in honour
of Duquesne de Menneville, governor of New France in 1752-
1755. In the following summer Washington attempted to
recover this fort, in a campaign which included the skirmish

1 His Journal, published in 1754, gives a concise and lucid account
of this expedition.

2 William Trent (c. 1715-1778) was a native of Lancaster county,
Pennsylvania, became a captain in the state militia in 1746 and
served against the French and Indians, was for many years, after
1749, a justice of the court of common pleas and general sessions of
the peace for Cumberland county, Pennsylvania, and in 1 750-1 756
was the partner of George Crogan in an extensive trade with the
Indians. According to one account, he visited the site of Pittsburg,
and examined its availability for fortification, in August 1753 —
before the arrival of Washington. In 1755 he became a member
of the council of Lieut.-Governor Robert H. Morris, and in
1758 he accompanied General Forbes's expedition against Fort
Duquesne. He acted many times as Indian agent; his lucrative
trade with the Indians, conducted from a trading house near Fort
Pitt, was ruined during Pontiac's conspiracy. At the beginning
of the War of Independence he was given a major's commission to
raise troops in Western Pennsylvania. See Journal of Captain
William Trent (Cincinnati, Ohio, 1871), edited by Alfred T. Goodman.

PITTSBURG

681

(commonly considered the beginning of the French and Indian —
Seven Years' — War) on the 28th of May 1754, at Great Meadows
(in what is now Wharton township, Fayette county, Pennsyl-
vania, about 50 m. south-east of Pittsburg), between a detach-
ment under his command and a scouting party under N. Coulon
de Jumonville, in which Jumonville and several of his men were
killed ; the building, at Great Meadows, by Washington, of Fort
Necessity, and its capitulation (July 3); and the retreat of
Washington to Virginia. Another expedition, led by Major-
General Edward Braddock, resulted in the engagement known
as- " Braddock's Defeat " (July 9, 1755), fought within the
present borough of Braddock (about 8 m. east of Fort Duquesne),
in which Braddock's force was practically annihilated, and
Braddock was mortally wounded, dying four days later. The
fort was finally recaptured by the English in 1758, as the result
of an elaborate expedition (involving about 7000 troops)
planned by Brigadier-General John Forbes (1710-1759), and
prosecuted, with the assistance of Colonel George Washington
and Colonel Henry Bouquet, in the face of great difficulties.
General Forbes himself was so ill that he had to be carried in a
litter throughout the campaign. The troops having rendez-
voused during the summer (of 1758) at Ray's Town (now Bedford,
Pennsylvania), and at Loyalhanna creek (now in Westmoreland
county), about 50 m. to the north-west (where Fort Ligonier
was built), Colonel Bouquet, commanding the division at the
latter place, despatched Major James Grant (1720-1806) at the
head of about 850 men to reconnoitre the fort. Grant advanced
to a hill (still known by his name, and upon the crest of which
the court-house now stands) within about a quarter of a mile
of the fort. Here he rashly divided his force, and in a sortie
of French and Indians, on the morning of the 14th of September,
one of his divisions was surrounded, and a general rout ensued
in which about 270 of Grant's men were killed, about 40 were
wounded, and others (including Grant) were taken prisoners.
Forbes's army advanced to within about 15 m. of the fort on
the 24th of November, whereupon the French blew up part of
the works, set fire to the buildings and retreated down the Ohio
in boats. The English occupied the place on the next day and
General Forbes ordered the immediate erection of a stockade
fort near the site of the old one. In reporting to Lieut. -Governor
William Denny (Nov. 26) the success of the expedition he dated
his letter from Fort Duquesne "or now Pitts-Bourgh," and this
name, with its subsequent modification " Pittsburgh," was
thereafter more commonly used than that of Fort Pitt, which,
as designating the fortification proper appears to have been
first applied by General John Stanwix to the enlarged fort built
(at a cost, it was estimated, of £60,000) chiefly under his direction
during 1 759-1 760.

The first considerable settlement around the fort sprang up
in 1760; it was composed of two groups of houses and cabins,
fhe " lower town," near the fort's ramparts; and the " upper
town," built chiefly along the banks of the Monongahela, and
extending as far as the present Market Street. In April 1761,
according to a census of the settlement, outside of the fort, taken
for Colonel Bouquet, there were 332 inhabitants and 104 houses.
Fort Pitt was one of the important objective points of Pontiac's
conspiracy (1763), and as soon as the intentions of the Indians
became evident, Captain Simeon Ecuyer, the Swiss officer in
command of the garrison (which then numbered about 330),
had the houses outside the ramparts levelled and prepared for
a siege. The Indians attacked the fort on the 22nd of June
(1763), and kept up a continuous, though ineffective, fire upon
it from the 27 th of July until the 1st of August, when they drew
off and advanced to meet the relieving party under Colonel
Bouquet. They were defeated at Bushy Run, and Colonel
Bouquet relieved the fort on the 10th of August (see Ponttac).
In 1764 Colonel Bouquet added to the fort a redoubt, the " Block
House," which still stands, the sole remaining trace of Fort Pitt,
and is owned and cared for by the Daughters of the American
Revolution.

A second town, laid out in 1 764, by Colonel John Campbell (with
the permission of the commandant at Fort Pitt), is bounded in

the present city by Water Street, Market Street, Second Avenue
and Ferry Street, and comprises four blocks. In November
1768, at a general council of the Six Nations with Sir Williarp
Johnson and representatives of Pennsylvania and Virginia,
held at Fort Stanwix, on the site of the present Rome, New York
(q.v.), at which was signed a treaty establishing the boundary
line between the English possessions and the territory claimed
by the Six Nations, the Indians sold for $10,000 to Thomas
Penn (1702-1775) and Richard Penn (1706-1771), respectively,
the second and third sons of William Penn — the founder of
Pennsylvania — by his second wife, the remaining land in the
province of Pennsylvania to which they claimed title, namely
the tract lying south of the west branch of the Susquehanna
river and of a straight line from the north-west corner of what
is now Cambria county to the present Kittanning (in Armstrong
county), and all of the territory east of the Allegheny river below
Kittanning and south of the Ohio river. To this transaction
the commissioner from Virginia seems to have made no objection,
though the tract included the Fort Pitt region and other territory
then claimed by Virginia. In January-March 1769 the Penns
caused to be surveyed the " Manor of Pittsburgh," a tract of
about 5700 acres, including much of the original city, intending
to reserve it for their private use; but in the following April they
offered at public sale the lands in the remainder of their purchase
of the preceding year. 1 At this time the settlement about Fort
Pitt consisted of about twenty houses, occupied chiefly by Indian
traders. By order of General Thomas Gage the fort was
abandoned as a military post in October 1772, and was partly
dismantled. In January 1774 it was occupied by an armed force
under Dr John Connolly, a partisan of Lord Dunmore, governor
of Virginia, and by him was named Fort Dunmore (which name,
however, was never formally recognized), this being one of
Dunmore's overt acts ostensibly in support of his contention
that the Fort Pitt region was included in Augusta county,
Virginia. In the following April Connolly took forcible posses-
sion of the court-house at Hanna's Town (near the present
Greensburg), the county-seat of Westmoreland county (which
then included the Fort Pitt region) , a few days afterwards arrested
the three justices who lived in Pittsburg, and for the remainder
of the year terrorized the settlement. Lord Dunmore himself
issued a proclamation dated " Fort Dunmore," 17th September
(1774), in which he called upon the inhabitants to ignore the
authority of Pennsylvania, and to recognize only that of Virginia.
A year afterwards Fort Pitt was occupied by a company of
Virginia soldiers by order of the Virginia Provincial Convention
(assembled at Williamsburg in August 1775), but this move
apparently was more for the defence of the frontier in the coming
war than an expression on the Pennsylvania- Virginia boundary
dispute; and, in November, Connolly was arrested at Fredericks-
burg, Maryland, on the charge of furthering Dunmore's plans
for invading the western frontier. The boundary itself was in
controversy until 1780, and the marking of the boundary lines
was not completed until 1785. During the War of Independence
the fort was maintained as a frontier Indian post, and as a pro-
tection against the British at Detroit. Soon after the close of
the war it was neglected, and by 1791 it was in bad repair; there-
fore at the time of the Indian hostilities of 1792 another stockade
fort was built near the bank of the Allegheny river and about
a quarter of a mile above the site of Fort Pitt, this new fort being
named Fort Lafayette, or, as it was more commonly called, Fort
Fayette. After General Anthony Wayne's defeat of the Indians,
at Fallen Timbers, Ohio (Aug. 20, 1794), Pittsburg lost its
importance as a frontier post.

In January 1784 the sale of the land included in the " Manor
of Pittsburgh " was begun by the grandsons of William Penn,
John Penn (1729-1795), the second son of Richard Penn and
lieutenant-governor of Pennsylvania in 1763-1771 and in 1773-
1776; and John Penn (1760-1834), the fourth son of Thomas
Penn; and in the following June a new series of town lots was
laid out in which was incorporated Colonel Campbell's survey.
Thereafter, settlers, chiefly Scotch and Irish, came rapidly.
1 This tract was confiscated by Pennsylvania in 1779.

682

PITTSFIELD— PITTSTON

Pittsburg and its vicinity witnessed much of the disorder, and
some of the violence against person and property, incident to
the Whiskj^ Insurrection of 1791-94. Delegates from Alle-
gheny, Westmoreland, Washington and Fayette counties met
here on the 7th of September 1791, and passed resolutions
severely denouncing the excise tax; and a similarly constituted
gathering, on the 24th of August 1792, voted to proscribe all
persons who assisted in the enforcement of laws taxing the
manufacture of liquor. Thereafter various persons who had
paid the excise tax, or had assisted in collecting it, were tarred
and feathered or had their houses or barns burned. General
John Neville (1731-1803), having accepted the office of chief
excise inspector for Western Pennsylvania, his fine country
residence, about 7 m. south-west of Pittsburg, was attacked by
a mob of about 500 men on the 16th and 17th of July 1794.
The defenders of the property (who included a squad of soldiers
from the garrison at Pittsburg) killed two and wounded several
of the attacking party, but they were finally forced to surrender,
and General Neville's mansion and other buildings were burned
to the ground. A mass meeting of about 5000 citizens of the
above-mentioned counties (many of them armed militiamen),
at Braddock's Field, on the 1st and 2nd of August 1794, threat-
ened to take possession of Fort Lafayette and to burn Pittsburg,
but cooler counsel prevailed, and after voting to proscribe several
persons, and marching in a body through the streets of the town,
the crowd dispersed without doing any damage. Upon the
arrival in the following November of the troops sent by President
Washington, a military court of inquiry, held at Pittsburg,
caused the arrest of several persons, who were sent to Phila-
delphia for trial, where some of them were found guilty and
sentenced to terms of imprisonment, but the sentences were
not enforced.

The town was made the county-seat in 1 791 , it was incorporated
as a borough in 1794, the charter was revived in 1804, and the
borough was chartered as a city in 1816. As early 'as the year
of its incorporation as a borough Philadelphia and Baltimore
merchants had established an important trade with it. Their
goods were carried in Conestoga wagons to Shippensburg and
Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, and Hagerstown, Maryland, taken
from there to Pittsburg on pack horses, and exchanged for
Pittsburg products; these products were carried by boat to New
Orleans, where they were exchanged for sugar, molasses, &c,
and these were carried through the gulf and along the coast
to Baltimore and Philadelphia. Boat-building was begun in
Pittsburg in 1797 or earlier; the galley " President Adams,"
built by the government, was launched here in 1798, and the
" Senator Ross," completed in the same year, was launched in
1799. In 1797 glassworks which were the first to use coal as
a fuel in making glass were built here; later Pittsburg profited
greatly by the use of its great store of natural gas in the manu-
facture of glass. In 1806 the manufacture of iron was well begun,
and by 1825 this had become the leading industry. On the 10th
of April 1845 a considerable portion of the city was swept by
fire, and in July 1877, during the great railway strike of that
year, a large amount of property was destroyed by a mob. The
commercial importance of the city was increased by the canal
from Pittsburg to Philadelphia, built by the state in 1834 at a
cost of $10,000,000. The first petroleum pipe line reached
Pittsburg in 1875. A movement to consolidate the cities of
Pittsburg and Allegheny, together with some adjacent boroughs,
was begun in 1853-1854. It failed entirely in that year but
in 1867 Lawrenceville, Peebles, Collins, Liberty, Pitt and Oak-
land, all lying between the two rivers, were annexed to Pittsburg;
in 1872 there was a further annexation of a district embracing
27 sq. m. south of the Monongahela river; in 1906 Allegheny
(q.v.), although, a large majority of those voting on the question
in that city were opposed to it, was annexed, and in November
1907 the Supreme Court of the United States declared valid
the act of the state legislature under which the vote was taken.

See N. B. Craig, The History of Pittsburgh (Pittsburg, 1851);
Early History of Western Pennsylvania and the West, by a gentleman
of the bar— J. D. Rupp (Pittsburg, 1848); William H. Egle,

Illustrated History of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (Harrisburg,
Pa., 1876) ; Sarah H. Killikelly, The History of Pittsburgh, Its Rise and
Progress (Pittsburg, 1906) ; S. H. Church, " Pittsburgh the Industrial
City," in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Middle States (New
York, 1899) ; G. H. Thurston, Pittsburgh and Allegheny^ in the Cen-
tennial Year (Pittsburg, 1876) ; for a history of the various forts as
such, Report of the Commission to Locate the Frontier Forts of Penn-
sylvania, vol. li. (Harrisburg, Pa., 1896); and for a thorough study
of economic and social conditions in Pittsburg, P. U. Kellogg (ed.),
The Pittsburg Survey (6 vols., New York, 1910 sqq.), prepared under
the direction of the Sage Foundation.

PITTSFIELD, a city and the county-seat of Berkshire county,
Massachusetts, U.S.A., in the western part of the state among
the Berkshire Hills, and about 150 m. W. of Boston. Pop.
(1890), 17,281; (1900), 21,766, of whom 4344 were foreign-born;
(1910 census), ,',2,121. Area, about 41 sc m. It is served
by the New York, New Haven & Hartford and the Boston &
Albany (New York Central & Hudson River) railways, and by
two inter-urban electric lines. Pittsfield is a popular summer
resort; it lies in a plain about 1000 ft. above sea-level, is sur-
rounded by the picturesque Berkshire Hills, and is situated in
a region of numerous lakes, one of the largest — Lake Pontoosuc
— being a summer pleasure resort. On either side of the city
flow the east and west branches of the Housatonic river. Stand-
ing in the public green, in the centre of the city, is the original
statue (by Launt Thompson) of the " Massachusetts Color
Bearer," which has been reproduced on the battlefield of
Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The principal institutions are the
House of Mercy Hospital, with which is connected the Henry
W. Bishop Memorial Training School for nurses, the Berkshire
Home for aged women, the Berkshire Athenaeum, containing
the public library, the Crane Art Museum and a Young Men's
Christian Association. Prominent buildings are St Joseph's
Cathedral and the buildings of the Berkshire Life Insurance
Company, the Agricultural National Bank and the Berkshire
County Savings Bank. In the south-western part of Pittsfield,
on the boundary between it and Hancock, is Shaker Village,
settled about 1790 by Shakers. Pittsfield has water-power and
important manufacturing industries. In 1905 its factory
products were valued at $8,577,358, or 49-1% more than in
1900. Fully half of the manufactures consist of textile goods.
The first settlement in what is now Pittsfield was made in
1743, but was soon abandoned on account of Indian troubles.
In 1749 the settlement was revived, but the settlers did not
bring their families to the frontier until 1752. The settlement
was first called " Boston Plantation," or " Poontoosuck," but
in 1 761, when it was incorporated as a township, the name was
changed to Pittsfield, in honour of the elder William Pitt. In
1891 Pittsfield was chartered as a city. It was here, in the
Appleton (or Plunkett) House, known as " Elm Knoll," and
built by Thomas Gold, father-in-law of Nathan Appleton, that
in 1845 Henry W. Longfellow (who married Nathan Appleton's
daughter) wrote his poem " The Old Clock on the Stairs." For
thirty years (1842-1872) Pittsfield was the home of the Rev.
John Todd (1800-1873), the author of numerous books, of which
Lectures to Children (1834; 2nd series, 1858) and The Student's
Manual (1835) were once widely read. From 1807 to 1816
Elkanah Watson (1758-1842), a prominent farmer and merchant,
lived at what is now the Country Club, and while there intro-
duced the merino sheep into Berkshire county and organized
the Berkshire Agricultural Society; he is remembered for his
advocacy of the building of a canal connecting the Great Lakes
with the Atlantic Ocean, and as the author of Memoirs : Men
and Times of the Revolution (1855), edited by his son, W. C.
Watson.

PITTSTON, a city of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.,
on the Susquehanna river just below the mouth of the Lacka-
wanna, about n m. S.W. of Scranton and about 9 m. N.E. of
Wilkes-Barre. Pop. (1890), 10,302; (1900), 12,556, of whom
3394 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 16,267. It is served
by the Erie, the Lehigh Valley, the Delaware, Lackawanna
& Western, the Central of New Jersey, the Delaware &
Hudson, and the Lackawanna & Wyoming Valley railways;
there is an electric railway from Pittston to Scranton, and a

PITYRIASIS— PIUS (POPES)

683

belt-Une electric railway connects Pittston with Avoca, Nanti-
coke, Plymouth and Wilkes-Barre. Two bridges connect the
city with the borough of West Pittston (pop., 1910, 6848).
Pittston is in the midst of the richest anthracite coal region of
the state, and fire-clay also abounds in the vicinity. In 1905
the value of the factory products was $1,474,928 (47-8% more
than in 1900). Pittston, named in honour of William Pitt,
earl of Chatham, was one of the five original towns founded in
the Wyoming Valley by the Susquehanna Company of Con-
necticut; it was first settled about 1770 and was incorporated
as a borough in 1803. It was chartered as a city in 1894.

PITYRIASIS VERSICOLOR (Gr. 7riri;p£a<ns, scurf, from
■KiTvpov, bran), a skin disease, consisting of patches of brownish
discolorations of various sizes and shapes, mostly on the front
of the body, and often attended with itching, especially after
heating exercise. The pigmentation seems to radiate from the
orifices of hair-follicles. The epidermis is in a scaly condition
over the patch, and among the debris of the epidermic cell there
may be seen minute oval spores due to a vegetable parasite,
the Microsporon furfur. The disease is mostly one of adult age,
found all over the world, and not associated in any special way
with poor general health. The treatment consists of rubbing
in an ointment of potassium sulphide or one of the mercurial
ointments, or using sulphur-soap habitually.

PIURA, the northernmost maritime department of Peru,
bounded north by the Gulf of Guayaquil, N.E. by Ecuador, S.
by the departments of Cajamarca and Lambayeque, and W. by
the Pacific. Area, 14,849 sq. m.; pop. (1906, estimate), 154,080—
both totals exclusive of the province of Tumbes, or Tumbez
(area, about 1980 sq. m.; pop., in 1906, about 8000), which
has been administratively separated from the department for
military reasons. The department belongs partly to the arid
coastal plain that extends from the Gulf of Guayaquil southward
nearly to Valparaiso, and partly to a broken mountainous region
belonging to the Western Cordilleras. The coastal zone is
traversed by the Tumbes, Chira and Piura rivers, which have
their sources in the melting snows of the higher Andes and flow
westward across the desert to the coast. The valleys of the
Chira and Piura are irrigated and maintain large populations.
Rough cotton, called " vegetable wool," and tobacco are the
principal products, and are also produced in the valley of the
Tumbes and in some of the elevated mountain districts. On
the upland pastures cattle have long been raised, and goat-
breeding has been added in modern times. Mules also are reared.
Petroleum is an important product, and there are wells at a
number of places along the coast, from Tumbes to Sechura, the
most productive being those of Talara and Zorritos. There are
sulphur deposits in the Sechura desert, and salt is manufactured
at some places on the southern coast. The making of Panama
hats from the fibre of the " toquilla " palm is a household
industry. The capital is Piura (est. pop. 9100 in 1906), on the
Piura river, about 35 m. (direct) E.S.E. of Paita, and 164 ft.
above sea-level. It was founded by Pizarro in 1531 under the
name of San Miguel, at a place called Tangarara, nearer Paita,
but the present site was afterwards adopted. A railway (60 m.
long) by way of Sullana connects with the port of Paita, and
an extension of 6 m. runs S.S.E. to Catacaos. Other towns of
the department, with their estimated populations in 1906, are:
Tumbes, or Tumbez (2300), the most northern port of Peru, on
the Gulf of Guayaquil, celebrated as the place where Pizarro
landed in 1531; Paita; Sechura (6450), on Sechura Bay in the
southern part of the department, with exports of salt and sulphur;
Sullana (5300), an inland town with railway connexions in the
fertile Chira valley; Moiropon (3800) on the upper Piura; Huan-
cabamba, the centre of a tobacco district in the mountains;
and Tambo Grande (6100) and Chulucanas (4600), both in the
fertile Piura valley above the capital.
PIUS, the name of ten popes.

Pius I., pope from about 141 to 154. He was the brother of
Hermas, author of the Shepherd.

Pius II. (Enea Silvio de' Piccolomini, known in literature as
Aeneas Silvius), pope from 1458 to 1464, was born on the 18th

of October 1405, at Corsignano (afterward called Pienza after
him), near Siena. His family, though poor, was noble, -and
claimed to trace descent from Romulus. The eldest of eighteen
children, he had to work on the farm with his father, until a
priest taught him the rudiments of letters, which enabled him,
at the age of eighteen, to go as a poor student to Siena, dividing
his time between severe humanistic studies and a life of sensual
pleasure. He was attracted to Florence by the teaching of
Filelfo. His father urged him to become a lawyer, but he
accepted the position of secretary to Domenico Capranica,
bishop of Fermo, and went with him to the council of Basel,
where he stayed several years (1431-1435), changing masters
whenever he could improve his position. As secretary of the
bishop of Novara he became engaged in a conspiracy against
Pope Eugenius IV.; his master was caught and imprisoned, and
Aeneas only saved himself by a hasty flight. He was next
(1435) employed as secretary of Cardinal Nicholas Albergati
(d. 1443) at the congress of Arras, where peace was made between
France and Burgundy. From here he took a long journey to
Scotland and England, on a secret diplomatic mission; he had
numerous adventures, in one of which he nearly lost his life.
In 1436 he was back at Basel, and, although a layman, obtained
a seat in the council and exercised considerable influence. In
order to control it better Eugenius tried to get the council to
move to Florence; a minority agreed and seceded; the majority,
however, stayed where they were and took vigorous measures
against the pope, culminating in his deposition on the 25th of
June 1438. Aeneas took an active part in the council; and
though he still declined to take orders, he was given a position
on the conciliar conclave which elected Amadeus of Savoy as
pope under the title of Felix V. In return for his services Felix
made Aeneas papal secretary.

A new period of his career opened in 1442, when he was sent
by the council to take part in the diet of Frankfort-on-Main.
Here he met Frederick III. of Germany, who made him poet
laureate and his private secretary. He ingratiated himself
with the chancellor, Kaspar Schlick, at Vienna, one of whose
adventures he celebrated in Lucretia and Eurialus, a novel in
the style of Boccaccio. At this period he also wrote his witty
but immoral play, Chrisis. In 1446 he took orders as subdeacon,
and wrote that he meant to reform, " forsaking Venus for
Bacchus," chiefly on the ground of satiety, and also, as he
frankly wrote, because the clerical profession offered him more
advantages than he could secure outside it.

Aeneas was useful to Frederick as a diplomatist, and managed
to give all parties the impression that he was the devoted
advocate of each. During the struggle between pope and
council he induced Frederick to be neutral for a while. He tcok
an important part in the diet of Nuremberg (1444), and being
sent on an embassy to Eugenius in the following year he made
his peace with the pope. At the diet of Frankfort (Sept. 1446)
Aeneas was instrumental in changing the majority of the electors
from their hostile position towards pope and emperor into a
friendly one. He brought the good news to Eugenius shortly
before his death (Feb. 7, 1447), and made friends with the new
pope, Nicholas V., by whom he was made bishop of Siena. He
was an agent of Frederick in making the celebrated concordat
of Vienna (also called concordat of Aschaffenburg) in February
1448. His services to pope and emperor brought him the titles
of prince of the empire and cardinal, positions which he used
rather unscrupulously to get as many lucrative benefices into
his hands as possible. Those in Germany brought him two
thousand ducats a year.

The death of Calixtus III. (who succeeded Nicholas V.)
occurred on the 5th of August 1458. After a hot fight in the
conclave, in which it seemed that the wealthy French cardinal,
Guillaume d'Estouteville, archbishop of Rouen and bishop of
Ostia, would be elected, the intrigues of Aeneas and of his friend
Rodrigo Borgia (later the notorious Alexander VI.) gave the
victory to the cardinal of Siena, who took the title Pius II., with
a reminiscence of Virgil's " pius Aeneas." The humanists
hailed his election with joy, and flocked around to secure a share

68 4

PIUS (POPES)

of the good things, but they were bitterly disappointed, as Pius
did not prove himself the liberal and undiscriminating patron
they hoped. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 had made a
deep impression upon Pius, and he never ceased to preach the
crusade against the Turk. In September 1459 he opened a
congress at Mantua for the purpose of considering what could
be done in this direction. His proposals for the raising of troops
and money met with general opposition. The French were angry
because Pius had crowned the Spanish claimant, Ferdinand,
king of Naples, and thus disposed of the pretensions of Rene
of Anjou. The Germans also objected to Pius's plans, but finally
agreed to furnish some troops and money, promises which they did
not carry out. Pius felt how much the position of the papacy had
fallen in importance since the days of Urban and Innocent III.,
and, believing that the change was due to the general councils
which had asserted power over the popes, he changed his
position, which before his election to the papal throne had
been that of a warm advocate of the conciliar claims, and issued
(Jan. 1460) the bull Execrabilis et in pristinis temporibus in-
audilns, in which he condemned as heretical the [doctrine that
the councils were superior to the popes, and proclaimed the
anathema against any one who should dare to appeal to one.
He issued another bull at the same time, promising forgiveness
of sins to those who would take part in the crusade, and then
dissolved the congress.

While Pius was at Mantua war broke out between the French
and Spanish in southern Italy, and a rising of the barons devas-
tated the Campagna. Hurrying back to Rome Pius succeeded
in quelling the disorders, and sent his nephew Antonio Todes-
chini to the aid of Ferdinand, who made him duke of Amalfi
and gave him his natural daughter Maria in marriage. This
measure still further alienated the pope from the French, with
whom he was at that time negotiating for the abrogation of the
Pragmatic Sanction. When Louis XL came to the throne
(Nov. 1461), he sent to Pius saying that he had abolished the
Pragmatic Sanction, hoping in return to get the kingdom of
Naples for his countryman Rene of Anjou. When Pius refused
to do anything to the prejudice of Ferdinand, Louis changed
his attitude, and allowed the protests of the university of Paris
and the parlements to persuade him to restore the ancient
liberties of the Gallican Church. At the same time a serious
quarrel with the Germans prevented anything being done
towards a crusade. George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia, was
plotting to depose the emperor Frederick III., who was sup-
ported by Pius. Diether, archbishop of Mainz, took the side
of Podiebrad, and replied to Pius's measures by appealing to a
general council. He was declared deposed by the pope, but
kept his seat, and in 1464 compelled the pope to recognize him
again. The quarrel with Podiebrad, who was accused of
supporting the Utraquist heresy, continued with increasing
bitterness, but without any decisive result, until the death of
Pius. In the meantime the pope did what he could to further
the cause of the crusade. The discovery of alum mines at Tolfa
gave him an unexpected pecuniary resource, and to stimulate
the zeal of Christendom, Pius took the cross on the 18th of June
1464. He set out for Venice, where he intended to sail for the
East, but he was attacked with a fever, and on the 14th of
August 1464 he died.

Pius II. was a voluminous author. Besides poems, a novel
and a play, he wrote a number of orations, which were con-
sidered models of eloquence in their day. His most valuable
work, however, is his Commentaries, a history of his own life
and times, told in an interesting and rational manner. He is
very frank about himself, and most of the adverse judgments
which have been pronounced on his character have been based
on his own confessions. He was an opportunist, sailing along
with any favourable breeze, and not quite enough in earnest
about anything to pursue the same tack steadily for long. We
must give him the credit, however, of advocating a statesman-
like policy in the interests of the whole of Europe in trying
to get the powers to unite against the Turks, who threatened to
overwhelm them all.

See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopiidie (1904), vol. xv., where a full
bibliography will be found; M. Creighton, History of the Papacy
during the Reformation, vol. ii. (London, 1882) ;L. Pastor, History of
the Popes from the close of the Middle Ages (Eng. trans., 1896, vol. ii.) ;
Voigt, Pius II. (1856-1863). The Commentaries of Pius were pub-
lished in 1584, under the name of Gobelinus Persona. His other
works are found in Aeneae Silvii opera omnia (Basel, 1551). See
also W. Boulting, Aeneas Silvius (1909). (p, Sm.)

Pitjs III. (Francesco Nanni-Todeschini-Piccolomini), pope
from the 22nd of September to the 18th of October 1503, was
born at Siena on the 9th of May 1439. After studying law at
Perugia, he was made archbishop of Siena and cardinal-deacon
of St Eustachio, when only twenty-two years of age, by his
uncle Pius II., who permitted him to assume the name and arms
of the Piccolomini. He was employed by subsequent popes in
several important legations, as by Paul II. at the diet of
Regensburg, and by Sixtus IV. to secure the restoration of
ecclesiastical authority in Umbria. He bravely opposed the
policy of Alexander VI., and was elected pope, amid the dis-
turbances consequent upon the death of the latter, through
the interested influence of Cardinal della Rovere, afterwards
Julius II., and was crowned on the 8th of October 1503. He
permitted Cesare Borgia to return to Rome, but promptly
took in hand the reform of the curia. Pius was a man of
blameless life, and would doubtless have accomplished much
had he lived. His successor was Julius II.

See L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. vi., trans, by F. I. Antrobus
(London, 1898); M. Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol. v. (Lon-
don, 1901); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. viii.,
trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902) ; Piccolomini,
"II Pontificato di Pio III.," inlArchivio stor. ital., vol.;v.(Firenze, 1903).

Pius IV. (Giovanni Angelo Medici, or " Medighino "), pope
from 1559 to 1565, was born at Milan on the 31st of March 1499,
of an obscure family, not related to the Medici of Florence (a
claim to such relationship was advanced after Giovanni Angelo
had attained to prominence). The fortune of the family was
established by an elder brother, Gian Giacomo, who fought his
way to the marquisate of Marignano and distinguished him-
self in the service of the emperor. Giovanni Angelo studied
in Bologna and Pavia, and for some time followed the law.
Entering the service of the Church, he found favour with Paul III.,
who entrusted him with the governorship of several important
towns, and in 1549 made him a cardinal. Julius III. sent him
upon missions to Germany and Hungary. With Paul IV. he
was out of favour, because not in sympathy with his policy, and
accordingly retired to Milan. In the protracted and momentous
conclave that followed the death of Paul the election of Pius
(Dec. 25, 1559) was due to a compromise between the Spanish
and French factions.

In temperament and habit Pius was the antithesis of his
predecessor: affable, vivacious, convivial. He was, moreover,
astute, diplomatic and experienced in affairs. He allowed the
reform movement free course, but tried to repair certain in-
justices of Paul IV. (for example, releasing and reinstating
Morone, who had been imprisoned on a charge of heresy), and
mitigated some of his extreme decrees. But to the nephews of
Paul he showed no mercy: they were charged with various crimes,
condemned, upon testimony of suspicious validity, and executed
on the 5th of March 1561. The Colonnesi, who had been active
fti the prosecution, recovered Paliano. But under Pius V.
judgment was reversed, the memory of the Caraffa rehabilitated,
and restitution made to the family. Pius IV. himself was not
guiltless of nepotism; but the bestowment of .the cardinalate
and the archbishopric of Milan upon his nephew, the pure and
upright Carlo Borromeo, redounded to the honour of his pontifi-
cate and the welfare of the church.

With England lost to the papacy, Germany overwhelmingly
Protestant, and France on the verge of civil war, Pius realized
how fatuous was the anti-Spanish policy of his predecessor.
He therefore recognized Ferdinand as emperor, and conciliated
Philip II. with extensive ecclesiastical privileges. But sub-
sequently, antagonized by Philip's arrogance, he inclined to-
wards France, and gave troops and money for the war against
the Huguenots.

PIUS (POPES)

685

After a suspension of ten years the council of Trent reconvened
on the 18th of January 1562. Among the demands presented
by the various nations were, the recognition of the equality of
the episcopate, communion in both kinds, clerical marriage, and
the use of the vernacular in Church services. It required all the
pope's diplomacy to avoid compliance on the one hand, and a
breach with the powers on the other. Thanks to Morone and
Borromeo, however, he achieved his end. The council was
dissolved on the 4th of December 1563, and its decrees and
definitions confirmed by the pope (Jan. 26, 1564), who reserved
to himself the sole right of interpretation. The decrees were
immediately accepted by most of the Catholic states; only
tardily, however, and with reservation by France and Spain.
Various measures were taken for carrying the decrees into effect:
residence was strictly enjoined; plurality of benefices prohibited;
the Inquisition resumed, under the presidency of Ghislieri
(afterwards Pius V.) ; a new edition of the Index published
(1564); and the " Tridentine creed" promulgated (Nov. 13,

1564).

After the termination of the council Pius indulged his desire
for ease and pleasure, to the great offence of the rigorists. A
certain fanatic, Benedetto Accolti, brooding over the pope's
unworthiness, felt inspired to remove him, but his plot was
discovered and punished (1565). Pius fortified Rome, and con-
tributed much to the embellishment of the city — among other
works, the church of Sta Maria degli Angeli in the Baths of
Diocletian; the Porta Pia; the Villa Pia in the Vatican Gardens;
and the Palace of the Conservatori. He died on the oth of
December, and was succeeded by Pius V.

See Panvinio, continuator of Platina, De vitis pontiff, rom. (a
contemporary of Pius) ; Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae sutnmorum
pontiff, rom. (Rome 1 601-1602; also contemporary); T. Muller,
Das Konklave Pius IV. (Gotha, 1889; more comprehensive than the
title suggests) ; Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin), i. 323 seq., 358
seq. ; and v. Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt Rom. iii. 2, 534 seq., 730 seq.

(T. F. C.)

Pius V. (Michele Ghislieri), pope from 1566 to 1572, was born
on the 17th of January 1504, in the Milanese. At the age of
fourteen he became a Dominican monk. His austere life, his
vehemence in attacking heresy and his rigorous discipline as
prior of several monasteries proved his fitness for the work of
reform, and he was appointed inquisitor in Como, where his
zeal provoked such opposition as to compel his recall (1550).
The chief inquisitor, Caraffa, convinced of his value, straightway
sent him upon a mission to Lombardy, and in 1551 appointed
him commissary-general of the Holy Office. When Caraffa
became pope, Ghislieri was made bishop of Nepi and Sutri,
cardinal (1557), and finally grand inquisitor, which office he
discharged in a manner to make the name of " Fra Michele dell'
Inquisizione " a terror. In this office he was continued by
Pius IV., whom, however, he repelled by his excessive severity,
and antagonized by his censoriousness and obstinacy. But the
movement with which he was so fully identified was irresistible;
and, after the death of Pius IV., the rigorists, led by Borromeo,
had no difficulty in making him pope (Jan. 7, 1566).

Though pope, Pius did not cease to be a monk: his ascetic
mode of life and his devotions suffered no interruption. With-
out delay he applied himself to the work of reform. Decrees
and ordinances were issued with astonishing rapidity: the papal
court was rid of everything unseemly, and became a model of
sobriety; prostitutes were driven from the city, or confined to a
certain quarter; severe penalties were attached to Sunday dese-
cration, profanity and animal baiting; clerical residence was
enforced; conventuals were compelled to live in strict seclusion
according to their vows; catechetical instruction was enjoined.
A new catechism appeared in 1566, followed by an improved
breviary (1568), and an improved missal (1570). The use of
indulgences and dispensations was restricted, and the penitential
system reformed.

Pius was the avowed enemy of nepotism. One nephew, it
is true, he made cardinal, but allowed him no influence: the rest
of his relatives he kept at a distance. By the constitution
Admonet nos (March 29, 1567), he forbade the reinvestiture

of fiefs that should revert to the Holy See, and bound the
cardinals by oath to observe it. In March 1569 Pius ordered
the expulsion of the Jews from the states of the Church. For
commercial reasons they were allowed to remain in Rome and
Ancona, but only upon humiliating conditions. In February
1 571, the Umiliati, a degenerate monastic order of Milan, was
suppressed on account of its complicity in an attempt upon the
life of the archbishop, Carlo Borromeo.

The election of Pius to the papacy was the enthronement of
the Inquisition: the utter extinction of heresy was his darling
ambition, and the possession of power only intensified his passion.
The rules governing the Holy Office were sharpened; old charges,
long suspended, were revived; rank offered no protection, but
rather exposed its possessor to fiercer attack; none were pursued
more relentlessly than the cultured, among whom many of the
Protestant doctrines had found acceptance; princes and states
withdrew their protection, and courted the favour of the Holy
See by surrendering distinguished offenders. Cosmo de' Medici
handed over Pietro Carnesecchi (and two years later received in
reward the title of grand duke, Sept. 1569); Venice delivered
Guido Zanetti; Philip II., Bartolome de Carranza, the arch-
bishop of Toledo. In March 1571 the Congregation of the
Index was established and greater thoroughness introduced into
the pursuit of heretical literature. The result was the flight of
hundreds of printers to Switzerland and Germany. Thus heresy
was hunted out of Italy: the only regret of Pius was that he
had sometimes been too lenient. In 1567 Pius condemned the
doctrines of Michael Baius, a professor of Louvain, who taught
justification by faith, asserted the sufficiency of the Scriptures,
and disparaged outward forms. Baius submitted; but his
doctrines were afterwards taken up by the Jansenists.

The political activities of Pius were controlled by one principle,
war upon the heretic and infidel. He spurred Philip II. on in the
Netherlands, and approved the bloody work of Alva. He
denounced all temporizing with the Huguenots, and commanded
their utter extermination {ad internecionem usque). While it
cannot be proven that he was privy to the massacre of St
Bartholomew, still his violent counsels could not fail to stir up
the most savage passions. He exclaimed loudly against the
emperor's toleration of Protestantism, and all but wished his
defeat at the hands of the Turks. He urged a general coalition
of the Catholic states against the Protestants; and yet published,
in sharper form, the bull In coena domini (1568), which was
regarded by these very states as an attack upon their sovereignty.
One of his cherished schemes was the invasion of England and
the dethronement of Elizabeth, whom he excommunicated and
declared a usurper (Feb. 25, 1570); but he was obliged to content
himself with abetting plots and fomenting rebellions. He did,
however, effect an alliance with Spain and Venice against the
Turks, and contributed to the victory of Lepanto (Oct. 6,

i57i)-

Thus lived and wrought Pius, presenting " a strange union
of singleness of purpose, magnanimity, austerity and profound
religious feeling with sour bigotry, relentless hatred and bloody
persecution " (Ranke). He died on the 1st of May 1572; and
was canonized by Clement XI. in 1712.

See Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff, rom. (Rome,
1601-1602; a contemporary of Pius); Acta sanctorum, maij, torn. i.
pp. 616 seq., containing the life by Gabuzio (1605), based upon an
earlier one by Catena (1586); Falloux, Hist, de St Pie V. (3rd ed. (
Paris, 1858), eulogistic; Mendham, Life and Pontificate of St Pius V.
(London, 1832), a bitter polemic. The life of Pius has also been
written by Fuenmayor (Madrid, 1595), Paolo Alessandro Maffei
(Rome, 1712), and by T. M. Granello (Bologna, 1877). His letters,
have been edited by Catena (vide supra), Goubau (Antwerp, 1640), and
a select number in a French translation, by de Potter (Paris, 1826).
See also Hilliger, Die Wahl Pius V. zum Papste (Leipzig, 1891);
Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin), i. 361 seq., 384 seq.; and von
Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt Rom. iii. 2, 557 seq. (T. F. C.)

Pius VI. (Giovanni Angelo Braschi), pope from 1775 to 1799,
was born at Cesena, on the 27th of December 1717. After taking
the degree of doctor of laws he went to Ferrara and became
the private secretary of Cardinal Ruffo, in whose bishopric of
Ostia and Velletri he held the post of uditore until 1753. His

686

PIUS (POPES)

skill in the conduct of a mission to the court of Naples won him
the esteem of Benedict XIV., who appointed him one of his
secretaries and canon of St Peter's. In 1758 he was raised to the
prelature, and in 1766 to the treasurership of the apostolic
chamber by Clement XIII. Those who chafed under his
conscientious economies cunningly induced Clement XIV. to
create him cardinal-priest of San Onofrio on the 26th of April
1773, a promotion which rendered him for the time innocuous.
In the four months' conclave which followed the death of
Clement XIV., Spain, France and Portugal at length dropped their
objection to Braschi, who was after all one of the more moderate
opponents of the anti-Jesuit policy of the previous pope, and he
was elected to the vacant see on the 15th of February 1775.

His earlier acts gave fair promise of liberal rule and reform in
the defective administration of the papal states. He showed
discrimination in his benevolences, reprimanded Potenziani, the
governor of Rome, for unsuppressed disorders, appointed a
council of cardinals to remedy the state of the finances and
relieve the pressure of imposts, called to account Nicolo Bischi
for the expenditure of moneys intended for the purchase of grain,
reduced the annual disbursements by the suppression of several
pensions, and adopted a system of bounties for the encourage-
ment of agriculture. The circumstances of his election, however,
involved him in difficulties from the outset of his pontificate.
He had received the support of the ministers of the Crowns and
the anti- Jesuit party upon a tacit understanding that he would
continue the action of Clement, by whose brief Dominus ac
redemptor (1773) the dissolution of the Society of Jesus had been
pronounced. On the other hand the zelanti, who believed him
secretly inclined towards Jesuitism, expected from him some
reparation for the alleged wrongs of the previous reign. As a
result of these complications Pius was led into a series of half
measures which gave little satisfaction to either party: although
it is perhaps largely due to him that the order was able to escape
shipwreck in White Russia and Silesia; at but one juncture did
he even seriously consider its universal re-establishment, namely
in 1792, as a bulwark against revolutionary ideas. Besides
facing dissatisfaction with this temporizing policy, Pius met with
practical protests tending to the limitation of papal authority.
To be sure " Febronius," the chief German literary exponent of
the old Gallican ideas, was himself led (not without scandal) to
retract; but his positions were adopted in Austria. Here the
social and ecclesiastical reforms undertaken by Joseph II. and
his minister Kaunitz touched the supremacy of Rome so nearly
that in the hope of staying them Pius adopted the excep-
tional course of visiting Vienna in person. He left Rome on
the 27th of February 1782, and, though magnificently received
by the emperor, his mission proved a fiasco; he was, however,
able a few years later to curb those German archbishops
who, in 1786 at the Congress at Ems, had shown a tendency
towards independence. In Naples difficulties necessitating
certain concessions in respect of feudal homage were raised by
the minister Tannucci, and more serious disagreements arose
with Leopold I. and Scipione de' Ricci, bishop of Pistoia and
Prato, upon the questions of reform in Tuscany; but Pius did
not think fit to condemn the offensive decrees of the synod of
Pistoia (1786) till nearly eight years had elapsed. At the out-
break of the French Revolution Pius was compelled to see the
old Gallican Church suppressed, the pontifical and ecclesiastical
possessions in France confiscated and an effigy of himself burnt by
the populace at the Palais Royal. The murder of the republican
agent, Hugo Basseville, in the streets of Rome (January 1793)
gave new ground of offence; the papal court was charged with
complicity by the French Convention; and Pius threw in his
lot with the league against France. In 1796 Napoleon invaded
Italy, defeated the papal troops and occupied Ancona and
Loreto. Pius sued for peace, which was granted at Tolentino
on the 19th of February 1797; but on the 28th of December of
that year, in a riot created by some Italian and French revolu-
tionists, General Duphot of the French embassy was killed and a
new pretext furnished for invasion. General Berthier marched
to Rome, entered it unopposed on the 13th of February 1798,

and, proclaiming a republic, demanded of the pope the renuncia-
tion of his temporal authority. Upon his refusal he was taken
prisoner, and on the 20th of February was escorted from the
Vatican to Siena, and thence to the Certosa near Florence. The
French declaration of war against Tuscany led to his removal
by way of Parma, Piacenza, Turin and Grenoble to the citadel
of Valence, where he died six weeks later, on the 29th of August
1 799. Pius VII. succeeded him.

The name of Pius VI. is associated with many and often
unpopular attempts to revive the splendour of Leo X. in the
promotion of art and public works — the words " Munificentia
Pii VI- P- M." graven in all parts of the city, giving rise amongst
his impoverished subjects to such satire as the insertion of a
minute loaf in the hands of Pasquin with that inscription
beneath it. He is best remembered in connexion with the estab-
lishment of the museum of the Vatican, begun at his suggestion
by his predecessor, and with an unpractical and expensive
attempt to drain the Pontine marshes.

Authorities.— Zopffel and Benrath, " Pius VI." in Herzog-
Hauck, Realencyklopadie, 3rd ed., vol. xv. pp. 441-451 (Leipzig, 1904,
with elaborate bibliography); F. Nielsen, History of the Papacy
in the 19th Century, vol. i. chap. vii. (London, 1906); J. Gendry, Pie
VI. sa vie, son pontifical, d'apres les archives vaticanes et de nombreux
documents inedits (2 vols., Paris, 1907). (W. W. R.*)

Pius VII. (Luigi Barnaba Chiaramcnti), pope from 1800 to
1823, the son of Count Scipione Chiaramonti and the deeply
religious Countess Ghini, was born at Cesena on the 14th of
August 1740 (not 1742). After studying at Ravenna, at the age
of sixteen he entered the Benedictine monastery of St Mary in
his native town: here he was known as Gregorio. Almost
immediately he was sent by his superiors to Padua and to Rome
for a further course of studies in theology. He then held various
teaching appointments in the colleges of his order at Parma and
at Rome. He was created an abbot of his order by his relative
Pius VI., who also appointed him bishop of Tivoli on the 16th
of December 1782, and on the 14th of February 1785, because
of excellent conduct of office, raised him to the cardinalate and
the see of Imcla. At the death of Pius VI. the conclave met at
Venice on the 30th of November 1799, with the result that
Chiaramonti, the candidate of the French cardinal-archbishop
Maury, who was most skilfully supported by the secretary of
the conclave Ercole Consalvi, was elected pope on the 14th of
March 1800. He was crowned on the 21st of that month;
in the following July he entered Rome, on the nth of August
appointed Consalvi cardinal-deacon and secretary of state, and
busied himself with administrative reforms.

His attention was at once directed to the ecclesiastical anarchy
of France, where, apart from the broad schism on the question
of submission to the civil constitution of the clergy, discipline
had been so far neglected that a large proportion of the churches
were closed, dioceses existed without bishops or with more than
one, Jansenism and clerical marriage were on the increase, and
indifference or hostility widely prevailed amongst the people.
Encouraged by Napoleon's desire for the re-establishment of the
Roman Catholic religion in France, Pius negotiated the celebrated
concordat, which was signed at Paris on the 15th of July and
ratified by Pius on the 14th of August 1801 (see Concordat).
The importance of this agreement was, however, considerably
lessened by the 'articles organiques " appended to it by the
French government on the 8th of April T802. In 1804 Napoleon
opened negotiations to secure at the pope's hands his formal
consecration as emperor. After some hesitation Pius was induced
to perform the ceremony at Notre Dame and to extend his visit
to Paris for four months; but in return for these favours he was
able to obtain from Napoleon merely one or two minor conces-
sions. Pius, who arrived in Rome on the 16th of May 1805, gave
to the college of cardinals a rose-coloured report of his experiences;
but disillusionment was rapid. Napoleon soon began to disregard
the Italian concordat of 1803, and himself decreed the dissolution
of the marriage of his brother Jerome with Miss Patterson of
Baltimore. The irritation between France and the Vatican
increased so rapidly that on the 2nd of February 1808 Rome was

PIUS (POPES)

687

occupied by General Miollis; a month later the provinces of
Ancona, Macerata, Fermo and Urbino were united to the kingdom
of Italy, and diplomatic relations between Napoleon and Rome
were broken off; finally, by a decree issued from Schonbrunn
on the 17 th of May 1809, the emperor united the papal states to
France. Pius retaliated by a bull excommunicating the invaders;
and, to prevent, insurrection, Miollis — either on his own responsi-
bility, as Napoleon afterwards asserted, or by order of the
latter — employed General Radet to take possession of the pope's
person. The palace on the Quirinal was broken open during
the night of July 5th, and, on the persistent refusal of Pius to
rescind the bull of excommunication and to renounce his temporal
authority, he was carried off, first to Grenoble, thence after an
interval to Savona on the Gulf of Genoa. Here he steadfastly
refused canonical institution to the bishops nominated by
Napoleon; and, when it was discovered that he was maintaining
a secret correspondence, he was deprived of all books, even of
pen and ink. At length, his nerves shattered by insomnia and
fever, he was willing to give satisfactory oral assurances as to
the institution of the French bishops.

In May 1812 Napoleon, on the pretext that the English might
liberate the pope if he were left at Savona, caused the aged and
sick pontiff to be transported to Fontainebleau; the journey was
so hard that on Mount Cenis Pius received the viaticum. Arriv-
ing safely, however, at Fontainebleau, he was lodged in a suite
of regal magnificence to await the return of the emperor from
Moscow. When Napoleon arrived, he entered into personal
negotiations with the pope, who on the 25th of January 1813
assented to a concordat so degrading that his conscience found
no relief till the 24th of March, when, on the advice of the cardinal
Pacca and Consalvi, he abrogated it; and on the 9th of May he
proceeded to defy the emperor by declaring invalid all the official
acts of the new French bishops. In consequence of the battle
of Leipzig and the entry of the allied forces into France, Napoleon
ordered in January 1814 that the pope be returned to Savona for
safe keeping; but soon the course of events forced him to liberate
the pope and give back the States of the Church. On the 19th
of March Pius left Savona, and was received with rejoicing at
Rome on the 24th of May. While Consalvi at the Congress of
Vienna was securing the restitution of nearly all the papal
territory, reaction had full swing at Rome; the Jesuits were
restored; the French legislation, much of which was of great
social value, was repealed; the Index and the Inquisition were
revived. On his return Consalvi conducted a more enlightened
and highly centralized administration, based largely on the
famous Motn propria of 1816; nevertheless the finances were in a
desperate condition. Discontent centred perhaps in the
Carbonari, a Liberal secret society condemned by the pope in
182 1. The chief triumphs of Consalvi were the negotiation of a
series of valuable concordats with all the Roman Catholic powers
save Austria. In the latter years of Pius's life royalty often
came to Rome; the pope was very gracious to exiled kings and
showed notable magnanimity toward the family of Napohon.
He also attracted many artists to the city, including the greatest
sculptors of the time, one of whom, the Protestant Thorwaldsen,
prepared the tomb in which repose the remains of the gentle and
courageous pontiff, who passed into rest on the 20th of August
1823. His successor was Leo XII.

Authorities.— Zopffel and Benrath, " Pius VII.," in Herzog-
Hauck, Realencyklopadie, xv. 4^51-458 (Leipzig, 1904), (long list of
older literature) ; Ilario Rinien, La Diplomazia pontijicia net secolo
XIX. (Rome, 1902), two volumes treating the years 1800-1805,
based largely on Vatican sources; I. Rinieri, Napoleone Pio VII.
(1804—1817), relaziovi storiche su documenti inediti dell' archivio
valicano (Turin, 1906) ; H. Chotard, Le Pape Pie VII. & Savone
(Paris, 1887): Mary H. Allies, Pius the Seventh (London, 1897), a
popular Roman Catholic biography; Leo Konig, S.J. Pius VII. Die
Sakularisation und das Reichskonkordat (Innsbruck, 1904), based
chiefly on Vienna material; H. Welschinger, Le Pape et I'empereur,
1804-1815 (Paris, 1905); Louis Madelin, La Rome de Napoleon: la
domination ft anqaise a Rome de 180Q a 1814 (Paris, 1906), an elaborate
study; L. G. Wickham-Legg, " The Concordats "(Cambridge Modern
History, vol. ix. ch. 7, 1906); Lady Blennerhassett, "The Papacy
and the Catholic Church " (Cambridge Modern History, vol. x. ch. 5,
1907). Both these last have good bibliographies. 'W. W. R.*)

Pius VIII. (Francesco Xaviero Castiglioni) , pope from 1829
to 1830, who came of a notable family at Cingoli near Ancona,
was born on the 20th of November 1761. He studied canon law
at Rome, became vicar-general at Anagni and later at Fano, and
in 1800 was appointed bishop of Montalto. Because he refused
the oath of allegiance to the Napoleonic king of Italy he was
carried captive to France; but in 1816 his steadfastness was
rewarded by his being created cardinal-priest of Sta Maria in
Trastevere; and this same year he was translated from the see
of Montalto to that of Cesena. In 182 1 he was made cardinal-
bishop of Frascati, also grand penitentiary; and later he became
prefect of the Congregation of the Index. In the conclave
which followed the death of Leo XII., Castiglioni, the candidate
of France, was elected pope on the 31st of March 1829. He
avoided nepotism, abandoned the system cf espionage employed
by his predecessor, and published an encyclical condemning
Bible societies and secret associations. He rejoiced over
Catholic emancipation in England, recognized Louis Philippe as
king of the French, and exhibited a pacific spirit in dealing with
the problem' of mixed marriages in Germany. Worn out with
work, he died on the morning of the 1st of December 1830. His
successor was Gregory XVI.

Authorities. — Zopffel and Benrath, " Pius VIII.," in Herzog-
Hauck, Realencyklopadie, xv. 458 seq. (Leipzig, 1904, with biblio-
graphy); F. Nielsen, A History of the Papacy in the jpth Century,
ii- 3 I_ 5° (London, 1906); P. B. Gams, Series episcoporum ecclesiae
catholicae (Regensburg, 1873). (W. W. R.*)

Pius IX. (Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti), pope from 1846
to 1878, was born on the 13th of May 1792 at Sinigaglia, the
fourth son of Count Jerome and Countess Catherine Vollazi; the
family of Mastai was of ancient descent, and the title of count
came to it in the 17th century, while later the elder branch,
allied by marriage with the Ferretti family, took that name in
addition. He spent some time at the College of Piarists in
Volaterra, and then proceeded to Rome with the intention of
entering the pontifical guard as an officer. In spite of his
good connexions, he was disappointed in this aim as it became
known that he suffered from epilepsy. The malady, however,
was surmounted; and in 1819 he was ordained priest. After
ministering for some time in his native town, he accompanied
Cardinal Muzzi to Chile (1823). On his return he was entrusted
by Leo XII. with the direction of the Roman hospital of San
Michele: in 1830 he received the archbishopric of Spoleto, in
1832 the bishopric cf lmola, and in 1840 Gregory XVI. created
him a cardinal, with the title Santi Pietro e Marecellino.

On the death of Gregory XVI. (June 1, 1846) the College
of Cardinals met in conclave on the 14th of June. But their
deliberations were destined to last but a short while; for, on the
1 6th of June, Cardinal Mastai Ferretti had already obtained the
requisite two-thirds majority, and ascended the papal chair
under the title of Pius IX. In his various capacities he had
gained much popularity: he had shown himself to be of a kindly
disposition and a zealous churchman, and his reputation for
piety and tact stood high; he possessed, too, a winning personality
and a handsome presence.

The reign of Pius IX. began at an extremely critical time. The
problem of the government of the Papal States, transmitted to
him by his predecessor, stood in urgent need of solution, for
the actual conditions were altogether intolerable. The irritation
of the populace had risen to such a pitch that it found vent in
revolts which could only be quelled by the intervention of foreign
powers; and the ferment in the dominions of the Church was
accentuated by the fact that the revolutionary spirit was in the
ascendant in all the states of Europe. The proclamation of a
general amnesty for all political offenders made an excellent
impression on the people; and Pius at once instituted preparations
for a reform of the administration, the judicature and the financial
system. The regulations affecting the censorship were mitigated,
and a breath of political liberalism vitalized the whole govern-
ment. Pius at once acquired the reputation of a reforming
pope. But the prestige so gained was not sufficient to calm the
people permanently, and two demands were urged with ever
increasing energy — a share in the government and a national

688

PIUS (POPES)

Italian policy. The problem of giving the people a due share
in the government was one of peculiar difficulty in the papal
states. It was not simply a question of adjusting the claims
of monarch and subject: it was necessary, at the same time, to
oust the clergy — who, till then, had held all the more important
offices in their own hands — from their dominant position, or at
least to limit their privileges. That the clerical character of the
administration could not be indefinitely retained was plain
enough, it would seem, to any clear-thinking statesman: for,
since the restoration of the papal state in 1814, the pernicious
effects of this confusion of the spiritual and the secular power
could no longer be denied. But Pius IX. lacked the courage
and perspicacity to draw the inevitable conclusions from these
premises; and the higher clergy at Rome were naturally opposed
to a policy which, by laicizing the administration, would have de-
prived them of the power and privileges they had so long enjoyed.
In these circumstances it is not surprising that the pope, while
making concessions to his people, did so with reservations which,
so far from restoring peace, served only to aggravate the turmoil.
By a motu proprio of the 2nd of October 1847 the government
of the city of Rome was reorganized and vested in a council of
100 members, not more than four of whom were to be clerics.
But the pope reserved to himself the right of nominating the
first members, and the new senate was only later to have the right
of filling up vacancies by co-optation. The institution of a
state council {consulta) was announced on the 19th of April 1847;
and on the 14th of October it was called into existence by a
motu proprio. It consisted of 24 councillors, who were to be
selected by the pope from a list of candidates to be submitted
by the provincial assemblies. A cardinal and one other prelate
were to be at its head. The consulta was to be divided into
four sections, dealing with (1) legislation, (2) finance, (3) internal
administration, (4) the army and public works. Matters of
importance were, however, to be submitted to the College of
Cardinals, after being debated in the consulta. A motu proprio of
the 29th of December altered the constitution of the ministerial
council. Nine mutually independent ministries were formed,
and the principle of the responsibility of the ministers was
established: but all the positions were filled by clerics.

The agitation for constitutional government was urgent in the
demand for further concessions; but they came too late. On the
1 2th of February a proclamation of the pope transferred three
portfolios to the laity; but the impression produced by the news
of the revolution in Paris nullified the effect. At the formation of
the Antonelli ministry (March 11), only the three departments
of foreign affairs, finance and education, were reserved by the
clergy; while the remaining six were entrusted to laymen. On
the 14th of March 1848 Pius took the last step, and published a
constitution {Fundamental Statute for the Secular Government of
the Slates of the Church). Two chambers were to be formed.
The first {alto consiglio) consisted of members nominated for
life by the pope; the second, of a hundred elected deputies.
The laws adopted by these two chambers had first to undergo
the scrutiny of the College of Cardinals, before being submitted
to the pope for his assent or rejection. Ecclesiastical, or
ecclesiastico-political, affairs were exempted from the jurisdiction
of the parliament; which was further required to abstain from the
enactment of laws conflicting with the discipline of the Church,
and from criticism of the diplomatic and religious relations of
the Holy See with foreign powers.

The utility of this constitution was never tested; for the demand
for an extension of popular rights was now eclipsed by a still
more passionate aspiration towards the national unity of Italy.
This nationalist movement at once took head against Austria.
On the 1 8th of March the revolution broke out in Milan, and King
Albert of Sardinia undertook the conduct of the war against the
emperor. When news of the events at Milan reached Rome
the populace was swept away in a whirlwind of enthusiasm:
the Austrian embassy was mobbed; the imperial arms, surmount-
ing the main gate of the palace, were torn down; and great troops
of volunteers clamoured to be led against Austria. Pius was
carried away at first on the flood-tide of excitement, and seemed,

after his proclamation of the 30th of March, on the point of
conferring his blessing upon the war against Austria. But the
course of political events during the next few weeks damped his
ardour. When, on the 29th of April, in his allocation to the
cardinals, he proclaimed the papal neutrality, the Romans
received his vacillation as a sign of treachery; and the storm,
precluded from discharging its fury on Austria, broke over his
head. When the ministry in power resigned office on the istof
May, the Mamiani administration was formed, only one cleric
being included. Mamiani himself, whose writings were on the
Index, had little sympathy with the pope, and did all that was
possible to complete the secularization of government in the
States of the Church. He received his dismissal on the 1st of
August, and was followed by Count Fabbri, then by Count de
Rossi, who made the last attempt to restore order by a moderate
liberal policy. On the 15th of November, as he was about to
open the Chambers, he was assassinated on the staircase leading
to the hall of session. A state of anarchy ensued. Armed
bands gathered before the Quirinal, and attempted to storm it.
To avoid further bloodshed the pope was compelled to assent to
the formation of a radically democratic ministry under Galetti.
The Swiss, who composed the papal guard, were disbanded; and
the protection of the pontiff was transferred to the civil militia;
in other words, Pius IX. was a prisoner. On the evening of the
24th of November he contrived by the aid of the French and
Bavarian ambassadors — the due d'Harcourt and Count Spaur — ■
to leave the palace unobserved, in the dress of a common priest,
and to reach Gaeta in the kingdom of Naples. From this refuge
he issued a breve on the 27 th of November, protesting against
the sacrilege practised on himself, declaring all actions forced
upon him null and void, and appointing a commission to carry
on the government in his absence. Since the Chamber declined
to recognize this step, and the pope was equally resolute in
refusing to hold any intercourse with the deputation which it
despatched to him, a supreme Giunta was provisionally created
by the Chamber on the nth of December to discharge all the
functions assigned to the executive power by the constitution.
On the 17th of the same month Pius made a public protest;
and, as soon as the elections for a national assembly were an-
nounced, he forbade any participation in them, menacing the
disobedient with the penalties of the Church (Jan. 1, 1849).
The elections, however, were held; and on the 9th of February the
constituent assembly decreed, by 142 votes to 23, the erection
of a Roman republic. Pius answered by a protest dated the 14th
of February. All the ecclesiastical property of the Roman state
was now declared to be vested in the republic; convents and
religious edifices were requisitioned for secular purposes; bene-
volent institutions were withdrawn from clerical influence; and
church establishments were deprived of the right to realize their
possessions. In the beginning of December Pius had already ap-
pealed to the European powers for assistance; and on the 7th of
February 1849 it was resolved in the Consistory to approach
officially France, Austria, Spain and Naples, with a view to
their armed intervention. The French republic, under the
presidency of Louis Napoleon, was the first state to throw troops
into Italy. On the 24th of April General Oudinot appeared
before Civita Vecchia; only to be defeated at first by Garibaldi.
But, after receiving reinforcements, he prosecuted the war
successfully, and made his entry into Rome on the 3rd of July;
while, in the early part of May an Austrian army advanced into
the north of the papal states. On the 14th of July Oudinot
proclaimed the restoration of the pontifical dominion; and,
three days later, Pius IX. issued a manifesto entrusting the
government to a commission appointed by himself.

On the 1 2th of April 1850 Pius returned to Rome, supported
by foreign arms, embittered, and hostile henceforward to every
form of political liberalism or national sentiment. In Gaeta he
had mentally cut himself loose from all ideas of progress, and had
thrown himself into the arms of the Jesuits. His subsequent
policy was stamped by reaction. Whether it might have been
possible to avoid the catastrophe of 1870 is a difficult question.
But there can be no question whatever that the policy which

PIUS (POPES)

68c

Pius now inaugurated, of restoring the old pre-revolutionary
conditions, sealed the fate of the temporal dominion of the
papacy. He made no attempt to regain the estranged affections
of the populace, and took no measures to liberate himself and his
subjects from the incubus of the last few years. He even sought
to exact vengeance for the events of that period: the state
officials, who had compromised themselves, lost their offices;
and all grants in aid were forfeited if the recipients were dis-
covered by the secret commissions (consigli di censura) to have
taken part in the revolutionary movement. The tribunals
extorted declarations on the part of witnesses by flogging,
deprivation of food, and like methods of torture. In many cases
the death sentence was executed at their instance, though the
guilt of the accused was never established. The system of
precautionary arrest, as it was termed, rendered it possible for
any man to be thrown into prison, without trial and without
verdict, simply on the ground that he lay under suspicion of
plotting against the government. The priests, who usurped
the judicial function, displayed such cruelty on several occasions
that officers of the Austrian army were compelled to record a
protest. The consequence of these methods was that every
victim — innocent or guilty — ranked as a martyr in the estimation
of his fellow-citizens. A subsidiary result was the revival of
brigandage, which found a suspicious degree of support among
the people. Corruption was rampant among the officials; the
police were accused of illicit bargaining with criminals; and
nothing but contempt was entertained for the papal army, which
was recruited from the dregs of humanity. To this was added a
disastrous financial administration, under which the efficiency
and credit of the country sank to appalling depths. The system
of taxation was calculated with a view to relieving the Church
and the clergy, and imposing the main burden upon the laity.
In this department the family of Cardinal Antonelli seems to have
played a fatal part. The secretary of state was born in humble
circumstances: when he died he left a fortune of more than
100,000,000 lire, to which a daughter succeeded in establishing
her claim. His brother Felippo was president of the Roman
Bank, and his brother Luigi the head of the Annona — an office
created to regulate the import of grain. The pope himself had
neither the will nor the power to institute searching financial
reforms; possibly, also, he was ignorant of the facts.

The mismanagement which obtained in the papal dominions
could not escape the observation of the other powers. As early
as the Congress of Paris in 1856 the English ambassador, Lord
Clarendon, had directed an annihilating criticism against the
government of the pontiff; and a convincing proof of the justice
of his verdict was given by Pius himself, in his treatment of the
famous Mortara case. A Jewish boy of this name had been torn
from his parents in Rome and the rite of baptism performed
on him without their knowledge or consent. The pope flatly
refused to restore the " Christian " to his Jewish parents, and
turned a deaf ear both to the protest of public opinion and the
diplomatic representations of France and England. The sequel
to this mode of government was that the growing embitterment
of the subjects of the Church came to be sympathized with outside
the bounds of Italy, and the question whether the secular
authority of the papacy could be allowed to continue became a
much-debated problem. Even the expression of the doubt was
symptomatic. In 1859 appeared an anonymous brochure, Le
Pape et le congres, composed by Laguerronniere, the friend of
Napoleon III., in which it was proposed to ensure the pope
" un revenu considerable " and the city of Rome, but to relieve
him of a political task to which he was not competent. In 1861
another anonymous pamphlet, Pro causa italica ad episcopos
catholicos, was published in Florence, advocating the ecclesiastico-
political programme of Cavour; and the pope was horrified when
he discovered that it came from the pen of Passaglia, the professor
of dogmatic theology. In spite of all, the national idea gained
strength in Italy, and the movement towards unity found power-
ful champions in King Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia and his
great statesman Cavour. Free scope was given when the under-
standing between the two powers protecting the papal state —

France and Austria — broke down. So soon as Napoleon anc
Cavour had come to an agreement war ensued, France anc
Sardinia being ranged against Austria (1859). The result wai
that Austria lost the greater part of her Italian possessions, whili
the pope also forfeited two-thirds of his dominions. By the war o:
1866, in which Italy fought on the Prussian side, Victor Emmanue
gained Venice in addition; so that the States of the Church noy
formed the last remaining obstacle to complete national unity
In September 1864, France — who had been the protectress o:
these states since 1849 — had concluded a treaty with Victoi
Emmanuel, undertaking to withdraw her garrison from Rome ir
two years time; while, on his part, the king agreed to abstair
from any attack on the papal dominions, and to guarantee th<
safety of the pope and the patrimonium Petri. The emperoi
Napoleon had, in point of fact, recalled his troops in 1866; bul
in 1867, when Garibaldi crossed the frontiers of the papal state
at the head of his volunteers, he declared the treaty violated and
again threw his regiments into Rome. Three years later the
time came when he could employ his arms more advantageous!}
elsewhere, and after the outbreak of the war with Germany Rome
was evacuated. The news that the French Empire had fallen
produced an electrical effect in Italy: the Italian parliament
called on the king to occupy Rome; on the 8th of September
Victor Emmanuel crossed the borders; and on the 20th of
September the green- white-and-red of the tricolour floated over
the Capitol. The protests of Pius IX. remained unheeded, and
his attempts to secure another foreign intervention met with
no success. On the 2nd of October Victor Emmanuel instituted
a plebiscite in Rome and the possessions of the Church to decide
the question of annexation. The result of the suffrage was
that 153,681 votes were given in favour of union with Italy,
and 1507 against the proposed incorporation: that is to say
only the direct dependants of the Vatican were opposed to the
change. The papal state was now merged in the kingdom of
Italy, which proceeded to define its diplomatic relations with
the Holy See by the law of the 13th of May 1871 (see Italy:
History) .

In his capacity as head of the Church, Pius IX. adhered to
the principles of the Ultramontanist party, and contributed
materially to the victory of that cause. The political reaction
which followed the revolutionary era in most quarters of Europe
offered a favourite soil for his efforts; and in several countries
he found it possible to regulate the relations between Church
and state from the standpoint of the curia. In 1851 he con-
cluded a concordat with Queen Isabella II. of Spain, proclaiming
Roman Catholicism the sole religion of the Spanish people, to
the exclusion of every other creed (art. 1) ; and we find the
same provision in another concordat with the South American
republic of Ecuador (1862). A third concordat, negotiated
with the emperor Francis Joseph I. of Austria (1855), entrusted
the supervision of schools and the censorship of literature to
the clergy, recognized the canon law, and repealed all secular
legislation conflicting with it. France came into line with the
wishes of the pope in every respect, as Napoleon needed clerical
support in his political designs. Even in Germany he found no
resistance; on the contrary, lie was able to secure advantageous
compacts from individual states (Hesse, 1854; Wurttemberg,
1857). In fact, the growing tendency to romanize Catholicism —
to bring it, that is to say, into close connexion with Rome, and
to a state of dependency on the guidance and instructions of the
curia — made special progress in Germany.

Among the most important acts of Pius IX. must be counted
his proclamation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception
of the Virgin Mary, by the bull Ineffabilis Deus, on the 8th of
December 1854. In this bull the preservation of Mary from every
stain of hereditary sin, in the first moment of her conception,
was declared to be a divinely revealed truth, which consequently
demanded universal acceptance (see Immaculate Conception).
By this means a view, which till then had been no more than a
pious belief, was elevated into a dogma to be held de fide; though
grave doubts on the subject had always been entertained, even
in the midst of the Church itself. For the inner life of that

6go

PIVOT— PIZARRO

Church this solution of the controversy was of great significance,
and created a desire for further dogmatic decisions on the Virgin
Mary — her resurrection and ascension. But the procedure of
Pius IX. proved of far-reaching importance from another point
of view. True, he had taken the opinion of the bishops on the
subject, and had received the assent of a large majority; none
the less, the verdict was pronounced by himself alone, not by an
ecumenical council. Thus, by arrogating the function formerly
exercised by the ecumenical council, he virtually laid claim to the
infallibility which had always been regarded as inherent only
in the doctrinal pronouncements of such a council: in other
words, he availed himself of a privilege not accorded to him till
the 18th of July 1870.

Though the Marian dogma of 1854 received, with very few
exceptions, an enthusiastic welcome in Roman Catholic circles,
another measure of the pope, ten years later, excited a painful
sensation even among the orthodox members of the Church. As
reigning sovereign of the papal states Pius IX. had passed
through a " liberal period ": as head of the Church, he had never
been liable to attacks of liberalism. Nevertheless, his return from
exile left its mark on his spiritual administration. For from this
period onwards he deliberately and stubbornly set his face against
the influence of modernism on ecclesiastical life; showed his
displeasure at and distrust of the scientific theology and philo-
sophy which marked a moderate advance (Giinther, Frohs-
chammer and Dollinger); and, entrenched in the stronghold of
medieval ideals, combated the transformations of the new order
of society, and the changes in the relationship between Church
and state, which obtained in most countries of Europe since
the French Revolution. After long and careful consultation, the
adverse criticisms which he had expressed on various occasions
were published on the 8th of December 1864, together with the
encyclical Quanta cura, under the title Syllabus complectens
praecipuos nostrae aetatis err ores (see Syllabus). In this Pius
claimed for the Church the control of all culture and all science,
and of the whole educational system. He rejected the liberty
of faith, conscience and worship enjoyed by other creeds; and
bade an easy farewell to the idea of tolerance. He claimed the
complete independence of the Church from state control; upheld
the necessity of a continuance of the temporal power of the
Roman See; and finally, in the last clause, declared that " the
pontiff neither can be nor ought to be reconciled with progress,
liberalism and modern civilization." The publication of this
syllabus created a profound impression: for it declared war on
modern society, and committed the papacy to the principles of
Ultramontanism (q.v.). But, as any attempt to translate its
precepts into practice would entail a disastrous conflict with the
existing regime as established by law, Roman Catholic circles
have frequently shown a tendency to belittle the significance of
the manifesto and to deny that its rules are absolutely binding.
But these well-meant explanations, however comprehensible,
are refuted by the unequivocal pronouncements of Pius IX.,
Leo XIII., and many recognized ecclesiastical authorities — e.g.
Cardinal Manning, archbishop of Westminster, who described the
syllabus as an emanation from the highest doctrinal authority
in the Church.

The zenith of Pius's pontificate was attained on the 18th of
July 1870 when the Vatican council proclaimed the infallibility of
the pope and the universality of his episcopate, thus elevating him
to a pinnacle which none of his predecessors had reached and at
the same time fulfilling his dearest wish. That, personally, he
laid great stress on the acceptance of the dogma, was a fact which
he did not attempt to conceal during the long preliminary deliber-
ations of the council; and his attitude was a not inconsiderable
factor in determining its final resolutions. But the loss of the
papal states, immediately afterwards, was a blow from which he
never recovered. Whenever he brought himself to speak of the
subject — and it was not rarely — he repeated his protest in the
bitterest terms, and, to the end of his days, refused to be recon-
ciled with the " sacrilegious " king of Italy. When, in Germany,
the situation created by the Vatican council led to the outbreak
of the Kulturkampf, Pius IX. failed to display the tact peculiar

to his successor. For, in the encyclical Quod numquam
(F^f 5, 1875), he took the rash step of declaring invalid the
Prussian laws regulating the relationship between Church and
state— the only result being that the feud was still further
embittered.

In these later years the dark days of his " captivity " were
amply compensated bythe proofs of reverence displayed by Roman
Catholic Christianity, which accorded him magnificent ovations
as his period of jubilee began to fall due. The twenty-fifth
anniversary of his pontificate was celebrated with great splendour
on the 16th of June 1871 ; for he was the first pope who had thus
reached the traditional " years of Peter." In 1872 his 80th
birthday gave occasion for new demonstrations; and 1875 was a
so-called " year of jubilee." Finally, in 1877, the fifty years of
his priesthood were completed: an event which brought him
innumerable expressions of loyalty and led to a great manifesta-
tion of devotion to the Holy See from all the Roman Catholic
world. On the 7th of February 1878 Pius IX. died. His
successor was Leo XIII.

Biographies. — Hulskamp, Papst Pius IX. in seinem Leben und
Wirken (2nd ed., Muinster, 1870); Legge, Pius IX. (London, 2 vols.,
1872) ; Gillet, Pie IX., sa vie et les actes de son pontifical (Paris, 1877) ;
Shea, Life and Pontificate of Pius IX. (New York, 1877) ; Trollope,
Life of Pius IX. (London, 2 vols., 1877); F. v. Dollinger " Pius IX."
in his Kleine Schriften, ed. Reusch (Stuttgart, 1890), p. 558 sqq.);
Stepischnegg, Papst Pius IX. und seine Zeit (2 vols., Vienna, 1879);
Wappmansperger, Leben und Wirken des Papstes Pius IX. (Regens-
burg, 1879); Pougeois, Histoire de Pie IX., son pontifical et son siecle
(6 vols., Paris, 1 877-1 886) ; Fr. Nielsen, The History of the Papacy in
the ipth Century, translated under the direction of A. F. Mason,
vol. ii. (London, 1906). For his work as sovereign of the papal
states, see F. v. Dollinger, Kirche und Kirchen, Papsttum und
Kirchenstaat (Munich, 1861); M. Brosch, Geschichte des Kirchen-
staates, vol. ii. (Gotha, 1882); A. F. Nurnberger, Papsttum und
Kirchenstaat (3 vols., Mainz, 1897-1900); C. Mirbt " Die Geschicht-
schreibung des vatikanischen Konzils," in the Historische Zeitschrift,
101. Bd. (3. Folge, 5 Bd.) 1908, p. 529-600.

Sources. — Acta Pit IX. (4 vols., Rome, 1854 sqq.); Acta sanctae
sedis (Rome, 1865 sqq.). A selection of the documents for the his-
tory of Pius IX. will be found in C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte
des Papsttums und des romischen Katholicismus (2nd ed., Tubingen,
1901). §§ 422-442, pp. 361-390. (C. M.)

Pius X. (Giuseppe Sarto), elected pope in 1903, was born on
the 2nd of June 1835, of humble parents, at the little town of
Riete in the province of Treviso, Italy. He studied theology at
the episcopal seminaries of Treviso and Padua, and was ordained
priest in 1858. For seventeen years he acted as parish priest at
various small places in Venetia, until in 1875 he was appointed
canon of the cathedral and superior of the seminary at Treviso.
In 1880 he refused the bishopric of Treviso, but in 1884, on the
express command of Leo XIII. , he accepted that of Mantua. On
the 12th of June 1893 he was created a cardinal, and three days
later was nominated patriarch of Venice. In Venice he made
himself very popular owing to his piety, his simplicity and geni-
ality, and by his readiness to act in harmony with the Italian
government. He succeeded Leo XIII. in his election to the
papal chair on the 4th of August 1903. (See Papacy, ad fin.)

PIVOT (Fr. pivot; probably connected with Ital. pivolo, peg, pin,
diminutive of piva, pipa, pipe), that on which something turns,
specifically a metal pointed pin or short shaft in machinery, such
as the end of an axle or spindle. The term occurs frequently ir»
combination with other words, chiefly in technical usage, e.g.
" pivot-gearing," for a system of gearing in machinery which
admits of the shifting of the axis of a driving wheel, so that the
power may be communicated in various directions.

PIZARRO, FRANCISCO (c. 1471 or 1475-1541), discoverer
and conqueror of Peru, was born at Trujillo in Estremadura,
Spain, about 1471 (or. 1475). He was an illegitimate son of
Gonzalo Pizarro, who as colonel of infantry afterwards served in
Italy under Gonsalvo de Cordova, and in Navarre, with some
distinction. Of Pizarro's early years hardly anything is known;
but he appears to have been poorly cared for, and his education
was neglected. Shortly after the news of the discovery of the
New World had reached Spain he was in Seville, and thence found
his way across the Atlantic. There he is heard of in 1510 as
having taken part in an expedition from Hispaniola to UrabS.

PIZZICATO— PLACENTA

691

under Alonzo de Ojeda, by whom he was entrusted with the
charge of the unfortunate settlement at San Sebastian. He
accompanied Balboa (whom he afterwards helped to bring to
the block) in the discovery of the Pacific; and under Pedrarias
d'Avila he received a repartimento, and became a cattle-farmer at
Panama. Here in 1522 he entered into a partnership with a
priest named Hernando de Luque, and a soldier named Diego de
Almagro, for purposes of exploration and conquest towards the
south. Pizarro, Almagro and Luque afterwards renewed their
compact in a more solemn and explicit manner, agreeing to
conquer and divide equally among themselves the opulent
empire they hoped to reach. Explorations were then undertaken
down the west coast of South America, in which Pizarro, though
left for months with but thirteen followers on a small island
without ship or stores, persisted till he had coasted as far as
about 9° S. and obtained distinct accounts of the Peruvian
Empire. The governor of Panama showing little disposition to
encourage the adventurers, Pizarro resolved to apply to the sove-
reign in person for help, and with this object sailed from Panama
for Spain in the spring of 15 28, reaching Seville in early summer.
Charles V. was won over, and on the 26th of July 1529 was
executed at Toledo the famous capitulation, by which Pizarro
was upon certain conditions made governor and captain-general
of the province of New Castile for the distance of 200 leagues
along the newly discovered coast, and invested with all the
authority and prerogatives of a viceroy, his associates being left
in wholly secondary positions. One of the conditions of the grant
was that within six months Pizarro should raise a sufficiently
equipped force of two hundred and fifty men, of whom one
hundred might be drawn from the colonies; as
he could not make up his due complement he
sailed clandestinely from San Lucar in January Gland./
1 5.30. He was afterwards joined by his brother I

Hernando with the remaining vessels, and when
the expedition left Panama in January of the
following year it numbered three ships, one
•hundred and eighty men, and twenty-seven
horses. The subsequent movements of Pizarro
belong to the history of Peru (q.v.). After the
final effort of the Incas to recover Cuzco in
1536-37 bad been defeated by Diego de
Almagro, a dispute occurred between him and
Pizarro respecting the limits of their jurisdic-
tion. This led to battle; Almagro was defeated
(1538) and executed; but his supporters
conspired, and assassinated Pizarro on the
26th of June 1541.

PIZZICATO (from Itai. pizzicare, to pluck or
twitch), a term in music for a direction to the
players of stringed instruments, that the passage

accounts for the occurrence of parts of a town being known as
Place, e.g. Ely Place in London, formerly the site of the town
residence of the bishops of Ely. A " place of arms " (Fr. place
d'armes), in fortification, means the wide spaces (suitable for
the assembly of troops for a sortie) made by the salients and
re-entrants of the covered way. The phrase is also used in
a strategic sense to express an entrenched camp or fortress in
which a large army can be collected under cover previous to
taking the field.

PLACENTA (Lat. for a cake), in anatomy, the organ by which
the embryo is nourished within the womb of its mother. When
the young one is born the placenta and membranes come away
as the " afterbirth." In human anatomy the organ is a circular
disk about seven or eight inches in diameter and one and a
quarter inches in thickness at its centre, while at its margin it
is very thin and is continuous with the foetal membranes. It
weighs about a pound.

In order to explain the formation of the placenta it is necessary
to encroach to some extent on the domain of physiology. Before
each menstrual period, during the child-bearing age of a woman,
the mucous membrane of the uterus hypertrophies, and, at the
period, is cast off and renewed, but if a fertilized ovum reaches the
uterus the casting off is postponed until the birth of the child. From
the fact that the thickened mucous membrane lining the interior
of the uterus is cast off sooner or later, it is spoken of as the " decidua."
The fertilized ovum, on reaching the uterus, sinks into and embeds
itself in the already prepared decidua, and, as it enlarges, there is
one part of the decidua lying between it and the uterine wall
(" decidua serrotina " or " basalis "), one part stretched over the
surface of the enlarging ovum (" decidua renexa " or " capsularis ")
and one part lining the rest of the uterus (" decidua vera ") (see fig 1.).

Decidua basalis.

Dilated part.
"Unchanged part.

Cavity which
becomes coelom.

Unchanged layer.

Stratum spongiosum. \rjterine

Stratum compactum. J mucosa.

Ectodermal villus enclosing
space containing maternal
blood.

x mass (Entoderm)-
Decidua vera.

From A. H. Young and A. Robinson, in Cunningham's Texl-Boak of Anatomy.

- - , 1 . . u 1 ju,,„i„„i^ «■!,„ „f r ;„r,<- Fig. 1. — Diagram representing a very young human ovum almost immediately

so marked is to be played by plucking the strings after {u entran * e ; nto t £ e decidl ? a) and ^ hi j st th 6 e place ofits entrance is still covered

with the fingers instead of using the bow. w ; tn a p i ug f fibrin. The ectoderm has already proliferated and embraced spaces

PIZZO, a seaport of Calabria, Italy in the which contain maternal blood and are continuous with the maternal blood-vessels.

province of Catanzaro, 72 m. by rail N.E. of

Reggio, situated on a steep cliff overlooking the Gulf of Santa
Eufemia, 351 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 9172. It has an
old castle, in which Joachim Murat, ex-king of Naples, was shot on
the 13th of October 1815. The people engage in tunny- and coral-
fishing. In 1783 the town was almost destroyed by an earth-
quake, and it suffered some damage from the same cause in 1905.

PLACARD (15th cent. Fr. plackart, from plaquier; mod. plaquer,
to plaster), a bill or poster pasted or affixed to a wall or in
any prominent -position for the purpose of giving notice to the
public of a proclamation, police or other regulations, or of
forthcoming events or the like.

PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. TrXarfc, wide),
a definite position in space, whether of limited or unlimited
extent, situation or locality; also position in a series or rank;
or an office, or employment, particularly one in the service of a
government. Special applications are to an open space in a
town, a group of buildings, row of houses, or as the name of a

It is the decidua basalis which is specially interesting in considering
the formation of the placenta. That part which is nearest the ovum
is called the " stratum compactum," but farther away the uterine
glands dilate and give a spongy appearance to the mucous membrane
which earns this particular layer the name of " stratum spongiosum."
Processes grow out from the surface of the ovum which penetrate the
stratum compactum of the decidua basalis and capsularis and push
their way into the enlarged maternal blood sinuses; these are the
" chorionic villi." Later, the " allantoic " or " abdominal_ stalk "
grows from the mesoderm of the hind end of the embryo into the
chorionic villi which enter the decidua basalis, and in this blood-
vessels pass which push their way into the maternal blood sinuses.
Eventually the original walls of these sinuses, together with the
false amnion, disappear, and nothing now separates the maternal from
the foetal blood except the delicate walls of the foetal vessels covered
by some nucleated noncellular tissue, known as syncytium, derived
from the chorionic epithelium, so that the embryo is able to take its
supply of oxygen and materials for growth from the blood of its
mother and to give up carbonic acid and excretory matters. It is
the gradual enlargement of the chorionic villi in the decidua basalis
together with the intervillous maternal blood sinuses that forms the

residence or manor-house. In certain cases this latter use | placenta ; the decidua capsularis and vera eventually become pressed

692

PLAGIARISM— PLAGIOCLASE

together as the embryo enlarges, and then, as pressure continues,
atrophy. The allantoic stalk elongates enormously, and in its later
Stages contains two arteries (umbilical) and only one vein (owing
to the obliteration of the right one) embedded in some loose connec-
tive tissue known as " Wharton's jelly." At first the stalk of the
yolk-sac is quite distinct from this, but later the two structures
become bound up together (see fig. 2), after which they are known as
the " umbilical cord." A distinction must be made between the
allantoic stalk and the allantois; the latter is an entodermal out-
growth from the hind end of the mesodaeum or primitive alimentary
canal, which in the human subject only reaches a little way toward
the placenta. The allantoic stalk is the mass of mesoderm contain-
ing blood-vessels which is pushed in front of the allantois and, as has
been shown, reaches and blends with the decidua basalis to form the
placenta.

For further details see Quain's Anatomy, vol. i. (London, 1908);
and, for literature, O. Hertwig's Handbuch der Entwickelungslehre
(Jena).

Comparative Anatomy. — If the placenta is to be regarded as a
close union between the vascular system of the parent and embryo,
the condition may be found casually scattered throughout the
phylum of the Chordata. In such a very lowly member of the

Placenta.

Unchanged layer.

'lacental villus.

'£ oik -sac

Peri-
cardium.

Heart.

Fused decidua cap-
sularis and decidua
vera.
Fused mesodermal
amnion and chorion.

From A. H. Young and A. Robinson, in Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.

Fig 2. — Diagram. Later stage in the development of the placenta,

showing the relations of the foetal villi to the placental sinuses, the
fusion of the amnion with the inner surface of the chorion, and the
thinning of the fused deciduae (capsularis and vera),
phylum as Salpa, a placenta is formed, and the embryo is nourished
within the body of its parent. In seme of the viviparous sharks,
e.g. the blue shark (Carcharias), the yolk-sac has ridges which fit
into grooves in the wall of the oviduct and allow an interchange of
materials between the maternal and foetal blood. This is an example
of an " umbilical placenta." In the viviparous blennies (Zoarces
viviparus), among the teleostean fishes, two or three hundred young
are nourished in the hollow ovary, which develops villi secreting
nutritive material. Among the Amphibia the alpine salamander
(Salamandra atra) nourishes its young in its oviducts until the gilled
stage of development is past, while in the Reptilia the young of a
viviparous lizard {Seps chalcides) establish a communication between
the yolk-sac anteriorly and the allantois posteriorly, on the one
hand, and the walls of the oviduct on the other. In this way both
an umbilical and an allantoic placenta are formed.

The mammals are divided into Placentalia and Aplacentalia ;
in the latter group, to which the monotremes and most marsupials

belong, the ova have a great deal of yolk, and the young, born in a
very immature condition, finish their development in their mother's
pouch; but although these mammals have no allantoic placenta
there is an intimate connexion between the walls of the yolk-sac and
the uterine mucous membrane, and so an umbilical or omphalic
placenta exists. The name Aplacentalia therefore only means that
they have no allantoic placenta. Among the Placentalia the
umbilical and allantoic placentae sometimes coexist for some time,
as in the case of the hedgehog, the bandicoot and the mouse. In
most of the lower placental mammals the allantois is much more
developed than in man, and the most primitive type of placenta is
that in which villi are formed over the whole surface of the chorion
projecting into the decidua of the tubular cornu of the uterus. This
is known as a " diffuse placenta," and is met with in the pangolin,
pig, hippopotamus, camel, chevrotain, horse, rhinoceros, tapir and
whale. When the villi are collected into a number of round tufts or
cotyledons, as in most ruminants, the type is spoken of as a " cotyle-
donous placenta," and an intermediate stage between this and the
last is found in the giraffe.

In the Carnivora, elephant, procavia (Hyrax) and aard vark
(Orycteropus), there is a " zonary-placenta " which forms a girdle
round the embryo. In sloths and lemurs the placenta is dome-
shaped, while in rodents, insectivores and bats, it is a ventral
disk or closely applied pair of disks, thus differing from the
dorsal disk of the ant-eater, armadillo and higher Primates,
which is known as a " metadiscoidal placenta." It will thus
be seen that the form of the placenta is not an altogether
trustworthy indication of the systemic position of its owner.
In the diffuse and cotyledonous placentae the villi do not
penetrate very deeply into the decidua, and at birth are simply
withdrawn, the decidua being left behind in the uterus, so that
these placentae are spoken of as non-deciduate while other
kinds are deciduate.

For further details see S. W. W. Turner, Lectures on the Com-
parative Anatomy of the Placenta (Edinburgh, 1876); A.Robinson,
" Mammalian Ova and the Formation of the Placenta," Journ.
Anat. and Phys. (1904) xxxviii., 186, 325. For literature up
to 1906, R. Wiedersheim's Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates,
translated and adapted by W. N. Parker (London, 1907).

(F. G. P.)

PLAGIARISM, an appropriation or copying from the
work of another, in literature or art, and the passing off
of the same as original or without acknowledgment of the
real authorship or source. The Lat. plagiaries meant a
kidnapper, stealer or abductor of a slave or child, though it
is also used in the modern sense of a literary pilferer or
purloiner by Martial (I. 53, 9). The word plagium is used
in the Digest of the offence of kidnapping or abduction,
and the ultimate source is probably to be found in plaga,
net, snare, trap, cognate with Gr. irkenuv, to weave, plait.
The idea of plagiarism as a wrong is comparatively modern,
and has grown up with the increasing sense of property in
works of the intellect. (See Copyright.)

PLAGIOCLASE, an important group of rock-forming
minerals, constituting an isomorphous series between albite,
or soda-felspar and anorthite, or lime-felspar. Inter-
mediate members are thus soda-lime-felspars, which in
their crystallographical, optical and other physical characters
vary progressively with the chemical composition between
the two extremes albite (NaAlSi 3 Os) and anorthite
(CaAl 2 Si20 8 ). This variation is continuous in the series,
but specific names are applied to members falling between
certain arbitrary limits, viz.: Albite, Ab ( = NaAlSisOV) ;
Oligoclase, AbeAm to AbjAnr, Andesine, Ab 3 Ani to
AbiAni; Labradorite, AbiAni to AbiAn 3 ; Bytownite,
AbiAn 3 to AbiAn 6 ; Anorthite, An ( = CaAl2Si 2 8 ).
All the members of the series crystallize in the anorthic
(triclinic) system. They possess a perfect cleavage parallel
to the basal pinacoid P (001) and a somewhat less pronounced
cleavage parallel to the pinacoid M (010). The angle between
these two cleavages varies from 86° 24' in albite to 85° 50' in
anorthite. It was on account of the oblique angle between
the cleavages that A. Breithaupt in 1847 gave the name plagio-
clase (Gr.irX&Yios, oblique, and kXSv, to cleave) to these felspars,
to distinguish them from the orthoclase felspar in which the
corresponding cleavage angle is a right angle. It should be
noted that the potash — and potash-soda-felspars, microcline
(q.v.) an anorthoclase, though also anorthic, are not included
in the plagioclase series of soda-lime-felspars. Crystals are

PLAGUE

6 93

usually tabular in habit, parallel to the plane M, as shown in
the accompanying figure; sometimes, however, they are flattened
parallel to P, this being a characteristic habit of the pericline
variety of albite; microlitic crystals forming the ground-mass
of volcanic rocks are usually elongated in the direction of the
edge between P and M.

Twinning is an important character, which is almost invariably
present and affords a ready means of distinguishing the plagioclases
from other felspars. Most frequent is the twinning
according to the " albite law " with M as twin-plane.
One half of the twin is turned through 180° about
the normal to this plane and the two portions are
united along the same plane (for figures of twinned
crystals see Albite). The basal planes of the two
portions are inclined to each other at a salient or
re-entrant angle of 7° 12' in albite and 8° 20' in
anorthite. This twinning is usually polysynthetic,
being many times repeated, and giving rise to
numerous thin lamellae, which are the cause of the
fine striations on the cleavage planes P and parallel to the edge PM,
so characteristic of the plagioclases as seen in hand specimens.
Viewed in polarized light, thin sections of twinned crystals show a
very characteristic banded structure parallel to M. A second twin-
law is known as the "pericline- law" because of its frequent occur-
rence in pericline. Here the axis of rotation is the edge x P (the
crystallographic axis b) and the plane of composition is the " rhombic
section " : the latter is a plane which intersects the prism faces T
and / in a rhomb; it is not a possible face of the crystal, and its
position varies in the different species. In addition to being
twinned according to these two laws, plagioclase may also be
twinned on the Carlsbad-, Baveno- and Manebach-laws, as in
orthoclase (?.».).

a specific infectious fever, one variety being characterized by
buboes (glandular swellings) and carbuncles. This definition
excludes many of the celebrated pestilences recorded in history
— such as the plague of Athens, described by Thucydides ; that
not less celebrated one which occurred in the reign of Marcus
Aurelius and spread over nearly the whole of the Roman world
(a.d. 164-180), 1 which is referred to, though not fully described,
by the contemporary pen of Galen; and that of the 3rd century
(about 253), the symptoms of which are known from the allusions
of St Cyprian (Sermo de mortalitate) . There is a certain resem-
blance between all these, but they were very different from
Oriental plague. " Plague " was formerly divided into two
chief varieties: (1) mild plague, pestis minor, larval plague
(Radcliffe), peste fruste, in which the special symptoms are
accompanied by little fever or general disturbance; and (2)
ordinary epidemic or severe plague, pestis major, in which the
general disturbance is very severe. Cases which are rapidly
fatal from the general disturbance without marked local symp-
toms have been distinguished as fulminant plague (pestis siderans,
peste foudroyante) .

History up to 1880.— The. first historical notice of the plague
is contained in a fragment of the physician Rufus of Ephesus,
who lived in the time of Trajan, preserved in the Collections of
Oribasius? Rufus speaks of the buboes called pestilential as
being specially fatal, and as being found chiefly in Libya,
Egypt and Syria. He refers to the testimony of a physician
Dionysius, who lived probably in the 3rd century B.C. or earlier}

Constants of Plagioclase Felspars.

Composi-
tion.

Si0 2 .

A1 2 3 .

Na 2 0.

CaO.

Sp. gr.

Melting-
point
(Centigrade).

Cleavage
Angle
PM.

Angle of
Rhombic
Section. *

Mean

Refractive

Index

P-

Optical Extinction.

On P.*

OnM*

In sections

j-M.

Ab

Ab 3 Ani

AbiAn,

Ab,Ab 3

An

68-7
62
55-6
49-3
43-2

19-5
24-0
28-3
32-6
36-7

n-8

8-7
5-7

2-8

5-3
10-4

15-3

20-I

2-624
2-659
2-694

2-728
2-758

1340°
1419°

1477°
1532°

86° 24'
86° 8'
86° 14'
86° 4'
85° 50'

+ 27°

+ 3°

- i°

- 9°

- 16°

1-534
1-542
1-558
1-570
1-582

+ 4° 3°'
+ i°4'
- 5° 10'
-17° 40'

-37°

+ 19°
+ 4° 36'
-16°
-29° 28'
-36°

-16°

+ 7°
+27°
+48°
+53°

' Angles measured to the edge PM.

The optical characters of the plagioclases have been the subject
of much study, since they are of great value in determining
the constituents of rocks in thin sections under the microscope.
The mean indices of refraction and the angles of extinction on the
cleavages P and M are given in the accompanying table. (The
meaning of the + and — directions will be seen from the figure,
where the face P slopes from left to right, i.e. the angle between the
normals to the faces lettered P and M is less than 90°). The extinc-
tion angles on other faces, or in sections of known orientation in the
crystal, also give constants of determinative value: for example., in
sections perpendicular to the plane M the extinctions, which in
crystals twinned according to the albite-law are symmetrical with
respect to this place, reach the maximum values given in the table.
Not only do the directions of extinction (axes of light-elasticity)
vary in the different species, but also the optic axial angle, so that
while albite is optically positive, anorthite is negative, and a member
near andesine has an axial angle of 90°. The figures seen in conver-
gent polarized light through the P and M cleavages are characteristic
of the different species. A detailed summary of the optical charac-
ters and their employment in discriminating the several members
of the plagioclase series is given by H. Rosenbuch, Mikroskopische
Physiographic der Mineralien und Gesleine (4th ed. Stuttgart, 1905).

The plagioclases occur as primary constituents of igneous rocks
of almost every kind, and are also frequent as secondary minerals
in metamorphic rocks. Albite and oligoclase are more characteristic
of acidic rocks, whilst the basic members at the anorthite end of
the series are characteristic of rocks containing less silica. The
composition may, however, vary even in the same crystal, zoned
crystals with a basic nucleus and with shells successively more and
more acid towards the exterior being common.

For further particulars respecting individual species and their
modes of occurrence see Albite ; Andesine ; Anorthite ; Bytownite
Labradorite; Oligoclase. (L. J. S.)

PLAGUE (in Gr. Xoijuos; in Lat. pestis, peslilentia) , in medicine,
a term given to any epidemic disease causing a great mortality,
and used in this sense by Galen and the ancient medical writers,
but now confined to a special disease, otherwise called Oriental,
Levantine, or Bubonic Plague, which may be shortly defined as

and to Dioscorides and Posidonius, who fully described these
buboes in a work on the plague which prevailed in Libya in
their time. Whatever the precise date of these physicians
may have been, this passage shows the antiquity of the plague
in northern Africa, which for centuries was considered as its
home. The great plague referred to by Livy (Ix. Epitome)
and more fully by Orosius (Histor. iv. n) was probably the
same, though the symptoms are not recorded. It is reported
to have destroyed a million of persons in Africa, but is not stated
to have passed into Europe.

It is not till the 6th century of our era, in the reign of Justinian,
that we find bubonic plague in Europe, as a part of the great
cycle of pestilence, accompanied by extraordinary natural
phenomena, which lasted fifty years, and is described with a
singular misunderstanding of medical terms by Gibbon in kis
forty-third chapter. The descriptions of the contemporary
writers Procopius, Evagrius arid Gregory of Tours are quite
unmistakable. 3 The plague of Justinian began at Pelusium in
Egypt in a.d. 542 ; it spread over Egypt, and in the same or the
next year passed to Constantinople, where it carried off 10,000
persons in one day, with all the symptoms of bubonic plague.
It appeared in Gaul in 546, where it is described by Gregory of
Tours with the same symptoms as lues inguinaria (from the
frequent seat of buboes in the groin). In Italy there was a
great mortality in 543, but the most notable epidemic was in
565, which so depopulated the country as to leave it an easy
prey to the Lombards. In 571 it is again recorded in Liguria,

1 Amm. Marcell. xxiii. 7; see Hecker, De peste Antoniana (Berlin,
1835).-

2 Lib. xliv. cap. 17 — CEuvres de Oribase, ed. Bussemaker and
Daremberg (Paris, 1851), iii. 607.

3 Evagrius, Hist, eccles. iv. 29; Procopius, De hello persico,
ii. 22, 23.

694

PLAGUE

and in 590 a great epidemic at Rome is connected with the
pontificate oi Gregory the Great. But it spread in fact over the
whole Roman world, beginning in maritime towns and radiating
inland. In another direction it extended from Egypt along the
north coast of Africa. Whether the numerous pestilences
recorded in the 7th century were the plague cannot now be said;
but it is possible the pestilences in England chronicled by Bede
in the years 664, 672, 679 and 683 may have been of this disease,
especially as in 690 pestis inguinaria is again recorded in Rome.
For the epidemics of the succeeding centuries we must refer to
more detailed works. 1

It is impossible, however, to pass over the great cycle of
epidemics in the 14th century known as the Black Death.

Whether in all the pestilences known by this name
Death.*" ^he disease was really the same may admit of doubt,

but it is clear that in some at least it was the bubonic
plague. Contemporary observers agree that the disease was
introduced from the East; and one eyewitness, Gabriel de
Mussis, an Italian lawyer, traced, or indeed accompanied, the
march of the plague from the Crimea (whither it was said to have
been introduced from Tartary) to Genoa, where with a handful
of survivors of a Genoese expedition he landed probably at the
end of the year 1347. He narrates how the few that had them-
selves escaped the pest transmitted the contagion to all they
met. 2 Other accounts, especially old Russian chronicles, place
the origin of the disease still farther east, in Cathay (or China),
where, as is confirmed to some extent by Chinese records,
pestilence and destructive inundations are said to have destroyed
the enormous number of thirteen millions. It appears to have
passed by way of Armenia into Asia Minor and thence to Egypt
and northern Africa. Nearly the whole of Europe was gradually
overrun by the pestilence. It reached Sicily in 1346, Constanti-
nople, Greece and parts of Italy early in 1347, and towards the
end of that year Marseilles. In 1348 it attacked Spain, northern
Italy and Rome, eastern Germany, many parts of France
including Paris, and England; from England it is said to have
been conveyed to the Scandinavian countries. In England the
western counties were first invaded early in the year, and London
in November. In 1349 we hear of it in the midlands; and in
subsequent years, at least till 1357, it prevailed in parts of the
country, or generally, especially in the towns. In 1352 Oxford
lost two-thirds of her academical population. The outbreaks of
1361 and 1368, known as the second and third plagues of the
reign of Edward III., were doubtless of the same disease, though
by some historians not called the black death. Scotland and
Ireland, though later affected, did not escape.

The nature of this pestilence has been a matter of much
controversy, and some have doubted its being truly the plague.
But when the symptoms are fully described they seem to justify
this conclusion, one character only being thought to make a
distinction between this and Oriental plague, viz. the special
implication of the lungs as shown by spitting of blood and other
symptoms. Guy de Chauliac notes this feature in the earlier
epidemic at Avignon, not in the later. Moreover, as this com-
plication was a marked feature in certain epidemics of plague
in India, the hypothesis has been framed by Hirsch that a special
variety of plague, pestis indica, still found in India, is that which
overran the world in the 14th century. But the same symptoms
(haemoptysis) have been seen, though less notably, in many

1 See Noah Webster's History of Epidemic Diseases, 8vo (2 vols.,
London, 1800) (a work which makes no pretension to medical
learning, but exhibits the history of epidemics in connexion with
physical disasters — as earthquakes, famines, &c.) ; Lersch, Kleine
Pest-Chronik (Svo, 1880) (a convenient short compendium , but not
always accurate) ; " Athanasii Kircheri Chronologia Pestium "
(to a.d. 1656), in Scrutinium pestis (Rome, 1658; Leipzig, 1671,
4to); Bascome, History of Epidemic Pestilences (London, 1851, 8vo).
The most complete medical history of epidemics is Haser's
Geschichte der epidemischen Krankheiten (3rd ed., Jena, 1882),
forming the third volume of his History of Medicine.

2 See the original account reprinted with other documents in
Haser, op. cit. ; also Hecker, Epidemics of the Middle Ages, trans,
by Babington, Sydenham Soc. (London, 1844) ; Volkskrankheiten
des Mittelalters, ed. Hirsch (Berlin, 1865) ; R. Hoeniger, Der schwarze
Tod in Deutschland (Berlin, 1882).

plague epidemics, even in the latest, that in Russia in 1878-1879,
and, moreover, according to the latest accounts, are not a special
feature of Indian plague. According to a Surgeon- General
Francis (Trans. Epidem. Soc. v. 398) " haemorrhage is not an
ordinary accompaniment " of Indian plague, though when seen
it is in the form of haemoptysis. It seems, therefore, impossible
to make a special variety of Indian plague, or to refer the black
death to any such special form. Gabriel de Mussis describes
it even in the East, before its arrival in Europe, as a bubonic
disease.

The mortality of the black death was, as is well known,
enormous. It is estimated in various parts of Europe at two-
thirds or three-fourths of the population in the first pestilence,
in England even higher; but some countries were much less
severely affected. Hecker calculates that one-fourth of the
population of Europe, or 25 millions of persons, died in the
whole of the epidemics.

In the 15th century the plague recurred frequently in nearly all
parts of Europe. In the first quarter it was very destructive in
Italy, in Spain (especially Barcelona and Seville), in Germany and
in England, where London was severely visited in 1400 and 1406,
and again in 1428. In 1427, 80,000 persons died in Dantzic and
the neighbourhood. In 1438-1439 the plague was in Germany,
and its occurrence at Basel was described by Aeneas Sylvius, after-
wards Pope Pius II. In 1448-1450 Italy (Kircher), Germany
(Lersch, from old chronicles), France and Spain, were ravaged by
a plague supposed to have arisen in Asia, scarcely less destructive
than the black death. England was probably seldom quite free
from plague, but the next great outbreak is recorded in 1472 and
following years. In 1466, 40,000 persons died of plague in Paris;
in 1477-1485 the cities of northern Italy were devastated, and in
1485 Brussels. In the fifteenth year of Henry VII. (1499-1500)
a severe plague in London caused the king to retire to Calais.

The 1 6th century was not more free from plague than the 15th.
Simultaneously with a terrible pestilence which is reported to
have nearly depopulated China, plague prevailed over Germany,
Holland, Italy and Spain, in the first decade of the century, and
revived at various times in the first half. In 1529 there was plague
in Edinburgh; in London in 1 537-1 539, and again 1547-1548; and
also in the north of England, though probably not absent before.
Some of the epidemics of this period in Italy and Germany are
known by the accounts of eminent physicians, as Vochs, Fracastor,
Mercurialis, Borgarucci, Ingrassia, Massaria, Amici, &c., 3 whose
writings are important because the question of contagion first
began to be raised, and also plague had to be distinguished from
typhus fever, which began in this century to appear in Europe.

The epidemic of 1 563-1 564 in London and England was very
severe, a thousand dying weekly in London. In Paris about this
time plague was an everyday occurrence, of which some were less
afraid than of a headache (Borgarucci). In 1570, 200,000 persons
died in Moscow and the neighbourhood, in 1572, 50,000 at Lyons;
in 1568 and 1574 plague was at Edinburgh, and in 1570 at New-
castle. When, however, in 1575 a new wave of plague passed over
Europe, its origin was referred to Constantinople, whence it was
said to have spread by sea to Malta, Sicily and Italy, and by land
through the Austrian territories to Germany. Others contended
that the disease originated locally; and, indeed, considering previous
history, no importation of plague would seem necessary to explain
its presence in Europe. Italy suffered severely (Venice, in 1576,
lost 70,000); North Europe not less, though later; London in
1580-1582. In 1585 Breslau witnessed the most destructive
plague known in its history. The great plague of 1592 in London
seems to have been a part of the same epidemic, which was hardly
extinguished by the end of the century, and is noted in London
again in I599- On the whole, this century shows a decrease of
plague in Europe.

In the first half of the 17th century plague was still prevalent
in Europe, though considerably less so than in the middle ages.
In the second half a still greater decline is observable, and by the
third quarter the disease had disappeared or was disappearing from
a great part of western Europe. The epidemics in England will
be most conveniently considered in one series. From this time

3 Vochs, Opusculum de pestilentia (1537); Fracastorius, " De
Contagione, &c," Opera (Venice, 1555); Hieron. Mercurialis, De
peste, praesertim de Veneta et Patavina (Basel, 1577); Prosper
Borgarutius, De peste (Venice, 1565), 8vo; Filippo Ingrassia, In-
formatione del pestifero morbo . . . Palermo e . . . regno di Sicilia
(i575~i576, 4to, Palermo, 1576-1577); A. Massaria, De peste
(Venice, 1597); Diomedes Amicus, Tres tractatus (Venice, 1599),
4to; Victor de Bonagentibus, Decern problemata de- peste (Venice,
1556), 8vo; Georgius Agricola, De peste libri tres (Basel, 1554) 8vo.
The works of English physicians of this period are of little medical
value; but Lodge's Treatise of the Plague (London, 1603) deserves
mention.

PLAGUE

onwards we have the guidance of the " Bills of Mortality " issued
in London, which, though drawn up on the evidence of ignorant
persons, are doubtless roughly true. The accession of James I. in
1603 was marked by a very destructive plague which killed 38,000
in London. In this and subsequent years the disease was widely
diffused in England — for instance, Oxford, Derbyshire, Newcastle.
It prevailed at the same time in Holland, and had done so some
years previously in northern Germany. In the same year (1603)
one million persons are said to have died of plague in Egypt. This
plague is said to have lasted eight years in London. At all events
in 1609 we have the second great plague year, with a mortality of
11,785. After this there is a remission till about 1620, when plague
again began to spread in northern Europe, especially Germany
and Holland, which was at that time ravaged by war. In 1625
(the year of the siege of Breda in Holland) is the third great London
plague with 35,417 deaths — though the year 1624 was remarkably
exempt, and 1626 nearly so. In 1630 was the great plague of
Milan, described by Ripamonti. 1 In 1632 a severe epidemic,
apparently plague, was in Derbyshire. 1636 is the fourth great
plague year in London with a mortality of 10,400, and even in the
next year 3082 persons died of the same disease. The same year
7000 out of 20,000 inhabitants of Newcastle died of plague; in 1635
it was at Hull. About the same time, 1635-1637, plague was pre-
valent in Holland, and the epidemic of Nijmwegen is celebrated
as having been described by Diemerbroeck, whose work {Tractatus
de peste, 4to, 1641-1665) is one of the most important on the subject.
The English epidemic, was widely spread and lasted till 1647, in
which year, the mortality amounting to 3597, we have the fifth
epidemic in London. The army diseases of the Civil Wars were
chiefly typhus and malarial fevers, but plague was not unknown
among them, as at Wallingford Castle (Willis, " Of Feavers,"
Works, ed. 1681, p. 131) and Dunstar Castle. From this time till
1664 little was heard of plague in England, though it did not cease
on the Continent. In Ireland it is said to have been seen for the
last time in 1650. 2

In 1656 one of the most destructive of all recorded epidemics
in Europe raged in Naples; it is said to have carried off 300,000
persons in the space of five months. It passed to Rome, but there
was much less fatal, making 14,000 victims only — a result attri-
buted by some to the precautions and sanitary measures introduced
by Cardinal Gastaldi, whose work, a splendid folio, written on
this occasion ( Tractatus de avertenda et profliganda peste politico-
legalis, Bologna, 1684) is historically one of the most important
on the subject of quarantine, &c. Genoa lost 60,000 inhabitants
from the same disease, but Tuscany remained untouched. The
comparatively limited spread of this frightful epidemic in Italy at
this time is a most noteworthy fact. Minorca is said to have been
depopulated. Nevertheless the epidemic spread in the next few
years over Spain and Germany, and a little later to Holland, where
Amsterdam in 1663-1664 was again ravaged with a mortality given
as 50,000, also Rotterdam and Haarlem. Hamburg suffered in
1664.

The Great Plague of London. — The preceding enumeration will
have prepared the reader to view the great plague of 1664-1665
Great in its true relation to others, and not as an isolated

Plague of phenomenon. The preceding years had been unusu-
Londoa. a rjy f ree f r0 m plague, and it was not mentioned in
the bills of mortality till in the autumn of 1664 (Nov. 2) a few
isolated cases were observed in the parishes of St Giles and
St Martin's, Westminster, and a few occurred in the following
winter, which was very severe. About May 1665 the disease
again became noticeable, and spread, but somewhat slowly.
Boghurst, a contemporary doctor, notices that it crept down
Holborn and took six months to travel from the western suburbs
(St Giles) to the eastern (Stepney) through the city. The
mortality rapidly rose from 43 in May to 500 in June, 6137 in
July, 17,036 in August, 31,159 in September, after which it
began to decline. The total number of deaths from plague
in that year, according to the bills of mortality, was 68,596, in
a population estimated at 460,000,' out of whom two-thirds
are supposed to have fled to escape the contagion. This number
is likely to be rather too low than too high, since of the 6432
deaths from spotted fever many were probably really from
plague, though not declared so to avoid painful restrictions.
In December there was a sudden fall in the mortality which
continued through the winter; but in 1666 nearly 2000 deaths
from plague are recorded.

1 Josephus Ripamontius, De peste anni 1630 (Milan, 1641), 4to.

2 For this period see Index to Remembrancia in Archives of City
of London 1579-1664 (London, 1878); Richardson, Plague and Pesti-
lence in North of England (Newcastle, 1852).

3 Graunt, Observations on the Bills of Mortality (3rd ed., London,
1665).

According to some authorities, especially Hodges, the plague
was imported into London by bales of merchandise from Holland,
which came originally from the Levant; according to others it
was introduced by Dutch prisoners of war; but Boghurst
regarded it as of local origin. It is in favour of the theory that
it spread by some means from Holland that plague had been all
but extinct in London for some seventeen years, and prevailed
in Holland in 1663-1664. But from its past history and local
conditions, London might well be deemed capable of producing
such an epidemic. In the bills of mortality since 1603 there are
only three years when no deaths from plague are recorded.
The uncleanliness cf the city was comparable to that of oriental
cities at the present day, and, according to contemporary
testimony (Garencieres, Angliae flagellum, London, 1647, p. 85),
little improved since Erasmus wrote his well-known description.
The spread of the disease only partially supported the doctrine
of contagion, as Boghurst says: " The disease spread not
altogether by contagion at first, nor began only at one place
and spread further and further as an eating sore doth all over
the body, but fell upon several places of city and suburbs like
rain." In fact dissemination seems to have taken place, as
usual, by the conversion of one house after another into a focus
of disease, a process favoured by the fatal custom of shutting
up infected houses with all their inmates, which was not only
almost- equivalent to a sentence of death on all therein, but
caused a dangerous concentration of the poison. The well-
known custom of marking such houses with a red cross and the
legend " God have mercy upon us!" was no new thing: it is
found in a proclamation in the possession of the present writer
dated 1641; and it was probably older still. Hodges testifies
to the futility and injurious effects of these regulations. The
lord mayor and magistrates not only carried out the appointed
administrative measures, but looked to the cleanliness of the
city and the relief of the poor, so that there was little or no
actual want; and the burial arrangements appear to have been
well attended to. The college of physicians, by royal command,
put forth such advice and prescriptions as were thought best for
the emergency. But it is clear that neither these measures nor
medical treatment had any effect in checking the disease. Early
in November with colder weather it began to decline; and in
December there was so little fear of contagion that those who
had left the city " crowded back as thick as they fled." As has
often been observed in other plague epidemics, sound people
could enter infected houses and even sleep in the beds of those
who had died of the plague " before they were even cold or
cleansed from the stench of the diseased " (Hodges). The
symptoms of the disease being such as have been generally
observed need not be here considered. The disease was, as
always, most destructive in squalid, dirty neighbourhoods and
among the poor, so as to be called the " poor's plague." Those
who lived in the town in barges or ships did not take the disease;
and the houses on London Bridge were but little affected. Of
those doctors who remained in the city some eight or nine died,
not a large proportion. Some had the rare courage to investigate
the mysterious disease by dissecting the bodies of the dead.
Hodges implies that he did so, though he left no full account of
his observations. Dr George Thomson, a chemist and a disciple
of Van Helmont, followed the example, and nearly lost his life
by an attack which immediately followed. 4

The plague of 1665 was widely spread over England, and was

4 On the plague of 1665 see Nath. Hodges, Lpimologia sive pestis
nuperae api'd populum londinensem narratio (London, 1672) 8vo — in
English by Quincy (London, 1720), (thechief authority) ; AoiftoypaQta
or an Experimental Relation of the last Plague in the City of London,
by William Boghurst, apothecary in St Giles's-in-the-Fields (London,
1666), — a MS. in British Museum (Sloane 349), containing im-
portant details; George Thomson, AOIMOTOMIA, or the Pest
Anatomized, 8vo (London, 1 666); Sydenham, " Febris pestilentialis
et pestis annorum 1665-1666," Opera, ed. Greehhill, p. 96 (London,
1844); Collection of Scarce Pieces on the Plague in 1665 (London,
1721), 8vo; Defoe's fascinating Journal of a Citizen, which should
be read and admired as a fiction, but accepted with caution as
history; T. Vincent (minister of the gospel), God's Terrible Voice
in the City, 8vo (London, 1667) ; Calendar of State Papers (1665-
1666; " Domestic " series), by M. E. Green.

6 9 6

PLAGUE

generally regarded as having ba;n transmitted from London, as it
appeared mostly later than in the metropolis, and in many cases the
importation by a particular person could be traced. Places near
London were earliest affected, as Brentford, Greenwich, Deptford;
but in July or August 1665 it was already in Southampton, Sunder-
land, Newcastle, &c. A wider distribution occurred in the next
year. Oxford entirely escaped, though the residence of the court
and in constant communication with London. The exemption was
attributed to cleanliness and good drainage.

After 1666 there was no epidemic of plague in London or any
part of England, though sporadic cases appear in bills of mortality
up to 1679; and a column filled up with " o " was left till 1703,
when it finally disappeared. The disappearance of plague in
London was attributed to the Great Fire, but no such cause existed
in other cities. It has also been ascribed to quarantine, but no
effective quarantine was established till 1720, so that the cessation
of plague in England must be regarded as spontaneous.

But this was no isolated fact. A similar cessation of plague was
noted soon after in the greater part of western Europe. In 1666 a
severe plague raged in Cologne and on the Rhine, which was pro-
longed till 1670 in the district. In the Netherlands there was
plague in 1667-1669, but there are no definite notices of it after
1672. France saw the last plague epidemic in 1668, till it reappeared
in 1720. In the years 1675-1684 a new plague epidemic appeared
in North Africa, Turkey, Poland, Hungary, Austria and Germany,
progressing generally northward. Malta lost 11,000 persons in
1675. The plague of Vienna in 1679 was very severe, causing
76,000 or probably more deaths. Prague in 1681 lost 83,000 by
plague. Dresden was affected in 1680, Magdeburg and Halle in
1682 — in the latter town with a mortality of 4397 out of a popula-
tion of about 10,000. Many North German cities suffered about
the same time; but in 1683 the plague disappeared from Germany
till the epidemic of 1707. In Spain it ceased about 1681; in Italy
certain cities were attacked till the end of the century, but not
later (Hirsch).

Plague in the iSth Century. — At the beginning of this period
plague was very prevalent in Constantinople and along the Danube.
In 1703 it caused great destruction in the Ukraine. In 1704 it
began to spread through Poland, and later to Silesia, Lithuania,
Prussia and a great part of Germany and Scandinavia. In Prussia
and Lithuania 283,000 persons perished; Dantzig, Hamburg and
other northern cities suffered severely. Copenhagen was attacked
in 1 710. In Stockholm there was a mortality of 40,000. Certain
places near Brunswick (io c E.) marked the western limit of the
epidemic; and cholera was arrested at the same spot in later years
(Haser).

At the same time the plague spread westward from the Danube
to Transylvania and Styria, and (1713) appeared in Austria and
Bohemia, causing great mortality in Vienna. Thence it passed to
Prague and Ratisbon — to the former, possibly to the latter, almost
certainly conveyed by human intercourse. This city (12 E.) was
the western limit reached in this year. Haser states that the
plague disappeared everywhere in Europe after the great hurricane
of the 27th of February 17 14.

In 171 7 plague raged severely in Constantinople; and in 1 719
it made a fresh progress westward into Transylvania, Hungary,
Galicia and Poland, but not farther (about 20° E.). It thus
appears that each successive invasion had a more easterly western-
limit, and that the gradual narrowing of the range of plague, which
began in the 17th century, was still going on.

This process suffered a temporary interruption by the outbreak
of plague of southern France in 1720-1722. In 1720 Marseilles
became affected with an epidemic plague, the origin of which was
attributed by some to contagion through the ship of a Captain
Chataud which arrived on the 20th of May 1720, from Syria, where
plague at that time prevailed, though not epidemically when
he sailed. Six of the crew had died on the voyage to Leghorn,
but the disease was declared not to be plague. Cases of plague
occurred, however, on the ship, and on the 22nd of June among
porters unloading the cargo. Hence, according to believers in
contagion, the disease passed to families in the " old town," the
poorest and unhealthiest quarter. In the meantime other ships
had arrived from Syria, which were put in quarantine. According
to others the plague arose in Marseilles from local causes; and re-
cently discovered data show that suspicious cases of contagious
disease occurred in the town before the arrival of Chataud's ship. 1
Opinions were divided, and the evidence appears even now nearly
balanced, though the believers in contagion and importation
gained the victory in public opinion. The pestilence was fearfully
severe. Thousands of unburied corpses filled the streets, and in
all 40,000 to 60,000 persons were carried off. In December 1721
the plague passed away, though isolated cases occurred in 1722.
It passed to, or at least broke out in, Aries and Aix in 1720, causing
great mortality, but in Toulon not till 1721, when it destroyed

1 Relation historique de la peste de Marseille (Cologne, 1721,
Paris, 1722, &c); Chicoyneau, Verny, &c, Observations et reflexions
. . . de la peste (Marseilles, 1721); Chicoyneau, TraitS de la peste,
Paris, 1744); LittrtS, article "Peste," in Dictionnaire de midicine,
xxiv. (Paris, 1841).

two-thirds of the population. The epidemic spread generally
over Provence, but not to other parts of France, notwithstanding
that, as confessed by DAntrechaus, consul of Toulon, a believer
in the exclusive power of contagion, there were abundant oppor-
tunities. The disease was in fact, as in other cases, self-limited.
In all 87,659 persons are said to have died out of a population of
nearly 250,00c 2

This great epidemic caused a panic in England which led to the
introduction (under Mead's advice) of quarantine regulations,
never previously enforced, and also led to the publication of many
pamphlets, &c, beside Mead's well-known Discourse on Pestilential
Contagion (London, 1720).

Plague in Sicily in 1743. — An outbreak of plague at Messina in

1743 is important, not only for its fatality, but as one of thestrong-
est cases in favour of the theory of imported contagion. Messina
had been free from plague since 1624, and the Sicilians prided them-
selves on the rigour of the quarantine laws which were thought
to have preserved them. In May 1743 a vessel arrived ftom Corfu,
on board of which had occurred some suspicious deaths. The ship
and cargo were burnt, but soon after cases of a suspicious form
of disease were observed in the hospital and in the poorest parts
of the town; and in the summer a fearful epidemic of plague
developed itself which destroyed 40,000 or 50,000 persons, and
then became extinct without spreading to other parts of Sicily.

Spread of Plague from the East. — Independent of the episodes of
Marseilles and Messina, the spread of plague from the East con-
tinued to exhibit the above-mentioned law of limitation. In 1738-

1744 the disease was in the Ukraine, Hungary, the borders of Carn-
iola, Moravia and Austria, extending along the Carpathians as far
as Poland (20° E.), and also in Bukowina (25 E.). It lasted till
1745, and then disappeared from those parts for fifteen years. In
1 755-1 757 plague prevailed in parts of European Turkey, whence
it on one occasion extended into Transylvania, in the neighbour-
hood of Cronstadt, where it was checked (25-5° E.). 3

In 1770 a destructive plague arose in Moldavia during the Russo-
Turkish War, and shortly afterwards in Wallachia, apparently
endemic in the former country at least. It affected also Transyl-
vania and part of Hungary, and still more severely Poland, but
was confined to Podolia, Volhynia, the Ukraine and east Galicia
(5° E.), not even penetrating as far as Warsaw. After destroying,
it is said, 300,000 persons, and without being checked by any
quarantine regulations, the plague died out finally in March 1771,
being remarkable for its short duration and spontaneous limitation
(Haser).

In another direction the plague spread over Little Russia in 1770,
and desolated Kieff, while in the next year it broke out in Moscow
and produced one of the most destructive epidemics of modern
times. More than 50,000 persons, nearly one-fourth of the popula-
tion, were carried off. 4

The remaining European plague-epidemics of the 18th century
were inconsiderable, but on that very account noteworthy. Tran-
sylvania was again affected in 1785, Slavonia and Livonia (a
district of eastern Galicia) in 1795-1796 (25° E.), Volhynia in
1798. The disease, while reappearing in the seats of the terrible
earlier epidemics, was more limited in its range and of shorter
duration. 6 An epidemic in Dalmatia in 1 783-1 784 is noteworthy
in connexion with later outbreaks in the same region. In the last
years of the century (179971800) there was a new epidemic in Syria
and Egypt, where it affected the French and afterwards the English
army.

Plague in the igth Century. — Plague appeared at Constanti-
nople in 1802-1803, about the same time in Armenia (Kars),
and in 1801 in Bagdad. It had prevailed since 1798 in
Georgia and the Caucasus, and in 1803-1806 began to spread
from the north of the Caucasus into Russia, till in 1806 it was
established at or near Astrakhan, and in 1807 reached Zareff,
200 m. higher up the Volga. These localities are interesting
as being near those where plague appeared in 1877-1878.
It is also said to have entered the government of Saratov,
but probably no great distance. 6 The plague remained in
the Caucasus and Georgia till 1819 at least. In 1828-1831 it
was in Armenia, and again in 1840-1843, since which time it
has not been heard of in that country.

2 D'Antrechaus, Relation de la peste de Toulon en 1721 (Paris,
1756); G. Lambert, Histoire de la peste de Toulon en 1721 (Toulon,
1861), quoted by Haser, Gesch. der epidem. Krankh.

3 Adam Chen'ot, Abhandlung von der Pest (Dresden, 1776); De
Peste (Vienna, 1766).

1 Samoilowitz, Memoire sur la peste en Russie, 177 1 (Paris, 1783);
Mertens, De la peste en 1 771 (Paris, 1784).

6 Lorinser, Pest des orients (Berlin, 1837) p. 103; Schraud, Pest
in Syrmien, 1795 (2 vols., Pesth, 1801).

6 From the annals of the Moravian community of Sarepta on
the Volga, Geschichte der Brilder-Gemeinde Sarepta, by A. Glitsch
(Sarepta and Berlin, 1865) ; also Tholozan, Epidemies de peste du
Caucase (Paris, 1879).

PLAGUE

697

In 1808 plague was at Constantinople, in 1809 at Smyrna.
In 181 2 was a more general epidemic affecting these places and
also Egypt. An outbreak at Odessa is supposed to have been
brought from Constantinople, and thence to have passed to
Transylvania. In 1813 a severe plague at Bucharest is sup-
posed to have been brought from Constantinople. About the
same time plague prevailed in Bosnia, and is supposed to have
passed thence to Dalmatia in 1815. In 1814-1815 it again
appeared in Egypt, and once more invaded the continent of
Europe in Albania and Bosnia. Two insular outbreaks, Malta
in 1813 and Corfu in 1815, attracted much attention as being
both thought to be cases of importation by sea-traffic, 1 and
there seems good reason for this opinion.

A panic spread through Europe in 181 5 in consequence of an
outbreak in Noja on the eastern coast cf Italy. According to
one view it was imported from the opposite coast of Dalmatia,
though no definite history of contagion was established; accord-
ing to others, it originated endemically in that place. It
remained, however, strictly confined to a small district, perhaps
in consequence of the extraordinarily rigorous measures of
isolation adopted by the Italian government. In 1828 an
isolated epidemic appeared in Greece in the Morea, supposed to
have been brought by troops from Egypt. 2 In 1824-1825 an
outbreak took place at Tutchkoff in Bessarabia; the town was
strictly isolated by a military cordon and the disease did not
spread. 3 Cronstadt in Transylvania was the scene of a small
outbreak in 1828, which was said to be isolated by similar
measures (Lorinser). A far more serious epidemic was connected
with the campaign of the Russian army against Turkey in
1828-1829. Moldavia, Wallachia and Bessarabia were widely
affected; the disease broke out also in Odessa and the Crimea,
and isolated cases occurred in Transylvania. The most
northerly points reached by the plague were near Czernowitz
on the frontier of Bessarabia and Bukowina, and its limitation
was as before attributed to the Russian and Austrian military
cordons.

In 1 83 1 another epidemic occurred in Constantinople and
Roumelia; in 1837 again in Roumelia and in Odessa — its last
appearance in these regions, and the last on the European
continent except an isolated outbreak in Dalmatia in 1840, and
one in Constantinople in 1841. 4

The plague-epidemics in Egypt between 1833 and 1845 are
very important in the history of plague, since the disease was
almost for the first time scientifically studied in its home by
skilled European physicians, chiefly French. The disease was
found to be less contagious than reported to be by popular
tradition, and most of the French school went so far as to deny the
contagiousness of the disease altogether. The epidemic of 1834-
1835 was not less destructive than many of those notorious-
in history; but in 1844-1845 the disease disappeared.

In 1853 plague appeared in a district of western Arabia, the
Asir country in North Yemen, and it is known to have occurred
in the same district in 1815, as it did afterwards in 1.874 and
1879. In 1874 the disease extended within four days' march of
Mecca. From the scantiness of population the mortality was
not great, but it became clear that this is one of the endemic
seats of plague. 5

In June 1858 intelligence was received in Constantinople of an
outbreak of disease at the small town Benghazi, in the district
of Barca, province of Tripoli, North Africa, which though at
first misunderstood was clearly bubonic plague. From later
researches there is reason to believe that it began in 1856 or in
1855. The disease did not spread, and ceased in the autumn, to

1 Faulkner, On the Plague in Malta (London, 1820), 8vo; J. D.
Tully, History of the Plague in Malta, Gozo, Corfu and Cephalonia
(London, 1821), 8vo;White, Treatise on the Plague (at Corfu) (London
1847); Calvert, "On the Plague in Malta, 1813," Med.-Chi. Trans-
actions, vi. 1.

2 L. A. Gosse, Relation de la peste en Grece, 1827-1828 (Paris,
1838).

3 Lorinser, Pest des orients, p. 319.

4 For the authorities, see Haser, Op. cit.

6 J. N. Radcliffe, Report of Local Government Board 1870-1880,
suppl., p. 42.

return with less violence in 1859, when it died out. In the
autumn of 1873 it returned, but came again to a spontaneous
termination. 6

After the epidemic of Benghazi in 1856-1859, plague was next
heard of in the district of Maku, in the extreme north-west of
Persia in November 1863. It occurred in a scattered population,
and the mortality was not absolutely large. 7

In 1867 an outbreak of plague was reported in Mesopotamia
(Irak), among the marshes of Hindieh bordering on the lower
Euphrates. The epidemic began in December 1866 (or probably
earlier) and ceased in June 1867. But numerous cases of non-
fatal mild bubonic disease (mild plague or pestis minor) occurred
both before and after the epidemic, and according to Tholozan
similar cases had been observed nearly every year from 1856 to
1865. 8

The next severe epidemic of plague in Irak began in December
1873. But facts collected by Tholozan show that pestis minor,
or sporadic cases of true plague, had appeared in 1868 and
subsequent years. The outbreak of 1873-1874 began about 60 m.
from the origin of that of 1867. It caused a much greater
mortality and extended over a much wider area than that of
1867, including the towns of Kerbela and Hilleh. After a short
interval it reappeared at Divanieh in December 1874, and spread
over a much wider area than in the previous epidemics. This
epidemic was carefully studied by Surgeon-Major Colvill. 9 He
estimated the mortality at 4000. The epidemic ceased in July,
but broke out again early in 1876, and in this year extended
northwards to Bagdad and beyond. The whole area now
affected extended 250 m. from north-west to south-east, and
the total number of deaths was believed to be 20,000. In
1877 plague also occurred at Shuster in south-west Persia,
probably conveyed by pilgrims returning from Irak, and caused
great mortality.

After its customary cessation in the autumn the epidemic
began again in October 1876, though sporadic cases occurred
all the summer. The disease appeared in 1877 in other parts of
Mesopotamia also with less severity than in 1876, but over a
wider area, being now announced at Samara, a town 70 m. above
Bagdad on the Tigris. The existence of plague in Bagdad or
Mesopotamia was not again announced till the year 1884, when
accounts again appeared in the newspapers, and in that July the
usual official statement was made that the plague had been
stamped out.

In 1870-1871 it appeared in a district of Mukri in Persian
Kurdistan to the south of Lake Urumiah (far removed from the
outbreak of 1863). The epidemic appears, however, to have
died out in 1871, and no further accounts of plague there were
received. The district had suffered in the great epidemic of plague
in Persia in 1829-1835. In the winter 1876-1877 a disease which
appears to have been plague appeared in two villages in the
extreme north of the province of Khorasan, about 25 leagues
from the south-east angle of the Caspian Sea. In March 1877
plague broke out in Resbt, a town of 20,000 inhabitants, in the
province of Ghilan, near the Caspian Sea at its south-west angle,
from which there is a certain amount of trade with Astrakhan.
In 1832 a very destructive plague had carried off half the
inhabitants. In 1877 the plague was very fatal. From March
to September 4000 persons were calculated to have died. The
disease continued till the spring of 1878. In 1877 there was a
doubtful report of the same disease at Astrabad, and also in some
parts near the Perso-Afghan frontier. In 1878 plague again
occurred in Kurdistan in the district of So-uj-Bulak, said by Dr
Tholozan to be the same as in the district of Mukri where it
occurred in 1870-1871. These scattered outbreaks of plague in
Persian territory are the more remarkable because that country

6 Tholozan, La Peste en Turquie dans les temps modernes (Paris,
1880).

7 J. Netten Radcliffe, Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy
Council, &c. {1875); also in Papers on Levantine Plague, presented
to parliament (1879), p. 7.

8 Tholozan, La Peste en Turquie, p. 86.

9 See his report cited by Radcliffe, Papers on Levantine Plague
(1879).

6 9 8

PLAGUE

had been generally noted for its freedom from plague (as com-
pared with Asiatic Turkey and the Levant).

A few cases of plague occurred in January 1877 at Baku on
the west shore of the Caspian, in Russian territory. 1

An outbreak of plague on European soil in 1878-1879 on the
banks of the Volga caused a panic throughout Europe. 2 In
the summer of 1877 a disease prevailed in several villages in
the neighbourhood of Astrakhan and in the city itself, which was
clearly a mild form of plague (pestis minor). It caused no
deaths (or only one due to a complication) and died out appar-
ently spontaneously. An official physician, Dr Kastorsky, who
investigated the matter for the government, declared the disease
to be identical with that prevailing in the same year at Resht
in Persia; another physician, Dr Janizky, even gave it the name
of pestis nostras. In October 1878 some cases appeared in the
slanitza or Cossack military settlement of Vetlanka, 130 m.
from Astrakhan on the right bank of the Volga, which seem to
have puzzled the physicians who first observed them, but on
the 30th of November were recognized as being but the same
mild plague as had been observed the year before near Astrakhan
by Dr Doppner, chief medical officer of the Cossacks of Astra-
khan. His report on the epidemic is the only original one we
have. At the end of November 3 the disease became suddenly
more severe, and most of those attacked died; and from the 21st
of December it became still more malignant, death occurring in
some cases in a few hours, and without any buboes being formed.
No case of recovery was known in this period. At the end of
the year it rapidly declined, and in the first weeks of January
still more so. The last death was on the 24th of January. In
the second half of December, when the disease had already lasted
two months, cases of plague occurred in several neighbouring
villages, all of an extremely malignant type, so that in some
places all who were attacked died. In most of these cases the
disease began with persons who had been at Vetlanka, though
this was not universally established. The inhabitants of these
villages, terrified at the accounts from Vetlanka, strictly isolated
the sick, and thus probably checked the spread of the disease.
But it evidently suffered a spontaneous decline. By the end of
January there were no cases left in the district except at one
village (Selitrennoye), where the last occurred on the 9th of
February. The total number of cases in Vetlanka, out of a
population of about 1700, was 417, of whom 362 died. In the
other villages there were about 62 deaths from plague, and not
more than two or three cases of recovery. In consequence of
the alarm excited by this appearance of plague upon European
soil, most European governments sent special commissions to
the spot. The British commissioners were Surgeon-Major
Colvill and Dr J. F. Payne, who, like all the foreign commis-
sioners, reached the spot when the epidemic was over. With
respect to the origin of this epidemic, the possibility of its having
originated on the spot, as in Resht and on the Euphrates in
very similar situations, is not to be denied. An attempt was
made to show that the contagion was brought home by Cossacks
returning from the Turkish War, but on absolutely no evidence.
In the opinion of Dr Payne the real beginning of the disease was
in the year 1877, in the vicinity of Astrakhan, and the sudden
development of the malignant out of a mild form of the disease
was no more than had been observed in other places. The Astra-
khan disease may have been imported from Resht or Baku, or
may have been caused concurrently with the epidemics of these
places by some cause affecting the basin of the Caspian generally.
Plague in India. — It used to be held as a maxim that plague
never appeared east of the Indus; nevertheless it was observed
during the 19th century in more than one distinct centre in
India. So long ago as 181 5 the disease appeared in Guzerat,
Kattywar and Cutch, " after three years of severe famine."

1 J. Netten Radcliffe, Reports; Tholozan, Histoire de la peste
bubonique en Perse (Paris, 1874).

5 See Radcliffe, Reports (1 879-1 880); Hirsch and Sommerbrodt,
Pest-Epidetnie 1878-1879 in Aslrachan (Berlin, 1880); Zuber,
La Peste d' Astrakhan en 1878-1879 (Paris, 1880) ; Colvill and Payne,
Report to the Lord President of the Council (1879).

' The dates are all reduced to new style.

It reappeared early next year, in the same locality, when it
extended to Sind as far as Hyderabad, and in another direction
south-east as far as Ahmedabad and Dhollerah. But it disap-
peared from these parts in 1820 or early in 1821, and was not
heard of again till July 1836, when a disease broke out into
violence at the town of Pali in Marwar in Rajputana. It
spread from Pali to the province of Meywar, but died out spon-
taneously in the hot season of 1837. The origin of these two
epidemics was obscure. No importation from other countries
could be traced.

In 1823 (though not officially known till later) an epidemic
broke out at Kedarnath in Gurwhal, a sub-district of Kumaon
on the south-west of the Himalayas, on a high situation. In
1834 and 1836 other epidemics occurred, which at last attracted
the attention of government. In 1849-1850, and again in 1852,
the disease raged very severely and spread southward. In 1853
Dr Francis and Dr Pearson were appointed a commission to in-
quire into the malady. In 1876-1877 another outbreak occurred.
The symptoms of this disease, called maha murree or mahamari
by the natives, were precisely those of oriental plague. The
feature of blood-spitting, to which much importance had been
attached, appeared to be not a common one. A very remarkable
circumstance was the death of animals (rats, and more rarely
snakes) at the outbreak of an epidemic. The rats brought up
blood, and the body of one examined after death by Dr Francis
showed an affection of the lungs. 4

Oriental plague was observed in the Chinese province of
Yunnan from 1871, and also at Pakhoi, a port in the Tongking
Gulf, in 1882 — being said to have prevailed there at least fifteen
years. In both places the symptoms were the same, of
undoubted bubonic plague. At Pakhoi it recurs nearly every
year. 6

In 1880 therefore plague existed or had existed within ten
years, in the following parts of the world: (1) Benghazi, Africa;
(2) Persian Kurdistan; (3). Irak, on the Tigris and Euphrates;
(4) the Asir country, western Arabia; (5) on the lower Volga,
Russia; (6) northern Persia and the shores of the Caspian;
(7) Kumaon and Gurhwal, India; (8) Yunnan and Pakhoi,
China.

Literature. — See the following works, besides those already
quoted: Kamintus, Regimen contra epidimiam sive pestem, 4to,
c. 1494 (many editions) ; Jacobus Soldus, Opus insigne de peste,
4to (Bologna, 1478) ; Alex. Benedictus, De observatione in pestilentia,
4to (Venice, 1493) ; Nicolaus Massa, De febre pestilentia, 4to (Venice,
1556, &c.) ; Fioravanti, Regimento delta peste, 8vo, Venice, 1556;
John Woodall, The Surgeon's Mate, folio (London, 1639) ! Van
Helmont, Tumulus pestis, 8vo (Cologne, 1644, &c.) ; Muratori,
Trattato del governo delta peste, Modena, 1714; John Howard,
An Account of Lazarettoes in Europe, &c.,*4to (London, 1789);
Patrick Russell, A Treatise of the Plague, 4to (London, I 791);
Thomas Hancock, Researches into the Laws of Pestilence, 8vo
(London, 1821); Foderfi, Lecons sur les epidemies, &c, 4 vols. 8vo
(Paris, 1822-1824) ; S6gur Dupeyron, Recherches historiques, &c,
sur la peste (1837); Bulard, La Peste orientate, 8vo (Paris, 1839);
Griesinger, Die tnfectionskrankheiten (2nd ed., 8vo, Erlangen,
1864). (J. F. P.)

History since 1880. — The most striking feature of the early
history of plague summarized above is the gradual retrocession
of plague from the west, after a series of exceedingly destructive
outbreaks extending over several centuries, and its eventual
disappearance from Europe. It appears to have come to a
sudden end in one country after another, and to have been seen
there no more. Those lying most to the west were the first

4 On Indian plague, see Francis, Trans. Epidem. Soc. Lond.
iv. 407-408; John Murray, ibid., vol. iv. part 2; J. N. Radcliffe,
Reports of Local Government Board (1875, 1876, 1877 and for 1879-
1880); Parliamentary Papers (1879); Frederick Forbes, On Plague
in North-West Provinces of India (Edinburgh, 1840) (Disserta-
tion) ; Hirsch, Handbuch der historischen-geogr. Pathologie, i. 209
(i860), (Eng. trans, by Creighton, London, 1883); Hecker's Volks-
krankheiten des Mittelalters (Berlin, 1865), p. 101 ; Webb, Pathologia
indica (2nd ed., Calcutta, 1848).

5 See J. N. Radcliffe's Report for 1879-1880, p. 45; Manson in
Reports of Imperial Chinese Customs, special series No. 2, for half-
year ended the 31st of March 1878, 15th issue (Shanghai); Lowry,
" Notes on Epidemic Disease at Pakhoi " (1882), ibid., 24th issue,
P- 3i-

PLAGUE

699

to be freed from its presence, namely, England, Portugal and
Spain. From all these it finally disappeared about 1680, at the
close of a period of pandemic prevalence. Northern and central
Europe became free about 17 14, and the south of France in
1722. The last outbreak in northern Russia occurred in 1770.
After this plague only appeared in the south-east of Europe,
where in turn it gradually died away during the first half of the
19th century. In 1841 its long reign on this continent came to
an end with an isolated outbreak in Turkey. From that time
until quite recently it remained extinct, except in the East.
The province of Astrakhan, where a very small and limited out-
break occurred in 1878, is politically in Europe, but geographi-
cally it belongs rather to Asia. And even in the East plague
was confined to more or less clearly localized epidemics; it showed
no power of pandemic diffusion. In short, if we regard the his-
tory of this disease as a whole, it appears to have lost such
power from the time of the Great Plague of London in 1665,
which was part of a pandemic wave, until the present day.
There was not merely a gradual withdrawal eastwards lasting
nearly two hundred years, but the outbreaks which occurred
during that period, violent as some of them were, showed a
constantly diminishing power of diffusion and an increasing
tendency to localization. The sudden reversal of that long
process is therefore a very remarkable occurrence. Emerging
from the remote endemic centres to which it had retreated,
plague has once more taken its place among the zymotic diseases
with which Western communities have to reckon, and that
which has for more than a century been little more than a name
and a tradition has become the familiar object of investigation,
carried on with all the ardour and all the resources of modern
science. In what follows an attempt will be made to summarize
the facts and indicate the conclusions to be drawn from recent
experience.

Diffusion. — At the outset it is characteristic of this subtle
disorder that the present pandemic diffusion cannot be traced
with certainty to a definite time or place of origin. Herein it
differs notably from other exotic diseases liable to similar
diffusion. For instance, the last visitation of cholera could be
traced clearly and definitely to a point of origin in northern
India in the spring of 1892, and could be followed thence step
by step in its march westward (see Cholera). Similarly,
though not with equal precision, the last wave of influenza was
shown to have started from central Asia in the spring of 1889,
to have travelled through Europe from east to west, to have
been carried thence across the sea to America and the Antipodes,
until it eventually invaded every inhabited part of the globe
(see Influenza). In both cases no doubt remains that the
all-important means of dissemination is human intercourse.
The movements of plague cannot be followed.in the same way.
With regard to origin, several endemic centres are now recog-
nized in Asia and Africa, namely, (1) the district of Assyr in
Arabia, on the eastern shore of the Red Sea; (2) parts of Meso-
potamia and Persia; (3) the district of Garwhal and Kumaon
in the North- West Provinces of India; (4) Yunnan in China;
(5) East and Central Africa. The last was recently discovered
by Dr Koch. It includes the district of Kisiba in German
East Africa, and extends into Uganda. In applying the term
" endemic centres " to these localities, no very precise meaning
can be attached to the word. They are for the most part so
remote, and the information about them so scanty, that our
knowledge is largely guesswork. What we mean is that there
is evidence to show that under various names a disease identical
with plague has been more or less continuously prevalent for a
number of years, but how long and how continuously is not
known. Whether any of them are permanent homes of plague
the evidence does not enable us to say. They seem, at any
rate, to have harboured it since its disappearance from Europe,
and probably further investigation would disclose a still wider
prevalence. For instance, there are good reasons for believing
that the island of Reunion has been subject, since 1840 or there-
abouts, to outbreaks under the name of " lymphangite infec-
tieuse," an elegant euphemism characteristically French. In

all the countries named plague appears to behave very much as
it used to do in Europe from the time of the Black Death on-
wards. That is to say, there are periods of quiescence, with
epidemic outbreaks which attract notice at irregular intervals.

Taking up the story at the point where the earlier historical
summary leaves off, we get the following list of countries in
which plague is known to have been present in each year (see
Local Government Board's Reports): 1880, Mesopotamia;
1 88 1, Mesopotamia, Persia and China; 1882, Persia and China;
1883, China; 1884, China and India (as mahamari); 1885, Persia;
1886, 1887, 1888, India (as mahamari) ; 1889, Arabia, Persia and
China; 1890, Arabia, Persia and China; 1891, Arabia, China
and India (as mahamari); 1892, Mesopotamia, Persia, China,
Russia (in central Asia); 1893, Arabia, China, Russia and
India (as mahamari) ; 1894, Arabia, China and India (as
mahamari); 1895, Arabia and China; 1896, Arabia, Asia
Minor, China, Japan, Russia and India (Bombay) ; 1897, Arabia,
China, Japan, India, Russia and East Africa; 1898, Arabia,
Persia, China, Japan, Russia, East Africa, Madagascar and
Vienna; 1899, Arabia, Persia, China, Japan, Mesopotamia,
East Africa, West Africa, Philippine Islands, Straits Settlements,
Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion, Egypt, European Russia,
Portugal, Sandwich Islands, New Caledonia, Paraguay, Argen-
tine, Brazil: 1900, to the foregoing should be added Turkey,
Australia, California, Mexico and Glasgow; in 1901, South
Africa and in 1902 Russia chiefly at Odessa.

This list is probably by no means exhaustive, but it sufficiently
indicates in a summary fashion the extent of that wave of diffu-
sion which set in during the closing years of the 19th century.
It did not fully gather way till 1896, when plague appeared in
Bombay, but our modern knowledge of the disease dates from
1894, when it attacked Hong Kong and first presented itself to
accurate observation. From this point a more detailed account-
may be given. Plague was recognized at Hong Kong in May
1894, and there can be little doubt that it was imported from
Canton, where a violent outbreak-^-said to have caused 100,000
deaths — was in progress a few months earlier, being part of ail
extensive wave of infection which is believed to have come
originally out of the province of Yunnan, one of the recognized
endemic centres, and to have invaded a large number of places
in that part of China, including Pakhoi and other seaports.
Hong Kong was severely affected, and has never since been
entirely free from plague. In two intermediate years — 1895
and 1897 — very few cases were recorded, but more recently the
epidemic has gathered force again. The following table gives
the cases and deaths in each of the six years 1894-1899: —

Year.

1894 . . .

1895 • • •

1896 . . .

1897 . . .

1898 . . .

1899 . . .

Total

Cases.

2833
45

1204
21

1320

i486

6909

Deaths.

2550
36

1078
18

"75

1415

6272

Case Mortality.

%
90
80
89

85
89

95

90-7

The excessively high rate of mortality is probably due in
part to under-statement of the number of cases. Concealment
is practised by the Chinese, who are chiefly attacked, and it is
easier to conceal sickness than death. Plague appears to have
been equally persistent and destructive on the mainland in
southern China during the period indicated, but no accurate
details are available. In 1897 the Portuguese settlements of
Lappa and Macao were invaded. In addition to the provinces
of Yunnan, Kwang-si and Kwang-tung in southern China,
plague is reported to have been present for several years in a
district in Mongolia to the north of Peking, and distant about
" twelve days' ride." More recently several localities in Mon-
golia and Manchuria have been affected. Formosa was attacked
in 1896, and suffered considerably in subsequent years; in 1899
I the Japanese government officially reported 2633 cases, with

700

PLAGUE

1974 deaths. Japan itself has had a certain amount of imported
plague, but not on a large scale. Speaking generally, the disease
has persisted and spread in the Far East since 1894, but precise
information is lacking, except with regard to Hong Kong.
W. J. Simpson in his Report on the Causes of the P ague in
Hong Kong (1903) reports the endemicity of the plague in that
colony to be maintained by (a) infection among rats often
connected with infectious material in rat runs or in houses, the
virus of which has not been destroyed, (b) retention of infection
in houses which are rat-ridden, and (c) infected clothing of people
who have been ill or died of plague. He considers the outbreaks
are favoured by the seasonal heat and moisture of the spring
and early summer, and the movement from place to place of
infected rats or persons. He also believes that human beings
may infect rats. In 310 cases of plague examined by Simpson
56% were bubonic, 40% septic and 4% pneumonic.

In r89& plague appeared in the city of Bombay. It was
certainly present in August, but was not recognized until the
23rd of September, and the diagnosis was not bacteriolcgically
confirmed until the 13th of October. This feet should be
remembered when failure to recognize the disease on its first
appearance occurs elsewhere. The origin of the Bombay inva-
sion is shrouded in obscurity. It is not even known when or
in what part of the city it began (Condon, The Bombay Plague).
Several theories have been put forward, and importation by
sea from China is the theory which has met with most acceptance.
The native form of plague, known as mahamari, is confined to
the southern slopes of the Himalaya. It is described above,
but that account may be supplemented by seme earlier references
unearthed by the Bombay Gazetteer (vol. iv.). Ibn Batesta
notices two destructive pestilences in the 14th century, and
Ferishta one in 1443, which he calls ta'un, and dsscribes as very
unusual in India. At the end of the 16th century there was a
pestilence following a prolonged famine, and in the 17th century
two violent epidemics are recorded under the names ta'un and
waba. In the second of these, which occurred in the Ahmedabad
district of the Bombay Presidency in 1683-89, buboes ate
distinctly described. In the 18th century several pestilences
are recorded without description. It is at least probable from
these notes that even before the undoubted outbreak, which
began in Cutch in 181 2, India was no stranger to epidemic
plague. To return to Bombay and 1896: the infection spread
gradually and slowly at first, but during the first three months
of 1897 not only was the town of Bombay severely affected, but
district after district in the presidency was attacked, notably
Poona, Karachi, Cutch Mandvi, Bhiwandi and Daman. The
number of cases and deaths reported in the presidency, exclusive
of the city, in each year down to the end of 1899, was as follows: —

Year.

Cases.

Deaths.

Case Mortality.

1896

1897

1898

1899

Total . .

367
49.125
90,506

I3L794

273

36,797

68,061

101,485

%
74-3
74-7
75-2
77-0

271,792

206,616

75'8

The corresponding figures for Bombay city are: —

Year.

Cases.

Deaths.

Case Mortality.

1896

1897

1898

1899

Total . .

2,530
11,963
19.863
19,484

1,801
10,232
18,160
15.830

%
71- 1

85-7
91-2

8i-3

53.840

46,023

85-4

incidence according to population. Moreover, concealment
was extensively practised. The most striking fact brought out
by the tables just given is the large and steady increase year
by year in the presidency, in spite of all efforts to arrest the
spread of infection. It has gone on since 1899, and it has not
been confined to Bombay, but has extended over the whole of
India. In 1897 it had already penetrated to Rajputana, the
Punjab, the North West Provinces and the Central Provinces.
In the following year Bengal, Madras, Haidarabad and Mysore
were invaded. Not all these provinces suffered alike, but on the
whole plague steadily strengthened its hold on India generally,
and hardly relaxed it in any part. The most noteworthy
details available are as follows, taken from the plague mortality
returns published June 1908. In the Punjab from 179 deaths
in 1897 the mortality reached a maximum of 334,897 in 1905,
in Agra and Oudh they rose from 72 in 1897 to 383,802 in 1905,
and in Madras Presidency from 1658 in 1899 to 20,125 in 1904.
The most striking figures, however, are those for Bombay and
Bengal which are given below, as well as the total mortality in
India.

The total for the presidency, including the city, in four years
was 325,632 cases with 252,549 deaths in a population of
26,960,421 (census of 1891). The population of the city is
821,764, but during the earlier plague period large numbers
fled, so that the foregoing figures do not give the true plague

Year.

Bengal Presidency

Bombay Presidency

All India.

(including Calcutta).

(including Bombay City).

1896

—

2,219

2,219

1897

—

47,7lo

47,974

1898

219

86,191

89,265

1899

3.264

96,592

102,369

1900

38,412

33,196

73,576

1901

78,629

128,259

236,433

1902

32,967

184,752

452,655

1903

65,680

281,269

684.445

1904

75,438

223,957

938,010

1905

126,084

71,363

940,821

1906

59,6i9

51,525

3oo,355

Outside China and India plague has caused no great mortality
in any of the countries in which it has appeared, with the
exception perhaps of Arabia, about which very little is known.
But some of the outbreaks are interesting for other reasons,
and require notice. The first case is the singular occurrence of
three deaths at Vienna in October 1898. The earliest victim
was an attendant named Barisch, employed in the pathological
laboratory of the Vienna General Hospital, and told off to look
after the animals and bacteriological apparatus devoted to the
investigation of plague, cultures of which had been brought
from India by the medical commissioners sent by the Royal
Academy of Science in 1897. Barisch was drunk and out all
night on the 8th of October; on the 14th of October he fell ill.
Plague was suspected, but Dr Miiller, who attended the man and
had studied the disease in India, would not admit the diagnosis
on clinical grounds, nor was it bacteriologically established
until the 19th of October. Barisch died on the 18th of October.
On the 20th one of the nurses, and on the 21st Dr Miiller, fell ill.
Both died of pneumonic plague, from which also Barisch had
undoubtedly suffered. A second nurse and a sister of mercy
had feverish attacks, but no further case occurred. Barisch
was shown to have been careless in the performance of his duties,
and to have disregarded instructions; and the inference is that
he conveyed the infection to his mouth, and so to the lungs,
from the bacteriological specimens or inoculated animals. The
melancholy incident illustrates several points of interest: (1) the
correctness of the bacterial theory of causation, and the identity
of the bacillus pesiis as the cause; (2) the infectious character
of the pneumonic type of disease; (3) its high fatality; (4) the
difficulty of diagnosis.

The next occurrence of special interest is the appearance of
plague in Portugal in 1899, after an absence of more than 200
years. Its origin is shrouded in obscurity. Oporto, the seat
of the outbreak, had no connexion by sea with any place known
to be infected, and all attempts to trace introduction ended in
speculation or assumption. The most probable theory was that
soldiers returning home from infected Portuguese possessions
in the East brought it with them, but this does not explain the
selection of Oporto and the escape of other places. The earliest

PLAGUE

701

cases, according to retrospective inquiry, occurred in June 1890;
suspicions were aroused in July, but the diagnosis was not
established until August. The conclusion reached, after careful
investigation by Dr Jorge, the medical officer of health, that the
commencement really dated from June, is confirmed by the fact
that about that time the riverside labourers, who were first
affected, began to notice an illness among themselves sufficiently
novel to attract their attention and that of an English ship-
owner, who from their description suspected plague. Through
him the suspicion was conveyed to the Medical Times and
Gazette, in which the suggestion of plague at Oporto was made
before any public mention of it in the town itself. The outbreak
never assumed large proportions. It gained ground by degrees
until October, after which it declined, and eventually ceased in
February 1900. No recrudescence has been officially announced.
The number of cases recorded in a population of 150,000 was 310,
with 114 deaths, representing a case mortality of 36-7%. They
were widely scattered about the town and outlying suburbs;
but no further extension occurred, except some isolated cases at
Braga, a town 35 m. distant, and one at Lisbon, in the person
of the distinguished bacteriologist, Professor Camara Pestana,
who contracted the disease in making a post-mortem at Oporto,
and died in Lisbon.

The only other appearance of plague in Europe in 1899 was
on the Volga. Three places were affected, namely, Kolobovka,
and Krasnoyarsk, in the province of Astrakhan, and Samara,
higher up the river. All three outbreaks were small and limited,
and no further extension took place. A commission appointed
by the Russian government pronounced the disease to be
undoubtedly plague, and it appears to have been very fatal. The
origin was not ascertained.

The most interesting extensions of plague in 1900 were those
in Australia and Glasgow. The following towns were affected
in Australia: Sydney, in New South Wales; Adelaide, in South
Australia; Melbourne, in Victoria; Brisbane, Rockhampton,
Townsville, Cairns and Ipswich, in Queensland; Freemantle,
Perth and Coolgardie, in West Australia. In none of these,
with the exception of Sydney, did plague obtain a serious hold.
The total number of cases reported in Queensland was only 123,
with 53 deaths. In Sydney there was 303 cases, with 103
deaths, a case mortality of 34%. The infection is supposed to
have been brought from Noumea, in New Caledonia, where it
was present at the end of 1899; and the medical authorities
believe that the first case, which occurred on the 19th of January,
was recognized. The outbreak, which hardly reached epidemic
proportions, lasted about six months. That in Glasgow was on
a still smaller scale. It began, so far as could be ascertained,
in August 1900, and during the two months it lasted there were
34 cases and 1 5 deaths. Once more the disease was not at first
recognized, and its origin could not be traced. In 1901 plague
invaded South Africa, and obtained a distinct footing both at
Cape Town and Port Elizabeth. The total number of cases
down to July was 760, with 362 deaths; the number of Europeans
attacked was 196, with 68 deaths, the rest being natives, Malays,
Indians, Chinese and negroes. With regard to Great Britain, a
few ship-bome cases have been dealt with at different ports from
time to time since 1896, but except at Glasgow the disease has
nowhere obtained a footing on land.

Causation. — Plague is a specific infectious fever, caused by
the bacillus pestis, which was identified in 1894 by Kitasato,
and subsequently, but independently, by Yersin (see Parasitic
Diseases). It is found in the buboes in ordinary cases, in the
blood in the so-called " septicaemic " cases, and in the sputum
of pneumonic cases. It may also be present in the urine. Post
mortem it is found in great abundance in the spleen and liver.
Nothing is known of its natural history outside the body, but
on cultivation it is apt to undergo numerous involution forms.
Its presence in a patient is regarded as positive diagnostic proof
of plague; but failure to find or to identify it does not possess
an equal negative value, and should not be too readily accepted,
for many instances are recorded in which expert observers have
only succeeded in demonstrating its presence after repeated

attempts. It is clear, from the extreme variations in the severity
of the illness, that the resisting power of individuals varies
greatly. According to the Plague Research Committee of
Bombay, the predisposing causes are " those leading to a lower
state of vitality," of which insufficient food is probably the most
important. There is no evidence that age, sex or race exercises
a distinct predisposing influence. The largest incidence in
Bombay was on young adults; but then they are more numerous
and more exposed to infection, because they go about more
than the younger and the older. Similarly, the comparative
immunity of Europeans in the East may be explained by their
different conditions of life. It is doubtful whether the distinc-
tion drawn between pestis minor and pestis major has a real
aetiological basis. Very mild cases occurring in the course of
an outbreak of typical plague may be explained by greater power
of resistance in individuals, but the epidemic prevalence of a
mild illness preceding the appearance of undoubted plague
suggests some difference or modification of the exciting cause.
" It is impossible," writes Sir Richard Thorne (Local Government
Board Report, 1898-1899), " to read the medical history of this
disease in almost every part of the world without being impressed
with the frequency with which recognized plague has been pre-
ceded by ailments of such slight severity, involving some bubonic
enlargement of glands and some rise in body-temperature, as
to mask the real nature of the malady." Considering the great
importance of arresting the spread of infection at the outset,
and the implicit reliance placed upon bacteriological criteria,
the aetiology of such antecedent ailments deserves more atten-
tion than has hitherto been paid to it. Of course plague does
not stand alone in this respect. Epidemic outbreaks of other
diseases — for instance, cholera, diphtheria and typhoid fever —
are often preceded and followed by the prevalence of mild illness
of an allied type; and the true significance of this fact is one of
the most important problems in epidemiology. In plague,
however, it is of special importance, on account of the peculiarly
insidious manner in which this disease fastens itself upon a
locality.

The path by which the bacillus enters the body varies. In
pneumonic cases it is presumed to enter by the air-passages,
and in bubonic cases by the skin. The Bombay Plague Research
Committee, whose experience is unequalled, say: " In a number
of instances points of inoculation were found on the extremities
of patients, from which plague cultures were obtained, and
in these cases buboes were found above the point of inoculation.
In the majority of instances, however, no local indication could
be found marking the point at which the microbe was implan-
ted." From the fact that bacilli are hardly ever found in the
blood of bubonic cases it may be inferred that they are arrested
by the lymphatic glands next above the seat of inoculation, and
that the fight — which is the illness — takes place largely in the
bubo; in non-bubonic cases they are not so arrested, and the
fight takes place in the general circulatory system, or in the
lungs. As might be expected from these considerations, the
bubonic type is very little infectious, while pneumonic cases
are highly so, the patients no doubt charging the surrounding
atmosphere by coughing. Whether infection can be introduced
through the digestive tract by infected food is doubtful. The
bacillus is non-resistant and easily killed by heat and germicide
substances, particularly acids. Little is known of its toxic
action; only a weak toxin has been obtained from cultures.
Of the lower animals, mice, rats, guinea-pigs, rabbits, squirrels
and monkeys are susceptible to the bacillus; horses, cattle,
sheep, goats, pigs, dogs and cats are more or less resistant, but
cats and dogs have been known to die of plague (Oporto, Daman,
Cutch and Poona). Jn the Great Plague of London they were
believed to carry the infection, and were killed in vast numbers.
The bacillus has been demonstrated in the bodies of fleas, flies,
bugs and ants.

Clinical Characters. — One of the results of recent observation
is the. classification of plague cases under three heads, which
have already been mentioned several times: (1) bubonic,
(2) pneumonic, (3) septicaemic. (The word " pesti-caemic " is

J02

PLAGUE

also used instead of " septi-caemic," and though etymologically
objectionable, it is otherwise better, as " septicaemic " already
has a specific and quite different meaning.) It should be under-
stood that this classification is a clinical one, and that the
second and third varieties are just as much plague as the first.
It is necessary to say this, because a misleading use of the word
" bubonic " has given rise to the erroneous idea that true plague
is necessarily bubonic, and that non-bubonic types are a different
disease altogether. The word " plague " — or " pest," which is
the name used in other languages — had originally a general
meaning, and may have required qualifications when applied to
this particular fever; but it has now become a specific label,
and the prefix "bubonic" should be dropped.

The illness varies within the widest limits, and exhibits all
gradations of severity, from a mere indisposition, which may pass
almost unnoticed, to an extreme violence, only equalled by the
most violent forms of cholera. The mild cases are always
bubonic; the other varieties are invariably severe, and almost
always fatal. Incubation is generally from four to six days,
but it has been observed as short as thirty-six hours and as
long as ten days (Bombay Research Committee). Incubation,
however, is so difficult a thing to determine that it is unwise to
lay down any positive limit. As a rule the onset is sudden and
well marked. The symptoms may be described under the
headings given above, (i) Bubonic cases usually constitute
three-fourths of the whole, and the symptoms may therefore
be called typical. In a well-marked case there is usually an
initial rigor — in children convulsions — followed by a rise of
temperature, with vomiting, headache, giddiness, intolerance to
light; pain in epigastrium, back and limbs; sleeplessness, apathy
or delirium. The headache is described as splitting; delirium
is of the busy type, like delirium tremens. The temperature
varies greatly; it is not usually high on the first day — from 101°
to 103°— and may even be normal, but sometimes it rises rapidly
to 104° or 105 or even 107 F.; a fall of two or three degrees
on the second or third day has frequently been observed. The
eyes are red and injected; the tongue is somewhat swollen, and
at first covered with a thin white fur, except at the tip and
edges, but later it is dry, and the fur yellow or brownish. Pros-
tration is marked. Constipation is the rule at first, but diarrhoea
may be present, and is a bad sign. A characteristic symptom
in severe cases is that the patient appears dazed and stupid, is
thick in speech, and staggers. The condition has often been
mistaken for intoxication. There is nothing, however, in all
these symptoms positively distinctive of plague, unless it is
already prevalent. The really pathognomonic sign is the appear-
ance of buboes or inflamed glands, which happens early in the
illness, usually on the second day; sometimes they are present
from the outset, sometimes they cannot be detected before the
third day, or even later. The commonest seat is the groin, and
next to that the axilla; the cervical, submaxillary and femoral
glands are less frequently affected. Sometimes the buboes are
multiple and on both sides, but more commonly they are
unilateral. The pain is described as lancinating. If left, they
usually suppurate and open outwards by sloughing of the skin,
but they may subside spontaneously, or remain hard and
indurated. Petechiae occur over buboes or on the abdomen,
but they are not very common, except in fatal cases, when they
appear shortly before death. Boils and carbuncles are rare.
(2) Pneumonic plague was observed and described in many of
the old epidemics, and particularly by two medical men, Dr
Gilder and Dr Whyte, in the outbreak in Kathiawar in 1816;
but its precise significance was first recognized by Childe in
Bombay. He demonstrated the presence of the bacilli in the
sputa, and showed that the inflammation in the lungs was set up
by primary plague infection. The pneumonia is usually
lobular, the onset marked by rigors, with difficult and hurried
breathing, cough and expectoration. The prostration is great
and the course of the illness rapid. The breathing becomes very
hurried — forty to sixty respirations in the minute — and the face
dusky. The expectoration soon becomes watery and profuse,
with little whitish specks, which contain great quantities of

bacilli. The temperature is high and irregular. The physical
signs are those of broncho-pneumonia; oedema of the lungs
soon supervenes, and death occurs in three or four days. (3) In
septicaemic cases the symptoms are those of the bubonic type,
but more severe and without buboes. Prostration and cerebral
symptoms are particularly marked; the temperature rises
rapidly and very high. The patient may die comatose within
twenty-four hours, but more commonly death occurs on the
second or third day. Recovery is very rare.

There is no reason for doubting that the disease described
above is identical with the European plagues of the 14th and
subsequent centuries. It does not differ from them in its clinical
features more than epidemics of other diseases are apt to vary
at different times, or more than can be accounted for by difference
of handling. The swellings and discolorations of the skin which
play so large a part in old descriptions would probably be equally
striking now but for the surgical treatment of buboes. Similarly,
the comparatively small destructiveness of modern plague, even
in India, may be explained by the improved sanitary conditions
and energetic measures dictated by modern knowledge. The
case mortality still remains exceedingly high. The lowest
recorded is 34% in Sydney, and the highest 95% at Hong Kong
in 1899. During the first few weeks in Bombay it was calculated
by Dr Viegas to be as high as 99%. It is very much higher
among Orientals than among Europeans. In the Bombay
hospitals it was about 70% among the former, and between 3d
and 40% among the latter, which was much the same as in
Oporto, Sydney and Cape Town. It appears, therefore, that
plague is less fatal to Europeans than cholera. The average
duration of fatal cases is five or six days; in the House' of Correc-
tion at Byculla, where the exact period could be well observed,
it was five and a half days. Patients who survive the tenth or
twelfth day have a good chance of recovery. Convalescence
is usually prolonged. Second attacks are rare, but have been
known to occur.

Diagnosis. — When plague is prevalent in a locality, the
diagnosis is easy in fairly well-marked cases of the bubonic
type, but less so in the other varieties. When it is not prevalent
the diagnosis is never easy, and in pneumonic and septicaemic
cases it is impossible without bacteriological assistance. The
earliest cases have hardly ever been even suspected at the time
in any outbreak in a fresh locality. It may be taken at first for
almost any fever, particularly typhoid, or for venereal disease
or lymphangitis. In plague countries the diseases with which it
is most liable to be confounded are malaria, relapsing fever and
typhus, or broncho-pneumonia in pneumonic cases.

Treatment. — The treatment of plague is still symptomatic.
The points requiring most attention are the cerebral symptoms
— headache, sleeplessness, delirium, &c. — and the state of the
heart. Alcohol and cardiac stimulants may be required to
prevent heart failure. Speaking generally, it is important to
preserve strength and guard against collapse. Extracts of
supra-renal gland have been found useful. Buboes should be
treated on ordinary surgical principles. An antitoxic serum
has been prepared from horses by the Institut Pasteur in France,
but has not met with success. The results in India obtained
by British and various foreign observers were uniformly unfa-
vourable, and the verdict of the Research Committee (1900)
was that the serum had " failed to influence favourably the
mortality among those attacked." Success was somewhat
noisily claimed for an improved method tried in Oporto, but the
evidence is of little or no value. Of 142 cases treated, 21 died;
while of 72 cases not treated, 46 died; but the former were all
hospital patients, and included several convalescents and many
cases of extreme mildness, whereas the non-serum cases were
treated at home or not at all, some being only discovered when
death had made further concealment impossible. Later obser-
vations have, however, established that the Yersin-Roux serum
is of undoubted benefit when used early in the case, in fact
during the first twenty-four hours. Very large doses, so
much as rso cc. may be injected subcutaneously or preferably
intravenously, and it is stated to modify the whole course of

PLAGUE

703

the disease. Another serum has been prepared by Lustig and
Galeotti.

Morbid Anatomy. — (1) Bubonic cases. A bubo is found to
consist of a chain of enlarged glands, surrounded by a mass of
engorged connective tissue, coagulated blood and serum.
Nearly all the lymphatic glands in the body are a little swollen,
but the lymphatic vessels show little or no change. The spleen
and liver are always enlarged, the former to sometimes twice or
thrice its natural size. The lungs are engorged and oedematous,
and often show haemorrhages. The kidneys are enlarged and
congested. The serous membranes show petechiae and hae-
morrhages. The right side of the heart is frequently dilated,
with clots in the cavities. The heart muscle is normal, or soft
and friable. The substance of the brain, spinal cord and nerve-
trunks is normal, but the membranes are engorged. (2) Pneu-
monic cases. The lymphatic glands are hardly affected. There
is general engorgement and oedema of the lungs, with pneumonic
patches varying in size and irregularly distributed. (3) Septi-
caemic cases. Nearly all the lymphatic glands in the body are
involved, and have a characteristic appearance. They are
enlarged to the size of an almond, rounded, firm and pink; there
is some engorgement and oedema on section; the substance is
rather soft, and can be scraped off with a knife. The surrounding
tissue is not engorged or oedematous. The description of the
other organs given under (1) applies also to (2) and (3).

Dissemination. — Given the bacillus, the questions arise, How
is it disseminated? and What are the conditions that favour its
propagation? That it is conveyed from person to person is
an undoubted fact, proved by innumerable cases, and tacitly
implied by the word " infectious," which is universally allowed.
The sick are a source of danger and one means of dissemination,
and, since the illness may be so slight as to pass unrecognized,
an obviously insidious one. The ambulatory plague patient
goes far to explain the spread of the disease without leaving any
track. But there is evidence that persons may carry the infec-
tion and give it to others without being ill at all themselves.
One such case occurred at Glasgow, and another at Oporto.
In the Glasgow case the wife of a laundryman employed in
handling plague linen contracted the disease. She was brought
into connexion with it in no other way, and there can be no
doubt that she took it from her husband, though he was not ill
at all himself. The Oporto instance is still more conclusive.
Two little girls had plague at Argoncilhe, a suburb some miles
from Oporto, and were the only cases which occurred in
that place. Their father was a riverside labourer, who
lodged during the week in Oporto, but went home for
Sunday. He was not ill, but several cases of plague occurred
in the house in which he lodged. How the poison passes from
one person to another is less clear. In pneumonic cases patients
no doubt spread it around them by coughing, and others may
take it up through the air-passages or the skin; but even then
the range of infection is small, and such cases are comparatively
rare. In the vast majority of cases the bacilli are in the lym-
phatic or the circulatory system, and aerial convection, even
for a short distance, seems highly improbable. This view is
borne out by the experience in hospitals and with " contacts,"
which goes to show that with reasonable care and under fair
conditions the risk of infection from ordinary plague patients
is very small. When persons live crowded together in close
contact, and when they are careless with regard to discharges
of all kinds from patients, the risk is obviously much increased.
Discharges — vomited matters, sputa, urine and faeces — are
possible media by which plague is spread from person to person.
They also contaminate clothing, which thus becomes another
means of dissemination capable of acting at a distance. This
is the most probable explanation of the two cases of indirect
infection related above. Failure to catch or induce plague
from clothing that has been worn by plague patients proves
nothing. Such clothing is not necessarily infectious; indeed,
the probability is that it is not, unless contaminated by
discharges. There is no evidence that merchandise and food-
stuffs are means of dissemination, but a great deal of evidence

against such a theory. Then we come to the lower animals.
Attention has been concentrated on rats, and some observers
seem disposed to lay upon them the whole blame for the propa-
gation and spread of plague, which is held to be essentially a
rat-borne disease. The susceptibility of rats has been noted
from remote times and in many countries, particularly in China,
but it has never attracted so much attention as during the recent
prevalence of plague. From one place after another a great
mortality among rats was reported, and the broad fact that they
do die of plague is incontestable. It is therefore easily intelligible
that they may play an important part in multiplying and fixing
the poison on a locality. As to how they convey it from man
to man the greatest probability is in favour of the flea as an
intermediary. Mortality among rats is said to precede the
appearance of human plague, but the evidence of this is always
retrospective and of a very loose character. At Sydney a
careful investigation was made; and the conclusion reached by
Dr Tidswell was that " there was no ground for even a suspicion
that our epidemic was being maintained by any process of direct
contagion between man and man," but that rats were the
carriers. In Glasgow the experience was just the contrary.
Personal connexion was traced in every case, and rats excluded;
there was no mortality among them, and of 300 caught and
examined none had plague (Chalmers). Similarly, at Oporto,
personal connexion was traced in all the earlier cases; there was
no mortality among rats, and no evidence to connect them
with the outbreak (Jorge). Again, a comparison between rat-
infested and rat-free districts in Bombay showed a much higher
incidence of plague in the latter. A campaign against rats in
Bombay, by which 50,000 or 60,000 were killed in a short time,
had no effect in checking the disease. Plague-rats have rarely
been found in ships sailing from infected ports; and though
millions of these animals must have been carried backwards and
forwards from quay to quay bet ween Hong-Kong, Bombay and the
great European ports, they have not brought the disease ashore.
By far the most important communication on the role of rats
in the spread of plague is formed by the " Report on the Plague
Investigations in India " {Journal of Hygiene, vol. vi. No. 4;
vol. vii. No. 3, 1907). The chief conclusions arrived at in the
report as the result of experiments are the following: —

1. Healthy rats contracted plague from infected rats when the
only apparent means of communication between the two was the
rat flea (pulex cheopis).

2. In 21 experiments out of 38, 55% of healthy rats living in
flea-proof cages have contracted plague after receiving fleas collected
from rats either dead or dying of septicaemic plague ; consequently
it is proved the rat flea can transmit plague from rat to rat.

3. Close and continuous contact of plague-infected animals with
healthy ones does not infect the latter if fleas are excluded.

4. Should fleas be present an epizootic at once starts and spreads
in porportion to the number of fleas present.

5. Guinea-pigs set free in plague-infected houses become infected
with the rat flea and develop plague in a certain percentage.

6. Fleas caught on plague-infected rats are able to infect rats
placed in flea-proof cages.

7. Guinea-pigs placed in plague-infected houses do not contract
plague if they are protected from fleas; those placed in cages pro-
tected by a border of sticky paper at least six inches in radius,
which the fleas cannot jump over, do not contract plague; the others
not similarly protected, do.

8. Chronic plague may prevail in rats.

On this report it may, therefore, be taken that aerial infection,
except, perhaps, in pneumonic cases, may be excluded, and that
the chief source of infection is the flea. It was also shown that
animals may become infected through the faeces of a flea which
has been fed on plague-infected rats. This may serve to explain
the manner in which plague-infected linen and clothing may
convey the disease. The report also considers it proved that
the bacillus pestis multiplies in the stomach of a flea and may
remain a considerable time within its host.

Browning Smith says the following facts are admitted as known.
(1) Plague can be carried by fleas from an unhealthy rat. (2) A
flea can retain the plague bacilli alive for seven or eight days.
(3) Man is, in the majority of cases, infected through the skin, though
the puncture may not be seen. (4) The rat flea, when finding no
rats, will attack man and it will also attack other animals.

7°4

PLAGUE

Very little light has been thrown on the conditions which
favour the prevalence of plague. We do not know why it has
developed a diffusive activity of late years, nor why it has
attacked some places and consistently passed by others, such
as Singapore. The words " dirt " and " insanitary conditions "
are much used, but such general terms explain nothing. Singa-
pore, where plague has several times been introduced, but
never taken hold, is probably quite as dirty and insanitary as
Hong-Kong, and it is pertinently remarked by the Bombay
Research Committee that filth per se has but little influence,
inasmuch as " there occurred in the House of Correction at
Byculla, where cleanliness is brought as near to perfection as is
attainable, an outbreak which exceeded in severity that in any of
the filthy chaivls and tenements around." Again, in Oporto
there is an area which combines every possible sanitary
defect — dense overcrowding, great poverty, no light, no air,
no drainage, no scavenging, water brought in buckets. Plague
got into this quarter, but did not spread there; on the other
hand, it appeared in other and vastly superior parts of the
town. Yet in at least one case neither the patient nor the " con-
tacts " were removed, but were all shut up in one room with
a sentry at the door and another in the street. The seasonal
variations have been well marked and extremely regular in
Bombay. The disease begins to be active in late autumn or
the beginning of winter, and reaches its height in February or
March, dying down in the summer. Baldwin Latham made an
elaborate examination of the meteorological conditions, and
more particularly of the vapour tension, from which he draws
the conclusion that the seasonal variations are due to exhalation
from the ground. His observations are original and worth
attention. A simpler explanation is that the people live more
indoors, and are so more exposed to infection during the
plague season. The curve shows two rises, one at the begin-
ning of winter, and the other at the commencement of the
monsoon, and at both these times the people are driven indoors.
A broad survey of the epidemiological facts suggests some
general conclusions. The outbreaks fall into two well-defined
groups: (i) those in which the disease is destructive and per-
sistent, (2) those in which its effects are slight and transient.
In the former the poison clearly fastens on the locality, and
gradually increases its hold. The place is infected, not merely
the people in it; for if they evacuate it, the disease soon ceases
among them, and if they return in a short time, they are again
attacked. Now the poison is contained, as we have already
seen, in the discharges from patients, and in such infected
localities the standing conditions and the habits of the people
combine to retain the discharges on the premises. The floors,
mostly of mud covered with dung, are fouled with spittle,
vomit, and urine, and, being seldom or never cleaned out, foster
a gradual accumulation of poison, to which infected rats and
the concealment of illness contribute. These are just the con-
ditions which prevailed in Europe in the old plague days. They
do not prevail now in those " white countries " which have been
invaded but have repelled the attack with comparative ease
and little loss. It may be concluded, with some confidence,
from experience and theory alike, that localities where they do
not prevail may fail to keep plague out, but have very little to
fear from it, except the disturbance of trade caused by the
traditional terrors that still cling to the name.

Prevention. — The principles are the same as those which
govern the prevention of other infectious diseases. " Sanitary
cordons " and the like are obsolete. International procedure
is supposed to be regulated by the Venice convention of 1897
(see Quarantine), but that instrument contains an optional
clause, which allows countries to do as they please with their
own frontiers. Except Great Britain and Germany, they all
retain quarantine in a more or less stringent form at seaports.
It is generally used as a system of local extortion imposed upon
travellers and shipping. According to the Venice convention,
ships are divided into (1) healthy, (2) suspected, (3) infected.

(1) Healthy are those free from plague throughout the voyage;

(2) suspected, those in which plague has occurred, but no fresh

case within twelve days; (3) infected, those in which plague has
occurred within twelve days. Great Britain relies on medical
inspection, removal of sick or suspected cases, and supervision
of the healthy arriving on an infected ship; infected clothing
is burnt and infected ships are disinfected. The procedure is the
same as for cholera, but it has been equally successful. Ships
passing through the Suez Canal are subject to similar inspection;
sick persons are landed at Moses Wells, and suspected ones
detained. The risk of importing plague from India has been
materially lessened by medical inspection of outward-bound
ships at the principal ports. This has been very thoroughly
carried out at Bombay with good results. In 1897 pilgrimages
from India to the Hedjaz were prohibited. By the Venice
convention a number of articles of merchandise are classed
as susceptible and liable to be refused admission, but the only
ones which there is any reason to consider dangerous are used
clothing and rags. A watch should be kept on rats at ports
of arrival and on board ships from infected countries.

When plague is present in a place, the measures to be taken
are the usual ones for dealing with infectious disease, with some
additions. The sick and suspected should be removed in special
ambulances to an isolation hospital, their soiled linen, &c,
should be burnt, and the premises disinfected. Corrosive
sublimate in an acid solution is the best disinfectant, but sul-
phuric acid, 1 in 250, is efficient and cheaper. Suspected cases
should be bestowed in a special isolated building until the
diagnosis is fully determined. " Contacts " should be kept
under observation. Rats should be exterminated as far as
possible, especially by means of the Danysz virus, which spreads
a disease amongst rats which cannot be communicated to man.
The greatest care should be taken in dealing with the hospital
linen and discharges from patients. Hospital staffs should be
kept apart. Inoculation with Haffkine's prophylactic fluid
should be offered to all persons willing to avail themselves of
it. It is especially desirable for hospital and ambulance staffs
to be inoculated with a vaccine prepared from sterilized cultures
of plague bacillus. Inoculation is harmless, and the results
obtained in India justify a favourable' opinion of its protective
efficacy. 1 At Hubli, where nearly the whole population was
inoculated between the nth of May and the 27th of September

1 The system of inoculation against plague with a fluid prepared
from sterilized virus of the disease was introduced in India by Pro-
fessor Haffkine early in 1897. The composition of this fluid was
subjected to a searching inquiry by the Indian Plague Commission,
who pronounced its employment to be free from danger, and it
was used on a large scale in various parts of India without producing
injurious effects. In September 1902 the standard method of
manufacturing this fluid was changed by the director of the Plague
Institute on his own authority, with the object of expediting the
process, and thus meeting the heavy demand then being made
by the Punjab government in connexion with a large scheme of
inoculation. The change involved the omission of a small pro-
portion of carbolic acid which had up till then been added to the
original fluid as a further precaution against contamination. The
new fluid, or water agar process, contained no carbolic acid, other
methods being relied upon to ensure its purity. On the 6th of
November 1902, nineteen persons who had been inoculated on
the 30th of October in the village of Malkowal from a single bottle
(labelled 53-n) of the new fluid were found to be suffering from
tetanus, and all of them subsequently died. A commission, con-
sisting of Sir Lawrence Jenkins, Lieut.-Colonel Bomford, M.D.,
principal of the Medical College, Calcutta, and Major Semple,
R.A.M.C., director of the Pasteur Institute, Kasauli, was appointed
by the government of India to inquire into the disaster. They
found that the germ of tetanus had been introduced into the fluid
before the bottle was opened at Malkowal, and they thought it pro-
bable that this might have occurred owing either to insufficient
sterilization or to the process of filling the bottle from a larger
flask having been performed with defective precautions. They
also expressed the opinion that carbolic acid was a valuable agent
in restraining tetanus growth when added to plague prophylactic,
and they, therefore, thought that its omission was a grave mistake.
Experiments undertaken in India by two independent inquiries
appeared to confirm the view, and their conclusions, together with
the data on which they were based, were submitted with the report
of the commission for examination and further experiment to the
Lister Institute in London. With reference to the findings of the
Malkowal commission the Institute were asked to report: (1) On
the comparative efficacy of the standard and new fluids as a

PLAICE— PLAIN SONG

7°5

1898, the mean mortality among the inoculated was 1*3%;
among the uninoculated 13 • 2 %. At Daman the mortality was —
inoculated i-6%, uninoculated 24-6%; at Dharwar, inoculated
1-2%, uninoculated 5-2%. In all these cases the numbers
dealt with were large and the test fair.

Simpson, in The Practitioner (Dec. 1906), gives an analysis
of the results of Haffkine's serum inoculations as follows: —

Year.

Case Mortality.

Uninoculated.

Inoculated.

1897-1900 average .
1900-1901 „ ...
1901-1902 ,, ...
1902-1903 ,, . . .

60-99
60-59
65-12
6o-i

36-55
36-50
35-07
239

In Poona, out of 5595 uninoculated cases the incidence was
6-8%, while in 1300 inoculated cases it was only 0-33 %. Klein
also prepares a new prophylactic from the dried organs of a
guinea-pig, and one of the most interesting experiments is that
of Strong (Archiv fiirSchiffs- und tropische Hygiene, April, 1906),
who uses for producing immunity in man a living virulent
culture of the bacillus pestis. He immunized 40 persons with-
out mishap and with no more unpleasant results than those
occurring after vaccination. Inoculation protects against
attack, and greatly modifies the illness when it fails to protect.
How long the protection lasts has not been determined, but it
appears to be several months at least.

The main authorities for the researches into plague are- in the
official reports of recent years from India and elsewhere. See
generally W. J. Simpson, A Treatise on Plague (1905).

(A. Sl.;H. L. H.)

protection against plague; (2) on the comparative liability of each
fluid to contamination; and (3) on the probable origin of tetanus
virus in the Malkowal cases. Their report on these points (Dec.
1904) contained the following conclusions: (1) "The Institute
sees no reason to differ from the conclusions of the commission
that the new prophylactic is not less efficacious than the old.
(2) The Institute is of opinion that in the hands of more or less
unskilled workers it is easier to ensure freedom from contamination
by Haffkine's ' standard method ' of manufacturing plague vaccine
than with the ' water agar process ' as employed by him. (3) The
Institute is in entire agreement with the commission as to the value
of 5 % carbolic acid in restraining tetanus growth when added to
plague prophylactic, and its experiments emphasize still further
the importance of this addition in preventing growth and toxin
formation in a vaccine which might be liable to the possibility of
contamination with spores of tetanus. (4) The conclusions of the
Institute coincide with those of the commission that in all probability
tetanus was at the time of inoculation in the fluid contained in
the bottle, but that it is impossible to determine at what stage in
its history or in what way the bottle (53-n) became contaminated."
The government decided, on the advice of the director, that only
the standard fluid should be manufactured at the plague institute.
This fluid was sterilized by methods approved by the Indian Plague
Commission and contained the requisite proportion of carbolic
acid. It was bottled by a new method patented by Dr E. Maynard.
The result of the inquiries by the commission and the Lister
Institute led to a protracted controversy with regard to the re-
sponsibility of Mr Haffkine's laboratory, and to his subsequent
treatment by the government of India; and the leading bacteri-
ologists in England warmly took up his cause. A parliamentary
" Return of Papers" was issued in June 1907, and in The Times
of the 29th of July there appeared a letter signed by the distinguished
pathologists, Ronald Ross, R. T. Hewlett, A. S. Grunbaum, W. J.
Simpson, R. F. C. Leith, W. R. Smith, G. Sims Woodhead, E.
Klein, S. Flexner and C. Hunter Stewart, pointing out that the
evidence, so far from showing that Mr Haffkine's laboratory was
to blame, made it clear to those acquainted with bacteriological
work that it could have had nothing to do with the occurrence.
They agreed that there was strong evidence to show that " the
contamination took place when the bottle was opened at Malkowal,
owing to the abolition by the plague authorities of the technique
prescribed by the Bombay laboratory, and to the consequent
failure to sterilize the forceps which were used in opening the bottle,
and which during the process were dropped on the ground "; and
they complained of the inadequacy of the inquiries made by the
Indian government, and called for Mr Haffkine's exoneration.
The evidence showed that it had been much too readily believed
that the tetanus germs had entered the fluid before the bottle was
opened, and that a grave injustice had been done to Mr Haffkine.
Acting on this view, in November 1907, the Indian government
invited Mr Haffkine again to take up work in India.
XXI. 23

PLAICE (Pleuronectes platessa), a species of flat-fish, common
on the coasts of northern Europe from Iceland to the Bay of
Biscay. It is readily recognized by the yellow or orange-coloured
spots which are placed in a row along the dorsal and anal fins,
and scattered over the body. The eyes are on the right side, and
the teeth in the jaws compressed and truncate. The scales are
minute and smooth. Plaice, like other flat-fishes, prefer a
sandy flat bottom to a rocky ground, and occur in suitable
localities in great abundance; they spawn early in spring, and
are in finest condition in the month of May. Individuals of
seven or eight pounds weight are considered fish of large size,
but specimens of double that weight have been caught.

See the monograph by F. J. Cole and J. Johnstone (Liverpool,
1901); and W. Garstang's " Reports on the Natural History of the
Plaice " {Rapports et proces-verbaux du conseil international pour
I' exploration de la mer, 1905 seq.).

PLAID (Gael, plaide, Ir. ploid, usually taken to be derived from
Gael, peall, sheepskin, Lat. pellis, skin), an outer garment,
consisting of an oblong piece of woollen cloth, which has formed
the principal outer part of the costume of the Highlanders of
Scotland. The wearer wrapped himself in the plaid, the lower
portion, reaching to the knees and belted, forming the kilt.
Later the lower portion was separated, being called the phili-
beg, the plaid being used as a covering for the shoulders and
upper part of the body. The plaids were usually of a checked
or tartan pattern. The word is thus used of any cloth made
with such a pattern. " Shepherd's plaid " is a cloth with a
chequer of black on a white ground.

PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. planum), a level surface; hence
in physical geography a tract of country generally quite flat or
comparatively so (see Geography). The adjective " plain "
signifies " level," and thence smooth, clear, simple, ordinary, &c.
PLAINFIELD, a city of Union county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
about 24 m. W. by S. of New York City. Pop. (1910 U.S. census),
20,550. It is served by the Central Railroad of New Jersey and
by electric lines connecting with neighbouring towns. It is
situated for the most part on a plain; north-east are heights
occupied by the suburb of Netherwood, and north in Somerset
county, on the slope of the first Watchung Mountain, is the
borough of North Plainfield (pop. 1910 U.S. census, 6117),
which forms with Plainfield virtually a single residential and
business community. Plainfield is one of the most attractive
residential suburbs of New York. The city has an excellent
public school system, a good public library, with an art gallery
and museum. The Muhlenberg hospital, club houses and a
driving track are features of the city. The value of the factory
products increased from $2,437,434 in 1900 to $3,572,134 in
1905, or 46-6%. Plainfield was settled in 1684, but it was not
until 1735 that the first frame house was erected. In 1760 a
grist mill was erected, and for several years the place was
called Milltown. The township of Plainfield was created out of
Westfield township in 1847, and in 1867 Plainfield was chartered
as a city.

PLAIN SONG, or Plain Chant {Gregorian Music; Lat. cantus
planus; Ital. canto gregoriano; Fr. plain chant), a style of
unisonous music, easily recognizable by certain strongly marked
characteristics, some very ancient fragments of which are
believed to have been in use under the Jewish dispensation
from a remote period, and to have been thence transferred to
the ritual of the Christian Church.

The theories advanced as to the origin of this solemn form of
ecclesiastical music are innumerable. The most widely spread
opinion is that the older portion of it originated with the Psalms
themselves, or at least sprang from the later synagogue music.
Another theory traces the origin of plain song to the early Greeks;
and the supporters of this view lay much stress on the fact
that the scales in which its melodies are composed are named
after the old Greek " modes." But, beyond the name, no
connexion whatever exists between the two tonalities. Less
reasonable hypotheses attribute the origin of the plain song to the
Phoenicians, to the Egyptians, to the early Christian converts,
and to the musicians of the middle ages.

11

706

PLAINTIFF

Towards the close of the 4th century Ambrose of Milan,
fearing the loss or corruption of the venerable melodies which
had been preserved by means of oral tradition only, endeavoured
to restore them to their primitive purity, and to teach the clergy
to sing them with greater precision. A still more extensive
work of the same nature was undertaken, two centuries later,
by Pope Gregory the Great. And thus arose two schools of
ecclesiastical music, still known as the " Ambrosian " and the
" Gregorian chant " — the first of which is practised only in the
diocese of Milan, while the latter is universally accepted as the
authorized " Roman use." In order to explain the essential
differences between these two schools, we must describe in detail
some of the peculiar characteristics of plain song.

The melodies which form the repertoire of plain chant are not
written in modern major and minor scales, but in certain
tonalities bearing names analogous to those of the early Greek
"modes," though constructed on very different principles.
Of these " modes," fourteen exist in theory, though twelve only
are in practical use. The intervals of each " mode " are derived
from a fundamental sound, called its " final." 1 The compass of
each mode comprises eight sounds — that of the first, third, fifth,
seventh, ninth, eleventh and thirteenth " modes " extending
to the octave above the " final," and that of the second, fourth,
sixth, eighth, tenth, twelfth and fourteenth extending from the
fourth note below the final to the fifth note above it. Con-
sequently, the " finals " of the first series, called the " authentic
modes," occupy the lowest place in each system of sounds, and
those of the second series, called the " plagal modes," the middle
place — the same " final " being common to one " authentic "
and one " plagal mode." The following table exhibits the entire
system, expressed in the alphabetical notation peculiar to modern
English music — the " final " being indicated in each case by an
asterisk, and the position of the semitones, from which each mode
derives its distinctive character, by brackets.

Plagal Modes.
2. Hypodorian, A, B, C, *D, E, F, G, A.
4. Hypophrygian,B,C,D, *E,F,G,A,B.

Authentic Modes.

1. Dorian, *D, E, F, G, A, B, C, D.

3. Phrygian, *E~F, G, A, B'Tc, D, E.

5 . Lydian, * F, G, A, bTc, D, £~F.

7. Mixolydian, *G, A, B, C, D, eTf, G.

9. Aeolian, *A, B, C, D, E, F, G, A.
11. locrian, * b7£, D, E^F, G, A, B.
13. Ionian, *C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C.

6. Hypolydian, C, D, E, *F, G, A, B, C.

8. Hyporai!«>lydian,D,E,F,*G,A,B,C,D.
10. Hypoaeolian, E, F, G, *A, B, C, D, E.
12. HyPolocrUn, F, G, A, *B, C, D, E, F.
14. Hypoionian, G, A, B'7*C, D, E, F, G.

Nos. 11 and 12 in this series are rejected, for technical reasons
into which we have not space to enter ; they are practically useless. 2
Of these modes Ambrose used four only — the first four
" authentic modes," now numbered 1, 3, 5 and 7. Gregory
acknowledged, and is said by some historians of credit to have
invented, the first four " plagal modes " — Nos. 2, 4, 6 and 8.
The use of the remaining " modes," except perhaps the ninth,
was not formally authorized until the reign of Charlemagne,
who published an official decision upon the subject. In one or
other of the twelve " modes " recognized by this decision every
plain-chant melody is composed. The number of such melodies
preserved to us, the genuineness of which is undoubted, is very
large; and the collection is divided into several distinct classes,
the most important of which are the melodies proper to the
Psalm- Tones and Antiphons; the Ordinarium Missae, the
Inlroits, Graduals and Offertoria; the Praefationes, Versiculi
and Responsoria; the Hymns and Sequences; and the Lamenla-
tiones, Exultet and other music used in Holy Week.

Of these classes the most interesting by far is that which
includes the psalm-tones, or psalm-tunes, called by modern
English historians, the " Gregorian tones." The oldest of these
are tones 1,3,5 ar >d 7, as sung by Ambrose. The antiquity of
tones 2, 4, 6 and 8 is less firmly established, though there is no
doubt that Gregory the Great sanctioned their use on strong
traditional evidence. In addition to these, a peculiarly beautiful
melody in mode 0, known as the Tonus peregrimis, has been
sung from time immemorial only to the psalm In exitu Israel.
1 Analogous to the tonic or key-note of the modern scale.
•For fuller information on the subject see the article " Modes,"
in Grove's Dictionary of Music.

The oldest version of this melody now extant is undoubtedly to a
certain extent impure; but tradition imputes to it a very high
antiquity, and even our doubts as to the authenticity of the now
generally accepted reading extend only to one single note. A
widely accepted tradition points out this melody as the tune
sung to In exitu Israel, as part of the Great Hallel (see Psalms),
which is generally (but hardly rightly) identified with the hymn
sung by Christ and His apostles immediately after the Last
Supper.

One very powerful argument in favour of the Jewish origin of
the psalm-tones lies in the peculiarity of their construction.
It is impossible to ignore the perfect adaptation of these venerable
melodies to the laws of Hebrew poetry, as opposed to those which
governed Greek and Latin verse. The division of the tune
into two distinct strains, exactly balancing each other, points
assuredly to the intention of singing it to the two contrasted
phrases which, inseparable from the constitution of a Hebrew
verse, find no place in any later form of poetry. And it is very
remarkable that this constructional peculiarity was never
imitated, either in the earliest hymns or antiphons we possess
or in those of the middle ages — evidently because it was found
impossible to adapt it to any medieval form of verse — even to
the Te Deum, which, though a manifest reproduction of the
Hebrew psalm, was adapted by Ambrose to a melody of very
different formation, and naturally so since so many of its phrases
consist of a single clause only, balanced in the following verse.
This peculiarity now passes for the most part unnoticed; and the
Te Deum is constantly sung to a psalm-tone, very much to the
detriment of both. But in the middle ages this abuse was
unknown; and so it came to pass that, until the " School of the
Restoration " gave birth, in England, to the single chant,
avowedly built upon the lines of its Gregorian predecessor, and a
somewhat later period to the double one, so constructed as to
weld two verses of the psalm into one, often with utter disregard
to the sense of the words, the venerable psalm-tones stood quite
alone — the only melodies in existence to which the psalms could
be chanted. And so intimate is the adaptation of these plain-
chant melodies to the rhythm as well as to the sense of the sacred
text, even after its translation into more modern languages, so
strongly do they swing with the one and emphasize the other,
that it is difficult to believe that the composition of the music was
not coeval with that of the poetry.

Next in antiquity to the psalm-tones are the melodies adapted
to the antiphons, the offertoria, the graduals and the introits,
sung at High Mass. Those proper to the Ordinarium missae are
probably of later date. Those belonging to hymns and sequences
are of all ages. Among the latest we possess — perhaps the very
latest of any great importance — is that of Lauda Sion, a very
fine one, in modes 7 and 8, adapted to the celebrated sequence
written by Thomas Aquinas about 1261.

To the melodies adapted to the Lamenlationes and the Exultet,
as sung in the Church of Rome during Holy Week, it is abso-
lutely impossible to assign any date at all. All we know is that
they are of extreme antiquity, and beautiful beyond all descrip-
tion. The melody of Exultet is, indeed, very frequently cited
as the finest example of plain song in existence.

To assert that melodies so old as these have been handed
down to us in their original purity would be absurd. But the
presence of corruption rarely passes undetected by the initiated;
and vigorous efforts have been made from time to time to purify
the received text by reference to the oldest and most trustworthy
MSS. attainable. Such an effort was begun on a very extensive
scale by the " Congregation of Rites," at the instigation of
Pope Pius IX., in the year 1868; and the labours of that learned
body, together with those of the monks of Solesmes and else-
where, have done much towards the restoration of plain chant
to the highest state of purity possible. In England the Plain-
Song and Medieval Music Society, founded in 1888, has also done
valuable work by its publications. (W. S. R.)

PLAINTIFF, one who brings a " plaint " (Low Lat. plancta
plangere, beat the breast, lament), the name, in law, of the
party who brings an action against another, who is called the

PLAIT— PLANARIANS

707

" defendant." In suits for divorce the party bringing the suit
is styled the " petitioner," the party against whom it is
brought the " respondent."

PLAIT (through O. Fr. ple.it, from Lat. plicitum, folded,
plicare, to fold), properly a fold, especially a fold of cloth, now
usually in the collateral form " pleat." " Plait " is now princi-
pally applied to entwined strands of ribbon, hair, straw or fibre.
PLAN (from Lat. planus, flat), a diagram on a flat surface;
hence by analogy any deliberate scheme or design. In archi-
tecture, a " plan " is a horizontal geometrical section of the
walls of a building, or indications, on a horizontal plane, of the
relative positions of the walls and partitions, with the various
openings, such as windows and doors, recesses and projections,
chimneys and chimney-breasts, columns, pilasters, &c. This
term is sometimes incorrectly used in the sense of design (q.v.).
PLANARIANS, a well-defined group of animals, characterized
externally by their ovoid or vermiform shape, their gliding
movement and their soft, unsegmented, ciliated bodies: inter-
nally by that combination of low somatic type of structure and
complex gonidial organization which is characteristic of the
Platyelmia (q.v.). Their low type of bodily structure may be
exemplified by the facts that the mouth is the only means of
ingress to and egress from the blind alimentary sac, and that no
vascular system is differentiated. Most Planarians are aquatic
and the cilia that cover the body produce by their beating a
stirring of the water. Hence the class is generally known by the
name Turbellaria.

Planarians form one of the basal groups of the animal kingdom.
They are the simplest of multicellular creeping things. In them
the gliding movement has become habitual. The lowest
Planarians are still largely free-swimming animalcules and we
can trace within the limits of the group the development of the
creeping habit and the consequences that flow from it. It has
led to the differentiation of anterior and posterior extremities;
to the formation of bilateral symmetry; and to the development
of a mucilage protecting the body against friction. It entails
the concentration of the scattered nervous system on the ventral
surface and at the anterior end, and it has induced the segregation
of the diffused sense-organs in the head. The Planarians occupy
a position midway between the simple planula larva of Coelen-
terates and the segmented Annelids. They have probably
sprung either from an early Coelornate stock, or represent an
independent class descended from a two-layered parentage
distinct from that of the Coelenterates; a view which is adopted
in the present article.

Occurrence. — Most Turbellaria are aquatic. They abound on
the seashore and in fresh water, amongst weeds or under cover
of stones, shells and sand. Few of them are pelagic or deep-
water forms, and only some half-dozen Planarians are known to
be parasitic. A large number of land Planarians are known,
chiefly from tropical and south temperate countries.

The majority of marine Planarians are nocturnal or cryptozoic,
hiding away during the period of low tide to avoid desiccation
of their soft sticky bodies and coming out at night or during high
tide to feed. They are mostly carnivorous, and their movements
are correlated largely with the nature of their food. The smaller,
more active species occur in companies amongst the finer sea-
weeds over which they creep or swim in pursuit of their food.
The larger marine species occur singly or in pairs on Ascidians,
Nullipores or Polyzoa, from whence as the tide rises they issue
to feed. By the time the next low tide exposes them, these
Planarians have so completely digested their meal that we know
very little of its nature. The common fresh-water Planarians
form either little companies of a dozen or more, usually of a
single species, huddled together under a stone or in some cranny
(see Pearl [8] 1 ), or societies of several species that inhabit
Sphagnum and other fresh-water vegetation. This fresh-water
planarian fauna is of two kinds, the fauna of permanent and that
of temporary sheets of water and both show a certain adaptation
to their environment. The latter, being subject to greater
extremes of temperature than the lacustrine Planarians, produce
1 These references are to the literature at the end of this article.

thick-shelled eggs only. The development of these eggs is rapid
in warm water, slow in cold: so that a pool after a few days of
early spring sunshine is soon populated and provision is made for
the continuance of the race should a cold snap follow. The
lacustrine Planarians exhibit a different form of adaptation.
The eggs laid by many of these animals are either thin-shelled
and rapidly hatched or thick-shelled and slowly hatched. The
lake-water, however, is in spring, even after sunshine, of a much
lower temperature than that of pool-water, but the masses of
Sphagnum and other weeds that border lakes and marshes are
often warmer than the open water and may be as much as 13 or
1 s° C. higher in temperature. Here the Planarians assemble to
benefit by the warmth, and under such favourable conditions
lay thin-shelled eggs which rapidly develop; whilst in colder
surroundings or at the onset of winter thick-shelled resting
eggs are laid. In this manner we can understand the abun-
dance of Planarian life in cold meres and transitory pools in
Great Britain, Scandinavia, Finland, Denmark and North
America.

In contrast to the general habit among Turbellaria of haunting
dim or dark places, the station chosen by a few species is exposed
and strongly illuminated. The marine Convoluta and Poly-
chaerus and the fresh-water Vortex viridis may be taken as
examples. Convoluta paradosa occurs among brown weeds which
receive much light during neap tides and strong direct sun
or light every fortnight. Polychaerus creeps about the New
England shore without resorting habitually to cover, and is also
strongly insolated. Vortex resembles the green Hydra of our
ponds in choosing the lightest side of its surroundings; and
finally, Convoluta roscojfensis paints the beach green in Brittany,
part of Normandy and Natal. In every such case the Planarian
is coloured brown or green by the presence of photosynthetically
active cells and the singular heliotropic habit of these Turbellaria
is associated with the illumination necessary for the activity of
their coloured cells.

Only one branch of the Planarians has become terrestrial, but
this has spread over almost all the whole globe. One species
(Rhynchodemus terrestris, fig. 1, e) is fairly common in Great
Britain under stones, logs and occasionally on fungi, but the
Holarctic countries (North America, Europe and North Africa,
North Asia) are extremely poor in terrestrial species. In coun-
tries lying in the centre and in the south of the great continents
and in the south temperate continental islands and archipelagoes
these land Planarians become more abundant and varied; and
being frequently transported with earth or plants they are often
found in hothouses and botanical gardens far from their native
country. Their distribution offers some points of special
interest showing a close relationship between the South American
fauna and that of Australia and New Zealand: between the land
Planarians of Madagascar, of Ceylon and of Indo-Malaya: and
a marked contrast between Japan and the rest of the Palaearctic
region (see Von Graff [1], 1899).

External Characters. — Planarians range from the minute forms
no larger than Infusoria to ovate, marine species, 6 in. in
diameter and to ribbon-like land forms 8 in. in length. The
majority are small, somewhat cylindrical organisms with a
flat creeping surface. Others, comprising the common fresh-
water and marine forms, are flattened and leaf-like, often
provided with a pair of tentacles near the front end of the
body, and in some cases the whole dorsal surface is beset with
papillae. The land forms are elongate and smooth, and their
anterior extremity is often modified into the arcuate shape
of a cheese-cutter. Their movements are usually of a gliding
character. The minuter forms perform short excursions into
the water round their station, and in so doing recall Infusoria.
The larger forms, in addition to gliding like pellicles, fold the
expanded anterior part of their body into a couple of fins,
with which they swim after the fashion of a skate. The
folded margins of other forms clasp the weeds on which they
live. Adhesion is effected by the mucous investment of the
body and frequently by some specially developed local secretion
of slime, or by a sucker. By these means, aided by their

708

PLANARIANS

algal-frequenting and cryptic habits, the Turbellaria, though
soft-bodied, are able to withstand the violence of the waves.
The anterior end in all Turbellaria is the site of the chief

sense-organs, and in some
forms (Proboscida) becomes
transformed into an imagin-
able proboscis of highly tactile
nature. Such forms lead
naturally to the Nemertina
(q.v.).

Coloration. — The coloration
of Planarians is of interest.
The flattened marine forms
are often brilliantly coloured
on the dorsal surface, either
uniformly or with some strik-
ing marginal band; or they
may exhibit longitudinal
bands of contrasting tints or
a mottled appearance. The
significance of these colours is
not fully understood, but in
some cases of sympathetic
coloration the derivative
function of the pigments is
probably to aid cryptic re-
semblance. The terrestrial
Planarians exhibit the most
striking patterns in longitu-
dinal striping and cross-bars
which appear to have no
relation to the environment
of these essentially nocturnal
animals. The fresh-water
forms are colourless or dusky,
often dark-brown, possibly in
relation to the retention of
heat ; but in a number of both
fresh-water and marine Plana-
rians a green colour is present,
constantly in some species,

Fig. i.
Convolula paradoxa, Oe.
Vortex viridis, M. Sch.
Monotus fuscus, Gff.
Thysanozoon brochii, Gr., with
elevated anterior extremity
(after Joh. Schmidt).
Rhynchodemus terrestris, O. F.

Miiller (after Kennel).
Bipalium ceres, Mos. (after

Moseley).
Polycelis cornuta, O. Sch., at-
tached by the pharynx (ph) to a
dead worm (after Johnson).
All the figures of natural size, and
viewed from the dorsal surface.
a, c and d are marine, b and g
are fresh-water, e and / are ter-
restrial. All found in Great
Britain except d.

e,

f,

g

sporadically in others.

This green effect is due to the infection of the Planarian by a
minute alga which multiplies in the tissues and may profoundly
affect the habits and even the structure of its " host." The
planarian so affected acquires a heliotropic habit; it becomes
gregarious and in extreme cases ceases to ingest solid food. In
Convolula roscoffensis the green cells have become indispensable.
They function both as the nutritive and excretory organs of the
Planarian, and the young animal cannot develop until it is
infected and has acquired a supply of these green cells which
become incorporated into its tissues (Gamble and Keeble [7]).
Brown algal cells (Zooxanthellae) are known in other species of
Convoluta.

Food. — The food of Turbellarians consists, in the smaller
species, of diatoms, unicellular algae, microscopic animals and
other Turbellarians; in the larger ones, of worms, mollusca and
insects. The fine feeders capture their food chiefly at night by
gulping down the minute organisms that settle or swim in their
neighbourhood. The coarse feeders enclose their prey with a
coating of slime and then proceed either to engulf it in their
expansible mouth or to perforate it by their trumpet-like pharynx.
The mouth is remarkably variable in position (fig. 2). In many
flattened Planarians it is placed centrally on the ventral surface
somewhat as in a jelly-fish. In the majority it is nearer the
anterior end, but in a few remarkably elongate forms it occupies
a position near the hinder end of the animal. In the cylindrical
forms (Rhabdocoels) a similar variability in the position of the
mouth is met with.

Anatomy. — The structure of the Turbellaria though greatly
varied in detail, conforms to a single type of somatic organization
which is transitory in the higher invertebrates. The sexual organs,

on the other hand, are founded on two or more types, and the
astounding complications of these structures suggest that their
evolution has been governed by quite other factors or combina-
tions of factors than those that have guided the somatic evolution
of the group.

MG

(From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii. "Worms, &c," by permission of
Macmillan & Co., Ltd. After Lang.)

Fig. 2.— A group of Polyclad Turbellaria, illustrating the various
positions in which the mouth of Planarians may occur, and the
concomitant changes in other organs.

A, Anonymus virilis: mouth central, male genital aperture (tf)
multiple and biradial.

B, Prosthiostomun siphunculus: mouth anterior, the pharynx
protruded through it.

C, Cestoplana: mouth posterior (m) ; ' & , male ; S, female genital
aperture; Br. brain; CG, eyes especially related to the brain;
Ey, marginal eyes; m, mouth; MG, stomach; Ph, Pharynx;
s, sucker.

The general structural characters are as follows. The body
consists of a muscular envelope covered externally by a ciliated
glandular epidermis and of an alimentary sac, cylindrical or branched,

PC EP

SC PC M

(After Bohmig.)

Fig. 3.— To show the structure of the simplest Turbellaria.

The figure represents the left half of a transverse section across
the body of the Acoelous planarian Haplodiscus. The mouth (M)
is plugged up with a digestive polynuclear mass of cytoplasm and
the transitions from this to the stellate scattered central paren-
chyma (SC) and again from the latter to a firmer peripteral zone
(PC) are shown. The outermost layer (EP) is a ciliated epidermis
resting on (BM), a basement membrane (dark line), the row of
dots beneath this represents the longitudinal muscles (L).

for which the mouth serves both as ingress and egress. Between
this aproctous gut and the integument the body consists of a
jelly-like, vacuolated mesenchyme made up of branched gland-
cells, excretory cells, pigment- and muscle-cells. A space may be
secondarily hollowed out around part of the gut; but no coelomic
or true perivisceral cavity exists in the sense in which these terms
are used in higher animals. A nervous system is present and
consists of an anterior "brain" and of ramifying ganglionic trunks
that are developed in relation to the muscular integument and to
the sense-organs for the perception of light and pressure. No

PLANARIANS

709

respiratory organs are developed, probably in correlation with the
absence of a blood -vascular system. On the other hand, the
process of reproduction is elaborately organized. The Planarians
are hermaphrodite and, as in so many other small animals, the body,
after attaining maturity, becomes in many Planarians practically
a genital sac and is soon exhausted by the repeated calls upon its
reserves that are involved in the rapid production of eggs and sper-
matozoa. The intervals between successive clutches has been
found in Convoluta roscoffensis to be a month, thus suggesting the
influence of the lunar tides upon maturation.

Integument. — The epidermis is ciliated and highly glandular.
It consists of a single layer of cubical or oblong cells with the
structure seen in fig. 3. The glandular secretion takes various
forms, such as mucus, mucinoid granular blocks, or fusiform re-
fringent homogeneous rods. These rods or " rhabdites " are

DM—

(Partly after Luther: Zeilschrift fur wissenschafl. Zoologie,
by permission of Wilhelm Engelmann.)

Fig. 4. — Portion of a transverse section of Mesostomaehrenbergii.

The epidermis (E) consists of cells divided into an outer and inner

zone, the latter containing rhabdites (Rb) ; the cilia (Ci) axe

thickened about the middle of their length. Below the epidermis

is the basement-membrane (BM) , a layer of circular muscles (C) and

of longitudinal ones (L). Below this again is the mesenchyma (M),

made up of branched cells and dorso-ventral muscle-fibres {DM).

The mesenchymatous glands (Rmc) are producing rhammites (Rm)

which pass outwards.

frequently coloured red or yellow, and are highly characteristic of

the Turbellaria. Their real use is unknown. In only two genera

does the epidermis produce cuticular spines (Acantkozoon, Enantia)

on the surface, but chitinoid hooks, spines and spirals occur

frequently on the lining membrane of the male and female

copulatory ducts.

Below the epidermis is a firm basement membrane into which
the subjacent muscles are inserted. They are divided into cuter
circular and inner longitudinal groups and subdivided in the larger
forms by diagonal fibres, and in the most highly differentiated
Planarians there are six muscular layers, two of each kind. In
a number of Turbellaria the musculature is modified to form a
sucker either single or double and anterior or posterior, and it
undergoes further modification in connexion with the pharynx
and reproductive organs.

classification of the Planarian is based on them. Thus we have
the Rhabdocoelida with straight gut and the Tricladida and the
Polycladida with triple and multiple branches to the gut. The
Rhabdocoelida are further divided into three groups: the Acoela

Fig. 5. — Integument of Mesostoma lingua, O. Sch.
On the right hand is the epidermis (z) with perforations (/) through
which the rhabdites (st) project. Beneath this the basement mem-
brane (bm), and beneath this again the muscular layers consisting
of circular (rm), diagonal (sm), and longitudinal (Im) fibres.

Alimentary Sac. — The alimentary sac consists of a muscular
pharynx opening outwards through the mouth and inwards into
a median digestive organ which may be solid or hollow, and in the
latter case straight, lobate or branched. These characters are
correlated with such a number of distinctive features that the

Fig. 6. — Main trunks of
the Excretory System of
Mesostoma ehrenbergii, O.
Sch., opening to the exterior
through the mouth; ph.
Pharynx.

(From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.
Part IV.)

Fig. 7. — Flame-cell from the
Excretory System.
a, nucleus; b, excretory granules;
c, " flame " ; d, branches of cell;
e, beginning of excretory tube.

with a simple syncytial gut not sharply separated from the surround-
ing mesenchyma; the Rhabdocoela, with a hollow gut and a peri-
visceral schizocoelic span; and the Alloeocoela with a lobate gut
and reduced schizocoele. The last group leads one naturally to
the Tricladida; the Polyclads being an independent group.

The pharynx varies widely in structure. In the Acoela it is a
mere thickening and pitting of the integument. In the Rhabdo-
coela a great number of elaborate modifications are found. These
are based on the type of a buccal invagination, which forms the
pharyngeal sheath, and from the
bottom of this there springs a mus-
cular outwardly directed tube or fold.
In the Alloeocoela and Tricladida the
pharynx is an elongate protrusible
cylinder, and in the Polyclads it may
be an immensely distensible frilled
organ, the folds of which have indepen-
dent movement, or an elongate tube.
At the base of the pharynx lie the
openings of salivary glands. In the
Polycladida the section of the alimen-
tary sac into which the pharynx opens
is a median stomach from which
the intestinal branches radiate. The
stomach in few forms is provided
with digestive glands. The branches . _. ,

possess an independent musculature System of a S ? m P le Plan f
and exhibit active peristalsis. The in- ana 1 (Haplodiscus, one of
testine of Planarians is not ciliated, and
digestion appears to be largely intra-
cellular and not cavitary.

Mesenchyma. ■ — The mesenchyma
(Bohmig: parenchyma auctt.) consists
of a mass of branched vacuolated cells,
imbedded in which lie gland-cells, pig-
ment-cells and the excretory system.
It envelops the genital organs, which
though in the mesenchyma are not of
it, and it forms an investment to the
gut and to the space (schizocoel) which often occurs between
the gut and the mass of the mesenchyma. The mesenchymatous
gland-cells are of different kinds. (1) Single cells in which
rods (rhammites) are developed (fig. 4, Rmc). Such cells in
embryonic life give rise to a process which perforates the soft
basement-membrane and penetrates between the epidermal cells.
The process becomes hollow, and the rhammites pass outwards
along it on to the surface of the animal, forming in many
Turbellarians thickly set rows of rods on the head. (2) Similar
cells contain nematocysts in a few Planarians (Microstoma, Steno-
stoma, Anonymus virilis and Stylochoplana tarda). Whether these

Nervous

the Acoela).

B, the brain which gives
off a dorsal (DN) and
a ventral (VN) plexus
and also lateral nerves
(LN). The mouth (M)
and the otocyst (OT)
are shown. The former
is ventral, the latter
dorsal in position.

710

PLANARIANS

nematocysts develop in the Turbellarian is doubtful, and it is not
impossible that they are derived from the tissues of some coelenter-
ate animals eaten by the Planariah, as has been shown to be the case
in the nematocysts of Eolids. (3) Cells producing aciculate spicules,
sometimes associated with a spiral thread. These structures are
often associated together in batteries, notably so in the remarkable
genus Anonymus.

Excretory System. — The excretory system consists of proto-
nephridia, that is, of tubes opening to the exterior by one or more

(From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii. " Worms, &c," by permission of
Macmillan & Co., Ltd. After Lang.)

Fig. 9. — Double Eye found on the brain of Polyclads. Each
consists of a pigment-cup and of four nerve-end cells (rod-cells) in
which the nerves terminate.

N, nerve fibres and cells. Pc, pigment-cell. Re, rod cell.

apertures, and after branching extensively in the mesenchyma,
end blindly in peculiar hollow cells (flame-cells) provided with a
bunch of synchronously vibrating cilia. The excretory tubules
have a markedly sinuous course and are provided with cilia. The
motion of these cilia and of the flame-cells
is to induce an outward current of the fluid
from the canals, but the process of excre-
tion seems to be performed chiefly by the
branched mesenchymatous flame-cells. The
position of the external opening varies
greatly. It may be single or paired, mid-
ventral or terminal, or again multiple and
arranged in pairs along the dorsal surface
(Tricladida and probably in Polycladida).
The flame-cells are arranged in pairs in
Tricladida, but lie less regularly in the
mesenchyma of most forms. Finally, it is
noteworthy that in the Acoela no excretory
system is known.

Nervous System.— -The nervous system is
present in all divisions of the order. It
consists of a paired, anterior ganglion lying
ventral to the gut, and from this are given
off, right and left, dorsal, lateral and ventral
fibres interconnected by a plexus. The
nerve-cells are scattered throughout the
plexus. The chief development of the system
occurs in relation to the muscular body-
wall, sense-organs and the pharynx. In
these characters the nervous system of
Planarians shows an interesting transition
from the scattered plexus of Coelenterates
to the segmental ganglia and sympathetic
nervous system of Annelids.

Sense-organs. — These occur in the form of
tactile organs, otocysts and eyes. The whole
skin of many Planarians is sensitive, and
amongst the ordinary locomotor cilia long
Fig \o. -Microstoma st -' n? ones are found which it is natural to
lineare Oe. under- think are tactile organs. The head-end is
going division, There often provided with specialized cells that
are 16 individuals 8 a PPear to subserve the sense of touch and
with mouth apertures, Possibly of taste also. The abundance
showing the buds of °' rhammites, of long stiff cilia, and the
the first (m) second g rea t mobility and sensitiveness of this
(/»'). third (m") and re gi° n , bear out this conclusion. A further
fourth (m'") genera- development of cephalic, sensory structures
tion. The fifth genera- °£ curs , ' m , , the f form ? f , a cre f centic groove
tion has not yet (Polyclads) of paired, lateral pits {Mtcro-
acquired a mouth sioma < n g. 10) of mobile papillae on the
aperture, c ciliated extreme front margin (Land Triclads)
grooves ;' e eye spots • an d of extensible tentacles, marginal or
i intestine'. ' nuchal in most Pclyclads.

The otocyst occurs constantly in the
Acoela and sporadically in every other division of the group. It
is with one exception a single median organ placed over the brain,
and consists oi a uni- or bi-cellular sac containing a calcareous

concretion lying in a fluid. From what is known of these organs
in higher invertebrates we may infer that they serve to increase
the perception of slow wave-movement and enhance the control of
the muscular sense.

Eyes are generally present in Planarians. Two types are dis-
tinguishable — eyes with a cup-shaped retina facing outwards, and
those with an inverted retina facing inwards. The former occur
in Triclads and Polyclads around the margin of the body often a
hundred or more may be present. The latter occur in all groups
except the Acoela, but are limited to the neighbourhood of the
brain or bases of the nuchal tentacles. Recent investigation has
shown that the essential part of the eyes has in all cases a compli-
cated structure and is not a mere epidermal cell-group enclosed
by pigment and provided with an optic nerve. On the contrary
(Hesse [10]), adequately known eyes are composed of rod-cells that
contain each an axial filament or bundle of fibrillae (the termination
of the nerve), and the distal end of the rod-cell is converted into a
striated usually broad border where the action of light commences.
A group of such specialized rod-cells is enclosed in a pigmented
cup opening either outwards or inwards and pierced by an optic
nerve. The whole is usually depressed beneath the epidermis,
but in some Acoela and Alloeocoela the eyes retain a surface-
position. In the Polyclads eyes may increase by division and in
Triclads may decrease in number by fusion (Carriere [n]). The
marginal and often radial disposition of the scattered eyes, and the
prostomial position of the paired eyes, afford interesting evidence
of the intermediate position that Planarians occupy between the
radiate Coelentera and the bilateral Annelids.

Reproduction. — All Turbellaria are hermaphrodite, and reproduce
sexually, but a few forms (Microstomidae and some Triclads)

Fig. 12. — Plan of a Rhabdo-
coelous Turbellarian.
be, Bursa copulatrix.
en, \ Brain.

e, '- Eye.

g, Germarium.

i, Intestine.

In, Longitudinal nerve trunk.

m, Mouth.

ph, Pharynx.

rs, Receptaculum seminie.

s, Salivary gland.

I, Testis.

«, Uterus (containing an egg).

v, Yelk gland.

vs, Vesicula seminalis.

j, Chitinous copulatory organ.

<? 9 , Common sexual aperture.

be, Bursa copulatrix.

increase during the summer by fission and during the winter by
eggs. The body of the Microstomidae becomes constricted and
partially subdivided into two, the posterior half regenerates a brain
and pharynx. Subsequently each becomes again converted into
two zooids, and the process is repeated until a chain is formed as
in fig. 10. This breaks up into its constituent members, each of
Which repeats the process until the onset of reproduction. The

Fig. 11. — Plan of an Acoelous
Turbellarian.

e, Eye.

m, Mucous gland, formerly mis-
taken for the mouth, which
lies in the centre of the
body.

ot, Otolith.

ov, Ovary.

p, Digesting parenchyma.

t, Testicular follicles.

vs, Vesicula seminalis.

$, Male-organ of copulation.

<f 9 , Common sexual aperture.

PLANARIANS

711

Triclads, on the other hand, fragment, without undergoing prepara-
tory changes.

The male and female genital ducts (gono-ducts) open to the
exterior, either through a common chamber on the ventral surface
(most Rhabdocoelida and all Tricladida, figs. 12, 14) or by separate
apertures that are also usually ventral. In the latter case, the male
gonopore is usually in front of the female one (all Polycladida and
some Rhabdocoelida). A separate opening is sometimes acquired
by one or other of the accessory reproductive organs (as by the
spermotheca in some Rhabdocoelida in which it is dorsal).

The generative organs of the Planarians are complex. Male and
female germ-cells develop in one and the same individual and reach
the exterior by independent ducts. These ducts are provided
with accessory glands along their course and terminate in penial

Fig. 13. — Plan of an Alloeo-
coelous Turbellarian. Letter-
ing as in fig. 12.

Fig. 14. — Plan of a Tricladid.

ii, Anterior, and i 2 , is, paired pos-
terior branches of intestine.
od, Oviduct.
te, Tentacle.
vd, Vas deferens.

(J 1 , Male, and ? , female copulatory
organ. Other lettersasinfig.12.

or vaginal structures, often of great complexity, which are sur-
rounded by an " atrium " or invagination of the ventral body-
wall. From this invagination a special vesicle " uterus " is often
developed for the reception of the fertilized egg previous to
oviposition.

The Acoela present the simplest arrangement. In this group (fig.
1 1 ) the male germ-cells arise in follicles each of which is the
product of a single sperm-mother-cell. From these follicles, the
motile spermatozoa enter the paired sperm-duct, which opens by
a single aperture near the hinder end of the animal, and is provided
with a simple unarmed glandular penis. The female germ-cells or
ova arise from a paired ovary, some of the cells of which appear
to act as nurse-cells, supplying the young eggs with nourishment.
When mature the eggs are transferred to the oviduct. At the point
where the two oviducts join in order to open to the exterior they
receive a conical sac (spermotheca) which contains spermatozoa. At
this point the eggs are fertilized, and deposited in a mucilaginous
mass which is attached to algae or buried in the sand. It is
characteristic of the Acoela that the testes and ovaries should
not be continuous with either the sperm-duct or the oviduct
respectively.

In one genus of the Acoelous Turbellaria— Polychaerus — this
primitive arrangement undergoes a development which foreshadows
the complicated ovaria and vitellaria of higher forms. In Poly-
chaerus the eggs mature in a special roomy chamber and are here
provided with yolk which is elaborated by a sterile part of the
ovary. Thus we have a differentiation of germ-cells into two
portions allocated to two chambers: fertile ova which open eventu-

ally into the oviduct, and sterile ova that become yolk-cells and
open into the brood-pouch.

The remaining Rhabdocoelida possess separate ovaries and yolk-
glands. The union between the two sets of ducts takes place in
the genital atrium which is provided with a spermotheca for the
fertilization of the ova, but in at least one sub-family (Cylindro-
stominae) the spermotheca opens by a special dorsal pore. These
ova, together with the yolk and spermatozoa, are then transferred
to another atrial diverticulum— the uterus, in which a shell is formed
and from which they are deposited in the form of a cocoon. In
addition, a muscular pouch, the so-called " bursa copulatrix," is
usually present. The male organs of Rhabdocoelida are no less
complex. The testes are either follicular (Alloeocoela) or compact

Fig. 15. — Plan of a. Polycladid.

en,

Brain.

st,

Stomach.

i,

Intestinal branches.

t,

Testicular follicle.

iu

Anterior unpaired intestinal

u,

Uterus.

branch.

vd

Vas deferens.

In,

Longitudinal nerve cord.

<?

Male copulatory organ, with

m,

Mouth.

the male aperture behind.

od,

Oviduct.

?-

Female copulatory organ,

ov,

Ovarian follicle.

with the female aperture

ph,

Pharynx.

before it. The eyes are

ph

Pharyngeal pouch.

omitted.

(Rhabdocoela), and communicate indirectly or directly with the
paired seminal ducts. The ducts unite at the base of an evagin-
able penis. This muscular organ is provided with glandular and
chitinoid appendages of considerable complexity,' and, in addition
to these, a poison gland and duct are sometimes present. In certain
genera {Macrorhynchus, Prorhynchus) the penis is used for catching
prey, perhaps exclusively so in the former genus. The opening
of the atrium into the oral cavity in Cylindrostominae and of the
male organ into the mouth of Prorhynchus is possibly explained
by this tact.

From the Alloeocoela we pass readily to the Triclads. In both
of these groups the reproductive organs are based on the same plan ;
but in Triclads the separation of ovarian and vitellarian portions
of the gonad is less perfectly effected. The oviduct transmits the
eggs from the anteriorly placed ovary, and receives in its course
the openings of numerous vitellaria (fig. 14). No distinct spermo-
theca is developed, but a cocoon is formed in a special chamber —

712

PLANARIANS

the uterus — which "may either be a dilatation of the common
oviduct (vagina) or of the atrium, and may open to the exterior
independently (single in Uteriporus, paired in Syncoelidium) . In
Bdelloura the uterus is said to act as a spermotheca. In addition
to these structures, accessory muscular organs are found in Dendro-
coelum and developed to a high degree in land Planarians, where
they form the so-called adenocheiri and adenodactyli (see von
Graff, 1899).

Lastly, the Polyclads offer certain distinctive sexual characters.
The ovaries are follicular, very numerous, and the ova elaborate
their own yolk (fig. 15). The oviducts open into a chamber which,
after receiving a voluminous shell-gland, opens by a muscular
bursa to the exterior. No special uterus is developed, but
from the point of union of the two egg-chambers a vesicle is given
off which may open separately to the exterior (Trigonoporus) .
The testes are equally diffused and the seminal vesicles usually
form a median muscular eversible sac which opens in front of the
female genital pore. In Stylostomum, however, this penial organ
opens through the mouth, as in certain Rhabdocoelida. Moreover,
it may be paired {Thysanozoon) or multiple. Thus in Anonymus
twelve or more pairs occur. In Cryptocehdes two, four or six may
be present, but in this genus they all lie in a common sac. In
Polypostia twenty pores occur ranged about the female pore, but
the most posteriorly placed of these structures are devoid of a
seminal duct. This condition supports the view that in Polyclads
the penis was at first a glandular organ probably used for attacking
prey and that it has become secondarily connected with repro-
duction. In confirmation of this conclusion we have the observa-
tions of Lang (5) that Yungia stabs the body of other Polyclads
with its penis when brought into contact with them. (See Whit-
man [9].) The genus Laidlavia differs from all other Polyclads
in possessing a dorsal genital opening.

Development. — The development of the Planarians is fairly
well known. Except for one or two species of Polyclads, develop-
ment is direct and without meta-
morphosis; but in Thysanozoon and
Yungia the embryo develops eight
strongly ciliated lobes which form a
circumoral band of larval processes.
These have been compared with the
girdle of Trochosphere larvae and
also with the eight rows of swimming
plates in Ctenophores. From the
name of their discoverer these girdled
larvae are called Miiller's larvae
(fig. 16).

In the Rhabdocoelida the eggs are
usually laid in a shell which has
characteristic shapes. Each capsule
contains a single ovum and several
yolk-cells. Segmentation results in
the formation of dislocated megacytes
and microcytes. The latter give rise
to the epidermis which is laid down
in bilateral sheets, the former to the
various internal organs. There is no
distinction of germ-layers, and the
gut is gradually organized from the
mesenchyme, the rest of which gives
rise to the parenchyma. The pharynx
and the rudiment of the gonads are
. the first organs to appear (Breslau
Fig. 16.— Larva of Yungia [131,1905). The development of the
auranttca, L. (Polycladida), Acoela differs in certain particulars
with provisional ciliated f rom t h a t of other Rhabdocoelida.
processes. f ne ova contain yolk-granules, and

yolk-cells are absent. Groups of such eggs, each with its own
shell, are laid in a gelatinous envelope. Each ovum segments into
a two-layered embryo composed of a ciliated outer layer and a
central syncytium. No trace of a distinct enteron or gut is visible,
but as the embryo grows the syncytium becomes differentiated
into a more fluid central portion and a firmer peripteral zone. The
former, together with the wandering phagocytes, corresponds
functionally to the separate gut of other Rhabdocoelida. Pelagic
larvae with a coat of long cilia have been identified by Uljanin as
belonging to the Acoela.

The development of the Tricladida offers other peculiarities.
From four to twenty or more ova are surrounded by several hundred
amoeboid yolk-cells in each cocoon. Each egg-cell divides; but,
as happens in the capsular ova of certain Mollusca and Oligochaeta,
they do not all survive, some being used up as food by the remainder.
The segmented ovum becomes dislocated as in some Rhabdocoels,
the blastomeres moving apart from one another. The details of
organ-formation are still imperfectly understood.

The eggs of the Polyclads are laid somewhat like those of the Acoela
in a gelatinous envelope, each ovum being provided with yolk
and an egg-shell which may be operculate. The majority of
species go through a direct development. Tbe segmentation of the
egg in Discocelis and Leptoplana has been worked out by Lang
and his results re-interpreted by Wilson and others (Hubrecht

(After A. Lang.)

[12]). In Polyclads a distinction of germ-layers similar to that
occurring in the development of Mollusca, Chaetopod-Annelids
and certain other Invertebrates, is early apparent. The ovum by
unequal segmentation gives rise to megameres and micromeres,
and between the two, intermediate cells form one origin for the
mesenchyma. The micromeres surround the intermediate and
centrally placed macromeres. The latter undergo division into
hypoblast cells and yolk-masses. The similarity of cell-lineage
in Polyclads and Coelomate Invertebrates, together with the
trochosphere-like Polyclad larval form (Miiller's larva), have been
the two chief arguments in support of the view that this group is
a link between the Planarian and Coelomata. It is at present,
however, doubtful whether such highly organized animals as Poly-
clads can be regarded as in any sense ancestral forms. Their re-
lations to other Turbellaria are quite uncertain, and on present
evidence it seems legitimate to hold that they are the most highly
differentiated division both in embryonic and adult structure.

Systematic Arrangement.

Order Turbellaria. — Free-living Platyelmia with a ciliated epidermis.
A well-developed nervous system and sense-organs concentrated at
the anterior end of the body, diffused elsewhere.

Sub-order A. Rhabdocoelida. — Gut syncytial or tubular. Female
gonads always compact.

Tribe I. Acoela (fig. 11). — Mesenchyma not differentiated into
separate gut and parenchyma. No excretory organs of protone-
phridial type. A simple pharynx., A median otocyst (statocyst)
over the brain. Small, often flattened forms. All marine and
many infected by brown or green algal cells. One species parasitic
in Echinoderms.

Tribe II. Rhabdocoela (fig. 12). — Gut and parenchyma separate,
the former a simple straight sac. Vitellaria usually present.
Testes compact. Penis and pharynx often complex, occasionally
protruded through a common opening. Marine and fresh-water.
Many fresh-water forms infected by algal cells. Typhloplana,
Grajjilla, Anoplodium, are respectively parasitic in Nephthys, in
Gastropods and Holothurians.

Tribe III. Alloeocoela. — Gut and parenchyma distinct. In-
testine straight or lobate. Testes follicular. Penis and pharynx
simple. One family with otolith. All marine except Plagiostoma
lemani (deep-water, Geneva) and the Bothrioplanidae.

Sub-order B. Dendrocoelida. — Large forms with flattened body,
branched intestine, follicular testes and follicular ovaries or compact
ovaries and yolk-glands.

Tribe I. Tricladida. — Intestine with three main branches. A
pair of compact ovaria and numerous yolk-glands connected by
a common duct. A single genital aperture. Fresh-water forms:
Planaria, Dendrocoelum, Polycelis, common. Peculiar forms in
Lake Baikal. Marine forms: Gunda segmentata, Bdelloura (ex-
ternal parasite of Limulus). Terrestrial forms: Rhynchodemus,
Geoplana, Bipalium.

Tribe II. Polycladida. — Body leaf-like. Intestine composed of
a median stomach with many branched or reticulate coeca; testes
and ovaries follicular; genital openings usually separate, the male
gonopore preceding the female one. Multiple male gonopores in
some forms. All marine and widely distributed; some genera
cosmopolitan.

Literature. — (1) L. von Graff (Rhabdocoela, Acoela, Tricladida),
Monographic d. Turbellarien (1882), vol. i., (1899) vol. ii. ; Die Acoela
(1891) ; (2) Arbeiten aus der zool. Institut zu Graz (1904, 1905, 1906) ;
(3) " Turbellaria," in Bronn's Klassen v. Ordnungen d. Thierreichs,
vol. ii. ; (4) Turbellaria als Parasitcn v. Wirthe (Graz, 1904); (5) A.
Lang, " Die Polycladen," Fauna and Flora of the Gulf of Naples,
vol. ii. (1884); (6) F. F. Laidlaw (Polyclads) in Zoological Results
of Expeditions conducted by Dr Willey, Stanley Gardiner and
C. Crossland, Cambridge Univ. Press, and Proc. Zool. Soc. (1902-
1906); (7) Gamble and Keeble (Green cells of Convoluta), Quart.
Jour. Micro. Sci. (1903, 1907) ; (8) E. R. Pearl (Bionomics of
Planarians), ibid. (1903); (9) Whitman (Hypodermic Impregna-
tion), Jour. Morphology (1890), iv. 361; (10) Hesse (Eyes of
Planarians), Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., vol. lxi. (1897); (11) Carriere
(ditto), "Die Sehorgane der Thiere " (1885); (12) A. A. W.
Hubrecht (affinities), Zeitschr. f. Nalurwiss (Jena, 1905); (13)
Breslau (Development of Rhabdocoels), Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool.
(1905). Besides these special works, useful general accounts of
the Turbellaria will be found in Cambridge Natural History, ii.
1-50; A Treatise on Zoology (Black), iv. 1-42, and the references
given by these works.

Appendix to the Turbellaria.

Class Temnocephaloidea. — This small class of Platyelmia possesses
a special interest. It connects the Turbellaria (and in particular
the Vorticid rhsbdocoela) with the Trematoda. At the same time
the Temnocephaloidea present certain peculiar structural features
which entitle the class to an independent position.

The name of the class is derived from the digitate tentacles
which occur on the anterior or lateral margins of the body. The
body measures about 5 mm. in length, and the flattened ventral
surface is armed with a sucker. It presents in most genera the
appearance of a minute cephalopod, but in Craspedella the posteriof

PLANCEER— PLANCK, G. J.

7*3

part of the dorsal surface is raised up into three transverse fringed
lamellae. These animals are epizoic, i.e. they live attached to the
outer surface of other organisms, but are not ectoparasitic for they
ingest Infusoria, Rotifera and Diatoms. Most of the species occur
on fresh-water crayfish and crabs in Chile, Madagascar, the Malay
Archipelago and Australasia. Two Brazilian forms are known,
one from the pulmonary chamber of the Mollusc Ampullaria and
the other from water tortoises. The genus Temnocephala is found
in all the countries mentioned. The two others, Craspedella and
Actinodactylella are only known from Australia.

The epidermis offers an interesting transitional structure. It is
still, as in Turbellaria, cellular, or rather syncytial without cell-
boundaries, but in most species has lost its cilia and developed a

(From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii. " Worms," &c. t
by permission of MacmUlao & Co., Ltd.)

Fig. 17. — The anatomy of Temnocephala (after Haswell).
9 S, Common genital aperture. rh, Rhabdites.

d, Gut. rh.c, Rhabdite-forming cells.
ex.s, Excretory sac. sc, Sucker.

m, Mouth. sh, Shell-gland.

ov, Ovary. te, Testis.

ovd, Oviduct. ut, Uterus.

ph, Pharynx. vg. Vagina.

rv, Receptaculum vitelli. vs, Vesicula seminalis.

thick cuticle as in Trematodes, pierced by the necks of subdermal
gland-cells. These cells, however, still retain the Turbellarian
character of secreting rhabdites and form thickly-grouped tracts.
The mouth, which is placed near the anterior end, leads into a
bulbous pharynx from which a short, broad digestive sac is given
off. The excretory system is peculiar. Besides the ordinary
flame cells, single large canaliculated cells may form the com-
mencement of the tubules, composed of comparatively few cells
with large nuclei. They open to the exterior by a pair of con-
tractile sacs situated dorsally at the level of the mouth as in certain
Trematoda. Each sac is the product of a single cell, and is said
to contain several branches of " flames " or synchronously con-
tractile cilia. The reproductive system recalls that of certain
Rhabdocoels, whilst the nervous system has retained a more primi-
tive condition. The brain, which is placed over the mouth, gives
rise to six main longitudinal tracts interconnected by a subdermal
network. A pair of eyes is placed above the brain.

Class and order Temnocepholoidea. — Platyelmia in which the
flattened body is produced into anterior or anterior and lateral
tentacular processes and carries a ventral sucker. The epidermis
is a syncytium covered by a thick cuticle. Cilia and rhabdites
are present. Family I. : Temnocephalidae : 4-12 anterior ten-
tacles. Family II. : Actinodactylellidae. Lateral tentacular pro-
cesses.

See Haswell, - Macleay Memorial Volume (1893); Plate, Sitz-
berich. Akad. Wiss. Berlin (1894), p. 527. (F. W. Ga.)

PLANCEER, or Planchier (0. Fr. plancier, or planchier,
planking), in architecture, a term sometimes used in the same
sense as a soffit, but more correctly applied to the soffit of the
corona in a cornice.

PLANCHE, JEAN BAPTISTE GUSTAVE (1808-1857), French
critic, was born in Paris on the 16th of February 1808. Intro-

duced by Alfred de Vigny to Francois Buloz, he began to write
for the Revue des deux mondes, and continued to do so until
1840. He resumed his connexion with the journal in 1846 and
contributed to it until his death in Paris on the 18th of September
1857. Gustave Planche was an altogether honest critic and
refused to accept a place from Napoleon III. for fear of compro-
mising his freedom. He was in early life a fervent admirer of
George Sand, and he lavished praise on De Vigny. But he had
nothing but scorn for Victor Hugo, whose earlier dramas he
characterized as odes, those following Le Roi s 'amuse as anti-
theses, and the later ones as nothing but spectacle. His critical
papers were collected under the titles: Portraits litteraires (1836-
1849); Nouveaux portraits litteraires (1854); and art criticisms,
Etudes sur I'ecole francaise (1855).

See Ernest Montegut, in the Revue des deux mondes (June 1858) ;
Hatzfeld and Meunier, Les Critiques litteraires du XIX' siecle
(1891).

PLANCHfi, JAMES ROBINSON (1 796-1880), English dra-
matist and antiquary, was born in London on the 27 th of
February 1796, the son of a watchmaker of Huguenot descent.
In 1810 he was articled to a bookseller. In 1818 his first dra-
matic piece, a burlesque entitled Amoroso, King of Little Britain,
was produced at Drury Lane theatre. From this time onwards
he made play-writing his principal work. In 1820-1821 he wrote
ten pieces for the Adelphi theatre. In 1823 he designed the
dresses for Charles Kemble's revival of King John at Covent
Garden, and superintended its production. This was the first
time that an historical drama had been " dressed " in the
costume of the period. In 1828 he began writing regularly for
Covent Garden theatre, and in 1830 was manager of the Adelphi.
On Mme Vestris taking the Olympic theatre in 1831, Planch6
entered into an agreement with her to write a series of plays.
The first of these, Olympic Revels, a burlesque, was given on the
opening night of the theatre, the performance being given in
correct classical costume. In 1843 his Fair One with the Golden
Locks was produced by Webster at the Haymarket. In 1847
Mme Vestris became manageress of the Lyceum theatre, and
Planche was engaged as her leading author and designer, his
principal success being the Island of Jewels (1849). Subse-
quently he wrote for a number of other managements, his last
dramatic piece being King Christmas (1871), but he also wrote
the songs for Babil and Bijou at Covent Garden (1872). In
addition to his dramatic work Planche enjoyed a considerable
reputation as an antiquary and heraldic student. He was a
Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, and aided in the foundation
of the British Archaeological Association in 1843. In 1834 he
published The History of British Costumes. In 1854 he was
appointed Rouge Croix pursuivant of arms at the Heralds'
College, and in 1866 Somerset herald. In 1869, at the request of
the War Office, he arranged the collection of armour at the
Tower of London in chronological order. He died at Chelsea on
the 30th of May 1880.

Planch6's Recollections and Reflections were published in 1872.

PLANCK, GOTTLIEB JAKOB (1751-1833), German Protestant
divine and historian, was born at Niirtingen in Wiirttemberg,
where his father was a notary, on the 15th of November 1751.
Educated for the Protestant ministry at Blaubeuren, Beben-
hausen and Tubingen, he became repentent at Tubingen in 1774,
preacher at Stuttgart in 1780, and professor of theology at
Gottingen in 1784. At Tubingen he wrote Das Tagebuch eines
neuen Ehemannes. In 1781 he published anonymously the first
volume of his Geschichte des protestantischen Lehrbegriffs; the
second, also anonymous, appearing in 1783, and it was completed
in six volumes in 1800. It was followed by an extensive
Geschichte der christlich-kirchlichen Gesellschaftsverfassung in five
volumes (1803-1809). Both are works of considerable impor-
tance, and are characterized by abundant learning. He died on
the 31st of August 1833. His son Heinrich Ludwig Planck
(1785-1831), also professor of theology at Gottingen, published
Bemerkungen iiber den ersten Brief an den Timotheus (1808) and
Abriss d. philos. Religionslehre (182 1).

7H

PLANCK, K. C— PLANET

PLANCK, KARL CHRISTIAN (1810-1880), German philo-
sopher, was born at Stuttgart on the 17th of January 1819. He
studied at Tubingen, where he became doctor of philosophy in
1840 and Privaldozenl in 1848. During this period the
influence of Reiff led him to oppose the dominant Hegelianism
of the time. In 1850-1851 he published his great book, Die
Wellalter, in which he developed a complete original system of
philosophy, based on the realistic view that thought should
proceed from nature to the highest forms of existence in the
spiritual life. Not only did Planck oppose the idealism of his
confreres; his views were, in another aspect, directly antagonistic
to the Darwinian theory of descent, which he specifically attacked
in Wahrheit und Flachheit des Darwinismus (Nordlingen, 1872).
The natural consequence of this individuality of opinion was
that his books were practically disregarded, and Planck was
deeply incensed. The ill success of Die Weltalter nerved him to
new efforts, and he repeated his views in Katechismus des Rechts
(1852), Grundlinen einer Wissenschaft der Natur (1864), Seele
und Geist (1871), and numerous other books, which, however,
met with no better fate. In the meantime he left Tubingen for
Ulm, whence he came finally to the seminary of Maulbronn. He
died on the 7th of June 1880 in an asylum after a short period
of nervous prostration. After his death a summary of his work
came into the hands of K. Kostlin (author of Aesthetics, 1869),
who published it in 1881 under the titleTestamenteinesDeutschen,
Philosophie der Natur und der Menschheit. Planck's views were
elaborately developed, but his method of exposition told heavily
against their acceptance. He regarded himself as the Messiah
of the German people.

Beside the works above quoted, he wrote System des reinen
Idealismus (1851); Anthropologie und Psychologie auf naturwissen-
schaftlicher Grundlage (1874); a political treatise, Bismarck : Sud-
deutschland und der deutsche Nationalstaat (1872); and Logisches
Causalgesetz und natiirliche Zweckmassigkeit (1874). _ •

See Umfrid, Karl Planck, dessen Werke und Wirken (Tubingen,
1881); and Schmidt, " Das Lebensideal Karl Christian Plancks,"
in the Vortrdge der philosophischen Gesellschaft (Berlin, 1896).

PLANE. 1. In botany, the common name of a handsome tree
known botanically as Platanus orientalis, a native of Greece and
western Asia, a favourite shade-tree of the ancient Greeks and
Romans, and introduced by the latter to south-west Europe. It

Plane (Platanus orientalis).
1, Leaf, i nat. size.
2 and 3, Base of leaf-stalk showing bud-protecting cap,

about i nat. size.
4, Male, 5, Female inflorescence.

6, Head of fruits, about i nat. size.

7, A fruit with enclosed seed, cut lengthwise.

is one of the most successful trees in London and other large
towns; the smooth face of the leaf is easily washed by rain; and
the periodical peeling of the bark also serves to get rid of im-
purities. It is a large tree with widely spreading branches and
alternate, palmately five-lobed leaves, resembling those of the
sycamore in shape, but quite hairless and of a brighter green.
The bud in the leaf axil is protected during its development by
the hollow base of the leaf-stalk, which lifts off like an extin-
guisher when the leaf falls in autumn. The minute, unisexual

flowers are borne in dense pendulous heads, which contain either
male or female flowers; the small one-seeded fruits are densely
crowded in a ball, from which they gradually separate in drying,
and are readily carried by the wind. The wood, which is hard
and heavy, though not strong, is used in Persia and other coun-
tries of western Asia for house construction and furniture. A
variety of forms are known in cultivation, the commonest being
the maple-leaved (acerifolia) , the London plane, which has usually
three-lobed leaves; var. laciniata has very deeply much divided
leaves, and var. variegata, variegated foliage. Platanus occi-
dentalis, an allied species, is a native of the United States, being
most abundant and growing to its largest size in the bottom lands
of the basins of the lower Ohio and the Mississippi rivers. It was
introduced into England early in the 17th century, and is occa-
sionally met with in western and central Europe. Professor C. S.
Sargent (Silva of North America) refers to it as the most massive
if not the tallest, deciduous-leaved tree of the North American
forest; it is known in America as sycamore and buttonwood.
It differs from P. orientalis in its less deeply lobed, more
leathery pubescent leaves and in the usually solitary balls of
fruit.

2. The name of a carpenter's hand-tool, used for levelling and
smoothing (Lat. planus, level) the surface of wood. The machine
tool used for a similar purpose for metals is generally known as a
planing-machine or planer.

PLANET (Gr. ifKavrj-rris, a wanderer), in the ancient astro-
nomy, one of seven heavenly bodies characterized by being in
motion relative to the fixed stars, which last appeared immovable
upon the celestial sphere. As thus defined the planets were the
sun, the moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. In
modern astronomy since Copernicus, the term is applied to any
opaque body moving around the sun. Taken in its widest sense
it applies to the satellites which are sometimes termed secondary
planets. Each of these moves around a planet larger than
itself, which it accompanies in its revolution round the sun.
A planet not revolving round another is termed a primary
planet.

The primary planets are classified as major and minor. The
former are eight in number and, with the sun, form the principal
members of the solar system, under which head their arrange-
ment is described. The earth on which we live is the third in the
order of the major planets from the sun. With respect to the
positions of their orbits relative to the earth, the other planets
are distinguished as inferior and superior. The former, only two
in number, comprise Mercury and Venus, which revolve between
the earth and the sun. The superior planets are those whose
orbits are outside that of the earth. The synodic revolution of
an inferior planet is the time in which it performs a revolution
relative to the line joining the earth and the sun. This is greater
than its actual time of revolution. The phases or appearances
presented by such a planet depend upon its configuration with
respect to the earth and sun, and therefore go through their
complete periods in a synodic revolution. At superior conjunc-
tion the illuminated hemisphere of the planet is presented to the
earth so that it presents the form of a full moon. As it moves
towards inferior conjunction, the lines from the planet to the
sun and to the earth, or the angle sun-earth as seen from the
planet, on which the phase depends, continually make a greater
angle. At the time of greatest elongation this angle is 90 , and
the planet appears one half illuminated, like the moon at first
or last quarter. Then, as it approaches inferior conjunction, the
visible portion of the disk assumes the crescent form, and while
the circle bounding the disk continually increases owing to the
approach of the planet to the earth, the crescent becomes thinner
and thinner until, near inferior conjunction, the planet is no
longer visible. After conjunction the phases occur in the reverse
order. The brilliancy of the planet, as measured by the total
amount of light we receive from it, goes through a similar cycle
of change. The point of greatest brilliancy is between inferior
conjunction and greatest elongation. In the case of Venus this
phase occurs about three or four weeks before and after inferior
I conjunction.

Tht dots round the orbits show the

position of the planets at Intervals

of ten days _ "

PLANET

The symbol* 1 \ indicate the greatest

distance of an orbit north and south
of the plant; of the Elliptic

7*5

The dots round the orbit* show
the position of iho planets at
intervals of a thousand days

' n

The arma-htfo'd on *aeh orbit shows

J the direction of revolution, also the
place of each planet On Jan. Ist.WJO at noon

Venus

Saleet

bundrcdsoLmiJIjcins of tnftcs

y i a ^ 6 .8 io

The Sun,

Scalt ten thousand -times that of Orbits
(The Earth,Kars,and the Sun, are shown at seen from the dirtotiam of Uu Dolt of the ecliptic in their true axial poeitiom)

Fig. 3.

VtfSiMr*
Soale about one hundred times that of Orbit*

utonatj

O

Venus

Mare

Jupiter

Saturn

Scale of Planets 20,000 times that of Orbits

Fig. 4 .

I Jupiter and Saturn are shown In their true axial position,
Uranus and Neptune in the axial positions inferred from the motions of their Satellites /•

Soale about 4000 times that of the Orbits

Saturn's

System of

Satellites

EEXDCG

Vranus'e Satellites

Jupiter's

^System

^ of Satellites

Neptune's Satellite

Fig. 5.

In the figures given above are shown the relative orbits of the
planets, the orbits of Mars, the Earth, Venus and Mercury (fig. 1)
being drawn to a scale twenty times that of the outer ones — Neptune,
Uranus, Saturn, Jupiter (fig. 2). The positions of the planets at
ten-day intervals; their actual position on the 1st of January 1910 at
noon, of their nodes and nearer apses, and the points when they
are farthest distant north and south of the ecliptic, are also given.

The relative sizes of the planets are also given, orientated in their
true axial position with regard to the ecliptic. The nearer planets
(and also the Moon) are separately compared (fig. 3) ; and then shown
(on a smaller scale) in comparison with the more distant ones
(fig. 4). Finally scale diagrams of the distances of the orbits of
the satellite-systems of Saturn, Uranus, Jupiter and Neptune are
given (fig. 5).

716

PLANET

The phases of a superior planet are less strongly marked,
because the lines from the planet to the earth and sun never
increase to a right angle. The result is that although the appar-
ent disk of Mars is sometimes gibbous in a very marked degree, it
is always more than half illuminated. In the case of the other
superior planets, from Jupiter outward, no variation in phase is
perceptible even to telescopic vision. The entire disk always
seems fully illuminated.

The most favourable time for viewing an inferior planet is near
that of greatest brilliancy. As it recedes further from the earth,
although a continually increasing proportion of its disk is illu-
minated by the sun, this advantage is neutralized by the diminu-
tion in its size produced by the increasing distance. When a
superior planet is in opposition to the sun it rises at sunset and is
visible all night. This is also the time when nearest the earth,
and therefore when the circumstances are most favourable for
observation.

The greater the distance of a planet from the sun the less is
the speed with which it moves in its orbit. The orbit being
larger, the time of its revolution is greater in a yet larger degree.
An approximation to the general laws of speed in different
planets is that the linear speed is inversely proportional to the
square root of the mean distance. From this follows Kepler's
third law, that the squares of the times of revolution are pro-
portional to the cubes of the mean distances.

Notes on the Plate showing Planetary Spectra.

Only those lines and bands are mentioned which are peculiar to
the planets ; the Fraunhofer lines are therefore omitted.

Wave
length.

Remarks.

4600

Neptune.

4800

F hydrogen, H/3 strong.

Neptune, Uranus, Saturn (?)

5090

Neptune, Uranus.

5190*

Broad.

Neptune, Uranus.

5370

Neptune, Uranus.

5430

Broad, unsymmetrical,

Neptune, Uranus, Saturn,

strong.

Jupiter.

5570 =•=

Neptune, Uranus (?).

5700 ±

Broad, unsymmetrical,

Neptune, Uranus, Saturn (?)

strong.

Jupiter (?).

5980

Strong.

Neptune, Uranus.

6090

Neptune, Uranus.

6190

Very strong.

Neptune, Uranus, Saturn,
Jupiter.

6400

Broad (?).

Neptune, Uranus.

6500 ±

Neptune, Uranus, Jupiter,
Saturn (?).

6560

C hydrogen, Ho.

Neptune, Uranus.

6670 ±

Broad band.

Neptune, Uranus, Saturn,

Jupiter.
Neptune, Uranus.

[6780

Bright region due to ab-

sence of selective ab-

sorption which is strong

both above and below.

6820

Strong, narrow, near

Neptune, Uranus, Saturn,

above B.

Jupiter.

7020

Strong, broad.

Neptune, Uranus, Saturn,
Jupiter.

[7140

Bright, unabsorbed region
similar to that at 6780.

Neptune, Uranus.

7260

Strongest band present.

Saturn, Jupiter.

7500

Band (?).

1 Saturn.

It was once supposed that the planets were surrounded by
comparatively dense atmospheres. The question whether such
Spectraand ls the case, and, if so, what is the physical constitu-
Atmo- tion of the atmospheres, is a difficult one, on which
spheres ot little light is thrown except by the spectroscope.

e aae . jj an ^ o ^ these bodies is surrounded by a transparent
atmosphere like that of the earth, the light which reaches us
from it will have passed twice through this atmosphere. If
the latter were materially different in its constitution from
that of the earth, that fact would be made known by the
spectrum showing absorption lines or bands different from
those found in the solar spectrum as we observe it. If, how-
ever, the planetary atmosphere had the same composition as
ours we should see only an intensification of the atmospheric
lines, which might be imperceptible were the atmosphere rare.

Actual observation has thus far shown no well marked devia-
tion in the spectra of any of the inner group of planets, Mercury,
Venus and Mars, from the solar spectrum as we see it. It
follows that any atmospheres these planets may have must,
if transparent, be rare. The evidence in the cases of Venus and
Mars is given in the articles on these planets. Taking the outer
group of planets, it is found that the spectrum of Jupiter shows
one or more very fainf shaded bands not found in that of the
sun. In Saturn these bands become more marked, and in
Uranus and Neptune many more are seen. The spectra in
question have been observed both optically and photographically
by several observers, among whom Huggins, Vogel and Lowell
have been most successful. It may be said, in a general way,
that seven or eight well marked dark bands, as well as some
fainter ones are observable in the spectra of the two outer
planets. The general conclusion from this is that these planets
are surrounded by deep and dense atmospheres, semi-trans-
parent, of a constitution which is probably very different from
that of the earth's atmosphere. But it has not, up to the present
time, been found practicable to determine the chemical constitu-
tion of these appendages, except that hydrogen seems to be
an important constituent. (See Plate.)

Intimately associated with this subject is the question of the
conditions necessary to the permanence of an atmosphere round
a planet. Dr Johnstone Stoney investigated these stability of
conditions, taking as the basis of his work the Planetary
kinetic theory of gases (Trans. Roy. Dull. Soc. vi. Atm °-
305). On this theory every molecule of a gaseous sp eres '
mass is completely disconnected from every other and is in
rapid motion, its velocity, which may amount to one or
more thousand feet per second, depending on the temperature
and on the atomic weight of the gas. At any temperature the
velocities of individual molecules may now and then increase
without any well-defined limit. If at the boundary of an atmo-
sphere the velocity should exceed a certain limit fixed by the mass
and force of gravity of the planet, molecules might fly away
through space as independent bodies. The absence of hydrogen
from the atmosphere of the earth, and of an atmosphere from
the moon, may be thus explained. If the fundamental hypo-
theses of Dr Stoney's investigations are correct and complete, it
would follow that neither the satellites and minor planets of the
solar system nor Mercury can have any atmosphere. If the
separate molecules thus flying away moved according to the laws
which would govern an ordinary body, they would, after leaving
their respective planets, move round the sun in independent
orbits. The possibility is thus suggested that the matter
producing the zodiacal light may be ah agglomeration of gaseous
molecules moving round the sun; but several questions respecting
the intimate constitution of matter will have to be settled before
any definite conclusions on this point can be reached. It is not
to be assumed that a molecule would move through the ether
without resistance as the minutest known body does, and there
is probably a radical difference between the minutest particle
of meteoric matter and the molecule of a gas. The relations of
identity or difference between such finely-divided matter as
smoke and atmospheric haze and a true gas have yet to be fully
established, and until this is done a definite and satisfactory
theory of the subject does not seem possible.

Since the radiation of heat by a planet is, with our present
instruments, scarcely capable of detection and measurement,
the temperature of these bodies can be estimated Temperature
only from general physical laws. The laws govern- of the
ing the radiation of heat have been so developed p,anets -
during recent years that it is now possible to state at least
the general principle on which a conclusion as to the tem-
perature of a planet may be reached. At the same time our
knowledge of the conditions which prevail on other planets
is so limited, especially as regards their atmospheres, that only
more or less probable estimates of the temperature of their
surfaces can even now be made. Summarily stated, some of
the physical principles are these: —

1. A neutrally coloured body— understanding by that term

PLANET

Plate I.

PLANETARY SPECTRA, PHOTOGRAPHED AT LOWELL OBSERVATORY, FLAGSTAFF, ARIZONA,

BY V. M. SLIPHER.

Jupiter.

Saturn.

Uranus.

Neptune.

Comparison spectrograms of the Moon and Mars, showing absorption bands in that of the latter, which denote the presence

of water vapour in the Martian atmosphere (see Mars).
XXI. 716.

PLANET

REPRESENTATIVE STELLAR SPECTRA, PHOTOGRAPHED AT LOWELL OBSERVATORY,
FLAGSTAFF, ARIZONA, BY V. M. SLIPHER.

.5.3

a o

s

5.

W
Z

z

o
3
o

PLANETS, MINOR

717

one which absorbs the same fraction of the thermal radiation
falling upon it whatever the wave length of this radiation —
exposed to the sun's radiation in void space tends to assume
a definite temperature, called the normal temperature, the
degree of which depends upon the distance of the body from
the sun. This is a result of Kirchhoff 's laws of radiation.

2. An atmosphere surrounding such a body, if at rest, will
tend to assume a state of thermal equilibrium, in which the
temperature will be the same at all heights.

3. If the atmosphere is kept in constant motion by an inter-
change between its higher and lower portions, the tendency is
towards adiabatic equilibrium, in which the temperature
diminishes at a constant rate with the height, until it may
approach the absolute zero. The rate of diminution depends
upon the intensity of gravity and the physical constants of
the gases composing the atmosphere.

4. In the actual case of a planet surrounded by an atmosphere
and exposed to the sun's radiation, the actual rate of diminution
of temperature with height above the surface of the planet lies
between the extreme limits just defined, the rate varying widely
with the conditions. The general tendency will be towards a
condition in which the temperature at the base of the atmosphere
is higher than the normal, while in the upper regions it is lower.
The temperature of the surface of the planet on which the
atmosphere rests is determined partly by the sun's radiation
and partly by the temperature of the air. What we should
generally expect in the absence of any selective absorption by
the air is that the temperature of the lower air would be higher
than that of the material surface on which it rests. But this
condition might be reversed by the effect of such absorption
in either the air or the material of the planet.

ment. Something of this sort has been suspected in the case
of Jupiter, which has several points of resemblance to the sun.
The planets Uranus and Neptune which, but for their atmo-
spheres, would approximate to the absolute zero in temperature,
may be prevented from doing so by the dense atmosphere
which the spectroscope shows around them.

A very elaborate investigation of the probable mean tempera-
tures of the surfaces of the several planets has been made by
J. H. Poynting, Phil. Trans, (vol. 202 a, 1904).

Tables of Planetary Elements and Constants.

Table I. gives the elements determining the motions of each
major planet, and Table II. certain numbers pertaining to its
physical condition. For explanation of terms used see Orbit.
The elements are given for the epoch 1900, Jan. o, Greenwich
mean time, except the mean longitudes, which are for 1910, Jan. o.

In interpreting or using the numbers it must be remembered
that only the mean distances and mean daily motions can be
regarded as well determined and invariable quantities. The other
elements are subject to a secular variation, and all vary more or
less from the action of the planets. In Table II. the reciprocal of the
mass is given, the mass of the sun being unity. Some of these
and other quantities are extremely uncertain. This is especially
the case with the mass of Mercury, which the astronomical tables
put at 1/6,000,000 that of the sun, while G. W. Hill has computed
from an estimate of the probable density of the planet that it is
probably less than 1/11,000,000. In the table we assume the
round number 1/10,000,000. The volumes are derived from micro-
metric measures of the diameters, which are more or less uncertain.
From these and the mass follows the density of each planet. From
this again is derived the intensity of gravity at the surface; this
is also frequently uncertain. Finally the normal temperature is
that which a black or neutrally coloured body would assume when
every part of it is equally exposed to the sun's rays by a rapid
revolution. As has already been intimated, the actual temperature
may also depend upon the interior heat of the planet, which is an
unknown quantity. (S. N.)

Table I.

— Elements of the Orbits of the E

lght Major

Planets.

Mean Distance from Sun.

Eccentricity
of Orbit.

Longitude

Longitude
of Node.

Inclina-
tion.

Period of
Revolution.

Mean Daily
Motion.

Mean Long-

Planet.

Astronomical

Thousands

of Peri-

itude 1910,

Units.

of Miles.

helion.

Jan. 0.

Mercury .

0-3870987

36,000

0-205614

75° 54'

47° 9'

7°o'

Days.
87-969256

4°-0927

3° 32'

Venus

0-72333I5

67,269

0-006821

130 10'

75° 47'

3° 24'

224-700798

I°-602I

73° 53'

Earth

1 • 0000000

92,998

0-016751

101° 13'

—

—

365-256360

o°-9856

99° 17'

Mars .

1-523688

141,701

0-093309

334° 13'

48° 47'

i°5i'

686-979702

o°-524°3

47° 39'

Jupiter

5-202804

483.853

0-048254

12° 36'

99° 37'

i° 19'

4332-5879

o°-o8309i

l8i° 4 3'

Saturn

9-S38844

887,098

0-056061

90° 49'

ii3°3'

2 30'

I0759-2OIO

o°-03346o

28 56'

Uranus

19-19096

1.784.732

0-047044

169° 3'

73° 29'

o°46'

30586-29

o°-on77o

286 42'

Neptune

30-07067

2,796,528

0-008533

43° 45'

130° 41'

i°47'

60187-65

0°-O06020

107 1'

Table II. — Physical Constants pertaining

' to the Major Planets.

Angular Semidiameter.

At

Diameter

Reciprocal of

Density.

Gravity at

Orbital

Normal

Planet.

Mass.

Surface.

Velocity.

Temperature.

Equatorial.

Polar.

Dist.

in Miles.

(O's mass = i)

(Water = 1)

(® = i)

(© = 1)

Miles persec.

Centigrade.

' Mercurv

3-30"

3-30"

1

2,976

10,000,000

3-5

•633

0-24

29-76

195°

Venus .

8-46"

8-46"

1

7,629

408,000

5-o5

•913

o-88o

21-77

7"

Earth .

8-79"

8-76"

1

7,917

333.430

5-53

I -000

i-oo

18-52

19°

Mars

4-80"

4-76"

1

4.316

3.093.500

3-68

•666

0-363

15-00

_ 36°

Jupiter

18-75'

17-65"

5-203

86,259

1.047-35

1-363

•247

2-68

8-12

-144

| Saturn

8-75'

7-88"

9 539

72,772

3.5oo

0-678

•123

i-i3

6-00

-177^

Uranus

1-90'

1-90"

19-19

32,879

22,869

I-I3

•204

0-85

4-24

-205

'Neptune

i-io"

i- 10"

30-07

29,827

19.314

1-79

•322

1-22

3-40

-218°

It would follow from these laws that the temperature of the
superior planets diminishes rapidly with distance from the sun,
and must therefore be far below that of the earth, unless they
are surrounded by atmospheres of such height and density as
to be practically opaque to the rays of heat, or unless they have
no solid crust.

The resemblance of the spectra of Mars, Jupiter and Saturn
to that of the sun leads to the conclusion that the atmospheres
of these planets are transparent down to the reflecting surface
of the body. The temperature of these surfaces must therefore
be determined by Kirchhoff's law, unless they resemble the sun
in being entirely liquid or gaseous, or in having only solid nuclei
surrounded by liquid matter in a condition of continual move-

PLANETS, MINOR. The minor planets, commonly known
as asteroids or planetoids, form a remarkable group of small
planetary bodies, of which all the known members but three
move between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Until recently
they were all supposed to be contained within the region just
mentioned; but the discovery of one, which at perihelion comes
far within the orbit of Mars, and of two others, which at aphelion
pass outside the orbit of Jupiter, shows that no well-defined
limit can be set to the zone containing them. Before the exist-
ence of this group was known, the apparent vacancy in the region
occupied by it, as indicated by the arrangement of the planets
according to Bode's law, had excited remark and led to the belief
that a planet would eventually be found there. Towards the

718

PLANETS, MINOR

end of the 18th century the conviction that such a planet existed
was so strong that an association of astronomers was formed
to search for it. The first discovery of the looked-for planet
was not, however, made by any member of this association, but
by Giuseppe Piazzi of Palermo. On the ist of January 1801
he noted a small star in Taurus, which, two days later, had
changed its place, thus showing it to be a planet. Shortly after
Piazzi's discovery the body was lost in the rays of the sun, and
was not again seen until near the following opposition in 1801-
1802. The orbit was then computed by C. F. Gauss, who found
its mean distance from the sun to correspond with Bode's law,
thus giving rise to the impression that the gap in the system
was filled up. The planet received the name Ceres.

On the 28th of March 1802 H. W. M. Olbers (1758-1840)
discovered a second planet, which was found to move in an orbit
a little larger than that of Ceres, but with a very large eccen-
tricity and inclination. This received the name of Pallas. The
existence of two planets where only one was expected led Olbers
to his celebrated hypothesis that these bodies were fragments
of a larger planet which had been shattered by an internal
convulsion; and he proposed that search should be made near
the common node of the two orbits to see whether other frag-
ments could be found. Within the next few years two other
planets of the group were discovered, making four. No others
were found for more than a generation; then on the 8th of
December 1845 a fifth, Astrea, was discovered by K. L. Hencke
of Driesen. The same observer added a sixth in 1847. Two
more were found by J. R. Hind of London during the same year,
and from that time discovery has gone on at an increasing rate,
until the number now known is more than six hundred and is
growing at the rate of thirty or more annually.

Up to 1890 discoveries of these bodies were made by skilful
search with the telescope and the eye. Among the most success-
ful discoverers were Joharin Palisa of Vienna, C. H. F. Peters
(1813-1800) of Clinton, New York, and James Craig Watson
(1838-1880) of Ann Arbor, Michigan. In recent times the dis-
coveries are made almost entirely by photography. When a
picture of the stars is taken with a telescope moved by clock-
work, so as to follow the stellar sphere in its apparent diurnal
rotation, the stars appear on the plates as minute dots. But
if the image of a planet is imprinted on the plate it will
generally appear as a short line, owing to its motion relative to
the stars. Any such body can therefore be detected on the
plate by careful examination much more expeditiously than by
the old method of visual search. The number now known is so
great that it is a question whether they can be much longer
individually followed up so as to keep the run of their
movements.

Among the distinctive features of the planets of this group
one is their small size. None exists which approaches either
Mercury or the moon in dimensions. The two largest, Ceres
and Juno, present at opposition a visible disk about 1* in dia-
meter, corresponding to about 400 miles. The successively
discovered ones naturally have, in the general average, been
smaller and smaller. Appearing only as points of light, even
in the most powerful telescopes, nothing like a measure of their
size is possible. It can only be inferred from their apparent
magnitude that the diameters of those now known may range
from fifteen or twenty miles upwards to three or four hundred,
the great majority being near the lower limit. There is yet no
sign of a limit to their number or minuteness. From the in-
creasing rate at which new ones approaching the limit of visibility
are being discovered, it seems probable that below this limit
the number of unknown ones is simply countless; and it may
well be that, could samples of the entire group be observed,
they would include bodies as small as those which form the
meteors which so frequently strike our atmosphere. Such being
the case, the question may arise whether the total mass of
the group may be so great that its action on the major planets
admits of detection. The computations of the probable mass
of those known, based upon their probable diameter as concluded
from the light which they reflect, have led to the result that their

combined action must be very minute. But it may well be a
question whether the total mass of the countless unknown
planets may not exceed that of the known. The best answer
that can be made to this question is that, unless the smaller
members of the group are almost perfectly black, a number
great enough to produce any observable effect by their attraction
would be visible as a faintly illuminated band in the sky. Such
a band is occasionally visible to very keen eyes; but the observa-
tions on it are, up to the present time, so few and uncertain that
nothing can positively be said on the subject. On the other
hand, the faint " Gegenschein" opposite the sun is sometimes
regarded as an intensification of this supposed band of light,
due to the increased reflection of the sun's light when thrown
back perpendicularly (see Zodiacal Light). But this sup-
position, though it may be well founded, does not seem to fit
with all the facts. All that can be said is that, while it is possible
that the light reflected from the entire group may reach the
extreme limit of visibility, it seems scarcely possible that the mass
can be such as to produce any measurable effect by its attraction.
Another feature of the group is the generally large inclinations
and eccentricities of the orbits. Comparatively few of these
are either nearly circular or near any common plane. Con-
sidering the relations statistically, the best conception of the
distribution of the planes of the orbits may be gained by con-
sidering the position of their poles on the celestial sphere. The
pole of each orbit is defined as the point in which an axis per-
pendicular to the plane intersects the celestial sphere. When
the poles are marked as points on this sphere it is found that
they tend to group themselves around a certain position, not
far from the pole of the invariable plane of the planetary system,
which again is very near that of the orbit of Jupiter. This
statistical result of observation is also inferred from theory,
which shows that the pole of each orbit revolves around a point
near the pole of the invariable plane with an angular motion
varying with the mean distance of the body. This would result
in a tendency toward an equal scattering of the poles around
that of Jupiter, the latter being the centre of position of the
whole group. From this it would follow that, if we referred
the planes of the orbit to that of Jupiter, the nodes upon the
orbit of that planet should also be uniformly scattered. Ex-
amination, however, shows a seeming tendency of the nodes
to crowd into two nearly opposite regions, in longitudes of about
180° and 330 . But it is difficult to regard this as anything
but the result of accident, because as the nodes move along at
unequal rates they must eventually scatter, and must have
been scattered in past ages. In other words it does not seem
that any other than a uniform distribution can be a permanent
feature of the system.

A similar law holds true of the eccentricities and the perihelia.
These may both be defined by the position of the centre of the orbit
relative to the sun. If a be the mean distance and e the eccentricity
of an orbit, the geometry of the ellipse shows that the centre of the
orbit is situated at the distance ae from the sun, in the direction of
the aphelion of the body. When the centres of the orbits are laid
down on a diagram it is found that they are not scattered equally
around the sun but around a point lying
in the direction of the centre of the
orbit of Jupiter. The statistical law
governing these may be seen from
fig. I. Here S represents the position
of the sun, and J that of the centre of
the orbit of Jupiter. The direction
JS produced is that of the perihelion
of Jupiter, which is now near longitude 12°.
moves by its secular variation, the line SJ revolves around S.
Theory then shows that for every asteroid there will be a certain
point A near the line SJ and moving with it. Let C be the actual
position of the centre of the planetoid. Theory shows that C is in
motion around A as a centre in the direction shown by the arrow, the
linear eccentricity ae being represented by the line SC. It follows
that e will be at a minimum when AC passes through S, and at a
maximum when in the opposite direction. The position of A is
different in the case of different planetoids, but is generally about
two- thirds of the way from S to J. The lines AC for different
bodies are at any time scattered miscellaneously around the region
A as a centre. AC may be called the constant of eccentricity of the
planetoid, while SC represents its actual but varying eccentricity,

Fig. 1.

As the perihelion

PLANK

719

Grouping of the Planetoids. — A curious feature of these bodies
is that when they are classified according to their distances from
the sun a tendency is seen to cluster into groups. Since the
mean distance and mean motion of each planet are connected
by Kepler's third law, it follows that this grouping may also be
described as a tendency toward certain times of revolution or
certain values of the mean motion around the sun. This feature
was first noticed by D. Kirkwood in 1870, but at that time the
number of planetoids known was not sufficient to bring out its
true nature. The seeming fact pointed out by Kirkwood was
that, when these bodies are arranged in the order of their
mean motions, there are found to be gaps in the series at
those points where the mean motion is commensurable with
that of Jupiter; that is to say, there seem to be no mean daily
motions near the values 598", 748" and 898", which are respec-
tively 2, 25 and 3 times that of Jupiter. Such mean motions
are nearly commensurable with that of Jupiter, and it is shown
in celestial mechanics that when they exist the perturbations
of the planet by Jupiter will be very large. It was therefore
supposed that if the commensurability should be exact the orbit
of the planet would be unstable. But it is now known that such
is not the case, and that the only effect of even an exact com-
mensurability would be a libration of long period in the mean
motion of the planetoid. The gaps cannot therefore be ac-
counted for on what seemed to be the plausible supposition that
the bodies required to fill these gaps originally existed but were
thrown out of their orbits by the action of Jupiter. The fact
can now be more precisely stated by saying that we have not
so much a broken series as a tendency to an accumulation of
orbits between the points of commensurability. The law in
question can be most readily shown in a graphical form. In
fig. 2 the horizontal line represents distances from the sun,

limits of the groups shown in the figure. Eros is so near the
sun, and its orbit is so eccentric, that at perihelion it is only
about 0'i6 outside the orbit of the earth. On those rare occasions
when the earth is passing the perihelion point of the orbit at
nearly the same time with Eros itself, the parallax of the latter
will be nearly six times that of the sun. Measurements of parallax
made at these times will therefore afford a more precise value
of the solar parallax than can be obtained by any other purely
geometrical measurement. An approach almost as close as
the nearest geometrically possible one occurred during the winter
of 1893-1894. Unfortunately the existence of the planet was
then unknown, but after the actual discovery it was found that
during this opposition its image imprinted itself a number of
times upon the photographs of the heavens made by the Harvard
Observatory. The positions thus discovered have been ex-
tremely useful in determining the elements of the orbit. The
next near approach occurred in the winter of 1900-1901, when
the planet approached within 0-32 of the earth. A combined
effort was made by a number of observatories at this time to
determine the parallax, both by micrometric measures and by
photography. Owing to the great number of stars with which
the planet had to be compared, and the labour of determining
their positions and reducing the observations, only some frag-
mentary results of this work are now available. These are
mentioned in the article Parallax. So far as can yet be seen,
no other approach so near as this will take place untffl January

i93i-

A few of the minor planets are of such special interest that
some pains will doubtless be taken to determine their orbits
and continue observations upon them at every available opposi-
tion. To this class belong those of which the orbits are so
eccentric that they either pass near that of Jupiter or approach

■7T

2-8

Fig. 2.

increasing toward the left, of which certain equidistant numerical
values are given below the line. Points on the line corresponding
to each o-oi of the distances are then taken, and at each point
a perpendicular line of dots is drawn, of which the number is
equal to that of the planetoids having this mean distance, no
account being taken of fractions less than o-oi. The accumula-
tions between the points of close commensurability with the
mean motion of Jupiter may be seen by inspection. For
example, at the point 2-59 the mean motion is three times that
of Jupiter; at the point 2-81 twice the mean motion is equal to
five times that of Jupiter; at 3-24 the mean motion is twice that
of Jupiter. It will be seen that there is a strong tendency toward
grouping near the values 2-73, and a lesser tendency toward 3-1
and 24. It is probable that the grouping had its origin in the
original formation of these bodies and may be plausibly attributed
to the formation of three or more separate rings which were
broken up to form the group.

Continuing the question beyond these large collections, it
will be seen that between the values 3-22 and 3-33 there are no
orbits at all. Then between 3-3 and 3-5 there are nine orbits.
The space between 3-5 and 3-9 is thus far a complete blank;
then there are three orbits between 3-90 and 3-95, not shown
in the diagram.

A group of great interest, of which only three members are
yet known, was discovered during the years 1906-1907. The
mean distance of each member of this group, and therefore its
time of revolution, is so near that of Jupiter that the relations
of the respective orbits are yet unknown. The case thus offered
for study is quite unique in the solar system, but its exact nature
cannot be determined until several more years of observation
are available.

Several planetoids of much interest are situated without the

near that of the earth. With most of the others little more can
be done than to compute their elements with a view of subse-
quently identifying the object when desired. Unless followed
up at several oppositions after discovery, the planet is liable to
be quite lost. Of those discovered before 1890 about fifteen
have not again been found, so that if discovered, as they doubt-
less will be, identification will be difficult.

The system of nomenclature of these bodies is not free from
difficulty. When discoveries began to go on at a rapid rate,
the system was introduced of assigning to each a number, in
the order of its discovery, and using as its symbol its number
enclosed in a circle. Thus Ceres was designated by the symbol®;
Pallas by @, &c, in regular order. This system has been con-
tinued to the present time. When photography was applied
to the search it was frequently doubtful whether the planet of
which the image was detected on the plates was or was not
previously known. This led to the use of capital letters in
alphabetical order as a temporary designation. When the
alphabet was exhausted a second letter was added. Thus there
are planetoids temporarily designated as A, B, &c, and AB,
AC, &c. The practice of applying a name to be selected by
the discoverer has also been continued to the present time.
Originally the names were selected from those of the gods or
goddesses of classical mythology, but these have been so far
exhausted that the name is now left to the discretion of the
person selecting it. At present it is customary to use both the
number and the name, the former being necessary to the ready
finding of the planetoid in a list, while the name serves for more
certain identification. (S. N.)

PLANK, a flat piece of timber, sawn and planed; it is techni-
cally distinguished from a " board " by its greater thickness, and
should measure from 2 to 4 in. in thickness and from 10 to n in.

720

PLANKTON

in width. The word comes through the Fr. planche (from post-
Augustan, Lat. planca, a nasalized adaptation probably of Gr.
7rX<x£, something flat, especially a flat stone. The use of the
word " plank " in the sense of an article in a political programme
is of American origin and is due to the use of " platform " for
the programme itself.

PLANKTON, a name invented by Professor Victor Hensen
for the drifting population of the sea. This is a convenient
heading under which to discuss not only plankton proper, but
the benthos, or crawling population of the sea-bottom. Scientific
investigation of these subjects dates from the reports of the
" Challenger " expedition, which, despite its many successors,
still stands out as the most important of the oceanographic
expeditions, alike by the work achieved, the distance traversed,
the time occupied, and the money devoted to the publication
of the results. It laid the foundation of our knowledge of the
physics and chemistry of ocean water, of oceanic and atmospheric
currents, of the contour of the sea-bottom, and of the main
features of distribution of deep-sea life. Later work has con-
firmed and expanded, but not revoked, the conclusions thus
attained. But, in spite of this and of several subsequent
expeditions, it cannot be pretended that we are in a position
to formulate general canons of marine distribution other than
of the most tentative character. Two fallacies underlie many
attempts to define distributional oceanic areas for special groups:
the one, that such areas can be made to bear some relation to
existing geographical or even national divisions; the other, that
what is true for one group of the animal kingdom must hold
good equally for another. It is necessary at the outset to divest
oneself of these errors; oceanic conditions depend only very
indirectly upon the distribution of the land, and strongly swim-
ming or freely floating animals are not to be confined by the
same factors as determine the distribution of sessile forms, whose
range is governed by a variety of circumstances.

As Wyville Thomson pointed out long ago, there is but one
ocean. This surrounds the southern half of the globe, and has
two large gulfs, generally called the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans,
which meet through narrow channels in the small Arctic Ocean,
and a half gulf, the Indian Ocean. The Atlantic and Pacific
exhibit a striking homology of atmospheric pressure and of
prevalent wind and current; the Indian, to a great extent,
resembles the southern half of a larger one, but this resemblance
is modified by the neighbourhood of vast land masses. The
prevalent winds, dependent on the fairly constant distribution
of atmospheric pressure over the great oceans, are the most
important determinant of currents. As at most points in the
ocean the temperature, salinity and chemical composition of
the water are mainly determined by the currents — that is, by
the condition at the place whence the water came — it is obvious
that a study of currents must precede any general view of the
distribution of marine forms.

Regard must be had not merely to the superficial currents
indicated in fig. i , but also to the movements of the deeper layer.
Ice melting at the poles, together with polar precipitation of hail,
snow and rain, yields large quantities of water of low salinity
and very low temperature; this water sinks under the warmer
Salter surface water drifted from lower latitudes, and, creeping
slowly north and south from the poles, covers the bottom of all
the great open oceans at very uniformly low temperatures (in
some cases as low as 30 F.). Between surface and bottom the
temperature gradually decreases (except where affected by local
circumstances), and in the middle layers the existence of slow
currents is suspected. The cold bottom water wells up to the
surface in certain areas, replacing the surface water drained
away by currents, notably to the westward of the great land
masses. Ocean water is remarkably uniform as regards its
contained salts and gases, and it does not seem likely that we
can look to these to explain the facts of distribution. In its
temperature, on the contrary, there is enormous variation.
While the bottom water of the ocean is very cold, and the mid-
water of a more or less intermediate temperature, the surface
water, according as it has drifted from the equator polewards

or in the reverse direction, has a mean annual temperature
somewhere between 84° and 30 F., losing or gaining heat on its
way. In the case of narrow or " closed " seas, and near land
masses, sea- water does not exhibit that uniformity of composition
which characterizes the open ocean; but even in such cases the
temperature is largely influenced by adjacent currents, and,
though less obviously than in the open ocean, seems to be a very
important agent in distribution.

The fauna of the sea is divisible into the plankton, the swim-
ming or drifting fauna which never rests on the bottom (generally
taken now to include E. Haeckel's nekton, the strong swimmers,
such as fish and cephalopods), and the benthos, which is fixed
to or crawls upon the bottom. These groups require a further
subdivision according to depth — the more necessarily since, to
some zoologists, any water over 100 fathoms is " deep " or even
" abyssal." It is simplest to begin with the benthos. From

Fig. I. — Diagram of the Atlantic Ocean, showing the Main
Surface Currents (some are seasonal only) : the corresponding Indian
and Pacific currents are cited in parentheses; they are rarely so
strongly marked as in the Atlantic.
1. Counterequatorial (also 1' Pacific and Indian).

North Equatorial (also Pacific).

The Equatorial (also 2" Pacific and Indian).

Gulf Stream proper (Japan Stream).

Brazil Current (Australian Current).

Mozambique Current (recurved off Cape Agulhas).

Labrador Current (Kamchatka Current).

Falkland Current.

North Atlantic Drift, generally called Gulf Stream (North Pacific
Drift).

South Atlantic Drift, ill defined (South Pacific Drift).

North African Current (Mexico Current).

Benguela Current.

Peru Current.

Antarctic Circumpolar Drift. 7', its northerly branches on
the west sides of Africa and South America.

the shore seawards we may distinguish several zones. Even
the tidal zone, between high and low water-mark, is subdivisible
by its fauna and flora. There generally follows on this a very
gentle slope to the depth of about 100 fathoms, locally sub-
divisible into many lesser zones. It has been termed the con-
tinental shelf or littoral zone, not very appropriately, since it
occurs round many oceanic islands, and even away from any
land. In this zone, if near land, fall to the bottom the heavy
materials produced by land waste and river drainage. The
fauna of this zone, generally very well characterized, may be

PLANKTON

721

distinguished as the epibenthos. As with the shallowest or tidal
zone, its nature varies much more according to latitude and the
character of the coast than the deeper zones. Everywhere,
however, the epibenthic fauna is exposed to certain definite
environmental conditions, as compared with a deeper fauna:
namely, a high or fairly high temperature (except near the poles) ;
a fairly good light, with its important consequence, a vegetable
basis of food supply; tide and current to distribute the larvae
to a suitable habitat, which the varied nature of the bottom
near land is likely to furnish. Passing farther seawards, we find
a steeper slope to about the 500-fathom line, the so-called
continental slope. In this zone the environment is absolutely

Fig. 2. — Mean Annual Surface Isotherms of the Atlantic. (After
Buchan, "Challenger" Report on "Oceanic Circulation.") On
the north-east and south-west sides they are deflected polewards
by the warm North Atlantic Drift and Brazil Current ; on the south-
east and north-west sides equatorwards by the cold Labrador and
Benguela Currents. Note the markedly different latitudes of the
same isotherms east and west of South America and Africa; also
the effect of tne Falkland Current against the Brazil Current.

different. The water, no longer subject to seasonal variations
of temperature, or to direct sunlight, is cold, and of a nearly
uniform annual temperature (300 fathoms, =•= 44-7° F.). Light
has disappeared from all but the shallower part, and with it
plant life; tide and current are no longer felt. To the latter
fact is due, however, a great part of the food supply, which
maintains in this zone an abundant fauna: a great quantity
of organic matter, brought down by river action, produced by
disintegrated sea-weed, and due to the death of surface organisms,
together with the finer clayey materials of land waste, settles
to the bottom in quiet water, near the 100-fathom contour, thus
making the mud-line the richest feeding-ground in the ocean
(Murray). The mud-line is the real upper limit of this zone;
it typically begins at about 100 fathoms, but may begin at 5 to 20
fathoms in deep sheltered firths, or be pushed down to 300
fathoms where currents are strong. The fauna of this zone
may be termed the mesobenthos; it is not so abundant, nor so
sharply characterized, as the epibenthos, and yet is sufficiently
distinct to deserve at any rate a provisional name. Another

difference of condition between epibenthos and mesobenthos is
the pressure of the water; at a depth of 5°° fathoms this is,
roughly speaking, half a ton to the square inch. It is very
doubtful whether this enormous pressure makes the slightest
difference to marine invertebrates, the tissues of which are
uniformly permeated by fluids, so that the pressure is uniform in
every direction; but animals with free gases naturally require
time to adjust the gas-pressure when altering their levels. As
regards the penetration of light, assimilative rays useful to plant
life probably do not reach beyond 150 fathoms. Photographic
rays have been detected as low as 220 fathoms, and if any light
penetrate beyond this depth, it will consist only of blue, violet
arid ultra-violet rays: it has been suggested that the red colour
prevalent in many deep-sea animals may be a screen from these
hurtful rays. Below the 500-fathom line the ocean bottom
exhibits almost uniform conditions everywhere, varied only by
the character of the bottom deposit and the amount of food
supply. In this zone, which extends from about 500 fathoms to
the greatest depths (which may in some cases exceed 5000
fathoms, or more than 5 J m -)> the temperature at any given
point is uniform throughout the year, and is always very low:
the mean at 2200 fathoms is 35-2° F.; at greater depths and in
special circumstances less than 30° F. has been recorded. The
darkness is probably absolute; for food the animals are dependent
upon each other and upon the incessant rain of dead plankton
from higher levels; the pressure may be anything between
half a ton and five tons per square inch. To the fauna which
lives in these remarkable circumstances the name hypobenthos
may be applied.

That each of the three benthic groups is well characterized by
a special fauna is shown by the following table, out of the total
numbers of species captured by the " Challenger " at seventy
stations in these three zones : —

Species confined
to this Zone.

Species occurring
in other Zones.

Epibenthos.
Mesobenthos .
Hypobenthos .

91%

74 ,>
61 „

8%
25 ,.
38 „

Out of the 25% of its species which the mesobenthos shares with
other zones, 59% occur also in the epibenthos, about 40% in the
hypobenthos; the mesobenthos, therefore, on these figures, may
be taken to consist of 74% of peculiar species, 15% shared with
the epibenthos, 10% with the hypobenthos. Speaking of the
benthos as a whole, it may be said that the following statement
holds good: The number of individuals, the proportion of species
to genera, and the number of individuals of a given species, all
decrease with increasing depth. Animal life also tends to diminish
with increasing distance from land; this may be partly due to the
greater food supply near land, partly to the fact that population
is obviously thinnest on the advancing fringe of a migration.

The plankton can be subdivided into at least two groups. The
fauna to which light and warmth are more or less necessary, which
feeds either upon plants or upon organisms nearly dependent
upon plant life, may be termed the epiplankton. This fauna is
capable of a good deal of vertical movement upwards and down-
wards, the causes of which are still obscure, but most of its members
seem rarely to descend lower than about 100 fathoms. Below this
depth the fauna may be called the mesoplankton. In every area
this appears to have its peculiar species, but the careful study by
opening and closing tow-nets of the distribution of the meso-
plankton is of so recent a growth that no statistics, such as we
have of the benthos, are available. It is now generally admitted
that the mesoplankton extends to the lowest depths yet searched
(2730 to 2402 fathoms, Valdivia) ; but the number of specimens
decreases rapidly after 200 fathoms, and below 1000 fathoms very
little is captured. The conditions of light, temperature, pressure,
&c, are practically those of the corresponding depths of the benthos;
as regards the food, however, the mesoplankton can only depend
on intercepting dead organisms which are falling from higher
horizons, or on capturing the scanty prey of its own zone. It is
possible that the plankton immediately over the bottom may
prove to be sufficiently distinct to be separately classed as
hypoplanklon.

The main subdivisions of the marine fauna having thus been
briefly sketched, it is advisable to consider them in somewhat
more detail. The epibenthos is obviously that fauna
to which, except in polar regions, light and warmth
are necessary; and the absence of these at greater depths is

722

PLANKTON

probably the chief barrier to its vertical extension; the food
supply is sufficiently plentiful in, at any rate, the upper parts
of the mesobenthic zone to present no obvious barrier. The
chemical constitution of the water (except to animals in brackish
water near river mouths) and the pressure appear to exert little
or no influence; and only those species which attach themselves
to clean hard substances would be repelled by the mud-line.

restrain. In relation to temperature the wide-ranging species
are termed eurythermal, the limited, stenothermal (Moebius);
the terms are useful to record a fact, but are not explanatory.
It seems to be the case that to every organism is assigned a
minimum temperature below which it dies, a maximum tempera-
ture above which it dies, and an optimum temperature at
which it thrives best; but these have to be studied separately

Fig. 3. — Diagram showing the Coastwise {not seaward) Extension of the Provinces of Epibenthic Gastropods and Lamellibranchs.
Provinces : —

Orders part of the circumpolar
Antarctic region.

16. Argentinian.

17. Caribbean.

18. Transatlantic.

I.

Arctic.

6. South African.

12. Californian.

2.

Boreal of East Atlantic.

7. Indo-Pacific.

13. Panama.

2'

. Boreal of West Atlantic.

8. Japanese.

14. Peruvian.

3-

Celtic.

9. Australian.

15. Generally termed Patagonian

4-

Lusitanian.

10. New Zealand.

or Magellanic for purely epi-

5-

West African.

II. Aleutian.

benthic forms, but in many

The chief barrier to a horizontal extension of the epibenthos
is undoubtedly temperature. As an example of its distribution
may be taken the Gastropod and Lamellibranch Molluscs, as
groups of which the distribution has been studied for many years
by specialists. The shallow-water species fall into provinces
(compare Cooke, Camb. Nat. Hist. vol. " Molluscs," ch. xii.),
and a comparison of figs. 1 and 3 shows at once the profound
influence upon them of the great currents. Taking the Atlantic
Ocean, we find the Arctic species, tempted southwards by the
cold Labrador Current, repelled northwards by the warm
North Atlantic Drift. The Boreal or sub-Arctic species, many
of which are identical on both sides of the ocean (2 and 2', fig. 3),
lie much farther southwards on the west than on the east side,
from the same causes. The warm-water molluscs of West
Africa (5) are cut off from those of the east side (7) by the cold
water from the great easterly Antarctic Drift, which impinges
on the Cape, giving it a special fauna (6) . On the South American
coasts the tropical and temperate fauna reach respectively
to 28 S. and 45° S. on the east coast, owing to the warm Brazil
Current; but the corresponding groups on the west coast only
to 5° S. and 37 S., being kept back by cold upwelling and Hum-
boldt's Current. This influence is visible in individual species
as well as in the facies of a fauna: Purpura lapillus, a temperate
form, reaches on the east side of the Pacific to 24° N. and on
the East Atlantic to 32 N.; but on the West Pacific only to
41° N. and the West Atlantic to 42 N., being repelled by the
Japan stream (and other warm currents of the south-west
monsoon) and Gulf Stream respectively.

But while some species may be confined to a bay, others to
a province, others to an ocean, there are cosmopolitan species
which either vertical or horizontal barriers, or both, fail to

for every species. Similarly, in regard to depth, species
have been classed as eurybathic and stenobathic, but, since in-
creased depth practically means diminished temperature, these
are probably merely expressions of the same fact in another
form. That an Arctic shallow-water species should stretch
to considerable depths is not surprising, but it is remarkable
to find such forms as, for example, Venus mesodesma on a New
Zealand beach at 55° F. and in 1000 fathoms at 37 F. off Tristan
d'Acunha. The provinces of zoological distribution, like the
geographical divisions of mankind, must be taken merely to
indicate the facies of a well-characterized fauna, not to imply
the restriction of all its habitants to that area.

In considering the effect of temperature (and this applies
to plankton as well as to benthos down to 100 fathoms), attention
must be directed not only to the question of general warmth or
cold as expressed by the mean annual temperature, but also
to the range between the annual extremes: these ranges of
variation have been carefully mapped by Sir J. Murray (Geog.
Journ. xii. 113; compare ibid. xiv. 34). Still more important
to the death-rate than these is the suddenness with which such
variations occur: many animals are known to endure great
extremes of heat and cold if exposed to them gradually, but to
succumb to rapid alterations of temperature. Hence the frontier
districts (Mischgebiete) between opposing currents are character-
ized by a heavy death-rate, and constitute marked barriers.
A conspicuous instance of such a barrier in distribution is afforded
at the Cape. The warm Mozambique Current, with a south-
westerly direction off Natal, meets a north-east branch of the
cold Antarctic Drift, and is beaten back eastwards: a result
of the constant warring of these hot and cold currents is a high
range of sudden temperature variation. Hence the Cape fauna

PLANKTON

723

consists mainly of only such species from neighbouring provinces
as can endure high sudden variations; and the district is practi-
cally impassable. For example, nineteen species of Echinoids
are known from the Cape district. Of these twelve are peculiar
to the Indo-Pacific province, which stretches from East Africa
to the Sandwich Islands and from Japan to Australia; two species
are Southern Ocean forms, all but confined to south of 40 S.;
four species are peculiar to the Atlantic Ocean: of these eighteen
not one gets past the Cape into the next province; the nine-
teenth is practically a cosmopolitan (A. Agassiz, " Challenger "
Reports: " Echinoidea"; compare also C. Chun, Aus den Tiefen
des Weltmeeres, pp. 157, 158).

Among the barriers to the horizontal extension of epibenthos
must be mentioned a wide deep ocean. The Indo-Pacific fauna
ranges from East Africa to about 108 W., stepping from island
to island over the Pacific; but this continuity is then broken by
37 degrees of longitude and more than 2000 fathoms of water, and
such sessile species as are most Mollusca (cf. fig. 3) are unable
to reach the American coast. This is presumably due to the
fact that the planktonic larvae of epibenthic adults must settle
on a suitable bottom within a certain period or die. In spite
of the direct set of the currents from Florida to the British Isles,
the epibenthos of the two is absolutely dissimilar; the similarity
of the two Boreal provinces (2 and 2', fig. 3) is to be assigned to
a former continuity by way of Greenland, Iceland and Faeroe;
a similar continuity, still unbroken, is exhibited by the Aleutian
province on both sides of the Pacific. Though larvae cannot
cross wide oceans, adults may no doubt traverse great stretches
occasionally on floating timber, &c.

This barrier by distance may be instanced in another way.
In the Arctic regions land masses are continuous or contiguous,
and there are many circumpolar species, as, for example,
Rhynchonella psittacea; towards the South Pole the southern
continent is almost ice-bound, and the available land consists
only of the tips of the continents and of the few oceanic islands.
Hence few if any littoral species are circumpolar. For example,
not a single littoral Ophiurid surrounds the South Pole, but
five or six species are circumpolar in the northern hemisphere.

Taking next the mesobenthos and hypobenthos, living at depths
where temperature is constant and current practically negligible,
Meso- there appears theoretically to be no reason why an
benthos; organism which can thrive at 500 fathoms should
Hypo- not have a world-wide range over the bottom of all
benthos, oceans. Yet this is not often, although occasionally,
known to be the case; and although perhaps, speaking generally,
hypobenthic species have wider ranges than epibenthic, still
they also seem to be limited. It must, however, be remembered
that the ocean is large, deep hauls of trawl or dredge few, and
individuals at great depths scattered, so that too much stress
must not be laid on this point. The " Challenger" results seem
to allow of at least one generalization — the deeper the fauna, the
wider its range. This is shown by the following table of the
"Challenger"' benthos: the first column gives the number of
benthos species captured at depths indicated in fathoms by the
second column; the percentage of these species which is known
to have been captured between the tropics, as well as south
and north of the tropics, is shown in the third column: —

Number of

Specimens.

Horizon.

S. T. N.

4248

0-100

o-6

1887

100-500

2

616

500-1000

4

493

1000-1500

7

394

1500-2000

7

247

2000-2500

9

153

over 2500

9

We can only guess at the causes of the apparently limited range
of many deep-sea types, (a) One of these is probably the limited
food supply: presumably, as with a land fauna, there are as
many mouths in a given area as it will support, and an equi-
librium of species is maintained which will at least hinder the
extension of any one. For food the bulk of the deep-water fauna

is dependent upon the rain of dead organisms falling from higher
levels, these, slowly disintegrating (probably under chemical,
not bacterial, action), seem to form with the bottom deposit
a kind of nitrogenous ooze, through which many deep-sea organ-
isms slowly swallow their way, as an earthworm goes through
earth extracting nutriment, (b) Another hindrance to the
extension of many deep-sea species is that they are holobenthic,
that is, do not pass through a free-swimming larval stage; the
means of dispersal is therefore regulated by the animal's own
power of locomotion. Generally speaking, as might be expected,
the freely-moving hypobenthos, fish and Crustacea, have the
widest ranges, and even these are not helped by currents, as
are epibenthic or planktonic forms. The larval history of deep-
water forms is, however, unfortunately obscure, (c) Lastly,
extension of area of a species being at best difficult in deep water
for non-swimmers, the place and date of their first migration
must be taken into account; forms which have comparatively
recently adopted deep-water life cannot be expected to have
spread far from their original centre. As regards this point,
in the first place, it is with migration, not with local evolution,
that we have to deal: no classes and orders, only a few families
and genera, rarely sub-orders, are peculiar to the hypobenthos;
the deep members of each group consist for the most part of
widely separated genera, the species do not grade into each other,
as is so often the case in the epibenthos; and evolution could
hardly have produced these species and genera under the
uniformity of their present environment. This migration down-
Wards from the mud-line has no doubt occurred all over the
world, notably in the Southern Ocean, if we may judge by the
richness of the deep-water fauna there to-day; probably also
largely in Arctic and sub-Arctic regions, less so in tropical and
temperate zones- As to the date of migration, the following
fact seems to show that it is of comparatively recent origin, and
is indeed still in progress: taking the " Challenger " species from
the epibenthos, from the mesobenthos, and then from zones
of 500 fathoms down to 2500, each zone shares a larger per-
centage of species with the zone above it than with that
below it (except in one case where they are nearly equal). But
it is not to be supposed that all our present-day deep-water
forms began their migration simultaneously, and we can say
with fair certainty that migration to deep water did not begin
before the close of the Mesozoic epoch. Had it begun earlier,
we should find typical Mesozoic and even older forms, or their
congeners, at great depths: so far is this from being the case
that the most venerable animals of to-day — Lingula, Amphioxus,
Limulus, 75% of Crinoids, 90% of Brachiopoda, &c. — are
epibenthic or mesobenthic. On the other hand, it is extremely
likely that the Cretaceous epoch marked the commencement
of migration. The hexactinellidan sponges are known to have
lived in quite shallow water at the date of deposition of the
Inferior Oolite; to-day none occur at a less depth than 95 fathoms;
and as only two genera are known from the shallow Tertiary
deposits, it would seem that the migration began about Creta-
ceous times (" Challenger " Reports: " Hexactinellida," F. E.
Schulze). In 1881 (A. Agassiz, " Challenger " Reports: " Echin-
oidea ") 105 living genera of Echinoidea were admitted; of these
23 % were known from Cretaceous but not from Tertiary deposits,
35% from Tertiary but not Cretaceous, and 40% as Recent
only. The species of Cretaceous genera constituted only 29% of
the epibenthic Echinoids, 44% of the mesobenthic, and no less
than 55% of the hypobenthic. These species of Cretaceous
genera were distributed fairly evenly over all three zones, but
72% of the species of Tertiary genera and 55% of the Recent
forms were confined to the epibenthos. As out of the twenty-five
living genera known from the Cretaceous only seven are known
also from Jurassic deposits, it is obvious that the close relation-
ship is between Cretaceous and hypobenthos, rather than
between any other geological and bathymetric horizons. Other
instances, such as that of the Eryonidae, seem to point to similar
conclusions.

Excepting the essential air-breathers, practically every phylum
and class and most orders are represented in the benthos. The

724

PLANKTON

epibenthos of warm seas appears to be especially wealthy in
such forms as secrete heavy calcareous skeletons; but in colder
water, among the epibenthos of polar or sub-polar regions, and
the hypobenthos everywhere in open oceans, the predominant
forms are those which exhibit little or no calcareous secretion:
even the apparent exceptions, Madreporaria and Echinoderma
from great depths, tend to develop slighter skeletons than their
warm-water congeners. The following table will serve to
illustrate this point, and to give an idea of the composition of
the epibenthos of cold and warm seas and of the hypobenthos:
the figures are the percentages of total species captured in each
locality by H.M.S. " Challenger," the balance being made up
by few specimens in scattered groups: —

Kerguelen

Area — over

1260 fm.

Kerguelen

Area — to

150 fm.

Cape York —
to 12 fm.

Madreporaria .

o-8

o-o

3-3 1

3 c! V,

Alcyonaria .

I -2

I-O

3-3

O O £
oj Jj — 1 Q.

Shelled Mollusca

8-0

197

57-3

lcar
kelel
wel
velo

Decapoda

3-6

o-8

8-1

Echinodermata .

33-6

n-7

7-9 J

C3 rjj <u

Actiniaria . . )
Hydrozoa . . i

6-8

4-6

i-7 "

S * c
00 F

Annelida

6-8

8-0

0-9

Crustacea . . |

7-6

■ g-s.s?-^

except Decapoda i

16-5

25-0

Tunicata

4.4

6-8

i-i

U °

81-7

77-6

91-2

While the Madreporaria represent only 3"3 % of the species at the
tropical station, it must be remembered that they probably made
up 80 % or more of the weight.

The epiplankton is dependent either directly or proximately
upon light, warmth and the presence of plant life. The wealth
Epi- of minute organisms near the surface is inconceivable

plankton, to those who have not seen the working of a two-net:
it may be gauged by the fact that a single species is sometimes
present in such quantities as to colour the sea over an appreciable
area, and by the estimate that the skeletons of epiplankton from
a square mile of tropical ocean a hundred fathoms deep would
yield 16 tons of lime. In the tropics the wealth of species, and
towards the poles the number of individuals of comparatively
few species, are characteristic of the latitudes. In temperate
and tropical regions there is a great difference between the
epiplankton near land and that far out at sea: the former is
termed neritic; it extends, roughly speaking, at least as far out
as the mud-line, and is characterized by the predominance of
what may be termed hemibenthic forms, that is, benthic forms
with a planktonic larval stage (Decapoda, Polychaeta, &c), or
with a planktonic phase (metagenetic Medusae). The horizontal
barriers to the neritic plankton are practically those mentioned
as governing the epibenthos; indeed, it would seem that the
distribution of hemibenthic adults is determined by that of their
more delicate larvae. Special conditions of wind and current
may of course carry into the neritic zone forms which are
characteristic of the open sea, and vice versa. In the neritic
epiplankton of polar waters the larvae of hemibenthic forms are
almost absent; indeed, the development of cold-water benthos,
whether shallow or abyssal, appears to be in most cases direct,
this is, without a larval metamorphosis. The epiplankton of
the open sea is described as oceanic; it consists almost entirely
of holoplanklonic forms and their larvae. The chief barrier to
horizontal distribution, here as elsewhere, is doubtless tempera-
ture. For example, through the reports of the " National " cruise
(German Plankton Expedition) runs the same story; one fauna
characterized their course from Shetland to Greenland and
Newfoundland, another the traverse of the Gulf Stream, Sargasso
Sea and the Equatorial Currents. The influence of temperature
may be gauged in another way: where hot and cold currents
meet, occur " frontier " districts, in which the respective
organisms are intermingled, and can only exist till their maxima
or minima are reached. Well-marked examples of such districts
occur off New Jersey (Gulf Stream and Labrador Current), in

the China Sea (warm currents of the south-west monsoon and
Kamchatka Current), in the Faeroe Channel, south of the Cape
(recurving of the Agulhas Current) : in some of these the range
of variation amounts to as much as 50° F. in the year, with the
result of a colossal death-rate of the plankton, and its corollary,
a rich bottom fauna, for which food is thus amply supplied.
The majority of the oceanic epiplankton appears to be steno-
thermal; for example, few components of the well-characterized
fauna of the Gulf Stream and Sargasso Sea ever reach the British
shores alive, although, if current and salinity were the determin-
ing factors and not temperature, this fauna should reach to
Shetland, and even to Lofoten. It will only be possible to make
satisfactory distributional areas for these oceanic forms by such
systematic traverses as that of the " National "; at present it
would seem that adjacent species have such different maxima
and minima that every species must be mapped separately
(compare the distribution-maps of the " National " Plankton
Expedition). Some members of the epiplankton are, however,
extraordinarily eurythermal and eurybathic; for example,
Calanus finmarchicus ranges from 76 N. to 52 S. (excepting
perhaps for 10° each side of the equator), and is apparently
indifferent to depth.

In the first hundred fathoms at sea the fall of temperature is
gradual and slight, and forms practically no hindrance to the
diurnal oscillation of the oceanic epiplankton — the alleged rise
and fall of almost the entire fauna. Roughly speaking, the
greatest number of animals is nearest the surface at midnight;
but different species sink and rise at different times, and to or
from different depths. Apart from this diurnal oscillation,
unfavourable conditions at the surface send or keep the fauna
down in a remarkable way: for example, in the Bay of Biscay
few organisms are to be found in the first fathom in bright sun-
light, but on a still, hot day the next few fathoms teem with life;
yet after a few minutes' wind or rain these upper layers will be
found almost deserted. This leads to the consideration of the
hydrostatics of the plankton: apart from strong swimmers, the
majority contests the tendency to sink either by some means of
diminishing specific gravity (increasing floating power) or by
increased frictional resistance. The former is generally attained

(a) by increase of bulk through development of a fluid secretion
of low specific gravity (vacuoles of Foraminifera, Radiolaria, &c.) ;

(b) or of a gelatinous secretion of low specific gravity (Medusae,
Chaetopod and Echinoderm larvae, Chaetognatha, Thaliacea:
the characteristic transparence of so many oceanic forms is
probably attributable to this) ; (c) by secretion or retention of
air or other gas (Physalia, Minyas, Evadne) ; (d) by development
of oil globules (Ccpepoda, Cladocera, fish ova). Increased
frictional resistance is obtained by flattening out of the body
(Phyllosoma, Sapphirina), or by its expansion into lateral pro-
cesses (Tomopteris, Glaucus), or by the development of long
delicate spines or hairs (pelagic Foraminifera, many Radiolaria,
many Chaetopod and Decapod larvae). In many cases two or
more of these are combined in the same organism. Notwith-
standing the above adaptations, some of which are adjustable,
it is difficult to understand the mechanics of the comparatively
rapid oscillations of the epiplankton, of which both causes and
methods are still obscure.

It will be seen from the distribution of the Thecosomatous
Pteropoda — a purely oceanic group — how difficult it will prove
to draw distributional areas for classes of epiplankton. P.
Pelseneer recognizes in all ten such provinces (" Challenger "
Reports: " Zool.," xix., xxiii.) and 42 good species: of the latter
1 is confined to the Arctic, 4 to the Antarctic province, but of
the remaining 37 species and eight provinces 30% occur in
all eight, 16% in seven, and only 35 % have as yet been captured
in a single province only.

The mesoplankton has only received serious attention during
the last few years. In the " Challenger," open nets towed at
various depths seemed to show the existence of a
deep-water plankton, but this method gives no
certain information as to the horizon of capture,
the nets being open in their passage down and up. C. Chun

Meso-
plankton.

PLANQUETTE— PLANTAGENET

725

constructed the first efficient net which could be opened
and shut at known depths, using a propeller mechanism
(Bibl. Zool. vol. i.); and he improved his original pattern
for the " National " and " Valdivia " expeditions. The present
writer has devised a net, of which the opening and closing
are effected from the deck by heavy weights; this has been
used successfully on the " Siboga " expedition and in cruises of
the " Research " (Proc. Zool. Soc, 1898). W. Garstang has con-
structed an ingenious net which is useful in comparatively
shallow water, but is open to criticism as being too light for depths
beyond 100 fathoms; and several other types are in use. The
existence of a mesoplankton, that is, of a plankton living between
100 fathoms from the surface and the bottom, has been generally
considered as definitely proved by these nets. On the other
hand, A. Agassiz, using the Tanner tow-nets, contends that while
a mixture of surface and bottom species may occur in a closed
sea near land, there is no intermediate fauna in the open ocean
between about 200 fathoms from the surface and the bottom;
his conclusions, based on negative evidence, have not met with
general acceptance. Animals captured below the first hundred
fathoms in the open sea (the Mediterranean, for special physical
reasons, is on a special footing) are divisible into at least three
categories: (1) those which are eurythermal and eurybathic,
e.g. Calanus finmarchicus; (2) those which, so far as we know,
are purely mesoplanktonic and never come to the surface, for
example, the Radiolarian family Tuscaroridae; (3) those which,
like some Schizopoda, spend a larval period in the epiplankton,
and seek deeper water when adult, rising to the surface, if at
all, only at night. But until the publication of the results of
expeditions provided with efficient mesoplankton nets, generali-
zations about this fauna had better be stated with all reserve.
There is, however, a certain amount of evidence to show that
the mesoplankton includes different organisms in different
latitudes; that surface animals of the north and south, unable
to spread into the warmer surface water of lower latitudes, there
sink into the cooler waters of the mesoplankton; the . distribu-
tional area of such an organism will be in three dimensions
bounded by isotherms (isobathytherms) and isothermobaths.
As with the hypobenthos, there seems to be no theoretical reason
against the universal distribution of the mesoplankton.

When a more systematic investigation of the various horizons
has been carried out, many of the present cases of supposed
discontinuous distribution will doubtless disappear. There are,
however, undoubted cases of discontinuity where physical
barriers have cut across a distributional area, an example of
which may be cited here. The Isthmus of Panama was appar-
ently only upraised about Miocene time, having been previously
an archipelago through which a great circumequatorial current
could pass; consequently the benthos of the Panama region
shows marked alliance with the Caribbean, with which it was
formerly continuous, but practically none with the Indo-Pacific.
To the same cause is doubtless attributable the distribution of
the five Decapoda which are characteristic of the Sargasso Sea,
which are circumequatorial oceanic types, only occasionally
littoral: three of these are known only from the Atlantic, one
occurs in the Atlantic and Pacific, one in the Atlantic, Pacific
and Indian Oceans. The damming of a great circumequatorial
current by the Isthmus of Panama is probably also responsible
for that dislocation of currents which resulted in the present
relations of the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift to the
Labrador Current, and cut the Atlantic Boreal fauna into two
discontinuous districts (2 and 2', fig. 3).

Under the head of discontinuous distribution, the alleged
phenomenon known as bipolarity must be mentioned. In
summarizing the work of the " Challenger," Sir John Murray
maintained on the basis of the reports that numerous species
occurred in both polar and sub-polar areas which were absent
from the tropic. He regarde'd them as the hardy survivors of
a universal fauna which had withstood that polar cooling which
set in towards the close of the Mesozoic period (Murray, Trans.
Roy. Soc. Edin. vol. xxxviii., 1896; G. Puffer, Verh. deutsch. Zool.
Gesellsch. ix. 1899). This view and the facts on which it was

based have been acutely contested, and the question is still far
from settlement (for lists of the literature see A. E. Ortmann,
Am. Nat. xxxiii. 583; and Miss E. M. Pratt, Mem. Manchester
Soc. vol. xlv., 1901). As regards the purely epibenthic and sessile
fauna, there are a few undoubted instances of actual specific
identity; in some classes, however, such as the Echinoderms, this
does not appear to hold {Hamburger Magalhaensche Sammelreise;
and F. Romer and F. Schaudinn's Fauna arctica); but even
in these the general composition of the fauna and the presence
of certain identical and peculiar genera seem to point to some-
thing more than a mere " convergence " due to similar environ-
ment. As regards the plankton of the two polar regions and
such epibenthic forms as extend also into deep water, the
suggestion has been made that the Arctic and Antarctic benthos
and plankton are really continuous by way of deep water in the
main oceans, where the organisms can find a suitably low tem-
perature. As an instance of this, C. Chun (Bezieh. zwischen dem
arkt. und antarkt. Plankton, 1897) cites Krohnia hamata, a
characteristic Arctic and sub- Arctic constituent of the epi-
plankton and mesoplankton, known only from the mesoplankton
in the tropics, but rising to 38 fathoms at 40 S. 26 E. More
exact information, such as may be expected from the various
Antarctic expeditions, is required to settle this interesting
question with its far-reaching corollaries. (G. H. Fo.)

See also Zoological Distribution: § Marine.

PLANQUETTE, ROBERT (1850- ), French musical com-
poser, was born in Paris on the 31st of July 1850, and educated
at the Conservatoire. As a boy he wrote songs and operettas
for cafe concerts, and sprang into fame as the composer of
Les Cloches de Corneville (Paris, 1877; London, 1878). In this
work he showed a fertile vein of melody, which won instant
recognition. There is in his music a touch of pathos and
romantic feeling, which, had he cared to cultivate it, would have
placed him far above contemporary writers of Optra bouffe.
Unfortunately, he did little but repeat the formula which
originally brought him reputation. Le Chevalier Gaston was
produced in 1879 with little success. In 1880 came Les Volti-
geurs du $2 me ' which had a long run in London in 1887 as The,
Old Guard, and La Cantinicre, which was translated into English
as Nectarine, though never produced. In 1882 Rip van Winkle
was produced in London, being subsequently given in Paris as
Rip, in both cases with remarkable success. The libretto, an
adaptation by H. B. Farnie of Washington Irving's famous tale,
brought out what was best in Planquette's talent. In 1884 the
phenomenon of an opera by a French composer being produced
in London previously to being heard in Paris was repeated in
Nell Gwynne, which was tolerably successful, but failed com-
pletely when produced in Paris as La Princesse Colombine.
It was followed by La Cr&maillere (Paris, 1885), Surcouf (Paris,
1887; London, as Paul Jones, 1889), Captain Thirese (London,
1887), La Cocarde tricolore (Paris, 1892), Le Talisman (Paris,
1892), Panurge (Paris, 1895) and Mam'zelle Quat'sous (Paris,

1897).

PLANTAGENET, a surname conveniently, but unhistori-
cally, applied to the royal line descended from the union of
Geoffrey, count of Anjou, with the empress Maud, who are now
styled by historians the Angevin house. It was, historically,
only a personal nickname of Geoffrey, as was " Beauclerc " of
his father-in-law (Henry I.) and " Curtmantel " of his son
(Henry II.), and was derived from his wearing in his cap a sprig
of the broom (genet) plant, "which in early, summer makes the
open country of Anjou and Maine a blaze of living gold." When
the fashion of personal nicknames passed away, the members
of the royal house were usually named from their birthplace,
as Thomas " of Brotherton," Thomas "of Woodstock," Edmund
" of Woodstock," Edmund " of Langley," Lionel " of Antwerp,"
and so forth. But Edward I. and his younger brother, the
founder of the house of Lancaster, had still nicknames respec-
tively, as " Longshanks " and " Crouchback." In the later
days of the dynasty the surname of Beaufort was adopted by
the legitimated issue of John of Gaunt by Katherine Swynford,
but that of Plantagenet was bestowed on Arthur, natural son

726

PLANTAIN— PLANTATION

of Edward IV., who was created Viscount L'Isle. It appears,
however, to have been adopted as a surname by Richard duke
of York (father of Edward IV.) some twelve years before his death.
At the death of Geoffrey's grandson, Richard I., the succession
was in doubt, John's elder brother Geoffrey having left, by the
heiress of Brittany, a son and a daughter. But at that epoch
the law of inheritance was in such a case unsettled, and their
right was not clear. Arthur's fate is well known, and Eleanor,
the daughter, was kept captive till her death in 1241. John's
younger son Richard, king of the Romans, left a son Edmund,
earl of Cornwall, with whom his line ended; his elder son Henry
III. left two sons, of whom the younger was created earl of
Lancaster and was grandfather of Henry, earl of Lancaster,
whose heiress married John of Gaunt (i.e. Ghent). Edward I.,
the elder son, was grandfather of Edward III., the marriages
of whose numerous children greatly affected English history.
Edward his heir, the " Black Prince," left an only son, who
succeeded his grandfather as Richard II., on whose death (1399)
this line became extinct. Lionel, the next surviving brother
of the Black Prince, left an only child Philippa, who married
the earl of March, in whose heirs was the right to the succes-
sion. But John of Gaunt, the next brother, who had married
the heiress of Lancaster and had been created duke of Lancaster
in consequence, refounded the Lancastrian line, which obtained
the throne in the person of his only son by her, Henry IV., on
the deposition of Richard II., to the exclusion of the infant
earl of March. His next brother, Edmund of Langley,who was
created duke of York (1385), founded the Yorkist line, and was
father, by a daughter and co-heiress of Pedro the Cruel, king
of Castile, of two sons, Edward, second duke, who was slain at
Agincourt, and Richard, earl of Cambridge, who by marrying
the granddaughter and eventual heiress of Lionel's daughter
Philippa, brought the right to the succession into the house
of York.

Between their son and Henry VI. (grandson of Henry IV.)
and Edward and Henry, sons and heirs of these rivals, was
fought out the dynastic struggle known as " the Wars of the
Roses," which proved fatal to several members of both houses.
Richard, the son of Richard and Anne Mortimer, became third
duke of York (1425), and was made protector of the realm
1454-145.5, being finally declared heir to the throne on the
triumph of his side in 1460; but he was slain at the battle of
Wakefield (Dec. 31, 1460). Of his four sons, Edward, the eldest
became king as Edward IV. within three months of his death
Edmund, the second, was slain with his father at Wakefield
George, the third, duke of Clarence, was put to death in 1478
and Richard, the fourth, duke of Gloucester, became king as
Richard III. in 1483 and was slain on Bosworth Field in 1485.
King Edward IV.'s two surviving sons, Edward and Richard
(the princes in the Tower), had been mysteriously put to death
in 1483, so that the only male descendant of the house of York,
and indeed of the whole Plantagenet race, was the duke of
Clarence's son Edward, earl of Warwick (grandson of " the
Kingmaker",), who was imprisoned by Richard III. (his father's
younger brother) in 1483, and finally executed on Tower Hill,
under Henry VII., in 1499.

Of the house of Lancaster, the only son of Henry VI. was
slain after the battle of Tewkesbury (1471), while Edmund
(Beaufort) duke of Somerset, a grandson of John of Gaunt,
was slain at the first battle of St Albans (1455), and all his
three sons were slain or beheaded. On the death of Henry VI.
and his son in 147 1, so complete was the extinction of their line
that its representation vested in the heirs of the two daughters
of John of Gaunt by the heiress of Lancaster, viz. Philippa
queen of Portugal and Elizabeth countess of Huntingdon.
But by his second wife, the heiress of Castile, John had left an
only daughter, wife of Henry III., king of Castile and Leon,
who also left descendants, and from his third but ambiguous
union sprang the house of Beaufort, whose doubtful claims to
- his heirship passed with his great-granddaughter Margaret, by
her husband Edmund Tudor, to their son Henry VII. Although
Henry was careful to claim the crown in his own right (1485),

he soon fortified that claim by marrying Elizabeth, eldest
daughter of Edward IV. and rightful heiress to the throne.
The marriage of tbeir eldest daughter Margaret to James IV.
of Scotland in 1503 resulted in the accession of James VI. of
Scotland, a century later, as next heir to the throne (see
Stewart).

Although no other dynasty has reigned so long over England
since the Norman Conquest, the whole legitimate male issue
of Count Geoffrey Plantagenet is clearly proved to have become
extinct in 1499. Of its illegitimate descendants the house
of Cornwall was founded by Richard, a natural son of Richard,
king of the Romans and earl of Cornwall, who was ancestor of
Lord Cornewall of Fanhope, temp. Henry VI., of the Cornewalls,
" barons of Burford," and other families; but the principal
house is that which was founded, at a later date, by Sir Charles
Somerset, natural son of Henry (Beaufort) duke of Somerset
(beheaded 1464), who was created earl of Worcester in 15 13,
and whose descendant Henry, marquess and earl of Worcester,
obtained the dukedom of Beaufort in 1682. From him descend
the ducal house, who bear the ancient arms of France and
England, quarterly, within a bordure. (J. H. R.)

PLANTAIN (Lat. plantago), a name given to certain plants
with broad leaves. This is the case with certain species of
Plantago, Alisma and Musa, to all of which the term is popularly
applied. The species of Plantago are mostly weeds with a dense
tuft of radical leaves and scapes bearing terminal spikes of small
flowers; the long spikes of P. major, when in seed, are used for
feeding cage-birds; P. lanceolata, so called from its narrow
lanceolate 3-6-ribbed leaves, is popularly known as ribwort;
Alisma P. is the water-plantain, so called from the resemblance
of its broad ribbed aerial leaves to those of P. major. The
tropical fruit known as plantain belongs to the genus Musa
(see Banana).

PLANTATION (Lat. plantar e, to plant), literally the placing
of plants in the ground, hence a place planted or a collection of
growing things, &c, particularly used of ground planted with
young trees. The term was early applied, in a figurative sense, to
the settlement of people, and particularly to the colonization of
North America in the early part of the 17th century and to the
settlement of Scotch and English in the forfeited lands in Ireland
(see below). The practice of sending convicted criminals to
serve on the plantations in the colonies became common in
the 17th century (see Deportation). These plantations were
chiefly in the cotton, sugar and tobacco growing colonies, and
the term " plantation " is thus particularly applied to estates
in tropical or semi-tropical countries; the proprietors of such
estates are specifically styled " planters."

The negroes on the plantations of the Southern States of
North America sang their songs and hymns and danced to
tunes which were traditional, and are frequently
known as " Plantation Songs." It has been claimed s'ongs!''"'
for some of them that they represent the folk songs
brought by the first slaves from Africa; but the more generally
accepted view is that they were those European hymn and
song tunes which the negroes picked up from the revivalist
preachers or from the Europeans around them, and adapted
to their own strongly marked rhythms, which are certainly of
African origin. The earliest song which became familiar to
those outside the Southern States was " Jim Crow," sung by
Dan Rice, and introduced to England about 1836. The
" Jubilee Singers," a troupe from Fisk University, Nashville,
Tennessee, toured the United States and Europe in 187 1; but
the great popularity of the negro songs and dances, and the
traditional instruments, the bones and tambourine (the banjo
was not originally used by the genuine negro), was due to
the so-called "negro minstrel" troupes, of which the best
known in England were Christy's, whence the generic name of
Christy Minstrels, and later of the Moore and Burgess troupe
at St James's Hall, London, started in 1862 and finally dis-
solved in 1904.

The best collection of genuine " plantation songs " and their
words is Slave Songs of the United States (New York, 1871); see also

PLANTIN

1*1

C. L. Edwards, Bahama Songs and Stories (Boston, 1895); J. B. T.

Marsh, The Story of the Jubilee Singers (Boston, 1895) ; and articles
by G. W. Cable on " The Creole Slave Dance " and " Creole Slave
Songs," in the Century, February and April 1886.

Plantation of Ulster.— The Irish rebellion, which had dis-
turbed Ulster during the closing years of Elizabeth's reign,
was followed under James I. by further trouble, due partly to
the inability of the English government to understand the
system of land ownership prevalent in Ireland. At this time
the chief offenders against the authority of England were the
earls of Tyrconnell and Tyrone, but in September 1607 these
once powerful nobles fled from the country. The English
lawyers declared that the extensive estates which they held,
not in their personal capacity, but as the heads respectively
of the tribes of O'Neill and O'Donnell, had become the property
of the English crown; and the problem which now confronted
James I. and his advisers was what to do with the land, which
was much too large to be cultivated properly by the scanty
population living thereon. The idea of a plantation or coloniza-
tion of Ulster, which was put forward as an answer to this
question, is due mainly to Sir Arthur Chichester, the Irish lord
deputy; its object was to secure the better cultivation of the
land and to strengthen the English influence in Ulster by granting
estates to English and Scottish settlers. Chichester proposed
that the native inhabitants should be allowed to occupy as much
land as they could cultivate, for he said, " that many of the
natives in each county claim freehold in the lands they possess,
and albeit these demands are not justifiable by law, yet it is
hard and almost impossible to displant them." Even if this
advice were carried out on a generous scale, the deputy con-
sidered that there would be abundance of land to offer to
colonists, and also to reward the class of men known as servitors,
those who had served the English king in Ireland. He submitted
his ideas to Sir James Ley and Sir John Davies, two of the minis-
ters of James I.; they reported to the English privy council,
which signified its approval, and after the question had been
illuminated by Bacon's great intellect, a committee was ap-
pointed to make the necessary arrangements. But those
responsible for the plantation made one cardinal mistake, a
mistake which was to cost the country much in the future.
They rejected Chichester's idea of allotting land to the natives
on a liberal scale, preferring to turn them out and to parcel
out the whole of the forfeited district anew.

The forfeited lands lay in six counties, Tyrone, Donegal,
Armagh, Fermanagh, Cavan and Coleraine (Londonderry),
and the scheme for the plantation having been drawn up, the
necessary survey began in May 1609. This was very inaccurate,
but it served its purpose. The land was divided into three
sections. One block was set apart for English and Scottish
settlers, who were not to be allowed to have any Irish tenants;
another was allotted to the servitors, who might have either
English or Irish tenants; and a third was reserved for the Irish.
Applications were then entertained from those willing to take
up the land, and under Chichester's direction the settlement
was proceeded with. The land was divided into portions of
1000, 1500 and 2000 acres, each colonist undertaking in return
for his grant to build a castle or a walled enclosure, and to keep,
train and arm sufficient men for its defence. Moreover he must
take the oath of supremacy to James, and must not alienate his
estate to an Irishman. He was given two years in which to do
the necessary building; during this period he was freed from
paying rent, but afterwards he must pay a quit-rent to the
Crown. A scale of rents was drawn up, the native Irish paying
at a higher rate than the English and Scottish settlers. Out
of the forfeited lands provision was made for the maintenance
of churches and schools, which were to be erected in conformity
with the scheme.

The work progressed very slowly and much of the building
was not even begun within the required time. Then in 161 1
Tames I., who had from the first taken a lively interest in the
plantation, sent Lord Carew to report on it. Carew's inspection
did not reveal a very favourable condition of affairs, and in

1615 Sir Josiah Bodley was sent to make a further report about
the progress of the work. A third report and survey was made
three years later by Nicholas Pynnar, who found in the six
counties 1974 British families, with 6215 men capable of bearing
arms. He said that even on the lands occupied by the colonists
the cultivation of the soil was still very much neglected The
words spoken by Bacon in 16^7 with reference to the plantation
had come true. " Take it from me," he said, " that the bane
of a plantation is when the undertakers or planters make such
haste to a little mechanical present profit, as disturbeth the
whole frame and nobleness of the work for times to come."
Another survey took place in 1622, when various changes were
suggested, but no serious alterations were made. On the whole
the plantation had been a failure. Very few of the settlers
had carried out their undertaking. In many cases the Irish had
remained on the land allotted to the colonists, living under
exactly the same conditions as they had done before the planta-
tion, and holding on " whether the legal landlords liked it or
not." As actually carried out the plantation dealt with 511,465
acres. Two-fifths of this was assigned to British colonists,
being divided about equally between Englishmen and Scotchmen.
Rather more than one-fifth went to the Church and about the
same amount to the servitors and the natives. The best settlers
were the Scots, although their tendency to marry with the
Irish was noted and condemned during the early years of the
settlement.

An important part of the plantation was the settlement of
the county of Coleraine by the corporation of the city of London.
Receiving a grant of practically the whole of the county the
corporation undertook to spend £20,000, and within two years
to build 200 houses in Derry and 100 in Coleraine. This was
the most successful part of the settlement, and to it Londonderry
owes its present name.

The expulsion of the Irish from the land in which by law and
custom they had a certain proprietary and hereditary right,
although not carried out on the scale originally contemplated,
naturally aroused great indignation among them. Attacks
on the settlers were followed by reprisals, and the plantation may
fairly be regarded as one of the causes which led to the terrible
massacre in Ulster in 1641. During Elizabeth's reign a scheme
for the plantation of Munster was considered, and under Charles
I. there was a suggestion for the plantation of Connaught, but
eventually both were abandoned.

The " Orders and Conditions of Plantation " are printed in
Walter Harris's Hibernica (Dublin, 1770); and in George Hill's
Historical Account of the Plantation in Ulster, i6o8-l620(Be\iast,l 877) .
See also S. R. Gardiner, History of England (1899), vol. i.; and
R. Bagwell, Ireland under the Stuarts (1909), vol. i.

PLANTIN, CHRISTOPHE (1 514-1589), French printer, was
born in a village near Tours (probably Saint- Avertin) . He
learned bookbinding and bookselling at Caen, and, having
married in that town, settled in 1549 as bookbinder in Antwerp,
where he was soon known as the first in his profession. A
bad wound in the arm seems to have been the cause that first
led him (about 1555) to apply himself to typography. The
first known book printed in his office was La Institutione di una
fanciulla nata nobilmente, by J. M. Bruto, with a French transla-
tion, and this was soon followed by many other works in French
and Latin, which in point of execution rivalled the best printing of
his time, while the masters in the art of engraving then flourish-
ing in the Netherlands illustrated many of his editions. In 1562,
Plantin himself being absent in Paris, his workmen printed
an heretical pamphlet, which caused his movables to be seized
and sold. It seems, however, that he recovered a great deal
of the money, and in 1563 he associated himself with some,
friends to carry on his business on a larger scale. Among
them were two grand-nephews of Dan. Bomberg, who furnished
him with the fine Hebrew types of that renowned Venetian
printer. His editions of the Bible in Hebrew, Latin and
Dutch, his Corpus juris, Latin and Greek classics, and many
other works produced at this period are renowned for their
beautiful execution and accuracy. A much greater enterprise

728

PLANTS

[CLASSIFICATION

was planned by him in those years — the publication of a Biblia
polyglotta, which should fix the original text of Old and New
Testaments on a scientific basis. In spite of clerical opposition
he was supported by Philip II. king of Spain, who sent him the
learned Benedictus Arias Montanus to take the leading part in
the work of editorship. With his zealous help the work was
finished in five years (1569-1573, 8 vols, folio). Plantin earned
little profit, but received the privilege of printing all liturgical
books for the states of King Philip, and the office of " prototypo-
graphus regius." Though outwardly a faithful son of the
church, he was till his death the partisan of a mystical sect of
heretics; and it is now proved that many of their books published
without the name of a printer came from his presses together
with the missals, breviaries, &c, for the Roman Catholic
Church.

Besides the polyglot Bible, Plantin published in those years
many other works of note, such as editions of St Augustine and
St Jerome, the botanical works of Dodonaeus, Clusius and
Lobelius, the description of the Netherlands by Guicciardini,
&c. In 1575 his printing-office reckoned more than twenty
presses and seventy-three workmen, besides a similar number
that worked for the office at home. But in November 1576
the town was plundered and in part burnt by the Spaniards,
and Plantin had to pay an exorbitant ransom. He established
a branch of his office in Paris; and when in 1583 the states of
Holland sought a typographer for the newly erected university
at Leiden, he left his much reduced business in Antwerp to his
sons-in-law John Moerentorf (Moretus) and Francis van Ravel-
inghen (Raphelengius), and settled there. When in 1585
Antwerp was taken by the prince of Parma and affairs became
there more settled, he left the office in Leiden to Raphelengius
and returned to Antwerp, where he laboured till his death on
the 1st of July 1589. His son-in-law, John Moretus, and his
descendants continued to print many works of note " in ofncina
Plantiniana," but from the second half of the 17th century
the house began to decline. It continued, however, in the
possession of the Moretus family, which religiously left every-
thing in the office untouched, and when in 1876 the town of
Antwerp acquired the old buildings with all their contents,
for 1,200,000 francs, the authorities were able with little trouble
to create one of the most remarkable museums in existence
(the Musee Plantin, opened August 19, 1877).

See Max Rooses, Christophe Plantin imprimeur anversois (Ant-
werp, 1882); Aug. de Backer and Ch. Ruelens, Annates de Vim-
primerie Plantinienne (Brussels, 1865); Degeorge, La Maison
Plantin (2nd ed., Brussels, 1878). (P. A. T.)

PLANTS. In the most generally used sense, a plant is a
member of the lower or vegetable order of living organized things;
the term is also popularly applied to the smaller herbaceous
plants, thus excluding trees and shrubs. The early use of the
word is for a twig, shoot, cutting or sapling, which was the
meaning of Lat. planta (for plancta, the root being that seen in
planus, flat, cf . Gr.TrXariis, broad; planta thus meant a spreading
shoot or sucker). Other meanings of " plant " are derived from
the verb " to plant " (Lat. plantare, to fix in position or place).
It is thus used of the fixtures, machinery, apparatus necessary
for the carrying on of an industry or business, and in colloquial
or slang use, of a swindle, a carefully arranged plot or trap laid
or fixed to deceive; cf. also Plantation. In the following
sections the botanical sense of the word is followed, the term
being used generally as opposed to " animals."

Classification or Plants

Some account of the history of plant classification and the
development of a natural system in which an attempt is made to
show the actual relationships of plants, is given in the article
Botany. The plant world falls into two great divisions, the
higher or flowering plants {Phanerogams) , characterized by the
formation of a seed, and the lower or flowerless plants {Crypto-
gams) , in which no seed is formed but the plants are disseminated
by means of unicellular bodies termed spores. The term

Cryptogam is archaic, implying a hidden method of reproduction
as compared with the obvious method represented by the flower
of the Phanerogam; with the aid of a good microscope it is,
however, easier to follow the process of fertilization in many
Cryptogams than in the flowering plants. These two great
divisions are moreover of unequal value, for the Cryptogams
comprise several groups differing from each other by characters
as marked as those which separate some of them from the
Phanerogams. The following groups or sub-kingdoms are
those which are now generally recognized: —

f I. Thallophyta.
Cryptogams -j II. Bryophyta.

L 1 1 1. Pteridophyta.
Phanerogams or IV. Spermatophyta.

Thallophyta are the most lowly organized plants and include a
great variety of forms, the vegetative portion of which consists of
a single cell or a number of cells forming a more or less branched
thallus. They are characterized by the absence of that differentia-
tion of the body into root, stem and leaf which is so marked a feature
in the higher plants, and by the simplicity of their internal structure.
Both sexual and asexual reproduction occur, but there is usually
no definite succession of the two modes marking that alternation
of sexual generation (gametophyte) and asexual generation (sporo-
phyte) which characterizes the higher groups. The group Has
until recent years been regarded as comprising three classes dis-
tinguished by well-marked physiological features — the Algae (includ-
ing the Seaweeds) which contain chlorophyll, the Fungi which have
no chlorophyll and therefore lead a saprophytic or parasitic mode of
life, and the Lichens which are composite organisms consisting
of an alga and a fungus living together in a mutual parasitism
(symbiosis) ; Bacteria were regarded as a section of Fungi. Such
a system of classification, although convenient, is not the most
natural one, and a sketch of the system which better expresses the
relationships between the various subdivisions is given here. It
has however been deemed advisable to retain the older groups
for purpose of treatment in this work, and articles will be found
under the headings Algae, Fungi, Bacteria, and Lichens. The
study of phylogeny has suggested fourteen classes arranged in the
following sequence: (1) Bacteria; (2) Cyanophyceae (Blue-green
algae); (3) Flagellatae; (4) Myxomycetes (Slime-fungi); (5) Peri-
dineae; (6) Conjugatae; (7) Diatomaceae (Diatoms); (8) Hetero-
conteae; (9) Chlorophyceae (Green Algae); (10) Characeae (Stone-
worts); (11) Rhodophyceae (Red Algae); (12) Eumycetes (Fungi);
(13) Phycomycetes (Algal fungi); (14) Phaeophyceae (Brown
Algae). Bacteria (see Bacteriology) and Cyanophyceae (see
Algae), which are often grouped together as Schizophyta, are
from points of view of both structure and reproduction extremely
simple organisms, and stand apart from the remaining groups,
which are presumed to have originated directly or indirectly from
the Flagellatae, a group of unicellular aquatic organisms combining
animal and plant characteristics which may be regarded as the
starting-point of unicellular Thallophytes on the one hand and of
the Protozoa on the other. Thus simple forms included in the
Heteroconteae, Chlorophyceae and Phaeophyceae show an obvious
connexion with the Flagellatae; the Peridineae may be regarded
as a further developed branch; the Conjugatae and Diatomaceae
cannot be directly connected ; the origin of the Rhodophyceae is
also obscure; while the Characeae are an advanced and isolated
group (see Algae). The Mycetozoa (q.v.) or Myxomycetes are a
saprophytic group without chlorophyll, of simple structure and
isolated position. The algal fungi, Phycomycetes, are obviously
derived from the Green Algae, while the remaining Fungi, the
Eumycetes, appear to have sprung from the same stock as the
Rhodophyceae (see Fungi). Owing to the similarity of structure
and mode of life it is convenient to treat the Lichens {q.v.) as a distinct
class, while recognizing that the component fungus and alga are
representatives of their own classes.

The Bryophyta and Pteridophyta have sprung from the higher
Thallophyta, and together form the larger group Archegoniatae,
so-called from the form of the organ {archegonium) in which the
egg-cell is developed. The Archegoniatae are characterized by a
well-marked alternation of gametophyte and sporophyte generations;
the former bears the sexual organs which are of characteristic
structure and known as antheridia (male) and archegonia (female)
respectively; the fertilized egg-cell on germination gives rise to
the spore-bearing generation, and the spores on germination give
rise directly or indirectly to a second gametophyte.

The Mosses and Liverworts (see Bryophyta) include forms with
a more or less leaf-like thallus, such as many of the liverworts,
and forms in which the plant shows a differentiation into a stem
bearing remarkably simple leaves, as in the true mosses. They
have no true roots, and their structure is purely cellular or conducting
bundles of a very simple structure are present. The independent
plant which is generally attached to the soil by hair-like structures
is the sexual generation, the sporophyte is a stalked or sessile capsule

ANATOMY]

PLANTS

729

which remains always attached to the gametophy'te from which
it derives the whole or part of its nourishment.

The Ferns and fern-like plants (see Pteridophyta) have on
the other hand a well developed independent sporophyte which
is differentiated into stem, leaf and root with highly organized
internal structure including true vascular bundles. In general
structure they approach the Phanerogams with which they form
collectively the Vascular Plants as contrasted with the Cellular
Plants — Thallophyta and Bryophyta. The gametophyte is a
small thalloid structure which shows varying degrees of independence
affording an interesting transition to the next group.

Spermatophyta are characterized by an extreme reduction of the
gametophyte generation. The sporophyte is the plant which is
differentiated into stem, leaf and root, which show a wonderful
variety of form; the internal structure also shows increased com-
plexity and variety as compared with the other group of vascular
plants, the Pteridophyta. The spores, as in the heterosporous
Pteridophyta, are of two kinds — microspores (pollen grains) borne
in microsporangia (pollen sacs) on special leaves (sporophylls) known
as stamens, and macrospores (embryo-sac) borne in macrosporangia
(ovules) on sporophylls known as carpels. The fertile leaves or
sporophylls are generally aggregated on special shoots to form
rlowers which may contain one or both kinds. The microspores
are set free from the sporangium and carried generally by
wind or insect agency to the vicinity of the macrospore, which
never leaves the ovule. The male gametophyte is represented
by one or few cells and, except in a few primitive forms where
the male cell still retains the motile character as in the Pterido-
phyta, is carried passively to the macrospore in a development
of the pollen grain, the pollen tube. The Spermatophyta are
thus land plants par excellence and have, with the few exceptions
cited, lost all trace of an aquatic ancestry. Aquatic plants occur
among seed plants but these are readaptations of land plants to
an aquatic environment. After fertilization the female cell, now
called the oospore, divides and part of it develops into the embryo
(new sporophyte), which remains dormant for a time still protected
by the ovule which has developed to become the seed. The seed
is a new structure characteristic of this group, which is therefore
often referred to as the Seed-plants. The seed is set free from the
parent plant and serves as the means of dissemination (see Flower;
Pollination; Fruit, and Seed). The Spermatophyta fall into
two classes, Gymncsperms (q.v.) and Angiosperms (g.u.); the former
are the more primitive group, appearing earlier in geological time
and showing more resemblance in the course of their life-history
to the Pteridophyta. A recently discovered fossil group, the
Pteridospermae (see Palaeobotany) have characters inter-
mediate between the Pteridophyta and the more primitive seed-
plants.

In Gymnos perms — so-called because the ovules (and seeds)
are borne on an open sporophyll or carpel — the microsporophylls
and macrosporophylls are not as a rule associated in the same
shoot and are generally arranged in cone-like structures; one or two
small prothallial cells are formed in the germination of the micro-
spore ; the male cells are in some older members of the group motile
though usually passive. The ovule is not enclosed in an ovary,
and the usually solitary macrospore becomes filled with a pro-
thallus, in the upper part of which are formed several rudimentary
archegonia. The fertilized egg-cell (oospore) forms a filamentous
structure, the proembryo, from a restricted basal portion of which
one or more embryos develop, one only as a rule reaching maturity.
The embryo consists of an axis bearing two or more cotyledons and
ending below in a radicle; it lies in a generally copious food-storing
tissue (endosperm) which is the remains of the female prothallus.
The plant has a well-developed main root (tap-root) and a single
or branched leafy stem which is provided with a means of secondary
increase in thickness. The leaves are generally tough-skinned and
last for more than one season.

The Angiosperms, which are much the larger class, derive their
name from the fact that the carpel or carpels form a closed chamber,
the ovary, in which the ovules are developed — associated with this
is the development of a receptive or stigmatic surface on which the
pollen grain is deposited. The sporophylls (stamens and carpels)
are generally associated with other leaves, known as the perianth,
to form a flower ; these subsidiary leaves are protective and attrac-
tive in function and their development is correlated with the
transport of pollen by insect agency (see Angiosperms; Pollina-
tion, and Flower). The male gametophyte is sometimes repre-
sented by a transitory prothallial cell ; the two male cells are carried
passively down into the ovary and into the mouth of the ovule
by means of the pollen-tube. The female gametophyte is extremely
reduced ; there is a sexual apparatus of naked cells, one of which
is the egg-cell which, after fusion with a male cell, divides to form
a large " suspensorial " cell and a terminal embryo. Endosperm
is formed as the result of the fusion of the second male cell with
the so-called " definitive nucleus " of the embryo-sac (see Angio-
sperms). The embryo consists of an axis bearing one (Mono-
cotyledons) or two (Dicotyledons) cotyledons, which protect_ the
stem bud (plumule) of the future plant, and ending below in a
radicle. The seed is enclosed when ripe in the fruit, a development
of the ovary as a result of fertilization of the egg-cell. (A. B. R.)

Anatomy of Plants

The term " Anatomy," originally employed in biological
science to denote a description of the facts of structure revealed
on cutting up an organism, whether with or without the aid
of lenses for the purposes of magnification, is restricted in the
present article, in accordance with a common modern use, to
those facts of internal structure not concerned with the constitu-
tion of the individual cell, the structural unit of which the
plant is composed.

An account of the structure of plants naturally begins
with the cell which is the proximate unit of organic structure.
The cell is essentially an individualized mass of protoplasm
containing a differentiated protoplasmic body, called a nucleus.
But all cells which are permanent tissue-elements of the plant-
body possess, in addition, a more or less rigid limiting membrane
or cell-wall, consisting primarily of cellulose or some allied
substance. It is the cell-walls which connect the different cells
of a tissue (see below) , and it is upon their characters (thickness,
sculpture and constitution) that the qualities of the tissue
largely depend. In many cases, indeed, after the completion

F Q.P \ \ H fjf I

Fig. 1. — Examples of the differentiation of the cells of plants.

A, Cell (individual) of the unicellular Green Alga Pleurococcus,
as an example of an undifferentiated autonomous assimilating
cell, pr.y Cell protoplasm; n., nucleus; chl., chloroplast; c.w.,
cell-wall.

B, Plant of the primitive Siphoneous Green Alga Protosiphon
botryoides. The primitive cell sends colourless tubelets (rhizoids,
rh.) into the mud on which it grows. The subaerial part is tubular
or ovoid, and contains the chloroplast (chl.). There are several
nuclei.

C, Base of the multicellular filamentous Green Alga CJiaetomorpha
aerea. The basal cell has less chlorophyll than the others, and is
expanded and fixed firmly to the rock on which the plant grows by
the basal surface, rh, thus forming a rudimentary rhizoid.

D, Part of branched filamentous thallus of the multicellular Green
Alga Oedocladium. cr. ax., Green axis creeping on the surface of
damp soil; rh., colourless rhizoids penetrating the soil; asc. ax.,
ascending axes of green cells.

E, Vertical section of frond of the complicated Siphoneous Green
Alga Halimeda. The substance of the frond is made up by a single
much-branched tube, with interwoven branches, cond. med.,
Longitudinally running comparatively colourless central (medullary)
branches, which conduct food substances and support the (ass. cor.)
green assimilating cortical branches, which are the ends of branches
from the medulla and fit tightly together, forming the continuous
surface of the plant.

F, Section through the surface tissue of the Brown Alga Cutleria
multifida, showing the surface layer of assimilating cells densely
packed with phaeoplasts. The layers below have progressively
fewer of these, the central cells being quite colourless.

G, Section showing thick-walled cells of the cortex in a Brown Alga
(seaweed). Simple pits (p.) enable conduction to take place readily
from one to another.

H, Two adjacent cells (leptoids) of a food-conducting strand in
Fucus (a Brown seaweed). The wall between them is perforated,
giving passage to coarse strands of protoplasm.

I, End of hydroid of the thalloid Liverwort Blyttia, showing the
thick lignified wall penetrated by simple pits.

of the cell-wall (which is secreted by the living cell-body) the
protoplasm dies, and a tissue in which this has occurred consists
solely of the dead framework of cell-walls, enclosing in the
cavities, originally occupied by the protoplasm, simply water
or air. In such cases the characters of the adult tissue clearly
depend solely upon the characters of the cell-walls, and it is
usual in plant-anatomy to speak of the wall with its enclosed

73°

PLANTS

[ANATOMY

cavity as " the cell," and the contained protoplasm or other
substances, if present, as cell-contents. This is in accordance
with the original use of the term " cell," which was applied
in the 1 7th century to the cavities of plant-tissues on the analogy
of the cells of honeycomb. The use of the term to mean the
individualized nucleated mass of living protoplasm, which,
whether with or without a limiting membrane, primitively
forms the proximate histological element of the body of every
organism, dates from the second quarter of the 19th century.
For a more detailed description of the cell see Cytology and the
section on Cytology of Plants below) . In all but the very simplest
forms the plant-body is built up of a number of these cells,
associated in more or less definite ways. In the higher (more
complicated) plants the cells differ very much among themselves,
and the body is composed of definite systems of these units,
each system with its own characteristic structure, depending
partly on the characters of the component cells and partly

Fig. \a. — Examples of the differentiation of the tissue of plants.

J, End of hydroid of the Moss Mnium, showing particularly thin
oblique end-wall. No pits.

K, Optical section of two adjacent leptoids of the Moss Polytrichum
juniperinum. The leptoids are living and nucleated. They bulge
in the neighbourhood of the very thin cross-wall. Note resemblance
to H and R. <

L, Optical section of cell of parenchyma in the same moss.
Embedded in the protoplasm are a number of starch grains.

M, Part of elongated stereid of a Moss. Note thick walls and
oblique slit-like pits with opposite inclination on the two sides of
the cell seen in surface view.

N, One side of the end of hydroid (tracheid) of a Pteridophyte
(fern), with scalariform pits.

O, Optical section of two adjacent leptoids (sieve-tube segments)
of Pteridophyte, with sieve plates (s. pi.) on oblique end-wall and
side-walls.

P, Part of spiral hydroid (tracheid) of Phanerogam (Flowering
Plant).

Q, Three segments of a " pitted " vessel of Phanerogam.

R, Optical section of leptoid (sieve-tube segment) of Phanerogam,
with two proteid (companion) cells, j. pi., sieve-plate.

S, Optical section of part of thick- walled stereid of Phanerogam,
with almost obliterated cavity and narrow slit-like oblique
pits.

T, Part of vertical section through blade of typical leaf of Phanero-
gam, u.e., Upper epidermal cells, with (c) cuticle, (p) Assimilating
(palisade) cells, sp., Assimilating (spongy) cells with large lacunae.
I.e., Lower epidermis, with St., stoma.

U, Absorbing cell, with process (root-hair) from piliferous layer
of root of Phanerogam.

V, Endodermal cell of Phanerogam, with suberized central band
on radial and transverse walls.

on the method of association. Such a system is called a tissue-
system, the word tissue being employed for any collection
of cells with common structural, developmental, or functional
characters to which it may be conveniently applied. The word
is derived from the general resemblance of the texture of plant
substance to that of a textile fabric, and dates from a period
when the fundamental constitution of plant substance from in-
dividual cells was not yet discovered. It is convenient here to
define the two chief types of cell-form which characterize tissues

of the higher plants. The term parenchyma is applied to
tissues whose cells are isodiametric or cylindrical in shape,
prosenchyma tissues consisting of long narrow cells, with pointed
ends.

We may now proceed to a systematic account of the anatomy
of the different groups of plants, beginning with the simplest,
and passing to the more complicated forms.

Thallophyta. — The simplest members of both the Algae and
the Fungi (q.v.) (the two divisions of the Thallophyta, which is
the lowest of the four great groups into which the plant-kingdom
is divided) have their bodies each composed of a single cell.
In the Algae such a cell consists essentially of: (1) a mass of
protoplasm provided with (2) a nucleus and (3) an assimilating
apparatus consisting of a coloured protoplasmic body, called a
chromatophore, the pigment of which in the pure green forms is
chlorophyll, and which may then be called a chloroplast. The
whole of these living structures are covered externally by the
dead cell-membrane (fig. 1 A). It is from such a living and
assimilating cell, performing as it does all the vital functions
of a green plant, that, according to current theory, all the
different cell-forms of a higher plant have been differentiated
in the course of descent.

_ Among the Green Algae the differentiation of cells is compara-
tively slight. Many forms, even when multicellular, have all their
cells identical in structure and function, and are often
spoken of as " physiologically unicellular." The cells Ce H aa <l
are commonly joined end to end in simple or branched r ' ssue
filaments. Such differentiation as exists in the higher ?. lfle f e 'l i ! a ~
types mainly takes two directions. In the fixed forms Algae.

the cell or cells which attach the plant to the substratum often
have a peculiar form, containing chlorophyll and constituting
a rudimentary fixing organ or rhizoid (fig. I C). In certain types
living on damp soil, the rhizoids penetrate the substratum, and in
addition to fixing the plant absorb food substances (dissolved
salts) from the substratum (fig. 1 B and D).

The second type of differentiation is that between supporting
axis and assimilating appendages. The cells of the axis are com-
monly stouter and have much less chlorophyll than those of the
appendages (Draparnaldio). This differentiation is parallel with
that between stem and leaf of the higher plants. In the group of
the Siphoneae both these types of differentiation may exist in the
single, long, branched, tube-like and multinucleate " cell " (coenocyte)
which here forms the plant-body. Protosiphon (fig. 1 B) is an
example parallel with Oedocladium; Bryopsis, with Draparnaldia.
In Caulerpa the imitation of a higher plant by the differentiation
of fixing, supporting and assimilating organs (root, stem and leaf)
from different branches of the single cell is strikingly complete.
In the Siphoneous family of Codiaceae the branches of the primitive
cell become considerably interwoven one with another, so that a
dense tissue-like structure is often produced. In this we get a
further differentiation between the central tubes (branches of the
primitive cell), which run in a longitudinal direction through the
body, possess little or no chlorophyll, and no doubt serve to conduct
food substances from one region to another, and the peripheral
ones, which are directed perpendicularly to the surface of the body,
ending blindly there, contain abundant chlorophyll, and are the
assimilating organs (fig. 1 E).

None of the existing Red Seaweeds (Rhodophyceae) has a unicellu-
lar body. The thallus in all cases consists of a branched filament
of cells placed end to end, as in many of the Green Algae. Each
branch grows simply by the transverse division of its apical cell.
The branches may be quite free or they may be united laterally
to form a solid body of more or less firm and compact consistency.
This may have a radial stem-like organization, a central cell-thread
giving off from every side a number of short sometimes unicellular
branches, which together form a cortex round the centra! thread,
the whole structure having a cylindrical form which only branches
when one of the short cell-branches from the central thread grows
out beyond the general surface and forms in its turn a new central
thread, from whose cells arise new short branches. Or the thallus
may have a leaf-like form, the branches from the central threads
which form the midrib growing out mainly in one plane and forming
a lamina, extended right and left of the midrib. Numerous varia-
tions and modifications of these forms exist. In all cases, while
the internal threads which bear the cortical branches consist of
elongated cells with few chromatophores, and no doubt serve
mainly for conduction of food substances, the superficial cells of the
branches themselves are packed with chromatophores and form
the chief assimilating tissue of the plant. In the bulky forms
colourless branches frequently grow out from some of the cortical
cells, and, pushing among the already-formed threads in a longi-
tudinal direction, serve to strengthen the thallus by weaving its
original threads together. The cells belonging to any given thread
may be recognized at an early stage of growth, because each cell

ANATOMY]

PLANTS

731

is connected with its neighbours belonging to the same thread by
two depressions or pits, one at each end. The common wall separat-
ing the pits of the two adjoining cells is pierced by strands of
protoplasm. The whole structure, consisting of the two pits and
the wall between is known as a genetic pit. Other pits, connecting
cells not belonging to the same branch, are, however, formed at a
later stage.

Many of the lower forms of Brown Seaweeds (Phoeophyceae) have
a thallus consisting of simple or branched cell threads, as in the
green and red forms. The lateral union of the branches to form
a solid thallus is not, however, so common, nor is it carried to so high
a pitch of elaboration as in the Rhodophyceae. In a few of the
lower forms (Sphacelariaceae), and in the higher forms which
possess a solid thallus, often of very large size, the plant-body is
no longer formed entirely of branched cell-threads, but consists of
what is called a true parenchymatous tissue, i.e. a solid mass
of cells, formed by cell division in all directions of space. In
the Laminariaceae this tissue is formed by cell division at what is
called an intercalary growing point, i.e. a meristematic (cell-dividing)
region occupying the whole of a certain transverse zone of the thallus,
and cutting off new cells to add to the permanent tissue on both sides.
In the Fucaceae, on the other hand, there is a single prismatic
apical cell situated at the bottom of a groove at the growing apex
of the thallus, which cuts off cells from its sides to add to the
peripheral, and from its base to add to the central permanent
cells. The whole of the tissue of the plant is formed by the division
of this apical cell. In whatever way the tissues are originally formed,
however, the main features of their differentiation are the same.
According to a law which, as we have seen, applies also to the green
and red forms, the superficial cells ?.re packed with chromatophores
and form the assimilating tissue (fig. I , F). In these brown types with
bodies of considerable thickness (Laminariaceae and Fucaceae), there
is, however, a further differentiation of the internal tissues. The
cells immediately subjacent to the superficial assimilating layer
form a colourless, or nearly colourless, parenchymatous cortex, which
acts as a food storage tissue (fig. I , G) , and surrounds a central medulla
of elongated conducting cells. The latter are often swollen at the
ends, so that the cross-wall separating two successive cells has a
larger surface than if the cells were of uniform width along their
entire length. Cells of this type are often called trumpet-hyphae
(though they have no connexion with the hyphae of Fungi), and in
some genera of Laminariaceae those at the periphery of the medulla
simulate the sieve-tubes of the higher plants in a striking degree,
even (like these latter) developing the peculiar substance callose on
or in the perforated cross-walls or sieve-plates. A specialized con-
ducting tissue of this kind, used mainly for transmitting organic
substances, is always developed in plants where the region of
assimilative activity is local in the plant-body, as it is in practically
all the higher plants. This is the case in the Fucaceae, and in a
very marked degree in the Laminariaceae in question, where the
assimilative frond is borne at the end of an extremely long supporting
and conducting stipe. A similar state of things exists in some of
the more highly differentiated Red, Seaweeds. The tissue developed
to meet the demands for conduction in such cases always shows
some of the characters described. It is known as leptom, each
constituent cell being a leptoid (fig. I , H). In addition to the cell types
described, it is a very common occurrence in these bulky forms for
rhizoid-like branches of the cells to grow out, mostly from the
cells at the periphery of the medulla, and grow down between the
cells, strengthening the whole tissue, as in the Rhodophyceae.
This process may result in a considerable thickening of the
thallus. In many Laminariaceae the thallus also grows regularly
in thickness by division of its surface layer, adding to the
subjacent permanent tissue and thus forming a secondary meristem.

The simpler Fungi, like the simpler Green Algae, consist of
single cells or simple or branched cell-threads, but among the
higher kinds a massive body is often formed, particu-
fereatiatton^y in connexion with the formation of spores, and
la Fungi this ma Y exhibit considerable tissue-differentiation.
A characteristic feature of the fungal vegetative plant-
body {mycelium) is its formation from independent coenocytic
tubes or cell-threads. These branch, and may be packed or inter-
woven to form a very solid structure; but each grows in length
independently of the others and retains its own individu-
ality, though its growth in those types with a definite external
form is of course correlated with that of its neighbours and is
subject to the laws governing the general form of the body. Such
an independent coenocytic branch or cell-thread is called a hypha.
Similar modes of growth occur among the Siphoneous Green Algae
and also among the Red Seaweeds. A solid fungal body may
usually be seen to consist of separate hyphae, but in some cases
these are so bent and closely interwoven that an appearance like
that of ordinary parenchymatous tissue is obtained in section,
the structure being called pseudoparenchyma. By the formation of
numerous cross-walls the resemblance to parenchyma is increased.
The surface-layer of the body in the massive Fungi differs in character
according to its function, which is not constant throughout the
class, as in the Algae, because of the very various conditions of
life to which different Fungi are exposed. In many forms its
hyphae are particularly thick-walled, and may strikingly resemble

the epidermis of a vascular plant. This is especially the case in
the lichens (symbiotic organisms composed of a fungal mycelium
in association with algal cells), which are usually exposed to very
severe fluctuations in external conditions. The formation of a
massive body naturally involves the localization of the absorptive
region, and the function of absorption (which in the simpler forms
is carried out by the whole of the vegetative part of the mycelium
penetrating a solid or immersed in a liquid substratum) is subserved
by the outgrowth of the hyphae of the surface-layer of that region
into rhizoids, which, like those of the Algae living on soil, resemble
the root-hairs of the higher plants. The internal tissue of the body
of the solid higher Fungi, particularly the elongated stalks {stipes)
of the fructifications of the Agarics, consists of hyphae running
in a longitudinal direction, which no doubt serve for the conduction
of organic food substances, just as do the " trumpet-hyphae,"
similar in appearance, though not in origin, of the higher Brown
Seaweeds. (In one genus {Lactarius) " milk-tubes," recalling the
laticiferous tubes of many vascular plants, are found.) These
elongated hyphae are frequently thick-walled, and in some cases
form a central strand, which may serve to resist longitudinal pulling
strains. This is particularly marked in certain lichens of shrubby
habit. The internal tissues, either consisting of obvious hyphae
or of pseudoparenchyma, may also serve as a storehouse of plastic
food substances.

Looking back over the progress of form and tissue-differenti-
ation in the Thallophyta, we find that, starting from the simplest
unicellular forms with no external differentiation of the body,
we can trace an increase in complexity of organization every-
where determined by the principles of the division of physio-
logical labour and of the adaptation of the organism to the needs
of its environment. In the first place there is a differentiation
of fixing organs, which in forms living on a soft nutrient sub-
stratum penetrate it and become absorbing organs. Secondly,
in the Algae, which build up their own food from inorganic
materials, we have a differentiation of supporting axes from
assimilating appendages, and as the body increases in size
and becomes a solid mass of cells or interwoven threads, a
corresponding differentiation of a superficial assimilative system
from the deep-lying parts. In both Algae and Fungi the latter
are primarily supporting and food-conducting, and in some
bulky Brown Seaweeds, where assimilation is strongly localized,
some of the deep cells are highly specialized for the latter func-
tion. In the higher forms a storage and a mechanically-strength-
ening system may also be developed, and in some aerial Fungi
an external protective tissue. The " hyphal " mode of growth,
i.e. the formation of the thallus, whatever its external form,
by branched, continuous or septate, coenocytic tubes (Siphoneae
and Fungi), or by simple or branched cell-threads (Red and
many Green Algae), in both cases growing mainly or entirely
at the apex of each branch, is almost universal in the group,
the exceptions being met with almost entirely among the higher
Brown Seaweeds, in which is found parenchyma produced by
the segmentation of an apical cell of the whole shoot, or by cell
division in some other type of meristem.

Bryophyta. — The Bryophyta [including the Liverworts
(Hepaticae) and Mosses (Musci)], the first group of mainly
terrestrial plants, exhibit considerably more advanced tissue
differentiation, in response to the greater complexity in the
conditions of life on land. In a general way this greater complex-
ity may be said to consist (i) in the restriction of regular absorp-
tion of water to those parts of the plant-body embedded in the
soil, (2) in the evaporation of water from the parts exposed to
the air (transpiration). But these two principles do not find
their full expression till we come, in the ascending series, to the
Vascular Plants. In the Bryophytes water is still absorbed,
not only from the soil but also largely from rain, dew, &c,
through the general surface of the subaerial body (thallus),
or in the more differentiated forms through the leaves. The
lowest Hepaticae have an extremely simple vegetative structure,
little more advanced than that found in some of the higher
Green Algae and very much simpler than in the large Red and
Brown Seaweeds. The plant-body (thallus) is always small and
normally lives in very damp air, so that the demands of terres-
trial life are at a minimum. It always consists of true paren-
chyma, and is entirely formed by the cutting off of segments
from an apical cell.

732

PLANTS

[ANATOMY

Liver-
worts.

A sufficient description of the thallus of the liverworts will be
found in the article Bryophyta. We may note the universal
occurrence on the lower surface of the thallus of fixing
and absorbing rhizoids in accordance with the terrestrial
life on soil (cf. Oedocladium among the Green Algae).
The Marchantiaceae (see article Bryophyta) show considerable
tissue-differentiation, possessing a distinct assimilative system of
cells, consisting of branched cell threads packed with chloroplasts
and arising from the basal cells of large cavities in the upper part
of the thallus. These cavities are completely roofed by a layer of
cells; in the centre of the roof is a pore surrounded by a ring of
special cells. The whole arrangement has a strong resemblance
to the lacunae, mesophyll and stomata, which form the assimilative
and transpiring (water-evaporating) apparatus in the leaves of
flowering plants. The frondose (thalloid) Jungermanniales show
no such differentiation of an assimilating tissue, though the upper
cells of the thallus usually have more chlorophyll than the rest.
In three genera — Blyttia, Symphyogyna and Hymenophytum —
there are one or more strands or bundles consisting of long thick-
walled fibre-like (prosenchymatous) cells, pointed at the ends and
running longitudinally through the thick midrib. The walls of
these cells are strongly lignified {i.e. consist of woody substance)
and are irregularly but thickly studded with simple pits (see
Cytology), which are usually arranged in spirals running round the
cells, and are often elongated in the direction of the spiral (fig. I, I).
These cells are not living in the adult state, though they sometimes
contain the disorganized remains of protoplasm. They serve to
conduct water through the thallus, the assimilating parts of which
are in these forms often raised above the soil and are comparatively
remote from the rhizoid-bearing (water-absorbing) region. Such
differentiated water-conducting cells we call hydroids, the tissue
they form hydrom. The sporogonium of the liverworts is in the
simpler forms simply a spore-capsule with arrangements for the
development, protection and distribution of the spores. As such
its consideration falls outside the scheme of this article, but in one
small and peculiar group of these plants, the Anthoceroteae, a
distinct assimilating and transpiring system is found in the wall
of the very long cylindrical capsule, clearly rendering the sporo-
gonium largely independent of the supply of elaborated organic
food from the thallus of the mother plant (the gametophyte). A
richly chlorophyllous tissue with numerous intercellular spaces
communicates with the exterior by stomata, strikingly similar to
those of the vascular plants (see below). If the axis of such a
sporogonium were prolonged downwards into the soil to form
a fixing and absorptive root, the whole structure would become a
physiologically independent plant, exhibiting in many though by
no means all respects the leading features of the sporophyte or
ordinary vegetative and spore-bearing individual in Pteridophytes and
Phanerogams. These facts, among others, have led to the theory,
plausible in some respects, of the origin of this sporophyte by
descent from an Anthoceros-like sporogonium (see Pteridophyta).
But in the Bryophytes the sporogonium never becomes a sporophyte
producing leaves and roots, and always remains dependent upon the
gametophyte for its water and mineral food, and the facts give us
no warrant for asserting homology (i.e. morphological identity)
between the differentiated tissues of an Anthocerotean sporogonium
and those of the sporophyte in the higher plants. Opposed to the
thalloid forms are the group of leafy Liverworts (Acrogynae), whose
plant-body consists of a thin supporting stem bearing leaves. The
latter are plates of green tissue one cell thick, while the stem consists
of uniform more or less elongated cylindrical cells. The base of
the stem bears numerous cell-filaments (rhizoids) which fix the plant
to the substratum upon which it is growing.

In the Mosses the plant-body (gametophyte) is always separable
into a radially organized, supporting and conducting axis (stem)
Mosses a thin, flat, assimilating, and transpiring appendages
(leaves). To the base of the stem are attached a
number of branched cell-threads (rhizoids) which ramify in the
soil, fixing the plant and absorbing water from soil. [For the
histology of the comparatively simple but in many respects
aberrant Bog- mosses (Sphagnaceae) , see Bryophyta.] The stems
of the other mosses resemble one another in their main histological
features. In a few cases there is a special surface or epidermal
layer, but usually all the outer layers of the stem are composed of
brown, thick-walled, lignified, prosenchymatous, fibre-like cells
forming a peripheral stereom (mechanical or supporting tissue)
which forms the outer cortex. This passes gradually into the
thinner-walled parenchyma of the inner cortex. The whole of the
cortex, stereom and parenchyma alike, is commonly living, and its
cells often contain starch. The centre of the stem in the forms
living on soil is occupied by a strand of narrow elongated hydroids,
which differ from those of the liverworts in being thin-walled,
unlignified, and very seldom pitted (fig. I, J). The hydrom strand
has in most cases no connexion with the leaves, but runs straight
up the stem and spreads out below the sexual organs or the foot
of the sporogonium. It has been shown that it conducts water
with considerable rapidity. In the stalk of the sporogonium there
is a similar strand, which is of course not in direct connexion with,
but continues the conduction of water from, the strand of the
gametophytic axis. In the aquatic, semi-aquatic, and xerophilous

types, where the whole surface of the plant absorbs water, per-
petually in the first two cases and during rain in the last, the hydrom
strand is either much reduced or altogether absent. In accord-
ance with the general principle already indicated, it is only where
absorption is localized [i.e. where the plant lives on soil from which
it absorbs its main supply of water by means of its basal rhizoids)
that a water-conducting (hydrom) strand is developed. The leaves
of most mosses are flat plates, each consisting of a single layer
of square or oblong assimilating (chlorophyllous) cells. In many
cases the cells bordering the leaf are produced into teeth, and
very frequently they are thick-walled so as to form a supporting
rim. The centre of the leaf is often occupied by a midrib consisting
of several layers of cells. These are elongated in the direction
of the length of the leaf, are always poor in chlorophyll and form
a channel for conducting the products of assimilation away from
the leaf into the stem. This is the first indication of a conducting
foliar strand or leaf bundle and forms an approach to leptom, though
it is not so specialized as the leptom of the higher Phaeophyceae.
Associated with the conducting parenchyma are frequently found
hydroids identical in character with those of the central strand
of the stem, and no doubt serving to conduct water to or from the
leaf according as the latter is acting as a transpiring or a water-
absorbing organ. In a few cases the hydrom strand is continued
into the cortex of the stem as a leaf-trace bundle (the anatomically
demonstrable trace of the leaf in the stem). This in several cases
runs vertically downwards for some distance in the outer cortex,
and ends blindly — the lower end or the whole of the trace being
band-shaped or star-shaped so as to present a large surface for
the absorption of water from the adjacent cortical cells. In other
cases the trace passes inwards and joins the central hydrom strand,
so that a connected water-conducting system between stem and
leaf is established.

In the highest family of mosses, Polytrichaceae, the differentia-
tion of conducting tissue reaches a decidedly higher level. In
addition to the water-conducting tissue or hydrom there is a well-
developed tissue (leptom) inferred to be a conducting channel for
organic substances. This leptom is not so highly differentiated as in
the most advanced Laminariaceae, but shows some of the characters
of sieve-tubes with great distinctness. Each leptoid is an elongated
living cell with nucleus and a thin layer of protoplasm lining the
wall (fig. I, K). The whole cavity of the cell is sometimes stuffed
with proteid contents. The end of the cell is slightly swollen,
fitting on to the similar swollen end of the next leptoid of the row
exactly after the fashion of a trumpet-hypha. The end wall is
usually very thin, and the protoplasm on artificial contraction
commonly sticks to it just as in a sieve-tube, though no perforation
of the wall has been found. Associated with the leptoids are
similar cells without swollen ends and with thicker cross-walls.
Besides the hydrom and leptom, and situated between them, there
is a tissue which perhaps serves to conduct soluble carbohydrates,
and whose cells are ordinarily full of starch. This may be called
amylom. The stem in this family falls into two divisions, an
underground portion bearing rhizoids and scales, the rhizome, and
a leafy aerial stem forming its direct upward continuation. The
leaf consists of a central midrib, several cells thick, and two wings,
one cell thick. The midrib bears above a series of closely set, verti-
cal, longitudinally-running plates of green assimilative cells over
which the wings close in dry air so as to protect the assimilative and
transpiring plates from excessive evaporation of water. The midrib
has a strong band of stereom above and below. In its centre is a
band-shaped bundle consisting of rows of leptom, hydrom and
amylon cells. This bundle is continued down into the cortex of
the stem as a leaf-trace, and passing very slowly through the scleren-
chymatous external cortex and the parenchymatous, starefcy
internal cortex to join the central cylinder. The latter has a
central strand consisting of files of large hydroids, separated from
one another by very thin walls, each file being separated from
its neighbour by stout, dark-brown walls. This is probably homo-
logous with the hydrom cylinder in the stems of other mosses.
It is surrounded by (i) a thin-walled, smaller-celled hydrom
mantle; (2) an amylom sheath; (3) a leptom mantle, interrupted here
and there by starch cells. These three concentric tissue mantles
are evidently formed by the conjoined bases of the leaf traces, each
of which is composed of the same three tissues. As the aerial
stem is traced down into the underground rhizome portion, these
three mantles die out almost entirely — the central hydrom strand
forming the bulk of the cylinder and its elements becoming mixed
with thick- walled stereids; at the same time this central hydrom-
stereom strand becomes three-lobed, with deep furrows between
the lobes in which the few remaining leptoids run, separated from
the central mass by a few starchy cells, the remains of the amylom
sheath. At the periphery of the lobes are some comparatively
thin-walled living cells mixed with a few thin-walled hydroids,
the remains of the thin-walled hydrom mantle of the aerial stem.
Outside this are three arcs of large cells showing characters typical
of the endodermis in a vascular plant; these are interrupted by
strands of narrow, elongated, thick-walled cells, which send branches
into the little brown scales borne by the rhizome. The surface
layer of the rhizome bears rhizoids, and its whole structure strikingly
resembles that of the typical root of a vascular plant. In Catharinea

ANATOMY]

PLANTS

733

undulata the central h' 'drom cylinder of the aerial stem is a loose
tissue, its interstices being filled up with thin-walled, starchy
parenchyma. In Dawsonia superba, a large New Zealand moss,
the hydroids of the central cylinder of the aerial stem are mixed
with thick-walled stereids forming a hydrom-stereom strand some-
what like that of the rhizome in other Polytrichaceae.

The central hydrom strand in the seta of the sporogonium of
most mosses has already been alluded to. Besides this there
is usually a living conducting tissue, sometimes differentiated as
leptom, forming a mantle round the hydrom, and bounded ex-
ternally by a more or less well-differentiated endodermis, abutting
on an irregularly cylindrical lacuna ; the latter separates the central
conducting cylinder from the cortex of the seta, which, like the
cortex of the gametophyte stem, is usually differentiated into
an outer thick-walled stereom and an inner starchy parenchyma.
Frequently, also, a considerable differentiation of vegetative.tissue
occurs in the wall of the spore-capsule itself, and in some of the
higher forms a special assimilating and transpiring organ situated
just below the capsule at the top of the seta, with a richly lacunar
chlorophyllous parenchyma and stomata like those of the wall of
the capsule in the Anthocerotean liverworts. Thus the histo-
logical differentiation of the sporogonium of the higher mosses is
one of considerable complexity; but there is here even less reason
to suppose that these tissues have any homology (phylogenetic
community of origin) with the similar ones met with in the higher
plants.

The features of histological structure seen in the Bryophytic
series are such as we should expect to be developed in response
to the exigencies of increasing adaptation to terrestrial life on
soil, and of increasing size of the plant-body. In the liverworts
we find fixation of the thallus by water-absorbing rhizoids; in
certain forms with a localized region of water-absorption the
development of a primitive hydrom or water-conducting system;
and in others with rather a massive type of thallus the differentia-
tion of a special assimilative and transpiring system. In the
more highly developed series, the mosses, this last division
of labour takes the form of the differentiation of special assimila-
tive organs, the leaves, commonly with a midrib containing
elongated cells for the ready removal of the products of assimila-
tion; and in the typical forms with a localized absorptive region,
a well-developed hydrom in the axis of the plant, as well as
similar hydrom strands in the leaf-midribs, are constantly met
with. In higher forms the conducting strands of the leaves
are continued downwards into the stem, and eventually come
into connexion with the central hydrom cylinder, forming a
complete cylindrical investment apparently distinct from the
latter, and exhibiting a differentiation into hydrom, leptom
and amylom which almost completely parallels that found
among the true vascular plants. Similar differentiation,
differing in some details, takes place independently in the other
generation, the sporogonium. The stereom of the moss is
found mainly in the outer cortex of the stem and in the midrib
of the leaf.

Vascular Plants. — In the Vascular Plants (Pteridophytes,
i.e. ferns, horse-tails, club mosses, &c, and Phanerogams or
Flowering Plants) the main plant-body, that which we speak of
in ordinary language as "the plant," is called the sporophyte
because it bears the asexual reproductive cells or spores.
The gametophyte, which bears the sexual organs, is either
a free-living thallus corresponding in degree of differentiation
with the lower liverworts, or it is a mass of cells which
always remains enclosed in a spore and is parasitic upon the
sporophyte.

The body of the sporophyte in the great majority of the
vascular plants shows a considerable increase in complexity
over that found in the gametophyte of Bryophytes. The
principal new feature in the external conformation of the body
is the acquirement of " true " roots, the nearest approach to
which in the lower forms we saw in the " rhizome " of Poly-
trichaceae. The primary root is a downward prolongation of
the primary axis of the plant. From this, as well as from
various parts of the shoot system, other roots may originate.
The root differs from the shoot in the characters of its surface
tissues, in the absence of the green assimilative pigment chloro-
phyll, in the arrangement of its vascular system and in the mode
of growth at the apex, all features which are in direct relation
to its normally subterranean life and its fixative and absorptive

functions. Within the limits of the sporophyte generation the
Pteridophytes and Phanerogams also differ from the Bryophytes
in possessing special assimilative and transpiring organs, the
leaves, though these organs are developed, as we have seen, in
the gametophyte of many liverworts and of all the mosses.
The leaves, again, have special histological features adapted to
the performance of their special functions.

Alike in root, stem and leaf, we can trace a three-fold division
of tissue systems, a division of which there are indications among
the lower plants, and which is the expression of the fundamental
conditions of the evolution of a bulky differ- Tlssue
entiated plant-body. From the primitive uniform Systems.
mass of undifferentiated assimilating cells, which
we may conceive of as the starting-point of differentiation,
though such an undifferentiated body is only actually realized
in the thallus of the lower Algae, there is, (i) on the one hand,
a specialization of a surface layer regulating the immediate
relations of the plant with its surroundings. In the typically
submerged Alga and in submerged plants of every group this
is the absorptive and the main assimilative layer, and may also
by the production of mucilage be of use in the protection of
the body in various ways. In the terrestrial plants it differs in
the subterranean and subaerial parts, being in the former pre-
eminently absorptive, and in the latter protective — provision
at the same time being made for the gaseous interchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide necessary for respiration and feeding.
This surface layer in the typically subaerial " shoot " of the
sporophyte in Pteridophytes and Phanerogams is known as the
epidermis, though the name is restricted by some writers, on
account of developmental differences, to the surface layer of
the shoot of Angiosperms, and by others extended to the surface
layer of the whole plant in both these groups. On the other
hand, we have (2) an internal differentiation of conducting tissue,
the main features of which as seen in the gametophyte of Bryo-
phytes have already been fully described. In the Vascular Plants
this tissue is collectively known as the vascular system. The
remaining tissue of the plant-body, a tissue that we must regard
phylogenetically as the remnant of the undifferentiated tissue,
of the primitive thallus, but which often undergoes further
differentiation of its own, the better to fulfil its characteristically
vital functions for the whole plant, is known, from its peripheral
position in relation to the primitively central conducting tissue,
as (3) the cortex. Besides absorption, assimilation, conduction
and protection there is another very important function for
which provision has to be made in any plant-body of considerable
size, especially when raised into the air, that of support. Special
tissues (stereom) may be developed for this purpose in the cortex,
or in immediate connexion with the conducting system, according
to the varying needs of the particular type of plant-body.
The important function of aeration, by which the inner living
tissues of the bulky plant-body obtain the oxygen necessary for
their respiration, is secured by the development of an extensive
system of intercellular spaces communicating with the external

In relation to its characteristic function of protection, the epi-
dermis, which, as above defined, consists of a single layer of cells
has typically thickened and cuticularized outer walls. „
These serve not only to protect the plant against slight B P'" ermls -
mechanical injury from without, and against the entry of smaller
parasites, such as fungi and bacteria, but also and especially to
prevent the evaporation of water from within.

At intervals it is interrupted by pores [stomata) leading froni
the air outside to the system of intercellular spaces below. Each
stoma is surrounded by a pair of peculiarly modified stomata
epidermal cells called guard-cells (fig. I , T) , which open and
close the pore according to the need for transpiration. The structure
of the stomata of the sporophyte of vascular plants is fundamentally
the same as that of the stomata on the sporogonium of the true
mosses and of the liverwort Anthoceros. Stomata are often situated
at the bottom of pits in the surface of the leaf. This arrangement
is a method of checking transpiration by creating a still atmosphere
above the pore of the stoma, so that water vapour collects in it
and diminishes the further outflow of vapour. This type of struc-
ture, which is extremely various in its details, is found especially,
as we should expect, in plants which have to economize their water

734

PLANTS

[ANATOMY

supply. The stomata serve for all gaseous interchange between
the plant and the surrounding air. The guard-cells contain chloro-
phyll, which is absent from typical epidermal cells, the latter acting
as a tissue for water storage. Sometimes the epidermis is consider-
ably more developed by tangential division of its cells, forming a
many-layered water-tissue. This is found especially in plants
which during certain hours of the day are unable to cover the water
lost through transpiration by the supply coming from the roots.
The water stored in such a time supplies the immediate need of the
transpiring cells and prevents the injury which would result from
their excessive depletion.

The epidermis of a very large number of species bears hairs of
various kinds. The simplest type consists simply of a single
elongated cell projecting above the general level of the
Hairs. epidermis. Other hairs consist of a chain of cells;

others, again, are branched in various ways; while yet others have
the form of a flat plate of cells placed parallel to the leaf surface
and inserted on a stalk. The cells of hairs may have living con-
tents or they may simply contain air. A very common function of
hairs is to diminish transpiration, by creating a still atmosphere
between them, as in the case of the sunk stomata already mentioned.
But hairs have a variety of other functions. They may, for instance,
be glandular or stinging, as in the common stinging nettle, where the
top of the hair is very brittle, easily breaking off when touched. The
sharp, broken end penetrates the skin, and into the slight wound
thus formed the formic acid contained by the hair is injected.

Mention may be made here of a class of epidermal organ, the

hydathodes, the wide distribution and variety of which have been

revealed by recent research. These are special organs,

Hydathodes. usua liy situated on foliage leaves, for the excretion of

water in liquid form when transpiration is diminished so that the

pressure in the water-channels of the plant has come to exceed a

certain limit. They are widely distributed, but are particularly

abundant in certain tropical climates where active root absorption

goes on while the air is nearly saturated with water vapour. In

one type they may take the form of specially-modified single

epidermal cells or multicellular hairs without any direct connexion

with the vascular system. The cells concerned, like all secreting

organs, have abundant protoplasm with large nuclei, and sometimes,

in addition, part of the cell-wall is modified as a filter. In a second

type they are situated at the ends of tracheal strands and consist

of groups of richly protoplasmic cells belonging to the epidermis

(as in the leaves of many ferns), or to the subjacent tissue (the

commonest type in flowering plants); in this last case the cells in

question are known as epithem. The epithem is penetrated by a

network of fine intercellular spaces, which are normally filled with

water and debouch on one or more intercellular cavities below the

"epidermis. Above each cavity is situated a so-called water-stoma,

no doubt derived phylogenetically from an ordinary stoma, and

enclosed by guard-cells which have nearly or entirely lost the

power of movement. The pores of the water-stomata are the outlets

of the hydathode. The epithem is frequently surrounded by a

sheath of cuticularized cells. In other cases the epithem may be

absent altogether, the tracheal strand debouching directly on

the lacunae of the mesophyll. This last type of hydathode is usually

situated on the edge of the leaf. Some hydathodes are active

glands, secreting the water they expel from the leaf. [Many other

types of glands also exist, either in connexion with the epidermis

or not, such as nectaries, digestive glands, oil, resin and mucilage

glands, &c. They serve the most various purposes in the life

of the plant, but they are not of significance in relation to the

primary vital activities, and cannot be dealt with in the limits of

the present article.] The typical epidermis of the shoot of a land

plant does not absorb water, but some plants living in situations

where they cannot depend on a regular supply from the roots (e.g.

epiphytic plants and desert plants) have absorptive hairs or scales

on the leaf epidermis through which rain and dew can be absorbed.

Some hydathodes also are capable of absorbing as well as excreting

water.

The surface layer of the root, sometimes included under the
term epidermis, is fundamentally different from the epidermis
of the stem. In correspondence with its water-absorbing
Epidermis f unc tj on it j s no t cuticularized, but remains usually thin-
of Root. wa ]l e d ; the absorbing surface is increased by its cells
being produced into delicate tubes which curl round and adhere
firmly to particles of soil, thus at once fixing the root firmly in the
soil, and enabling the hair to absorb readily the thin films of water
ordinarily surrounding the particles (fig. I, U). The root-hair ends
blindly and is simply an outgrowth from a surface cell, having
no cross-walls. It corresponds in function with the rhizoid of a
Bryophyte. At the apex of a root, covering and protecting the
delicate tissue of the growing point, is a special root-cap consisting
of a number of layers of tissue whose cells break down into mucilage
towards the outer surface, thus facilitating the passage of the apex
as it is pushed between the particles of soil.

The cortex, as has been said, is in its origin the remains of the

primitive assimilating tissue of the plant, after differentiation

of the surface layer and the conducting system. It

Cortex. consists primitively of typical living parenchyma; but

its differentiation may be extremely varied, since in the complex

bodies of the higher plants its functions are numerous. In all green
plants which have a special protective epidermis, the cortex of the
shoot has to perform the primitive fundamental function of carbon
assimilation. In the leafy shoot this function is mainly localized
in the cortical tissue of the leaves, known as mesophyll, mesophyll.
which is essentially a parenchymatous tissue containing
chloroplasts, and is penetrated by a system of intercellular spaces
so that the surfaces of the assimilating cells are brought into contact
with air to as large an extent as possible, in order to facilitate gaseous
interchange between the assimilating cells and the atmosphere. At
the same time the cells of the mesophyll are transpiring cells — i.e.
the evaporation of water from the leaf goes on from them into the
intercellular spaces. The only pathways for the gases which thus
pass between the cells of the mesophyll and the outside air are the
stomata. A land plant has nearly always to protect itself against
over-transpiration, and for this reason the stomata of the typical
dorsiventral leaf (fig. 2, A), which has distinct upper and lower faces,
are placed mainly or exclusively on the lower side of the leaf, where
the water vapour that escapes from them, being lighter than air,
cannot pass away from the surface of the leaf, but remains in contact
with it and thus tends to check further transpiration. The stomata are
in direct communication with the ample system of intercellular spaces
which is found in the loosely arranged mesophyll (spongy tissue)
on that side. This is the main transpiring tissue, and is protected
from direct illumination and consequent too great evaporation.
The main assimilating tissue, on the other hand, is under the upper
epidermis, where it is well illuminated, and consists of oblong cells
densely packed with chloroplasts and with their long axes perpen-
dicular to the surface (palisade tissue). The intercellular spaces
are here very narrow channels between the palisade cells. Leaves
whose blades are normally held in a vertical position possess palisade
tissue and stomata on both sides (isobilateral leaves) (fig. 2, B), since
there is no difference in the illumination and other external conditions,

Fig. 2. — Transverse Sections of Leaves.

A , Dorsiventral leaf. B, Isobilateral leaf.

ep, epidermis; si, stoma; mes, mesophyll; pal, palisade; spo, spongy tissue;

i.sp, intercellular space; w.t. , water tissue; x, xylem; ph, phloem;

phlt, phloeoterma; scl, sclerenchyma.

while those which are cylindrical or of similar shape (centric leaves)
have it all round. The leaves of shade plants have little or no
differentiation of palisade tissue. In fleshy leaves which contain
a great bulk of tissue in relation to their chlorophyll content, the
central mesophyll contains little or no chlorophyll and acts as water-
storage tissue. The cortex of a young stem is usually green, and plays
a more or less important part in the assimilative function. It also
always possesses a well-developed lacunar system communicating
with the external air through stomata (in the young stem) or lenticels
(see below). This lacunar system not only enables the cells of
the cortex itself to respire, but also forms channels through which
air can pass to the deeper lying tissues. The cortex of the older
stem of the root frequently acts as a reserve store-house for food,
which generally takes the form of starch, and it also assists largely
in providing the stereom of the plant. In the leaf-blade this
sometimes appears as a layer of thickened subepidermal cells, the
hypoderm, often also as subepidermal bundles of sclerenchymatous
fibres, or as similar bundles extending right across the leaf from one
epidermis to the other and thus acting as struts. Isolated cells
(idioblasts) , thickened in various ways, are not uncommonly found
supporting the tissues of the leaf. In the larger veins of the leaf,
especially in the midrib, in the petiole, and in the young stem, an
extremely frequent type of mechanical tissue is collenchyma. This
consists of elongated cells with cellulose walls, which are locally
thickened along the original corners of the cells, reducing the lumen
to a cylinder, so that a number of vertical pillars of cellulose con-
nected by comparatively thin walls form the framework of the
tissue. This tissue remains living and is usually formed quite
early, just below the epidermis, where it provides the first peripheral
support for a still growing stem or petiole. Sclerenchyma may be
formed later in various positions in the cortex, according to local
needs, Scattered single stereids or bundles of fibres are not
uncommon in the cortex of the root.

ANATOMY]

PLANTS

735

Phloeo-
terma.

The innermost layer of the cortex, abutting on the central
cylinder of the stem or on the bundles of the leaves, is called the
phloeoterma, and is often differentiated. In the leaf-
blade it takes the form of special parenchymatous
sheaths to the bundles. The cells of these sheaths are
often distinguished from the rest of the mesophyll by containing
little or no chlorophyll. Occasionally, however, they are par-
ticularly rich in chloroplasts. These bundle sheaths are important
in the conduction of carbohydrates away from the assimilating
cells to other parts of the plant. Rarely in the leaf, frequently
in the stem (particularly in Pteridophytes), and universally
in the root, the phloeoterma is developed as an endodermis (see
below). In other cases it does not differ histologically from the
parenchyma of the rest of the cortex, though it is often dis-
tinguished by containing particularly abundant starch, in which
case it is known as a starch sheath.

One of the most striking characters common to the two highest
groups of plants, the Pteridophytes and Phanerogams, is the
v / - possession of a double (hydrom-leptom) conducting
S tern system, such as we saw among the highest mosses,
■^ s ' but with sharply characterized and peculiar features,
probably indicating common descent throughout both these groups.
It is confined to the sporophyte, which forms the leafy plant in these
groups, and is known as the vascular system. Associated with it are
other tissues, consisting of parenchyma, mainly starchy, and in the
Phanerogams particularly, of special stereom. The whole tissue
system is known as the stelar system (from the way in which in
primitive forms it runs through the whole axis of the plant in the form
of a column). The stelar system of Vascular Plants has no direct
phylogenetic connexion with that of the mosses. The origin of
the Pteridophyta (q.v.) is very obscure, but it may be regarded as
certain that it is not to be sought among the mosses, which are
an extremely specialized and peculiarly differentiated group.
Furthermore, both the hydrom and leptom of Pteridophytes have
marked peculiarities to which no parallel is to be found among
the Bryophytes. Hence we must conclude that the conduct-
ing system of the Pteridophytes has had an entirely separate
evolution. All the surviving forms, however, have a completely
established double system with the specific characters alluded
to, and since there is every reason to believe that the condi-
tions of evolution of the primitive Pteridophyte must have
been essentially similar to those of the Bryophytes, the various
stages in the evolution of the conducting system of the latter
(p. 732) are very useful to compare with the arrangements met
with in the former.

The hydroid of a Pteridophyte or of a Phanerogam is character-
istically a dead, usually elongated, cell containing air and water, and
_. either thin- walled with lignified (woody) spiral (fig. 1, P.)

Elements or annu ' ar thickenings, or with thick lignified walls, in-
completely perforated by pits (fig. 1, Q.) (usually bordered
pits) of various shapes, e.g. the pits may be separated by a network
of thickenings w-hen the tracheid is reticulate or they may be trans-
versely elongated and separated by bars of thickening like the
rungs of a ladder (scalariform thickening). When, in place of a
number of such cells called tracheids, we have a continuous tube with
the same kind of wall thickening, but composed of a number of cells
whose cross walls have disappeared, the resulting structure is called
a vessel. Vessels are common in the Angiospermous group of Flower-
ing Plants. The scalariform hydroids of Ferns (fig. 1, N.) have been
quite recently shown to possess a peculiar structure. The whole of
the middle lamella or originally formed cell-wall separating one
from another disappears before the adult state is reached, so that
the walls of the hydroids consist of a framework of lignified bars
with open communication between the cell cavities. The tracheids
or vessels, indifferently called tracheal elements, together with
the immediately associated cells (usually amylom in Pteridophytes)
constitute the xylem of the plant. This is a morphological term
given to the particular, type of hydrom found in both Pteridophytes
and Phanerogams, together with the parenchyma or stereom,
or both, included within the boundaries of the hydrom tissue strand.
The leptoid of a Pteridophyte (fig. 1, O.) is also an elongated cell,
with a thin lining of protoplasm, but destitute of a nucleus, and
always in communication with the next cell of the leptom strand
by perforations (in Pteridophytes often not easily demonstrable),
through which originally pass strings of protoplasm which are
bored out by a ferment and converted into relatively coarse " slime
strings," along which pass, we must suppose, the organic substances
which it is the special function of the leptoids to conduct from one
part of the plant to another. The peculiar substance called callose,
chemically allied to cellulose, is frequently formed over the surface
of the perforated end-walls. The structure formed by a number
of such cells placed end to end is called a sieve-tube (obviously
comparable with a xylem-vessel), and the end-wall or area of end-
wall occupied by a group of perforations, a sieve-plate. When the
sieve- tube has ceased to function and the protoplasm, slime strings,
and callose have disappeared, the perforations through which the
slime strings passed are left as relatively large holes, easily visible
in some cases with low powers of the microscope, piercing the
sieve-plate. The sieve-tubes, with their accompanying paren-
chyma or stereom, constitute the tissue called phloem. This is

the term for a morphologically defined tissue system, i.e. the leptom
found in Pteridophytes and Phanerogams with its associated cells,
and is entirely parallel with the xylem. The sieve-tubes differ,
however, from the tracheids in being immediately associated,
apparently constantly, not with starchy parenchyma, but with
parenchymatous cells, containing particularly abundant proteid
contents, which seem to have a function intimately connected with
the conducting function of the sieve-tubes, and which we may
call proteid-cells. In the Angiosperms there are always sister-
cells of sieve-tube segments and are called companion-cells
(fig- 1, R-).

The xylem and phloem are nearly always found in close asso-
ciation in strands of various shapes in all the three main organs
of the sporophyte — root, stem and leaf — and form a connected
tissue-system running through the whole body. In the primary
axis of the plant among Pteridophytes and many Phanerogams,
at any rate in its first formed part, the xylem and phloem are
associated in the form of a cylinder (stele), with xylem occupying
the centre, and the phloem (in the upward-growing part or primary
stem) forming a mantle at the periphery (fig. 4). In
the downward growing part of the axis (primary root), Arrange-
however, the peripheral mantle of phloem is interrupted, ™. ~f.
the xylem coming to the surface of the cylinder t J a ^ t
along (usually) two or (sometimes) more vertical lines. „ e ,,*j ' r *
Such an arrangement of vascular tissue is called radial, ■
and is characteristic of all roots (figs. 3 and 10). The cylinder is sur-
rounded by a mantle of one or more layers of parenchymatous cells,
the pericycle, and the xylem is generally separated from the phloem in
the stem by a similar layer, the mesocycle (corresponding with the
amylom sheath in mosses). The pericycle and mesocycle together
form the conjunctive tissue of the stele in these simplest types.
When the diameter of the stele is greater, parenchymatous conjunc-
tive tissue often occupies its centre and is frequently called the pith.
In the root the mesocycle, like the phloem, is interrupted, and
runs into the pericycle where the xylem touches the latter (fig. 3).
The whole cylinder is enclosed by the peculiarly differentiated
innermost cell-layer of the cortex, known as the endodermis. This
layer has its cells closely united and sealed to one another, so to
speak, by the conversion of the radial and transverse walls (which
separate each cell from the other cells of the layer), or of a band
running in the centre of these, into corky substance (fig. 1, v.), so that
the endodermal cells cannot be split apart to admit of the formation
of intercellular spaces, and an air-tight sheath is formed round the
cylinder. Such a vascular cylinder is called a haplostele, and the
axis containing it is said to be haplostelic. In the stele of the root
the strands of tracheids along the lines where the xylem touches
the pericycle are spiral or annular, and are the xylem elements
first formed when the cylinder is developing. Each strand of
spiral or annular first-formed tracheids is called a protoxylem
strand, as distinct from the metaxylem or rest of the xylem, which
consists of thick-walled tracheids, the pits of which are often scalari-
form. The thin-walled spiral or annular tracheae of the protoxylem
allow of longitudinal stretching brought about by the active growth
in length of the neighbouring living parenchymatous cells of a grow-
ing organ. During the process the thin walls are stretched and the
turns of the spiral become pulled apart without rupturing the wall
of the tracheid or vessel. If the pitted type of tracheal element
were similarly stretched its continuously thickened walls would
resist the stretching and eventually break. Hence such tracheae
are only laid down in organs whose growth in length has ceased.
The stele is called monarch, diarch, . . . polyarch according as it
contains one, two, ... or many protoxylems. When the proto-
xylem strands are situated at the periphery of the stele, abutting
on the pericycle, as in all roots, and many of the more primitive
Pteridophyte stems, the stele is said to be exarch. When there
is a single protoxylem strand in the centre of the stele, or when, as
is more commonly the case, there are several protoxylem strands
situated at the internal limit of the xylem, the centre of the stem
being occupied by parenchyma, the stele is endarch. This is the
case in the stems of most Phanerogams and of some Pteridophytes.
When the protoxylems have an intermediate position the stele is
mesarch (many Pteridophytes and some of the more primitive
Phanerogams). In many cases externa! protophloem, usually con-
sisting of narrow sieve-tubes often with swollen walls, can be
distinguished from metaphloem.

As the primitive stele of a Pteridophyte is traced upwards
from the primary root into the stem, the phloem becomes con-
tinuous round the xylem. At the same time the p .
stele becomes more bulky, all its elements increas- ,? h " "
ing in number (fig. 4). Soon a bundle goes off to ° * e .
the first leaf. This consists of a few xylem elements, ~f ',°
a segment of phloem, pericycle, and usually an arc of D <. v<es "
endodermis, which closes round the bundle as it detaches
itself from the stele. As the stele is traced farther upwards it
becomes bulkier, as do the successive leaf-bundles which leave it.
In many Pteridophytes the solid haplostele is maintained through-
out the axis. In others a central parenchyma or primitive pith —
a new region of the primitive stelar conjunctive! — appears in
the centre of the xylem. In most ferns internal phloem appears
instead of a parenchymatous pith (fig. 5). Sometimes this condition,

73^

PLANTS

[ANATOMY

that of the amphiphloic haplostele, is maintained throughout the
adult stem (Lindsaya). In the majority of ferns, at a higher level,
after the stele has increased greatly in diameter, a large-celled
true pith or medulla, resembling the cortex in its characters, and
quite distinct from conjunctive, from which it is separated by an
internal endodermis, appears in the centre. These successive new
tissues, appearing in the centre of the stele, as the stem of a higher
fern is traced upwards from its first formed parts, are all in con-
tinuity with the respective corresponding external tissues at the
point of origin of each leaf trace (see below). Where internal
phloem is present this is separated from the internal endodermis
by an endocycle or " internal pericycle," as it is sometimes called,
and from the xylem by an internal mesocycle — these two layers,
together with the outer mesocycle and pericycle, constituting the
conjunctive tissue of the now hollow cylindrical stele. (The
conjunctive frequently forms a connected whole with bands of

axis. The type of siphonostele characteristic of many ferns, in
which are found internal phloem, and an internal endodermis
separating the vascular conjunctive from the pith, is known
as a solenostele. The solenostele of the ferns is broken by the
departure of each leaf-bundle, the outer and inner endodermis
joining so that the stele becomes horseshoe-shaped and the cortex
continuous with the pith (fig. 6). Such a break is known as
a leaf-gap. A little above the departure of the leaf-bundle the
stele again closes up, only to be again broken by the departure
of the next leaf-bundle. Where the leaves are crowded, a given
leaf-gap is not closed before the next ones appear, and the
solenostele thus becomes split up into a number of segments,
sometimes band-shaped or semilunar, sometimes isodiametric
in cross-section (fig. 7). In the latter case each flfc( „„ ( ■
segment of the solenostele frequently resembles a '

haplostele, the segments of inner endodermis, pericycle, phloem and

Figs. 3-15. — Types of Stele in Vascular Plants. FlO. 3. — Diarch stele of root of a Fem. Fig. 4. — Haplostele of stem of young Fern. Fig. 5. — Amphiphloic haplostele of
stem of young Fern. Fig. 6. — Solenostele of stem of Fern showing detachment of leaf-trace and leaf-gap. Fig. 7. — Dictyostele of Fern. Fig. 8. — Tricyclic solenostele of
Matonia. Fig. 9. — Tricyclic dictyostele of Datuea. Fig. 10. — Diarch haplostele of Selaginella. Fig. 11. — Tristelic stem of Selaginella. Fig. 12. — Modified haplostele of
Lycopodium. Fig. 13. — Typical siphonostele of dicotyledon. Fig. 14. — Stele of monocotyledon. Fig. 15. — Polyarch root of Veralrum (a monocotyledon).

Explanation of Lettering: st. stele; msi. meristele; Lt. leaf-trace; l.g. leaf-gap; cor. cortex; p.t. peristelar tissue; pj. peristelar lacuna; end. endodermis; p.c. passage
cell; per. pericycle; ph. phloem; mes. mesocycle; x. xylem; px. protoxylem; mx. metaxylem; p. pith; set. p. sclerised pith; c. cambium; p.m.r. primary, medullary, ray.

starchy xylem-parenchyma, which, when the xylem is bulky, usually
appear among the tracheids, the phloem also often being pene-
trated by similar bands of phloem-parenchyma.)

In the other groups of Pteridophytes internal phloem is not
found and an internal endodermis but rarely. The centre of the
StohoDo- ste ' e i s . however often occupied by a large-celled pith
July. " resem bling the cortex in structure, the cortex and pith
together being classed as ground tissue. To this type of
stele having a " ground-tissue pith," whether with or without internal
phloem, is given the name siphonostele to distinguish it from the solid
haplostele characteristic of the root, the first-formed portion of the
stem, and in the more primitive Pteridophytes, of tile Wtioie of the

mesocycle joining with the corresponding outer segments to form
a nearly concentric structure. For this reason a stem in which
the vascular system has this type of structure used to be spoken of
as polystelic, the term " stele " being transferred from the primary
central cylinder of the axis and applied to the vascular strands
just described. In this use the term loses, of course, its morpho-
logical value, and it is better to call such a segment of a broken-up
stele a meristele, the whole solenostele with overlapping leaf-gaps
being called a dictyostele. The splitting up of the vascular tube
into separate strands does not depend wholly upon the occurrence
of leaf -gaps. In some forms other gaps (perforations) appear in
the vascular tube placing the pith and cortex in communication.

ANATOMY]

PLANTS

737

In other cases the leaf-gaps are very broad and long, the meristeles
separating them being reduced to comparatively slender strands,
while there is present in each gap a network of fine vascular threads,
some of which run out to the leaf, while others form cross-connexions
between these " leaf-trace " strands and also with the main cauline
meristeles. Finally the cauline meristeles themselves may be
resolved into a number of fine threads. Such a structure may be
spoken of as a dissected dictyostele.

In some solenostelic ferns, and in many dictyostelic ones additional
vascular strands are present which do not form part of the primary
vascular tube. They usually run freely in the pith and
Polycycly. —^ t j ie p r ; mar y tu b e in the neighbourhood of the
leaf-gaps. Sometimes a complete internal vascular cylinder,
having the same structure as the primary one, and concentric with
it, occurs in the pith, and others may appear, internal to the first
(Matonia, Saccoloma) . Junctions of the first internal cylinder
are made with the primary (external) cylinder at the leaf-
gaps, and of the second internal cylinder with the first in the same
neighbourhood (fig. 8). In dictyostelic ferns similar internal (dicty-
ostelic) cylinders are found in some forms, and occasionally a large
series of such concentric cylinders is developed (Marattiaceae) (fig. 9).
In such cases the vascular system is said to be polycyclic in contrast
with the ordinary monocyclic condition. These internal strands
or cylinders are to be regarded as peculiar types of elaboration of
the stele, and probably act as reservoirs for water-storage which
can be drawn upon when the water supply from the root is
deficient.

The vascular supply of the leaf (leaf-trace) consists of a single
strand only in the haplostelic and some of the more primitive
siphonostelic forms. In the " microphyllous " groups
rfo« C ^ °^ Pteridophytes (Lycopodiales and Equisetales) in
anapetioiar w j,ich the leaves are small relatively to the stem, the
ran single bundle destined for each leaf is a small strand

whose departure causes no disturbance in the cauline stele. In
the " megaphyllous " forms, on the other hand, (Ferns) whose leaves
are large relatively to the stem, the departure of the correspondingly
large trace causes a gap (leaf-gap) in the vascular cylinder, as
already described. In the haplostelic ferns the leaf-trace appears
as a single strand with a tendency to assume the shape of a horse-
shoe on cross-section, and this type is also found in the more primi-
tive solenostelic types. In the more highly developed forms,
as already indicated, the leaf-trace is split up into a number of strands
which leave the base and sides of the leaf -gap independently. In
the petiole these strands may increase in number by branching,
and though usually reducible to the outline of the primitive " horse-
shoe," more or less elaborated, they may in some of the complex
polycylic dictyostelic types (Marattiaceae) be arranged in several
concentric circles, thus imitating the arrangement of strands
formed in the stem. The evolution of the vascular structure of the
petiole in the higher ferns is strikingly parallel with that of the
stem, except in some few special cases.

There is good reason to believe that the haplostele is primitive
in the evolution of the vascular system. It is found in most of
_ a 1 f those Pteridophytes which we have other reasons for
" r e considering as primitive types, and_ essentially the same

" H ? gen}r type is found, as we have seen, in the independently
p developed primitive conducting system of the moss-

Phylogeny. stem _ This type of stem is therefore often spoken
of as protostelic. In the Ferns there is clear evidence that the
amphiphloic haplostele or protostele succeeded the simple (ecto-
phloic) protostele in evolution, and that this in its turn gave rise
to the solenostele, which was again succeeded by the dictyostele.
Polycycly was derived independently from monocycly in soleno-
stelic and in dictyostelic forms. In the formation of the stem of
any fern characterized in the adult condition by one of the more
advanced types of vascular structure all stages of increase in com-
plexity from the haplostele of the first-formed stem to the par-
ticular condition characteristic of the adult stem are gradually
passed through by a series of changes exactly parallel with those
which we are led to suppose, from the evidence obtained by a
comparison of the adult forms, must have taken place in the
evolution of the race. There is no more striking case in the plant-
kingdom of the parallel between ontogeny (development of the
individual) and phylogeny (development of the race) so well known
in many groups of animals.

The stele of most Lycopods is a"more or less modified protostele,
but in the genus Lycopodium a peculiar arrangement of the xylem
and phloem is found, in which the latter, instead of being
confined to a peripheral mantle of tissue, forms bands
running across the stele and alternating with similar
m rw" S bands of xylem (fig. 12). In Selaginella the stelar system
." °~ shows profounder modifications. In some forms we find
p ytes. a s ; m p[ e protostele, exarch-polyarch in one species

(S. spinosa), exarch-diarch in several (fig. 10). In other species, how-
ever, a peculiar type of polystely is met with, in which the original
diarch stele gives rise to so-called dorsal and ventral stelar " cords "
which at first lie on the surface of the primary stele, but eventually,
at a higher level separate from it and form distinct " secondary "
steles resembling the primary one. Similar cords may be formed
on, and may separate from, these secondary steles, thus giving rise

XXI. 24

Aberrant
Stelar

to a series of steles arranged in a single file (fig. 11). In the
creeping stem of one species (S. Lyallii) a polycyclic solenostele
is found exactly parallel with that of the rhizome of ferns. The
gaps in the outer tubular stele, however, are formed by the departure
of aerial branch-traces, instead of leaf-traces as in the ferns. The
first formed portion of the stem in all species of Selaginella which
have been investigated possesses an exarch haplostele. The stele
of Equisetum is of a very peculiar type whose relations are not
completely clear. It consists of a ring of endarch collateral bundles,
surrounding a hollow pith. The protoxylem of each is a leaf-
trace, while the metaxylem consisting of a right and a left portion
forms a quite distinct cauline system. All the metaxylems join
at the nodes into a complete ring of xylem. The whole stele may
be surrounded by a common external endodermis; sometimes
there is an internal endodermis in addition, separating the bundles
from the pith ; while in other cases each bundle possesses a separate
endodermis surrounding it. At the nodes the relation of the
endodermis to the bundles undergoes rather complex but definite
changes. It is probable that this type of stele is a modification
of a primitive protostele, in which the main mass of stelar xylem has
become much reduced and incidentally separated from the leaf-
traces.

During recent years a number of fossil (Carboniferous and Permian)
plants have been very thoroughly investigated in the light of modern
anatomical knowledge, and as a result it has become „ . . _
clear that in those times a large series of plants existed e ar . £ s ' _
intermediate in structure between the modern ferns f"J„? yc *'
and the modern Gymnosperms (especially Cycads), s "

and to these the general name " Cycadofilices " has been applied.
We now know that many at least of the Cycadofilices bore seeds,
of a type much more complex than that of most modern seed
plants, and in some cases approximating to the seeds of existing
Cycads. Among the Cycadofilices a series of stages is found
leading from the primitive fern-protostele to the type of siphono-
stele characteristic of the Cycads which agrees in essentials in all
the Spermophytes. The main events in this transition appear
to have been (1) disappearance of the central xylem of the proto-
stele and replacement by pith, leading to the survival of a number
of (mesarch) collateral bundles (see below) at the periphery of the
stele; (2) passage from mesarchy to endarchy of these bundles cor-
related with a great increase in secondary thickening of the stele.
The leaves of the more primitive members of this series were entirely
fern-like and possessed a fern-like vascular strand ; while in the later
members, including the modern Cycads, the leaf bundles, remaining
unaffected by secondary thickening, are mesarch, while those of the
stem-stele have become endarch. Besides the types forming this
series, there are a number of others (Medulloseae and allied forms)
which show numerous, often very complex, types of stelar structure,
in some cases polystelic, whose origin and relationship with the simpler
and better known types is frequently obscure. Among the existing
Cycads, though the type of vascular system conforms on the whole
with that of the other existing seed-plants, peculiar structures are
often found (e.g. indications of polystely, frequent occurrence of
extra-stelar concentric bundles, " anomalous " secondary thicken-
ing) which recall these complex types of stelar structure in the
fossil Cycadofilices.

The typical structure of the vascular cylinder of the adult
primary stem in the Gymnosperms and Dicotyledons is, like
that of the higher ferns, a hollow cylinder of vas- structure ot
cular tissue enclosing a central parenchymatous pith. ... » e i e ._
But, unlike the ferns, there is in the seed-plants no in- _ . . .
ternal phloem (except as a special development in e - P " »•
certain families) and no internal endodermis. The xylem and phloem
also, rarely form perfectly continuous layers as they do in a soleno-
stelic fern. The vascular tissue is typically separable into distinct
collateral bundles (figs. 13, 23), the xylem of which is usually wedge-
shaped in cross-section with the protoxylem elements at the inner
extremity, while the phloem forms a band on the outer side of the
xylem, and separated from it by a band of conjunctive' tissue
(mesodesm). These collateral bundles are separated from one another
by bands of conjunctive tissues called primary medullary rays,
which may be quite narrow or of considerable width. When the
pith is large celled, the xylems of the bundles are separated from it
by a distinct layer of conjunctive tissue called the endocycle, and
a similar layer, the pericycle, separates the phloem from the cortex.
The inner layer of the cortex {phloeoterma) may form a well-marked
endodermis, or differ in other ways from the rest of the cortex.
The pericycle, medullary rays, endocycle and mesoderm all form
parts of one tissue system, the external conjunctive, and are only
topographically separable. The external conjunctive is usually a
living comparatively small-celled tissue, whose cells are consider-
ably elongated in the direction of the stem-axis and frequently
contain abundant starch. Certain regions of it, particularly the
whole or part of the pericycle, but sometimes also the endocycle,
are typically converted into thick-walled hard (sclerenchymatous)
tissue usually of the prosenchymatous (fibrous) type, which is
important in strengthening the stem, particularly in enablingit
to resist bending strains. The relatively peripheral position in
the stem of the pericycle is important in this connexion. Various
secondary meristems (see p. 741) also arise in the external conjunctive.

738

PLANTS

[ANATOMY

Most of the collateral bundles of this spermophytic type of
siphonostele are leaf-trace bundles, i.e. they can be traced upwards
from any given point till they are found to pass out of the cylinder,
travel through the cortex of the stem and enter a leaf. The
remaining bundles (compensation bundles) which go to make up the
cylinder are such as have branched off from the leaf-traces, and
will, after joining with others similarly given off, themselves form
the traces of leaves situated at a higher level on the stem. Purely
cauline vascular strands (i.e. confined to the stem) such as are found
in the dictyosteles of ferns are rare in the flowering plants. The
leaf trace of any given leaf rarely consists of a single bundle only
(unifascicular) ; the number of bundles of any given trace is always
odd; they may either be situated all together before they leave
the stele or they may be distributed at intervals round the stele.
The median bundles of the trace are typically the largest, and at
any given level of the stem the bundles destined for the next leaf
above are as a whole larger than the others which are destined
to supply higher leaves. Leaf-gaps are formed in essentially the
same way as in the ferns, but when in the case of a plurifascicular
trace the bundles are distributed at intervals round the cylinder
it is obvious that several gaps must be formed as the different
bundles leave the stele. The gaps, are, however, often filled as
they are formed by the development of external conjunctive tissue
immediately above the points at which the bundles begin to bend
out of the stele, so that sharply defined open gaps such as occur in
fern-steles are bift rarely met with in flowering plants. The con-
stitution of the stele of a flowering plant entirely from endarch
collateral bundles, which are either themselves leaf-traces or will
form leaf-traces after junction with other similar bundles, is the
great characteristic of the stem-stele of flowering plants. These
collateral bundles are obviously highly individualized. The external
conjunctive tissue is often arranged in relation to each bundle sepa-
rately, the pericyclic fibres for instance, already referred to, being
often confined to the bands of pericyclic tissue abutting on the
phloem of each bundle, while the cortex and pith frequently form
rays in the intervals between the adjacent bundles.

In some cases this individualization is carried further, the cortex
and pith becoming continuous between the bundles which appear

, as isolated strands em-
Aberraat
Types ot
Stele in
Angfo*
sperms.

external

tissue
with

as

bedded in a general
ground-tissue. Each
bundle has its own
investment of
corresponding
conjunctive, and now
called peridesm. The bundles some-
times keep their arrangement
in a ring corresponding with the
stele, though the continuous cylin-
der no longer exists (species of
Ranunculus). This condition is
known as astely. In some astelic
stems (Nymphaeaceae) the number
of bundles is greatly increased and
they are scattered throughout the
ground tissue. A " polystelic " con-
dition arises in some members of this
order by the association of collateral
bundles round common centres. A
similar phenomenon is seen in two
widely separated genera of flower-
ing plants: Primula § Auricula and
Gunnera (Halorageae).

The monocotyledons, one of the
primary divisions of angiosperms,
„ typically possess large

Monocoty. leaves with broad

sheathing bases contain-
ing a very great number
of bundles. This results in the
number of bundles present at any

t. . ,~ . given level of the stem being enor-

Transverse section of^the mougly lncreased . These g und l es

are scattered in a definite though not
superficially obvious order through
the conjunctive tissue of the stele,
which occupies nearly the whole
i.v. Sieve-tubes with accompanying com- diameter of the stem, the cortex
panion-cells being reduced to a very narrow

scl.p. Sclenxed peridesm. , ° _,. . ■>.. .

p. Surrounding parenchyma. Outer layer, or disappearing altogether
cells a of the bundle are parenchy- (fig. 3). The mass of Conjunctive
matous > marks the inner side of t ; ssue ; s developed as a large-celled
the bundle. * , , . . s , , & , ,

ground-tissue, and round each

bundle there is a " peridesm " which
is often fibrous (fig. 16). It is possible to suppose that this con-
dition is derived from the astelic condition already referred to,
but the evidence on the whole leads to the conclusion that it has
arisen by an increase in the number of the bundles within the stele,
the individuality of the bundle asserting itself after its escape from
the original bundle-ring of the primitive cylinder.

ledoaous
Type.

(Sachs.)

Fig. 16.
closed vascular bundle of
cotyledon.

f . Annular vessel.
s. Spiral vessel.
i. Inter-cellular canal.

g. Pitted vessel

In the stems of many water-plants various stages of reduction
of the vascular system, especially of the xylem, are met with, and
very often this reduction leads to the formation of a
compact stele in which the individuality of the separate * ^ ..
bundles may be suppressed, so that a closed cylinder j-y%° s e
of xylem surrounds a pith. The phloem is generally
unreduced, and there is normally a well marked endodennis (fig. 17).

Stelar
Tissue ot
Leaf and
Root.

Fig. 1 7. — Transverse section of the stele of the stem of a water-plant (Naias) ;
I. intercellular channel representing xylem; ph. phloem; e. endodennis.

In other cases the reduction goes much further, till the endodermis
eventually comes to surround nothing but an intercellular channel
formed in place of the stelar tissue.

In the blade of a typical leaf of a vascular plant — essentially a
thin plate of assimilating tissue — the vascular system takes the
form of a number of separate, usually branching and
anastomosing strands. These, with their associated
stereom, form a kind of framework which is of great
importance in supporting the mesophyll; but also, and
chiefly, they provide a number of channels, pene-
trating every part of the leaf, along which water and dissolved
salts are conveyed to, and elaborated food-substances from, > the
mesophyll cells. The bundle-system is of
course continuous with that of the petiole
and stem. The leaf-bundles are always J°
collateral (the phloem being turned down-
wards and the xylem upwards), even in
Ferns, where the petiolar strands are con-
centric, and they have the ordinary meso-
desm and peridesm of the collateral
bundle. The latter is often sclerized,
especially opposite the phloem, and to a
less extent opposite the xylem, as in the
stem. As a bundle is traced towards its
blind termination in the mesophyll the
peridesmic stereom first disappears, the
sieve-tubes of the phloem are replaced by
narrow elongated parenchyma cells, which
soon die out, and the bundle ends with a
strand of tracheids covered by the phloeo-
termic sheath.

The structure of the stele of the primary
root as it is found in most Pteridophytes
and many Phanerogams has been already
described. The radial structure is char-
acteristic of all root-steles, which have in essential points
a remarkably uniform structure throughout the vascular plants,
a fact no doubt largely dependent on the very uniform con-
ditions under which they live. While the stele of the primary
root in both Gymnosperms and Angiosperms is usually diarch
or tetrarch, the large primary root-steles of many adventitious
roots are frequently polyarch, sometimes with a very large
number of protoxylems. Such a stele seldom has the centre
filled up with xylem, this being replaced by a large-celled
pith, so that a siphonostelic structure is acquired (fig. 15).
Sometimes, however, the centre of a bulky root stele has
strands of metaxylem (to which may be added strands of meta-
phioem) scattered through it, the interstices being filled with
conjunctive. The conjunctive of a root-stele possessing a pith is
often sclerized between the pith and the pericycle. Sometimes
all the parenchyma within the stele undergoes this change. In
the roots of some palms and orchids a " polystelic " structure
obtains.

In certain families of Angiosperms a peculiar tissue, called latici-
ferous tissue is met with. This takes the form of long usually

Fig. 18. — Vertical section of
a Palm-stem, showing the
vascular bundles, fv, curving
inwards and then outwards.

ANATOMY]

PLANTS

739

richly branched tubes which penetrate the other tissues of the
plant mainly in a longitudinal direction. They possess a delicate
Laticiferous ^Y^ 1 OI protoplasm, with numerous small nuclei lining
Tissue * ;ne wa -l' s > while the interior of the tube (corresponding

with the cell-vacuole) contains a fluid called latex,
consisting of an emulsion of fine granules and drops of very various
substances suspended in a watery medium in which various other
substances (salts, sugars, rubber-producers, tannins, alkaloids and
various enzymes) are dissolved. Of the suspended substances,
grains of caoutchouc, drops of resin and oil, proteid crystals and
starch grains may be mentioned. Of this varied mixture of sub-
stances some are undoubtedly plastic (i.e. of use in constructing
new plant-tissue), others are apparently end-products of meta-
bolism, in other words excr-eta, though they are not actually cast
out from the plant-body. The relation
of the laticiferous tissue to the assimi-
lating cells under which they often end,
and the fact that where this tissue is
richly developed the conducting paren-
chyma of the bundles, and sometimes also
the sieve-tubes, are poorly developed, as
well as various other facts, point to the
conclusion that the laticiferous system
has an important function in conduct-
ing plastic substances, in addition to
acting as an excretory reservoir. As a
secondary function we may recognize,
in certain cases, the power of closing
wounds, which results from the rapid
coagulation of exuded latex in contact
with the air. The use of certain plants
as rubber-producers (notably Hevea
brasiliensis, the Para rubber-tree) de-
pends on this property. The trees are
regularly tapped and the coagulated
latex which exudes is collected and
worked up into rubber. Opium is ob-
tained from the latex of the opium poppy
(Papaver somniferum) , which contains
the alkaloid morphine.

Laticiferous tissue is of two kinds:
(i) laticiferous cells (coenocytes) (fig. 19)
which branch but do not anastomose, and
the apices of which keep pace in their
growth with that of the other tissues of
the plant (Apocynaceae, most Euphorbi-
aceae, &c.) ; (2) laticiferous vessels (fig. 20)
which are formed from rows of meri-
Fic. 19— A portion of a lactici- stematic cells, the walls separating the
tcrous coenocyte dissected out of cells breaking down, so that a network
the leaf of a Euphorb.a (Xl.o). of l atici f erous tubes arises (Papaver-

aceae, Hevea, &c). In some cases (Allium,
Convolvulaceae, &c.) rows of cells with latex-like contents
occur, but the walls separating the individual cells do not break
down.

The body of a vascular plant is developed in the first place
by repeated division of the fertilized egg and the growth of
Develop- tne products of division. The body thus formed
meat of is called the embryo, and this develops into the adult
plant, not by continued growth of all its parts as
in an animal, but by localization of the regions of
cell-division and growth, such a localized region being called a
growing-point. This localization takes place first at the two
free ends of the primary axis, the descending part of which is
the primary root, and the ascending the primary shoot. Later,
the axis branches by the formation of new growing-points, and
in this way the complex system of axes forming the body
of the ordinary vascular plant is built up. In the flowering
plants the embryo, after developing up to a certain point, stops
growing and rests, enclosed within the seed. It is only on
" germination " of the latter that the development of the embryo
into the free plant is begun. In the Pteridophytes, on the other
hand, development from the egg is continuous.

The triple division of tissues is laid down in most cases at a
very early period of development — in the flowering plants usually
before the resting stage is reached. In many Pteridophytes the
first leaf is formed very early, and the first vascular strand is
developed at its base, usually becoming continuous with the cylinder
of the root ; the strand of the second leaf is formed in a similar way
and runs down to join that of the first, so that the stem stele is formed
by the joined bases of the leaf-traces. In other cases, however, a
continuous primitive stele is developed, extending from the primary
stem to the primary root, the leaf-traces arising later. This is

(After Haberlandt. From Vines'
Text-Book of Botany, by per-
mission.)

Primary
Tissue.

correlated with the comparatively late formation and small develop-
ment of the first leaves. The evidence scarcely admits of a decision
as to which of these methods is to be regarded as primitive in descent.
In the seed-forming plants (Phanerogams) one or more primary leaves
(cotyledons) are already formed in the resting embryo. In cases
where the development of the embryo is advanced at the resting
period, traces run from the cotyledons and determine the symmetry
of the stele of the primitive axis, the upper part of w-hich often shows
stem-structure, in some respects at least, and is called the hypocoty- "
ledonary stem or hypocotyl, while the lower part is the primary root'

(After Sachs.
Fig.

From Vines' Text-Book of Botany, by permission.)

). — Laticiferous Vessels from the cortex of the root Scorzonera
hispanica, tangential section.
.4, Slightly magnified. B, A small portion highly magnified.

(radicle). In other cases the root structure of the stele continues
up to the cotyledonary node, though the hypocotyl is still to be dis-
tinguished from the primary root by the character of its epidermis.
On germination of the seed the radicle first grows out, increasing
in size as a whole, and soon adding to its tissues by. cell division
at its apical growing-point. The hypocotyl usually elongates, by its
cells increasing very greatly in the longitudinal direction both in
number and size, so that the cotyledons are raised into the air as
the first foliage-leaves. Further ' growth in length of the stem is
thenceforward confined to the apical growing point situated between
the cotyledons. In other cases this growing- point becomes active
at once, there being little or no elongation of the hypocotyl and the
cotyledon or cotyledons remaining in the seed.

The structure of the growing-points or apical meristems varies
much in different cases. In most Pteridophytes there is a single
large apical cell at the end of each stem and root axis. nrowlnir-
This usually has the form of a tetrahedron, with its points.
base occupying the surface of the body of the axis
and its apex pointing towards the interior. In the stem, segments
are successively cut off from the sides of the tetrahedron, and. by
their subsequent division the body of the stem is produced. In the
root exactly the same thing occurs, but segments are cut off also
from the base of the tetrahedron, and by the division of these
the root-cap is formed (fig. 21). In both stem and root early walls
separate the cortex from the stele. The epidermis in the stem
and the surface layer of the root soon becomes differentiated from
the underlying tissue. In some Pteridophyte stems the apical cell
is wedge-shaped, in others prismatic; in the latter case segments
are cut off from the end of the prism turned towards the body of
the stem. In other cases, again, a group of two or four prismatic
cells takes the place of the apical cell. Segments are then cut iff

74°

PLANTS

[ANATOMY

from the outer sides of these initial cells. In most of the Phanero-
gams the apical (or primary) meristem, instead of consisting of
a single apical cell or a group of initials, is stratified — i.e. there is

P Pb

tAftei Strasburger. From Vines' Text-Book of Botany, by permission.)

Fig.

-Median Longitudinal Section through the Apex of the Root of
Pteris cretica.

I,
A,

Apical cell.

Initial segment of root -cap.

Outermost layer of root-cap.

p, Wall marking limit between the plerome

P and the pleriblem Pb.
c. Wall marking the inner limit of the outer

cortex.

more than one layer of initials (fig. 22). Throughout the Angio-
sperms the epidermis of the shoot originates from separate initials,
which never divide tangentially, so that the young shoot is covered
by a single layer of dividing cells, the dermatogen. Below this are

(After De Bary. From Vines' Text-Book of Botany, by permission.)

Fig. 22. — Median Longitudinal Section of the Growing Point of the Stem of Hippuris
vulgaris, showing a many-layered meristem.

I, Rudiment of leaf; d, dermatogen.

the initials of the cortex and central cylinder Whether these are
always in layers which remain separate is not known, but it is certain
that in many cases such layers cannot be distinguished. This,
however, may be due to irregularity of division and displacement
of the cells by irregular tensions destroying the obvious layered
arrangement. In some cases there is a perfectly definite line of
separation between the young cylinder (plerome) and young cortex
(periblem), the latter having one or more layers of initials at the
actual apex. This clear separation between periblem and plerome
is mostly found in plants whose stem-apex forms a naked cone,
the leaves being produced relatively late, so that the stele of the
young stem is obvious above the youngest leaf-traces (fig. 22). Where
the leaves are developed early, they often quite overshadow the
actual apex of the stem, and the rapid formation of leaf-tissue
disturbs the obviousness of, and perhaps actually destroys, the
stratified arrangement of the shoot initiaJs. In this case also,

the differentiation of leaf-bundles, which typically begins at the
base of the leaf and extends upwards into the leaf and downwards
into the stem, is the first phenomenon in the development of vascular
tissue, and is seen at a higher level than the formation of a stele.
The latter is produced (except in cases of complete astely where a
cylinder is never formed) after a number of leaf-traces have appeared
on different sides of the stem so as to form a circle as seen in trans-
verse section, the spaces intervening between adjacent bundles
becoming bridged by small-celled tissue closing the cylinder.
In this tissue fresh bundles may become differentiated, and what
remains of it becomes the rays of the fully-formed stele. Many
cases exist which are intermediate between the two extreme types
described. In these the stele becomes obvious in transverse section
at about the same level as that at which the first leaf-traces are
developed. Where a large-celled pith is developed this often
becomes obvious very early, and in some cases it appears to have
separate initials situated below those of the hollow vascular cylinder.
In some cases where there is apparently a well-marked plerome
at the apex, this is really the young pith, the distinction between the
stelar and cortical initials, if it exists, being, as is so often the case,
impossible to make out. The young tissue of the stelar cylinder,
in the case of the modified siphonostele characteristic of the dicotyle-
donous stem, differs from the adjoining pith and cortex in its narrow
elongated cells, a difference produced by the stopping of transverse
and the increased frequency of longitudinal divisions. This is
especially the case in the young vascular bundles themselves (des-
mogen strands). The protoxylem and protophloem are developed
a few cells from the inner and outer margins respectively of the
desmogen strand, the desmogenic tissue left over giving rise to the
segments of endocycle and pericycle capping the bundle. Differ-
entiation of the xylem progresses outwards, of the phloem inwards,
but the two tissues never meet in the centre. Sometimes develop-
ment stops altogether, and a layer of undifferentiated parenchyma
(the mesodesm) is left between them ; or it may continue indefinitely,
the central cells keeping pace by their tangential division with the
differentiation of tissue on each side. In this case the formation of
the primary bundle passes straight over into the formation of
secondary tissue by a cumbium, and no line can be drawn between
the two processes. The differentiation of the stelar stereom, which
usually takes the form of a sclerized pericycle, and may extend
to the endocycle and parts of the rays, takes place in most cases
later than the formation of the primary vascular strand. In the
very frequent cases where the bundles have considerable individual-
ity, the fibrous " pericyclic " cap very clearly has a common origin
from the same strand of tissue as the vascular elements themselves.
In such cases it is part of the peridesm or sheath of elongated narrow-
celled tissue surrounding the individual bundle.

The separation of layers in the apical meristem of the root is
usually very much more obvious than in that of the stem. The
outermost is the calyptrogen, which gives rise to the root-cap, and in
Dicotyledons to the piliferous layer as well. The periblem, one
cell thick at the apex, produces the cortex, to which the piliferous
layer belongs in Monocotyledons; and the plerome, which is nearly
always sharply separated from the periblem, gives rise to the vascular
cylinder. In a few cases the boundaries of the different layers
are not traceable. The protoxylems and the phloem strands are
developed alternately, just within the outer limit of the young
cylinder. The differentiation of metaxylem follows according to
the type of root-stele, and, finally, any stereom there may be is
developed. Differentiation is very much more rapid — i.e. the tissues
are completely formed much nearer to the apex, than is the case in
the stem. This is owing to the elongating region (in which proto-
xylem and protophloem alone are differentiated) being very much
shorter than in the stem. The root hairs grow out from the
cells of the piliferous layer immediately behind the elongating
region.

The branches of the stem arise by multiplication of the cells of
the epidermis and cortex at a given spot, giving rise to a protuber-
ance, at the end of which an apical meristem is established. The
vascular system is connected in various ways with that of the
parent axis by the differentiation of bundle-connexions across the
cortex of the latter. This is known as exogenous branch-formation.
In the root, on the other hand, the origin of branches is endogenous.
The cells of the pericycle, usually opposite a protoxylem strand,
divide tangentially and give rise to a new growing-point. The new
root thus laid down burrows through the cortex of the mother-root
and finally emerges into the soil. The connexions of its stele with
that of the parent axis are made across the pericycle of the latter.
Its cortex is never in connexion with the cortex of the parent, but
with its pericycle. Adventitious roots, arising from stems, usually
take origin in the pericycle, but sometimes from other parts of the
conjunctive.

In most of the existing Pteridophytes, in the Monocotyledons,
and in annual plants among the Dicotyledons, there is no
further growth of much structural importance in the
tissues after differentiation from the primary meri- rissues.
stems. But in nearly all perennial Dicotyledons,
in all dicotyledonous and gymnospermous trees and shrubs,

ANATOMY]

PLANTS

74i

and in fossil Pteridophytes belonging to all the great groups,
certain layers of cells remain meristematic among the permanent
tissues, or after passing through a resting stage reacquire meri-
stematic properties, and give rise to secondary tissues. Such
meristematic layers are called secondary meristems. There are
two chief secondary meristems, the cambium and the phellogen.
The formation of secondary tissues is characteristic of most
woody plants, to whatever class they belong. Every great
group or phylum of vascular plants, when it has become domi-
nant in the vegetation of the world, has produced members with
the tree habit arising by the formation of a thick woody trunk,
in most cases by the activity of a cambium.

The cambium in the typical case, which is by far the most
frequent, continues the primary differentiation of xylem and
phloem in the desmogen strand (see above), or arises in the resting
mesodesm or mesocycle and adds new (secondary) xylem and phloem
to the primary tissues. New tangential walls arise in the cells
which are the seat of cambial activity, and an initial layer of cells
is established which cuts off tissue mother-cells on the inside and out-
side, alternately contributing to the xylem and to the phloem. A
tissue mother-cell of the xylem may, in the most advanced types
of Dicotyledons, give rise to — (1) atracheid; (2) a segment of a vessel;
(3) a xylem-fibre; or (4) a vertical file of xyiem-parenchyma cells.
In the last case the mother-cell divides by a number of horizontal
walls. A tissue mother-cell of the phloem may give rise to (1) a
segment of a sieve-tube with its companion cell or cells; (2) a phloem
fibre; (3) a single phloem-parenchyma (cambiform) cell, or a vertical
file of short parenchyma cells. At certain points the cambium
does not give rise to xylem and phloem elements, but cuts off cells
on both sides which elongate radially and divide by horizontal
walls. When a given initial cell of the cambium has once begun to
produce cells of this sort it continues the process, so that a radial
plate of parenchyma cells is formed stretching in one plane through
the xylem and phloem. Such a cell-plate is called a medullary ray.
It is essentially a living tissue, and serves to place all the living
cells of the secondary vascular tissues in communication. It con-
ducts plastic substances inwards from the cortex, and its cells are
frequently full of starch, which they store in winter. They are
accompanied by intercellular channels serving for the conduction
of oxygen to, and carbon dioxide from, the living cells in the interior
of the wood, which would otherwise be cut off from the means of
respiration. The xylem and phloem parenchyma consist of living
cells, fundamentally similar in most respects to the medullary ray
cells, which sometimes replace them altogether. The parenchyma is
often arranged in tangential bands between the layers of sieve-
tubes and tracheal elements. The xylem parenchyma is often
found in strands associated with the tracheal elements. These
strands are not isolated, but form a connected network through the
wood. The xylem parenchyma cells are connected, as are the
medullary ray cells, with the tracheal elements by one-sided bordered
pits — i.e. pits with a border on the tracheal element side, and simple
on the parenchyma cell side. The fibres are frequently found in
tangential bands between similar bands of tracheae or sieve-tubes.
The fibrous bands are generally formed towards the end of the year's
growth in thickness. The fibres belong to the same morphological
category as the parenchyma, various transitions being found be-
tween them; thus there may be thin-walled cells of the shape of
fibres, or ordinary fibres may be divided into a number of super-
posed cells. These intermediate cells, like the ordinary parenchyma,
frequently store starch, and the fibres themselves, though usually
dead, sometimes retain their protoplasm, and in that case may also
be used for starch accumulations. The vessels and tracheids are
very various in size, shape and structure in different plants. They
are nearly always aggregated in strands, which, like those of the
parenchyma, are not isolated, but are connected with one another.
In a few cases some of the tracheids have very thick walls and
reduced cavities, functioning as mechanical rather than as water-
conducting elements. All transitions are found between such forms
and typical tracheids. These fibre-tracheids are easily confused
on superficial view with the true wood-fibres belonging to the paren-
chymatous system ; but their pits are always bordered, though in
the extreme type they are reduced to mere slits in the wall. The
sieve-tubes of the secondary phloem usually have very oblique
end-walls bearing a row of sieve-plates; plates also occur on the
radial side-walls.

The tissue-elements just described are found only in the more
complicated secondary vascular tissues of certain Dicotyledons.
A considerable evolution in complexity can be traced in passing
from the simplest forms of xylem and phloem found in the primary
vascular tissues both among Pteridophytes and Phanerogams
to these highly differentiated types. In the simplest condition we
have merely tracheae and sieve-tubes, respectively associated with
parenchyma, which in the former case is usually amylom, i.e. consists
of starch-containing cells, and in the latter of proteid cells. This
type is found in nearly all Pteridophytes and, so far as is known, in
Cycadofilices, both in primary and secondary tissue. The stereom

is furnished either by cortical cells or by the tracheal elements, in
a few cases by fibres which arc probably homologous with sieve-
tubes. Among Gymnosperms the secondary xylem is similarly
simple, consisting of tracheids which act as stereom as well as hydrom,
and a little amylom ; while the phloem-parenchyma sometimes under-
goes a differentiation, part being developed as amylom, part as
proteid cells immediately associated with the sieve-tube. In
other cases the proteid cells of the secondary phloem do not form part
of the phloem-parenchyma, but occupy the top and bottom cell-
rows of the medullary rays, the middle rows consisting of ordinary
starchy cells. The top and bottom rows of the xylem rays are often
developed as irregularly-thickened radially-elongated tracheids
which serve for the radial conduction of water, and communicate
with the ordinary tracheids of the secondary xylem by large bordered
pits. The. primary vascular tissues of Angiosperms are likewise
nearly always simple, consisting merely of tracheae and sieve-tubes
often associated with amylom. A characteristic peculiarity, both

(From Green's Vegetable Physiology, by permission.)

Fig. 23. — Section of part of hypocotyledonary stem of Ricinus communis.

a, Starch sheath; at the extremities of the figure its cells are represented as empty;
b, cambium layer.

in the primary and secondary tissue, is that the proteid cells of the
phloem are here always sister-cells of the leptoids and are known
as companion-cells. In the secondary tissues of Dicotyledons we
may have, as already described, considerably more differentiation
of the cells, all the varieties being referable, however, on the one
hand to the tracheal or sieve-tube type, on the other to the paren-
chyma type. The main feature is the development of special vas-
cular stereom and storage tissue. In some cases special secreting
tissues, resin ducts, oil glands, laticiferous tissue, crystal sacs,
&c, may be developed among the ordinary secondary vascular
elements.

The limit of each year's increment of secondary wood, in those
plants whose yearly activity is interrupted by a regular winter
or dry season, is marked by a more or less distinct Annual
line, which is produced by the sharp contrast between Dings
the wood formed in the late summer of one year
(characterized by the sparseness or small diameter of the tra-
cheal elements, or by the preponderance of fibres, or by a com-
bination of these characters, giving a denseness to the wood)
and the loose spring wood of the next year, with its absence of
fibres, or its numerous large tracheae. The abundance of water-
conducting channels is in relation to the need for a large and rapid
supply of water to the unfolding leaves in the spring and early
summer. In Gymnosperms, where vessels and fibres are absent,
the late summer wood is composed of radially narrow thick-walled
tracheids, the wood of the succeeding spring being wide-celled and
thin-walled, so that the limit of the year's growth is very well
marked. The older wood of a large tree forming a cylinder in the
centre of the trunk frequently undergoes marked changes in charac-
ter. The living elements die, and the walls of all the cells often
become hardened, owing to the deposit in them of special substances.
Wood thus altered is known as heart-wood, or duramen, as dis-
tinguished from the young sap-wood, or alburnum, which, forming
a cylinder next the cambium, remains alive and carries on the active
functions of the xylem, particularly the conduction of water. The
heart-wood ceases to be of any use to the tree except as a support,
but owing to its dryness and hardness it alone is of much use for
industrial purposes. The great hardness of teak is due to the silica
deposited in the heart-wood, and the special colouring matters of
various woods, such as satinwood, ebony, &c, are confined to the
heart-wood. In some cases the heart- wood, instead of becoming speci-
ally hard, remains soft and easily rots, so that the trunk of the tree
frequently becomes hollow, as is commonly the case in the willow.
Heart-wood is first formed at very different epochs in the life
of a tree, according to the species — e.g. after fifteen to twenty
years in the oak, forty years in the ash, &c.

'42

PLANTS

[ANATOMY

In many annual plants no cambium is formed at all, and the
same is true of most perennial Pteridophytes and Monocotyledons.
Cambi m When tne vascular tissue of such plants is arranged
in st "« ' n se P arate bundles these are said to be closed,. The
bundles of plants which form cambium are, on the
contrary, called open. In stems with open bundles the formation
of cambium and secondary tissue may be confined to these, when it
is said to be entirely fascicular. In that case either very little
secondary tissue is formed, as in the gourds, some Ranunculaceae,
&c, or a considerable amount may be produced (clematis, barberry,
ivy). In the latter event the cells of the primary rays are either
merely stretched radially, or they divide to keep pace with the growth
of the bundles. If this division occurs by means of a localized
secondary meristem connecting the cambial layers of adjacent
bundles, an interfascicular is formed in addition to the fascicular
cambium. The interfascicular cambium may form nothing but
parenchymatous tissue, producing merely continuations of the
primary rays. Such rays are usually broader and more conspicuous
than the secondary rays formed within the wedges of wood opposite
the primary bundles, and are distinguished as principal rays
from these narrower subordinate or fascicular rays (fig. 24). This
is the typical case in most trees where the primary bundles are close
together. Where the primary bundles are farther apart, so that the
primary rays are wider, the interfascicular cambium may form
several fairly broad (principal) secondary rays in continuation of
certain radial bands of the primary ray, and between these, wedges
of secondary xylem and phloem: or, finally, secondary xylem
and phloem may be formed by the whole circumference of the
cambium, fascicular and interfascicular alike, interrupted only by
narrow secondary rays, which have no relation to the primary ones.

(After Kuy, from Green's Vegetable Physiology, by permission.)

Fig. 24. — Section of three-year-old stem of Lime.
f€ t periderm; c, cortex; ph, phloem with alternating strands of fibres, sieve-tubes and
parenchyma; pr.r., principal ray; s.r., subordinate rays; ca, cambium.

In a good many cases, sometimes in isolated genera or species,
sometimes characteristic of whole families, so-called anomalous
cambial layers are formed in the stem, either as an extension of,
or in addition to, the original cambial cylinder. They are fre-
quently associated with irregularities in the activity of the original
cambium. Irregularity of cambium occurs in various families of
woody dicotyledonous plants, mostly among the woody climbers,
known as lianes, characteristic of tropical and sub-tropical forests.
In the simplest cases the cambium produces xylem more freely along
certain tracts of the circumference than along others, so that the
stem loses its original cylindrical form and becomes elliptical or
lobed in section. In others the secondary phloem is produced more
abundantly in those places where the secondary xylem is deficient,
so that the stem remains cylindrical in section, the phloem occupying
the bays left in the xylem mass. Sometimes in such cases the cam-
bium ceases to be active round these bays and joins across the out-
side of the bay, where it resumes its normal activity, thus isolating
a phloem strand, or, as it is sometimes called, a phloem island, in the
midst of the xylem. The significance of these phenomena, which pre-
sent many minor modifications in different cases, is not fully under-
stood, but one purpose of the formation of phloem promontories and
islands seems to be the protection of the sieve-tubes from crushing by
the often considerable peripheral pressure that is exercised on the

stems of these lianes. Sometimes the original cambial ring is
broken into several arcs, each of which is completed into an indepen-
dent circle, so that several independent secondary vascular cylinders
are formed. The formation of additional cambial cylinders or
bands occurs in the most various families of Dicotyledons and in
some Gymnosperms. They may arise in the pericycle or endocycle
of the stele, in the cortex of the stem, or in the parenchyma of the
secondary xylem or phloem. The activity of the new cambium
is often associated with the stoppage of the original one. Some-
times the activity of the successive cambiums simply results in the
formation of concentric rings or arcs of secondary xylem and phloem.
In other cases a most intricate arrangement of secondary tissue
masses is produced, quite impossible to interpret unless all stages
of their development have been followed. Sometimes in lianes
the whole stem breaks up into separate woody strands, often twisted
like the strands of a rope, and running into one another at intervals.
An ordinary cambium is scarcely ever found in the Monocotyledons,
but in certain woody forms a secondary meristem is formed outside
the primary bundles, and gives rise externally to a little secondary
cortex, and internally to a secondary parenchyma in which are
developed numerous zones of additional bundles, usually of concen-
tric structure, with phloem surrounded by xylem.

The cambium in the root, which is found generally in those plants
which possess a cambium in the stem, always begins in the con-
junctive tissue internal to the primary phloems, and cambium
forms new (secondary) phloem in contact with the , Roots
primary, and secondary xylem internally. In roots
which thicken but slightly, whose cambium usually appears late,
it is confined to these regions. If the development of secondary
tissues is to proceed further, arcs of cambium are formed in the
pericycle external to the primary xylems, and the two sets of cambial
arcs join, forming a continuous, wavy line on transverse section,
with bays opposite the primary phloems and promontories opposite
the primary xylems. Owing to the resistance offered by the hard
first-formed secondary xylem, the bays are pushed outwards as
growth proceeds, and the wavy line becomes a circle. Opposite
the primary xylems, the cambium either (a) forms parenchyma on
both sides, making a broad, secondary (principal) ray, which inter-
rupts the vascular ring and is divided at its inner extremity by the
islet of primary xylem ; or (6) forms secondary xylem and phloem in
the ordinary way, completing the vascular ring. In either case,
narrow, secondary rays are formed at intervals, just as in the stem.
Thus the structure of an old thickened root approximates to that of
an old thickened stem, and so far as the vascular tissue is concerned
can often only be distinguished from the latter by the position and
orientation of the primary xylems. The cambium of the primary
root, together with the tissues which it forms, is always directly
continuous with that of the primary stem, just in the same way as
the tissues of the primary stele. The so-called anomalous cambiums
in roots follow the same lines as those of the stem.

In nearly all plants which produce secondary vascular tissues
by means of a cambium there is another layer of secondary meristem
arising externally to, but in quite the same fashion as, pu e n oven
the cambium, and producing like the latter an external and ™
and an internal secondary tissue. This is the phellogen, p er id erm ,
and the whole of the tissue it gives rise to is known as
periderm. The phellogen derives its name from the fact that its
external product is the characteristic tissue known as cork. This
consists typically of close-fitting layers of cells with completely
suberized walls, intended to replace the epidermis as the external
protective layer of the plant when the latter, incapable as it is of
further growth after its original formation, is broken and cast off
by the increase in thickness of the stem through the activity of the
cambium. Cork is also formed similarly in the root after the latter
has passed through its primary stage as an absorptive organ, and
its structure is becoming assimilated to that of the stem. The inter-
nal tissue formed by the phellogen is known as phelloderm, and con-
sists usually of ordinary parenchyma. The phellogen may arise,
in the first place, in any tissue of the axis external to the actual
vascular tissues — i.e. in the epidermis itself (rarely), in any layer of
the cortex, or in the pericycle. Its most usual seat of origin in the
stem is the external layer of the cortex immediately below the
epidermis; in the root, the pericycle. All the tissues external to the
cork are cast off by the plant. The extent of development of
the phelloderm is dependent upon whether the phellogen has a
superficial or a deep-seated origin. In the former case the formation
of phelloderm is trivial in amount; in the latter, considerable, since
this tissue has to replace the cast-off cortex, as a metabolic and
particularly a storage tissue.

Provision is made for gaseous interchange between the internal
tissues and the external air after the formation of cork, by the de-
velopment of lenticels. These are special organs which ^ . .
interrupt the continuity of the impermeable layer of
ordinary cork-cells. A lenticel is formed by the phellogen at a
given spot dividing very actively and giving rise to a loose tissue of
rounded cells which soon lose their contents, and between which air
can pass to the tissues below (fig. 25). A lenticel appears to the naked
eye as a rounded or elongated scar, often forming a distinct promin-
ence on the surface of the organ. The lenticels of the stem are usually
1 formed beneath stomata, whose function they take up after the

HISTORY]

PLANTS

743

stomata have been ruptured and cast off with the rest of the epider-
mis. Both cork and phelloderm may be differentiated in various
ways. The former often has its cells lignified, and may consist of
alternate layers of hard and soft cells. The latter may develop
stereom, and may also be the seat of origin of new formations of
various kinds — e.g. supplementary vascular bundles, anomalous
cambial zones, &c. It is often enormously developed and forms a
very important tissue in roots. In the stem of a tree the original

(From Vines' Text-Book of Botany, by permission.)

Fig. 25. — Lenticel in the transverse section of a twig of Elder.

E, epidermis; q, phellogen; /, cells, and pi, the phellogen of the lenticel; Ic, cortical
parenchyma, containing chlorophyll.

phellogen is replaced by successive new phellogenic layers of deeper
and deeper origin, each forming its own layer of cork. Eventually
the new phellogens reach the level of the secondary phloem, and are
formed in the parenchyma of the latter, keeping pace in their inward
march with the formation of fresh secondary phloem by the cam-
bium. The complex system of dead and dying tissues cut off by
these successive periderms, together with the latter themselves —
in fact, everything outside the innermost phellogen, constitutes
what is often known botanically as the bark of the tree. Rhytidome
is, however, a preferable term, as the word bark has long been estab-
lished in popular usage to mean all the tissue that can easily be
peeled off — i.e. everything down to the wood of the tree. The rough
surface of the bark of many trees is due to the successive phellogens
not arising in regular concentric zones, but forming in arcs which
join with the earlier-formed arcs, and thus causing the bark
to come off in flakes or thick chunks. A layer of cork is regularly
formed in most Phanerogams across the base of the petiole before
leaf fall, so as to cover the wound caused by the separation of the
leaf from the stem. Special " wound-cork " is also often formed
round accidental injuries so as to prevent the rotting of the tissues
by the soaking in of rain and the entrance of fungal spores and
bacteria. A peculiar modification of periderm is formed by the
phellogen in the submerged organs (roots or stems) of many aquatic
or marsh-loving plants. This may take various forms and may
cover the whole of the organ or be localized in special regions; but
its cells are always living and are separated by very large intercellular
spaces containing air. This tissue is called aerenchym, and no doubt
its function is to facilitate the respiration of the organs on which it
is formed and to which the access of oxygen is difficult. In other
cases, a similar formation of spongy but dead periderm tissue may
occur for the same purpose in special patches, called pneumatodes,
on the roots of certain trees living in marshy places, which rise
above the soil in order to obtain air.

History and Bibliography. — The study of plant anatomy was
begun in the middle of the seventeenth century as a direct
result of the construction of microscopes, with which a clear
view of the structure of plant tissues could be obtained. The
Englishman Grew and the Italian Malpighi almost simul-
taneously published illustrated works on the subject, in which
they described, for the most part very accurately, what they saw
with the new instruments. The subject was practically dormant
for nearly a century and a half, largely owing to the dominance
of classificatory botany under the influence of Linnaeus. It
was revived by several German workers, prominent among
whom were Treviranus and Link, and later Moldenhawer, as
well as by the Frenchmen Mirbel, at the beginning of the 19th
century. The new work largely centred round a discussion
of the nature and origin of vessels, conspicuous features in
young plant tissues which thus acquired an importance in the
contemporary literature out of proportion to their real signifi-
cance in the construction of the vascular plant. The whole
of the writings of this time are dominated by a preoccupation
with the functions of the different tissues, in itself an excellent
standpoint for investigation, but frequently leading in the case
of these early investigators to one-sided and distorted views
of the facts of structure. The pioneer of modern plant anatomy
was Hugo von Mohl (fl. 1840), who carefully investigated and

described the facts of anatomical structure without attempting
to fit them into preconceived views of their meaning. He
produced a solid body of accurately described facts which has
formed the secure groundwork of subsequent advance. From
Mohl down to the eighth decade of the century the study of
anatomy was entirely in the hands of a group of German investi-
gators, prominent among whom were several of the most eminent
founders of modern scientific botany — such, for instance, as
Nageli, Sanio and De Bary. To the first we owe the secure
foundation of our knowledge of the structure and course of the
vascular strands of the higher plants (" Ueber den Bau und die
Anordnung der Gefassbiindel bei den Stamm und Wurzel der
Phanerogamen," Beitrage zur wissenschaftlichen Botanik, Heft
i., Leipzig, 1859); to the second the establishment of the sound
morphological doctrine of the central cylinder of the axis as
the starting-point for the consideration of the general arrange-
ment of the tissues, and the first clear distinction between
primary and secondary tissues {Botanische Zeitung, 1861 and
1863); to the last the putting together of the facts of plant
anatomy known up to the middle of the eighth decade of the
century in that great encyclopaedia of plant anatomy, the
Vergleichende Anatomie der Vegetationsorgane bei den Phanero-
gamen und Farnen (Stuttgart, 1876; Eng. trans., Comparative
Anatomy of the Vegetative Organs of the Phanerogams and Ferns,
Oxford, 1882). In 1870-1871 Van Tieghem published his
great work, " Sur la Racine," Ann. sci. nat. bot. (Paris).
This was not only in itself an important contribution to plant
anatomy, but served as the starting-point of a series of researches
by Van Tieghem and his pupils, which has considerably
advanced our knowledge of the details of histology, and also
culminated in the foundation of the doctrine of the stele (Van
Tieghem and Douliot, "Sur la polystelie," Ann. sci. nat. bot.,
1887; Van Tieghem, Traits de botanique (2nd ed. Paris,
1889-1891). This has had a most important effect on the
development in recent years of morphological anatomy.

In the progress of the last three decades, since the publication
of De Bary's great work, five or six main lines of advance can be
distinguished. First, the knowledge of the details modern
of histology has of course advanced greatly in the Progress oi
direction through the ceaseless activity of very the Subject.
numerous, mainly German, workers, though no fundamen-
tally new types of tissue have been discovered. Secondly,
the histology of fossil plants, particularly woody plants
of the carboniferous period, has been placed on a sound basis,
assimilated with general histological doctrine, and has consider-
ably enlarged our conceptions of plant anatomy as a whole,
though again without revealing any entirely new types of
structure. This branch of the subject, founded by Corda,
Goppert, Stenzel and others in Germany, was enormously
advanced by Williamson's work on the Coal Measures plants,
recorded in the magnificent series of memoirs, "Researches
on the Organization of Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures " (Phil.
Trans. Roy. Soc, vols, i.-xix., 1871-1893). The work of Solrns
Laubach in Germany, Renault and Bertrand in France, and
in recent years, of Zeiller in France, and Scott, Seward
and others in England, has advanced our knowledge of the
anatomy of ,fossil plants in an important degree. While con-
vincing us that the plants of past ages in the earth's history
were exposed to very similar conditions of life, and made very
much the same adaptive responses as their modern representa-
tives, one of the main results of this line of work has been to
reveal important data enabling us to fill various gaps in our
morphological knowledge and to obtain a more complete picture
of the evolution of tissues in the vascular plants. One of the
most striking incidents in the progress has been the recognition
within the last few years of the existence of an extinct group of
plants lying on the borderland between Filicales and Gymno-
sperms, and known as the Cycadofilices, a group in which,
curiously enough, the reproductive organs remained undis-
covered for some time after the anatomy of the vegetative organs
was sufficiently well known to afford clear evidence of their
true affinities. Thirdly, we have to record very considerable

744

PLANTS

[PHYSIOLOGY

progress in our knowledge of distinctively morphological
anatomy, i.e. the study of tissues from the standpoint of
evolution. The Russian plant-anatomist, Russow, may be said
to have founded the consideration of plant tissues from the
point of view of descent (Vergleichende Untersuchungen iiber die
Leitbicndelkryptogamen, St Petersburg, 1872; and Betrachtungen
iiber Leitbiindel und Grundgewebe, Dorpat, 1875). He was ably
followed by Strasburger ( Ueber den Ban und die Verrichtungen
der Leitungsbahnen in den Pflanzen, Jena, 1891), Haberlandt
and others. The explicit adoption of this point of view has
had the effect of clearing up and rendering definite the older
morphological doctrines, which for the most part had no fixed
criterion by which they could be tested.

Since about 1895 this branch has been most actively pursued in
England, where the work of Boodle and of Gwynne-Vaughan
especially on Ferns) has been the most important, leading to
a coherent theory of the evolution of the vascular system in
these plants (Tansley, Evolution of the Filicinean Vascular
System, Cambridge, 1908) ; and in America, where Jeffrey has
published important papers on the morphology of the vascular
tissues of the various groups of Pteridophytes and Phanerogams
and has sought to express his conclusions in a general morpho-
logical theory with appropriate terminology. As a result of this
activity Van Tieghem's so-called " Stelar theory " has been
revised and modified in the light of more extended and detailed
anatomical and developmental knowledge. Schoute's Die
Steldr-Theorie (Groningen, 1902), gives an important critical
account of this subject.

Fourthly, attention must be called to the great development
of what is called " Systematic Anatomy," i.e. the study of the
anatomical features characteristic of the smaller groups of
flowering plants, i.e. the orders, families, genera and species.
Radlkofer (1883) was the first to call attention to the
great importance of this method in systematic botany, as
providing fresh characters on which to base a natural classifi-
cation. Solereder's great work, Systematische Anatomie der
Dicotyledonen (Stuttgart, 1898-1908; Eng. trans., Systematic
Anatomy of Dicotyledons, Oxford, 1908), brings together so many
of the facts as are at present known in an orderly arrangement.
Theoretically this branch of the subject should connect with
and form the completion of " morphological anatomy," but
the field, has not yet been sufficiently explored to allow of the
necessary synthesis. The true relation of " systematic " to
" ecological " anatomy (see below) also awaits proper elucidation.
Fifthly, we have to record the foundation of the modern
study of " physiological anatomy " {i.e. the study of the specific
functions of the various tissues) by Schwendener (Das mechan-
ische Princip im Bau der Monocolylen, 1874, and other works),
followed by numerous pupils and others, among whom Haber-
landt (Physiologische Pflanzen- Anatomie, Leipzig, 1st ed., 1884,
4th ed., 1909, and other works) is pre-eminent. The pursuit
of this study has not only thrown valuable light on the economy
of the plant as a whole, but forms an indispensable condition of
the advance of morphological anatomy. A great deal of work
still remains to be done in this department, which at the present
time affords one of the most promising fields of anatomical
investigation.

Finally we may mention " ecological anatomy," i.e. the study
of anatomical features directly related to the habitat. A very
considerable body of knowledge relating to this subject already
exists, but further work on experimental lines is urgently
required to enable us to understand the actual economy of plants
growing under different conditions of life and the true relation
of the hereditary anatomical characters which form the subject
matter of " systematic anatomy " to those which vary accord-
ing to the conditions in which the individual plant is placed.
On these lines the future of anatomical study presents almost
inexhaustible possibilities. (A. G. T.)

Physiology of Plants

The so-called vegetable physiology of a generation ago was in
»rrear of animal, and particularly of human, physiology, the

study of the latter being followed by many more observers,
and from its relative degree of advancement being the more
capable of rapid development. It was fully recognized by
its followers that the dominating influence in the structure
and working of the body was the protoplasm, and the division
of labour which it exhibited, with the accompanying or result-
ing differentiation into various tissues, was the special subject of
investigation. Many who followed the study of vegetable
structure did not at that time give an equal prominence to this
view. The early histological researches of botanists led them
to the recognition of the vegetable cell, and the leading writers
in the middle of the 19th century pointed out the probable
identity of Von Mohl's " protoplasm " with the " sarcode " of
zoologists. They laid great stress on the nitrogenous nature
of protoplasm, and noted that it preceded the formation of the
cell-membrane. But by the ordinary student of thirty years
later their work was to some extent overlooked, and the cell-wall
assumed a prominence to which it was not entitled. The study
of the differentiation of protoplasm was at that time seldom
undertaken, and no particular attention was paid either to
fixing it, to enable staining methods to be accurately applied to
it, or to studying the action of chemical reagents upon it. It is
only comparatively recently that the methods of histological
investigation used by animal physiologists have been carefully
and systematically applied to the study of the vegetable organ-
isms. They have, however, been attended with wonderful
results, and have revolutionized the whole study of vegetable
structure. They have emphasized the statements of Von
Mohl, Cohn, and other writers alluded to, that the protoplasm
is here also the dominant factor of the body, and that all the
peculiarities of the cell-wall can only be interpreted in the light
of the needs of the living substance.

The Nature of the Organization of the Plant, and the Relations
of the Cell-Membrane and the Protoplasm. — This view of the
structure of the plant and this method of investigation lead us
to a greatly modified conception of its organization, and afford
more completely an explanation of the peculiarities of form
found in the vegetable kingdom.

The study of simple organisms, many of which consist of
nothing but a little mass of protoplasm, exhibiting a very
rudimentary degree of differentiation, so far as our methods
enable us to determine any at all, shows that the duties of
existence can be discharged in the absence of any cell-wall.
Those organisms which possess the latter are a little higher in
the scale of life than those which remain unclothed by it, but a
comparison of the behaviour of the two quickly enables us to
say that the membrane is of but secondary importance, and
that for those which possess it, it is nothing more than a protec-
tive covering for the living substance. Its physical properties,
permeability by water, extensibility and elasticity, receive
their interpretation in the needs of the latter. We come,
accordingly, to regard it as practically an exoskeleton, and its
functions as distinctly subordinate to those of the protoplasm
which it clothes. If we pass a little higher up the scale ot life
we meet with forms consisting of two or more cells, each of
which contains a similar minute mass of living substance. A
study of them shows that each is practically independent of the
others; in fact, the connexion between them is so slight that
they can separate and each become free without the slightest dis-
advantage to another. So long as they are connected together
mechanically they have apparently the power of influencing
one another in various ways, and of passing liquid or gaseous
materials from one to another. The conjoined organism is,
in fact, a colony or association of the protoplasmic units, though
each unit retains its independence. When we pass, again,
from these to examine more bulky, and consequently more
complex, plants, we find that the differences which can be ob-
served between them and the simple lowly forms are capable
of being referred to the increased number of the protoplasmic
units and the consequent enlarged bulk of the mass or colony.
Every plant is thus found to be composed of a number of these
protoplasmic units, or, as they may preferably be termed,

PHYSIOLOGY]

PLANTS

745

protoplasts, all of which are at first exactly alike in appearance
and in properties. This is evident in the case' of such plants as
have a body consisting of filaments or plates of cells, and is
little less conspicuous in those whose mass is but small, though
the cells are evidently capable of computation in three dimen-
sions. It does not at first appear to be the same with the
bulkier plants, such as the ordinary green herbs, shrubs or trees,
but a study of their earlier development indicates that they do
not at the outset differ in any way from the simple undifferen-
tiated forms. Each commences its existence as a simple naked
protoplast, in the embroyo-sac or the archegonium, as the case
may be. After the curious fusion with another similar proto-
plast, which constitutes what we call fertilization, the next
stage in complexity already noted may be observed, the proto-
plasm becoming clothed by a cell-membrane. Very soon the
single cell gives rise to a chain of cells, and this in turn to a cell
mass, the individual units of which are at first quite uniform.
With increase of number, however, and consequently enlarge-
ment of bulk in the colony, differentiation becomes compulsory.
The requirements of the several protoplasts must be met by
supplies from without, and, as many of them are deep seated,
varieties of need arise, so that various members of the colony
are set apart for special duties, masses of them being devoted
to the discharge of one function, others to that of another, and
so on. Such limitations of the powers and properties of the
individuals have for their object the well-being of the community
of which those individuals are constituents.

Physiological and Morphological Differentiation. — The first
indication of this differentiation in the vegetative body of the
plant can be seen not only in the terrestrial green plants which
have been particularly referred to, but also in the bulkier sea-
weeds. It is an extension of the first differentiation which was
observable in the simple protoplasts first discussed, the formation,
that is, of a protective covering. Fucus and its allies, which
form conspicuous members of the larger Algae, have their
external cells much smaller, more closely put together, and
generally much denser than the rest of their tissue. In the lowly
as well as the higher green plants we have evidence of special-
ization of the external protoplasts for the same purpose, which
takes various shapes and shows different degrees of complete-
ness, culminating in the elaborate barks which clothe our forest
trees.

The second prominent differentiation which presents itself
takes the form of a provision to supply the living substance
with water. This is a primal necessity of the protoplast, and
every cell gives evidence of its need by adopting one of the
various ways in which such need is supplied. What little
differentiation can be found to exist in the protoplasm of the
simple unicellular organism shows the importance of an adequate
water-supply, and indeed, the dependence of life upon it. The
naked cells which have been alluded to live in water, and call
therefore for no differentiation in connexion with this necessity;
but those which are surrounded by a cell-wall always develop
within themselves a vacuole or cavity which occupies the greater
part of their interior, and the hydrostatic pressure of whose
contents keeps the protoplasm in contact with the membrane,
setting up a condition of turgidity.

The need for a constant supply of water is partly based upon
the constitution of protoplasm, so far as we know it. The
apparently structureless substance is saturated with it; and if
once a cell is completely dried, even at a low temperature, in the
enormous majority of cases its life is 1 gone and the restoration
of water fails to enable it to recover. Besides this intimate
relationship, however, we can point to other features of the
necessity for a constantly renewed water supply. The proto-
plasm derives its food from substances in solution in the water;
the various waste products which are incident to its life are
excreted into it, and so removed from the sphere of its activity.
The raw materials from which the food is constructed are ab-
sorbed from the exterior in solution in water, and the latter is
the medium through which the gaseous constituents necessary
for life reach the protoplasm. Moreover, growth is essentially

dependent upon water-supply. There is little wonder, then,
that in a colony of protoplasts such as constitute a large plant
a considerable degree of differentiation is evident, bearing upon
the question of water supply. Certain cells of the exterior are
set apart for absorption of water from the soil, this being the
source from which supplies are derived. Others are devoted
to the work of carrying it to the protoplasts situated in the
interior and at the extremities of the plant, a conducting system
of considerable complexity being the result.

Other collections of cells are in many cases set apart for giving
rigidity and strength to the mass of the plant. It is evident
that as the latter increases in bulk, more and more attention
must be paid to the dangers of uprooting by winds and storms.
Various mechanisms have been adopted in different cases, some
connected with the subterranean and others with the sub-aerial
portions of the plant. Another kind of differentiation in such a
cell-mass as we are dealing with is the setting apart of particular
groups of cells for various metabolic purposes. We have
the formation of numerous mechanisms which have arisen in
connexion with the question of food supply, which may not
only involve particular cells, but also lead to differentiation
in the protoplasm of those cells, as in the development of the
chloroplastids of the leaves and other green parts.

The inter-relations of the members of a large colony of proto-
plasts such as constitute a tree, demand much adjustment.
Relations with the exterior are continually changing, and the
needs of different regions of the interior are continually varying,
from time to time. Two features which are essentially proto-
plasmic assume a great importance when we consider these
relations. They are the power of receiving impressions or
stimuli from the exterior, and of communicating with each
other, v/ith the view of co-ordinating a suitable response. We
have nothing structural which corresponds to the former of
these. In this matter, differentiation has proceeded very
differently in animals and plants respectively, no nerves or sense
organs being structurally recognizable. Communication between
the various protoplasts of the colony is, however, carried on
by means of fine protoplasmic threads, which are continuous
through the cell-walls.

All the peculiarities of structure which we encounter conse-
quently support the view with which we started, that the proto-
plasm of the plant is the dominant factor in vegetable structure,
and that there need be but one subject of physiology, which
must embrace the behaviour of protoplasm wherever found.
There can be no doubt that there is no fundamental difference
between the living substance of animals and plants, for many
forms exist which cannot be referred with certainty to either
kingdom. Free-swimming organisms without cell-membranes
exist in both, and from them series of forms can be traced in
both directions. Cellulose, the material of which vegetable
cell-walls are almost universally composed, at any rate in their
early condition, is known to occur, though only seldom, among
animal organisms. Such forms as Volvox and the group of the
Myxomycetes have been continually referred to both kingdoms,
and their true systematic position is still a subject of controversy.
All physiology, consequently, must be based upon the identity
of the protoplasm of all living beings.

This method of study has to a large extent modified our ideas
of the relative importance of the parts of such an organism as
a large tree. The interest with which we regard the latter no
longer turns upon the details of the structure of its trunk, limbs
and roots, to which the living substance of the more superficial
parts was subordinated. Instead of regarding these as only
ministering to the construction of the bulky portions, the living
protoplasts take the first place as the essential portion of the
tree, and all the other features are important mainly as minister-
ing to their individual well-being and to their multiplication.
The latter feature is the growth of the tree, the well-being of the
protoplasts is its life and health. The interest passes from the
bulky dense interior, with the elaborate features of its cell -walls,
to the superficial parts, where its life is in evidence. We see
herein the reason for the great subdivision of the body, with its

746

PLANTS

[PHYSIOLOGY

finely cut twigs and their ultimate expansions, the leaves, and
we recognize that this subdivision is only an expression of the
need to place the living substance in direct relationship with the
environment. The formation and gradually increasing thickness
of its bark are explained by the continually increasing need of
adequate protection to the living cortex, under the strain of the
increasing framework which the enormous multiplication of
its living protoplasts demands, and the development of which
leads to continual rupture of the exterior. The increasing
development of the wood as the tree grows older is largely due
to the demands for the conduction of water and mineral matters
dissolved in it, which are made by the increased number of leaves
which from year to year it bears, and which must each be put
into communication with the central mass by the formation
of new vascular bundles. Similar considerations apply to the
peculiar features of the root-system. All these points of struc-
ture can only be correctly interpreted after a consideration
of the needs of the individual protoplasts, and of the large
colony of which they are members.

Gaseous Interchanges and their Mechanism. — Another feature
of the construction of the plant has in recent years come into
greater prominence than was formerly the case. The organism
is largely dependent for its vital processes upon gaseous inter-
changes. It must receive a large constituent of what ultimately
becomes its food from the air which surrounds it, and it must also
take in from the same source the oxygen of its respiratory
processes. On the other hand, the aerial environment presents
considerable danger to the young and tender parts, where the
protoplasts are most exposed to extremes of heat, cold, wet, &c.
These must in some way be harmonized. No doubt the primary
object of the cell-wall of even the humblest protoplast is pro-
tection, and this too is the meaning cf the coarser tegumentary
structures of a bulkier plant. These vary considerably in
completeness with its age; in its younger parts the outer cells
wall undergoes the change known as cuticularization, the material
being changed both in chemical composition and in physical
properties. The corky layers which take so prominent a share
in the formation of the bark are similarly modified and subserve
the same purpose. But these protective layers are in the main
impermeable by gases and by either liquid or vapour, and prevent
the access of either to the protoplasts which need them. Investi-
gations carried out by Blackman, and by Brown and Escombe,
have shown clearly that the view put forward by Boussingault,
that such absorption of gases takes place through the cuticular
covering of the younger parts of the plant, is erroneous and can
no longer be supported. The difficulty is solved by the provision
of a complete system of minute intercellular spaces which form
a continuous series of delicate canals between the cells, extending
throughout the whole substance of the plant. Every protoplast,
except in the very young regions, has part of its surface abutting
on these, so that its wall is accessible to the gases necessary
for its vital processes. There is no need for cuticularization
here, as the external dangerous influences do not reach the
interior, and the processes of absorption which Boussingault
attributed to the external cuticularized cells can take place
freely through the delicate cell-walls of the interior, saturated
as these are with water. This system of channels is in com-
munication with the outer atmosphere through numerous
small apertures, known as stomata, which are abundant upon
the leaves and young twigs, and gaseous interchange between
the plant and the air is by their assistance rendered constant
and safe. This system of intercellular spaces, extending
throughout the plant, constitutes a reservoir, charged with an
atmosphere which differs somewhat in its composition from the
external air, its gaseous constituents varying from time to time
and from place to place, in consequence of the interchanges
between itself and the protoplasts. It constitutes practically
the exterior environment of the protoplasts, though it is ramify-
ing through the interior of the plant.

The importance of this provision in the case of aquatic vascular
plants of sturdy bulk is even greater than in that of terrestrial
organisms, as their environment offers considerable obstacles

to the renewal of the air in their interior. They are without
stomata on their submerged portions, and the entry of gases
can only take place by diffusion from the water through their
external cells, which are not cuticularized. Those which are
only partially submerged bear stomata on their exposed portions,
so that their environment approximates towards that of a
terrestrial plant, but the communication even in their case is much
less easy and complete, so that they need a much larger reservoir
of air in their interior. This is secured by the development
of much larger intercellular spaces, amounting to lacunae or
passages of very considerable size, which are found ramifying
in different ways in their interior.

Transpiration. — In the case of terrestrial plants, the continual
renewal of the water contained in the vacuoles of the protoplasts
demands a copious and continuous evaporation. This serves
a double purpose, bringing up from the soil continually a supply
of the soluble mineral matters necessary for their metabolic
processes, which only enter the plant in solutions of extreme
dilution, and at the same time keeping the plant cool by the
process of evaporation. The latter function has been found to
be of extreme importance in the case of plants exposed to the
direct access of the sun's rays, the heat of which would rapidly
cause the death of the protoplasts were it not employed in the
evaporation of the water. Brown and Escombe have shown that
the amount of solar energy taken up by a green leaf may often
be fifty times as much as it can utilize in the constructive pro-
cesses of which it is the seat. If the heat were allowed to accu-
mulate in the leaf unchecked, they have computed that its
temperature would rise during bright sunshine at the rate of
more than 12 C. per minute, with of course very rapidly fatal
results. What is not used in the constructive processes is
employed in the evaporation of the water, the leaf being thus
kept cool. Whether the leaf is brightly or only moderately
illuminated, the same relative proportions of the total energy
absorbed are devoted to the purposes of composition and con-
struction respectively. This large evaporation, which constitutes
the so-called transpiration of plants, takes place not into the
external air but into this same intercellular space system, being
possible only through the delicate cell- walls upon which it abuts,
as the external coating, whether bark, cork or cuticle, is
impermeable by watery vapour. The latter ultimately reaches
the external air by diffusion through the stomata, whose dimen-
sions vary in proportion as the amount of water in the epidermal
cells becomes greater or less.

Mechanism and Function of Stomata. — It is not quite exact
to speak of either the gaseous interchanges or the transpiration
as taking place through the stomata. The entry of gases into,
and exit from, the cells, as well as the actual exhalation of watery
vapour from the latter, take place in the intercellular space
system of which the stomata are the outlets. The opening and
closing of the stomata is the result of variation in the turgidity of
their guard cells, which is immediately affected by the condition
of turgidity of the cells of the epidermis contiguous to them.
The amount of watery vapour in the air passing through a
stoma has no effect upon it, as the surfaces of the guard cells
abutting on the air chamber are strongly cuticularized, and there-
fore impermeable. The only way in which their turgidity is
modified is by the entry of water into them from the contiguous
cells of the general epidermis and its subsequent withdrawal
through the same channel. This opening and closing of the
stomata must be looked upon as having a direct bearing only
on the emission of watery .vapour. There is a distinct advantage
in the regulation of this escape, and the mechanism is directly
connected with the greater or smaller quantity of water in the
plant, and especially in its epidermal cells. This power of
varying the area of the apertures by which gases enter the
internal reservoirs is not advantageous to the gaseous inter-
changes — indeed it may be directly the reverse. It may lead
to an incipient asphyxiation, as the supply of oxygen may be
greatly interfered with and the escape of carbon dioxide may be
almost stopped. It may at other times lead to great difficulties
in the supply of the gaseous constituents which are used in the

PHYSIOLOGY]

PLANTS

747

manufacture of food. The importance of transpiration, is,
however, so great, that these risks must be run.

The Ascent of Water in Trees. — The supply of water to the
peripheral protoplasts of a tree is consequently of the first
importance. The means by which such a supply is ensured are
by no means clearly understood, but many agencies are probably
at work. The natural source of the water is in all cases the soil,
and few plants normally obtain any from elsewhere. The water
of the soil, which in well-drained soil is met with in the form of
delicate films surrounding the particles of solid matter, is
absorbed into the plant by the delicate hairs borne by the young
roots, the entry being effected by a process of modified osmosis.
Multitudes of such hairs on the branches of the roots cause the
entry of great quantities of water, which by a subsequent similar
osmotic action accumulates in the cortex of the roots. The great
turgidity which is thus caused exerts a considerable hydrostatic
pressure on the stele of the root, the vessels of the wood of which
are sometimes filled with water, but at other times contain air,
and this often under a pressure less than the ordinary atmospheric
pressure. This pressure of the turgid cortex on the central
stele is known as root pressure, and is of very considerable amount.
This pressure leads to the filling of the vessels of the wood of
both root and stem in the early part of the year, before the leaves
have expanded, and gives rise to the exudation of fluid known as
bleeding when young stems are cut in early spring.

Root pressure is one of the forces co-operating in the forcing
of the water upwards. The evaporation which is associated with
transpiration is no doubt another, but by themselves they are
insufficient to explain the process of lifting water to the tops of
tall trees. There is at present also a want of agreement among
botanists as to the path which the water takes in the structural
elements of the tree, two views being held. The older is that the
water travels in the woody cell-walls of the vascular bundles,
mainly under the action of the forces of root pressure and trans-
piration , and that the cavities of the vessels contain only air. The
other is that the vessels are not empty, but that the water travels
in their cavities, which contain columns of water in the course of
which are large bubbles of air. On this view the water flows
upwards under the influence of variations of pressure and tension
in the vessels. These forces however fail to furnish a complete
explanation of the ascent of the current, and others have been
thought to supplement them, which have more or less weight.
Westermaier and Godlewski put forward the view that the living
cells of the medullary rays of the wood, by a species of osmosis,
act as a kind of pumping apparatus, by the aid of which the
water is lifted to the top of the tree, a series of pumping-stations
being formed. Though this at first met with some acceptance,
Strasburger showed that the action goes on in great lengths of
stem the cells of which have been killed by poison or by the
action of heat. More recently, Dixon and Joly in Dublin and
Askenasy in Germany have suggested the action of another
force. They have shown that columns of water of very small
diameter can so resist tensile strain that they can be lifted bodily
instead of flowing along the channel. They suggest that the
forces causing the movement are complex, and draw particular
attention to the pull upwards in consequence of disturbances in
the leaves. In these we have (i) the evaporation from the damp
delicate cell-walls into the intercellular spaces; (2) the imbibition
by the cell-wall of water from the vacuole; (3) osmotic action,
consequent upon the subsequent increased concentration of the
cell sap, drawing water from the wood cells or vessels which abut
upon the leaf parenchyma. They do not, of course, deny the
co-operation of the other forces which have been suggested,
except so far as these are inconsistent with the motion of the
water in the form of separate columns rather than a flowing
stream. This view requires the existence of certain anatomical
arrangements to secure the isolation of the separate columns, and
cannot be said to be fully established.

Nature of the Food of Plants. — The recognition of the fundamental
identity of the living substance in animals and plants has directed
attention to the manner in which plants are nourished, and especially
to the exact nature of their food. The idea was till recently currently
accepted, that anything which plants absorbed from without, and

which went to build up their organic substance, or to 9upply them
with energy, or to exert some beneficial influence upon their meta-
bolism, constituted their food. Now, as the materials which plants
absorb are carbon dioxide from the air, and various inorganic
compounds from the soil, together with water, it is clear that if this
view is correct, vegetable protoplasm must be fed in a very different
way from animal, and on very different materials. A study of the
whole vegetable kingdom, however, negatives the theory that the
compounds absorbed are in the strict sense to be called food. Fungal
and phanerogamic parasites can make no use of such substances as
carbon dioxide, but draw elaborated products from the bodies of
their hosts. Those Fungi which are saprophytic can only live
when supplied with organic compounds of some complexity, which
they derive from decomposing animal or vegetable matter. Even
in the higher flowering plants, in which the processes of the absorp-
tion of substances from the environment has been most fully studied,
there is a stage in their life in which the nutritive processes approxi-
mate very closely to those of the group last mentioned. When the
young sporophyte first begins its independent life — when, that is,
it exists in the form of the embryo in the seed — its living substance
has no power of utilizing the simple inorganic compounds spoken of.
Its nutritive pabulum is supplied to it in the shape of certain complex
organic substances which have been stored in some part or other of
the seed, sometimes even in its own tissues, by the parent plant
from which it springs. When the tuber of a potato begins to ger-
minate the shoots which it puts out derive their food from the
accumulated store of nutritive material which has been laid up in
the cells of the tuber. If we examine the seat of active growth in
a young root or twig, we find that the cells in which the organic
substance, the protoplasm, of the plant is being formed and increased,
are not supplied with carbon dioxide and mineral matter, but with
such elaborated material as sugar and proteid substances, or others
closely allied to them.

Identity of the Food of Animals and Plants. — It is evidently to the
actual seats of consumption of food, and of consequent nutrition
and increase of living substance, that we should turn when we wish
to inquire what are the nutritive materials of plants. If we go back
to the first instance cited, the embryo in the seed and its development
during germination, we can ascertain what is necessary for its life
by inquiring what are the materials which are deposited in the seed,
and which become exhausted by consumption as growth and develop-
ment proceed. We find them to consist of representatives of the
great classes of foodstuffs on which animal protoplasm is nourished,
and whose presence renders seeds such valuable material for animal
consumption. They are mainly carbohydrates such as starch and
sugar, proteids in the form of globulins or albumoses, and in many
cases fats and oils, while certain other bodies of similar nutritive
value are less widely distributed.

The differences between the nutritive processes of the animal
and the plant are not therefore fundamental, as they were formerly
held to be. The general vegetable protoplasm has not the capacity
of being nourished by inorganic substances which are denied to the
living substance of the animal world. Differences connected with
the mode of supply of nutritive material do exist, but they are mainly
correlated with the structure of the organisms, which makes the
method of absorption different. The cell-walls of plants render the
entry of solid material into the organism impossible. The food
must enter in solution in order to pass the walls. Moreover, the
stationary habit of plants, and the almost total absence of locomo-
tion, makes it impossible for them to seek their food.

The Special Apparatus of Plants for constructing Food. — The
explanation of the apparent difference of food supply is very simple.
Plants are furnished with a constructive mechanism by which they
are enabled to fabricate the food on which they live from the inor-
ganic, gaseous and liquid matters which they absorb. The fact
of such absorption does not render these substances food; they are
taken in not as food, but as raw materials to be subjected to the
action of this constructive mechanism, and by it to be converted
into substances that can nourish protoplasm, both vegetable and
animal. It is sometimes forgotten, when discussing questions of
animal nutrition, that all the food materials of all living organisms
are prepared originally from inorganic substances in exactly the same
way, in exactly the same place, and by the same machinery, which is
the chlorophyll apparatus of the vegetable kingdom. A Consideration
of these facts emphasizes still more fully the view with which we set
out, that all living substance is fundamentally, the same, though
differentiated both anatomically and physiologically in many direc-
tions and in different degrees. All is nourished alike on materials
originally prepared by a mechanism attached to the higher vegetable
organism, and capable of being dissociated, in theory at least,
from its own special means of nutrition, if by the latter term We
understand the appropriation by the protoplasm of the materials
so constructed.

The chlorophyll apparatus of plants demands a certain descrip-
tion^ It consists essentially of a number of minute corpuscles or
plastids, theprotoplasmic substance of which is impregnated with a
green colouring matter. These bodies, known technically as chloro-
plasts, are found embedded in the protoplasm of the cells of the meso-
phyll of foliage leaves, of certain of the cells of some of the leaves of
' the flower, and of the cortex of the young twigs and petioles. Usually

748

PLANTS

[PHYSIOLOGY

they are absent from the cells of the epidermis, though in some of
the lower plants they are met with there also. The plastids are not
rigidly embedded in the cytoplasm, but are capable of a certain
amount of movement therein. Each is a small protoplasmic
body, in the meshes of whose substance the green colouring matter
chlorophyll is contained in some form of solution. Various solvents,
such as benzene, alcohol and chloroform, will dissolve out the
pigment, leaving the plastid colourless. Chlorophyll is not soluble
in water, nor in acids or alkalies without decomposition.

These plastids are especially charged with the duty of manufactur-
ing carbohydrates from the carbon dioxide which the air contains,
and which is absorbed from it after it has entered the intercellular
passages and has so reached the cells containing the plastids. This
action is found to take place only in the presence of light, preferably
moderate sunlight. The reason for the distribution of the chloro-
plasts described above is consequently seen. The relation of the
chlorophyll to light has been studied by many observers. If a
solution of the pigment is placed in the path of a beam of light which
is then allowed to fall on a prism, the resulting spectrum will be
found to be modified. Instead of presenting the appearance of a
continuous band in which all the colours are represented, it is
interrupted by seven vertical dark spaces. The rays which in the
absence of the solution of chlorophyll would have occupied those
spaces have no power to pass through it, or in other words chlorophyll
absorbs those particular rays of light which are missing.

The absorption of these rays implies that the pigment absorbs
radiant energy from the sun, and gives us some explanation of its
power of constructing the carbohydrates which has been mentioned
as the special work of the apparatus. The working of it is not at
all completely understood at present, nor can we say exactly what
is the part played by the pigment and what is the r61e of the proto-
plasm of the plastid. It is not certain either whether the action
of the chlorophyll apparatus is confined to the manufacture of
carbohydrates or whether it is concerned, and if so how far, with
the construction of proteids also.

As the action of the chlorophyll apparatus is directly dependent
upon light, and the immediate result of its activity is the building
up of complex compounds, it has become usual to speak of the
processes it sets up under the name of photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis. — In the presence of light and when the plant is
subjected to a suitable temperature, photosynthesis commences,
provided that the plant has access to air containing its normal
amount of carbon dioxide, about 3 parts, or rather less, in 10,000.
The process involves the inter-action of water also, and this, as we
have seen, is always present in the cell. In addition, certain in-
organic salts, particularly certain compounds of potassium, are
apparently necessary, but they seem to take no part in the chemical
changes which take place. The original hypothesis of Baeyer sug-
gested that the course of events is the following : the carbon dioxide
is decomposed into carbon monoxide and oxygen, while water is
simultaneously split up into hydrogen and oxygen; the hydrogen
and the carbon monoxide unite to form formaldehyde and the oxygen
is exhaled. This explanation is unsatisfactory from many points
of view, but till quite recently no acceptable alternative has been
advanced. There is no evidence that carbon monoxide is ever
produced, indeed there are strong reasons for disbelieving in its
occurrence. The formation of formaldehyde has till recently not
been satisfactorily proved, though it has been obtained from certain
leaves by distillation. Certain Algae have been found capable of
forming nutritive carbohydrates in darkness, when supplied with
a compound of this body with sodium-hydrogen-sulphite. But it
is certain that it can only be present in a cell in very small amount
at any moment, for an extremely dilute solution acts as a poison
to protoplasm. If formed, as it probably is, it is immediately
changed into some more complex combination, and so rendered
incapable of exerting its poisonous action.

Baeyer's hypothesis was entertained by botanists partly because
it explained the gaseous interchanges accompanying photosynthesis.
These show that a definite intake of carbon dioxide is always
accompanied by an exhalation of an equal volume of oxygen.

Recent investigations have confirmed Baeyer's view of the forma-
tion of formaldehyde, but a different explanation has been recently
advanced. The first chemical change suggested is an interaction
between carbon dioxide and water, under the influence of light acting
through chlorophyll, which leads to the simultaneous formation of
formaldehyde and hydrogen peroxide. The formaldehyde at once
undergoes a process of condensation or polymerization by the proto-
plasm of the plastid, while the hydrogen peroxide is said to be
decomposed into water and free oxygen by another agency in the
cell, of the nature of one of the enzymes of which we shall speak
later.

Polymerization of the aldehyde was also a feature of Baeyer's
hypothesis, so that this view does not very materially differ from
those he advanced- More emphasis is, however, now laid on the
action of the plastid in polymerization, while the initial stages are
still not definitely explaincu.

The steps which lead from the appearance of formaldehyde to
that of the first well-defined carbohydrate are again matters of
speculation. There are many possibilities, but no definite body
of simpler composition than a sugar has so far been detected. Nor

is the nature of the first formed sugar certain; the general opinion
has been that it is a simple hexose such as glucose or fructose,
CeHnOe. Brown and Morris in 1892 advanced strong reasons for
thinking that cane-sugar, C12H22O11, is the first carbohydrate
synthesized, and that the hexosts found in the plant result from
the decomposition of this. The whole story of the different
sugars existing in the plant — their relations _ and their several
functions — requires renewed investigation.

The first visible carbohydrate formed, one which appears so
rapidly on the commencement of photosynthesis as to have been
regarded as the first evidence of the setting up of the process, is
starch. This is met with in the form of small granular specks in
the substance of the chloroplast, specks which assume a blue colour
when treated with a solution of iodine. Its very prompt appear-
ance, as soon as the apparatus became active, led to the opinion
formerly held, that the work of the latter was complete only when the
starch was formed. We have seen that the starch is preceded by the
formation of sugar, and its appearance is now interpreted as a sign
of surplus manufacture. As much sugar as is produced in excess
of the immediate requirements of the cell is converted into the
insoluble form of starch by the plastidsof the chlorophyll apparatus,
and is so withdrawn from the sphere of action, thereby enabling
the construction of further quantities of sugar to take place. The
presence of too much sugar in solution in the sap of the cell inhibits
the activity of the chloroplast s; hence the necessity for its removal.
Starch, indeed, wherever it appears in the plant seems to be a reserve
store of carbohydrate material, deposited where it is found for
longer or shorter periods till it is needed for consumption. The
readiness with which it is converted into sugar fits it especially to
be a reserve or stored material.

Proteid Formation. — We have seen that it has been suggested that
the chlorophyll apparatus may perhaps be concerned in the manu-
facture of proteids as well as of carbohydrates. If not, there must
exist in the green plant, side by side with it, another mechanism
which is concerned with the manufacture of the complex compounds
in which nitrogen is present. The independence of the two is sug-
gested by the fact that fungi can live, thrive and grow in nutritive
media which contain carbohydrates together with certain salts
of ammonia, but which are free from proteids. It is certain that
their protoplasm cannot be nourished by inorganic compounds of
nitrogen, any more than that of animals. We must therefore
surmise their possession of a mechanism which can construct proteids,
if supplied with these compounds of nitrogen together with sugar.

The probability is that this mechanism is to be found in green
plants in the leaves — at any rate there is a certain body of evidence
pointing in this direction. It may be, however, that there is no
special mechanism, but that this power is a particular differentiation
of a physiological kind, existing in all vegetable protoplasm, or in
that of certain cells. The idea of an identity of protoplasm does
not involve a denial of special powers developed in it in different
situations, and the possession of such a power by the vegetable
cell is not more striking than the location of the powers of co-ordina-
tion and thought in the protoplasm of cells of the human brain.

But if we accept either view we have still to examine the process
of construction in detail, with a view to ascertaining the stages by
which proteid is built up. Here unfortunately we find ourselves
in the region of speculation and hypothesis rather than in that of
fact. The nitrogen is absorbed by the plant in some form of combi-
nation from the soil. The green plant prefers as a rule nitrates of
various metals, such as calcium, magnesium or potassium. The
fungus seems to do better when supplied with compounds of
ammonia. The nitrogen of the atmosphere is not called into re-
quisition, except by a few plants and under special conditions, as
will be explained later. The fate of these inorganic compounds
has not been certainly traced, but they give rise later on to the
presence in the plant of various amino acid amides, such as leucin.
glycin, asparagin, &c. That these are stages on the way to proteids
has been inferred from the fact that when proteids are split up by
various means, and especially by the digestive secretions, these
nitrogen-containing acids are among the products which result.

While we know little of the processes of proteid-construction, we
are almost completely in the dark also as to what are the particular
proteids which are first constructed.

Opinions are conflicting also as to the conditions under which
proteids are formed. There is a certain amount of evidence that at
any rate in some cases light is necessary, and that the violet rays
of the spectrum are chiefly concerned. But the subject requires
elucidation from both chemical and biological points of view.

The normal green plant is seen thus to be in possession of a
complete machinery for the manufacture of its own food. The way
in which such food when manufactured is incorporated into, and
enabled to build up, the living substance is again hidden in obscurity.
This is, however, also the case with the nutrition of animal proto-
plasm.

The building up and nutrition of the living substance by the
foods manufactured or absorbed is properly spoken of as the assimi-
lation of such food. Up to very recently the original absorption
and subsequent treatment of the carbon dioxide and the compounds
of nitrogen has been called by the same term. We frequently find
the expression used, "the 'assimilation' of carbon dioxide, or of

PHYSIOLOGY]

PLANTS

749

nitrogen." As this is not the incorporation of either into the living
substance, but is only its manufacture into the complex substances
which we find in the plant, it seems preferable to limit the term
" assimilation " to the processes by which foods are actually taken
into the protoplasm.

Symbiosis. — Though green plants thus possess a very complete
mechanism for the manufacture of their different foodstuffs, it is
not always exercised to the fullest extent. Many of them are known
to supplement it, and some almost entirely to replace it, by absorb-
ing the food they need in a fully prepared condition from their
environment. It" may be that they procure it from decomposing
organic matter in the soil, or they may get it by absorption from other
plants to which they attach themselves, or they may in rare cases
obtain it by preying upon insect life. The power of green plants,
not even specialized in any of these directions, to absorb certain
carbohydrates, particularly sugars, Irom the soil was demonstrated
by Acton in 1889. Similar observations have been made in the
case of various compounds of nitrogen, though these have not been
so complex as the proteids. It was formerly the custom to regard
as parasites all those p'ants which inserted roots or root-like organs
into the tissues of other plants and absorbed the contents of the
latter. The most conspicuous case, perhaps, of all these is the
mistletoe, which flourishes luxuriantly upon the apple, the poplar
and other trees. Bonnier has drawn attention to the fact that the
mistletoe in its turn, remaining green in the winter, contributes
food material to its host when the latter has lost its leaves. The
relationship thus existing he showed to be mutually beneficial, each
at one time or another supplying the necessities of the other. Such a
relationship is known as symbiosis, and the large majority of the
cases of so-called parasitism among green plants can be referred to
it. Bonnier showed that the same relationship could be proved in
the cases of such plants as the rattle (Rhinanthus) , the eye-bright
(Euphrasia), and other members of the Natural Orders, Scrophulari-
aceae and Santalaceae, which effect a union between their roots and
the roots of other plants growing near them. The union taking
place underground, while the bulk of both partners in the symbiosis
rises into the air, renders the association a little difficult to see,
but there is no doubt that the plants in question do afford each other
assistance, forming, as it were, a kind of partnership. The most
pronounced case of parasitism, that of Cuscuta, the dodder, which
infests particularly clover fields, appears to differ only in degree
from those mentioned, for the plant, bare of leaves as it is, yet con-
tains a little chlorophyll. The advantages it can offer to its host
are, however, infinitesimal when compared with the injury it does
it. Many other cases of symbiosis have been investigated with
some completeness, especially those in which lower plants than the
Phanerogams are concerned. The relations of the Alga and the
Fungus, which have formed a close associationship in the structure
known as the Lichen, were established many years ago. Since about
1880 our knowledge of the species which can enter into such
relationships has been materially extended, and the_ fungal con-
stituents of the Lichens are known to include Basidiomycetes as
well as Ascomycetes.

Mycorhizas. — The most interesting cases, however, in which
Fungi form symbiotic relationships with green plants have been
discovered in connexion with forest trees. The roots of many of
the latter, while growing freely in the soil are found to be surrounded
with a dense feltwork of fungal mycelium, which sometimes forms a
mass of considerable size. The plants showing it are not all forest
trees, but include also some Pteridophytes and some of the prothallia
of the Ferns, Club-mosses, Liverworts and Horsetails. The true
nature of the relationship was first recognized by Pfeffer in 1877,
but few cases were known till recent years. Very complete examina-
tion, however, has now been made of many instances, and the name
mycorhiza has been given to the symbiotic union. Two classes are
recognized. In the first, which are called ectotropic, the fungal
filaments form a thick felt or sheath round the root, either completely
enclosing it or leaving the apex free. They seldom penetrate the
living cells, though they do so in a few cases. The root-hairs pene-
trate between masses of the hyphae of the Fungus. This type of
mycorhiza is found among the Poplars, Oaks ^nd Fir trees. The
other type is called endctropic. The fungal filaments either pene-
trate the epidermis of the root, or enter it from the stem and ramify
in the interior. Some make their way through the cells of the outer
part of the cortex towards the root-tip, and form a mycelium or
feltwork of hyphae, which generally occupies two or three layers of
cells. From this branches pass into the middle region of the cortex
and ramify through the interior half of its cells. They often cause
a considerable hypertrophy of the tissue. From the outer cortical
mycelium, again, branches pass through the epidermis and grow
out in the soil. In such cases the roots of the plants are usually
found spreading in soils which contain a large amount of humus,
or decaying vegetable matter. The organic compounds of the latter
are absorbed by the protruding fungal filaments, which take the
place of root-hairs, the tree ceasing to develop the latter. The food
so absorbed passes to the outer cortical mycelium, and from this to
the inner hyphae, -which appear to be the organs of the interchange
of substance, for they are attracted to the neighbourhood of the
nuclei of the cells, which they enter, and in which they form agglom-
erations of interwoven filaments. The prothalli of the Pterido-

phytes, which form similar symbioses, show a somewhat different
mode of arrangement, the Fungi occupying the external or the lower
layers of the thalloid body.

The discovery of the widespread occurrence of this mycorhizal
symbiosis must be held to be one of the most important results oi
research upon the nutritive processes of plants during the closing
decade of the 19th century. Among green plants the symbionts
include Conifers, Orchids, Heaths, Oaks, Poplars and Beeches,
though all do not derive equal advantages from the association.
Monotropas afford an extreme case of it, having lost their chlorophyll
almost entirely, and come to depend upon the Fungi for their nutri-
ment. The fungal constituents vary considerably. Each species
of green plant may form a mycorhiza with two or three different
Fungi, and a single species of Fungus may enter into symbiosis
with several green plants. The Fungi that have been discovered
taking part in the union include Eurotium, Pythium, Boletus,
A garicus, Lactarius, Penicillium and many others of less frequent
occurrence. All the known species belong to the Oomycetes, the
Pyrenomycetes, the Hymenomycetes or the Gasteromycetes. The
habit of forming mycorhizas is found more frequently in warm cli-
mates than cold; indeed, the percentage of the flora exhibiting this
peculiarity seems to increase with a certain regularity from the
Arctic Circle to the equator.

Fixation of Nitrogen. — Another, and perhaps an even more impor-
tant, instance of symbiotic association has come to the front during
the same period. It is an alliance between the plants of the Natural
Order Leguminosae and certain bacterium-like forms which find a
home within the tissues of their roots. The importance of the
symbiosis can only be understood by considering the relationship in
■which plants stand with regard to the free nitrogen of the air. Long
ago the view that this gas might be the source of the combined
nitrogen found in different forms within the plant, was critically
examined, particularly by Boussingault, and later by Lawes and
Gilbert and by Pugh, and it was ascertained to be erroneous, the
plants only taking nitrogen into their substance when it is presented
to their roots in the form of nitrates of various metals, or compounds
of ammonia. Many writers in recent years, among whom may be
named especially Hellriegel and Wilfarth, Lawes and Gilbert, and
Schloesing and Laurent, have shown that the Leguminosae as a
group form conspicuous exceptions to this rule. While they are
quite capable of taking up nitrates from the soil where and so long
as these are present, they can grow and thrive in soil which contains
no combined nitrogen at all, deriving their supplies of this element
in these cases from the air. The phenomena have been the subject
of very careful and critical examination for many years, and may be
regarded as satisfactorily established. The power of fixing atmo-
spheric nitrogen by the higher plants seems to be confined to this
solitary group, though it has been stated by various observers with
more or less emphasis that it is shared by others. Frank has claimed
to have found oats, buckbeans, spurry, turnips, mustard, potatoes
and Norway maples exercising it; Nobbe and others have imputed
its possession to Elaeagnus. There is little direct evidence pointing
to this extension of the power, and many experimenters directly
contradict the statements of Frank.

The power exercised by the Leguminosae is associated with the
presence of curious tubercular swellings upon their roots, which are
developed at a very early age, as they are cultivated in ordinary soil.
If experimental plants are grown in sterilized soil, these swellings do
not appear, and the plant can then use no atmospheric nitrogen.
The swellings have been found to be due to a curious hypertrophy
of the tissue of the part, the cells being filled with an immense num-
ber of minute bacterium-like organisms of V, X or Y shape. The
development of these structures has been studied by many observers,
both in England and on the continent of Europe. They appear
to be present in large numbers in the soil, and to infect the Legumin-
ous plant by attacking its root-hairs. One of these hairs can be
seen to be penetrated at a particular spot, and the entering body
is then found to grow along the length of the hair till it reaches the
cortex of the root. It has the appearance of a delicate tube which
has granular contents, and is provided withan apex that appears to
be open. The wall of the tube is very thin and delicate, and does not
seem to be composed of cellulose or any modification of it. Careful
staining shows that the granular substance of the interior really
consists of a large number of delicate rod-like bodies. As the tube
grows down the hair it maintains its own independence, and does
not fuse with the contents of the root-hair, whose protoplasm re-
mains quite distinct and separate. After making its way into the
interior, the intruder sets up a considerable hyper trophy of the tissue,
causing the formation of a tubercle, which soon shows a certain
differentiation, branches of the vascular bundles of the root being
supplied to it. The rod-like bodies from the intenor of the tube,
which has considerable resemblance to the zoogloea of many Bacteria,
are liberated into the interior of the cells of the tubercle and fill it,
increasing by a process of branching and fission. When this stage
is reached the invading tubes and their ramifications frequently
disappear, leaving the cells full of the bacterioids, as they have been
called. When the root dies later such of these as remain are dis-
charged into the soil, and are then ready to infect new plants. In
some cases the zoogloea thread or tube has not been seen, the organ-
ism consisting entirely of the bacterioids.

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[PHYSIOLOGY

This peculiar relationship suggests at once a symbiosis, the Fungus
gaining its nutriment mainly or entirely from the green plant, while
the latter in some way or other is able to utilize the free nitrogen of
:he air. The exact way in which the utilization or fixation of the
nitrogen is effected remains undecided. Two views are still receiving
certain support, though the second of them appears the more prob-
able. These are: (i) That the green plant is so stimulated by the
symbiotic association which leads to the hypertrophy, that it is
able to fix the nitrogen or cause it to enter into combination. (2)
That the fixation of the gas is carried out by the fungal organism
either in the soil or in the plant, and the nitrogenous substance so
produced is absorbed by the organism, which is in turn consumed
by the green plant. Certain evidence which supports this view
will be referred to later.

Whichever opinion is held on this point, there seems no room
for doubt that the fixation of the nitrogen is concerned only with the
root, and that the green leaves take no part in it. The nodules, in
particular, appear to play the important part in the process. Mar-
shall Ward has directed attention to several points of their structure
which bear out this view. They are supplied with a regular system
of conducting vascular bundles communicating with those of the
roots. Their cells during the period of incubation of the symbiotic
organism are abundantly supplied with starch. The cells in which
the fungoid organism is vigorously flourishing are exceedingly active,
showing large size, brilliant nuclei, protoplasm and vacuole, all of
which give signs of intense metabolic activity. The sap in these
active tissues is alkaline, which has been interpreted as being in
accordance with Loew's suggestion that the living protoplasm in
presence of an alkali and free nitrogen can build up ammonium
nitrate, or some similar body. It is, however, at present entirely
unknown what substances are formed at the expense of the atmo-
spheric nitrogen.

The idea that the atmospheric nitrogen is gradually being made use
of by plants, although it is clearly not easily or commonly utilized,
has been growing steadily. Besides the phenomena of the symbiosis
just discussed, certain experiments tend to show that we have
a constant fixation of this gas in the soil by various Bacteria.
Researches which have been carried out since 1885 by Berthelot,
Andree, Laurent and Schlcesing, and more recently by Kossowitsch,
seem to establish the fact, though the details of the process remain
undiscovered. Berthelot imputes it to the action of several species
of soil Bacteria and Fungi, including the Bacterium of the Legu-
minosae, when the latter is cultivated free from its ordinary host.
Laurent and Schlcesing affirm that the free nitrogen of the air can
be fixed by a number of humble green plants, principally lowly green
Algae. They must be exposed freely to light and air during the
process, or they fail to effect it. Frank has stated that Penicillvim
cladiosporioides can flourish in a medium to which no nitrogen but
that of the atmosphere has access. Kossowitsch claims to have
proved that fixation of nitrogen takes place under the influence of a
symbiosis of certain Algae and soil Bacteria, the process being much
facilitated by the presence of sugar. The Algae include Nostoc,
Cystococcus, Cylindrospermum and a few other torms. In the sym-
biosis the Algae are supplied with nitrogen by the bacteria, and in
turn they construct carbohydrate material, part of which goes to the
microbes. This is supported by the fact that if the mixed culture
is placed in the light there is a greater fixation than when it is left
in darkness. If there is a plentiful supply of carbon dioxide, more
nitrogen is fixed.

Nitrification and Denitrification in the Soil. — Another aspect of the
nitrogen question has been the subject of much investigation and
controversy since 1877. The round of changes which nitrogenous
organic matter undergoes in the soil, and how it is ultimately made
use of again by plants, presents some curious features. We have
seen that when nitrogenous matter is present in the condition of
humus, some plants can absorb it by their roots or by the aid of
mycorhizas. But the changes in it in the usual course of nature
are much more profound than these. It becomes in the soil the prey
of various microbes. Ammonia appears immediately as a product
of the disruption of the nitrogen-containing organic molecule. Later,
oxidation processes take place, and the ammonia gives rise to
nitrates, which are absorbed by plants. These two processes go on
successively rather than simultaneously, so that it is only towards
the end of the decomposition of the organic matter that nitrification
of the ammonia which is formed is set up. In this process of nitri-
fication we can distinguish two phases, first the formation of nitrites,
and secondly their oxidation to nitrates. The researches of Waring-
ton in England and Winogradsky on the Continent have satis-
factorily shown that two distinct organisms are concerned in it,
and that probably more than one species of each exists. One of them
comprising the genera Nitrosomonas and Nitrosococcus, has the power
of oxidizing salts of ammonium to the condition of compounds of
nitrous acid. When in a pure culture this stage has been reached
no further oxidation takes place. The oxidation of the nitrites into
nitrates is effected by another organism, much smaller than the
first. The name Nitrobacter has been given to this genus, most of
our knowledge of which is due to the researches of Winogradsky.
, The two kinds of organism are usually both present in the same
soi}^ those of the second type immediately oxidizing the nitrites
which those of the first form from ammonium salts. The Nitro-

bacter forms not only cannot oxidize the latter bodies, but they are
very injuriously affected by the presence of free ammonia. When
cultivated upon a suitable nutritive material in the laboratory,
the organism was killed by the presence of -015 % of this gas, and
seriously inconvenienced by one-third as much. Except in this
respect, however, the two classes show great similarity. A very
interesting peculiarity attaching to them is their distaste for organic
nutriment. They can be cultivated most readily on masses of
gelatinous silica impregnated with the appropriate compounds of
nitrogen, and their growth takes place most copiously in the
absence of light. They need a little carbonate 'in the nutrient
material, and the source of the carbon which is found in the increased
bulk of the plant is partly that and partly the carbon dioxide of the
air.

We have in these plants a power which appears special to them,
in the possession of some mechanism for the construction of organic
substance which differs essentially from the chlorophyll apparatus
of green plants, and yet brings about substantially similar results.
The steps by which this carbon dioxide is built up into a compound
capable of being assimilated by the protoplasm of the cells are
not known. The energy for the purpose appears to be supplied by
the oxidation of the molecules containing nitrogen, so that it is
dependent upon such oxidation taking place. Winogradsky has
investigated this point with great care, and he has come to the
conclusion that about 35 milligrammes of nitrogen are oxidized for
each milligramme of carbon absorbed and fixed.

Deposition and Digestion of Reserve Materials in Plants and
Animals. — As we have seen, the tendency of recent research is to
prove the identity of the mode of nutrition of vegetable and animal
organisms. The material on which they feed is of the same descrip-
tion and its treatment in the body is precisely similar. In both
groups we find the presence of nutritive material in two forms, one
specially fitted for transport, the other for storage. We have seen
that in the plant the processes of construction go on in the seats of
manufacture faster than those of consumption. We have the sur-
plus sugar, for instance, deposited as starch in the chloroplasts
themselves. The manufacture goes on very actively so long as
light shines upon the leaves, and we find towards night a very great
surplus stored in the cells. This excess of manufacture is one of the
features of plant life, and is exhibited, though in various degrees,
by all green plants. The accumulated material is made to minister
to the need of the plant in various ways ; it may be by increasing the
■ bulk of the plant, as by the formation of the wood of the trunk,
branches and roots; or it may be by laying up a store of nutritive
materials for purposes of propagation, as in tubers, corms, seeds, &c.
In any case the surplus is continuously being removed from the seats
of its construction and deposited for longer or shorter periods in
other parts of the structure, usually near the regions at which its
ultimate consumption will take place. We have the deposition of
starch, aleurone grains, amorphous proteids, fats, &c, in the
neighbourhood of growing points, cambium rings and phellogens;
also the more prolonged storage in tubers, seeds and other repro-
ductive bodies. Turning to the animal, we meet with similar pro-
visions in the storage of glycogen in the liver and other parts, of fat
in various internal regions, and so on. In both we find the reserve
of food, so far as it is in excess of immediate need, existing in two
conditions, the one suitable for transport, the other for storage,
and we see continually the transformation of the one into the other.
The formation of the storage form at the expense of the travelling
stream is due to the activity of some protoplasmic structure — it
may be a plastid or the general protoplasm of the cell — and is a pro-
cess of secretion. The converse process is one of a true digestion,
which deserves the name no less because it is intracellular. We
find processes of digestion strictly comparable to those of the
alimentary canal of an animal in the case of the insectivorous
Nepenthes, Drosera and other similar plants, and in the saprophytic
Fungi. Those which now concern us recall the utilization of the
glycogen of the liver, the stored fats and proteids of other parts of
the animal body being like them intracellular.

Enzymes. — The agents which effect the digestive changes in plants
have been studied with much care. They have been found to be
mainly enzymes, which are in many cases identical with those of
animal origin. A vast number of them have been discovered and
investigated, and the majority call for a brief notice. Their number,
indeed, renders it necessary to classify them, and rather to look at
groups of them than to examine them one by one. They are usually
classified according to the materials on which they work, and we
may here notice especially four principal groups, the members of
which take part in the digestion of reserve materials as well as in the
processes of external digestion. These decompose respectively
carbohydrates, glucosides, proteids and fats or oils. The action of
the enzyme in nearly every case is one of hydration, the body acted
on being _ made to take up water and to undergo a subsequent
decomposition.

Among those which act on carbohydrates the most important are ;
the two varieties of diastase, which convert starch into maltose or
malt sugar; inulase, which forms fructose from inulin; invertase,
which converts cane sugar into glucose (grape sugar) and fructose ;
glucase or maltase, which produces grape sugar from maltose; and
cytase, which hydrolyses cellulose. Another enzyme which does

PHYSIOLOGY]

PLANTS

75i

not appear to be concerned with digestion so directly as the others is
peclase, which forms vegetable jelly from pectic substances occurring
in the cell-wall.

The enzymes which act upon glucosides are many ; the best known
are emulsin and myrosin, which split up respectively amygdalin, the
special glucoside of certain plants of the Rosaceae; and sinigrin,
which has a wide distribution among those of the Cruciferae. Others
of less frequent occurrence are erythrozym, rhamnase and gaul-
therase.

The proteolytic enzymes, or those which digest proteids, are
usually divided into two groups, one which breaks down ordinary
proteids into diffusible bodies, known as peptones, which are them-
selves proteid in character. Such an enzyme is the pepsin of the
stomach of the higher animals. The other group attacks these
peptones and breaks them down into the amino-acids of which we
have spoken before. This group is represented by the erepsin of
the pancreas and other organs. A third enzyme, the trypsin of the
pancreas, possesses the power of both pepsin and erepsin. The
relationships existing between these enzymes are still the subjects
of experiment, and we cannot regard them as exhaustively examined.
It is not quite certain whether a true pepsin exists in plants, but many
trypsins have been discovered, and one form of erepsin, at least, is
very widespread. Among the trypsins we have the papain of the
Papaw fruit (Carica Papaya), the bromelin of the Pine-apple, and
the enzymes present in many germinating seeds, in the seedlings of
several plants, and in other parts. Another enzyme, rennet, which
in the animal body is proteolytic, is frequently met with in plants,
but its function has not been ascertained.

The digestion of fat or oil has not been adequately investigated,
but its decomposition in germinating seeds has been found to be due
to an enzyme, which has been called lipase. It splits it into a fatty
acid and glycerine, but seems to have no further action. The details
of the further transformations have not yet been completely followed.
Oxidases. — Another class of enzymes has been discovered in both
animals and plants, but they do not apparently take any part in
digestion. They set up a process of oxidation in the substances
which they attack, and have consequently been named oxidases.
Very little is known about them.

In many cases the digestion of reserve food materials is effected
by the direct action of the protoplasm, without the intervention of
enzymes. This property of living substance can be proved in the
case of the cells of the higher plants, but it is especially prominent
in many of the more lowly organisms, such as the Bacteria. The
processes of putrefaction may be alluded to as affording an instance
of such a power in the vegetable organisms. At the same time it
must be remembered that the secretion of enzymes by Bacteria is
of widespread occurrence.

Supply and Distribution of Energy in Plants.— It is well known that
one of the conditions of life is the maintenance of the process which
is known as respiration. It is marked by the constant and continu-
ous absorption of a certain quantity of oxygen and by the exhalation
of a certain volume of carbon dioxide and water vapour. There is
no direct connexion between the two, the oxygen is absorbed almost
immediately by the protoplasm, and appears to enter into some kind
of chemical union with it. The protoplasm is in a condition of
instability and is continually breaking down to a certain extent,
giving rise to various substances of different degrees of complexity,
some of which are again built up by it into its own substances, and
others, more simple in composition, are given off. Of these carbon
dioxide and water are the most prominent. These respiratory pro-
cesses are associated with the liberation of energy by the protoplasm,
energy which it applies to various purposes. The assimilation of
complex foods consequently may be regarded as supplying the proto-
plasm with a potential store of energy, as well as building up its
substance. Whenever complex bodies are built up from simple ones
we have an absorption of energy in some form and its conversion
into potential energy; whenever decomposition of complex bodies
into simpler ones takes place we have the liberation of some or all
of the energy that was used in their construction.

Since about 1880 considerable attention has been directed to the
question of the supply, distribution and expenditure of energy
in the vegetable kingdom. This is an extremely important question,
since the supply of energy to the animal world has been found to
depend entirely upon the vegetable one. The supply of energy to
the several protoplasts which make up the body of a plant is as
necessary as is the transport to them of the food they need; indeed,
the two things are inseparably connected. The source of energy
which is the only one accessible to the ordinary plant as a whole
Is the radiant energy of the rays of the sun, and its absorption is
mainly due to the properties of chlorophyll. This colouring matter,
as shown by its absorption spectrum, picks out of the ordinary beam
of light a large proportion of its red and blue rays, together with some
of the green and yellow. This energy is obtained especially by the
chloroplastids, and part of it is at once devoted to the construction
of carbohydrate material, being thus turned from the kinetic to the
potential condition. The other constructive processes, which are
dependent partly upon the oxidation of the carbohydrates so formed,
and therefore upon an expenditure of part of such energy, also mark
the storage of energy in the potential form. Indeed, the construc-
tion of protoplasm itself indicates the same thing. Thus even in

these constructive processes there occurs a constant passage of energy
backwards and forwards from the kinetic to the potential condition
and vice versa. The outcome of the whole round of changes, how-
ever, is the fixation of a certain part of the radiant energy absorbed
by the chlorophyll. ' The rays of the visible spectrum do not supply
all the energy which the plant obtains. It has been suggested by
several botanists, with considerable plausibility, that the ultra-violet
or chemical rays can be absorbed and utilized by the protoplasm
without the intervention of any pigment such as chlorophyll. There
is some evidence pointing to the existence of this power in the cells
of the higher plants. Again, we have evidence of the power of
plants to avail themselves of the heat rays. There is, no doubt, a
direct interchange of heat between the plant and the air, which
in many cases results in a gain of heat by the plant. Indeed, the
tendency to absorb heat in this way, either from the air or directly
from the sunlight, has already been pointed out as a danger which
needs to be averted by transpiration.

There is probably but little transformation of one form of kinetic
energy into another in the plant. It has been suggested that the
red pigment Anthocyan, which is found very commonly in young
developing shoots, petioles and midribs, effects a conversion of light
rays into heating ones, so facilitating the metabolic processes of the
plant. This is, however, rather a matter of speculation. The
various electrical phenomena of plants also are obscure.

Certain plants possess another source of energy which is common to
them and the animal world. This is the absorption of elaborated
compounds from their environment, by whose decomposition the
potential energy expended in their construction can be liberated.
Such a source is commonly met with among the Fungi, the insecti-
vorous plants, and such of the higher plants as have a saprophytic
habit. This source is not, however, anything new, for the elaborated
compounds so absorbed have been primarily constructed by other
plants through the mechanism which has just been described.

The question of the distribution of this stored energy to the
separate protoplasts of the plant can be seen to be the same problem
as the distribution of the food. The material and the energy go
together, the decomposition of the one in the cell setting free the
other, which is used at once in the vital processes of the cell,
being in fact largely employed in constructing protoplasm or storing
various products. The actual liberation in any cell is only very
gradual, and generally takes the form of heat. The metabolic
changes in the cells, however, concern other decompositions side by
side with those which involve the building up of protoplasm from
the products of which it feeds. So long as food is supplied the
living substance is the seat of transformations which are continu-
ally proceeding, being partially decomposed and again constructed,
the new food being incorporated into it. The changes involve a
continual liberation of energy, which in most cases is caused by the
respiration of the protoplasm and the oxidation of the substances
it contains. The need of the protoplasm for oxygen has already
been spoken of : in its absence death soon supervenes, respiration
being stopped. Respiration, indeed, is the expression of the libera-
tion of the potential energy of the protoplasm itself. It is not
certain how far substances in the protoplasm are directly oxidized
without entering into the composition of the living substance,
though this appears to take place. Even their oxidation, however,
is effected by the protoplasm acting as an oxygen carrier.

The supply of oxygen to a plant is thus seen to be as directly
connected with the utilization of the energy of a cell as is that
of food concerned in its nutrition. If the access of oxygen to a
protoplast is interfered with its normal respiration soon ceases,
but frequently other changes supervene. The partial asphyxiation
or suffocation stimulates the protoplasm to set up a new and perhaps
supplementary series of decompositions, which result in the libera-
tion of energy just as do those of the respiratory process. One of
the constant features of respiration — the exhalation of carbon dioxide
— can still be observed. This comes in almost all such cases from
the decomposition of sugar, which is split up by the protoplasm
into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Such decompositions are now
generally spoken of as anaerobic respiration. The decomposition
of the complex molecule of the sugar liberates a certain amount of
energy, as can be seen from the study of the fermentation set up
by yeast, which is a process of this kind, in that it is intensified
by the absence of oxygen. The liberated energy takes the form of
heat, which raises the temperature of the fermenting wort. It has
been ascertained that in many cases this decomposition is effected
by the secretion of an enzyme, which has been termed zymase.
This body has been prepared from active yeast, and from fruits and
other parts which have been kept for some time in the absence of
oxygen. The protoplasm appears to be able also to bring about the
change without secreting any enzyme.

Expenditure of Energy by Plants. — The energy of the plant is, as
we have seen, derived originally from the kinetic radiant energy of
the sun. In such cells as are capable of absorbing it, by virtue of
their chlorophyll apparatus, the greater part of it is converted into
the potential form, and by the transport from cell to cell of the
compounds constructed every part of the plant is put into possession
of the energy it needs. The store of energy thus accumulated
and distributed has to subserve various purposes in the economy
of the plant. A certain part of it is devoted to the maintenance of

752

PLANTS

[PHYSIOLOGY

the framework of the fabric of the cell, and the construction of a
continuously increasing skeleton; part is used in maintaining the
normal temperature of the. plant, part in constructing various sub-
stances which are met with in the interior, which serve various
purposes in the working of the vital mechanism. A great part again
is utilized in that increase of the body of the plant which we call
growth.

Growth, as usually spoken of, includes two essentially different
processes. The first of these, which may be regarded as growth
proper, is the manufacture of additional quantities of living sub-
stance. The second, which is usually included in the term, is the
increase of such accessories of living substance as are necessary for
its well-being. These include cell walls and the various stored
products found in growing cells. There is clearly a difference
between these two categories. The formation of living substance
is a process of building up from simple or relatively simple materials;
the construction of its cellulose framework and supporting substance
is done by the living substance after its own formation is completed,
and is attended by a partial decomposition of such living substance.
Growth is always going on in plants while they are alive. Even
the oldest trees put out continually new leaves and twigs. It does
not, of course, follow that increase of bulk is always conspicuous;
in such trees death is present side by side with life, and the one often
counterbalances the other. As, however, we can easily see that the
constructive processes are much greater than those which lead to the
disappearance of material from the plant-body, there is generally
to be seen a conspicuous increase in the substance of the plant. This
is, in nearly all cases, attended by a permanent change in form.
This is not perhaps so evident in the case of axial organs as it is in
that of leaves and their modifications, but even in them it can be
detected to a certain extent.

In the lowliest plants growth may be co-extensive with the plant-
body ; in all plants of any considerable size, however, it is localized
in particular regions, and in them it is associated with the formation
of new protoplasts or cells. These regions have been called growing
points. In such stems and roots as increase in thickness there are
other growing regions, which consist of cylindrical sheaths known as
cambium layers or phellogens. By the multiplication of the proto-
plasts in these merismatic areas the substance of the plant is in-
creased. In other words, as these growing regions consist of cells,
the growth of the entire organ or plant will depend upon the
behaviour of the cells or protoplasts of which the merismatic tissues
are composed.

The growth of such a cell will be found to depend mainly upon
five conditions: (i) There must be a supply of nutritive or plastic
materials, at the expense of which the increase of its living substance
can take place, and which supply the needed potential energy.
(2) There must be a supply of water to such an extent as to set up a
certain hydrostatic pressure in the cell, for only turgid cells can
grow. (3) The supply of water must be associated with the formation
of osmotic substances in the cell, or it cannot be made to enter it.
(4) The cell must have a certain temperature, for the activity of a
protoplast is only possible within certain limits, which differ in the
case of different plants. (5) There must be a supply of oxygen to
the growing cell, for the protoplast is dependent upon this gas for
the performance of its vital functions, and particularly for the libera-
tion of the energy which is demanded in the constructive processes.
This is evident from the consideration that the growth of the cells
is attended by the growth in surface of the cell wall, and as the latter
is a secretion from the protoplasm, such a decomposition cannot
readily take place unless oxygen is admitted to it.

When these conditions are present, the course of the growth of a
cell appears to be the following: The young cell, immediately it is
cut off from its fellow, absorbs water, in consequence of the presence
in it of osmotically active substances. With the water it takes in
the various nutritive substances which the former contains in solu-
tion. There is set up at once a certain hydrostatic pressure, due to
the turgidity which ensues upon such absorption, and the extensible
cell wall stretches, at first in all directions. The growth or increase
of the protoplasm at the expense of the nutritive matter for a time
keeps pace with the increased size of the cell, but by and by it be-
comes vacuolated as more and more water is attracted into the
interior. Eventually the protoplasm usually forms only a lining
to the cell wall, and a large vacuole filled with cell sap occupies
the centre. The growth of the protoplasm, though considerable,
is therefore not commensurate with the increase in the size of the
cell. The stretching of the cell wall by the hydrostatic pressure is
fixed by a secretion of new particles and their deposition upon the
original wall, which as it becomes slightly thicker is capable of still
greater extension, much in the same way as a thick band of india-
rubber is capable of undergoing greater stretching than a thin one.
The increase in surface of the cell wall is thus due — firstly to the
stretching caused by turgidity, and secondly to the formation and
deposition of new substance upon the old. _ When the limit of
extensibility is reached the cell wall increases in thickness from the
continuation of the latter of the two processes.

The rate of growth of a cell varies gradually throughout its course;
it begins slowly, increases to a maximum, and then becomes slower
till it stops. The time during which these regular changes in the rate
can be observed is generally spoken of as the grand period of growth.

If we consider the behaviour of a growing organ such as a root,
we find that, like a cell, it shows a grand period of growth. Just
behind its apex the cells are found to be all in process of active
division. Growth is small, and consists mainly in an increase of the
quantity of protoplasm, for the cells divide again as soon as they have
reached a certain size. As new cells are continually formed in the
merismatic mass those which are farthest from the apex gradually
cease to divide and a different process of growth takes place in them,
which is associated more particularly with the formation of the
vacuoles, consequent upon the establishment of considerable hydro-
static pressure in them, thus causing the bulk of the cells to be greatly
enlarged. Here it is that the actual extension in length of the root
takes place, and the cells reach the maximum point of the grand
period. They then gradually lose the power of growth, the oldest
ones or those farthest from the apex parting with it first, and they
pass gradually over into the condition of the permanent tissues.

The same order of events may be ascertained to take place in the
stem ; but in this region it is complicated by the occurrence of nodes
and internodes, growth in length being confined to the latter, many of
which may be growing simultaneously. The region of growth in the
stem is, as a rule, much longer than that of the root. The growth
of the leaf is at first apical, but this is not very prolonged, and the
subsequent enlargement is due to an intercalary growing region
near the base.

The turgidity in the cells of a growing member is not uniform, but
shows a fairly rhythmical variation in its different parts. If the
member is one which shows a difference of structure on two sides,
such as a leaf, the two sides frequently show a difference of degree
of turgidity, and consequently of rate of growth. If we consider a
leaf of the common fern we find that in its young condition it is
closely rolled up, the upper or ventral surface being quite concealed.
As it gets older it gradually unfolds and expands into the adult
form. This is due to the fact that while young the turgidity and
consequent growth are greater in the dorsal side of the leaf, so that
it becomes rolled up. As it develops the maximum turgidity and
growth change to its upper side, and so it becomes unfolded or
expanded. These two conditions are generally described under the
names of hyponasty and epinasty respectively.

Cylindrical organs may exhibit similar phenomena. One side of
a stem may be more turgid than the opposite one, and the maximum
turgidity, with its consequent growth, may alternate between two
opposite sides. The growing apex of such a stem will alternately
incline, first to one side and then to the other, exhibiting a kind of
nodding movement in the two directions. More frequently the re-
gion of maximum turgidity passes gradually round the growing zone.
The apex in this case will describe a circle, or rather a spiral, as it is
elongating all the time, pointing to all points of the compass in
succession. This continuous change of position has been called
circumnutation, and is held to be i universal in all growing cylindrical
organs. The passage of the maximum turgidity round the stem may
vary in rapidity in different places, causing the circle to be replaced
by an ellipse. The bending to two sides alternately, described
above, often called simple nutation, may be regarded as only an
extreme instance of the latter.

Nervous System of Plants. — So far we have considered the
plant almost exclusively as an individual organism, carrying
out its own vital processes, and unaffected by its surroundings
except in so far as these supply it with the materials for its
well-being. When we consider, however, the great variability
in those surroundings and the consequent changes a plant must
encounter, it appears obvious that interaction and adjustment
between the plant and its environment must be constant and
well balanced. That such adjustment shall take place postulates
on the part of the plant a kind of perception or appreciation of the
changing conditions which affect it.

Careful examination soon shows an observer that such
perceptions exist, and that they are followed by certain purpose-
ful changes in the plant, sometimes mechanical, sometimes
chemical, the object being evidently to secure some advantage
for the plant, to ward off some danger, or to extricate it from
some difficulty. We may speak, indeed, of the plant as possessed
of a rudimentary nervous system, by the aid of which necessary
adjustments are brought about. The most constantly occurring
changes that beset a plant are connected with illumination,
temperature, moisture, and contact with foreign bodies. Setting
aside other susceptibilities, we have evidence that most plants are
sensitive to all these.

If a growing stem receives stronger illumination on one side
than another, its apex slowly turns from the vertical in the direc-
tion of the light source, continuing its change of position until
it is in a direct line with the incident rays. If a root is similarly
illuminated, a similar change of direction of growth follows, but

PHYSIOLOGY]

PLANTS

753

in this case the organ grows away from the light. These move-
ments are spoken of as heliotropic and apkeliotropic curvatures.
The purpose of the movements bears out the contention that the
plant is trying to adjust itself to its environment. The stem, by
pointing directly to the light source, secures the best illumination
possible for all of its leaves, the latter being distributed sym-
metrically around it. The root is made to press its way into the
darker cracks and crannies of the soil, so bringing its root-hairs
into better contact with the particles round which the hygroscopic
water hangs. Leaves respond in another way to the same influ-
ence, placing themselves across the path of the beam of light.

Similar sensitivenesses can be demonstrated in other cases.
When a root comes in contact at its tip with some hard body,
such as might impede its progress, a curvature of the growing
part is set up, which takes the young tip away from the stone, or
what-not, with which it is in contact. When a sensitive tendril
comes into contact with a foreign body, its growth becomes so
modified that it twines round it. Many instances might be
given of appreciation of and response to other changes in the
environment by the growing parts of plants; among them
we may mention the opening and closing of flowers during the
days of their expansion. One somewhat similar phenomenon,
differing in a few respects, marks the relation of the plant to the
attraction of gravity. Observation of germinating seedlings
makes it clear that somehow they have a perception of direction.
The young roots grow vertically downwards, the young stems
vertically upwards. Any attempt to interfere with these direc-
tions, by placing the seedlings in abnormal positions, is frustrated
by the seedlings themselves, which change their direction of
growth by bringing about curvatures of the different parts of
their axes, so that the root soon grows vertically downward
again and the stem in the opposite direction. Other and older
plants give evidence of the same perception, though they do not
respond all in the same way. Speaking generally, stems grow
upwards and roots downwards. But some steins grow parallel
to the surface of the soil, while the branches both of stems and
roots tend to grow at a definite angle to the main axis from which
they come. These movements are spoken of as different kinds
of geotropic curvatures. This power of perception and response
is not by any means confined to the growing organs, though in
these it is especially striking, and plays a very evident part in
the disposition of the growing organs in advantageous positions.
It can, however, be seen in adult organs, though instances are
less numerous.

When the pinnate leaf of a Mimosa pudica, the so-called
sensitive plant, is pinched or struck, the leaf droops rapidly
and the leaflets become approximated together, so that their
upper surfaces are in contact. The extent to which the disturb-
ance spreads depends on the violence of the stimulation — it may
be confined to a few leaflets or it may extend to all the leaves of
the plant.

The leaves and leaflets of many plants, e.g. the telegraph plant,
Desmodium gyrans, behave in a similar way under the stimulus of
approaching darkness.

A peculiar sensitiveness is manifested by the leaves of the so-
called insectivorous plants. In the case of Dionaea muscipula we
find a two-lobed lamina, the two lobes being connected by a
midrib, which can play the part of a kind of hinge. Six sensitive
hairs spring from the upper surface of the lobes, three from
each; when one of these is touched the two lobes rapidly close,
bringing their upper surfaces into contact and imprisoning any-
thing which for the' moment is between them. The mechanism is
applied to the capture of insects alighting on the leaf.

Drosera, another of this insectivorous group, has leaves which
are furnished with long glandular tentacles. When these are
excited by the settling of an insect on the leaf they slowly bend
over and imprison the intruder, which is detained there mean-
while by a sticky excretion poured out by the glands.

In both these cases the stimulation is followed, not only by
movement, but by the secretion of an acid liquid containing a
digestive juice, by virtue of which the insect is digested after
being killed.

The purposeful character of all these movements or changes of
position indicates that they are of nervous origin. We have in
them evidence of two factors, a perception of some features of the
environment and following this, after a longer or shorter interval,
a response calculated to secure some advantage to the responding
organ. We find on further investigation that these two con-
ditions are traceable to different parts of the organs concerned.
The perception of the changes, or, in other words, the reception
of the stimulus, is associated for example, with the tips of roots
and the apices of stems. The first recognition of a specially
receptive part was made by Charles Darwin, who identified the
perception of stimulation with the tip of the young growing
root. Amputation of this part involved the cessation of the
response, even when the conditions normally causing the stimu-
lation were maintained. Francis Darwin later demonstrated
that the tips of the plumules of grasses were sensitive parts.
The responding part is situated some little distance farther back,
being in fact the region where growth is active. This bending
part has been proved to be insensitive to the stimuli. There is
consequently a transmission of the stimulus from the sensitive
organ to a kind of motor mechanism situated some little way off.
We find thus three factors of a nervous mechanism present, a
receptive, a conducting, and a responding part. The differen-
tiation of the plant's substance so indicated is, however,
physiological only; there is no histological difference between
the cells of these regions that can be associated with the several
properties they possess. Even the root tip, which shows a certain
differentiation into root cap and root apex, cannot be said to be a
definite sense organ in the same way as the sense organs of an
animal. The root is continually growing and so the sensitive
part is continually changing its composition, cells being formed,
growing and becoming permanent tissue. The cells of the tip
at any given moment may be sensitive, but in a few days the
power of receiving the stimulus has passed to other and younger
cells which then constitute the tip. The power of appreciating
the environment is therefore to be associated with the protoplasm
only at a particular stage of its development and is transitory in
its character.

What the nature of the stimulation is we are not able to say.
The protoplasm is sensitive to particular influences, perhaps of
vibration, or of contact or of chemical action. We can imagine
though perhaps only vaguely, the way in which light, tempera-
ture, moisture, contact, &c, can affect it. The perception of
direction or the influence of gravity presents greater difficulty,
as we have no clear idea of the form which the force of gravity
takes. Recently some investigations by Haberlandt, Noll,
Darwin and others have suggested an explanation which has
much to recommend it. The sensitive cells must clearly be
influenced in some way by weight — not the weight of external
organs but of some weight within them. This may possibly be
the cell sap in their interior, which must exercise a slightly
different hydrostatic pressure on the basal and the lateral walls of
the cells. Or more probably it may be the weight of definite
particulate structures in their vacuoles. Many experiments
point to certain small grains of starch which are capable of dis-
placement as the position of the cell is altered. Such small
granules have been observed in the sensitive cells, and there is an
evident correlation between these and the power of receiving the
geotropic stimulus. It has been shown that if the organ con-
taining them is shaken for some time, so that the contact between
them and the protoplasm of the cells is emphasized, the stimulus
becomes more efficient in producing movement. This reduces
the stimulus to one of contact, which is in harmony with the
observations made upon roots similarly stimulated from the
exterior. The stimulating particles, whether starch grains in
all cases, or other particles as well, have been termed statoliths.

We have spoken of the absence of structural differentiation
in the sense organs. There is a similar difficulty in tracing the
paths by which the impulses are transmitted to the growing and
curving regions. The conduction of such stimulation to parts
removed some distance from the sense organ suggests paths of
transmission comparable to those which transmit nervous

754

PLANTS

[PATHOLOGY

impulses in animals. Again, the degree of differentiation is
very slight anatomically, but delicate protoplasmic threads have
been shown to extend through all cell-walls, connecting together
all the protoplasts of a plant. These may well serve as con-
ductors of nervous impulses. The nervous mechanism thus
formed is very rudimentary, but in an organism the conditions
of whose life render locomotion impossible great elaboration
would seem superfluous. There is, however, very great delicacy
of perception or appreciation on the part of the sense organ,
stimuli being responded to which are quite incapable of
impressing themselves upon the most highly differentiated
animal.

The power of response is seen most easily in the case of young
growing organs, and the parts which show the motor mechanism
are mainly the young growing cells. We do not find their
behaviour like that of the motor mechanism of an animal. The
active contraction of muscular tissue has no counterpart in the
plant. The peculiarity of the protoplasm in almost every cell
is that it is especially active in the regulation of its permeability
by water. Under different conditions it can retain it more
strongly or allow it to escape more freely. This regulation of
turgor is as characteristic of vegetable protoplasm as contraction
is of muscle. The response to the stimulus takes the form of
increasing the permeability of particular cells of the growing
structures, and so modifying the degree of the turgidity that is
the precursor of growth in them. The extent of the area affected
and of the variation in the turgor depends upon many circum-
stances, but we have no doubt that in the process of modifying
its own permeability by some molecular change we have the
counterpart of muscular contractibility.

The response made by the adult parts of plants, to which
reference has been made, is brought about by a mechanism
similar in nature though rather differently applied. If the leaf of
Mimosa or Desmodium be examined, it will be seen that at the
base of each leaflet and each leaf, just at the junction with the
respective axes, is a swelling known as a pulvinus. This has a
relatively large development of succulent parenchyma on its
upper and lower sides. In the erect position of the leaf the lower
side has its cells extremely turgid, and the pulvinus thus forms
a cushion, holding up the petiole. On stimulation these cells
part with their water, the lower side of the organ becomes flaccid
and the weight of the leaf causes it to fall. The small pulvini
of the leaflets, by similar changes of the distribution of turgidity,
take up their respective positions after receiving the stimulus.
In some cases the two sides of the pulvini vary their turgidity in
turns; in others only the lower side becomes modified.

Similar turgescence changes, taking place with similar rapidity
in the midrib of the leaf of Dionaea, explain the closing of the
lobes upon their hinge. More slowly, but yet in the same way,
we may note the change in turgidity of certain cells of the
Droscra tentacles, as they close over the imprisoned insect.

Organic PJiylhm.- — It is a remarkable fact that during the
process of growth we meet with rhythmic variation of such
turgidity. The existence of rhythm of this kind has been ob-
served and studied with some completeness. It is the immediate
cause of the phenomena of circumnutation, each cell of the
circumnutating organ showing a rhythmic enlargement and
decrease of its dimensions, due to the admission of more and less
water into its interior. The restraint of the protoplasm changes
gradually and rhythmically. The sequence of the phases of the
rhythm of the various cells are co-ordinated to produce the
movement. Nor is it only in growing organs that the rhythm
can be observed, for many plants exhibit it during a much
longer period than that of growth. It is easy to realize how such
a rhythm can be modified by the reception of stimuli, and can
consequently serve as the basis for the movement of the stimu-
lated organ. This rhythmic affection of vegetable protoplasm
can be observed in very many of its functions. What have been
described as " periodicities," such as the daily variations of
root -pressure, afford familiar instances of it. It reminds us of a
similar property of animal protoplasm which finds its expression
in the rhythmic beat of the heart and other phenomena.

Authorities. — Sachs, Lectures on the Physiology of Plants, trans-
lated by Marshall Ward ; Vines, Lectures on the Physiology of Plants ;
Pfeffer, The Physiology of Plants, trans, by Ewart ; Reynolds Green,
Introduction to Vegetable Physiology; The Soluble Ferments and Fer-
mentation; Detmer, Practical Plant Physiology, trans, by Moor;
Darwin and Acton, Practical Physiology of Plants; Davenport, C.B.,
Experimental Morphology, vols. i. and ii. ; Verworn, General Physiology,
trans, by Lee; Biitschli, Investigation on Microscopic Forms and on
Protoplasm, trans, by Minchin. (J. R. Gr.)

Pathology or Plants
" Phytopathology " or plant pathology (Gr. 4>vtov, plant),
comprises our knowledge of the symptoms, course, causes and
remedies of the maladies which threaten the life of plants, or
which result in abnormalities of structure that are regarded,
whether directly injurious or not to life, as unsightly or undesir-
able. In its systematized form, as a branch of botanical study,
it is of recent date, and, as now understood, the subject first
received special attention about 1850, when the nature of
parasitism began to be intelligible; but many disjointed refer-
ences to diseased conditions of plants had appeared long before
this. The existence of blights and mildews of cereals had been
observed and recorded in very ancient times, as witness the Bible,
where half a dozen references to such scourges occur in the Old
Testament alone. The epidemic nature of wheat-rust was
known to Aristotle about 350 B.C., and the Greeks and Romans
knew these epidemics well, their philosophers having shrewd
speculations as to causes, while the people held characteristic
superstitions regarding them, which found vent in the dedication
of special festivals and deities to the pests. Pliny knew that
flies emerge from galls. The few records during the middle ages
are borne out by what is known of famines and pestilence.
Shakespeare's reference in King Lear (Act in., sc. iv.) may be
quoted as evincing acquaintance with mildew in the 17th century,
as also the interesting Rouen law of Loverdo (1660). Malpighi
in 1679 gave excellent figures and accounts of leaf-rolling and
gall insects, and Grew in 1682 equally good descriptions of a leaf-
mining caterpillar. During the 18th century more academic
treatment of the subject began to replace the scattered notes.
Hales (1727-1733) discussed the rotting of wounds, cankers, &c,
but much had to be done with the microscope before any real
progress was possible, and it is easily intelligible that until the
theory of nutrition of the higher plants had been founded by the
work of Ingenhouss, Priestley and De Saussure, the way was not
even prepared for accurate knowledge of cryptogamic parasites
and the diseases they induce. It was not till De Bary (1866)
made known the true nature of parasitic Fungi, based on his
researches between 1853-1863, that the vast domain of epidemic
diseases of plants was opened up to fruitful investigation, and
such modern treatises as those of Frank (1880 and 1.805), Sorauer
(1886), Kirchner (1890), were gradually made possible.

Plant pathology embraces several branches of study, and may
be conveniently divided as follows: —

1. The observation and accurate description of symptoms
(Diagnosis).

2. The study of causes or agencies inducing disease (Aetiology).

3. The practise of preventive and remedial measures (Thera-
peutics) .

In plants, however, the symptoms of disease are apt to exhibit
themselves in a very general manner. Our perceptions differen-
tiate but imperfectly symptoms which are due to very different
causes and reactions, probably because the organization of the
plant is so much less highly specialized than that of higher
animals. The yellowing and subsequent casting of leaves, for
instance, is a very general symptom of disease in plants, and may
be induced by drought, extremes of temperature, insufficient or
excessive illumination, excess of water at the roots, the action of
parasitic Fungi, insects, worms, &c, or of poisonous gases, and so
forth; and extreme caution is necessary in dealing with amateur
descriptions of such symptoms, especially when the untrained
eye has taken no cognisance of, or has only vaguely observed, the
numerous collateral circumstances of the case.

The causes of disease may be provisionally classified somewhat
as follows, but it may be remarked at the outset that no one of

PATHOLOGYl

PLANTS

755

these proximal causes, or agents, is ever solely responsible; and it
is very easy to err in attributing a diseased condition to any of
them, unless the relative importance of primary and subordinate
agencies is discoverable. For instance, a Fungus epidemic is
impossible unless the climatic conditions are such as to favour
the dispersal and germination of the spores; and when plants are
killed off owing to the supersaturation of the soil with water, it
is by no means obvious whether the excess of water and dissolved
materials, or the exclusion of oxygen from the root-hairs, or the
lowering of the temperature, or the accumulation of foul products
of decomposition should be put into the foreground. In every
case there are chains of causation concerned^and the same factors
will be differently grouped in different cases.

Bearing in mind these precautions, we may classify the
proximal causal agents of disease as —

I. — External agencies.
A. Non-living.
a. Material.

1. Physical —
Soil.
Water.
Atmosphere.

2. Chemical —
Soil.
Water.
Atmosphere.

b. Non-material.

i. Temperature.

2. Illumination.

3. Other agencies.
B. Living.

a. Animals.

1. Vertebrata.

2. Invertebrata.

b. Plants.

1. Phanerogams.

2. Cryptogams.

If. — Internal agencies.
While such a classification may serve its purpose as a sort of
index, it must be confessed that the limits of its usefulness are
soon reached. In the first place, the so-called " internal causes "
of disease is probably a mere phrase covering our ignorance of the
factors at work, and although a certain convenience attaches
to the distinction between those cases where tender breeds of
plants apparently exhibit internal predisposition to suffer more
readily than others from parasites, low temperatures, excessive
growth, &c. — as is the case with some grafted plants, cultivated
hybrids, &c. — the mystery involved in the phrase " internal
causes " only exists until we find what action of the living or non-
living environment of the essential mechanism of the plant has
ups«t its equilibrium.

I. — Passing to the recognized external agencies, the physical
condition of the soil is a fruitful source of disease. If too closely
packed, the soil particles present mechanical obstacles to growth;
if too retentive of moisture, the root-hairs suffer, as already hinted ;
if too open or over-drained, the plant succumbs to drought. All
those properties of soil known as texture, porosity, depth, inclina-
tion to the horizon, &c, are concerned here. Many maladies of
plants are traceable to the chemical composition of soils — e.g.
deficiency of nutritive salts, especially nitrates and phosphates;
the presence of poisonous salts of iron, copper, &c, or (in the soil
about the roots of trees in towns) of coal-gas and so forth. But
it is worthy of special attention that the mere chemical com-
position of agricultural and garden soils is, as a rule, the least im-
portant feature about them, popular opinion to the contrary
notwithstanding. Ordinary soils will almost always provide the
necessary chemical ingredients if of proper physical texture, depth,
&c. (see Fungi and Bacteriology).

As regards water, its deficiency or excess is a relative matter, and
although many of the minor maladies of pot-plants in windows
and greenhouses controlled by amateurs depend on its misuse,
water alone is probably never a primary cause of disease. Its
over-supply is, however, a frequent cause of predisposition to the
attacks of parasitic Fungi — e.g. the damping off of seedlings — and
in saturated soils not only are the roots and root-hairs killed by
asphyxiation, but the whole course of soil fermentation is altered,
and it takes time to " sweeten " such by draining, because not
only must the noxious bodies be gradually washed out and the
lost salts restored, but the balance of suitable bacterial and fungal
life must be restored.

The atmosphere is a cause of disease in the neighbourhood of
chemical works, large towns, volcanoes, &c, in so far as it carries
acid gases and poisons to the leaves and roots; but it is usual to
associate with it the action of excessive humidity which brings
about those tender watery and more or less etiolated conditions
which favour parasitic Fungi, and diminish transpiration and there-
fore nutrition. It is customary to speak of the disastrous effects
of cold winds, snow, hail and frost, lightning, &c, under the heading
of atmospheric influences, which only shows once more how im-
possible it is to separate causes individually.

Turning to the non-material external agents, probably no factors
are more responsible for ill-health in plants than temperature and

light. Every plant is constrained to carry out its functions of
germination, growth, nutrition, reproduction, &c, between certain
limits of temperature, and somewhere between the extremes of
these limits each function finds an optimum temperature at which
the working of the living machinery is at its best, and, other things
being equal, any great departure from this may induce pathological
conditions; and many disasters are due to the failure to provide
such suitable temperatures — e.g. in greenhouses where plants
requiring very different optimum temperatures and illumination
are kept together. Equally disastrous are those climatic or seasonal
changes which involve temperatures in themselves not excessive
but in wrong sequence; how many more useful plants could be
grown in the open in the United Kingdom if the deceptively mild>
springs were not so often followed by frosts in May and June !
The indirect effects of temperature are also important. Trees, of
which the young buds are " nipped " by frost, would frequently
not suffer material injury, were it not that the small frost-cracks
serve as points of entry for Fungi; and numerous cases are known
where even high temperatures can be endured on rich, deep, reten-
tive soils by plants which at once succumb to drought on shallow
or non-retentive soils.

All chlorophyll plants require light, but in very different degrees,
as exemplified even in the United Kingdom by the shade-bearing
beech and yew contrasted with the light-demanding larch and
birch ; and as with temperature so with light, every plant and even
every organ has its optimum of illumination. The " drawn " or
etiolated condition of over-shaded plants is a case in point, though
here again the soft, watery plant often really succumbs to other
disease agents — e.g. parasitic Fungi — supervening on its non-
resistant condition.

Animals and plants as agents of disease or injury form part of
the larger subject of the struggle for existence between living
organisms, as is recognized even by those who do not so readily
apprehend that diseased conditions in general are always signs of
defeat in the struggle for existence between the suffering organism
and its environment, living and non-living.

The Vertebrata come within the scope of our subject, chiefly as
destructive agents which cause wounds or devour young shoots
and foliage, &c. Rabbits and other burrowing animals injure
roots, squirrels and birds snip off buds, horned cattle strip off bark,
and so forth. It is among the Invertebrata that epidemics of
destruction are referred to, though we should bear in mind that
it is only the difference in numerical proportion that prevents our
speaking of an epidemic of elephants or of rabbits, though we use
the term when speaking of blight insects; there is little consistency
in the matter, as it is usual to speak of an invasion or scourge of
locusts, caterpillars, &c. Insect injuries are very varied in degree
and in kind. Locusts devour all before them ; caterpillars defoliate
c-_ plant, and necessitate the premature utilization of its reserves;
other insects {e.g. Grapholitha) eat the buds or the roots (e.g. wire-
worms), and so maim the plant that its foliage suffers from want
of water and assimilation is diminished, or actual withering follows.
Many aphides, &c, puncture the leaves, suck out the sap, and
induce various local deformations, arrest of growth, pustular
swellings, &c, and if numerous all the evils of defoliation may
follow. Others {e.g. miners) tunnel into the leaf parenchyma,
and so put the assimilating areas out of action in another way.
It should be remembered that a single complete defoliation of a
herbaceous annual may so incapacitate the assimilation that no
stores are available for seeds, tubers, &c, for another year, or at
most so little that feeble plants only come up. In the case of a
tree matters run somewhat differently; most large trees in full
foliage have far more assimilatory surface than is immediately
necessary, and if the injury is confined to a single year it may be
a small event in the life of the tree, but if repeated the cambium,
bud-stores and fruiting may all suffer. Many larvae of beetles,
moths, &c, bore into bark, and injure the cambium, or even the
wood and pith; in addition to direct injury, the interference with
the transpiration current and the access of other parasites through
the wounds are also to be feared in proportion to the numbers of
insects at work. Various local hypertrophies, including galls,
result from the increased growth of young tissues irritated by the
punctures of insects, or by the presence of eggs or larvae left behind.
They may occur on all parts, buds, leaves, stems or roots, as shown
by the numerous species of Cynips on oak, Phylloxera on vines, &c.
The local damage is small, but the general injury to assimilation,
absorption and other functions, may be important if the numbers
increase. In addition to insects, various kinds of worms, molluscs,
&c, are sometimes of importance as pests. The so-called eel-
worms {Nematodes) may do immense damage on roots and in
the grains of cereals, and every one knows how predatory slugs
and snails are. (See Economic Entomology.)

Plants as agents of damage and disease may be divided into
those larger forms which as weeds, epiphytes and so forth, do
injury by dominating and shading more delicate species, or by
gradually exhausting the soil, &c, and true parasites which actually
live on and in the tissues of the plants. It must be remembered
that phanerogams also include parasitic species — e.g. Cuscuta,
Loranlhus, Viscum, Thesium, Rhinanthus, &c. — with various capac-
ities for injury. These enemies are as a rule so conspicuous that

756

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[PATHOLOGY

we do not look on their depredations as diseases, though the gradual I
deterioration of hay under the exhausting effects of root-parasites
like Rhinanthus, and the onslaught of Cuscuta when unduly abund-
ant, should teach us how unimportant to the definition the question
of size may be.

It is, however, among the Fungi that we find the most disastrous
and elusive agents of disease. Parasitic Fungi may be, as regards
their direct action, purely local — e.g. Schinzia, which forms gall-
like swellings on the roots of rushes; Gymnosporangium, causing
excrescences on juniper stems; numerous leaf Fungi such as Puc-
cinia, Aecidium, Septoria, &c, causing yellow, brown or black
spots on leaves; or Ustilago in the anthers of certain flowers. In
such cases the immediate damage done may be slight; but the
effects of prolonged action and the summation of numerous attacks
at numerous points are often enormous, certain of these leaf-
diseases costing millions sterling annually to some planting and
agricultural communities. In other cases the Fungus is virulent
and rampant, and, instead of a local effect, exerts a general de-
structive action throughout the plant — e.g. Pythium, which causes
the " damping off " of seedlings, reducing them to a putrid mass in
a few hours, and Phytophthora, the agent of the potato disease.
Many Fungi, in themselves not very aggressive, slowly bring about
important and far-reaching secondary effects. Thus, many Hymeno-
mycetes (Agarics, Polyporei, &c.) live on the wood of trees. This
wood is in great part already dead substance, but the mycelium
gradually invades the vessels occupied with the transmission of
water up the trunk, cuts off the current, and so kills the tree; in
other cases such Fungi attack the roots, and so induce rot and starva-
tion of oxygen, resulting in " fouling." Numerous Fungi, though
conspicuous as parasites, cannot be said to do much individual
injury to the host. The extraordinary malformations known as
" Witches' Brooms," caused by the repeated branching and tufting
of twigs in which the mycelium of Exoascus (on birch) or Aecidium
(on silver fir) are living, may be borne in considerable numbers
for years without any very extensive apparent injury to the tree.
Again, the curious distortions on the stems of nettles attacked by
the Aecidium form of the heteroecious Puccina Caricis (see Fungi
for Heteroecism), or on maize stems and leaves attacked by Ustilago
Maydis, or on the inflorescence of crucifers infested with Cystopus,
&c, are not individually very destructive; it is the cumulative
effects of numerous attacks or of extensive epidemics which eventu-
ally tell. Some very curious details are observable in these cases
of malformation. For instance, the Aecidium elatinum first referred
to causes the new shoots to differ in direction, duration and arrange-
ment, and even shape of foliage leaves from the normal; and the
shoots of Euphorbia infected with the aecidia of Uromyces Pisi
depart so much from the normal in appearance that the attacked
plants have been taken for a different species. Similarly with Anemone
infested with Puccinia and Vaccinium with Calyptospora, and many
other cases of deformations due to hypertrophy or atrophy. In-
stances of what we may term tolerated parasitism, where the host
plant seems to accommodate itself very well to the presence of the
Fungus, paying the tax it extorts and nevertheless not succumbing
but managing to provide itself with sufficient material to goon with,
are not rare; and these seem to lead to those cases where the mutual
accommodation between host and guest has been carried so far
that each derives some benefit from the association — symbiosis
(see Fungi).

II. The kinds of disease due to these various agencies are very
different. A plant may be diseased as a whole, because nearly
all its tissues are in a morbid or pathological condition, owing to
some Fungus pervading the whole — e.g. Pythium in seedlings — or
to a poison diffusing from cell to cell; in the case of unicellular
plants — e.g. an alga infested with a Chytridium — indeed, matters
can hardly be otherwise. But the case is obviously different
where a plant dies because some essential organ or tissue tract has
been destroyed, and other parts have suffered because supplies
are cut off — e.g. when the upper parts of a tree die off owing to
destruction of the roots, or to the ringing of the stem lower down,'
and consequent interference with the transpiration current. In
a large number of cases, however, the disease is purely local, and
does not itself extend far into the organ or tissue affected.

If a mass of living plant-tissue is cut, the first change observed
is one of colour: the white " flesh " of a potato or an apple turns
brown as the air enters, and closer examination shows that cell
walls and contents are alike affected. The cut cells die, and oxidized
products are concerned in the change of colour, the brown juices
exuding and soaking into the cell-walls. The next change observ-
able after some hours is that the untouched cells below the cut
grow larger, push up the dead surface, and divide by walls tangential
to it, with the formation of tabloid cork-cells. The layer of cork
thus formed cuts out the dead debris and serves to protect the
uninjured cells below. Such healing by cork formation is accom-
panied by a rise of temperature: the active growth of the dividing
cells is accompanied by vigorous metabolism and respiration, and
a state of " wound fever " supervenes until the healing is completed.
The phenomena described occur in all cases of cicatrization of
wounds in nature — e.g. leaf-tissue, young stems, roots, &c, when
cut or pierced by insects, thorns and so forth. They are con-
cerned in the occlusion of broken twigs and of falling leaves, and

it is from the actively growing " callus" developed at the surface
of the wounded tissues of cuttings, buddings, prunings, &c, that
the healing and « renewal of tissues occur of which advantage is
taken in the practice of what might well be termed plant surgery.
A third phenomenon observable in such healing tissues is the
increased flow and accumulation of plastic materials at the seat of
injury. The enhanced metabolism creates a current of draught
on the supplies of available food-stuffs around. The phenomenon
of irritability here concerned is well shown in certain cases where
a parasitic organism gains access to a cell — e.g. Pleotr achelus causes
the invaded Pilobolus to swell up, and changes the whole course
of its cell metabolism, and similarly with Plasmodiophora in the
roots of turnips, and many other cases.

Irritation and hypertrophy of cells are common signs of the pres-
ence of parasites, as evinced by the numerous malformations, galls,
witches'-brooms, &c, on diseased plants. The now well-known
fact that small doses of poisonous substances may act as stimuli
to living protoplasm, and that respiratory activity and growth
may be accelerated by chloroform, ether and even powerful mineral
poisons, such as mercuric chloride, in minimal doses, offers some
explanation of these phenomena of hypertrophy, " wound fever,"
and other responses to the presence of irritating agents. Still
further insight is afforded by our increasing knowledge of the
enzymes, and it is to be remarked that both poisons and enzymes
are very common in just such parasitic Fungi as induce discolora-
tions, hypertrophies and the death of cells — e.g. Botrytis, Ergot, &c.
Now it is clear that if an organism gains access to all parts of a
plant, and stimulates all or most of its cells to hypertrophy, we may
have the latter behaving abnormally — i.e. it may be diseased through-
out; and such actually occurs in the case of Euphorbia pervaded
with Uromyces Pisi, the presence of which alters the whole aspect
of the host-plant. If such a general parasite carries its activities
farther, every cell may be killed and the plant forthwith destroyed—
e.g. Phytophthora in potatoes. . If, on the other hand, the irritating
agent is local in its action, causing only a few cells to react, we have
the various pimples, excrescences, outgrowths, &c, exhibited in
such cases as Ustilago Maydis on the maize, various galls, witches'-
brooms, &c.

It must not be overlooked that the living cells of the plant react
upon the parasite as well as to all external agencies, and the nature
of disease becomes intelligible only if we bear in mind that it con-
sists in such altered metabolism — deflected physiology — as is here
implied. The reaction of the cells may be in two directions,
moreover. For instance, suppose the effect of a falling temperature
is to so modify the metabolism of the cells that they fill up more
and more with watery sap; as the freezing-point is reached this
may result in destructive changes, and death from cold may result.
If, on the contrary, the gradual cooling is met by a corresponding
depletion of the cells of water, even intense cold may be sustained
without injury.

Or, take another case. If the attack of a parasite is met by the
formation of some substance in the protoplasm which is chemo- •
tactically repulsive to the invader, it may be totally incapable of
penetrating the cell, even though equipped with a whole armoury
of cytases, diastatic and other enzymes, and poisons which would
easily overcome the more passive resistances offered by mere
cell-walls and cell-contents of other plants, the protoplasm of which
forms bodies chemotactically attractive to the Fungus.

The various degrees of parasitism are to a certain extent explained
by the foregoing. In order that a Fungus may enter a plant, it
must be able to overcome not merely the resistance of cell-walls,
but that of the living protoplasm; if it cannot do this, it must remain
outside as a mere epiphyte, e.g. Fumago, Herpotrichia, &c, or, at
most, vegetate in the intercellular spaces and anchor itself to the
cell-walls, e.g. Trichosphaeria. The inability to enter the cells
may be due to the lack of chemotactic bodies, to incapacity to
form cellulose-dissolving enzymes, to the existence in the host-
cells of antagonistic bodies which neutralize or destroy the acids,
enzymes or poisons formed by the hyphae, or even to the forma-
tion and excretion of bodies which poison the Fungus. But even
when inside it does not follow that the Fungus can kill the cell,
and many cases are known where the Fungus can break through
the cell's first lines of defence (cell-wall and protoplasmic lining) ;
but the struggle goes on at close quarters, and various degrees of
hypertrophy, accumulation of plastic bodies or secretions, dis-
colorations, &c, indicate the suffering of the still living cell.
Finally, cases occur where the invaded cell so adapts itself to the
presence of the intruder that life in common — symbiosis — results.
The dissemination of plant parasites is favoured by many cir-
cumstances not always obvious, whence an air of mystery regarding
epidemics was easily created in earlier times. The spores of
Rusts, Erysipheae and other Fungi may be conveyed from plant
to plant by snails; those of tree- killing polyporei, &c, by mice,
rabbits, rats, &c, which rub their fur against the hymenophores.
Bees carry the spores of Sclerotinia as they do the pollen of the
bilberries, and flies convey the conidia of ergot from grain to grain.
Insects, indeed, are largely concerned in disseminating Fungi,
either on their bodies or via the alimentary canal. Worms bring
spores to the surface of soil, ducks and other birds convey them on
their muddy feet, and, as is well-known, wind and other physical

PATHOLOGY]

PLANTS

757

agencies are very efficient in dissemination. The part played by
man also counts for much. Gardeners and farm labourers convey
spores from one bed or field to another; carted soil, manure, &c,
may abound in spores of Smuts, Fusarium, Polyporei and in sclerotia;
and articles through the post and so forth often carry infective
spores. Every time a carpenter saws fresh timber with a saw
recently put through wood attacked with dry-rot, he risks infect-
ing it with the Fungus; and similarly in pruning, in propagating
by cuttings, &c.

The annual losses due to epidemic plant diseases attain pro-
portions not easily estimated. As regards money value alone the
following figures may serve in illustration. In 1882 the United
States was calculated to have lost £40,000,000 to £60,000,000 from
insect and other pests. The wheat-rust costs Australia £2,000,000
to £3,000,000 annually, and in 1891 alone the loss which Prussia
suffered from grain-rusts was estimated at £20,000,000 sterling.

The terrible losses sustained by whole communities of farmers,
planters, foresters, &c, from plant diseases have naturally stimu-
lated the search for remedies, but even now the search is too often
conducted in the spirit of the believer in quack medicines, although
the agricultural world is awakening to the fact that before any
measures likely to be successful can be attempted, the whole chain
of causation of the disease must be investigated. Experience with
epidemics, dearly bought in the past, has shown that one fruitful
cause is the laying open to the inroads of some Fungus or insect,
hitherto leading a quiet endemic life in the fields and forests,_ large
tracts of its special food, along which it may range rampant without
check to its dispersal, nutrition and reproduction. Numerous
wild hypotheses as to changes in the constitution of the host-plant,
leading to supposed vulnerability previously non-existent, would
probably never have seen the light had the full significance of the
truth been grasped that an epidemic results when the external
factors favour a parasite somewhat more than they do the host.
It may be that in particular cases particular modes of cultivation
disfavour the host; or that the soil, climate or seasons do so; but
overwhelming evidence exists to show that the principal causes of
epidemics reside in circumstances which favour the spread, nutrition
and reproduction of the pest, and the lesson to be learnt is that
precautions against the establishment of such favouring conditions
must be sought. Nevertheless, epidemics occur, and practical
measures are devised to meet the various cases and to check the
ravages already begun. The procedure consists in most cases in
spraying the affected plants with poisonous solutions or emulsions,
or in dusting them with fungicidal or insccticidal powders, or apply-
ing the fumes of lethal gases. For the composition of the numerous
liquids and powders special works must be consulted, but the
following principles apply generally. The poison must not be
strong enough to injure the roots, leaves, &c, of the host-plant,
or allowed to act long enough to bring about such injury. Care
and intelligence are especially needful with certain insecticides
such as poisonous gases, or the operators may suffer. It is worse
than useless to apply drastic remedies if the main facts cf the life-
history of the pest are not known; e.g. the application of ordinary
antiseptic powders to leaves inside which a Fungus, such as a Uredo
or Vstilago, is growing can only result in failure, and similarly if
tobacco fumes, for instance, are applied when the insects con-
cerned are hibernating in the ground beneath. Such applications
at the moment when spores are germinating on the leaves, e.g.
Peronospora, or to the young mycelia of epiphytic parasites, e.g.
Erysiphe, or the steeping in hot water of thoroughly ripe hard grains
to which spores are attached, e.g. Ustilago, and filling a greenhouse
with hydrocyanic acid gas when young insects are commencing
their ravages, e.g. Red-spider — all these and similar procedures
timed to .catch the pest at a vulnerable stage are intelligent and
profitable prophylactic measures, as has been repeatedly shown.
Numerous special methods of preventing the spread of Fungi, or
the migrations of insects, or of trapping various animals; of leaving
infested ground fallow, or of growing another crop useless to the
pest, &c, are also to be found in the practical treatises. More
indirect methods, such as the grafting of less resistant scions on
more vigorous stocks, of raising special late or early varieties by
crossing or selection, and so on, have also met with .success; but
it must be understood that " resistant " in such cases usually
means that some peculiarity of quick growth, early ripening or
other life-feature in the plant is for the time being taken advantage
of. Among the most interesting modern means of waging war
against epidemic pests is that of introducing other epidemics
among the pests themselves — e.g. the infection of rats and mice
with disease bacilli, or of locusts with insect-killing Fungi, and
signs of the successful carrying out of such measures are not wanting.
That the encouragement of insectivorous birds has been profitable
is well established, and it is equally well-known that their destruc-
tion may lead to disastrous insect plagues.

Diseases and Symptoms. — The symptoms of plant diseases are,
as already said, apt to be very general in their nature, and are
sometimes so vaguely defined that little can be learned from
them as to the causes at work. We may often distinguish
between primary symptoms and secondary or subordinate

symptoms, but for the purposes of classification in an article of
this scope we shall only attempt to group the various cases under
the more obvious signs of disease exhibited.

I. Discolor ations are among the commonest of all signs that a
plant is " sickly " or diseased. The principal symptom may show
itself in general pallor, including all cases where the normal healthy
green hue is replaced by a sickly yellowish hue indicating that the
chlorophyll apparatus is deficient. It may be due to insufficient
illumination (Etiolation), as seen in geraniums kept in too shaded
a situation, and is then accompanied by soft tissues, elongation
of internodes, leaves usually reduced in size, &c. The laying of
wheat is a particular case. False etiolation may occur from too
low a temperature, often seen in young wheat in cold springs.
Cases of pallor due to too intense illumination and destruction of
chlorophyll must also be distinguished. Chlorosis is a form of
pallor where the chlorophyll remains in abeyance owing to a want
of iron, and can be cured by adding ferrous salts. Lack of other
ingredients may also induce chlorotic conditions. Yellowing is a
common sign of water-logged roots, and if accompanied by wilting
may be due to drought. Over-transpiration in bright wintry
weather, when the roots are not absorbing, often results in yellow-
ing. In other cases the presence of insects, Fungi or poisons at
the roots may be looked for. Albinism, with which variegated
foliage may be considered, concerns a different set of causes, still
obscure, and usually regarded as internal, though experiments
go to show that some variegations are infectious.

2. Spotted Leaves, &c. — Discoloured spots or patches on leaves
and other herbaceous parts are common symptoms of disease, and
often furnish clues to identification of causes, though it must be
remembered that no sharp line divides this class of symptoms from
the preceding. By far the greater number of spot-diseases are due
to Fungi, as indicated by the numerous " leaf-diseases " described,
but such is by no means always the case. The spot or patch is an
area of injury; on (or in) it the cell-contents are suffering destruc-
tion from shading, blocking of stomata, loss of substance or direct
mechanical injury, and the plant suffers in proportion to the area
of leaf surface put out of action. It is somewhat artificial to classify
these diseases according to the colour of the spots, and often im-
possible, because the colour may differ according to the age of the
part attacked and the stage of injury attained; many Fungi, for
instance, induce yellow spots which become red, brown or black
as they get older, and so on. White or grey spots may be due to
Peronospora, Erysiphe, Cystopus, Entyloma and other Fungi, the
mycelium of which will be detected in the discoloured area; or they
may be scale insects, or the results of punctures by Red-spider, &c.
Yellow spots, and especially bright orange spots, commonly indicate
Rust Fungi or other Uredineae; but Phyllosticta, Exoascus, Clastero-
sporium, Synchytrium, &c, also induce similar symptoms. Certain
Aphides, Red-spider, Phylloxera and other insects also betray
their presence by such spots. It is a very common event to find the
early stages of injury indicated by pale yellow spots, which turn
darker, brown, red, black, &c, later, e.g. Dilophia, Rhytisma, &c.
Moreover, variegations deceptively like these disease spots are
known, e.g. Senecio Kaempferi. Red" spots may indicate the
presence of Fungi, e.g. Polystigma, or insects, e.g. Phytoptus. Brown
spots are characteristic of Phytophthora, Puccinia, &c, and black
ones of Fusicladium, Ustilago, Rhytisma, &c. Both are common
as advanced symptoms of destruction by Fungi and insects.
Brilliantly coloured spots and patches follow the action of acid
fumes on the vegetation near towns and factories, and such parti-
coloured leaves often present striking resemblance to autumn
foliage. Symptoms of scorching owing to abnormal insolation —
e.g. in greenhouses where the sun's rays are concentrated on
particular spots — and a certain class of obscure diseases, such as
" silver-leaf " in plums, " foxy leaves " in various plants, may also
be placed here.

3. Wounds. — The principal phenomena resulting from a simple
wound, and the response of the irritated c&ls in healing by cork
and in the formation of callus, have been indicated above. Any
clean cut, fracture or bruise which injures the cambium over a
limited area is met with the same response. The injured cells die
and turn brown; the living cells beneath grow out, and form cork,
and under the released pressure bulge outwards and repeatedly
divide, forming a mass of succulent regenerative tissue known as
callus. Living ce'ls of the pith, phloem, cortex, &c, may also
co-operate in this formation of regenerative tissue, and if the wound
is a mere knife-cut in the " bark," the protruding lips of callus
formed at the edges of the wound soon meet, and the slit is healed
over — occluded. If a piece of bark and cortex are torn off, the
occlusion takes longer, because the tissues have to creep over the
exposed area of wood; and the same is true of a transverse cut
severing the branch, as may be seen in any properly pruned tree.
Wounds may be artificially grouped under such heads as the
following: Burrows and excavations in bark and wood_ due to
boring insects, especially beetles. Breakages and abrasions due
to wind, snow, lightning, and other climatic agents. Cuts, break-
ages, &c, due to man and other vertebrate animals. Erosions of
leaves and herbaceous parts by caterpillars, slugs, earwigs and so
forth. Frost-cracks, scorching of bark by sun and fire, &c, and

75 8

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[PATHOLOGY

wounds due to plants which entwine, pierce or otherwise materially
injure trees, &c, on a large scale.

4. Excrescences. — Outgrowths, more or less abnormal in character,
are frequent signs of diseased organs. They are due to hyper-
trophy of young tissues, which may undergo profound alterations
subsequently, and occur on all parts of the plants. The injury
which initiates them may be very slight in the first place — a mere
abrasion, puncture or Fungus infection — but the minute wound or
other disturbance, instead of healing over normally, is frequently
maintained as a perennial source of irritation, and the regenerative
tissues grow on month after month or year after year, resulting
in extraordinary outgrowths often of large size and remarkable
shape. Excrescences may be divided into those occurring on
herbaceous tissues, of which Galls are well-known examples, and
those found on the woody stem, branches, &c, and themselves
eventually woody, of which Burrs of various kinds afford common
illustrations. Among the simplest examples of the former are the
hairs which follow the irritation of the cells by mites. These hairs
often occur in tufts, and are so coloured and arranged that they
were long taken for Fungi and placed in the " genus " Erineum.

Cecidia or galls arise by the hypertrophy of the subepidermal
cells of a leaf, cortex, &c, which has been pierced by the ovipositor
of an insect, and in which the egg is deposited. The irritation set
up by the hatching egg and its resulting larva appears to be the
stimulus to development, and net a poison or enzyme injected by
the insect. The extraordinary forms, colours and textures of the
true galls have always formed some of the most interesting of
biological questions, for not only is there definite co-operation
between a given species of insect and of plant, as shown by the facts
that the same insect may induce galls of different kinds on different
plants or organs, while different insects induce different galls on
the same plant — e.g. the numerous galls on the oak — but the gall
itself furnishes well adapted protection and abundant stores of
nutriment to its particular larva, and often appears to be borne
without injury to the plant. This latter fact is no doubt due to
the production of an excess of plastic materials over and above
what the tree requires for its immediate needs. Galls in the wide
sense — technically Cecidia — are not always due to insects. The
nodules on the roots of leguminous plants are induced by the
presence of a minute organism now known to do no injury to the
plant. Those on turnips and other Cruciferae are due to the
infection of Plasmodiophora, a dangerously parasitic Myxomycete.
Nodules due to " eel-worms " (Nematodes) are produced on numer-
ous classes of plants, and frequently result in great losses — e.g.
tomatoes, cucumbers, &c. ; and the only too well known Phylloxera,
which cost France and other vine-growing countries many millions
sterling, is another case in point. Fungus-galls on leaves and stems
are exemplified by the " pocket-plums " caused by the Exoasceae,
the black blistering swellings of Ustilago Maydis, the yellow swellings
on nettles due to Aecidium, &c.

In many cases the swellings on leaves are minute, and may be
termed pustules — e.g. those due to Synchytrium, Protomyces, Cystopus,
many Ustilagineae, &c. These cases are not easily distinguished
superficially from the pustular outgrowth of actual mycelia and
spores (stromata) of such Fungi as Nectria, Puccinia, <&c. The
cylindrical stem-swellings due to Calyptospora, Epichloe; &c, may
also be mentioned here, and the tyro may easily confound with
these the layers and cushions of eggs laid on similar organs by
moths. There is a class of gall-like or pustular outgrowths for
which no external cause has as yet been determined, and which are
therefore often ascribed to internal causes of disease. Such are
the cork- warts on elms, maples, &c, and the class of outgrowths
known as Intumescences. Recent researches point to definite
external conditions of moisture, affecting the processes of respira-
tion and transpiration, &c, as being responsible for some of these.
The " scab " of potatoes is another case in point. Frost blisters
are pustular swellings due to the up-growth of callus-tissue into
cavities caused by the uprising of the superficial cortex under the
action of intense cold. »

Turning now to outgrowths of a woody nature, the well-known
burrs or " knaurs," so common on elms and other trees are cases
in point. They are due to some injury — e.g. bruising by a cart-
wheel, insects — having started a callus on which adventitious buds
arise, or to the destruction of buds at an early stage. Then, stores
of food-material being accumulated at the injured place, other
buds arise at the base of or around the injured one. If matters
are propitious to the development of these buds, then a tuft of
twigs is formed and no burr; but if the incipient twigs are also de-
stroyed at an early stage, new buds are again formed, and in larger
numbers than before, and the continued repetition of these processes
leads to a sort of conglomerate woody mass of fused bud-bases,
not dead, but unable to grow out, and thus each contributing a
crowded portion of woody material as it slowly grows. There are
many varieties of burrs, though all woody outgrowths of old trees
are not to be confounded with them, e.g. the " knees " of Taxo-
dium, &c. Many typical burrs might be described as witches'-
brooms, with all the twigs arrested to extremely short outgrowths.
Witches'-brooms are the tufted bunches of twigs found on silver
firs, birches and other trees, and often present resemblances to
birds' nests or clumps of mistletoe if only seen from a distance.

They are branches in whicha perennial Fungus (Aecidium, Exoascus,
&c.) has obtained a hold. This Fungus stimulates the main twig
to shoot out more twigs than usual; the mycelium then enters
each incipient twig and stimulates it to a repetition of the process,
and so in the course of years large broom-like tufts result, often
markedly different from the normal.

But undoubtedly the most importapt of the woody excrescences
on trees are cankers. A canker is the result of repeated frustrated
attempts on. the part of the callus to heal up a wound. If a clean
cut remains clean, the cambium and cortical tissues soon form callus
over it, and in this callus — regenerative tissue — new wood, &c,
soon forms, and if the wound was a small one, no trace is visible
after a few years. But the occluding callus is a mass of delicate
succulent cells, and offers a dainty morsel to certain insects —
e.g. Aphides — and may be easily penetrated by certain Fungi such
as Peziza, Nectria; and when thus attacked, the repeated conflicts
between the cambium and callus, on the one hand, trying to heal
over the wound, and the insect or Fungus, on the other, destroying
the new tissues as they are formed, results in irregular growths;
the still uninjured cambium area goes on thickening the branch,
the dead parts, of course, remain unthickened, and the portion in
which the Fungus is at work may for the time being grow more
rapidly. Such cankers often commence in mere insect punctures,
frosted buds, cracks in the cortex, &c, into which a germinating
spore sends its hypha. The seriousness of the damage done is
illustrated by the ravages of the larch disease, apple canker, &c.

5. Exudations and Rotting. — The outward symptoms of many
diseases consist in excessive discharges of moisture, often accom-
panied by bursting of over-turgid cells, and eventually by putre-
factive changes. Conditions of hyper-turgescence are common in
herbaceous plants in wet seasons, or when overcrowded and in
situations too moist for them. This unhealthy state is frequently
combined with etiolation: what is termed rankness is a particular
case, and if the factors concerned are removed by drainage, weed-
ing out, free transpiration, &c, no permanent harm may result.
With seedlings and tender plants, however, matters are frequently
complicated by the onslaughts of Fungi — e.g. Pythium, Perono-
spora, Completoria, Volutella, Botrytis, &c. That such over-
turgescence should lead to the bursting of fleshy fruits, such as
gooseberries, tomatoes and grapes, is not surprising, nor can we
wonder that fermentation and mould Fungi rapidly spread in
such fruits; and the same is true for bulbs and herbaceous organs
generally. The rotting of rhizomes, roots, &c, also comes into
this category; but while it is extremely difficult in given cases to
explain the course of events in detail, certain Fungi and bacteria
have been so definitely associated with these roots — e.g. beet-rot,
turnip disease, wet-rot of potatoes — that we have to consider each
case separately. It is, of course, impossible to do this here, but I
will briefly discuss one or two groups of cases.

Honey-dew.— The sticky condition of leaves of trees — e.g. lime —
in hot weather is owing to exudations of sugar. In many cases
the punctures of Aphides and Coccideae are shown to be responsible
for such exudations, and at least one instance is known where a
Fungus — Claviceps — causes it. But it also appears that honey-
dew may be excreted by ordinary processes of over-turgescence
pressing the liquid through water-pores, as in the tropical Caesal-
pinia, Calliandra, &c. That these exudations on leaves should
afterwards serve as pabulum for Fungi — e.g. Fumago, Antennaria
— is not surprising, and the leaves of limes are often black with
them.

Flux.— A common event in the exudation of turbid, frothing
liquids from wounds in the bark of trees, and the odours of putre-
faction and even alcoholic fermentation in these are sufficiently
explained by the coexistence of albuminous and saccharine matters
with fungi, yeasts and bacteria in such fluxes. It is clear that in
these cases the obvious symptom — the flux — is not the primary
one. Some wound in the succulent tissues has become infected
by the organisms referred to, and their continued action prevents
healing. At certain seasons the wound "bleeds," and the organ-
isms — some of which, by the bye, are remarkable and interesting
forms — multiply -in the nutritious sap and ferment it. The pheno-
menon is, in fact, very like that of the fermentation of palm wine
and pulque, where the juices are obtained from artificial cuts.

Comparable with these cases is that of Cuckoo-spit, due to the
juices sucked out by Aphrophthora on. herbaceous plants of all
kinds. Outflows of resin — Resinosis — alfo come under this general
heading; but although some resin-fluxes are traced to the destructive
action of Agaricus melleus in Conifers, others, as well as certain
forms of Gummosis, are still in need of explanation.

Bacteriosis. — Many of the plant diseases involving rot have been
ascribed to the action of bacteria, and in some cases — e.g. cabbage-
rot, bulb-rot of hyacinths, &c, carnation disease — there is evidence
that bacteria are causally connected with the disease. It is not
sufficient to find bacteria in the rotting tissues, however, nor even
to be successful in infecting the plant through an artifieial wound,
unless very special and critical precautions are taken, and in many
of the alleged cases of bacteriosis the saprophytic bacteria in the
tissues are to be regarded as merely secondary agents.

6. Necrosis. — A number of diseases the obvious symptoms of
which are the local drying up and death of tissues, in many cases

ECOLOGY]

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759

with secondary results on organs or parts of organs, may be brought
together under this heading. No sharp line can be drawn between
these diseases and some of the preceding, inasmuch as it often
depends on the external conditions whether necrosis is a dry-rot,
in the sense I employ the term here, or a wet-rot, when it would
come under the preceding category. The " dying back " of the
twigs of trees and shrubs is a frequent case. The cortical tissues
gradually shrink and dry up, turning brown and black in patches
or all over, and when at length the cambium and medullary ray
tissues dry up the whole twig dies off. This may be due to frost,
especially in " thin-barked " trees, and often occurs in beeches,
pears, &c. ; or it may result from bruising by wind, hailstones,
gun-shot wounds in coverts, &c, the latter of course very local.
It is the common result of fires passing along. too rapidly to burn
the trees; and " thin-barked " trees — hornbeam, beech, firs, &c. —
may exhibit it as the results of sunburn, especially when exposed
to the south-west after the removal of shelter. The effects of frost
and of sunburn are frequently quite local. The usual necrosis of
the injured cortex occurs — drying up, shrivelling, and consequent
stretching and cracking of the dead cortex on the wood beneath.
Such frost-cracks, sun-cracks, &c, may then be slowly healed over
by callus, but if the conditions for necrosis recur the crack may be
again opened, or if Fungi, &c, interfere with occlusion, the healing
is prevented; in such cases the local necrosis may give rise to
cankers. The dying back of twigs may be brought about by many
causes. General attacks of leaf-diseases invariably lead to starva-
tion and necrosis of twigs, and similarly with the ravages of cater-
pillars and other insects. Drought and consequent defoliation
result in the same, and these considerations help us to understand
how old-established trees in parks, &c, apparently in good general
health, become " stag-headed " by the necrosis of their upper
twigs and smaller branches: the roots have here penetrated into
subsoil or other unsuitable medium, or some drainage scheme has
deprived them of water, &c, and a dry summer just turns the scale.
Such phenomena are not uncommon in towns, where trees with
their roots under pavement or other impervious covering do well
for a time, but suddenly fail to supply the crown sufficiently with
water during some hot summer.

7. Monstrosities. — A large class of cases of departure from the
normal form, depending on different and often obscure causes,
may be grouped together under this heading; most of them are of
the kind termed Teratological, and it is difficult to decide how far
they should be regarded as pathological if we insist that a disease
threatens the existence of the plant, since many of these malforma-
tions — e.g. double flowers, phyllody of floral parts, contortions
and fascinations, dwarfing, malformed leaves, &c. — can not only
be transmitted in cultivation, but occur in nature without evident
injury to the variety. In many cases, however, monstrosities of
flowers have been shown to be due to the irritating action of minute
insects or Fungi, and others are known which, although induced
by causes unknown to us, and regarded as internal, would not be
likely to survive in the wild condition. This subject brings the
domain of pathology, however, into touch with that of variation,
and we are profoundly ignorant as to the complex of external
conditions which would decide in any given case how far a variation
in form would be prejudicial or otherwise to the continued existence
of a species. Under the head of malformations we place cases of
atrophy of parts or general dwarfing, due to starvation, the attacks
of Fungi or minute insects, the presence of unsuitable food-materials
and so on, as well as cases of transformation of stamens into petals,
carpels into leaves, and so forth. Roots are often flattened, twisted
and otherwise distorted by mechanical obstacles; stems by excess
of food in rich soils, the attacks of minute parasites, overgrowth
by climbing plants, &c. Leaves are especially apt to vary, and
although the formation of crests, pitchers, puckers, &c, must be
put down to the results of abnormal development, it is often difficult
to draw the line between teratological and merely 'varietal pheno-
mena. For instance, the difference between the long-stalked and
finely-cut leaves of Anemone attacked with rust and the normal
leaves with broad segments, or between the urceolate leaves oc-
casionally found on cabbages and the ordinary form — in these
cases undoubtedly pathological and teratological respectively — is
nothing like so great as between the upper and lower normal-
leaves of many Umbelliferae or the submerged and floating leaves
of an aquatic Ranunculus or Cabomba. When we come to pheno-
mena such as proliferations, vivipary, the development of " Lammas
shoots," adventitious buds, epicormic branches, and to those mal-
formations of flowers' known as peloria, phyllody, virescence, &c.
while assured that definite, and in many cases recognizable, physio-
logical disturbances are. at work, we find ourselves on the borderland
between patholpgical and physiological variation, where each case
must be examined with due regard to all the circumstances, and
no generalization seems possible beyond what has been sketched.
This is equally true of the phenomena of apogamy and apospory
in the light of recent researches into the effects of external con-
ditions on reproduction.

This sketch of an enormous subject shows us that the pathology
of plants is a special department of the study of variations which
threaten injury to the plant, and passes imperceptibly into the

study of variations in general. Moreover, we have good reasons
for inferring that different constellations of external causes may
determine whether the internal physiological disturbances
induced by a given agent shall lead to pathological and dangerous
variations, or to changes which may be harmless or even advan-
tageous to the plant concerned.

Authorities. — General and Historical. — Berkeley, " Vegetable
Pathology," Gardener's Chronicle (1854) p. 4; Plowright, British
Uredineae and Ustilagineae (1889); Eriksson and Henning, Die
Getreideroste (Stockholm, 1896); De Bary, Comparative Morph.
and Biol, of the Fungi, &c. (1887); Frank, Die Krankheiten der
Pflanzen (1 895-1 896); Sorauer, Handbuch der Pflanzenkrankheiten
(1906); Ward, Disease in Plants (1901). Causes of Disease, &c. —
Pfeffer, Physiology of Plants (Oxford, 1900) ; Sorauer, Treatise on
the Physiology of Plants (1895); Bailey, The Principles of Agri-
culture (1898); Lafar, Technical Mycology (1898); Hartig, Diseases
of Trees (1894); Marshall Ward, Proc. Roy. Soc. (1890) xlvii. 394;
and Timber and some of Us Diseases (London, 1889). Fungi. —
See Fungi and Bacteria; also Marshall Ward, Diseases of Plants
(Romance of Science Series), S.P.C.K. ; Massee, Text-Book of Plant
Diseases (1899) ; Tubeuf, Diseases of Plants (London, 1897). Insects. —
Ormerod, Manual of Injurious Insects (1890) ; C. V. Riley, Insect Life, ■
U.S. Department of Agriculture (1888-1895) ; Judeich and Mitsche,
Lehrbuch der mitteleuropdischen\/Forstinsektenkunde (Vienna, 1889).
Healing of Wounds, &c. — Shattock, " On the Reparatory Pro- 1
cesses which occur in Vegetable Tissues," Journ. Linn. Soc. (1882)
xix. 1 ; Richards, " The Respiration of Wounded Plants," Ann. of
Bot. (1896), x. 531; and "The Evolution of Heat by Wounded
Plants," Ann. of Bot. (1897), xi. 29. Enzvmes. — Green, The Soluble
Ferments and Fermentation (1899). Chemotaxis, &c. — Miyoshi,
" Die Durchbohrung von Membranen durch Pilzfaden," Pringsh.
Jahrb., B. (1895), xxviii. 269, and literature. Parasitism, &c. —
Marshall Ward, " On some Relations between Host and Parasite,
&c," Proc. Roy. Soc. xlvii. 393; and "Symbiosis," Ann. of Bot.
(1899), xiii. 549, with literature. Specialization of Parasitism. —
Salmon, in Massee's Text-Book of Fungi (1906), pp. 146-157.
Statistics. — See Wyatt, Agricultural Ledger (Calcutta, 1895), p. 71;
Balfour, The Agricultural Pests of India (1887), p. 13; Eriksson and
Henning, Die Getreideroste; the publications of the U.S. Agri-
cultural Department; the Kew Bulletin; Zeitschrift fur Pflanzen-
krankheiten, and elsewhere. Spraying, &c. — See Lodeman, The
Spraying of Plants (1896), and numerous references in the publica-
tions of U.S. Agricultural Department, Zeitschr. f. Pflanzenkrank-
heiten, the Gardener's Chronicle, &c. Etiolation, &c. — Pfeffer,
Physiology of Plants, and other works on physiology. Albinism, &c.
— Church, " A Chemical Study of Vegetable Albinism," Journ.
Chem. Soc. (1879, 1880 and 1886); Beijerinck, " Ueber ein Con-
tagium," &c, in Verhandl. d. kbn. Acad. v. Wet. (Amsterdam,
1898); Koning in Zeitschr. f. Pflanzenkrankh. (1899), ix. 65; Baur,
Ber. deuischen bot. Ges. (1904), xxii. 453; Sitzungsber. berlin. Akad.
(Jan. 6, 1906); Hunger, Zeitschr. f. Pflanzenkrankheiten (1905).
xv. Heft 5. Wounds, &c. — Marshall Ward, Timber and some
of its Diseases, p. 210; Hartig, Diseases of Trees (London, 1894).
Cecidia and Galls. — Kiister, " Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Gallen-
anatomie," Flora (1900), p. 117; Pathologische Pflanzenanatomie
( I 9°3)l Molliard, Revue generale de bot. (1900), p. 157. Canker. —
Frank, Krankheiten der Pflanzen, and papers in Zeitschr. f. Pflanzen-
krankh. Rotting, &c. — Migula, Krit. Uebersicht derjenigen Pflanzen-
krankheiten, welche angeblich durch Bakterien verursacht werden
(1892); Smith, " Pseudomonas campestris," Cent. f. Bakt. B. iii.
284 (1897); Arthur and Bolley, Bacteriosis of Carnations , Purdue
Univ. Agr. Station (1896), vii. 17; A. F. Woods, " Stigmonose, a
Disease of Carnations," Vegetable, Physiol, and Pathol. Bull. IQ
U.S. Department of Agriculture (1900) ; Sorauer, Handbuch der
Pflanzenkrankheiten (1905), 18-93. Frost, Drought, &c. — Hartig,
Lehrbuch der Anat. und Phys. der Pflanzen; Fischer, Forest Protection,
iv. of Schlich's Manual of Forestry. Teratology, &c. — Masters,
Vegetable Teratology, Ray Society (1869); Molliard, " Cecidies
florales," Ann. Sci. Nat. ser. 8, i. {bot.) p. 67 (1895). (H. M. W.)

Ecology of Plants

Introduction. — The word ecology is derived from 01/cos, a
house (habitat), and X670J, a discourse. As a botanical term,
ecology denotes that branch of botany which comprises the
study of the relations of the individual plant, or the species, or
the plant community with the habitat. Following Schroter 1
(Flahault and Schroter, 1910 : 24), the term autecology may be
used for the study of the habitat conditions in relation to the
single species, and the term synecology for this study in relation
to plant communities.

From the phytogeographical standpoint, ecology is frequently
termed ecological plant geography. Thus Warming 2 (1901 : 1 and 2)

1 Flahault and Schroter, Phytogeographical Nomenclature: reports
and propositions (Zurich, 1910).

2 Warming, Oecology of Plants (Oxford, 1909).

ECOLOGY]

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761

plants which, like deciduous trees and bulbous plants, are hygro-
phytes during one season of the year and xerophytes during
another season of the year. Such plants, which comprise the
great majority of the species of the central European flora,
Schimper termed tropophytes.

Recently, Warming 1 (1909 : 136), assisted by Vahl, has
modified his earlier classification, and adopted the following: —

A. The soil (in the widest sense) is very wet, and the abundant
water is available to the plant (at least in hydrophytes).

1. Hydrophytes. — These include plants of the plankton, or micro-
phytes that float free on water, of the pleuston, or macrophytes
which float on or are suspended in water, and of the benthos, or
all aquatic plants which are fixed to the substratum.

2. Helophytes. — These are marsh plants which normally have
their roots in soaking soil but whose branches and foliage are more
or less aerial. Warming admits there is no sharp limit between
marsh plants and land plants; and it seems equally obvious that
there is no sharp limit between some of his helophytes and some of
his hydrophytes. For example, the difference between aquatic
plants with floating leaves, such as the yellow water-lily (Nymphaea
luted) and those with erect leaves, such as Typha angustifolia, is
probably more apparent than real. Among helophytes, Warming
places plants of the reed swamp, and includes such trees as the alder
(Alnus rotundifolia) , willows (e.g., Salix alba, S. fragilis, S. cinerea,
S. pentandra), birch, and pine, when these grow in marshy places.

B. The soil is physiologically dry.

3. Oxylophytes. — These plants, sometimes spoken of as " bog
xerophytes," grow in soils which contain an abundance of free
humous compounds, and include plants which grow on fens and
moors.

4. Psychrophytes. — These include the plants which grow on the
cold soils of subniveal and polar districts.

5. Halophytes. — These are plants which grow on saline soils.

C. The soil is physicallyMry.

6. Lithophytes. — These are plants which grow on " true rock,"
but not " on the loose soil covering rock, even though this may
entertain species that are very intimately associated with the rock.
Still to this limitation an exception must be made in favour of the
vegetation growing in clefts and niches " (Warming, 1909 : 240).
Many Algae, lichens, and mosses are included among lithophytes,
and also Saxifraga Aizoon, S. oppositifolia, Silene acauhs, and
Gnaphalium luteo-album.

7. Psammophytes. — These are plants which grow on sand and
gravel. Plants of sand-dunes, whether in maritime or inland
localities, are psammophytes, as well as plants (such as Calluna
vulgaris) of dune heaths, dune " bushland " or scrub, and dune
forest.

8. Chersophytes. — Here are placed certain " xerophytic perennial
herbs " which occur on " particular dry kinds of soil, such as lime-
stone rocks, stiff clay, and so forth " (Warming, 1909 : 289).

D. The climate is very dry, and the properties of the soil are
decided by climate.

9. Erempphytes. — Under this term, are placed plants of deserts
and steppes.

10. Psilophytes. — Here are placed plants found in " savannah-
vegetation," viz. (i.) "thorny savannah-vegetation, including: (a)
orchard-scrub, Jb) thorn-bushland and thorn-forest; (ii.) true
savannah: tropical and sub-tropical savannah ; (iii.) savannah-forest,
including bush-forest in Africa and ' campos serrados ' in Brazil "
(Warming, 1909 : 293 et seq.).

11. Sclerophyllous formations, e.g., garigues, maquis, and forests
of evergreen oaks (Q. Ilex, Q. Ballota, Q. Suber) , arid of Eucalyptus
spp.

E. The soil is physically or physiologically dry.

12. Coniferous forest formations, e.g., of Pinus sylvestris, Picea
excelsa, Abies pectinata, Larix sibirica, L. decidua.

F. " Soil and climate favour the development of mesophilous
formations."

13. Mesophytes. — Warming defines mesophytes as " plants that
show a preference for soil and air of moderate humidity, and avoid
soil with standing water or containing a great abundance of salts "
(1909 : 317). Under mesophytes, Warming places plants occurring
in " Arctic and Alpine mat-grassland and mat-herbage," in " mat-
vegetation of the Alps," in meadows, in pasture on cultivated soil,
in " mesophytic bushland," in deciduous dicotyledonous forests,
and_in evergreen dicotyledonous forests.

This new system of Warming's, whilst probably too involved
ever to come into general use, must be taken as superseding his
older one; 2 and perhaps the best course open to botanists is to
select such terms as appear to be helpful, and to use the selected
terms in a general kind of way and without demanding any pre-
cise definitions of them: it must also be borne in mind that the

' 1 Warming (1909, op. «#.).
* Ibid, (1894, op- cit.).

various classes are neither mutually exclusive nor of equivalent
rank. From this point of view, the following terms will perhaps
be found the most serviceable: —

Hydrophytes (submerged aquatic plants). — Plants whose vege-
tative organs live wholly in water; e.g., most Algae, many mosses,
such as Fontinalis spp., and liverworts, such as Jungermannia spp.;
a few Pteridophytes, such as Pilularia spp., Isoetes spp.; several
flowering plants, such as Potamogeton pectinatus, Ceratophyllum
spp., Hottonia palustris, Utricularia spp., Littorella lacustris.

Hemi-hydrophytes (swamp plants, marsh plants, &c). — Plants
whose vegetative organs are partly submerged and partly aerial;
Vaucheria terrestris, Philonotis fontana, Scapania undulata, Mar-
silia spp., Salvinia natans, Azolla spp., Equisetum limosum, Typha
angustifolia, Phragmites communis, Scirpus lacustris, Nymphaea
lutea, Oenanthe fistulosa, Bidens cernua.

Hygrophytes. — Plants which are sub-evergreen or evergreen but
not sclerophyllous, and which live in moist soils; e.g., Lastraea
Filix-mas, Poa pratensis, Carex ovalis, Plantago lanceolata, and
Ackillaea Millefolium.

Xerophytes. — Plants which grow in very dry soils; e.g., most
lichens, Ammophila (Psamma) arenaria, Elymus arenarius. Ana-
basis dretioides, Zilla macroptera, Sedum acre, Bupleurum spinosum,
Artemisia herba-alba, Zollikofferia arbor escens.

Halophytes.— Plants which grow in very saline soils; e.g., Triglochin
maritimum, Salicornia spp., Zygophyllum cornutum, Aster Tri-
polium, Artemisia maritima. It should be recognized, however,
that " a halophyte, in fact, is one form of xerophyte " (Warming,
1909: 219).

Sclerophyllous Plants. — These are plants with evergreen leathery
leaves, and typical of tropical, sub-tropical, and warm temperate
regions; e.g., Quercus Suber, Ilex Aquifolium, Hedera Helix, Eucalyp-
tus Globulus, Rosmarinus officinalis. Sclerophyllous leaves are
usually characterized by entire or sub-entire margins, a thick cuticle,
small but rarely sunken stomata, a weH-developed and close-set
palisade tissue and a feeble system of air-spaces.

Hydro-xerophytes (" bog xerophytes "). — Plants which live in
wet, peaty soils, and which possess aeration channels and xero-
philous leaves; e.g., Cladium Mariscus, Enophorum angustifolium,
Rubus Chamaemorus, and Vaccinium Vitis-Idaea. The term " oxylo-
phyte " is open to the objection that some peaty waters are alkaline,
and not acidic as the term implies. Many plants of peaty soils
are sclerophyllous.

Tropophytes. — Plants which are hygrophytes during some favour-
able part of the year and xerophytes during the rest of the year;
e.g., deciduous trees and shrubs, deciduous herbaceous plants with
underground perennating organs, and annuals and ephemerals.

Plant Communities. — The study of plant communities
{Formationslehre or synecology) has made much progress in
recent years. Even here, however, general agreement has not
been reached; and the questions involved in relating the facts
of the distribution of plant communities to the factors of the
habitat are very imperfectly understood. Plant communities
may be classified as follows: —

A plant association is a community of definite floristic com-
position: it may be characterized by a single dominant species;
or, on the other hand, it may be characterized by a number of
prominent species, one of which is abundant here, another there,
whilst elsewhere two or more species may share dominance.
The former are pure associations, and are well illustrated by a
heather moor, where Calluna vulgaris is the dominant plant.
The latter are mixed associations, such as fens, where different
fades are produced by the varying abundance of characteristic
plants, such as Cladium Mariscus, Phragmites communis, Molinia
coerulea, Calamagrostis lanceolata, and Juncus obtusiflorus. The
different facies are possibly related to slight differences in a
generally uniform habitat: it is unscientific to regard them as
due to chance; still, in the majority of cases, the causes of the
different facies have not been demonstrated. A local aggre-
gation of a species other than the dominant one in an associ-
ation brings about a plant society; for example, societies of Erica
Tetralix, of Scirpus caespitosus, of Molinia coerulea, of Carex
curia, of Narthecium ossifragum, and others may occur within
an association of Calluna vulgaris. The plant societies are also
doubtless due to slight variations of the habitat.

The plant association is sometimes referred to in technical
language; 3 the termination -etum is added to the stem of the
generic name, and the specific name is put in the genitive. Thus

3 See Moss, " The Fundamental Units of Vegetation : historical
development of the concepts of the plant association and the plant
formation." Botany School (Cambridge, 1010).

762

PLANTS

[ECOLOGY

an association of Quercus sessUiflora may be referred to as a
Quercetum sessiliflorae.

A plant formation is a group of associations occupying habitats
which are in essentials identical with each other. Thus, associ-
ations of Agropyrum (Triticum) junceum, of Car ex arenaria, of
Ammophila (Psamma) arenaria, and of other plants occur on
sand dunes: the associations are related by the general identity
of the habitat conditions, namely, the physiological dryness
and the loose soil; but they are separated by differences in
floristic composition, especially by different dominant species,
and by minor differences of the common habitat. The whole
set of associations on the sand dunes constitutes a plant
formation.

The plant formation may be designated in technical language
by the termination -ion added to a stem denoting the habitat.
Thus, a sand dune formation may be termed an Arenarion. The
associational term, in the genitive, may be added tothe forma-
tional term to indicate the relationship of the formation and the
association; thus, a plant association of Ammophila arenaria
belonging to the plant formation of the sand dunes may be
designated an Arenarion Ammophilae-arenariae (cf. Moss, op. cit.
1910:43). _ _ .

The question of universal names for vegetation units is bound
up with that of the universality or otherwise of particular
formations. "Remote regions which are floristically distinct
... may possess areas physically almost identical and yet be
covered by different formations" (Clements, 1 1905:203). For
example, the sand dunes of North America and those of western
Europe are widely separated in geographical position and there-
fore in floristic composition, yet they are related by common
physical factors. This relationship may be indicated by the
addition of some prefix to the formational name. For example,
an Arenarion in one climatic or geographical region might be
termed an a-Arenarion and one in a different region a ^-Arena-
rion, and so on (Moss, loc. cit.).

It is, however, frequently desirable to consider such allied
formations as a single group. Such a group of formations may be
designated a plant federation: and this term may be defined as a
group of formations, which are characterized by common edaphic
factors of the habitat, and which occur in any geographical
region. Thus, different geographical or climatic regions are
characterized by salt marshes. The latter all agree in their
edaphic characteristics; but they differ climatically and in
floristic composition. The salt marshes of a given region con-
stitute a single plant formation : the salt marsh formations of
the whole world constitute a plant federation.

Again, it is possible to arrange plant associations into groups
related by a common plant form. Thus woodland associations
may be classified as deciduous forests, coniferous forests, sclero-
phyllous forests, &c. These, in a general way, are the "forma-
tions " of Warming, 2 and (in part) the " climatic formations "
of Schimper. 3 Thus the various reed-swamps of the whole world
constitute a " formation " in Warming's sense (1909 : 187).

There is much difference of opinion among ecologists and
plant geographers as to which of these points of view is the most
fundamental. Among British authorities, it is now customary
to adopt the position of Clements, who states (1905:292)
that " the connexion between formation and habitat is so close
that any application of the term to a division greater or smaller
than the habitat is both illogical and unfortunate," and that
(1905:18) " habitats are inseparable from the formations which
they bear " (cf. Moss, 1910).

From the standpoint of plant communities, it is convenient
to divide the earth's surface into (1) tropical districts; 4 (2) sub-

X F. E. Clements, Research Methods in Ecology (1905), Lincoln,
Neb., U.S.A.

s Warming (1909, op. cit.). ' Schimper (1898, op. at.).

* The nomenclature of the terms (floristic as well as ecological)
used in geographical botany is in a very confused state. In the
present article, the term " district " is used in a general sense to
indicate any definite portion of the earth's surface. For a dis-
cussion of such phytogeographical terms, see Flahault, " Premier
essai de nomenclature phytogeographique," in Bull. Soc. langue-
docienne de Geogr. (1901); and also in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club (1901).

tropical and warm temperate districts; (3) temperate districts;
(4) cold temperate and frigid districts.

1. Tropical Districts. — The vegetation of tropical districts hai
been subdivided by Schimper (1903:260, et seq.) as follows:—
(i.) Tropical woodland: (a) rain forest, (6) monsoon forest, (c)
savana forest, (d) thorn forest, (ii.) Tropical grassland: (a)
savana, (b) steppe, (iii.) Tropical desert: (a) scrub, (6) succulent
plants, (c) perennial herbs.

Schimper regards the minor divisions as groups of " climatic
formations"; and he also distinguishes certain tropical "edaphic
formations," such as mangrove swamps. He states that rain
forests and high monsoon forests in the tropics occur when the
average rainfall is over 70 in. (178 cm.) per annum, and that tropical
thorn forest may prevail when the mean annual rainfall is below

A tropical rain forest exhibits great variety both of species of
plant and of plant forms. There is great diversity in the trees
and masses of tangled lianes, and a wealth of flowers in the leafy
fprest crown. Humboldt 6 points out_ that whilst temperate
forests frequently furnish pure associations, such uniformity of
association is usually absent from the tropics. Some tropical
forests exhibit dense foliage from the forest floor to the topmost
leafy layer; and the traveller finds the mass of foliage almost im-
penetrable. Other tropical forests afford a free passage and a
clear outlook. It is obvious that tropical forests will eventually
be subdivided into plant associations; but the difficulties of deter-
mining the relative abundance of the species of plants in the upper
layers of tropical rain and monsoon forests are very great. One
of the best known results of the great struggle for light which takes
place in tropical forests is the number of epiphytic plants which
grow on the high branches of the trees.

The leaves of the trees are frequently of leathery consistency,
very glossy, usually evergreen, entire or nearly so, and seldom hairy ;
and thus they agree closely with the leaves of sclerophyllous forest
generally.

Monsoon forests are characteristic of localities with a seasonal
rainfall. The trees usually lose their foliage during the dry season
and renew it during the monsoon rains. With a less abundant
rainfall, savana forest and thorn forest occur. Less precipitation
induces tropical grassland, which, according to Schimper (1903:
346) is of the savana type; but Warming (1909:327) thinks that
all grassland in the tropics is artificial. Still greater drought
induces desert vegetation; but, as deserts are more characteristic
of subtropical districts, they are discussed later on.

Mangrove swamps, or tropical tidal forests, occur in saline _ or
brackish swamps on flat, muddy shores in the tropics; and, being
almost independent of atmospheric precipitations, Schimper
regards them as " edaphic formations." However, they are climatic
communities in the sense that they occur only in hot districts.
Cases such as this illustrate the difficulty of regarding the dis-
tinction between " climatic formations " and " edaphic formations "
as absolute. The plants exhibit markedly xerophilous structures;
and many of the fruits and seeds of the mangrove trees and shrubs
are provided with devices to enable them to float and with curious
pneumatophores or " prop roots." The latter serve as supports
and also as a means of supplying air to the parts buried in the mud.
The seedlings of characteristic species of Rhizophoraceae germinate
on the trees, and probably perform some assimilatory work by
means of the hypocotyl.

Other tropical " edaphic formations " occur on sandy shores,
where the. creeping Ipomoea biloba {Pes-caprae) and trees of
Barringtonia form characteristic plant associations.

The succession of associations on new soils of a tropical shore
has recently been described by Ernst. 6

2. Warm Temperate and Subtropical Districts. — In subtropical
and warm temperate districts, characterized by mild and rainy
winters and hot and dry summers, we find two types of forests.
First, there are forests of evergreen trees, with thick, leathery
leaves. Such forests are known as sclerophyllous forests, and they
occur in the Mediterranean region, in south-west Africa, in south
and south-west Australia, in central Chile, and in western California.
In the Mediterranean district, forests of this type are sometimes
dominated by the Cork Oak {Quercus Suber), sometimes by the
Holm Oak (Q. Ilex). When these forests become degenerate,
maquis and garigues respectively are produced. Maquis and
garigues are characterized by the abundance of shrubs and under-
shrubs, especially by shrubby Leguminous plants, and by species
Cistus and Lavandula. Secondly, there are forests of coniferous
trees. In the Mediterranean region, even at comparatively low
altitudes, forests occur of the maritime pine {Ptnus mantima)
and of the Aleppo pine (P. halepensis) ; and these forests are also
related to maquis and garigues respectively in the same way as
the evergreen oaks. The occurrence of forests of this type in the
Mediterranean and in Arctic regions, whose dominant species belong
to the same genu s (Pinus) and to the same plant form, renders it

B Humboldt, Eng. trans, by Sabine, Aspects of Nature (London,

6 Eng. trans, by Seward, The New Flora of the Volcanic Island of
Krakatau (Cambridge, 1908).

760

PLANTS

[ECOLOGY

subdivided plant geography into floristic plant geography and
ecological plant geography. The former is concerned with the
division of the earth's surface into major districts characterized
by particular plants or taxonomic groups of plants, with the
subdivision of these floristic districts, and with the geographical
distribution (both past and present) of the various taxonomic
units, such as species, genera, and families. On the other hand,
ecological plant geography seeks to ascertain the distribution
of plant communities, such as associations and formations, and
enquires into the nature of the factors of the habitat which are
related to the distribution of plants — plant forms, species, and
communities. In a general way, floristic plant geography is
concerned with species, ecological plant geography with vege-
tation. The study of the distribution of species dates back to
the time of the early systematists, the study of vegetation to the
time of the early botanical travellers. Humboldt, 1 for example,
defined his view of the scope of plant geography as follows:
" C'est cette science qui considere les vegetaux sous les rapports
de leur association locale dans les differents climats " (1807:

14).

The Habitat. — The term habitat, in its widest sense, includes
all the factors of the environment which affect a plant or a plant
community, though the term is frequently used to signify only
some of these factors. The factors of the habitat may be
grouped as follows: geographical, physical, and biological.

Geographical Factors. — Geographical position determines the
particular species of plants which grow in any particular locality.
This matter is bound up with the centres of origin and with the
past migrations of species; and such questions are usually treated
as a part of floristic plant geography. Here, therefore, floristics
and ecology meet. Flahault and Schroter, 2 in defining the term
habitat, appear to exclude all geographical factors. They state
that " the term habitat is understood to include everything relating
to the factors operative in a geographically defined locality, so far
as these factors influence plants " (1910: 24); but the exclusion of
geographical and historical factors from the concept of the habitat
does not appear to be either desirable or logical.

Physical Factors. — These are frequently classified as edaphic or
soil factors and climatic factors; but there is no sharp line of de-
marcation between them. Edaphic factors include all those
relating to the soil. The water content of the soil, its mineral
content, its humus content, its temperature, and its physical char-
acteristics, such as its depth and the size of its component particles
are all edaphic factors. Climatic factors include all those relating
to atmospheric temperature, rainfall, atmospheric humidity, and
light and shade. Factors connected with altitude, aspect, and
exposure to winds are also climatic: such are often spoken of as
physiographical _ factors. The difficulty of sharply delimiting
edaphic and climatic factors is seen in the case of temperature.
Soil temperature is partly dependent on the direct rays of the sun,
partly on the colour and constitution of the soil, and partly on the
water content of the soil. Again, the temperature of the air is
affected by radiation from the soil; and radiation differs in various
soils.

Biological Factors. — These include the reactions of plants and
animals on the habitat. Here again, no sharp boundary-line can
be drawn. In one sense, the accumulation of humus and peat is
a biological factor, as it is related to the work of organisms in the
soil ; but the occurrence or otherwise of these organisms in the soil
is probably related to definite edaphic and climatic conditions.
Again, the well-known action of earthworms may be said to be a
biological work ; but the resulting aeration of the soil causes edaphic
differences ; and earthworms are absent from certain soils, such as
peat. The pollination of flowers and the dispersal of seeds by
various animals are biological factors; but pollination and dis-
persal by the wind cannot be so regarded. The influence of man
on plants and vegetation is also a biological factor, which is fre-
quently ignored as such, and treated as if it were a thing apart.

When the nature and effect of ecological factors have become
more fully understood, it will be possible to dispense with the above
artificial classification of factors, and to frame one depending on
the action of the various factors; but such a classification is not
possible in the present state of knowledge.

Ecology and Physiology.— Whilst our knowledge of the nature
and effect of habitat is still in a very rudimentary condition,
much progress has been made in recent years in the study of
plant communities; but even here the questions involved in
relating the facts of the distribution of plant communities to the

1 Humboldt and Bonpland, Essai sur la geographie des planles
(Paris, 1807).

2 Flahault and Schroter (op. cit.).

factors of the habitat are very imperfectly understood. This is
due to a lack of precise knowledge of the various habitat factors
and also of the responses made by plants to these factors. Until
much more advance has been made by ecologists in the investi-
gation of the nature of habitat factors, and until the effect of the
factors on the plants has been more closely investigated by
physiologists, it will remain impossible to place ecology on
a physiological basis: all that is possible at present is to give a
physiological bias to certain aspects of ecological research.
Obviously no more than this is possible until physiologists are
able to state much more precisely than at present what is the
influence of common salt on the plants of salt-marshes, of the
action of calcium carbonate on plants of calcareous soils, and of
the action of humous compounds on plants of fens and peat
moors.

Ecological Classes. — Many attempts have been made to divide
plants and plant communities into classes depending on habitat
factors. One of the best known classifications on these lines is
that by Warming. 3 Warming recognized and defined four
ecological classes as follows: —

Hydrophytes. — These live in a watery or wet substratum, with
at least 80% of water. Warming included plants of peat-bogs
among his hydrophytes.

Xerophytes. — These are plants which live in very dry places,
where the substratum has less than 10% of water.

Halophytes. — These are plants living in situations where the sub-
stratum contains a high proportion of sodium chloride.

Mesophytes. — These are plants which live in localities which are
neither specially dry nor specially wet nor specially salty.

Such terms as hydrophytes, xerophytes, and halophytes had
been used by plant geographers before Warming's time e.g., by
Schouw; 4 and the terms evidently supply a want felt by botanists
as they have come into general use. However, the terms are
incapable of exact definition, and are only useful when used in a
very general way. The above classification by Warming,
although it was without doubt the best ecological classification
which had, at the time, been put forward, has not escaped criti-
cism. The criticisms were directed chiefly to the inclusion of
sand dune plants among halophytes, to the exclusion of halo-
phytes from xerophytes, to the inclusion of " bog xerophytes "
among hydrophytes, to the inclusion of all conifers among
xerophytes and of all deciduous trees among mesophytes, and to
the group of mesophytes in general.

Schimper 5 made a distinct advance when he distinguished
between physical and physiological dryness or wetness of the
soil. A soil may be physically wet; but if the plants absorb the
water only with difficulty, as in a salt marsh, then the soil is, as
regards plants, physiologically dry. All soils which are physi-
cally dry are also physiologically dry; and hence only the
physiological dryness or wetness of soils need be considered in
ecology.

Schimper used the term xerophytes to include plants which live
in soils which are physiologically dry, and the term hygrophytes
those which live in soils which are physiologically wet or damp.
Schimper recognized that the two classes are connected by transi-
tional forms, and that it is useless to attempt to give the matter
a statistical basis. It is only in a general sense like Schimper's
that such ecological terms as xerophytes have any value; and it
is not possible, at least at present, to frame ecological classes,
which shall have a high scientific value, on a basis of this nature.
Whilst Schimper objected to the constitution of a special
category, such as mesophytes, to include all plants which are
neither pronounced xerophytes nor pronounced hygrophytes,
he recognized the necessity of a third class in which to place those

3 Warming, Plantesamfund, Kjobenhavn, 1895^, (See German
trans, by Knoblauch, " Lehrbuch der okologischen Pflanzen-
geographie " (Berlin, 1896); new German ed. by Graebner (Berlin,
1902).

4 Schouw, Grundtraek til en almindelig Plantegeografie (Kjoben-
havn, 1822); German trans., " Grundzuge einer allegemeinen
Pflanzengeographie " (Berlin, 1823).

5 Schimper, Pflanzengeographie auf physiologischer Grundlage
(Berlin, 1898); Eng. trans, by Fisher, " Plant Geography upon a
Physiological Basis" (Oxford, 1903-1904).

ECOLOGY]

PLANTS

763

difficult to regard " coniferous forests " as a natural ecological
group. At much higher altitudes, in the south-west of the Mediter-
ranean region, forests occur of the Atlantic cedar (Cedrus atlantica) .
These occur from about 4000 ft. (1219 m.) to about 7000 ft. (2133 m.)
on the Atlas Mountains. Some sclerophyllous forests of the eastern
Atlas Mountains are, owing to a comparatively high rainfall,
characterized by many deciduous trees, such as Fraxinus oxy-
phylla, Ultnus campestris (auct. alg.), Alnus rotundifolia, Salix
pedicellate., Prunus avium, &c. ; and thus they have some elements
in common with the deciduous forests of central Europe.

The forests of these subtropical and warm temperate regions
are situated near the sea or in mountainous regions, and (as already
stated) are characterized by winter rains. In inland localities,
where the rainfall is much lower, steppes occur. For example,
in southern Algeria, a region of steppes is situated on a flat plateau,
about 3000 ft. (914 metres) high, between the southern slopes of the
Tell Atlas and the northern slopes of the Saharan Atlas. The
rainfall, which occurs chiefly in winter, only averages about 10 in.
(254 mm.) per annum. Here we find open plant associations of
Haifa or Esparto Grass (Stipa tenacissima) alternating with steppes
of Chih (Artemisia herba-alba); and each plant association extends
for several scores of miles. In the hollows of this steppe region,
salt water lakes occur, known as Chotts; and on the saline soils sur-
rounding the Chotts, a salt marsh formation occurs, with species
of Salicornia, some of which are undershrubs.

Where the rainfall is still lower, deserts occur. At Ghardaia,
in south-eastern Algeria, the mean annual rainfall, from 1887 to
1892, was about 45 in. (114 mm.). In 1890, it fell as low as 2 in.
(53 mm.) (Schimper, 1903 : 606). At Beni Ounif and Colomb
Bechar, in south-western Algeria, I was informed, in March 1910,
that there had been no rain for about three years. Here the gravelly
desert is characterized by " cushion plants," such as Anabasis
aretioides; by " switch plants," such as Retama Retam ; and specially
by spiny plants, such as Zizyphus Lotus and Zilla macropteris ;
whereas succulent plants are rare. Both in the steppe and in
the desert, small ephemeral species occur on the bare ground
away from the large plants and especially in the wadis. Steppe
and desert formations are of the open type.

3. Temperate Districts. — Temperate districts are characterized
by forests of deciduous trees and of coniferous trees, the latter being
of different species from those of the warm temperate districts,
but frequently of the same plant form. The identity of plant form
of many of the conifers of both temperate and of warm temperate
districts is probably a matter of phylogenetic and not of ecological
importance.

Britain is fairly typical of the west European district. In these
islands, we find forests 1 or woods of oak (Quercus Robur and Q.
sessiliflora), of birch (Belula tomentosa), of ash (Fraxinus excelsior),
and of beech (Fagus sylvatica). In central Scotland, forests occur
of Pinus sylvestris; and, in south-eastern England, extensive planta-
tions and self-sown woods occur of the same species.

Just as in the Mediterranean region, the degeneration of forests
has given rise to maquis and garigues, so in western Europe, the
degeneration of forests has brought about different types of grass-
land, heaths, and moors.

4. Cold Temperate and Frigid Districts. — In the coldest portion
of the north temperate zone, forests of dwarfed trees occur,
and these occasionally spread into the Arctic region itself (Schimper,
1904: 685). Schimper distinguishes moss tundra, Polytrichum
tundra, and lichen tundra; and the lichen tundra is subdivided into
Cladonia tundra, Platysma tundra, and Alectoria heath. Where
the climate is most rigorous, rock tundra occurs (p. 685).

The types of vegetation (tropical forests, sclerophyllous forest,
temperate forests, tundra, &c.) thus briefly outlined are groups of
Schimper's " climatic formations." Such groups are interesting
in that they are vegetation units whose physiognomy is, in a broad
sense, related more to climatic than to edaphic conditions. For
example, Schimper, after describing the sclerophyllous woodland
of the Mediterranean district and of the Cape district, says:
" The scrub of West and South Australia in its ecological aspect
resembles so completely the other sclerophyllous formations that
a description of it must seem a repetition." This resemblance,
however, only has reference to the general aspect or physiognomy
of the vegetation and to the plant forms: the floristic composition
of the various sclerophyllous — and other physiognomically
allied — associations in the various geographical districts is very
different; and indeed it is true that, just as the general physio-
gnomy of plant associations is related to climate, so their floristic
composition is related to geographical position. Hence, in any
cosmopolitan treatment of vegetation, it is necessary to consider
the groups of plant communities from the standpoint of the
climatic or geographical district in which they occur; and this

1 See Moss, Rankin, and Tansley, " British Woodlands." Botany
School (Cambridge, 1910).

indeed is consistently done by Schimper. Finally, within any
district of constant or fairly constant climatic conditions, it is
possible to distinguish plant communities which are related
chiefly to edaphic or soil conditions; and the vegetation units of
these definite edaphic areas are the plant formations of some
writers, and, in part, the "edaphic formations" of Schimper.

When a district like England is divided into edaphic areas, a
general classification such as the following may be obtained: —

1. Physically and physiologically ivet habitats, with the accom-
panying plant communities of lakes, reed swamps, and marshes.
tf"2. Physically wet but physiologically dry habitats, 2 with the
accompanying plant communities of fens, moors, and salt marshes.

3. Physically and physiologically dry habitats, with the accom-
panying plant communities of sand dunes and sandy heaths with
little humus in the soil.

4. Habitats of medium wetness, with the accompanying plant
communities of woodlands and grasslands. This class may be
subdivided as follows : —

a. Habitats poor in mineral salts, especially calcium carbonate,
often rich in acidic humous compounds, and characterized by
oak and birch woods, siliceous pasture, and heaths with much
acidic humus in the sandy soil.

b. Habitats rich in mineral salts, especially calcium carbonate,
poor in acidic humous compounds, and characterized by ash
woods, beech woods, and calcareous pasture.

Ecological Adaptations. — It is now possible to consider
the ecological adaptations which the members of plant com-
munties show in a given geographical district such as western
Europe, of which England of course forms a part. In the present
state of knowledge, however, this can only be done in a very
meagre fashion; as the effect of habitat factors on plants is but
little understood as yet either by physiologists or ecologists.

Hydrophytes and hemi-hydrophytes (aquatic plants). — Of marine
hydrophytes, there are, in this country, only the grass-wracks
(Zostera marina and Z. nana) among the higher plants. Even
these species are sometimes left stranded by low spring tides,
though the mud in which they are rooted remains saturated with
sea-water. Although many plants typical of fresh water are able
to grow also in brackish water, there are only a few species which
appear to be quite confined to the latter habitats in this country.
Such species perhaps include Ruppia maritima, R. spiralis,
Zannichellia maritima, Z. polycarpa, Potamogeton interruptus
( = P. flabellatus) , and Naias marina.'

In freshwater lakes and ponds, especially if the water is stagnant,
aquatic plants are abundant. Aquatic vegetation may be con-
veniently classified as follows : —

Aquatic plants with submerged leaves: Chara spp., Naias spp.,
Potamogeton pectinatus, Ceratophyllum spp., Myriophyllum spp.,
Hottonia palustris, Utricularia spp.

Aquatic plants with submerged and floating leaves: Glyceria
fluitans, Ranunculus peltatus, Nymphaea (Nuphar) ■ lutea, Calli-
triche stagnalis, Potamogeton polygonifolius.

Aquatic plants with floating leaves: Lemna spp., Hydrocharis
Morsus-ranae, Castalia (Nymphaea) alba.

Aquatic plants with submerged leaves and erect leaves o* - stems:
Sagittaria sagittifolia, Scirpus lacusiris, Hippuris vulgaris, Sium
latifolium.

Aquatic plants with erect leaves or stems (reed swamp plants) :
Equisetum palustre, Phragmites communis, Glyceria aquatica, Carex
riparia, Iris Pseudacorus, Rumex Hydrolapathum, Oenanthe fistulosa,
Bidens spp.

Marsh plants: Alopecurus geniculatus, Carex disiicha, Juncus
spp., Caltha palustris, Nasturtium palustre.

In many aquatic plants, the endosperm of the seed is absent
or very scanty. The root-system is usually small. Root-hairs
are frequently missing. The submerged stems are slender or
hollow. Strengthening tissue of all kinds (and sometimes even
the phloem) is more or less rudimentary. The stems are frequently
characterized by aeration channels, which connect the aerial parts
with the parts which are buried in practically airless mud or silt.
Submerged leaves are usually filamentous or narrowly ribbon-
shaped, thus exposing a large amount of surface to the water, some
of the dissolved gases of which they must absorb, and into which
they must also excrete certain gases. Stomata are often absent,
absorption and excretion of gases in solution being carried on
through the epidermal layer. Chloroplastids are frequently
present in the epidermal cells, as in some shade plants. Very
few aquatic plants are pollinated under water, but this is well-
known to occur in species of Zostera and of Naias. In such plants,
the pollen grains are sometimes filiform and not spherical in shape.
In the case of aquatic plants with aerial flowers, the latter obey

2 As very little experimental work has been done with regard
to physiological dryness in physically wet habitats, any classifica-
tion such as the above must be of a tentative nature;

7 6 4

PLANTS

[ECOLOGY

the ordinary laws of pollination. Heterophylly is rather common
among aquatic plants, and is well seen in several aquatic species
of Ranunculus, many species of Potamogeton, Sagittaria sagitti-
folia, Scirpus lacustris, Castalia (Nymphaea) alba, Hippuris vul-
garis, Callitriche spp., Stum latifolium.

Insectivorous species occur among aquatic plants; e.g. Utricularia
spp., which are locally abundant in peaty waters, are insectivorous.
Xerophytes. — These plants have devices (a) for procuring water,
(b) or for storing water, (c) or for limiting transpiration; and these
adaptations are obviously related to the physically or physio-
logically dry habitats in which the plants live. Plants of physi-
cally dry habitats, such as deserts and sand dunes, have frequently
long tap-roots which doubtless, in some cases, reach down to a
subterranean water supply. The same plants have sometimes
a superficial root system in addition, and are thus able to utilize
immediately the water from rain showers and perhaps also from
dew, as Volkens 1 maintains. Root-hairs give an enlarged super-
ficial area to the roots of plants, and thus are related to the pro-
curing of water.

The stems of some xerophytes, e.g. Cactaceous and Crassulaceous
plants, may be succulent, i.e. they have tissues in which water
is stored. Some deserts, like those of Central America, are specially
characterized by succulents; in other deserts, such as the Sahara,
succulents are not a prominent feature. Other xerophytes again
are spinous. " Switch plants," such as Retama Retam and broom
(Cytisus scoparius), have reduced leaves and some assimilating
tissue in their stems ; and stomata occur in grooves on the stem.

The transpiring surface of xerophytes is frequently reduced.
The ordinary leaves may be small, absent, or spinous. In " cushion
plants " the leaves are very small, very close together, and the low
habit is protective against winds. The latter, of course, greatly
increase transpiration. A " cushion plant " (Anabasis aretioides)
of the north-western Sahara, frequently shows dead leaves on the
exposed side whilst the plant is in full vigour on the sheltered
side. The buds and leaves on the exposed side are probably
killed by sand blasts. Many xerophytes are hairy or have sunken
stomata which may be further protected by partial plugs of wax:
the stomata are frequently in grooves: the leaves are frequently
rolled — sometimes permanently so, whilst sometimes the leaves
roll up only during unfavourable weather. These adaptations
tend to lessen the amount of transpiration by protecting the
stomata from the movements of the air. In species of Eucalyptus,
the leaves are placed edge-wise to the incident rays of light and
heat. The coriaceous leaves of " sclerophyllous plants " also, to
some extent, are similarly protective. In such leaves, there are
a well-marked cuticle, a thick epidermis, a thick hypodermis at
least on the upper side of the leaf, well-developed palisade tissue,
and a poorly developed system of air-spaces. Such adaptations
are well seen in the leaf of the holly {Ilex aquifolium). Warming,
however, states that " Ilex aquifolium is undubitably a meso-
phyte " (1909: 135).

Halophytes, or plants which live in saline soils, have xerophytic
adaptations. A considerable proportion of halophytes are succu-
lents, i.e. their leaves and, to some extent, their stems have much
water-storing tissue and few intercellular spaces. Some halo-
phytes tend ■ to lose their succulence when cultivated in a non-
saline soil; and some non-halophytes tend to become succulent
when cultivated in a salty soil; there is, it need scarcely be stated,
little or no evidence that such characters are transmitted. British
salt marshes furnish few instances of spiny plants, though such
occur occasionally on the inland salt marshes of continental dis-
tricts. Salsola Kali is British, and a hemi-halophyte at least;
and it is rather spiny. Warming states that " the stomata of true,
succulent, littoral halophytic herbs, in cases so far investigated,
are not sunken " (1909 : 221). It is possible, however, that the
absence of sunken stomata, and the occurrence of some other
halophytic features, are related merely to the succulent habit and
not to halophytism, for succulent species often occur on non-saline
soils. Similarly, the small amount of cuticular and of epidermal
protection, and of lignification in succulent halophytes may also
be related to the same circumstance. Forms of " stone cells "
or " stereids " occur in some of the more suffruticose halophytes,
as in Arthrocnemum glaucum. The interesting occurrence of certain
halophytes and hemi-halophytes on sea-shores and also on mountains
is probably to be explained by the past distribution of the species
in question. At one time, such plants were probably of more general
occurrence: now they have been extirpated in the intermediate
localities, chiefly owing to the cultivation of the land in these
places by man. In the west of Ireland and in the Faroes, where
certain inland and lowland localities are still uncultivated, Plantago
maritima and other halophytes occur in quantity and side by side
with some " Alpine species," such as Dryas octopetala.

The effect of common salt on the metabolism of plants is not
understood. Lesage 2 has shown that the height of certain plants
is decreased by cultivation in a saline soil, and that the leaves of

1 Volkens, Die Flora der dgyptisch-arabischen Wuste (Berlin,
1887).

2 Lesage. " Recherches experimentales sur les modifications des
feuilles chez les plantes maritimes," in Rev. gen. de bot. (1890), voL ii.

plants under such conditions become smaller and more succulent.
He showed further, that the increase of common salt in the soil
is correlated with a reduction in the number and size of the chloro-
plastids, and therefore in the amount of chlorophyll. On the other
hand, some plants did not respond to the action of common salt,
whilst others were killed. Warming (1909: 220) quotes Griffon
(1898), to the effect that " the assimilatory activity is less in the
halophytic form than in the ordinary form of the same species."
Schimper had previously maintained that the action of common
salt in the cell-sap is detrimental as regards assimilation. Many
marine Algae appear to be able to regulate their osmotic capacity
to the surrounding medium ; and T. G. Hill 3 has shown that the root-
hairs of Salicornia possess this property. There has, however,
been performed upon halophytes very little physiologically ex-
perimental work which commands general acceptance.

Bog Xerophytes live in the peaty soil of fens and moors which are
physically wet, but which are said to be physiologically dry. Related
to the physiological drought, such plants possess some xerophytic
characters; and, related to the physical wetness, the plants possess
the aeration channels which characterize many hydrophytes and
hemi-hydrophytes. The occurrence of xerophytic characters in
plants of this type has given rise to. much difference of opinion.
It is sometimes maintained, for example, by Schimper, that their
xerophytic characters are related to the physiological dryness of
the habitat : this, however, is denied by others who maintain
(Clements, 1905: 127) that the xerophytism is due to the persis-
tence of ancestral structures. It is possible, of course, that each
explanation is correct in particular cases, as the views are by no
means mutually exclusive. With regard to the occurrence of
plants, such as Juncus effusus, which possess xerophytic characters
and yet live in situations which are not ordinarily of marked physio-
logical dryness, it should be remembered that such habitats are
liable to occasional physical drought; and a plant must eventually
succumb if it is not adapted to the extreme conditions of its habitat.
The xerophytic characters being present, it is not surprising that
many marsh plants, like Juncus effusus and Iris pseudacorus, are
able to survive in dry situations, such as banks and even garden
rockeries.

Tropophytes. — These plants are characterized by being xerophytic
during the unfavourable season. For example, deciduous trees
shed their leaves in winter: geophytes go through a period of dor-
mancy by means of bulbs, rhizomes, or other underground organs
with buds; whilst annuals and ephemerals similarly protect them-
selves by means of the seed habit. All such plants agree in reduc-
ing transpiration to zero during the unfavourable season, although
few or no xerophytic characters may be demonstrable during the
period favourable to growth.

Hygrophytes.—\Avin%, as these plants do, under medium con-
ditions as regards soil, moisture and climate, they exhibit no cha-
racters which are markedly xerophytic or hydrophytic. Hence,
such plants are frequently termed mesophytes. Assimilation goes
on during the whole year, except during periods of frost or when .the
plants are buried by snow. An interesting special case of hygro-
phytes is seen with regard to plants which live in the shade of
forests. Such plants have been termed sciophytes. Their stomata
are frequently not limited to the underside of the leaves, but may
occur scattered all over the epidermal surface. The epidermal
cells may contain chlorophyll. Strengthening tissue is feebly
developed. Many sciophytes are herbaceous tropophytes, and
are dormant for more than half the year, usually during late summer,
autumn and early winter. It may be that this is a hereditary
character (cf. "bog xerophytes"), or that the physical drought
of summer is unfavourable to shade-loving plants. In this con-
nexion, it is interesting that in the east of England with the lowest
summer rainfall of this country, many common sciophytes are
absent or rare in the woods, such, for example, as Melica uniflora.
Allium ursinum, Lychnis dioica, Oxalis Acetosella, and Asperula
odorata. However, the cause of the absence or presence of a given
species from a given locality is a department of ecology which
has been studied with little or no thoroughness.

Calcicole and Calcifuge Species. — Plants which invariably inhabit
calcareous soils are sometimes termed calcicoles; calcifuge species
are those which are found rarely or never on such soils. The effect
of lime on plants is less understood even than the effect of common
salt. Doubtless, the excess of any soluble mineral salt or salts
interferes with the osmotic absorption of the roots; and although'
calcium carbonate is insoluble in pure water, it is slightly solublel
in water containing carbon dioxide. In England, the following
species are confined or almost confined to calcareous soils : A splenium
Ruta-muraria, Melica nutans, Carex digitata, Aceras anthropophora,
Ophrys apifera, Thalictrum minus, Helianthemum Chamaecistus,
Viola hirta, Linum perenne, Geranium lucidum, Hippocrepis comosa,
Potentilla verna, Viburnum Lantana, Galium asperum (= G. syl-
vestre), Asperula cynanchica, Senecio campestris. The following
plants, in England, are calcifuge : Lastraea Oreopteris, Holcus mollis,
Carex echinata, Spergula arvensis, Polygala serpyllacea, Cytisus

3 T. G. Hill, " Observations on the Osmotic Properties of the
Root-Hairs of certain Salt Marsh Plants," in The New Phytologist
(1908), vol. vii.

CYTOLOGY]

PLANTS

7 6 5

scoparius, Potentilla procumbens, Galium hercynicum (=G. saxatile),
Gnaphalium sylvaticum, Digitalis purpurea. Other plants occur
indifferently both on calcareous and on non-calcareous soils.

It is sometimes said that lime acts as a poison on some plants
and not on others, and sometimes that it is the physiological dry-
ness of calcareous soils that is the important factor. In relation
to the latter theory, it is pointed out that some markedly calcicole
species occur on sand dunes; but this may be due to the lime which
is frequently present in dune sand as well as to the physical dryness
of the soil. Further, no theory of calciolous and calcifugous
plants can be regarded as satisfactory which fails to account for
the fact that both kinds of plants occur among aquatic as well as
among terrestrial plants. Schimper (1903: 102) thinks that in
the case of aquatic plants, the difference must depend on the
amount of lime in the water, for the physical nature of the sub-
stratum is the same in each case. Again, acidic humus does not
form in calcareous soils; and hence one does not expect to find
plants characteristic of acidic peat or humus on calcareous soils.
Some such species are Blechnum boreale, Aira flexuosa, Calluna
vulgaris, Vaccinium, Myrlillus, Rubus, Chamaemorus, Empetrum
nigrum, Drosera spp. Some, at least, of these species possess my-
corhiza in their roots, and are perhaps unable to live in soils where
such organisms are absent.

In England, the number of calcicole species is greater than the
number of silicolous species. It would therefore be curious if it
were proved that lime acts on plants as a poison. It is said that
some plants may be calcicoles in one geographical district and not
in another. However, until more is known of the exact chemical
composition of natural — as contrasted with agricultural — soils,
and until more is known of the physiological effects of lime, it is
impossible to decide the vexed question of the relation of lime-
loving and lime-shunning plants to the presence or absence of
calcium carbonate in the soil. From such points of view as this,
it is indeed true, as Warming has recently stated, " that ecology
is only in its infancy." (C. E. M.)

Cytology of Plants

The elementary unit of plant structure, as of animal structure,
is the cell. Within it or its modifications all the vital phenomena
of which living organisms are capable have their origin. Upon
our knowledge of its minute structure or cytology, combined with
a study of its physiological activities, depends the ultimate
solution of all the important problems of nutrition and growth,
reception and conduction of stimuli, heredity, variation, sex and
reproduction.

The Cell Theory. — For a general and historical account of the cell
theory see Cytology. It is sufficient to note here that cells were
first of all discovered in various vegetable tissues by Robert Hooke
in 1665 (Micrographia) ; Malpighi and Grew (1674-1682) gave the
first clear indications of the importance of cells in the building up
of plant tissues, but it was not until the beginning of the 19th century
that any insight into the real nature of the cell and its functions was
obtained. Hugo von Mohl (1846) was the first to recognize that the
essential vital constituent of the plant cell is the slimy mass — proto-
plasm — inside it, and not the cell wall as was formerly supposed.
The nucleus was definitely recognized in the plant cell by Robert
Brown in 1831, but its presence had been previously indicated by
various observers and it had been seen by Fontana in some animal
cells as early as 1 781. The cell theory so far as it relates to plants
was established by Schleiden in 1838. He showed that all the
organs of plants are built up of cells, that the plant embryo originates
from a single cell, and that the physiological activities of the plant
are dependent upon the individual activities of these vital units.
This conception of the plant as an aggregate or colony of independent
vital units governing the nutrition, growth and reproduction of the
whole cannot, however, be maintained. It is true that in the uni-
cellular plants all the vital activities are performed by a single cell,
but in the multicellular plants there is a more or less highly developed
differentiation of physiological activity giving rise to different tissues
or groups of cells, each with a special function. The cell in such a
division of labour cannot therefore be regarded as an independent
unit. It is an integral part of an individual organization and as
such the exercise of its functions must be governed by the organism
as a whole.

General Structure and Differentiation of the Vegetable Cell. —
The simplest cell forms are found in embryonic tissues, in repro-
ductive cells and in the parenchymatous cells, found in various
parts of the plant. The epidermal, conducting and strengthen-
ing tissues show on the other hand considerable modifications
both in form and structure.

The protoplasm of a living cell consists of a semifluid granular
substance, called the cytoplasm, one or more nuclei, and some-
times centrosomes and plastids. Cells from different parts of a
plant differ very much in their cell-contents. Young cells are

full of cytoplasm, old cells generally contain a large vacuole or
vacuoles, containing cell-sap, and with only a thin, almost
invisible layer of cytoplasm on their walls. Chlorophyll grains,
chromatophores, starch-grains and oil-globules, all of which can
be distinguished either by their appearance or by chemical
reagents, may also be present. Very little is known of the finer
structure of the cytoplasm of a vegetable cell. It is sometimes
differentiated into a clearer outer layer, of hyaloplasm, commonly
called the ectoplasm, and an inner granular endoplasm. In
some cases it shows, when submitted to a careful examination
under the highest powers of the microscope, and especially when
treated with reagents of various kinds, traces of a more or less
definite structure in the form of a meshwork consisting of a clear
homogeneous substance containing numerous minute bodies
known as microsomes, the spaces being filled by a more fluid
ground-substance. This structure, which is visible both in living
cells and in cells treated by reagents, has been interpreted
by many observers as a network of threads embedded in a
hQmogeneous ground-substance. Butschli, on the other hand,
interprets it as a finely vacuolated foam-structure or emul-
sion, comparable to that which is observed when small drops
of a mixture of finely powdered potash and oil are placed in
water, the vacuoles or alveoli being spaces filled with liquid, the
more solid portion representing the mesh-work in which the
microsomes are placed. Evidence is not wanting, however, that
the cytoplasm must be regarded as, fundamentally, a semifluid,
homogeneous substance in which by its own activity, granules,
vacuoles, fibrils, &c, can be formed as secondary structures.
The cytoplasm is largely concerned in the formation of spindle
fibres and centrosomes, and such structures as the cell membrane,
cilia, or flagella, the coenocentrum, nematoplast's or vibrioids and
physodes are also products of its activity.

Protoplasmic Movements. — In the cells of many plants the
cytoplasm frequently exhibits movements of circulation or
rotation. The cells of the staminal hairs of Tradescantia virginica
contain a large sap-cavity across which run, in all directions,
numerous protoplasmic threads or bridges. In these, under
favourable conditions, streaming movements of the cytoplasm in
various directions can be observed. In other forms such as Elodea,
Nitella, Chara, &c, where the cytoplasm is mainly restricted
to the periphery of the sap vacuole and lining the cell wall, the
streaming movement is exhibited in one direction only. In
some cases both the nucleus and the chromatophores may be
carried along in the rotating stream, but in others, such as Nitella,
the chloroplasts may remain motionless in a non-motile layer of
the cytoplasm in direct contact with the cell wall. 1

Desmids, Diatoms and Oscillaria show creeping movements
probably due to the secretion of slime by the cells; the swarm-
spores and Plasmodium of the Myxomycetes exhibit amoeboid
movements; and the motile spores of Fungi and Algae, the
spermatozoids of mosses, ferns, &c, move by means of delicate
prolongations, cilia or flagella cf the protoplast.

Chromatophores. — The chromatophores or plastids are proto-
plasmic structures, denser than the cytoplasm, and easily
distinguishable from it by their colour or greater refractive power.
They are spherical, oval, fusiform, or rod-like, and are always
found in the cytoplasm, never in the cell-sap. They appear to
be permanent organs of the cell, and are transmitted from one
cell to another by division. In young cells the chromatophores
are small, colourless, highly refractive bodies, principally located
around the nucleus. As the cell grows they may become con-
verted into leucoplasts (starch-formers), chloroplasts (chlorophyll-
bodies) , or chromoplasts (colour-bodies) . And all three structures
may be converted one into the other (Schimper). The chloro-
plasts are generally distinguished by their green colour, which is
due to the presence of chlorophyll; but in many Algae this is
masked by another colouring matter — Phycoerythrin in the
Florideae, Phycophaein in the Phaeophyceae, and Phycocyanin

1 Ewart, On the Physics and Physiology of Protoplasmic Stream-
ing in Plants. (Oxford, 1903), gives an excellent account of the
phenomena of protoplasmic streaming with a full discussion of the
probable causes to which it is due.

766

PLANTS

[CYTOLOGY

in the Cyanophyceae. These substances can, however, be
dissolved out in water, and the green colouring matter of the
chloroplast then becomes visible. The chloroplast consists of
two parts, a colourless ground substance, and a green colouring
matter, which is contained either in the form of fibrils, or in more
or less regular spherical masses, in the colourless ground-mass.
The chloroplasts increase in number by division, which takes
place in higher plants when they have attained a certain size,
independent of the division of the cell. In Spirogyra and allied
forms the chloroplast grows as the cell grows, and only divides
when this divides. The division in all cases takes place by con-
striction, or by a simultaneous splitting along an equatorial plane.
Chloroplasts are very sensitive to light and are capable in some
plants of changing their position in the cell under the stimulus of a
variation in the intensity of the light rays which fall upon them.
In the chromatophores of many Algae and in the Liverwort
Anthoceros there are present homogeneous, highly refractive,
crystal-like bodies, called pyrenoids or starch-centres, which are
composed of proteid substances and surrounded by an envelope
of starch-grains. In Spirogyra the pyrenoids are distinctly
connected by cytoplasmic strands to the central mass of cyto-
plasm, which surrounds the nucleus, and according to some
observers, they increase exclusively by division, followed by a
splitting of the cytoplasmic strands. Those chromatophores
which remain colourless, and serve simply as starch-formers in
parts of the plant not exposed to the light, are called leucoplasts
or amyloplasts. They are composed of a homogeneous proteid
substance, and often contain albuminoid or proteid crystals of the
same kind as those which form the pyrenoid. If exposed to light
they may become converted into chloroplasts. The formation of
starch may take place in any part of the leucoplast. When
formed inside it, the starch-grains exhibit a concentric stratifi-
cation; when formed externally in the outer layers, the stratifi-
cation is excentric, and the hilum occurs on that side farthest
removed from the leucoplast. As the starch-grains grow, the
leucoplasts gradually disappear.

Chromoplasts are the yellow, orange or red colour-bodies found
in some flowers and fruits. They arise either from the leucoplasts
or chloroplasts. The fundamental substance or stroma is colourless
and homogeneous. The colour is due to the presence of xantho-
phyll, or carotin or both. The colouring matters are not dissolved
in the stroma of the chromoplast, but exist as amorphous granules,
with .or without the presence of a protein crystal, or in the form of
fine crystalline needles, frequently curved and sometimes present in
large numbers, which are grouped together in various ways in bundles
and give the plastids their fusiform or triangular crystalline shape.
Such crystalline plastMs occur in many fruits and flowers {e.g.
Tamus communis, Asparagus, Lonicera, berries of Solaneae, flowers
of Cacalia coccinea, Tropaeolum, bracts of Strelitzia, &c), and in the
root of the carrot. In some cases the plastid disappears and the
crystalline pigment only is left. In the red variety of Cucurbita
pepo these' crystals may consist of rods, thin plates, flat ribbons
or spirals. Starch grains may often be seen in contact with the
pigment crystals. The crystalline form appears to be due entirely
to the carotin, which can be artificially crystallized from an alcohol
or ether solution. In addition to the plastids, there are found in
some plant-cells, e.g. in the epidermal cells of the leaf of species of
Vanilla (Wakker), and in the epidermis of different parts of the
flower of Funkia, Ornithogalum, &c. (Zimmermann), highly refrac-
tive bodies of globular form, elaioplasts, which consist of a granular
protein ground-substance containing drops of oil. They are stained
deep red in dilute solution of alkanin.

Substances contained in the Protoplasm. — .Starch may be found
in the chlorophyll bodies in the form of minute granules as the
first visible product of the assimilation of carbon dioxide, and it
occurs in large quantities as a reserve food material in the cells
of various parts of plants. It is highly probable that starch is
only produced as the result of the activity of chromatophores,
either in connexion with chromoplasts, chloroplasts or leucoplasts.
Starch exists, in the majority of cases, in the form of grains,
which are composed of stratified layers arranged around a nucleus
or hilum. The stratification, which may be concentric or
excentric, appears to be due to a difference in density of the
various layers. The outer layers are denser than the inner, the
density decreasing more or less uniformly from the outside layers
to the centre of hilum. The outermost, newly formed layer is
composed of a more homogeneous, denser substance than the

inner one, and can be distinguished in all starch-grains that are in
process of development. The separate layers of the starch-grain
are deposited on it by the activity of the chromatophore, and
according to Meyer the grain is always surrounded by a thin layer
of the chromatophore which completely separates it from the
cytoplasm. The layers appear to be made up of elements which
are arranged radially. These are, according to Meyer, acicular
crystals, which he calls trichites. The starch grain may thus be
regarded as a crystalline structure of the nature of a sphere-
crystal, as has been suggested by many observers.

Whether the formation of the starch grain is due to a secretion
from the plastid (Meyer, 1895) or to a direct transformation of
the proteid of the plastid (Timberlake, 1001) has not been definitely
established.

Aleurone. — Aleurone is a proteid substance which occurs in seeds
especially those containing oil, in the form of minute granules or
large grains. It may be in the form of an albumen crystal' some-
times associated with a more or less spherical body — globoid — com-
posed of a combination of an organic substance with a double phos-
phate of magnesium and calcium. Albumen crystals are also to be
found in the cytoplasm, in leucoplasts and rarely in the nucleus.

Glycogen, a substance related to starch and sugar, is found in
the Fungi and Cyanophyceae as a food reserve. It gives a character-
istic red-brown reaction with iodine solution. In the yeast cell it
accumulates and disappears very rapidly according to the conditions
of nutrition and is sometimes so abundant as to fill the cell almost
entirely (Errera, 1882, 1895: Wager and Peniston, 19 10). _

Volutin occurs in the cytoplasm of various Fungi, Bacteria, Cyano-
phyceae, diatoms, &c, in the form of minute granules which have
a characteristic reaction towards methylene blue (Meyer). It
appears to have some of the characteristics of nucleic acid, and accord-
ing to Meyer may be a combination of nucleic acid with an unknown
organic base.

Numerous other substances are also found in the cytoplasm,
such as tannin, fats and oil, resins, mucilage, caoutchouc, gutta-
percha, sulphur and calcium oxalate crystals. The cell sap con-
tains various substances in solution such as sugars, inulin, alkaloids,
glucosides, organic acids and various inorganic salts. The colours
of flowers are due to colouring matters contained in the sap of which
the chief is anthocyanin.

Reference must also be made here to the enzymes or unorganized
ferments which occur so largely in the cytoplasm. It is probable
that most, if not all, the metabolic changes which take place in a
cell, such as the transformation of starch, proteids, sugar, cellulose ;
and the decomposition of numerous other organic substances
which would otherwise require a high temperature or powerful
reagents is also due to their activity. Their mode of action is similar
to that of ordinary mechanical catalytic agents, such as finely
divided platinum (see Bayliss, The Nature of Enzyme Action, and
J. R. Green, The Soluble Ferments).

The Nucleus. — The nucleus has been demonstrated in all
plants with the exception of the Cyanophyceae and Bacteria, and
even here structures have been observed which resemble nuclei
in some of their characteristics. The nucleus is regarded as a
controlling centre of cell-activity, upon which the growth and
development of the cell in large measure depends, and as the
agent by which the transmission of specific qualities from one
generation to another is brought about. If it is absent, the cell
loses its power of assimilation and growth, and soon dies. Haber-
landt has shown that in plant cells, when any new formation of
membrane is to take place in a given spot, the nucleus is found in
its immediate vicinity; and Klebs found that only that portion
of the protoplasm of a cell which contains the nucleus is capable
of forming a cell- wall; whilst Townsend has further shown that
if the non-nucleated mass is connected by strands of protoplasm
to the nucleated mass, either of the same cell or of a neighbouring
cell, it retains the power of forming a cell-membrane.

The Structure of the Nucleus. — In the living condition the rest-
ing nucleus appears to consist of a homogeneous ground sub-
stance containing a large number of small chromatin granules and
one or more large spherical granules — nucleoli — the whole being
surrounded by a limiting membrane which separates it from the
cytoplasm. When fixed and stained this granular mass is
resolved into a more or less distinct granular network which
consists of a substance called Linin, only slightly stained by the
ordinary nuclear stains, and, embedded in it, a more deeply
stainable substance called Chromatin. The nucleolus appears to
form a part of the Linin network, but has usually also a strong
affinity for nuclear stains. The staining reactions of the various

CYTOLOGY]

PLANTS

7 6 7

parts of the nucleus depend to some extent upon their chemical
constitution. The chromatin is practically identical with
nuclein. This has a strong attraction for basic aniline dyes, and
can usually be distinguished from other parts of the cell which are
more easily coloured by acid anilines. But the staining reactions
of nuclei may vary at different stages of their development;
and it is, probable that there is no method of staining which
differentiates with certainty the various morphological consti-
tuents of the nucleus.

Our knowledge of the chemical constitutions of the nucleus is
due to the pioneer researches of Sir Lauder Brunton, Plosz, Miescher,
Kossel and a host of more recent investigators. Nuclein is a com-
plex albuminoid substance containing phosphorus and iron in organic
combination (Macallum). It appears to be a combination of a pro-
tein with nucleic acid. Recent researches have shown that the
nucleic acid can be broken up by chemical means into a number of
different compounds or bases. The results at first obtained were
very confusing and seemed to show that nucleic acid is very variable
in constitution, but thanks to the work of Schmiedeberg and Stendel
(Germany), Ivar Bang (Sweden) and Walter Jones and Levene
(America), the confusion has been reduced to some sort of order, and
it now seems probable that all ordinary nucleic acids yield two
purine bases, adenine and guanine; two pyrimidine bases, cytosine
and thymine and a hexose carbohydrate, the identity of which is
uncertain. 1

The Nucleolus. — In the majority of plant-nuclei, both in the
higher and lower plants, there is found, in addition to the
chromatin network, a deeply stained spherical or slightly
irregular body (sometimes more than one) called the nucleolus
(fig. 2, A to D). It is often vacuolar, sometimes granular, and
in other cases it is a homogeneous body with no visible structure
or differentiation. The special function of this organ has been a
source of controversy during the past few years, and much
uncertainty still exists as to its true nature. It forms a part of
the linin or plastin network of the nucleus and may become
impregnated with varying quantities of chromatin stored up for
use in the formation of the chromosomes and other nuclear
activities. The relation of the nucleolus to the chromosomes is
clearly seen in the reconstruction of the daughter nuclei after
division in the cells of the root-apex of Phaseolus (fig. i, A to F).
The chromosomes (fig. i, A) unite to form an irregular mass
(fig. i, B) out of which is evolved the nucleolus and nuclear net-
work (figs, i, E, F) by a fusion of the chromosomes (fig. i, C, D).
Centrosome. — The centrosome is a minute homogeneous
granule found in the cytoplasm of some cells in the neighbour-
hood of the nucleus. It is generally surrounded by a granular
or radiating cytoplasmic substance. In plant cells its presence
has been demonstrated in the Thallophytes and Bryophytes.
In the higher plants the structures which have been often de-
scribed as centrosomes are too indefinite in their constitution
to allow of this interpretation being placed upon them, and many
of them are probably nothing more than granules of the frag-
mented nucleolus. The centrosomes in plants do not appear
to be permanent organs of the cell. They are prominent during
cell-division, but many disappear in the resting stage. They are
more easily seen, when the nucleus is about to undergo mitosis,
at the ends of the spindle, where they form the centres towards
which the radiating fibres in the cytoplasm converge (see fig.
7, E G). The centrosome or centrosphere is usually regarded as
the dynamic centre of the cell and a special organ of division;
but its absence in many groups of plants does not lend support to
this view so far as plant-cells are concerned.

Nuclear Division. — The formation of new cells is, in the case
of uninucleate cells, preceded by or accompanied by the division
of the nucleus. In multinucleate cells the division of the
nucleus is independent of the division of the cell. Nuclear
division may be indirect or direct, that is to say it may either be
accompanied by a series of complicated changes in the nuclear
structures called mitosis or karyokinesis (fig. 2), or it may take
place by simple direct division, amitosis, or fragmentation.
Direct division is a much less common phenomenon than was
formerly supposed to be the case. It occurs most frequently in
old cells, or in cells which are placed under abnormal conditions.

1 See Halliburton. Science Progress in the 20th Century (1909),
vol. iv.

It may also take place where rapid proliferation of the cell is
going on, as in the budding of the Yeast plant. It takes place
in the internodal cells of Characeae; in the old internodal cells of

Fig. 1. — Reconstruction of the daughter nuclei of Phaseolus.

Tradescantia; and in various other cells which have lost their
power of division. It has been shown that, in cells of Spirogyra
placed under special conditions, amitotic division can be induced,
and that normal mitosis is resumed when they are placed again
under normal conditions. Amitosis is probably connected by a
series of intermediate gradations with karyokinesis.

Mitosis. — In indirect nuclear division the nucleus undergoes
a series of complicated changes, which result in an equal division
of the chromatic substance between the two daughter nuclei.
Four stages can be recognized. (1) Prophase. — The nucleus
increases in size; the network disappears, and a much convoluted
thread takes its place (fig. 2, B). The chromatin substance
increases in amount; the thread stains more deeply, and in most
cases presents a homogeneous appearance. This is commonly
called the spirem-figure. The chromatin thread next becomes
shorter and thicker, the nucleoli begin to disappear, and the thread
breaks up into a number of segments — chromosomes — which
vary in number in different species, but are fairly constant in the
same species (fig. 2, C, D). Coincident with these changes the
nuclear membrane disappears and a spindle-shaped or barrel-
shaped group of threads makes its appearance in the midst of the
chromosomes, the longitudinal axis of which is at right angles to
the plane of the division (fig. 2, F). At each pole of this spindle
figure there often occur fibres radiating in all directions into the
cytoplasm, and sometimes a minute granular body, the centro-
some, is also found there. (2) Metaphase. — The chromosomes
pass to the equator of the spindle and become attached to the

768

PLANTS

[CYTOLOGY

spindle-fibres in such a way that they form a radiating star-
shaped figure — Aster — when seen from the pole of the spindle.
This is called the nuclear plate (fig. 2, E, F, G, H). As they pass
into this position they undergo a longitudinal splitting by which
the chromatin in each chromosome becomes divided into equal
halves. (3) Anaphase. — The longitudinal division of the chro-
mosomes is completed by the time they have 7 taken up their
position in the nuclear plate, and the halves of the chromosomes
then begin to move along the spindle-fibres to opposite poles of
the spindle (fig. 2, I, J). Many observers hold the view that
the chromosomes are pulled apart by the contraction of the
fibres to which they are attached. (4) Telophase. — When they
reach the poles the chromosomes group themselves again in the
form of stars — Diaster — with spindle-fibres extending between
them (fig. 2, K). The chromosomes then fuse together again
to form a single thread (fig. 2, L), a nucleolus appears, a nuclear
membrane is formed, and daughter nuclei are thus constituted
which possess the same structure and staining reactions as the
mother nucleus.

The spindle figure is probably the expression of forces which are
set up in the cell for the purpose of causing the separation of the
daughter chromosomes. Hartog has endeavoured to show that it
can only be formed by a dual force, analagous to that of magnetism,
the spindle- fibi es being comparable to the lines of force in a magnetic
field and possibly due to electrical differences in the cell. The spindle
arises partly from the cytoplasm, partly from the nucleus, or it may
be derived entirely from the nucleus — intranuclear spindle — as
occurs in many of the lower plants (Fungi, &c). The formation of
the spindle begins in the prophases of division. A layer of delicate
filamentous cytoplasm — kinoplasm — may collect around the nucleus,
or at its poles, out of which the spindle is formed. As division
proceeds, the filamentous nature of this cytoplasm becomes more
prominent and the threads begin either to converge towards the
poles of the nucleus, to form a bipolar spindle, or may converge
towards, or radiate from, several different points, to form a multi-
polar spindle. The wall of the nucleus breaks down, and the cyto-
plasmic spindle-fibres become mixed with those derived from the
nuclear network. The formation of the spindle differs in details
in different plants.

The significance of this complex series of changes is very
largely hypothetical. It is clear, however, that an equal
quantitative division and distribution of the chromatin to the
daughter cells is brought about; and if, as has been suggested,
the chromatin consists of minute particles or units which are
the carriers of the hereditary characteristics, the nuclear division
also probably results in the equal division and distribution of one
half of each of these units to each daughter cell.

Reduction Divisions (Meiosis). — The divisions which take
place leading to the formation of the sexual cells show a reduction
in the number of chromosomes to one-half. This is a necessary
consequence of the fusion of two nuclei in fertilization, unless the
chromosomes are to be doubled at each generation. In the
vascular cryptogams and phanerogams it takes place in the spore
mother cells and the reduced number is found in all the cells of
the gametophyte, the full number in those of the sporophyte.
We know very little of the details of reduction in the lower plants,
but it probably occurs at some stage in the life history of all
plants in which sexual nuclear fusion takes place. The reduc-
tion is brought about simply by the segmentation of the spirem
thread into half the number of segments instead of the normal
number. In order to effect this the individual chromosomes must
become associated in some way, for there is no diminution in the
actual amount of nuclear substance, and this leads to certain
modifications in the division which are not seen in the vegetative
nuclei. The two divisions of the spore mother cell in which the
reduction takes place, follow each other very rapidly and are
known as Heterotype and Homotype (Flemming), or according to
the terminology of Farmer and Moore (1905) as the meiotic phase.
In the heterotype division the spirem thread is divided longi-
tudinally before the segmentation occurs (fig. 2, B), and this
is preceded by a peculiar contraction of the thread around the
nucleolus which has been termed synapsis (fig. 1, A). A second
contraction may take place later, immediately preceding the
segmentation of the thread. It has been suggested that synapsis
may be connected with the early longitudinal splitting of the
thread or with the pairing of the chromosomes, but it is possible

that it may be connected with the transference of nucleolar
substance to the nuclear thread. The segments of each chromo-
some are usually twisted upon each other and may be much
contorted (fig. 2, C, D), and appearances are observed which
suggest a second longitudinal division, but which are more

(After Gregoire.) ~s

Fig. 2. — Various Stages in the Nuclear Division of the Pollen 1
Mother-cells of Lilium.

probably due to a folding of the segment by which the two halves
come to lie more or less parallel to each other, and form variously
shaped figures of greater or less regularity (fig. 2, E). The
chromosomes now become attached to the spindle-fibres (fig.
2, F, G) and as thedaughter chromosomes become pulled asunder
they often appear more or less V-shaped so that each pair appears
as a closed ring of irregular shape, the ends of the V's being in
contact thus— <> (fig. 2, H, I, J, K). This V has been
variously interpreted. Some observers consider that it repre-
sents a longitudinal half of the original segment of the spireme,
others that it is a half of the segment produced by transverse
division by means of which a true qualitative separation of the
chromatin is brought about. The problem is a very difficult
one and cannot be regarded as definitely settled, but it is difficult
to understand why all this additional complexity in the division
of the nucleus should be necessary if the final result is only a
quantitative separation of the chromatin. It seems to be fairly
well established that in the meiotic phase there is a true qualitative
division brought about by the pairing of the chromosomes
during synapsis, and the subsequent separation of whole

CYTOLOGY]

PLANTS

769

chromosomes to the daughter nuclei. The method by which this
is brought about is, however, the subject of much controversy.
There are two main theories: (1) that the chromosomes which
finally separate are at first paired side by side (Allen, Gregoire,
Berghs, Strasburger and others), and (2) that they are joined
together or paired end to end (Farmer and Moore, Gregory,
Mottier and others). Good cytological evidence has been ad-
duced in favour of both theories, but further investigation is
necessary before any definite conclusion can be arrived at. The
second .or homotype division which immediately follows reverts
to the normal type except that the already split chromosomes at
once separate to form the daughter nuclei without the interven-
tion of a resting stage.

Cell Division. — With the exception of a few plants among
the Thallophytes, which consist of a single multinucleate cell,
Caulerpa, Vaucheria, &c, the division of the nucleus is followed
by the division of the cell either at once, in uninucleate cells, or
after a certain number of nuclear divisions, in multinucleate
cells. This may take place in various ways. In the higher
plants, after the separation of the daughter nuclei, minute
granular swellingc appear, in the equatorial region, on the
connecting fibres which still persist between the two nuclei, to
form what is called the cell-plate. These fuse together to form a
membrane (fig. 1, C, D) which splits into two layers between
which the new cell-wall is laid down. In the Thallophytes the
cytoplasm may be segmented by constriction, due to the
in-growth of a new cell wall from the old one, as in Spirogyra
and Cladophora, or by the formation of cleavage furrows in
which the new cell-wall is secreted, as occurs in the formation of
the spores in many Algae and Fungi. Cell budding takes place
in yeast and in the formation of the conidia of Fungi.

In a few cases both among the higher and the lower plants, of
which the formation of spores in the ascus is a typical example,
new cells are formed by the aggregation of portions of the
cytoplasm around the nuclei which become delimited from the
rest of the cell contents by a membrane. This is known as
free cell formation.

In Fucus and allied forms the spindle-fibres between the
daughter nuclei disappear early and the new cell-wall is formed
in the cytoplasm. '

Cell Membrane. — The membrane which surrounds the proto-
plasts in the majority of plants is typically composed of cellulose,
together with a number of other substances which are known as
pectic compounds. Some of these have a neutral reaction,
others react as feeble acids. They can be distinguished by their
insolubility in cuprammonia, which dissolves cellulose, and by
their behaviour towards stains, some of which stain pectic
substances but not cellulose. Cellulose has an affinity for acid
stains, pectic substances for basic stains. The cell-membrane
may become modified by the process of lignification, suberiza-
tion, cuticularization or gelatinization. In the Fungi it is
usually composed of a modified form of cellulose known as
fungus cellulose, which, according to Mangin, consists of callose
in combination either with cellulose or pectic compounds. The
growth of the cell-wall takes place by the addition of new layers
to those already formed. These layers arc secreted by the
protoplasm by the direct apposition of substances on those
already in existence; and they may go on increasing in thickness,
both by apposition and by the intussusception of particles
probably carried in through the protoplasmic fibres, which
penetrate the cell-wall as long as the cell lives. The growth of
the cell-wall is very rarely uniform. It is thickened more in
some places than in others, and thus are formed the spiral,
annular and other markings, as well as the pits which occur on
various cells and vessels. Besides the internal or centripetal
growth, some cell-walls are thickened on the outside, such as
pollen grains, oospores of Fungi, cells of Peridineae, &c. This
centrifugal growth must apparently take place by the activity
of protoplasm external to the cell. The outer protective walls
of the oospores of some Fungi are formed out of protoplasm
containing numerous nuclei, which is at an early stage separ-
ated from the protoplasm of the oospore. In the Peridineae,
xxi. 25

-p* —

Diatoms and Desmids, according to recent researches, the thick-
enings on the outer walls of the cells are due to the passage of
protoplasm from the interior of the cell to the outside, through
pores which are found perforating the wall on all sides.

Cell-walls may become modified by the impregnation of various
substances. Woody or lignified cell-walls appear to contain sub-
stances called coniferin and vanillin, in addition to various other
compounds which are imperfectly known. Lignified tissues are
coloured yellow by aniline sulphate or aniline chloride, violet with
phloroglucin and hydrochloric acid, and characteristic reactions
are also given by mixtures containing phenol, indol, skatol, thallin,
sulphate, &c. (see Zimmermann's Microtechnique). Staining reagents
can also be used to differentiate lignified cell-walls. Cuticularized
or suberized cell-walls occur especially in those cells which per-
form a protective function. They are impervious to water and
gases. Both cuticularized and suberized membranes are insoluble
in cuprammonia, and are coloured yellow or brown in a solution
of chlor-iodide of zinc. It is probable that the corky or suberized
cells do not contain any cellulose (Gilson, Wisselingh) ; whilst cuti-
cularized cells are only modified in their outer layers, cellulose inner
layers being still recognizable. The suberized and cuticularized
cell-walls appear to contain a fatty body called suberin, and such
cell-walls can be stained red by a solution of alcanin, the lignified
and cellulose membranes remaining unstained.

Fertilization. — The formation of the zygote or egg-cell
takes place usually by the fusion of the contents of two cells,
and always includes, as
an essential feature, the
fusion of two germ nuclei.
In many of the lower
plants the fusing cells —
gametes — are precisely
similar so far as size and
general appearance are
concerned; and the whole
contents of the two cells
fuse together, cytoplasm
with cytoplasm, nucleus
with nucleus, nucleolus
with nucleolus and plastid
with plastid. The gametes
may be motile (some Al-
gae) or non-motile, as in
Spirogyra, Mucor, Bas-
idiobolus, &c. In many of
the lower plants and in
all higher plants there is
a difference in size in the
fusing cells, the male cell
being the smaller. The
reduction in size is due to
the absence of cytoplasm,
which is in soma cases so
small in amount that the
cell consists mainly of a
nucleus. In all cases of
complete sexual differenti-
ation the egg-cell is quies-
cent; the male cell may be motile or non-motile. In many of
the Fungi the non-motile male cell or nucleus is carried by means
of a fertilizing tube actually into the interior of the egg-cell,
and is extruded through the apex in close proximity to the egg
nucleus. In the Florideae, Lichens and Laboulbeniaceae the
male cell is a non-motile spermatium, which is carried to the
female organ by movements in the water. In Monoblepharis,
one of the lower Fungi, in some Algae, in the Vascular Crypto-'
grams, in Cycads {Zamia and Cycas), and in Ginkgo, an isolated
genus of Gymnosperms, the male cell is a motile spermatozoid
with two or more cilia. In the Algae, such as Fucus, Volvox,
Oedogonium, Bulbochaete, and in the Fungus Monoblepharis,
the spermatozoid is a small oval or elongate cell containing
nucleus, cytoplasm and sometimes plastids. In the Characeae,
the Vascular Cryptogams, in Zamia and Cycas, and in Ginkgo,
the spermatozoids are more or less highly modified cells witL-
two or more cilia, and resemble in many respects, both in their

.11

(From Wilson. After Guignard and Mottier.)
Fig. 3. — Fertilization in the Lily,
a, Antipodal cell ; sp, polar nuclei;

pt, pollen tube.

A, Two vermiform nuclei in the em-
bryo sac; one approaching the egg-
nucleus, the other uniting with the
upper polar nucleus.

B, LJnion of the vermiform nuclei
with the egg-nucleus and the two
polar nuclei.

C, Fusion of the germ nuclei in the
egg-cell.

77°

PLANTS

[CYTOLOGY

[After Webber.)

Fig. 4. — Spermatozoid and Fertiliza-
tion in Zamia.

structure and mode of formation, the spermatozoids of animals.
In Characeae and Muscineae they are of elongate spiral form,
and consist of an elongate dense nucleus and a small quantity of

cytoplasm. At the an-
terior end are attached
two cilia or flagella. In
the Vascular Cryptogams
the structure is much the
same, but a more or less
spherical mass of cyto-
plasm remains attached
to the posterior spirals,
and a large number of
cilia are grouped along
the cytoplasmic anterior
portion of the spiral. In
Zamia (fig. 4, A), Cycas
and Ginkgo they consist
of large spherical or oval
cells with a coiled band
of cilia at one end, and
a large nucleus which
nearly fills the cell. They
are carried by the pollen
tube to the apex of the
prothallus, where they
are extruded, and by
means of their cilia swim
through a small quantity
of liquid, contained in a
slight depression to the
oosphere. In the other
Phanerogams the male
cell, which is non-motile,
is carried to the oosphere
by means of a pollen tube. In the spermatozoids of Chara,
Vascular Cryptogams, and in those of Cycas, Zamia and Ginkgo,
the cilia arise from a centrosome-like body which is found on one
side of the nucleus of the spermatozoid mother-cell. This body
has been called a blepharoplast, and in the Pteridophytes, Cycads
and Ginkgo it gives rise to the spiral band on which the cilia are
formed. Belajeff regards it as a true centrosome; but this is
doubtful, for while in some cases it appears to be connected with
the division of the cell, in others it is independent of it. The egg-
cell or oosphere is a large cell containing a single large nucleus,
and in the green plants the rudiments of plastids. In plants with
multinucleate cells, such as Albugo, Peronospora and Vaucheria,
it is usually a uninucleate cell differentiated by separation of
the nuclei from a multinucleate cell, but in Albugo bliti it is
multinucleate, and in Sphaeroplea it may contain more than
one nucleus. In some cases the region where the penetration
of the male organ takes place is indicated on the oosphere by a
hyaline receptive spot (Oedogonium, Vaucheria, &c), or by
a receptive papilla consisting of hyaline cytoplasm (Perono-
sporeae). Fertilization is effected by the union of two nuclei
in all those cases which have been carefully investigated.
Even in the multinucleate oosphere of Albugo bliti the nuclei
fuse in pairs; and in the oospheres of Sphaeroplea, which may
contain more than one nucleus, the egg nucleus is formed by the
fusion of one only of these with the spermatozoid nucleus
(Klebahn). In the higher Fungi nuclear fusions take place in
basidia or asci which involve the union of two (fig. 7, A) nuclei,
which may be regarded as physiologically equivalent to a sexual
fusion. The union of the germ nuclei has now been observed
in all the main groups of Angiosperms, Gymnosperms, Ferns,
Mosses, Algae and Fungi, and presents a striking resemblance
in all. In nearly all cases the nuclei appear to fuse in the
resting stage (fig. 3, C). In many Gymnosperms the male
nucleus penetrates the female nucleus before fusing with it
(Blackman, Ikeno). In other cases the two nuclei place them-
selves side by side, the nuclear membrane between them
disappears, and the contents fuse together — nuclear thread

with nuclear thread, and nucleolus with nucleolus — so com-
pletely that the separate constituents of the nuclei are not
visible. It was at one time thought that the centrosomes
played an important part in the fertilization of plants, but
recent researches seem to indicate that this is not so. Even
in those cases where the cilia band, which is the product of the
centrosome-like body or blepharoplast, enters the ovum, as in
Zamia (c in fig. 4, B, C, D), it appears to take no part in the
fertilization phenomena, nor in the subsequent division of the
nucleus. During the process of fertilization in the Angiosperms
it has been shown by the researches of Nawaschin and Guignard
that in Lilium and Fritillaria both generative nuclei enter the
embryo sac, one fusing with the oosphere nucleus, the other with
the polar nuclei (fig. 3, A, B ). A double fertilization thus takes
place. Both nuclei are elongated vermiform structures, and as
they enter the embryo sac present a twisted appearance like a
spermatozoid without cilia (fig. 3, A, B) . It has since been shown
by other observers that this double fertilization occurs in many
other Angiosperms, both Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons, so
that it is probably of general occurrence throughout the group
(see Angiosperms).

The Nucleus in Relation to Heredity. — There is a certain
amount of cytological evidence to show that the nucleus is
largely concerned with the transmission of hereditary characters.
Whether this is entirely confined to the nucleus is, however, not
certain. The strongest direct evidence seems to be that the
nuclear substances are the only parts of the cells which are
always equivalent in quantity, and that in the higher plants
and animals the male organ or spermatozoid is composed almost
entirely of the nucleus, and that the male nucleus is carried into
the female cell without a particle of cytoplasm. 1

Since, however, the nucleus of the' female cell is always
accompanied by a larger or smaller quantity of cytoplasm, and
that in a large majority of the power plants and animals the male
cell also contains cytoplasm, it cannot yet be definitely stated
that the cytoplasm does not play some part in the process. On
the other hand, the complex structure of the nucleus with its
separate units, the chromosomes, and possibly even smaller
units represented by the chromatin granules, and the means
taken through the complex phenomena of mitosis to ensure that
an exact and equal division of the chromosomes shall take place,
emphasizes the importance of the nucleus in heredity. Further,
it is only in the nucleus and in its chromosomes that we have any
visible evidence to account for the Mendelian .segregation of
characters in hybrids which are known to occur. Visible
differences in the chromosomes have even been observed,
especially in insects, which are due apparently to an unequal
division by which an additional or accessory chromosome is
produced, or in some cases one or two extra chromosomes which
differ in size from the others. These differences indicate a
separation of different elements in the formation of the chromo-
somes and have been definitely associated with the determination
of sex. It is possible, however, that the segregation of charac-
ters in the gametes may depend upon something far more subtle
and elusive than the chromosomes or even of possible combina-
tions of units within the chromosomes, but so far as we can see
at present these are the only structures in the cell with which
it can be satisfactorily associated. Boveri in fact has put
forward the view that the chromosomes are elementary units
which maintain an organic continuity and independent existence
in the cell. The cytological evidence for this appears to be made
stronger for animal than for plant cells. From numerous
investigations which have been made to trace the chromosomes
through the various stages of the nuclear ontogeny of plant cells,
it appears that the individuality and continuity of the chromo-
somes can only be conceived as possible if we assume the exis-
tence of something like chromosome centres in the resting
nucleus around which the chromosomes become organized for
purposes of division. Rosenberg (1909) adduces evidence for

1 Strasburger (1909) states very definitely that he has observed
the entrance of the male nucleus into the egg without a trace of
cytoplasm.

CYTOLOGY]

PLANTS

771

the existence of chromosomes or " prochromosomes " in resting
nuclei in a large number of plants, but most observers consider
that the chromosomes during the resting stage become com-
pletely resolved into a nuclear network in which no trace of the
original chromosomes can be seen.

Special Cell-Modifications for the Reception of Stimuli.- — In
studying the physiology of movement in plants certain modifica-
tions of cell-structure have been observed which appear to have
been developed for the reception of the stimuli by which the
response to light, gravity and contact are brought about. Our
knowledge of these structures is due mainly to Haberlandt.

Organs which respond to the mechanical stimulus of contact are
found to possess special contrivances in certain of their cells — (1)
sensitive spots, consisting of places here and there on the epidermal
cells where the wall is thin and in close contact with protoplasmic
projections. These occur on the tips of tendrils and on the tentacles
of Drosera; (2) sensitive papillae found on the irritable filaments of
certain stamens; and (3) sensitive hairs or bristles on the leaves
of Dionaea muscipula and Mimosa pudica — all of which are so con-
structed that any pressure exerted on them at once reacts on the
protoplasm.

Response to the action of gravity appears to be associated with
the movements of starch grains in certain cells — statolith cells — by
which pressure is exerted on the cytoplasm and a stimulus set up
which results in the geotropic response.

The response to the action of light in diatropic leaves is, according
to Haberlandt, due to the presence of epidermal cells which are
shaped like a lens, or with lens-shaped thickenings of the cuticle,
through which convergence of the light rays takes place and causes
a differential illumination of the lining layer of protoplasm on the
basal walls of the epidermal cells, by which the stimulus resulting
in the orientation of the leaf is brought about. Fig. 5, A, shows the

of division, chromosomes, nuclear spindle and centrosomes are
to be seen (fig. 7, C-G). The investigations of Dangeard,
Harper, Blackman, Miss Fraser and many others have also

A Pig. 5. B

A, Epidermal cells of Saxijraga hirsutum.

B, of Tradescantia fluminensis.

convergence of the light to a bright spot on the basal walls of the
epidermal cells of Saxijraga hirsutum and fig. 5, B, shows a photograph
taken from life through the epidermal cells of Tradescantia fluminen-
sis. Notwithstanding the fact, however, that these cells are capable
of acting as very efficient lenses the explanation given by Haber-
landt has not been widely accepted and evidence both morphological
and physiological has been brought forward against it.

The presence of an eye-spot in many motile unicellular Algae and
swarm spores is also probably concerned with the active response
to light exhibited by these organisms. In Euglena viridis, which
has been most carefully studied in this respect, the flagellum which
brings about the movement bears near its base a minute spherical
or oval refractive granule or swelling which is located just in the
hollow of the red pigment-spot (fig. 6) ; and it has been suggested
that the association of these two is analogous to the association of
the rods and cones of the animal eye with their pigment layer, the
light absorbed by the red pigment-spot setting up changes which
react upon the refractive granule and being transmitted to the
flagellum bring about those modifications in its vibrations by
which the direction of movement of the organism is regulated.

The Nuclei of the Lower Plants. — It is only in comparatively
recent times that it has been possible to determine with any
degree of certainty that the minute deeply stainable bodies
described more especially by Schmitz (1870) in many Algae and
Fungi could be regarded as true nuclei. The researches of the
last twenty years have shown that the structure of the nucleus
and the phenomena of nuclear division in these lower forms
conforms in all essential details to those in the higher plants.
Thus in the Basidiomycetes (fig. 7) the nuclei possess all the
structures found in the higher plants, nuclear membrane,
chromatin network and nucleolus (fig. 7, B), and in the process

m

(From the Journal of the Linnean Society, " Zoology" vol. xxvii.)

Fig. 6. — A, Eye-spots of Euglena viridis. B, Anterior end of
Euglena showing the flagellum with its swelling just in the hollow
of the eye-spot.

shown that in the Ascomycetes, Rust Fungi, &c, the same
structure obtains so far as all essential details are concerned.

The only groups of plants in which typical nuclei have not
been found are the Cyanophyceae, Bacteria and Yeast Fungi.

y-vi

%1

(From the Annals of Botany, vols. vii. and viii.)
Fig. 7. — Nuclei and Nuclear Division in the Basidiomycetes.

A to D, Amanita muscarius; E to G, Mycena galericulatus.
A, Basidium with two nuclei. B, single nucleus due to the
fusion of the two pre-existing nuclei. C, Nuclear thread segment-
ing. D, Nuclear cavity with chromosomes. E, Chromosomes on
the spindle. F, Separation of the chromosomes into two groups.
G, Chromosomes grouped at opposite ends of the spindle to form
the daughter nuclei.

772

PLANTS

[CYTOLOGY

In the Cyanophyceae the contents of the cell are differentiated
into a central colourless region, and a peripheral layer containing
the chlorophyll and other colouring matters together with
granules of a reserve substance called cyanophycin. Chromatin
is contained in the central part together with granules known as
volutin, the function of which is unknown. The central body
probably plays the part of a nucleus and some observers consider
that it has the characters of a typical nucleus with mitotic
division. But this is very doubtful. The central body seems
to consist merely of a spongy mass of slightly stainable substance,
more or less impregnated with chromatin, which divides by
constriction. At a certain stage in the division figures are
produced resembling a mitotic phase (fig. 8, i), which are not, in

(From Proc. Roy. Soc, vol. lxxii.)

Fig. 8. — Cell Structure of the Cyanophyceae.
A and B, Tolypothrix lanata: (i) Young, (2) Old cells.
C, Oscillaria litnosa: transverse microtome section.

the opinion of the writer, to be interpreted as a true mitosis.
It is interesting to note that in many species the formation of
new cell-walls is initiated before any indication of nuclear
division is to be seen.

The bacteria, in most cases, have no definite nucleus or central
body. The chromatin is distributed throughout the cytoplasm
in the form of granules which may be regarded as a distributed
nucleus corresponding to what Hertwig has designated, in
protozoa, chromidia.

In the yeast cell the nucleus is represented by a homogenous
granule, probably of a nucleolar nature, surrounded and perhaps
to some extent impregnated by chromatin and closely connected
with a vacuole which often has chromatin at its periphery, and
contains one or more volutin granules which appear to consist
of nucleic acid in combination with an unknown base. Some
observers consider that the yeast nucleus possesses a typical
nuclear structure, and exhibits division by mitosis, but the
evidence for this is not very satisfactory.

Tissues. — The component parts of the tissues of which plants
are composed may consist of but slightly modified cells with
copious protoplasmic contents, or of cells which have been
modified in various ways to perform their several functions. In
some the protoplasmic contents may persist, in others they
disappear. The formation of the conducting tubes or secretory
sacs which occur in all parts of the higher plants is due either
to the elongation of single cells or to the fusion of cells together
in rows by the absorption of the cell-walls separating them.
Such cell-fusions may be partial or complete. Cases of complete
fusion occur in the formation of laticiferous vessels, and in the
spiral, annular and reticulate vessels of the xylem. Incomplete
fusion occurs in sieve tubes. Tubes formed by the elongation
of single cells are found in bast fibres, tracheides, and especially
in laticiferous cells.

Laticiferous Tissue. — The laticiferous tissue consists of a network
of branching or anastomosing tubes which contain a coagulable
fluid known as latex. These tubes penetrate to all parts of the
plant and occur in all parts of the root, stem and leaves. A proto-
plasmic lining is found on their walls which contains nuclei. The

walls are pitted, and protoplasmic connexions between the latici-
ferous tubes and neighbouring parenchyma-cells have been seen.
There are two types of laticiferous tissue — non-articulate and
articulate. The non-articulate tissue which occurs in Euphorbiaceae,
Apocynaceae, Urticaceae, Asclepiadaceae, consists of long tubes,
equivalent to single multinucleate cells, which ramify in all directions
throughout the plant. Laticiferous vessels arise by the coalescence
of originally distinct cells. The cells not only fuse together in longi-
tudinal and transverse rows, but put out transverse projections,
which fuse with others of a similar nature, and thus form an anasto-
mosing network of tubes which extends to all parts of the plant.
They are found in the Compositae (Cichoriaceae) , Campanulaceae,
Papaveraceae, Lobeliaceae, Papayaceae, in some Aroideae and
Musaceae, and in Euphorbiaceae (Manihot, Hevea). The nuclei
of the original cells persist in the protoplasmic membrane. The
rows of cells from which the laticiferous vessels are formed can be
distinguished in many cases in the young embryo while still in the
dry seed (Scott), but the latex vessels in process of formation are
more easily seen when germination has begun. In the process of
cell-fusion the cell-wall swells slightly and then begins to dissolve
gradually at some one point. The opening, which is at first very
small, increases in size, and before the cross- wall has entirely dis-
appeared the contents of the two cells become continuous (Scott).
The absorption of the cell-walls takes place very early in the germina-
ting seedling.

Sieve Tubes. — The sieve tubes consist of partially fused rows of
cells, the transverse or lateral walls being perforated by minute
openings, through which the contents of the cells are connected with
each other, and which after a certain time become closed by the
formation of callus on the sieve plates. The sieve tubes contain a
thin lining layer of protoplasm on their walls, but no nuclei, and the
cell sap contains albuminous substances which are coagulable by
heat. Starch grains are sometimes present. In close contact with
the segments of the sieve tubes are companion ceils which communi-
cate with the sieve tubes by delicate protoplasmic strands; they can
be distinguished from ordinary parenchymatous cells by their small
size and dense protoplasm. Companion cells are not found in the
Pteridophyta and Gymnosperms. In the latter their place is taken
by certain cells of the medullary rays and bast parenchyma. The
companion cells are cut off from the same cells as those which unite
to form the sieve tube. The mode of formation of the sieve plate
is not certainly known; but from the fact that delicate connecting
threads of protoplasm are present between the cells from their
first development it is probable that it is a special case of the normal
protoplasmic continuity, the sieve pores being produced by a secon-
dary enlargement of the minute openings through which these delicate
strands pass. According to Lecomte, the young wall consists partly
of cellulose and partly of a substance which is not cellulose, the latter
existing in the form of slight depressions, which mark the position
of the future pores. As the sieve plate grows these non-cellulose
regions swell and gradually become converted into the same kind
of mucous substance as that contained in the tube; the two cells are
thus placed in open communication. If this is correct it is easy to
see that the changes which take place may be initiated by the
original delicate protoplasmic strands which pass through the cell-
wall. (For further information regarding tissues, see the section on-
Anatomy above.)

Protoplasmic Continuity. — Except in the unicellular plants
the cell is not an independent unit. Apart from their depen-
dence in various ways upon neighbouring cells, the protoplasts
of all plants are probably connected together by fine strands
of protoplasm which pass through the cell-wall (Tangl, Russow,
Gardiner, Kienitz-Gerloff and others)
(fig. 9). In Pinus the presence of
connecting threads has recently been
demonstrated throughout all the
tissues of the plant. These proto-
plasmic strands are, except in the
case of sieve tubes, so delicate that
special methods have to be employed
to make them visible. The basis of
these methods consists in causing a
swelling of the cell-wall by means of
sulphuric acid or zinc chloride, and
subsequent staining with Hoffmann's
blue or other aniline dyes. The
results so far obtained show that the
connecting threads may be either
" pit-threads " which traverse the
closing membrane of the pits in the Fig. 9.— Continuity of

,, ,, ,,. -r,\ « „ protoplasm of cells 01 Tamus

cell-walls (fig. 9, B), or _ wall- \ omm v unis (A) and endos .

threads " which are present in the pe rm of Lilium Martagon

wall of the cell (fig. 9, A). Both (B).

MORPHOLOGY]

PLANTS

773

pit-threads and wall-threads may occur in the same cell, but more
often the threads are limited to the pits. The pit-threads are
larger and stain more readily than the wall-threads. The threads
vary in size in different plants. They are very thick in Viscum
album, and are well seen in Phaseolus multiflorus and Lilium
Martagon. They are present from the beginning of the develop-
ment of the cell-wall, and arise from the spindle fibres, all of
which may be continued as connecting threads (endosperm of
Tamus communis) , or part of them may be overlaid by cellulose
lamellae (endosperm of Lilium Martagon), or they may be all
overlaid as in pollen mother-cells and pollen grains of Helleborus
foeiidus. The presence of these threads between all the cells
of the plant shows that the plant body must be regarded as a
connected whole; the threads themselves probably play an
important part in the growth of the cell-wall, the conduction
of food and water, the process of secretion and the transmission
of impulses.

Literature. — The following is a list of a few of the more im-
portant papers in which further information and a more complete
list of literature will be found: Allen, " Nuclear Division in the
Pollen Mother-cells of Lilium canadense," Annals of Botany (1905),
vol. xix. ; Berghs, " La Formation des chromosomes het6rotypiques
dans la sporogenese vegetale," La Cellule (1904), vol. xxi. ; Blackman,
" On the Fertilization, Alternation of Generations, and General
Cytology of the Uredineae," Ann. of Bot. (1904), vol. xviii. ; Biitschli,
Untersuchungen iiber mikroskopische Schdume und das Protoplasma
(Leipzig, 1892; Eng. trans, by Minchin, London, 1894); also Unter-
suchungen iiber Struktur (Leipzig, 1898); Courchet, " Recherches sur
les Chromoleucites," Ann. d. set. nat, {bot.): (1888); Delage, L'Annee
biologique: comptes rendus annuels des travaux de biologie generate
(Paris, 1 895) ,<&c. ; Farmer, "Recent Advances in Vegetable Cytology,"
Science Progress (1896), vol. v. ; " The Cell and some of its Constituent
Structures," Science Progress (1897); Farmer and Moore, " On the
Meiotic Phase in Animals and Plants," Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. (1905),
vol. xlviii. ; Farmer and Digby, " Studies in Apospory and Apogamy
in Ferns," Ann. of Bot. (1907), vol. xxi.; "On the Cytological
Features exhibited by certain Varietal and Hybrid Ferns," Ann.
of Bot. (1910), vol. xxiv. ; Fischer, Fixirung, Fdrbung und Bau des
Protoplasmas (Jena, 1899) '• Flemming, " Morphologie der Zelle,"
Ergebnisse der Anatomie und Entwickelungsgeschichte (1896);
Gardiner, " The Histology of the Cell-Wall, with Special Reference
to the Mode of Connexion of Cells," Proc. Roy. Soc. (1897-1898),
lxii., and his earlier papers there cited; see also Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. *(i9o8), vol. ix. ; " The Genesis and Development of the
Wall and Connecting Threads in the Plant Cell. Preliminary
Communication," Proc. Roy. Soc. (1900), lxvi. ; Gates, "A Study of
Reduction in Oenothera rubrinervis," Bot. Gaz. (1908), vol. xlvi. ;
Green, " The Cell Membrane," Science Progress (1897), new series,
vol. i. ; Gregoire, "Les Cineses polliniques chez les Lilicac6es,"
La Cellule (1899), vol. xvi. ; " Les Resultats acquis sur les cineses
de maturation dans les deux regnes," La Cellule (1905), vol. xxii.
and (1910) vol. xxvi. ; Gregoire and Wygaerts, " La Rcconstitution
du noyau et la formation des chromosomes dans les cineses
somatiques," i. La Cellule (1903), vol. xxi.; Guignard, "Sur les
antherozoides et la double copulation sexuelle chez les vegetaux
angiospermes," Compies rendus (1899), 128; Haberlandt, Physiolo-
gische Pflanzenanatomie (Leipzig, 1909) ; Die Lichtsinnesorgane der
Laubbldlter (Leipzig, 1905) ; R. A. Harper, Sexual Reproduction and
the Organization of the Nucleus in certain Mildews (pub. Carnegie
Institution, 1905) ; M. Hartog, " The Dual Force of the Dividing
Cell," Proc. Roy. Soc, B. lxxvi. ; Henneguy, Lecons sur la cellule,
morphologie et reproduction (Paris, 1896); O. Hertwig, Die Zelle
und die Gewebe (Jena, 1893 and 1898; see Eng. ed., London,
1894); Hirase, "Etudes sur la tecondation et l'Embryo-
genie du Ginkgo biloba," Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. (Japan,
1895); Ikeno, " Untersuchungen iiber die Entwickelung der Gesch-
lechtsorgane und den Vorgang der Befruchtung bei Cycas revoluta,"
Jahr. f. wiss. Botanik (1898), 32 ; Lee, The Microtomist' s Vade
Mecum (London, 1900) ; Macallum, " On the Detection and Localiza-
tion of Phosphorus in Animal and Vegetable Cells," Proc. Roy. Soc.
(1898), vol. lxiii. ; " On the Distribution of Assimilated Iron Com-
pounds other than Haemoglobin and Haematins, in Animal and
Vegetable Cells," Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. (1896), vol. xxxviii. ;
Meyer, Untersuchungen iiber die Stdrke-Kdrner (Jena, 1895); Mont-
gomery, " Comparative Cytological Studies, with especial regard to
the Morphology of the Nucleolus," Journ. of Morphology, vol. xv.
(Boston, 1899) ; D. M. Mottier, " The Development of the Heterotype
Chromosomes in Pollen Mother-cells," Ann. of Bot. (1907), vol. xxi. ;
" On the Prophases of the Heterotype Mitosis in the Embryo-sac
Mother-cell of Lilium," Ann. of Bot. (1909), vol. xxiii. ; Fecundation
in Plants (Carnegie Institution, 1904); Nawaschin, " Resultate
einer Revision der Befruchtungsvorgange bei Lilium Martagon
und Fritillaria tenella," Bull, de I'acad. des sci. de St Petersbourg
(1898); " Ueber die Befruchtungsvorgange bei einigen Dicotyle-
doneen," Bet. d. deutsch. bot. Gesell. (1900), vol. 18; Rosenberg,

" Cytologische und morphologische Studienan Drosera longifolia X.
rotundifolia," Kungl. svenska vetenskapsakad. handl. (1909), vol.
xliv. ; Salter, " Zur naheren Kenntniss der Starkekorner," Pringsh.
Jahrb. (1898); Sargant, "The Formation of the Sexual Nuclei in
Lilium Martagon, I. and II.," Ann. of Boi. (1 896-1897), vols. x. and xi. ;
" Recent Work on the Results of Fertilization in Angiosperms,"
Ann. of Bot. (1900), vol. xiv. ; Schimper, "Sur l'Amidon et les
Leucites," Ann. des sci. nat. (bot.) (1887); Scott, " Development of
Articulated Laticiferous Vessels," Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. (1882);
" On the Laticiferous Tissue of Manihot Glaziovii (the Ceara
Rubber)," Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. (1884); Strasburger, " Chromo-
somenzahlen, Plasmastrukturen, Vererbungstrager und Reduktion-
steilung," Jahrb. wiss. Bot. (1908), vol. xlv. ; Histologische Beitrdge
vols. i. to vii. (Jena) ; Strasburger and others, " Cytologische Studien
aus dem Bonner botanischen Institut." Jahrb. fiir wissensch. Botanik
(1897), vol. 30; Wager, " On Nuclear Division in the Hymeno-
mycetes," Ann. of Bot. (1893), vol. vii.; "On the Structure and
Reproduction of Cystopus candidus," Ann. of Bot. (1896), vol. x. ;
" The Cell Structure of the Cyanophyceae," Proc. Roy. Soc. (1903),
vol. lxxii.; Wager and Peniston, " Cytological Observations on the
Yeast Plant," Ann. of Bot. (1910), vol. xxiv.; Webber, "The
Development of the Antherozoids of Zamia," Bot. Gaz. (1897), vol.
xxiv.; Wilson, The Cell in Development and Inheritance (New York
and London, 1900) ; Zimmermann, " Sammel-Referate aus dem
Gesammtgebiete der Zellenlehre," Beihefte zum bot. Centralbl. (1893
and 1894) ; Die Morphologie und Physiologie des pflanzlichen
Zellkernes (Jena, 1898). (H. W.*)

Morphology of Plants

The term morphology, which was introduced into science by
Goethe (181 7), designates, in the first place, the study of the
form and composition of the body and of the parts of which
the body may consist; secondly, the relations of the parts of the
same body; thirdly, the comparison of the bodies or parts of
the bodies of plants of different kinds; fourthly, the study of
the development of the body and of its parts {ontogeny) ; fifthly,
the investigation of the historical origin and descent of the body
and its parts (phytogeny) ; and, lastly, the consideration of the
relation of the parts of the body to their various functions, a
study that is known as organography.

It is this last department of morphology that was the first
to be pursued. The earliest scientific result of the study of
plants was the recognition of the fact that the various parts of
the body are associated with the performance of different kinds
of physiological work; that they are, in fact, organs discharging
special functions. The origin of the organography of the present
day may be traced back to Aristotle, who described the parts
of plants as " organs, though very simple ones." It was not
until many centuries had passed that the parts began to be
regarded from the point of view of their essential nature and of
their mutual relations; that is, morphologically instead of
organographically. Joachim Jung, in his Isagoge phytoscopica
(1678), recognized that the plant-body consists of certain definite
members, root, stem and leaf, and defined them by their different
form and by their mutual relations. This point of view was
further developed in the following century by Caspar Friedrich
Wolff (Theoria generationis, 1759), who first followed the
development of the members at the growing-point of the stem.
He observed that the " appendicular organs," as he called the
leaves, are developed in the same way, whether they be foliage-
leaves, or parts of the flower, and stated his conclusions thus:
" In the entire plant, whose parts we wonder at as being, at the
first glance, so extraordinarily diverse, I finally perceive and
recognize nothing beyond leaves and stem (for the root may be
regarded as a stem). Consequently all parts of the plant,
except the stem, are modified leaves." Similar views were
arrived at by Goethe, though by the deductive rather than the
inductive method, and were propounded in his famous pamphlet,
Versuch die Metamorphose der Pflanzen zu erkldren (1790),
from which the following is a quotation: " The underlying
relationship between the various external parts of the plant,
such as the leaves, the calyx, the corolla, the stamens, which
develop one after the other and, as it were, out of one another,
has long been generally recognized by investigators, and has in
fact been specially studied; and the operation by which one
and the same organ presents itself to us in various forms has
been termed Metamorphosis of Plants."

Pure Morphology. — Thus it became apparent that the many

774

PLANTS

[MORPHOLOGY

and various organs of plants are, for the most part, different
forms of a small number of members of the body, which have
been distinguished as follows, without any reference to function.
The thallus (thallome) is a plant-body which is not differentiated
into the members root, stem and leaf; it is the morphologically
simplest body, such as is of common occurrence in the lower
plants (e.g. Thallophyta). In a differentiated body the stem
(caulome) is an axis capable of bearing leaves and (directly or
indirectly) the proper reproductive organs. The leaf (phyllome)
is an appendicular member only borne by a stem, but differing
from it more or less obviously in form and development, though
co-ordinate with it in complexity of structure. The root is an
axis which never bears either leaves or the proper reproductive
organs (whether sexual or asexual) of the plant. The hair
(trichome) is a superficial appendage of simple structure, which
may be borne by any of the other members. The emergence
is also an appendicular member of more complex structure
than the hair {e.g. the prickles of the rose). Further, it has
been found convenient to designate the leaf-bearing stem as a
whole by the term shoot, so that the body may, as Sachs
suggested, be primarily analysed into shoot and root.

At the present time some objection is being taken to this
purely morphological conception of the body and its parts as
being too abstract. It is urged that the various parts are, as a
matter of fact, organs; and that it is therefore inadmissible to
ignore their functions, as is done in the foregoing definitions.
To this it may be replied that pure morphology and organo-
graphy are not alternatives, but are two complementary and
equally necessary modes of considering the composition of the
plant-body. Moreover, the abstract terms " stem," " leaf,"
" root," &c, are absolutely indispensable; and are continually
used in this sense by the most ardent organographers. It has
not yet been suggested that they should be replaced by organo-
graphical terms; were this accomplished, descriptive botany
would become impossible.

It is also urged against these definitions that they are not of
universal applicability; that there are exceptional structures
which cannot be brought within the limits of any one of them.
But admitting the validity of this criticism, and even going so
far as to question the possibility of ever devising absolutely
inclusive and, at the same time, exclusive definitions, no sufficient
reason is adduced for giving up all attempt at morphological
analysis.

Homology. — All members belonging to the same morphological
category are said to be homologous, however diverse their
functions. Thus, in a phanerogam, the sepals, petals, stamens
and foliage-leaves all come under the category leaf, though some
are parts of the perianth, others are spore-bearing organs
(sporophylls), and others carry on nutritive processes. The
homology of members was based, in the first instance, upon
similarity of development and upon similar relations to the
other parts of the body, that is, upon ontogeny. But since the
general adoption of the theory of evolution, similarity of descent,
that is of phylogeny, has come to form an essential part of this
conception; in other words, in order that their homology may
be established the parts compared must be proved to be homo-
genetic.

The introduction of the phylogenetic factor has very much
increased the difficulty of determining homologies; for the
data necessary for tracing phylogeny can only be obtained by the
study of a series of allied, presumably ancestral, forms. One
of the chief difficulties met with in this line of research, which is
one of the more striking developments of modern morphology,
is that of distinguishing between organs which are " reduced,"
and those which are really " primitive." The object of the
phylogenetic study of any organ is to trace it back to its primitive
form. But, as will be pointed out later, organs are often found
to have undergone " degeneration " or " reduction," and such
reduced or degenerate structures may easily be mistaken for
primitive structures, and so the investigator may be misled.

The effect of the phylogenetic factor in homology may be
illustrated in the following cases. The leaves of the true mosses

and those of the club-mosses (Lycopodium, Selaginella) being
somewhat alike in general appearance and in ontogeny, might
be, and indeed have been, regarded as homologous on that
ground. However, they belong respectively to two different
forms in the life-history of the plants; the leaves of the mosses
are borne by the gametophyte, those of the club-mosses by the
sporophyte. In accordance with the prevalent antithetic view
of the alternation of generations in these plants (see Plants,
Reproduction or), the forms distinguished as sporophyte and
gametophyte are not homogenetic; consequently their leaves
are not homologous, but are only functionally similar (homo-
plastic; see infra).

Another effect is that different degrees of homology have to
be recognized, just as there are different degrees of relationship
or affinity between individual plants. When two organs can
be traced along the same line of descent to one primitive form,
that is when they are found to be monophyletic, their homology
is complete; when, however, they are traceable to two primitive
forms, though these forms belong to the same morphological
series, they are polyphyletic and therefore only incompletely
homologous. For instance, all the leaves of the Bryophyta
are generally homologous inasmuch as they are all developments
of the gametophyte. But there is reason to believe that they
have been differentiated quite independently in various groups,
such as the Marchantiaceae, the Jungermanniaceae, and the
mosses proper; consequently their phylogeny is not the same,
they are polyphyletic, and therefore they are not completely
homologous, but are parallel developments.

Analogy. — Considering the parts of the body in relation to
their functions, that is as organs, they are found to present pecu-
liarities of form and structure which are correlated with the
functions that they have to discharge; in other words, the organ
shows adaptation to its functions. All organs performing the
same function and showing similar adaptations are said to be
analogous or homoplastic, whatever their morphological nature
may be; hence organs are sometimes both homologous and analo-
gous, sometimes only analogous. The tendrils of a vetch and
of a cucumber are analogous, and also homologous because they
both belong to the category leaf; but they are only analogous
to the tendrils of the vine and of the passion-flower, which belong
to the category stem.

Metamorphosis. — It has already been pointed out that each
kind of member of the body may present a variety of forms.
For example, a stem may be a tree-trunk, or a twining stem, or a
tendril, or a thorn, or a creeping rhizome, or a tuber; a leaf may
be a green foliage-leaf, or a scale protecting a bud, or a tendril,
or a pitcher, or a floral leaf, either sepal, petal, stamen or carpel
(sporophyll) ; a root may be a fibrous root, or a swollen tap-root
like that of the beet or the turnip. All these various forms are
organs discharging some special function, and are examples of
what Wolff called " modification," and Goethe " metamor-
phosis." It may be inquired what meaning is to be attached
to these expressions, and what are the conditions and the nature
of the changes assumed by them. The leaf of the higher plants
will be taken as the illustrative case because it is the most
" plastic " of the members, the one, that is, which presents the
greatest variety of adaptations, and because it has been most
thoroughly studied.

In this, as in all morphological inquiries, two lines of investi-
gation have to be followed, the phylogenetic and the ontogenetic.
Beginning with its phylogeny, it appears, so far as present
knowledge goes, that the differentiation of the shoot of the
sporophyte into stem and leaf first occurred in the Pteridophyta;
and, in accordance with the views of Bower {Origin of a Land-
Flora), the primitive leaf was a reproductive leaf, a sporophyll,
from which the foliage-leaf was derived by progressive steriliza-
tion. From the nature of the case, this view is not, and could
not be, based upon actual observation, nor is it universally
accepted; however, it seems to correspond more closely than any
other to the facts of comparative morphology. It was formerly
assumed, and the view is still held, that the foliage-leaf was the
primitive form from which all others were derived, mainly on

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the ground that, in ontogeny, the foliage-leaf generally precedes
the sporophyll. The phylogeny of the various floral leaves,
for instance, was generally traced as follows: foliage-leaf, bract,
sepal, petal, stamen and carpel (sporophylls) — in accordance
with what Goethe termed " ascending metamorphosis." Recent
researches, however, more especially those of Celakovsky, tend
to pfove that the perianth-leaves have been derived from the
stamens (i.e. from sporophylls); that is, they are the result of
" descending metamorphosis." Moreover there is the fact that
the flowers of nearly all the primitive phanerogams, such as the
Gymnosperms, consist solely of sporophylls, having no perianth.
There is thus a considerable body of evidence to support Bower's
view of the primitive nature of the sporophyll.

Accepting this view of the phylogeny of the leaf, the perianth-
leaves (sepals and petals) and the foliage-leaves may be regarded
as " modified " or " metamorphosed " sporophylls; that is, as
leaves which are adapted to functions other than the bearing of
spores. The sepals are generally organs for the protection of
the flower-bud; the petals, for attracting insects by their con-
spicuous form and colour; the foliage-leaves, for the assimilation
of carbon dioxide and other associated functions. But this
phylogenetic differentiation of the organs was not what Wolff
and Goethe had in mind; what they contemplated was an onto-
genetic change, and there is abundant evidence that such
changes actually occur. Taking first the conversion of members
of one morphological category into those of another, this has
been actually observed, though rarely. Goebel (Organography)
gives several instances of the conversion of the root into a shoot
in ferns, and a few in phanerogams (Listera ovata, Neottia nidus-
avis, Anthurium longifolium) . Much more common is the
conversion of one form of a member into another form. The
most varied changes of this kind have been described, and are
generally familiar as "monstrosities"; the study of them
constitutes, under the name of teratology, a distinct department
of biology. A simple case is that of " double " flowers, in which
the number of the petals is increased by the " metamorphosis "
of stamens; or again the conversion of floral leaves into green
leaves, a change known as " chloranthy." These changes
may be brought about by external causes, such as the attacks
of insects or of fungi, alterations in external conditions, &c, or
by some unexplained internal disturbance of the morphological
equilibrium. They can also be effected experimentally. Goebel
has shown that if the developing foliage-leaves of the fern
Onoclea struthiopteris be removed as they are formed, the
subsequently developed sporophylls assume more or less com-
pletely the habit of foliage-leaves, and may be sterile. Similarly
bud-scales can be caused to develop into foliage-leaves, if the
buds to which they belong are caused to grow out in the year of
their formation by the removal of the existing foliage-leaves.

Useful and suggestive as they often are, teratological facts
played, at one time, too large a part in the framing of morpho-
logical theories; for it was thought that the " monstrous " form
gave a clue to the essential nature of the organ assuming it.
There is, however, no sufficient reason for regarding the mon-
strous form as necessarily primitive or ancestral, nor even as a
stage in the ontogeny of the organ. For when the older morpho-
logists spoke of a stamen as a " metamorphosed " leaf, it was
implied that it originated as a foliage-leaf and subsequently
became a stamen. As a matter of fact, a stamen is a stamen
and nothing else, from the very beginning. The development
of the organ is already determined at its first appearance upon
the growing-point; though, as already explained, the normal
course of its ontogeny may be interfered with by some abnormal
external or internal condition. The word " metamorphosis "
cannot, in fact, be used any longer in its original sense, for the
change which it implied does not normally occur in ontogeny,
and in phylogeny the idea is more accurately expressed by the
term " differentiation." However, it may still be useful in
describing " monstrosities," and perhaps also those cases in
which an organ serves first one purpose and then another, as
when a leafy shoot eventually becomes a thorn, or the base of a
foliage-leaf becomes a bud-scale.

Differentiation. — Any account of the general morphology of
living organisms is incomplete if it does not include some attempt
at an explanation of its causation; though such an attempt
cannot be carried far at the present time. A survey of the
vegetable kingdom indicates that evolution has proceeded, on
the whole, from the simple to the complex; at the same time, as
has been already mentioned, evidence of reduction or degenera-
tion in common. Thus in the series Bryophyta, Pteridophyta,
Phanerogamia, whilst the sporophyte presents progressive
development, the gametophyte presents continuous reduction.

Evolution means the gradual development of " highly
organized " from " lowly organized " forms; that is, of forms
in which the " physiological division of labour " is more com-
plete, from those in which it is less complete; of forms possessing
a variety of organs, from forms possessing but few. Differentia-
tion means the development and the specialization as organs
of various parts of the body. It presents itself in two aspects:
there is morphological differentiation, which can be traced in
the distinction of the members of the body, root, stem, leaf, &c;
there is physiological differentiation, which can be traced in the
adaptation of these members to various functions. But, in
actual operation, these two processes are simultaneous; every
member is developed as an organ for the performance of some
special function.

Factors in Evolution. — Evolution in the race involves progres-
sive differentiation in the individual; hence the causes of evolu-
tion and of differentiation must be the same. The evolution of
higher from lower plants, it is generally assumed, has proceeded
by variation. With regard to the causation of variation Darwin
says (Origin of Species, ch. v.): "In all cases there are two
factors, the nature of the organism, which is much the most
important of the two, and the nature of the conditions. The
direct action of changed conditions leads to definite or indefinite
results. In the latter case the organization seems to become
plastic, and we have much fluctuating variability. In the former
case the nature of the organism is such that it yields readily,
when subjected to certain conditions, and all or nearly all the
individuals become modified in the same way."

In spite of the statement that the " nature of the organism "
is the most important factor in variation, the tendency amongst
evolutionists has been to take much more account of the influence
of external conditions. Exceptions to this attitude are
Lamarck, who speaks with regard to animals (but not to plants!)
of " la composition croissante de l'organisation " (Philosophie
zoologique, t. i.), and Nageli, who attributes variation to causes
inherent in the " idioplasm," and has elaborately worked out
the view in his Abslammungslehre.

The position assumed in this article is in agreement with
the views of Lamarck and of Nageli. All but the lowest plants
visibly tend towards or actually achieve in various degrees the
differentiation of the body, whether sporophyte or gametophyte,
into stem, leaf, root, &c, that is, the differentiation of parts not
previously present. It is inconceivable that external conditions
can impart to an organism the capacity to develop something
that it does not already possess: can impart to it, that is, the
capacity for variation in the direction of higher complexity.
The alternative, which is here accepted, is that differentiation
is essentially the expression of a developmental tendency inherent
in the protoplasm of plants. Just as every crystallizable
chemical substance assumes a definite and constant crystalline
form which cannot be accounted for otherwise than by regarding
it as one of the properties of the substance, so every living
organism assumes a characteristic form which is the outcome
of the properties of its protoplasm. But whereas the crystalline
form of a chemical substance is stable and fixed, the organized
form of a living organism is unstable and subject to change.

Influence of External Conditions. — This position does not,
however, exclude the influence of external conditions; that
influence is undeniable. Darwin's expression " the nature of
the organism " has been interpreted in the preceding paragraph
to mean an inherent tendency towards higher organization;
that interpretation may now be completed by adding that the

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organism is susceptible to, and can respond to, the action of
external conditions. There is every reason to believe that
plants are as " irritable " to varying external conditions as they
are to light or to gravity. A change in its external conditions
may act as a " stimulus," evoking in the organism a response
of the nature of a change in its form. As Darwin has pointed
out, this response may be direct or indirect. In illustration
of the indirect response, the evolution of the Bryophyta and of
more highly organized plants may be briefly considered. It is
generally admitted that life originated in water, and that the
earliest plants were Algae. The study of existing Algae, that is
of plants that have continued to live in water, shows that under
these conditions no high degree of organization has been reached,
though some of them have attained gigantic dimensions. The
primitive water-plants were succeeded by land-plants, a land-
flora being gradually established. With the transition from
water to land came the progressive development of the sporo-
phyte which is the characteristic feature of the morphology of
the Bryophyta and of all plants above them in the scale of life
(see Bower, Origin of a Land-Flora). This evolution of the
sporophyte is no doubt to be correlated with the great change
in the external conditions of life. There is no conclusive ground
for regarding the action of this change as having been direct, it
is more reasonable to regard it as indirect, having acted as a
general stimulus to which the ever-increasing complexity of the
sporophyte was the response.

Adaptation. — The morphological and physiological differentia-
tion of the plant-body has, so far, been attributed to (i) " the
nature of the organism," that is to its inherent tendency towards
higher organization, and (2) to the " indefinite results " of the
external conditions acting as a stimulus which excites the
organism to variation, but does not direct the course of variation.
The " definite results " of the action of external conditions have
still to be considered.

It is a familiar observation that climatic and edaphic (nature
of soil) conditions exert an influence upon the form and structure
of plants (see Plants : Ecology of) . For instance, some xerophy tes
are dry and hard in structure, whilst others are succulent
and fleshy. This so-called direct effect of external conditions
upon the form and structure of the body differs from the
indirect effect in that the resulting variations bear a relation, of
the nature of adaptation, to those conditions; the effect of the
conditions is not only to cause variation, but to cause variation
in a particular direction. Thus all existing hygrophytes
(excepting the Algae) are considered to have been derived from
land-plants which have adapted themselves to a watery habitat.
The effect can also be demonstrated experimentally: thus it
has been observed that a xerophyte grown in moist air will lose
its characteristic adaptive features, and may even assume those
of a hygrophyte.

Climatic and edaphic conditions are not, however, the only
ones to affect the structure and composition of the body or its
parts; other conditions are of importance, particularly the
relations of the plant to animals and to other plants. For
instance, the " animal traps " of carnivorous plants (Drosera,
Nepenthes, &c.) did not, presumably, originate as such; they
began as organs of quite another kind which became adapted
to their present function in consequence of animals having been
accidentally caught. It is also probable that the various forms
of the angiospermous flower, with its many specialized mechan-
isms for pollination, may be the result of insect-visits, the
flowers becoming adapted to certain kinds of insects, and the
insects having undergone corresponding modification. Parasites,
again, were derived from normal autotrophic plants, which, as
the parasitic habit became more pronounced, acquired the
corresponding characteristics of form and structure; there is,
in fact, the group of hemi-parasites, plants which still retain
autotrophic characters though they are root-parasites.

Though adaptation to the environment seems sometimes to
be considered, especially by neo-Lamarckians, as equivalent to,
or at least as involving, the evolution of higher forms from
lower, there does not appear to be any evidence that this is the

case. The effect of external conditions is confined to the modi-
fication in various directions of members or organs already
existing, and cne very common direction is that of reduction
or entire disappearance of parts: for instance, the foliage-leaves
of certain xerophytes (e.g. Cactaceae, Euphorbiaceae), of
parasites, and of saprophytes. Moreover, had the evolution
of plants proceeded along the line of adaptation, the vegetable
kingdom could not be subdivided, as it is, into the morphological
groups Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Phanerogamia,
but only into physiological groups, Xerophyta, Hygrophyta,
Tropophyta, &c.

In endeavouring to trace the causation of adaptation, it is
obvious that it must be due quite as much to properties inherent
in the plant as to the action of external conditions; the plant
must possess adaptive capacity. In other words, the plant
must be irritable to the stimulus exerted from without, and be
capable of responding to it by changes of form and structure.
Thus there is no essential difference between the " direct " and
the " indirect " action of external conditions, the difference is
one of degree only. . In the one case the stimulus induces
indefinite variation, in the other definite; but no hard-and-fast
line can be drawn between them.

Adaptive characters are often hereditary, for instance, the
seed of a parasite will produce a parasite, and the same is true
of a carnivorous plant. On the other hand, adaptations,
especially those evoked by climatic or edaphic conditions, may
only be shown by the seedling if grown under the appropriate
external conditions; here what is hereditary is not the actual
adaptation, but the capacity for responding in a particular
way to a certain set of external conditions.

Summary. — The general theory of differentiation propounded
in this article is an attempt at an analysis of the factors termed
by Darwin " the nature of the organism " and " the nature
of the conditions." It is assumed, as an inevitable conclusion
from the facts of evolution, that plant-protoplasm possesses
(1) an inherent tendency towards higher organization, and (2)
that it is irritable to external conditions, or to changes in them,
and can respond to them by changes of form which may be either
indefinite or definite (adaptive). Thus it is that the variations
are produced upon which natural selection has to work.

Material Cause of Differentiation. — It may be inquired, in
conclusion, if there are any facts which throw light upon the
internal mechanism of differentiation, whether spontaneous or
induced; if it is possible to refer it to any material cause. It
may be replied that there are such facts, and though they are
but few as yet, they suffice to suggest an hypothesis that may
eventually prove to be a law. Sachs was the first to formulate
the theory that morphological differences are the expression of
differences in material composition. He considered, for instance,
that stems, leaves, roots and flowers differ as they do because
the plastic substances entering into their structure are diverse.
This view he subsequently modified to this — that a relatively
small proportion of diverse substance in each of these parts
would suffice to account for their morphological differences.
This modification is important, because it transfers the formative
influence from the plastic substances to the protoplasm, suggest-
ing that the diverse constituents are produced (whether spon-
taneously or as the result of stimulation) as secretions by the
protoplasm. It is an obvious inference that if a small quantity
of a substance can affect the development of an entire organ
it probably acts after the manner of an enzyme. Beyerinck
has, in fact, gone so far as to speak of " formative enzymes."

It is not possible to go into all the facts that might be adduced
in support of this view: one case, perhaps the most pregnant,
must suffice. Beyerinck was led to take up the decided position
just mentioned by his researches into the conditions determining
the formation of plant-galls as the result of injury by insects.
He found that the development of a gall is due to a temporary
modification of the part affected, not, as is generally thought,
in consequence of the deposition of an egg by the insect,
but of the injection of a poisonous substance which has the effect
of stimulating the protoplasm to develop a gall instead of normal

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777

structure. If this be so, it may justifiably be inferred that both
normal and abnormal morphological features may be due to
the presence of enzymatic substances secreted by the protoplasm
that determine the course of development. At any rate this
hypothesis suggests an explanation of many hitherto inexplicable
facts. For instance, it has been pointed out in the article on
the reproduction of plants that the effect of the fertilization of
the female cell in the ovule of a phanerogam is not confined
to the female cell, but extends more or less widely outside it,
inducing growth and tissue-change. The ovule develops into
the seed; and the gynaeceum and even more remote parts of
the flower, develop into the fruit. The facts are familiar, but
there is no means of explaining them. In the light of Sachs's
theory the interpretation is this, that the act of fertilization
causes the formation in the female cell of substances which are
transmitted to adjacent structures and stimulate them to further
development.

Literature. — As the scope of this article limits it to the general
principles of the morphology of plants, comparatively few facts
have been adduced. Full morphological and organographical
details are given in the articles on the various groups of plants, such
as those on the Algae, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Angiosperms,
Gymnosperms, &c. The following works may also be consulted :
Schimper, Plant-Geography (Clarendon Press, Oxford) ; Goebel,
Organography (Clarendon Press, Oxford) ; Bower, The Origin of a
Land-Flora (Macmillan) ; Beyerinck, " Ueber Cecidien," (Bot.
Zeitung, 1888). (S. H. V.*)

Distribution of Plants

Common experience shows that temperature is the most
important condition which controls the distribution of plants.
Those of warmer countries cannot be cultivated in British
gardens without protection from the rigours of winter; still less
are they able to hold their own unaided in an unfavourable
climate. Temperature, then, is the fundamental limit which
nature opposes to the indefinite extension of any one species.
Buffon remarked " that the same temperature might have been
expected, all other circumstances being equal, to produce the
same beings in different parts of the globe, both in the animal
and vegetable kingdoms." Yet lawns in the United States are
destitute of the common English daisy, the wild hyacinth of
the woods of the United Kingdom is absent from Germany, and
the foxglove from Switzerland. We owe to Buffon the recogni-
tion of the limitation of groups of species to regions separated
from one another by " natural barriers." When by the aid of
man they surmount these, they often dominate with unexpected
vigour the native vegetation amongst which they are colonists.
The cardoon and milk thistle, both European plants, cover
tracts of country in South America with impenetrable thickets
in which both man and beast may be hopelessly lost. The
watercress blocks the rivers of New Zealand into which it has
been introduced from Europe. The problem, then, which plant-
distribution presents is twofold: it has first to map out the
earth's surface into " regions " or " areas of vegetation," and
secondly to trace the causes which have brought them about
and led to their restriction and to their mutual relations.

The earliest attempts to deal with the first branch of the
inquiry may be called physiognomical. They endeavoured
to define " aspects of vegetation " in which the " forms "
exhibited an obvious adaptation to their climatic surroundings.
This has been done with success and in great detail by Grisebach,
whose Vegetation der Erde from this point of view is still unsur-
passed. With it may be studied with advantage the unique
collection at Kew of pictures of plant-life in its broadest aspects,
brought together by the industry and munificence of Miss
Marianne North. Grisebach declined to see anything in such
" forms " but the production by nature of that which responds
to external conditions and can only exist as long as they remain
unchanged. We may agree with Schimper that such a point of
view is obsolete without rejecting as valueless the admirable
accumulation of data of which it admittedly fails to give any
rational explanation. A single example will be sufficient to
illustrate this. The genus Senecio, with some 1000 species,
is practically cosmopolitan. In external habit these exhibit

adaptations to every kind of climatic or physical condition:
they may be mere weeds like groundsels or ragworts, or climbers
masquerading like ivy, or succulent and almost leafless, or they
may be shrubs and even trees. Yet thrcughout they agree
in the essential structure of their floral organs. The cause of
such agreement is, according to Grisebach, shrouded in the
deepest obscurity, but it finds its obvious and complete explana-
tion in the descent from a common ancestor which he would
unhesitatingly reject.

From this point of view it is not sufficient, in attempting to
map out the earth's surface into " regions of vegetation, " to
have regard alone to adaptations to physical conditions. We
are compelled to take into account the actual affinity of the
plants inhabiting them. Anything short of this is merely
descriptive and empirical, and affords no rational basis for
inquiry into the mode in which the distribution of plant-life
has been brought about. Our regions will not be " natural "
unless they mark out real discontinuities both of origin and
affinity, and these we can only seek to explain by reference to
past changes in the earth's history. We arrive thus at " the
essential aim of geographical botany," which, as stated by
Schimper, is " an inquiry into the causes of differences existing
among the various floras." To quote further: " Existing
floras exhibit only one moment in the history of the earth's
vegetation. A transformation which is sometimes rapid, some-
times slow, but always continuous, is wrought by the reciprocal
action of the innate variability of plants and of the variability
of the external factors. This change is due partly to the migra-
tions of plants, but chiefly to a transformation of the plants
covering the earth." This transformation is due to new charac-
ters arising through variation. " If the new characters be useful,
they are selected and perfected in the descendants, and consti-
tute the so-called ' adaptations ' in which the external factors
acting on the plants are reflected." The study of the nature
of these adaptations, which are often extremely subtle and by
no means merely superficial, is termed Ecology (see above).

The remark may conveniently find its place here that plants
which have reached a high degree of adaptive specialization
have come to the end of their tether: a too complicated adjust-
ment has deprived them of the elasticity which would enable
them to adapt themselves to any further change in their surround-
ings, and they would pass away with conditions with which
they are too inextricably bound up. Vast floras have doubtless
thus found their grave in geologic change. That wrought by
man in destroying forests and cultivating the land will be no
less effective, and already specimens in our herbaria alone
represent species no longer to be found in a living state. Extinc-
tion may come about indirectly and even more surely. This
is easy to happen with plants dependent on insects for their
fertilization. Kronfeld has shown that aconites are dependent
for this on the visits of a Bombus and cannot exist outside the
area where it occurs.

The actual and past distribution of plants must obviously
be controlled by the facts of physical geography. It is concerned
with the land-surface, and this is more symmetrically disposed
than would at first sight appear from a glance at a map of the
world. Lyell points out that the eye of an observer placed
above a point between Pembroke and Wexford, lat. 52° N. and
long. 6° W., would behold at one view the greatest possible
quantity of land, while the opposite hemisphere would contain
the greatest quantity of water. The continental area is on one
side of the sphere and the oceanic on the other. Love'has shown
(Nature, Aug. 1, 1907, p. 328) that this is the result of physical
causes and that the existence of the Pacific Ocean " shows that
the centre of gravity of the earth does not coincide with the centre
of figure." One half of the earth has therefore a greater density
than the other. But " under the influence of the rotation the
parts of greater density tend to recede further from the axis
than the parts of less density . . . the effect must be to produce
a sort of furrowed surface." The furrows are the great ocean
basins, and these would still persist even if the land surface were
enlarged to the 1400 fathoms contour. These considerations

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preclude the possibility of solving difficulties in geographical
distribution by the construction of hypothetical land-surfaces,
an expedient which Darwin always stoutly opposed {Life and
Letters, ii. 74-78). The furrowed surface of the earth gives the
land-area a star-shaped figure, which may from time to time
have varied in outline, but in the main has been permanent.
It is excentric as regards the pole and sends tapering extensions
towards the south. Sir George Darwin finds a possible explana-
tion of these in the screwing motion which the earth would
suffer in its plastic state. The polar regions travelled a little
from west to east relatively to the equatorial, which lagged
behind.

The great primary divisions of the earth's flora present them-
selves at a glance. The tropics of Cancer and Capricorn cut off
with surprising precision (the latter somewhat less so) the tropical
from the north and south temperate zones. The north tem-
perate region is more sharply separated from the other two than
the south temperate region from the tropical.

I. North Temperate Region (Holarctic). — This is the largest
of all, circumpolar, and but for the break at Bering Straits, would
be, as it has been in the past, continuous in both the old and new
worlds. It is characterized by its needle-leaved Coniferae, its
catkin-bearing (Amentaceae) and other trees, deciduous in winter,
and its profusion of herbaceous species.

II. South Temperate Region. — This occupies widely separated
areas in South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and South America.
These are connected by the presence of peculiar types, Proteaceae,
Restiaceae, Rutaceae, &c, mostly shrubby in habit and on the whole
somewhat intolerant of a moist climate. Individual species are
extremely numerous and often very restricted in area.

III. Tropical Region. — This is characterized by the presence
of gigantic Monocotyledons, palms, Musaceae and bamboos, and of
evergreen polypetalous trees and figs. Herbaceous plants are rare
and mostly epiphytic.

A consideration of these regions makes it apparent that they are
to a large extent adaptive. The boreal is cold, the austral warm,
and the tropical affords conditions of heat and moisture to which the
vegetation of the others would be intolerant. If we take with Drude
the number of known families of flowering plants at 240, 92 are
generally dispersed, 17 are more restricted, while the remainder are
either dominant in or peculiar to separate regions. Of these 40 are
boreal, 22 austral and 69 tropical. If we add to the latter figure
the families which are widely dispersed, we find that the tropics
possess 161 or almost exactly two-thirds of the large groups comprised
in the world's vegetation. M. Casimir de Candolle has made an
independent investigation, based on Hooker and Bentham's Genera
plantarum. The result is unfortunately (1910) unpublished, but he
informs the present writer that the result leads to the striking con-
clusion: "La vegetation est un phenomene surtout intertropical,
dont nous ne yoyons plus que restes affaiblis dans nos regions tem-
perees." In attempting to account for the distribution of existing
vegetation we must take into account palaeontological evidence.
The results arrived at may be read as a sequel to the article on
Palaeobotany.

The vegetation of the Palaeozoic era, till towards its close, was
apparently remarkably homogeneous all over the world. It was
characterized by arborescent vascular Cryptogams and Gymno-
sperms of a type (Cordaiteae) which have left no descendants beyond
it. In the southern hemisphere the Palaeozoic flora appears ulti-
mately to have been profoundly modified by a lowering of tempera-
ture and the existence of glacial conditions over a wide area. It was
replaced by the Glossopteris flora which is assumed to have originated
in a vast continental area (Gondwana land), of which remnants
remain in South America, South Africa and Australia.

The Glossopteris flora gradually spread to the northern hemisphere
and intermingled with the later Palaeozoic flora which still persisted.
Both were in turn replaced by the Lower Mesozoic flora, which again
is thought to have had its birth in the hypothetical Gondwana land,
and in which Gymnosperms played the leading part formerly taken
by vascular Cryptogams. The abundance of Cycadean plants is
one of its most striking features. They attained the highest degree
of structural complexity in the Bennettiteae, which have been
thought even to foreshadow a floral organization. Though now on
the way to extinction, Cycadeae are still widely represented in the
southern hemisphere by genera which, however, have no counterpart
in the Mesozoic era. Amongst Conifers the archaic genera, Ginkgo
and Araucaria still persist. Once widely distributed in the Jurassic
period throughout the world, they are now dying out: the former
is represented by the solitary maiden-hair tree of China and Japan;
the latter by some ten species confined to the southern hemisphere,
once perhaps their original home. With them may be associated
the anomalous Sciadopitys of Japan.

So far the evolution of the vegetable kingdom has proceeded with-
out any conspicuous break. Successive types have arisen in ascend-
ing sequence, taken the lead, and in turn given way to others. But

the later period of the Mesozoic era saw the almost sudden advent
of a fully developed angiospermous vegetation which rapidly occu-
pied the earth's surface, and which it is not easy to link on with
any that preceded it. The closed ovary implies a mode of fertiliza-
tion which is profoundly different, and which was probably correlated
with a simultaneous development of insect life. This was accom-
panied by a vegetative organization of which there is no obvious
foreshadowing. As Clement Reid remarked : ' ' World-wide floras,
such as seem to characterize some of the older periods, have ceased
to be, and plants are distributed more markedly according to
geographical provinces and in climatic zones." The field of evolu-
tion has now been transferred to the northern hemisphere. Though
Angiosperms become dominant in all known plant-bearing Upper
Cretaceous deposits, their origin dates even earlier. In Europe
Heer's Populus primaeva from the Lower Cretaceous in Greenland
was long accepted as the oldest dicotyledonous plant. Other un-
doubted Dicotyledons, though of uncertain affinity, of similar age
have now been detected in North America. The Cenomanian rocks
of Bohemia have yielded remains of a sub-tropical flora which has
been compared with that existing at present in Australia. Upper
Cretaceous formations in America have yielded a copious flora of
a warm-temperate climate from which it is evident that at least the
generic types of numerous not closely related existing dicotyledonous
trees had already come into existence. It may be admitted that
the identification of fragmentary leaf-remains is at most precarious.
Even, however, with this reservation, it is difficult to resist the mass
of evidence as a whole. And it is a plausible conjecture that the
vegetation of the globe had already in its main features been consti-
tuted at this period much as it exists at the present moment. There
were oaks, beeches (scarcely distinguishable from existing species),
birches, planes and willows (one closely related to the living Salix
Candida), laurels, represented by Sassafras and Cinnamomum,
magnolias and tulip trees (Liriodendron) , myrtles, Liquidambar,
Diospyros and ivy. This is a flora which, thinned out by losses,
practically exists to this day in the southern United States. And
one essentially similar but adapted to slightly cooler conditions
existed as far north as the latitude of Greenland.

The tertiary era opens with a climate in which during the Eocene
period something like existing tropical conditions must have obtained
in the northern hemisphere. The remains of palms (Sabal and Nipa)
as well as of other large-leaved Monocotyledons are preserved.
Sequoia (which had already appeared in the American Upper Cre-
taceous) and the deciduous cypress (Taxodium distichum) are found
in Europe. Starkie Gardner has argued with much plausibility that
the Tertiary floras which have been found in the far north must
have been of Eocene age. That of Grinnell Land in lat. 81 ° consisted
of Conifers (including the living spruce), poplars and willows, such
as would be found now 25 ° to the south. The flora of Disco Island
in lat. 70 contained Sequoia, planes, maples and magnolias, and
closely agrees with the Miocene flora of central Europe. Of this
copious remains have been found in Switzerland and have been
investigated with great ability by O. Heer. They point to cooler
conditions in the northern hemisphere: palms and tropical types
diminish; deciduous trees increase. Sequoia and the tulip-tree
still remain ; figs are abundant ; laurels are represented by Sassafras
and camphor; herbaceous plants (Ranunculaceae, Cruciferae,
Umbelliferae) are present, though, as might be expected, only frag-
mentarily preserved.

We may draw with some certainty the conclusion that a general
movement southward of vegetation had been brought about.
While Europe and probably North America wr-re occupied by a warm
temperate flora, tropical types had been driven southward, while
the adaptation of others to arctic conditions had become accentuated.
A gradual refrigeration proceeded through the Pliocene period.
This was accompanied in Europe by a drastic weeding out of Miocene
types, ultimately leaving the flora pretty much as it now exists.
This, as will be explained, did not take place to anything like the
same extent in North America, the vegetation of which still pre-
serves a more Miocene facies. Torreya, now confined to North
America and Japan, still lingered,- as did Ocotea, now profusely
developed in the tropics, but in north temperate regions only
existing in the Canaries : the evergreen oaks, so characteristic of the
Miocene, were reduced to the existing Quercus ilex. At the close of
the Pliocene the European flora was apparently little different from
that now existing, though some warmer types such as the water-
chestnut (Trapa natans) had a more northern extension. _ The
glacial period effected in Europe a wholesale extermination of
temperate types accompanied by a southern extension of the arctic
flora. But its operation was in great measure local. The Pliocene
flora found refuges in favoured localities from which at its close the
lowlands were restocked while the arctic plants were left behind
on the mountains. During the milder interglacial period some
southern types, such as Rhododendron ponticum, still held their own,
but ultimately succumbed.

The evidence which has thus been briefly summarized, points
unmistakably to the conclusion that existing vegetation originated
in the northern hemisphere and under climatic conditions correspond-
ing to what would now be termed sub-tropical. It occupied a con-
tinuous circumpolar area which allowed free communication between
the old and new worlds. The gradual differentiation of their floras

DISTRIBUTION]

PLANTS

779

has been brought about rather by extermination than specialization,
and their distinctive facies by the development and multiplication
of the surviving types.

The distribution of mountain barriers in the Old and New Worlds
is in striking contrast. In the former they run from east to west;
in the latter from north to south. In the Old World the boreal zone
is almost sharply cut off and afforded no means of escape for the
Miocene vegetation when the climate became more severe. Thus in
the Mediterranean region the large groups of palms, figs, myrtles
and laurels are each only represented by single surviving species.
The great tropical family of the Gesneraceae has left behind a few
outliers: Ramondia in the Pyrenees, Haberlea in the Balkans, and
Jankaea in Thessaly ; the Pyrenees also possess a minute Dioscorea,
sole European survivor of the yams of the tropics.

In North America there is no such barrier: the Miocene flora
has been able to escape by migration the fluctuations of climate and
to return when they ameliorated. It has preserved its character-
istic types, such as Magnolia, Liriodendron, Liquidambar, Torreya,
Taxodium and Sequoia. While it has been customary to describe
the Miocene flora of Europe as of a North American type, it would
be more accurate to describe the latter as having in great measure
preserved its Miocene character.

If mountains serve as barriers which arrest the migration of the
vegetation at their base, their upper levels and summits afford lines
of communication by which the floras of colder regions in the
northern hemisphere can obtain a southern extension even across
the tropics. They doubtless equally supply a path by which southern
temperate types may have extended northwards. Thus the
characteristic assemblage of plants to which Sir Joseph Hooker has
given the name Scandinavian " is present in every latitude of the
globe, and is the only one that is so " (Trans. Linn. Soc. xxiii. 253).
In the mountains of Peru we find such characteristic northern genera
as Draba, Alchemilla, Saxifraga, Valeriana, Gentiana and Bartsia.
High elevations reproduce the physical conditions of high latitudes.
The aqueous vapour in the atmosphere is transparent to luminous
but opaque to obscure heat-rays. The latter are retained to warm
the air at lower levels, while it remains cold at higher. It results
that besides a horizontal distribution of plants, there is also an
altitudinal: a fact of cardinal importance, the first observation of
which has been attributed to Tournefort.

Speaking generally, all plants tend to exhaust particular consti-
tuents of the soil on which they grow. Nature therefore has pro-
vided various contrivances by which their seeds are disseminated
beyond the actual position they occupy. In a large number of cases
these only provide for migration within sufficient but narrow limits ;
such plants would be content to remain local. But other physical
agencies come into play which may be briefly noticed. The first of
these is wind: it cannot be doubted that small seeds can be swept
up like dust and transported to considerable distances. This is
certainly the case with fern-spores. The vegetation of Krakatoa
was completely exterminated in 1883 by a thick coat of red-hot
pumice. Yet in 1886 Treub found that it was beginning to cover
itself again with plants, including eleven species of ferns; but the
nearest source of supply was 10 m. distant. Seeds are carried with
more facility when provided with plumes or wings. Treub found on
Krakatoa four species of composites and two grasses. Water is
another obvious means of transport. The littoral vegetation of
coral islands is derived from sea-borne fruits. The seeds of West
Indian plants are thrown on the western shores of the British Isles,
and as they are capable of germination, the species are only pre-
vented from establishing themselves by an uncongenial climate.
Travers picked up a seed of Edwardsia in the Chatham Islands,
evidently washed ashore from New Zealand [Linn. Soc. Journ. ix.
1865). Rivers bring down the plants of the upper levels of their
basins to the lower: thus species characteristic of the chalk are
found on the banks of the Thames near London. Birds are even
more effective than wind in transporting seeds to long distances.
Seeds are carried in soil adhering to their feet and plumage, and
aquatic plants have in consequence for the most part an exception-
ally wide range. Fruit-pigeons are an effective means of transport
in the tropics by the undigested seeds which they void in their
excrement. Quadrupeds also play their part by carrying seeds or
fruits entangled in their coats. Xanthium spinosum has spread from
the Russian steppes to every stock-raising country in the world,
and in some cases has made the industry impossible. Even insects,
as in the case of South African locusts, have been found to be a means
of distributing seeds.

The primary regions of vegetation, already indicated, and their
subordinate provinces may now be considered more in detail.

I . North Tem pe r ate Region.— Many writers on the distribution
of animals prefer to separate this into two regions of " primary rank " :
the Palaearctic and the Nearctic. But to justify such a division it
is necessary to establish either an exclusive possession or a marked
predominance of types in the one which are correspondingly deficient
in the other. This cannot apparently be done for insects or for
birds; Newton accordingly unites the two into the Holarctic region.
It equally fails for plants. To take, for example, one of the most
characteristic features of the Palaearctic region, its catkin-bearing
deciduous trees : in North America we find precisely the same genera

as in the Old World — oaks, chestnuts, beeches, hazels, hornbeams,
birches, alders, willows and poplars. Or to take the small but well-
defined group of five-leaved pines, all the species of which may be
seen growing side by side at Kew under identical conditions: we
have the Weymouth pine (Pinus Strobus) in eastern North America,
P. monticola and the sugar pine (P. Lambertiana) in California,
P. Ayacahmte in Mexico, the Arolla pine (P. Cembra) in Switzerland
and Siberia, P. Pence in Greece, the Bhotan pine (P. excelsa) in the
Himalayas, and two other species in Japan. Amongst broad-
leaved trees Juglans has a similar Holarctic range, descending to
the West Indies; so has Aesculus, were it not lacking in Europe;
it becomes tropical in South America and Malaya. If we turn to
herbaceous plants, Hemsley has pointed out that of the thirteen
genera of Ranunculaceae in California, eleven are British.

While the tropics preserve for us what remains of the pre-
Tertiary or, at the latest, Eocene vegetation of the earth, which
formerly had a much wider extension, the flora of the North Tem-
perate region is often described as the survival of the Miocene.
Engler therefore calls it Arcto-Tertiary. We must, however, agree
with Starkie Gardner that it is only Miocene as regards its present
position, which was originally farther north, and that its actual
origin was much earlier. There has been in effect a successive
shifting of zones of vegetation southwards from the pole. Their
distinctive and adaptive characteristics doubtless began to be
established as soon as the phanerogamic flora was constituted.
There is no reason to suppose that the peculiarities of the arctic
flora are more modern than those of any other, though there is no
fossil evidence to prove that it was not so.

The North Temperate region admits of subdivision into several
well-marked sub-regions. The general method by which this is
effected in this and other cases is statistical. As A. de Candolle,
however, points out, exclusive reliance on this may be misleading
unless we also take into account the character and affinities of the
plants dealt with (Geogr. Bot. i. 11 66). The numerical predominance
of certain families or their absence affords criteria for marking out
boundary lines and tracing relationships. The analysis of the flora
of the British Isles will afford an illustration. This was first
attempted in 1835 by H. C. Watson, and his conclusions were en-
forced ten years later by Edward Forbes, who dealt also with the
fauna. Watson showed that Scotland primarily, and to a less extent
the north of England, possessed species which do not reach the south.
Such are the crowberry (Empeirum nigrum), Trientalis europaea,
Rubus saxatilis and the globe-flower (Trollius europaeus). He
further found that there was an element which he termed " boreal
... in a more intense degree," which amounted to about " a
fifteenth of the whole flora." This was not confined to the north
but may occur on the mountains of England and Wales: Salix
herbacea, Silene acaulis and Dryas octopetala will serve as examples.
Even so small an area as that of Britain illustrates what has already
been pointed out, that the species of a flora change both with latitude
and altitude. Watson further brought out the striking fact that the
west and east of Britain each had species peculiar to it; the former
he characterized as Atlantic, the latter as Germanic. The Cornish
heath (Erica vagans) and the maiden-hair fern (Adiantum Capillus-
Veneris) may serve as instances of the one, the man-orchis (Aceras
anthropophora) and Reseda lutea of the other. Ireland illustrates
the same fact. It possesses about 1000 species, or about two-thirds
the number of Britain. On its western shores there are some
twenty, such as Saxifraga umbrosa, Erica mediterranea and Arbutus
unedo, which are not found in Britain at all. The British Phanero-
gamic flora, it may be remarked, does not contain a single endemic
species, and 38% of the total number are common to the three
northern continents.

The analysis of larger areas yields results of the same kind. Within
the same region we may expect to find considerable differences as
we pass from one meridian to another. Assuming that in its cir-
cumpolar origin the North Temperate flora was fairly homogeneous,
it would meet in its centrifugal extension with a wide range of local
conditions ; these would favour the preservation of numerous species
in some genera, their greater or less elimination in others. Thus
comparing the Nearctic and Palaearctic floras we find striking differ-
ences overlying the points of agreement already indicated. The
former is poor in Cruciferae, Caryophyllaceae, Umbelliferae, Primul-
aceae and Labiatae; but for the occurrence of Calluna in Newfound-
land it would have no heaths. On the other hand, it is rich in Com-
positae, especially Solidago and Aster, Polemoniaceae, Asclepiad-
aceae, Hydrophyllaceae and Cyperaceae, and it has the endemic
Sarracenia, type of a family structurally allied to poppies, of which
of the remaining genera Darlingtonia is Calif ornian, and Heliamphora
Venezuelan. These distinctions led Sir Joseph Hooker to claim for
the two divisions the rank of primary regions. Darwin doubted,
however, whether they ought to be separated (Life, iii. 230). Lyell,
discussing the facts of zoological distribution, admits that " the
farther we go north . . . the more the discordance in genera and
species diminishes " (Principles, ii. 340) ; and Hemsley finds that
not less than 75 % of the genera in the flora of eastern North America
" are represented in the old world," and, according to Asa Gray, 50 %
in Europe.

Latitudinally the region subdivides naturally into several well-
marked sub-regions which must be briefly discussed.

780 PLANTS

i. The Arctic-Alpine sub-region consists of races of plants belong-
ing originally to the general flora, and recruited by subsequent
additions, which have been specialized in low stature and great
capacity of endurance to survive long dormant periods, sometimes
even unbroken in successive years by the transitory activity of the
brief summer. It is continuous round the pole and roughly is
bounded by the arctic circle. Mature seeds are highly tolerant
of cold and have been shown to be capable of withstanding the
temperature even of liquid hydrogen. Arctic plants make their
brief growth and flower at a temperature little above freezing-point,
and are dependent for their heat on the direct rays of the sun.
Characteristic representatives are Papaver nudicaule, Saxifraga
opposilifolia, which forms a profuse carpet, and Dryas octopetala.
Such plants perhaps extend to the most northern lands at present
known. On May 30th, in Ward Hunt's Island, lat. 83 ° 5', Sir George
Nares found that " vegetation was fairly represented as regards
quantity in the poppy, saxifrage and small tufts of grass." We may
compare this with extreme alpine conditions: on a spot above the
Aletsch glacier at a height of 10,700 ft. Ball found the temperature
one inch below the surface to be 83 °, and he collected " over forty
species in flower." Taking the whole arctic flora at 762 species,
Hooker found that 616 occurred in arctic Europe, and of these 586
are Scandinavian. Beyond the arctic circle some 200, or more than
a quarter, are confined to the mountains of the northern hemisphere
and of " still more southern regions." This led Hooker to the
striking observation already quoted. The arctic flora contains
no genus that is peculiar to it, and only some fifty species that are so.
Christ has objected to terming the arctic flora Scandinavian, but the
name implies nothing more than that Scandinavia has been its
chief centre of preservation.

A detailed examination of mountain floras shows that a large local
element is present in each besides the arctic. The one is in fact the
result of similar physical conditions to that which has produced
the other. Thus Saxifraga cernua is regarded as an alpine form of
the lowland 5. granuiata. Comparing the Alps with the Pyrenees,
according to Ball, each has about half its flora common to the other:
" the Alps have 172 endemic species and at least 15 genera that are
not found in the Pyrenees, while the latter range counts about 100
endemic species with several (six or seven) genera not found in the
Alps." Drude has accordingly suggested the substitution of the term
" High-mountain floras " for Alpine, which he regards as misleading.
Its meaning has, however, become synonymous and is consecrated
by usage.

The repetition of the same species in the arctic regions and in the
high mountains of the North Temperate region is generally attributed
to the exchange which took place during the glacial period. This
was first suggested by Edward Forbes in 1846, though the idea had
earlier suggested itself to Darwin (Life, i. 88). It took place south-
wards, for the arctic flora is remarkably uniform, and, as Chodat
points out, it shows no evidence of having been recruited from the
several mountain floras. That the arctic flora was driven south
into Central Europe cannot be contested in the face of the evidence
collected by Nathorst from deposits connected with the boulder-
clay. And Reid has shown that during the glacial period the exist-
ing flora was replaced by an arctic one represented by such plants
as Salix polaris, S. herbacea, S. reticulata and Betula nana. At the
same time the then existing alpine floras descended to lower levels,
though we may agree with Ball that they did not necessarily become
extinct at higher ones as long as any land-surface remained uncovered
by ice. At the close of the glacial period the alpine floras retreated
to the mountains accompanied by an arctic contingent, though
doubtless many species of the latter, such as Salix polaris, failed to
establish themselves. Christ, while admitting an ancient endemic
element, such as Campanula excisa in the arctic-alpine flora of
Europe, objects that a Scandinavian colonization could not furnish
such characteristic plants as the larch and edelweiss. He traces
the original home of the bulk of existing alpine plants to northern
Asia, the mountains of which appear to have escaped glaciation.
At the close of the glacial epoch the north Asiatic flora spread west-
wards into Europe and intermingled with the surviving vegetation.
Some species, such as Anemone olpina, which are wanting in the Arctic
flora of the Old World, he thinks must have reached Europe by way
of Greenland from north-east America.

2. The Intermediate sub-region comprises the vegetation of the
large area occupied by the steppes of the Old World, the prairies of
the new and the forest region of both. The former support a copious
herbaceous flora, the characteristics of which in the Old and New
Worlds have been already briefly summarized. In the former that
of Europe and of Central Asia are continuous. Of species common
to the two, Maximowicz finds that Manchuria possesses 40% and
scarcely 9 % that are endemic. Of a collection of about 500 species
made in that country by Sir Henry James nearly a third are British.
This confirms the theory of Christ that Europe was restocked mainly
from Asia after the close of the glacial epoch, the south being closed
to it. In the new world no southern barriers existed and it is more
difficult to draw the line between contiguous sub-regions.

The dominant characteristics of the arboreous vegetation are,
besides deciduous and amentiferous trees, Coniferae, especially the
more recent tribe of Abietineae — pines, silver-firs, hemlocks, spruces
and larches, of which, unlike the older types, no representative

[DISTRIBUTION

crosses the tropic. The prominent deciduous trees of Europe appear
to be of eastern origin, and the progress of western migration has
continued to historic times. The evidence of the peat bogs shows
that the Scots fir, which is now extinct, was abundant in Denmark
in the Roman period. It was succeeded by the sessile-fruited oak,
which was in turn supplanted by the pedunculate form of the same
tree. Quercus Robur has left no trace in the Tertiary deposits of
Europe and it is most nearly allfed to east Asiatic species. The oak
in turn has been almost superseded in Denmark by the beech, which,
if we may trust Julius Caesar, had not reached Britain in his time,
though it existed there in the pre-glacial period, but is not native in
either Scotland or Ireland. Its eastern limit in Europe is a line
from Konigsberg to the Caucasus; thence through China it is con-
tinued by varietal forms to Japan. It has a solitary representative
in North America.

Broadly speaking, the American portion of the sub-region consists
of an Atlantic and Pacific forest area and an intervening non-forest
one, partly occupied by the Rocky Mountains, partly by intervening
plains. Its arboreal vegetation is richer both in genera and species
than that corresponding to it in the Old World. Glacial elimination
has been less severe, or rather there has been, at any rate on the
Atlantic side, an unimpeded return of Miocene types. The Atlantic
area has five magnolias, a tulip tree, an Anonacea (Asimina), two
Ternstroemiaceae (Stuarlia and Gordonia), Liquidambar, Vitis (the
fox-grape, V. Labrusca, reappears in Japan), and others; an assem-
blage, as long ago pointed out by Asa Gray, which can only be
paralleled in the Chino-Japanese region, another centre of preserva-
tion of Miocene types. All these are wanting in the Pacific area,
though there are indications in its gold-bearing gravels that it once
possessed them. On the other hand, the latter " is rich in coniferous
types beyond any country except Japan " (A. Gray), but till we
reach California these are boreal in type. The Atlantic flora has
also numerous oaks and maples, signalized by their autumnal colora-
tion. These were abundant in Tertiary Europe, as they are now in
Japan, and represent perhaps a cooler element in the flora than that
indicated above. The highlands of Central America and the West
Indies have preserved a number of Chino-Japanese types — Bocconia,
Deutzia, Abelia, &c. — not met with elsewhere in the New World.

3. The Mediterfaneo-Oriental sub-region contrasts no less vividly
with the Intermediate than the Arctic-Alpine. It includes the
Azores and Canaries, the Mediterranean basin, northern Africa as
far as the Atlas and Sahara, Asia Minor, Persia and the countries
eastward as far as Sind, being bounded to the north by the mountains
which run from the Caucasus to the Hindu-Kush. Its extreme
richness in number of species (it comprises six-sevenths of the
European flora) and the extremely restricted areas of many of them
point to a great antiquity. The Mediterranean basin has been a
centre of preservation of Miocene vegetation: the oleander is said
to have been found in local deposits of even earlier age, and the holm
oak {Quercus Ilex) is the living representative of a Miocene ancestor.
Extensions of the flora occur southwards of the high mountains
of tropical Africa ; A denocarpus, a characteristic Mediterranean genus,
has been found on Kilimanjaro and 2000 m. distant on the Cameroons.
Two British plants may be added which both reach North
Africa : Sanicula europaea extends from Abyssinia to the Cameroons
and southwards to Cape Colony and Madagascar; Sambucus Ebulus
reaches Uganda. The Mediterranean, however, has apparently
been a barrier to the southward passage of the arcto-alpine flora
which is totally wanting on the Atlas. The vegetation of the sub-
region is rich in shrubs: myrtle, bay, Cistus, Pistacia, Arbutus,
heaths in its western portion, and the ground-palm (Chamaerops).
It is even richer in more herbaceous plants tolerant of a hot summer;
giant Umbelliferae (such as Ferula) are especially characteristic
and yield gum-resins which have long been reckoned valuable. Of
the 1000 known species of Astragalus it possesses 800. Evergreen
oaks and Conifers form the forests. Asia Minor has a Liquidambar.
The Argan tree (A rgania Sideroxylon) , which forms forests in Morocco,
is a remarkable survivor of a tropical family (Sapotaceae). Amongst
Conifers Cedrus is especially noteworthy; it is represented by geo-
graphical races in the north-west Himalaya, in Syria, Cyprus and
North Africa.

This well-marked sub-region has a deeper interest than the
botanical. It has been the cradle of civilization, and to it is due the
majority of cultivated plants. Such are the date in Mesopotamia
(a second species of Phoenix occurs in the Canaries) ; most European
fruits, e.g. the vine, fig, mulberry, cherry, apricot, walnut; pulses,
e.g. the bean, pea and lentil; pot-herbs, e.g. lettuce, endive, beet,
radish, cress; cereals; and fodder plants such as lucerne and carob.
4. The Chino-Japanese sub-region. — Of the vegetation of China
till recently very little has been known. In 1873 Elwes pointed out
that the Himalayan avifauna extended into north-west China and
established the Himalo-Chinese sub-region. Shortly afterwards the
collections of Prejewalsky confirmed it for the flora. And we now
know that, excluding the southern tropical area, it has the same
character throughout the whole of China proper. We may therefore
regard the Himalayan flora as a westward extension of the Chinese
rather than the latter as a development of the former. Of four
genera which Hooker singles out as the largest in Sikkim, in China
Corydalis has 76 species, Saxifraga 58, Pedicularis 129, and Primula
77. Of Rhododendron there are 134 species. Upwards of 8000

DISTRIBUTION]

PLANTS

781

species are known out of a probable total of not less than 12,000,
and of these more than half are endemic. The number of species
to a genus, 3, is only half that found in other large areas. This
aggregation of genera and of endemic species is characteristic of the
circumferential portions of the earth's land surface: the expansion
of the one and the further advance of the other is arrested. The
sub-region is probably sharply cut off from the Intermediate.
Maximowicz -finds that 40 % of the plants of Manchuria are common
to Europe and Asia, but the proportion falls sharply to 16% in the
case of Japan. Its connexion with the Mediterraneo-Oriental sub-
region is still more remote. China has no Cistus or heath, only a
single Ferula, while Astragalus is reduced to 35 species. There are
two species of Pistacia and four of Liquidambar. The affinity to
Atlantic North America is strongly marked as it has long been known
to be in Japan. China has 66 species of Quercus, 35 of Vitis, 2 of
Aesculus, 42 of Acer, 33 Magnoliaceae (including two species of
Liriodendron) , 12 Anonaceae, 71 Ternstroemiaceae (including the
tea-plant), and 4 of Clethra, which has a solitary western represen-
tative in Madeira. Trachycarpus and Rhapis are characteristic
palms, and Cycadeae are represented by Cycas.

5. The Mexico- American sub-region has as its northern boundary
the parallel of lat. 36° as far as New Mexico and then northwards
to the Pacific coast at lat. 40 . The eastern and western halves
are contrasted in climate — the former being moist and the latter
dry — and have been distinguished by some zoologists as distinct sub-
regions. They are in fact in some degree comparable to sub-regions
3 and 4 in the Old World. The absence of marked natural boundaries
makes any precise north and south limitation difficult. But it has
been a centre of preservation of the Taxodieae, a tribe of Coniferae
of great antiquity. Taxodiurn (with single species in China and
Mexico) is represented by the deciduous cypress (T. distichum),
which extends from Florida to Texas. The two species of Sequoia,
the " Wellingtonia " (S. gigantea) and the redwood (S. sempervirens),
are confined to California. In the eastern forests the prevalence of
Magnoliaceae and of Clethra and Rhododendron continues the alliance
with eastern Asia. Florida derives a tropical element from the
Antilles. Amongst palms the Corypheae are represented by Sabal
and Thrinax, and there is a solitary Zamia amongst Cycads. The
western dry areas have the old-world leguminous Astragalus and
Prosopis (Mesquit), but are especially characterized by the north-
ward extension of the new-world tropical Cactaceae, Mpmmillaria,
Cereus and Opunlia, by succulent Amaryllideae such as Agave (of
which the so-called " American aloe " is a type), and by arborescent
Liliaceae {Yucca). Amongst palms Washingtonia, Brahea and
Erythea (all Corypheae) replace the eastern genera. On the west
coast Cupressus Lawsoniana replaces the northern Thuya gigantea,
and a laurel (Umbellularia of isolated affinity) forms forests.
California and Arizona have each a SDecies of Platanus, a dying-out
genus. Elsewhere it is only represented by P. occidentalis, the
largest tree of the Atlantic forests from Maine to Oregon, and by
P. orientalis in the eastern Mediterranean. Otherwise the Califor-
nian flora is entirely deficient in the characteristic features of
that of eastern North America. Nor, with perhaps the interesting
exception of Castanopsis chrysophylla, the solitary representative
in the New World of an east Asiatic genus, which ranges from Oregon
to California, has it any affinity with the Chino-Japanese sub-region.
Its closest connexion is with the South American Andine.

\\. The Tropical Region. — The permanence of continents and
great oceans was first insisted upon by J. D. Dana, but, as already
stated, has later received support on purely physical grounds. It
precludes the explanation of any common features in the dissevered
portions of the tropical area of vegetation by lateral communi-
cations, and throws back their origin to the remotest geological
antiquity. In point of fact, resemblance is in the main con-
fined to the higher groups, such as families and large genera; the
smaller genera and species are entirely different. No genus or
species of palm, for example, is common to the Old and New Worlds.
The ancient broad-leaved Gymnosperm Gnetum has a few surviving
species scattered through the tropics of both worlds, one reaching
Polynesia.

1. African sub-region. — Western Arabia must be added to the
African continent, which, with this exception and possibly a former
European connexion in the far west, has had apparently from a
very early period an almost insular character. Bentham remarks
(Journ. Linn. Soc. xiii. 492) : " Here, more perhaps than in any other
part of the globe, in Compositae as in so many other orders, we may
fancy we see the scattered remains of ancient races dwindling
down to their last representatives." It is remarkable that the
characteristic features of the Miocene flora, which in other parts
of the world have spread and developed southwards, are conspicu-
ausly absent from the African tropical flora. It has no Magnolia-
ceae, no maples, Pomaceae, or Vacciniaceae, no Rhododendron
and no Abietineae. Perhaps even more striking is the absence of
Cupuliferae; Quercus, in particular, which from Tertiary times has
been a conspicuous northern type and in Malayan tropical conditions
has developed others which are widely divergent. Palms are
strikingly deficient : there are only three out of 79 genera of Areceae,
and the Corypheae are entirely absent. But including the Mas-
carene Islands and Seychelles the Borasseae are exclusively African.
Aroideae are poorly represented compared with either South

America or Malays. A peculiar feature in which tropical Africa
stands alone is that at least one-fifth and probably more of the
species are common to both sides of the continent and presumably
stretch right across it. An Indian element derived from the north-
east is most marked on the eastern side: the Himalayan Gloriosa
will suffice as an example, and of more tropical types Phoenix and
Calamus amongst palms. The forest flora of Madagascar, though
including an endemic family Chlaenaceae, is essentially tropical
African, and the upland flora south temperate.

2. The Indo-Malayan sub-region includes the Indian and Malayan
peninsulas, Cochin-China and southern China, the Malayan archipel-
ago, and Philippines, with New Guinea and Polynesia, excluding the
Sandwich Islands. Probably in point of number of species the pre-
ponderant family is Orchideae, though, as Hemsley remarks, they
do not " give character to the scenery, or constitute the bulk of the
vegetation." In Malaya and eastward the forests are rich in arbor-
escent figs, laurels, myrtles, nutmegs, oaks and bamboos. Diptero-
carpeae and Nepenthaceae only extend with a few outliers into the
African sub-region. Screw pines have a closer connexion. Com-
positae are deficient. Amongst palms Areceae and Calameae are
preponderant. Cycads are represented by Cycas itself, which in
several species ranges from southern India to Polynesia. In India
proper, with a dryer climate, grasses and Leguminosae take the lead
in the number of species. But it has few distinctive botanical
features. In the north-west it meets the Mediterraneo-Oriental
and in the north-east the Chino-Japanese sub-regions, while south
India and Ceylon have received a Malayan contribution. Bengal
has no Cycas, oaks or nutmegs. Apart from the occurrence of Cycas,
the Asiatic character of the Polynesian flora is illustrated by the
distribution of Meliaceae. C. de Candolle finds that with one excep-
tion the species belong to genera represented in one or other of the
Indian peninsulas.

3. The South American sub-region is perhaps richer in peculiar
and distinctive types than either of the preceding. As in the Indo-
Malayan sub-region, epiphytic orchids are probably most numerous
in point of species, but the genera and even sub-tribes are far more
restricted in their range than in the Old World ; 4 sub-tribes with 74
genera of Vandeae are confined to South America, though varying
in range of climate and altitude. Amongst arboreous families
Leguminosae and Euphorbiaceae are prominent ; Hevea belonging
to the latter is widely distributed in various species in the Amazon
basin, and yields Para and other kinds of rubber. Amongst Rubia-
ceae, Cinchoneae with some outliers in the Old World have their
headquarters at cooler levels. In Brazil the myrtles are represented
by " monkey-pots " (Lecythideae). Nearly related to myrtles are
Melastomaceae which, poorly represented in the Old World, have
attained here so prodigious a development in genera and .species,
that Ball looks upon it as the seat of origin of the family. Amongst
Ternstroemiaceae, the singular Marcgravieae are endemic. So also
are the Vochysiaceae allied to the " milkworts." Cactaceae are
widely spread and both northwards and southwards extend into
temperate regions. Screw pines are replaced by the nearly allied
Cyclanthaceae. The Amazon basin is the richest area in the world
in palms, of which the Cocoineae are confined to South America,
except the coco-nut, which has perhaps spread thence into Polynesia
and eastward. The singular shrubby Amaryllids, Vellozieae, are
common to tropical and South Africa, Madagascar and Brazil.
Aroids, of which the tribes are not restricted in their distribution,
have two large endemic genera, Philodendron and Anthurium.
Amongst Cycads, Zamia is confined to the New World, and amongst
Conifers, Araucaria, limited to the southern hemisphere, has scarcely
less antiquity; Pinus reaches as far south as Cuba and Nicaragua.
The flora of the Hawaiian Islands has complicated relations.
Out of the 860 indigenous plants, 80 % are endemic, but Hillebrand
finds that a large number are of American affinity.

III. The South Temperate Region contrasts remarkably with
the northern. Instead of large continuous areas, in which local
characteristics sometimes blend, it occupies widely dissevered
territories in which specialization, intensified by long separation, has
mostly effaced the possibility of comparing species 'and even genera,
and compels us to seek for points of contact in groups of a higher
order. The resemblances consist, in fact, not so much in the exis-
tence of one general facies running through the regions, as is the case
with the northern flora, but in the presence of peculiar types, such as
those belonging to the families Restiaceae, Proteaceae, Ericaceae,
Mutisiaceae and Rutaceae.

1 . The South African sub-region has a flora richer perhaps in number
of species than any other; and these are often extremely local and
restricted in area. It exhibits in a marked degree the density of
species which, as already pointed out, is explicable by the arrest of
further southern expansion. Hemsley remarks that " the northern
genus Erica, which covers thousands of square miles in Europe
with very few species, is represented by hundreds of species in a
comparatively small area in South Africa." There is an interesting
connexion with Europe through the so-called Iberian flora. Ben-
tham (Pres. addr. Linn. Soc, 1869, p. 25) points out that " the west-
European species of Erica, Genisteae, Lobelia, Gladiolus, &c, are
some of them more nearly allied to corresponding Cape species than
they are to each other; and many of the somewhat higher races,
groups of species and genera, have evidently diverged from stocks

782

PLANTS

[DISTRIBUTION

now unrepresented anywhere but in South Africa." This flora
extends from Ireland to the Canaries and reappears on the highlands
of Angola. On the eastern side the southern flora finds representa-
tives in Abyssinia, including Protea, and on the mountains of equa-
torial Africa, Calodendron capense occurring on Kilimanjaro. This
is the most northern representative of the Rutaceous Diosmeae,
which are replaced in Australia by the Boronieae. The Proteaceous
genus, Faurea, occurs in Angola and Madagascar. The character-
istic genus Pelargonium has a few Mediterranean representatives,
and one even occurs in Asia Minor. In all these cases it is a nice
question whether we are tracing an ascending or descending stream.
Darwin thought that the migration southwards would always be
preponderant (Origin of Species, 5th ed., 458). Other characteristic
features of the flora are the abundance of Compositae, Asclepiadeae,
and petaloid Monocotyledons generally, but especially Orchideae
(terrestrial species predominating) and Iridaceae. There is a marked
tendency towards a succulent habit. The nearly related Ficoideae
replace the new-world Cactaceae, but the habit of the latter is simu-
lated by fleshy Euphorbias and Asclepiads, just as that of Agave is
by the liliaceous Aloe. South Africa has only two palms (Phoenix
and Hyphaene). In the Gnetaceous Welwitschia it possesses a
vegetable type whose extraordinary peculiarities make it seem
amongst contemporary vegetation much as some strange and extinct
animal form would if suddenly endowed with life. Conifers are
scantily represented by Callitris and Podocarpus, which is common to
all three sub-regions; and Cycads by the endemic Encephalartos
and Stangeria.

2. The Australian sub-region consists of Australia, Tasmania,
New Caledonia and New Zealand, and, though partly lying within
the tropic is most naturally treated as a whole. They are linked
together by the presence of Proteaceae and of Epacrideae, which
take the place of the nearly allied heaths in South Africa. The most
dominant order in Australia is Leguminosae, including the acacias
with leaf-like phyllodes (absent in New Zealand). Myrtaceae comes
next with Eucalyptus, which forms three-fourths of the forests, and
Melaleuca; both are absent from New Caledonia and New Zealand;
a few species of the former extend to New Guinea and one of the
latter to Malaya. Cupuliferae are absent except Fagus in Australia
and New Zealand. The so-called " oaks " of Australia are Casuar-
ina, which also occurs in New Caledonia, but is wanting in New
Zealand. The giant rushes Xanthorrhoea and Kingia are peculiar
to Australia. Palms are poorly represented in the sub-region and
are of an Indo-Malayan type. Amongst Conifers, Podocarpus is
found throughout, Agathis is common to Australia, New Zealand
and New Caledonia; Araucaria tv -he first and last. Of Cycads,
Australia and New Caledonia have Cycas, and the former the endemic
Macrozamia and Bowenia. The Australian land-surface must be
of great antiquity, possibly Jurassic, and its isolation scarcely less
ancient. In Lower Eocene times its flora appears to have been
distinctly related to the existing one. Little confidence can, however,
be placed in the identification of Proteaceous or, indeed, of any
distinctively Australian plants in Tertiary deposits in the northern
hemisphere. The Australian flora has extensions at high levels in
the tropics; such exists on Kinabalu in Borneo under the equator.
The Proteaceous genus Helicia reaches as far north as China, but
whether it is starting or returning must as in other cases be left an
open question.

While the flora of New Caledonia is rich in species (3000), that of
New Zealand is poor (1400). While so many conspicuous Australian
elements are wanting in New Zealand, one-eighth of its flora belongs
to South American genera. Especially noteworthy are the Andine
Acaena, Gunner a, Fuchsia and Calceolaria. By the same path it
has received a remarkable contribution from the North Temperate
region; such familiar genera as Ranunculus, Epilobium and Veronica
form more than 9 % of the flowering plants. And it is interesting
to note that while the tropical forms of Quercus failed to reach Aus-
tralia from Malaya, the temperate Fagus crept in by a back door.
Three-quarters of the native species are endemic ; they seem, however,
to be quite unable to resist the invasion of new-comers, and already
600 plants of foreign origin have succeeded in establishing themselves.

3. The Andine sub-region extends from Peru to the Argentine and
follows roughly the watershed of the Amazon. In the New World,
as already explained, the path of communication between the north-
ern and southern hemispheres has always been more or less open, and
the temperate flora of southern America does not exhibit the isolation
characteristic of the southern region of the Old World. Taking,
however, the Andean flora as typical, it contains a very marked
endemic element ; Ball finds that half the genera and four-fifths of
the species are limited to it ; on the other hand, that half the species
of Gamopetalae belong to cosmopolitan genera such as Valeriana,
Gentiana, Bartsia and Gnaphalium. The relation to the other
sub-regions is slight. Ericeae are wholly absent, and it has but a
single Epacrid in Fuegia. Proteaceae are more marked in Guevina
and Embolhrium. Of Restiaceae, a single Leptocarpus has been
found in Chile. On the other hand, it is the headquarters of Muti-
siaceae, represented in South Africa by such genera as Oldenburgia
and Gerbera and by Trichocline in Australia. Tropaeolum takes the
place of the nearly allied South African Pelargonium. There has
been an interchange between it and the Mexico- American sub-region,
but as usual the northern has been preponderant. Prosopis extends

to the Argentine; other characteristic genera are Oenothera, Godetia
Collomia, Heliotropium and Eritrichium. In the ascending stream
may be mentioned — Larrea, a small genus of Zygophylleae with
headquarters in Paraguay and Chile, of which one species, L.
mexicana, is the creosote plant of the Colorado desert, where it
forms dense scrub; Acaena; the Loasaceae, of which Mentzelia
reaches North America, Petunia and Lippia. Compositae compose
a quarter of the Andean flora, which is a greater proportion than in
any in the world. Baccharis, with some 250 species, ranges over the
whole continent from the Straits of Magellan and, with seven species,
to California. Melastomaceae, copiously represented in tropical
America, are more feebly so in Peru and wholly wanting in Chile.
A few Cactaceae extend to Chile. Of Cupuliferae, Quercus in three
species only reaches Colombia, but Fagus, with only a single one in
North America, is represented by several from Chile southwards and
thence extends to New Zealand and Tasmania. The Magnoliaceous
genus Drimys, with a single species in the new world, follows the same
track. Bromeliaceae are represented by Rhodostachys and the tem-
perate Puya. Palms as usual are few and not nearly related.
Wettinia occurs in Peru, Trithrinax in Chile with the monotypic
Jubaea, Juania, also monotypic, is confined to Juan Fernandez.
Amongst Coniferae Podocarpus is common to this and preceding
sub-regions ; Libocedrus extends from California to New Zealand
and New Caledonia; Fitzroya is found in Chile and Tasmania; and
Araucaria in its most familiar species occurs in Chile.

4. The Antarctic- Alpine region is the complement of the Arctic-
Alpine, but unlike the latter, its scattered distribution over numerous
isolated points of land, remote from great continental areas, from
which, during migrations like those attending the glacial period in
the northern hemisphere, it could have been recruited, at once
accounts for its limited number of species and their contracted
range in the world. On the whole, it consists of local species of
some widely distributed northern genera, such as Carex, Poa, Ranun-
culus, &c, with alpine types of strictly south temperate genera,
characteristic of the separate localities. The monotypic Pring-
lea antiscorbutica, the " Kerguelen Island cabbage," has no near
ally in the southern hemisphere, but is closely related to the northern
Cochlearia.

Such a summary of the salient facts in the geographical
distribution of plants sufficiently indicates the tangled fabric
of the earth's existing floral covering. Its complexity reflects
the corresponding intricacy of geographical and geological
evolution.

If the surface of the globe had been symmetrically divided
into sea and land, and these had been distributed in bands
bounded by parallels of latitude, the character of vegetation
would depend on temperature alone; and as regards its aggre-
gate mass, we should find it attaining its maximum at the
equator and Sinking to its minimum at the poles. Under such
circumstances the earth's vegetation would be very different
from what it is, and the study of plant distribution would be a
simple affair.

It is true that the earth's physical geography presents certain
broad features to which plants are adapted. But within these
there is the greatest local diversity of moisture, elevation and
isolation. Plants can only exist, as Darwin has said, where
they must, not where they can. New Zealand was poorly
stocked with a weak flora; the more robust and aggressive one
of the north temperate region was ready at any moment to
invade it, but was held back by physical barriers which human
aid has alone enabled it to surpass.

Palaeontological evidence conclusively proves that the surface
of the earth has been successively occupied by vegetative forms
of increasing complexity, rising from the simplest algae to the
most highly organized flowering plant. We find the ultimate
explanation of this in the facts that all organisms vary, and that
their variations are inherited and, if useful, perpetuated.
Structural complexity is brought about by the superposition
of new variations on preceding ones. Continued existence
implies perpetual adaptation to new conditions, and, as the
adjustment becomes more refined, the corresponding structural
organization becomes more elaborate. Inheritance preserves
what exists, and this can only be modified and added to. Thus
Asclepiadeae and Orchideae owe their extraordinary floral
complexity to adaptation to insect fertilization.

All organisms, then, are closely adapted to their surroundings.
If these change, as we know they have changed, the organisms
must change too, or perish. In some cases they survive by
migration, but this is often prohibited by physical barriers,

PLANUDES— PLASSEY

783

These, however, have often protected them from the com-
petition of more vigorous invading races. Fagus, starting
from the northern hemisphere, has more than held its own in
Europe and Asia, but has all but died out in North America,
finding conditions favourable for a fresh start in Australasia.
The older types of Gymnosperms are inelastic and dying
out. Even Pinus has found the task of crossing the tropics
insuperable.

The whole story points to a general distribution of flower-
ing plants from the northern hemisphere southwards. It
confirms the general belief on geological grounds that this
was the seat of their development at the close of the Mesozoic
era. It is certain that they originally existed under warmer
conditions of climate than now obtain, and that progressive
refrigeration has supplied a powerful impulse to migration.
The tropics eventually became, what they are now, great areas
of preservation. The Northern Temperate region was denuded
of its floral wealth, of which it .only retains a comparatively
scanty wreck. High mountain levels supplied paths of com-
munication for stocking the South Temperate region, the
floras of which were enriched by adapted forms of tropical types.
Such profound changes must necessarily have been accompanied
by enormous elimination; the migrating hosts were perpetually
thinned by falling out on the way. Further development was,
however, not stopped, but in many cases stimulated by migra-
tion and settlement in new homes. The northern Quercus,
arrested at the tropic in the new world, expanded in that of
the old into new and striking races. And it cannot be doubted
that the profusion of Melastomaceae in South America was not
derived from elsewhere, but the result of local evolution. There
is some evidence of a returning stream from the south, but as
Hooker and A. de Candolle have pointed out, it is insignificant
as compared with the outgoing one. Darwin attributes this
to the fact that " the northern forms were the more powerful "
(Origin of Species, 5th ed., p. 458).

The result of migration is that races of widely different origin
and habit have had to adapt themselves to similar conditions.
This has brought about superficial resemblance in the floras of
different countries. At first sight a South African Euphorbia
might be mistaken for a South American Cactus, an Aloe for
an Agave, a Senecio for ivy, or a New Zealand Veronica for a
European Salicornia. A geographical botany based on such
resemblances is only in reality a study of adaptations. The
investigation of these may raise and solve interesting physio-
logical problems, but throw no light on the facts and genetic
relationship which a rational explanation of distribution
requires. If we study a population and sort it into soldiers,
sailors, ecclesiastics, lawyers and artisans, we may obtain facts
of sociological value but learn nothing as to its racial origin and
composition.

In the attempt that has been made to map out the land
surface of the earth, probable community of origin has been
relied upon more than the possession of obvious characters.
That sub-regions framed on this principle should show inter-
relations and some degree of overlapping is only what might
have been expected, and, in fact, confirms the validity of the
principle adopted. It is interesting to observe that though
deduced exclusively from the study of flowering plants, they
are in substantial agreement with those now generally adopted
by zoologists, and may therefore be presumed to be on the
whole " natural."

Authorities. — A. de Candolle, La Geographie botanique raisonnee,
(Paris and Geneva, 1855); A. Grisebach, La Vegetation du globe,
transl. by P. de Tchihatchef (Paris, 1875); Engler, Versuch einer
Entwicklungsgeschichte der Pflanzenwelt (Leipzig, 1 879-1 882); Oscar
Drude, Manuel de geographie botanique, transl. by G. Poirault (Paris,
1897) ; A. F. W. Schimper, Plant Geography, transl. by W. R. Fisher,
(Oxford, 1903). (W. T. T.-D.).

PLANUDES, MAXIHUS (c. 1 260-1330), Byzantine grammarian
and theologian, flourished during the reigns of Michael VIII.
and Andronicus IL Palaeologi. He was born at Nicomedia
in Bithynia, but the greater part of his life was spent in Con-
stantinople, where as a monk he devoted himself to study

and teaching. On entering the monastery he changed his
original name Manuel to Maximus. Planudes possessed a
knowledge of Latin remarkable at a time when Rome and Italy
were regarded with hatred and contempt by the Byzantines.
To this accomplishment he probably owed his selection as one
of the ambassadors sent by Andronicus II. in 1327 to remonstrate
with the Venetians for their attack upon the Genoese settlement
in Pera. A more important result' was that Planudes, especially
by his translations, paved the way for the introduction of the
Greek language and literature into the West.

He was the author of numerous works; notably a Greek grammar
in the form of question and answer ,like the 'Epwr^jciTa of Moschopulus,
with an appendix on the so-called " political " verse; a treatise on
syntax ; a biography of Aesop and a prose version of the fables ;
scholia on certain Greek authors ; two hexameter poems, one a eulogy
of Claudius Ptolemaeus, the other an account of the sudden change
of an ox into a mouse; a treatise on the method of calculating in
use amongst the Indians (ed. C. J. Gerhardt, Halle, 1865) ; and scholia
to the first two books of the Arithmetic of Diophantus. His numerous
translations from the Latin included Cicero's Somnium Scipionis
with the commentary of Macrobius: Caesar's Gallic War; Ovid's
Heroides' and Metamorphoses; Boetius, De consolatione philosophiae;
Augustine, De trinitate. These translations were very popular
during the middle ages as textbooks for the study of Greek. It is,
however, as the editor and compiler of the collection of minor poems
known by his name (see Anthology : Greek) that he is chiefly
remembered.

See Fabricius, Bibliotheca graeca, ed. Harles, xi. 682 ; theological
writings in Migne, Patrologia graeca, cxlvii; correspondence, ed.
M. Treu (1890), with a valuable commentary; K. Krumbacher,
Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897); J. E. Sandys, Hist,
of Class. Schol. (1906), vol. i.

PLAQUE, a French term for a small flat plate or tablet,
applied particularly to rectangular or circular ornamental
plates or tablets of bronze, silver, lead or other metal, or of
porcelain or ivory. Small plaques, plaquettes, in low relief in
bronze or lead, were produced in great perfection in Italy at
the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries, and
were usually copies of ancient engraved gems, earlier goldsmith
work and the like.

PLASENCIA, a city of Spain and an episcopal see, in the
north of the province of Caceres. Pop. (1900), 8208. Plasencia
is situated on the river Jerte, a subtributary of the Tagus,
and at the foot of the sierras of Bejar and Vera. The place
has some interest on account of its fine walls, built in 1197 by
Alphonso VIII. of Castile, and its cathedral, begun in 1498, a
favourable specimen of the ornate Gothic of its period. The
Hieronymite convent of Yuste, the scene of the last years of
the emperor Charles V. (1 500-1 558), is 24 m. east.

PLASSEY (Paldsi), a village of Bengal on the river Bhagi-
rathi, the scene of Clive's victory of the 23rd of June 1757,
over the forces of the nawab Suraj-ud-Dowlah. The fall of
Calcutta and the " Black Hole " atrocity led to instant action
by the East India Company, and Clive, with as many troops as
could be spared, undertook a campaign against the nawab, and
soon reoccupied Calcutta. Long and intricate negotiations,
or rather intrigues, followed, and at the time of the battle the
loyalty of most of the nawab's generals had been effectually
undermined, though assistance, active or passive, could hardly
be counted on. With this doubtful advantage, Clive, with
1 100 European and 2100 native soldiers, and 10 field-pieces,
took the field against the nawab, who had 50,000 men, 53 heavy
guns, and some French artillery under M. de St Frais. Only
the river Bhagirathi separated Clive's little force from the
entrenched camp of the enemy, when the English leader, for
once undecided, called a council of war. Clive and the majority
were against fighting, Major Eyre Coote, of the 39th Foot, and
a few others for action. Coote's soldierly advice powerfully
impressed Clive, and after deep consideration he altered his
mind and issued orders to cross the river. After a fatiguing
march, the force bivouacked in a grove near Plassey early on
the 23rd. The nawab's host came out of its lines and was
drawn up in a huge semicircle almost enclosing the little force
in the grove, and St Frais' gunners on the right wing opened
fire. Clive replied, and was soon subjected to the converging fire
of 50 heavy guns. For hours the unequal fight was maintained,

7 8 4

PLASTER— PLASTER- WORK

until a rainstorm stopped it. The English covered up their
guns, but the enemy took no such precaution. Mir Mudin, the
only loyal general of the nawab's army, thinking that Clive's
guns were as useless as his own, made a disastrous cavalry
charge upon them; he lost his own life, and his colleagues then
had the game in their hands. Mir Jagar persuaded the
nawab to retire into the entrenchments. St Frais stood fast
until one of Clive's officers, Major Kilpatrick, successfully
drove him in. Clive followed up this success by cannonading
the camp at close range. But the rank and file of the native
army, ignorant of the treachery of their leaders, made a furious
sortie. For a time Clive was hard pressed, but his cool general-
ship held its own against the undisciplined valour of the enemy,
and, noticing Mir Jagar's division in his rear made no move
against him, he led his troops straight against the works.
After a short resistance, made chiefly by St Frais, the whole
camp fell into his hands. At a cost of 23 killed and 49 wounded
this day's work decided the fate of Bengal. The historic grove
of mangoes, in which Clive encamped on the previous night,
has been entirely washed away by changes in the course of the
river; but other relics of the day remain, and a monument has
recently been erected.

PLASTER, a mixture of lime, hair and sand, used to cover
rough walling of lathwork between timbers (see Plaster-
work) ; also a fine white plaster of gypsum, generally known
as " plaster of Paris." The word (also as " plaister ") is used in
medicine of adhesive mixtures employed externally for the
protection of injured surfaces, for support of weak muscular
or other structures/or as counter-irritants, soothing applications
&c. The ultimate derivation of the word is the Gr. e / u7r\aoTpoi'
or t/nrKaoTov in the medical sense, from iv, on, and TKaaaav,
to daub or smear.

PLASTER OF PARIS, a variety of calcined gypsum (calcium
sulphate) which forms a hard cement when treated with water
(see Cement). The substance obtained its name in consequence
of being largely manufactured in the neighbourhood of Paris.

PLASTER-WORK, in building. Plastering is one of the
most ancient of handicrafts employed in connexion with building
operations, the earliest evidence showing that the dwellings of
primitive man were erected in a simple fashion with sticks and
plastered with mud. Soon a more lasting and sightly material
was found and employed to take the place of mud or slime, and
that perfection in the compounding of plastering materials was
approached at a very remote period is made evident by the
fact that some of the earliest plastering which has remained
undisturbed excels in its scientific composition that which we
use at the present day. The pyramids in Egypt contain plaster-
work executed at least four thousand years ago (probably much
earlier) and yet existing, hard and durable, at the present time.
From recent discoveries it has been ascertained that the principal
tools of the plasterer of that time were practically identical in
design, shape and purpose with those used to-day. For their
finest work the Egyptians used a plaster made from calcined
gypsum just like the " plaster of Paris " of the present time,
and their methods of plastering on reeds resemble in every way
our " lath, plaster, float and set " work. Hair was introduced
to strengthen the " stuff," and the whole finished somewhat
under an inch thick. Very early in the history of Greek archi-
tecture we find the use of plaster of a fine white lime stucco.
Such has been found at Mycenae. The art had reached perfection
in Greece more than five centuries before Christ, and plaster
was frequently used to cover temples externally and internally,
in some cases even where the building was of marble. It formed
a splendid ground for decorative painting, which at this period
of Grecian history had reached a very high degree of beauty.
The temple of Apollo at Bassae, built of yellow sandstone about
470 B.C., is an excellent example. Pavements of thick, hard
plaster, stained with various pigments, were commonly laid in
Greek temples. The Roman architect Vitruvius, in his book on
architecture written about 16 B.C., gives detailed information
concerning the methods of making plaster and the manner of
using it. " The lime used for stucco," he writes, " should be

of the best quality and tempered a long time before it is
wanted for use. The Greeks, besides making their stucco
work hard with thin coats of marble-dust plaster polished with
chalk or marble, caused the plaster when being mixed to be
beaten with wooden staves by a great number of men. Some
persons cutting slabs of such plaster from ancient walls use
them for tables and mirrors." Pliny the elder tells us that
" no builder should employ lime which had not been slaked at
least three years," and that " the Greeks used to grind their
lime very fine and beat it with pestles of wood." In England
the walls of large houses and mansions were formerly plastered
above the wainscoting and coloured, while the ornamented
plaster ceilings of the time of Henry VIII., Elizabeth and
James I., are still the admiration of lovers of the art. Still earlier
specimens of the plasterer's skill are extant in the pargeted and
ornamented fronts of half-timbered houses. With regard to the
smaller buildings, comprising small dwelling-houses and cot-
tages, the general application of plaster is of comparatively late
date; for wainscoted walls and boarded ceilings or naked joists
alone are frequently found in houses of not more than a century
old both in England and on the Continent.

In the more common operations of plastering, comparatively
few tools and few materials are required, but the workman
efficient in all branches of the craft will possess a very large
variety of implements. The materials of the workman are
laths, lath nails, lime, sand, hair, plaster of paris, and a variety
of cements, together with various ingredients to form colouring
washes, &c.

Wood laths are narrow strips of some straight-grained wood,
generally Baltic or American fir, in lengths of from two to four or
five feet to suit the distances at which the timbers of
a floor or partition are set. Laths are about an inch Lathing.
wide, and are made in three thicknesses; " single " (J to -j^ in. thick),
" lath and a half " (\ in. thick), and " double " (| to J in. thick).
The thicker laths should be used in ceilings, to stand the extra strain,
and the thinner variety in vertical work such as partitions, except
where the latter will be subjected to rough usage, in which case
thicker laths become necessary. Laths are usually nailed with
a space of about f in. betv/een them to form a key for the plaster.
Laths were formerly all made by hand. A large quantity, however,
are now made by machinery and are known as sawn laths, those made
by hand being called rent or riven laths. Rent laths give the best
results, as they split in a line with the grain of the wood, and are
stronger and not so liable to twist as machine-made laths, some of
the fibres of which are usually cut in the process of sawing. Laths
must be nailed so as to break joint in bays three or four feet wide
with ends butted one against the other. By breaking the joints
of the lathing in this way, the tendency for the plaster to crack
along the line of joints is diminished and a better key is obtained.
Every lath should be nailed at each end and wherever it crosses a
joist or stud. All timbers over three inches wide should be counter-
lathed, that is, have a fillet or double lath nailed along the centre
upon which the laths are then nailed. This is done to preserve a
good key for the plaster. Walls liable to damp are sometimes
battened and lathed in order to form an air cavity between the
damp wall and the plastering.

Lathing of metal, either of wire or in the form of perforated
sheets, is now extensively used on account of its fire-proof and lasting
quality. There are very many kinds of this material
made in different designs under various patents, the , t f,
best-known in England being the Jhilmil, the Bostwick, Lathing.
and the Expanded Metal lathing. The two last-named are also
widely used in America.

Lathing nails are usually of iron, cut, wrought or cast — and in
the better class of work they are galvanized to prevent rusting.
Zinc nails are sometimes used, but are costly.

The lime principally used for internal plastering is that calcined
from chalk or other nearly pure limestone, and is known as fat,
pure, chalk or rich lime. Hydraulic limes, which are .
referred to in the articles Brickwork and Mortar, are Limes.
also used by the plasterer, chiefly for external work. Perfect
slaking of the calcined lime before being used is very important
as, if used in a partially slaked condition, it will " blow " when in
position and blister the work. Lime should therefore be run as
soon as the building is begun, and at least three weeks should elapse
between the operation of running the lime and its use.

Hair is used in plaster as a binding medium, and gives tenacity
to the material. Ox-hair, which is sold in three qualities, is the
kind usually specified ; but horsehair, which is shorter, „ .

is sometimes substituted in its stead or mixed with the
ox-hair in the lower qualities. Good hair should be long, strong,
and free from grease and dirt, and before use must be well beaten
to separate the lumps. In America, goats' hair is frequently used,

PLASTER-WORK

785

External
Work.

though it is not so strong as ox-hair. The quantity used in good
work is one pound of hair to two or three cubic feet of coarse
stuff.

Manila hemp fibre has been used as a substitute for hair. As
a result of experiments to ascertain its strength as compared with
that of other materials, it was found that plaster
Substitutes slal3S ma( j e w j t j 1 Manila hemp fibre broke at 195 ib,
for Hair. plaster mixed with Sisal hemp at 150 lb, jute at 145 lb,
and goats' hair at 144I lb. Another test was made in the following
manner. Two barrels of mortar were made up of equal propor-
tions of lime and sand, one containing the usual quantity of goats'
hair, and the other Manila fibre. After remaining in a dry cellar
for nine months the barrels were opened. It was found that the
hair had been almost entirely eaten away by the action of the lime,
and the mortar consequently broke up and crumbled quite easily.
The mortar containing the Manila hemp, on the other hand, showed
great cohesion, and required some effort to pull it apart, the hemp
fibre being apparently quite uninjured. Sawdust has been used as
a substitute for hair and also instead of sand as an aggregate. It
will enable mortar to stand the effects of frost and rough weather.
It is useful sometimes for heavy cornices and similar work, as it
renders the material light and strong. The sawdust should be
used dry.

Some remarks are made on the ordinary sands for building in
the articles on Brickwork and Mortar. For fine plasterer's
work special sands, not hitherto referred to, are used,
Sana. such as silver sand, which is used when a light colour

and fine texture are required. In England this fine white sand is
procured chiefly from Leighton Buzzard.

For external work Portland cement is undoubtedly the best
material on account of its strength, durability, and weather resisting
properties. The first coat or rendering is from j to
J in. thick, and is mixed in the proportions of from
one part of cement to two of sand to one part to five
of sand. The finishing or setting coat is about -^ in. thick, and
is worked with a hand float on the surface of the rendering, which
must first be well wetted.

Stucco is a term loosely applied to nearly all kinds of external
plastering, whether composed of lime or of cement. At the present
time it has fallen into disfavour, but in the early part
Stucco. Q f j.jjg jg(-h century a great deal of this work was done.

The principal varieties of stucco are common, rough, trowelled and
bastard. Cement has largely superseded lime for this work.
Common stucco for external work is usually composed of one part
hydraulic lime and three parts sand. The wall should be suffi-
ciently rough to form a key and well wetted to prevent the moisture
being absorbed from the plaster.

Rough stucco is used to imitate stonework. It is worked with
a hand float covered with rough felt, which forms a sand surface
on the plaster. Lines are ruled before the stuff is set to represent
the joints of stonework. Trowelled stucco, the finishing coat of
this work, consists of three parts sand to two parts fine stuff. A
very fine smooth surface is produced by means of the hand float.
Bastard stucco is of similar composition, but less labour is expended
on it. It is laid on in two coats with a skimming float, scoured off
at once, and then trowelled. Coloured stucco: lime stucco may
be executed in colours, the desired tints being obtained by mixing
with the lime various oxides. Black and greys are obtained by
using forge ashes in varying proportions, greens by green enamel,
reds by using litharge or red lead, and blues by mixing oxide or
carbonate of copper with the other materials.

Rough-cast or Pebble-dash plastering is a rough form of external
plastering in much use for country houses. In Scotland it is
termed " harling." It is one of the oldest forms of external
plastering. In Tudor times it was employed to fill in between the
woodwork of half-timbered framing. When well executed with
good material this kind of plastering is very durable. Rough-
casting is performed by first rendering the wall or laths with a coat
of well-haired coarse stuff composed either of good hydraulic lime
or of Portland cement. This layer is well scratched to give a key
for the next coat, which is also composed of coarse stuff knocked
up to a smooth and uniform consistency. While this coat is still
soft, gravel, shingle or other small stones are evenly thrown on
with a small scoop and then brushed over with thin lime mortar
to give a uniform surface. The shingle is often dipped in hot lime
paste, well stirred up, and used as required.

Sgraffito (Italian for " scratched ") is scratched ornament in
plaster. Scratched ornament is the oldest form of surface decora-
tion, and at the present day it is much used on the continent of
Europe, especially in Germany and Italy, in both external and
internal situations. Properly treated, the work is durable, effective
and inexpensive. The process is carried out in this way: A first
coat or rendering of Portland cement and sand, in the proportion
of cne to three, is laid on about J in. thick; then follows the colour
coat, sometimes put on in patches of different tints as required
for the finished design. When this coat is nearly dry, it is finished
with a smooth-skimming, rV t" 5 in. thick, of Parian, selenitic or
other fine cement or lime, only as much as can be finished in one
day being laid on. Then by pouncing through the pricked cartoon,
f .he design is transferred to the plastered surface. Broad spaces

Internal
Work.

of background are now exposed by removing the finishing coat,
thus revealing the coloured plaster beneath, and following this the
outlines of the rest of the design are scratched with an iron knife
through the outer skimming to the underlying tinted surface.
Sometimes the coats are in three different colours, such as brown
for the first, red for the second, and white or grey for the final coat.
The pigments used for this work include Indian red, Turkey red,
Antwerp blue, German blue, umber, ochre, purple brown, bone
black or oxide of manganese for black. Combinations of these
colours are made to produce any desired tone.

Lime plastering is composed of lime, sand, hair and water in
proportions varying according to the nature of the work to be done.
In all cases good materials, well mixed and skilfully
applied, are essential to a perfect result. Plaster is
applied in successive coats or layers on walls or lathing,
and gains its name from the number of these coats. " One coat "
work is the coarsest and cheapest class of plastering, and is limited
to inferior buildings, such as outhouses, where merely a rough
coating is required to keep out the weather and draughts. This is
described as " render " on brickwork, and " lath and lay " or " lath
and plaster one coat " on studding. " Two coat " work is often
used for factories or warehouses and the less important rooms of
residences. The first coat is of coarse stuff finished fair with the
darby float and scoured. A thin coat of setting stuff is then laid on,
and trowelled and brushed smooth. " Two coat " work is described
as " render and set " on walls, and " lath, plaster and set," or
" lath, lay and set " on laths. " Three coat " work is usually
specified for all good work. It consists, as its name implies, of
three layers of material, and is described as " render, float and
set " on walls and " lath, plaster, float and set," or " lath, lay,
float and set," on lathwork. This makes a strong, straight, sanitary
coating for walls and ceilings. The process for " three coat " work
is as follows: For the first coat a layer of well-haired coarse stuff,
about J in. thick, is put on with the laying trowel. This is termed
" pricking up " in London, and in America " scratch coating." It
should be laid on diagonally, each trowelful overlapping the previous
one. When on laths the stuff should be plastic enough to be
worked through the spaces between the laths to form a key, yet
so firm as not to drop off. The surface while still soft is scratched
with a lath to give a key for the next coat, which is known as the
second or " floating coat," and is J to f in. thick. In Scotland
this part of the process is termed " straightening " and in America
" browning," and is performed when the first coat is dry, so as to
form a straight surface to receive the finishing coat. Four operations
are involved in laying the second coat, namely, forming the screeds;
filling in the spaces between the screeds; scouring the surface;
keying the face for finishing. Wall screeds are plumbed and ceiling
screeds levelled. Screeds are narrow strips of plastering, carefully
plumbed and levelled, so as to form a guide upon which the floating
rule is run, thus securing a perfectly horizontal or vertical surface,
or, in the case of circular work, a uniform curve.

The " filling in," or " flanking," consists of laying the spaces
between the screeds with coarse stuff, which is brought flush with
the level of the screeds with the floating rule.

The " scouring " of the floating coat is of great importance, for
it consolidates the material, and, besides hardening it, prevents-
it from cracking. It is done by the plasterer with a hand float
which he applies vigorously with a rapid circular motion, at the
same time sprinkling the work with water from a stock brush in
the other hand. Any small holes or inequalities are filled up as
he proceeds. The whole surface should be uniformly scoured two
or three times, with an interval between each operation of from
six to twenty-four hours. This process leaves the plaster with a
close-grained and fairly smooth surface, offering little or no key
to the coat which is to follow. To obtain proper cohesion, howevet,
a roughened face is necessary, and this is obtained by " keying "
the surface with a wire brush or nail float, that is, a hand float witb
the point of a nail sticking through and projecting about f in.;
sometimes a point is put at each corner of the float. After the
floating is finished to the walls and ceiling, the next part of internal
plastering is the running of the cornice, followed by the finishing of
the ceiling and walls.

The third and final coat is the " setting coat," which should be
about I in. thick. In Scotland it is termed the " finishing," and in
America the " hard finish " or " putty coat." Considerable skill is
required at this juncture to bring the work to a perfectly true finish,
uniform in colour and texture. Setting stuff should not be applied
until the floating is quite firm and nearly dry, but it must not be
too dry or the moisture will be drawn from the setting stuff.

The coarse stuff applied as the first coat is composed of sand and
lime, usually in proportions approximating to two to one, with
hair mixed into it in quantities of about a pound to two or three
cubic feet of mortar. It should be mixed with clean water to such
a consistency that a quantity picked up on the point of a trowel
holds well together and does not drop.

Floating stuff is of finer texture than that used for " pricking
up," and is used in a softer state, enabling it to be worked well
into the keying of the first coat. A smaller proportion of hair
is also used.

Fine stuff mixed with sand is used for the setting coat. Fine

786

PLATA, RIO DE LA

stuff, or lime putty, is pure lime which has been slaked and then
mixed with water to a semi-fluid consistency, and allowed to stand
until it has developed into a soft paste. For use in setting it is
mixed with fine washed sand in the ratio of one to three.

For cornices and for setting when the second coat is not allowed
time to dry properly, a special compound must be used. This is
often " gauged " stuff, composed of three or four parts of lime
putty and one part of plaster of Paris, mixed up in small quantities
immediately before use. The plaster in the material causes it to set
rapidly, but if it is present in too large a proportion the work will
crack in setting.

The hard cements used for plastering, such as Parian, Keene's,
and Martin's, are laid generally in two coats, the first of cement
and sand i to f in. in thickness, the second or setting coat of neat
cement about | in. thick. These and similar cements have gypsum as
a base, to which a certain proportion of another substance, such as
alum, borax or carbonate of soda, is added, and the whole baked or
calcined at a low temperature. The plaster they contain causes
them to set quickly with a very hard smooth surface, which may
be painted or papered within a few hours of its being finished.

The by-laws made by the London County Council under § 31 of
the London Council (General Powers) Act 1890 set forth the
description and quality of the substances of which plastering is
to be made for use in buildings erected under its jurisdiction.

Plain, or unenriched, mouldings are formed, with a running
mould of zinc cut to the required profile. Enrichments may be
added after the main outline moulding is set, and are
Mouldings. cast ; n mou id g made of gelatine or plaster of paris.
For a cornice moulding two running rules are usual, one on the wall,
the other on the ceiling, upon which the mould is worked to and fro
by one workman, while another man roughly lays on the plaster
to the shape of the moulding. The mitres at the angles are finished
off with joint rules made of sheet steel of various lengths, three or
four inches wide, and about one-eighth inch thick, with one end cut
to an angle of about 30 . In some cases the steel plate is let into a
" stock " or handle of hardwood.

Cracks in plastering may be caused by settlement of the building,
and by the use of inferior materials or by bad workmanship, but
Cracks a part from these causes, and taking the materials and
labour as being of the best, cracks may yet ensue by
the too fast drying of the work, caused through the laying of plaster
on dry walls which suck from the composition the moisture required
to enable it to set, by the application of external heat or the heat
of the sun, by the laying of a coat upon one which has not properly
set, the cracking in this case being caused by unequal contraction,
or by the use of too small a proportion of sand.

For partitions and ceilings, plaster slabs are now in very general
use when work has to be finished quickly. For ceilings they require
Slabs simply to be nailed to the joists, the joints being made

with plaster, and the whole finished with a thin setting
coat. In some cases, with fire-proof floors, for instance, the slabs
are hung up with wire hangers so as to allow a space of several
inches between the soffit of the concrete floor and the ceiling. For
partitions the slabs frequently have the edges tongued and grooved
to form a better connexion; often, too, they are holed through
vertically, so that, when grouted in with semi-fluid plaster, the whole
partition is bound together, as it were, with plaster dowels. Where
very great strength is required the work may be reinforced by
small iron rods through the slabs. This forms a very strong and
rigid partition which is at the same time fire-resisting and of light
weight, and when finished measures only from two to four inches
thick. The slabs may be obtained either with a keyed surface,
which requires finishing with a setting coat when the partition
or ceiling is in position, or a smooth finished face, which may
be papered or painted immediately the joints have been carefully
made. Partitions are also formed with one or other of the forms
of metal lathing previously referred to, fixed to iron uprights and
plastered on both sides. So strong is the result that partitions
of this class only two or three inches thick were used for temporary
cells for prisoners at Newgate Gaol during the rebuilding of the
new sessions house in the Old Bailey, London.

Fibrous plaster is given by plasterers the suggestive name " stick
and rag," and this is a rough description of the material, for it is
Fibrous composed of plaster laid upon a backing of canvas
Plaster stretched on wood. It is much used for mouldings,
circular and enriched casings to columns and girders
and ornamental work, which, being worked in the shop and then
nailed or otherwise fixed in position, saves the delay often attendant
upon the working of ornament in position.

Desachy, a French modeller, took out in 1856 a patent for
" producing architectural mouldings, ornaments and other works
of art, with surfaces of plaster," with the aid of plaster, glue, wood,
wire, and canvas or other woven fabric. The modern use of this
material may be said to have started then, but the use of fibrous
plaster was known and practised by the Egyptians long before the
Christian era; for ancient coffins and mummies still preserved
prove that linen stiffened with plaster was used for decorating coffins
and making masks. Cennino Cennini, writing in 1437, says that
fine linen soaked in glue and plaster and laid on wood was used for
forming grounds for painting. Canvas and mortar were in general

use in Great- Britain up to the middle of the last century. This
work is also much used for temporary work, such as exhibition
buildings.

The principal books of reference on the subject are: W. Millar.
Plastering, Plain and Decorative; G. R. Burnell, Limes, Cements,
Mortars and Mastics; Rivington, Notes on Building Construction,
Part III. "Building Materials"; the works on architecture of
Robert and James Adam. (J. Bt.)

PLATA, RIO DE LA, or River Plate, a funnel-shaped
estuary, on the east side of South America, extending W.N.W.
from the sea about 170 m. The discovery of the South Sea
by Balboa, then governor of Castilla del Oro, of which Darien
formed a part, created a lively desire to learn something of its
coast-line, and the year following (in 1514), the Spanish monarch
concluded a navigation contract with Juan Diaz de Solis, then
Piloto Mayor, to search for a strait connecting the Atlantic
with the newly found ocean, explore the coasts of the latter and
communicate with Pedrarias de Avila, the new governor of
Castilla del Oro; and, if it were found to be an island, to report
to the superior authorities of Cuba. De Solis set sail from the
port of Lepe on the 8th of October 1515, reached the Bay of
Rio de Janeiro on the 1st of January 1516, and continuing
southward to lat. 35 entered the great estuary now known as
the Plata, which, for a short period of time, was called the de
Solis and the Mar Dulce. Ascending it to the vicinity of the
island of Martin Garcia, near the mouth of the Parana river,
de Solis was ambushed and killed in the early part of 1516 by
Guarani Indians while attempting to capture some of them.
In the first months of 1520 Magellan explored the Rio de la
Plata, and afterwards, in the same year, discovered and
navigated the straits which bear his name. This discovery led
to the voyage of Sebastian Cabot, who fitted out an expedition in
1326 to reach the Spice Islands by the Magellan route. Owing,
however, to shortness of provisions and the insubordination of
his men Cabot abandoned his proposed voyage to the Moluccas,
and, ascending the Mar Dulce, discovered the Parana river
and reached a point on the Paraguay near the site of the present
city of Asuncion. Here he met many Guarani Indians wearing
silver ornaments, probably obtained in trade across the Gran
Chaco, from the frontier of the Inca Empire. In exchange for
beads and trinkets Cabot acquired many of these ornaments
and sent them to Spain as evidence of the richness of the
country in precious metals and the great importance of his
discoveries. The receipt of these silver baubles caused the name
of Rio de la Plata to be applied to the third (perhaps the second)
greatest river of the Western Continent.

The extreme breadth of the river at its mouth is 138 m. It
narrows quickly to 57 m. at Montevideo, and at its head, where
it receives the united Parana and Uruguay rivers, its width
is about 25 m. Its northern or Uruguayan shore is somewhat
elevated and rocky, while the southern or Buenos Airean one
is very low. The whole estuary is very shallow, and in no place
above Montevideo exceeds 36 ft. in depth when the river is low.
The bottom generally consists of enormous banks of sand
covered with from 10 to 20 ft. of water, and there is a continuous
and intricate channel, of about 22 ft. depth only, to within 14 m.
of the port of Buenos Aires. The remaining distance has a
depth of 18 ft. in the uncertain channel. The Plata is simply
the estuarine receptacle of two mighty streams, the Uruguay
and Parana, which drain the Plata basin. This has an area
of 1,198,000 sq. m., or over two and one-half times that of the
Pacific slope of the Andes, and comprises the most fertile,
healthiest and best part of Brazil, a large portion of the Argentine
Republic, the whole of Paraguay and south-eastern Bolivia, and
most of Uruguay.

The Uruguay river has a length of about 1000 m. Many small
streams from the western slope of the Brazilian Serra do Mar
unite, in about 27" 45' S., to form this river, which then Tbe
flows W.N.W., serving as the boundary between the , (j rujmay
states of Santa Catharina and Rio Grande do Sul, an j
as far as 52 W., near which it receives a considerable Affluents.
tributary from the north, called the Pepiri-guazti.
Between 27 58' and 33° 34' S. three important tributaries join it
from the east — the Ipui-guazu, the Ibicui and the Negro, the last
being its main affluent.

PLATA, RIO DE LA

787

The Pepiri-guazii was one of the limits between the possessions
of Portugal and Spain. Its lower course is about 250 ft. wide,
but higher up it narrows to about 30 ft., and runs with great violence
between high wooded banks. It is navigable for canoes for about
70 m. above its mouth, as far as its first fall. The Rio Negro has a
delta of several large islands at its confluence with the Uruguay
Its head-waters are in the southern part of Rio Grande do Sul,
but the main river belongs entirely to the state of Uruguay, which
it cuts midway in its course from north-east to south-west. Its
lower reaches are navigable for craft of moderate draught.

From the time the Uruguay leaves the coast range of Brazil it
runs for a long distance through a beautiful, open, hilly country,
_ but afterwards enters a forest belt of high lands. At

o/Jlhe* t ' le r ' ver Pepiri-guazii it turns suddenly to the south-

Vrumav wes t> and continues this course to its junction with the

Parana and Plata. Near Fray Bentos, 61 m. before
reaching the Plata, it forms a great lake, about 56 m. long and
from 4 to 6 m. wide. At Punta Gorda, where it debouches into
the Plata, it is only 1 m. to \\ m. wide, but is 90 ft. deep. From the
Pepiri-guazii junction its banks are high and covered with forest
as far down as 27° 30' S., where the river is 2300 ft. wide and from
10 to 40 ft. deep. The Uruguay is much obstructed by rocky
barriers. Four miles below its confluence with the Pepiri-guazu
it has a cataract, about 8 m. long, with a total fall of 26 ft. at low
water. The river near the Pepiri-guazii is 1550 ft. wide, but about
1 5 m. before reaching the cataract its width is reduced to 600 ft.
Along the cataract it is closed in between high precipitous walls
of black rock only 70 ft. apart. Above Punta Gorda, 212 m., is the
Salto Grande, which has a length of 15 m. of rapids, the greatest
single fall being 12 ft., and the difference of level for the entire length
of the reefs 25 ft. These cross the river diagonally, and during floods
all, excepting a length of if m. of them, are submerged. Nine miles
beiow the Salto Grande is the Salto Chico, which bars navigation
during six months of the year, but in flood-time may be passed in
craft drawing 5 ft. of water. The Uruguay can be navigated at all
seasons by vessels of 4! ft. draught as far up as the Salto Chico,
and of 14 ft. up to Paysandu for a greater part of the year. Fray
Bentos may be reached all the year round by any vessel that can
ascend the Parana. Above the navigable lower river there is launch
and canoe navigation for many hundreds of miles upon the main
artery and its branches, between the rapids which are met with from
time to time. The Uruguay has its annual floods, due to the rains
in its upper basin. They begin at the end of July and continue to
November, attaining their maximum during September and October.
At the narrow, places the river rises as high as 30 ft., but its average
rise is 16 ft. It flows almost for its entire course over a rocky bed,
generally of red sandstone, at times very coarse and then again
of extremely fine composition. Except in floods, it is a clear-water
stream, and even at its highest level carries comparatively little
silt.

The Parana (the " Mother of the Sea " in Guarani) drains a vast
area of southern Brazil. It is formed by the union of the Rio
Grande and Paranahyba, and is about 1600 m. long
from its extreme source in Goyaz to its junction with
the Paraguay, and thence 600 more to the Plata estuary.
Its average width for the latter length is from
I to 3 m. Its Rio Grande branch descends from the
slope of the Serra da Mantiqueira, in the region where the orographic
system of Brazil culminates near the peak of Itatiaia-assii, almost in
sight of Rio de Janeiro. It is about 680 m. long, but only navigable
in the stretches between the many reefs, falls and rapids which
interrupt its regular flow. Among its numerous affluents the
principal one is the Rio das Mortes, rising in the Serra Mantiqueira.
It is 180 m. long, with two sections, of a total of 120 m., which are
navigable for launches. The main branch of the Parana, the
Paranahyba, rises in about 15° 30' S., on the southern slopes of the
Pyreneos Mountains. It drains a little-known region of Goyaz and
western Minas Geraes, lying upon the immediate southern water-
shed of Brazil.

Besides these rivers, the Parana has many long and powerful
affluents from the Brazilian states of Sao Paulo and Parana. Most
of them, although obstructed by rapids, are navigable for launches
and canoes. Among the eastern tributaries are the Ti6t6, the
Parana-panema, formerly known as the Anemby, and the Iguazii.

The Tiete, over 700 m. long, rises in the Serra Paranapicaba
and flows in a north-west direction. Its course is broken by fifty-
four rapids, and the lower river by two falls, the Avanhandava,
44 ft. drop, and the Itapura, 65 ft.

The Parana-panema is about 600 m. long, and rises in a ramifica-
tion of the Serra Paranapicaba which overlooks the Atlantic Ocean.
Its genera! course is north-west. It is navigable for a distance of
only about 30 m. above its mouth, and for its whole course it has
so many obstructions that it is useless for commercial purposes.

The Iguazii, also called the Rio Grande de Curutiba, has its sources
on the slopes of the Serra do Mar of Brazil, and flows nearly west,
through thick forests, along the line of 26 S. Its navigation is
difficult even for small craft, as it is full of reefs, rapids and cataracts.
Sixteen miles above its mouth is the magnificent Salto del Iguazu,
sometimes called the Victoria Fall, round which canoes have to be
transported 37 m. before quiet water is reached again. The width

The
Parana
and its
Affluents,

Course
of the
Parana.

The
Paraguay.

of the falls, measured along their crest or edge, is 2 J m. ; part of the
river takes two leaps of about 100 ft. each, but a portion of it plunges
down the whole depth in unbroken mass. Its mouth is about
800 ft. wide, and the depth in mid-river 40 ft.

The Parana, at a point 28 m. above the mouth of the Tiete, is
interrupted by the falls of Urubuponga, but below these it has
unobstructed navigation for about 400 m., as far down
as the falls of Guaira, in 24° 3' S., where the river forms
a lake \\ m. long and 2\ m. wide, preparatory to
breaching the Serra de Mbaracayu, which there disputes
its right of way. It has torn a deep gorge through the mountains
for a length of about 2 m., where it is divided into several channels,
filled with rapids and cataracts. It finally gathers its waters into
a single volume, to plunge with frightful velocity through a long
canon only about 200 ft. wide. From these so-called falls of Guaira.
or " Sete Quedas," as far as its confluence with- the Paraguay river,
the Parana has carved a narrow bed through an immense cap of
red sandstone, along which it sometimes flows with great rapidity,
occasionally being interrupted by dangerous narrows and rapids,
where the banks in some places close in to a width of 450 to 600 ft.,
although the average is from 1200 to 1600 ft. At the south-east
angle of Paraguay the Parana is prevented from continuing its
natural southern course to the river Uruguay by the highlands
which cross the Argentine province of Misiones, and connect those of
Rio Grande do Sul with the Caa-guazu range of Paraguay. Here,
therefore, it is turned westwards; but before escaping lrom its great
sandstone bed it is obstructed by several reefs, notably at the rapids
of Apipe, which are the last before it joins the placid Paraguay,
130 m. farther on. From the Apipe rapids there is a vast triangular
space at the south-western corner of Paraguay but little above
sea-level, consisting of low, sandy ground and morasses, at times
flooded by the Paraguay river. This district, united to the equally
enormous area occupied by the Ybera lagoon and its surrounding
morasses, in the northern part of the Argentine province of Cor-
rientes, was probably the delta of the Parana river when it emptied
into the ancient Pampean Sea.

The river Paraguay, the main affluent of the Parana, rises in
Matto Grosso, in the vicinity of the town of Diamahtino, about
1 4 24' S. It flows south-westwards, as far as Villa
Maria, along the foot of the high plateau which divides
it from the Cuyaba River to the east, and then, turning
southwards, soon reaches the morass expansion of Xarayes, which
it traverses for about 100 m. A few miles below Villa Maria it
receives an affluent from the north-west, the Jaura, which has its
source nearly in contact with the head-waters of the Guapore
branch of the river Madeira. The Cuyaba, which is known as the
Sao Lourenco for 90 m. above its confluence with the Paraguay,
has its sources in 13° 45' S., almost in touch with those of the
Tapajos branch of the Amazon. Above the town of Cuyaba it is
from 150 to 400 ft. wide, and may be navigated up stream by canoes
for 150 m. ; but there are many rapids. The town may be reached
from the Paraguay River, at low water, by craft drawing 18 in.
According to the observations of Clauss, Cuyaba is only 660 ft. above
sea-level. From the junction of the Sao Lourengo (or Cuyaba) with
the river Paraguay, the latter, now a great stream, moves sluggishly
southwards, spreading its waters, in the rainy season, for hundreds
of miles to the right and left, as far south as 20 , turning vast swamps
into great lakes — in fact, temporarily restoring the region, for
thousands of square miles, to its ancient lacustrine condition.

On the west side of the upper Paraguay, between about 17° 30'
and 19° S., are several large, shallow lagunas or lakes which receive
the drainage of the southern slopes of the Chiquitos
sierras, but represent mainly the south-west overflow Lagoons
of the vast morass of Xarayas. The principal of these
lakes, naming them from north to south, are the Uberaba,
the Gaiba, Mandiore and the " Bahia " de Caceres. The Uberaba
is the largest. The northern division of the lake belongs entirely
to Brazil, but the southern one, about two-thirds of its area, is
bisected from north to south by the boundary line between Brazil
and Bolivia, according to the treaty of 1867. It is in great
part surrounded by high ground and hills, but its southern coast
is swampy and flooded during the rainy season. The west shore is
historic. Here, in 1543, the conquistador, Martinez de Irala,
founded the " Puerto de los Reyes," with the idea that it haight
become the port for Peru ; and from Lake Gaiba several expeditions,
in Spanish colonial days, penetrated 500 m. across the Chaco to the
frontier of the empire of the Incas. At the Puerto de los Reyes
Bolivia laid out a town in December 1900, in the forlorn hope that
the " Port " may serve as an outlet for that commercially suffocated
country, there being no other equally good accessible point for
Bolivia on the Paraguay River.

South of the Sao Lourenco, the first river of importance which
enters the Paraguay from the east is the Taquary, about 19 S.
It rises in the Serra Cayapo, on the southern extension
of the Matto Grosso table-land. South of this stream
about 50 m. a considerable river, the Mondego, with

of Upper
Paraguay.

Affluents
of the
Paraguay.

many branches, draining a great area of extreme south-
ern Matto Grosso, also flows into the Paraguay; and still farther
south, near 21 , is the Apa tributary, which forms the boundary
between Paraguay and Brazilian Matto Grosso.

788

PLATA., RIO DE LA

The Pilcomayo is of more importance from its length than from
its volume. It rises among the Bolivian Ancles north of Potosi
and north-west of Sucre, races down the mountains to
The their base, crosses the Chaco plains, and pours into the

Pilcomayo. r { ver Paraguay near Asuncion. Nor does it receive any
branch of importance until it reaches about 21° S., where it is joined
from the south-west by the river Pelaya, upon which Tupiza, the
most southerly city of Bolivia, is situated. The Pelaya rises upon
the lofty inter-Andean plateau, and, taking an easterly course, saws
its way across the inland Andean range, turns northwards and then
eastwards to unite with the Pilcomayo, which it is said at least to
equal in volume. Just below the junction is the fall of Guara-
petendi, 23 ft. high. From this point to the mouth of the Pilcomayo
the distance in a straight line is 480 m., although by the curves of
the river, which is extremely tortuous, it is about double that dis-
tance. According to Storm, who quotes Captain Baldrich, the river
bifurcates at 21 ° 51' S., but again becomes a single stream at 23 ° 43',
the right channel being the greater in volume. It is probable
that between 23° and 24° S. it throws E.S.E. three great arms
to the river Paraguay, the upper portions of which have yet
to be explored, but the lower parts have been examined for 100 to
200 m. up from the Paraguay. Enumerating from north to south,
they are called the Esperanza, the Montelindo and the Maca. From
180 to 200 m. above its mouth the Pilcomayo filters through a vast
swamp about 100 m. in diameter, through which there is no principal
channel. This swamp, or perhaps shallow lagoon, is probably partly
drained by the river Confuso, which reaches the Paraguay between
the Pilcomayo and Maca. A northern branch of the Pilcomayo,
the Fontana, the junction being at 24 56' S., is probably also a
drainage outlet of the same great swamp.

For the first 100 m. below the fall of Guarapetendi the Pilcomayo
is from 600 to 1000 ft. wide, but it so distributes its waters through
its many bifurcations, and loses so much from infiltration and in
swamps, and by evaporation from the numerous lagoons it forms
on either side of its course, that its channel is greatly contracted
before it reaches the Paraguay. From Sucre to the Andean margin
of the Chaco, a distance of about 350 m. by the river, the fall is at
least 8000 ft. — a sufficient indication that its upper course is useless
for purposes of navigation.

The missionaries in 1556 first reported the existence of the Pilco-
mayo, which for a long period of time was known as the Araguay.
In 1 72 1 Patifio and Rodriguez partially explored it, and since then
numerous attempts have been made to test its navigability, all of
which have been failures; and several of them have ended in disaster
and loss of life, so that the Pilcomayo now has a sinister reputation.
The Bermejo river flows parallel to the Pilcomayo, and enters
the Paraguay a few miles above the junction of this with the Parana.
Its numerous sources are on the eastern frontage of the
V' e inland Andes, between the Bolivian town of Tarija

Bermejo. an( j t j le Argentine city of Jujuy. Its most northerly
tributary is the San Lorenzo, which, after being augmented by several
small streams, takes the name of Rio de Tarija. This running
east, and then taking a general south-easterly course, joins the
Bermejo in 22 ° 50' S. at a point called the Juntas de San Antonio.
Thence, flying southwards, the Bermejo finally, in 23° 50' S., receives
its main affluent, the San Francisco, from the south-west. The
latter has its source in about 22° 30' S., and, under the name of Rio
Grande, runs directly southwards, in a deep mountain valley, as far
as Jujuy. It then turns eastwards for 50 m., and is joined by
the Lavayen from the south-west. These two streams form the
San Francisco, which, from their junction, runs north-eastwards
to the Bermejo. The average width of the San Francisco is about
400 ft. ; it is seldom over 2 ft. deep, and has many shoals and sand-
banks. From its junction with the latter stream the Bermejo flows
south-eastwards to the Paraguay with an average width in its main
channel of about 650 ft., although narrowing at times to 1 60 and
even 100. In its course, however, it bifurcates and ramifies into
many channels, forming enormous islands, and frequently leaves
old beds for new ones.

Since the exploration of the Bermejo by Patifio in 1721, it has
often been examined from its sources to its mouth, with a view to
ascertain its navigability. Captain Page in 1854 and 1859 found
it impracticable to ascend it over 135 m. in the dry season, with a
little steamer drawing 23 in. of water; but in flood-time, in December
1 87 1, he succeeded, in 60 days, in reaching a point 720 m. from its
mouth, in the steamer " Alpha," 53 ft. long and 30 in. draught. He
afterwards penetrated another 100 m. up stream. The round voyage
took a year, owing to the swift currents, shoals, quicksands, snags
and fallen trees.

The Salado, about 250 m. south-west of and approximately parallel
to the Bermejo, is the only great tributary which the Parana receives
from the west below its confluence with the Paraguay.
Tbe Its extreme head-waters are in the Argentine province

Saledo. f galta, anc J they drain a much broken Andean region

lying between 24° and 26° 30' south. The most westerly sources are
the rivers Santa Maria and Calchaqui, which unite near the town of
San Carlos and form the river Guachipas. Having received the
Arias, the Guachipas runs north-eastwards about 50 m., and then it
changes its name to the Juramento, which is retained until the river
reaches the Chaco plains at the base of the foot-hills of the Andes.

Here it becomes the Salado, a name it preserves for the remainder
of its course. It joins the Parana near Santa Fe in 31° 39' south
and 60° 41' west. Explorers of the Salado, inclusive of Captain Page
in 1855, claim that its lower half is navigable, but the many efforts
which have been made to utilize it as a commercial route have all
resulted in failure.

As the Pilcomayo, the Bermejo and the Salado wander about the
country, ever in search of new channels, they erode and tear away
great quantities of the Pampean material, dissolve it into silt, and
pour it into the Paraguay and Parana rivers. The engineer Pelleschi
estimates that " the soil annually subtracted from the territory of
the Chaco by the Bermejo alone equals 6,400,000 cubic yards."

South of its confluence with the river Paraguay, the Parana
washes the western foot of a series of sandstone bluffs for 30 miles.
Thence for 240 m. the bordering hills are about 80
ft. high, but at Goya the country is almost on a level ou "

with the river. Near the boundary-line between ?? s '" y .
Corrientes and Entre Rios the banks are very low on p a rank
both sides of the river, and continue so for nearly '
100 m. ; but farther down, for 150 m., the left bank is margined,
as far as Diamante, by a range of hills from 125 to 160 ft.
high, at times boldly escarped. At Diamante they trend inland,
south-eastwards, for about 50 m., and probably once bordered an
ancient channel of the river. From 31° 30' south to the head of the
Plata estuary the western bank of the Parana is a precipitous bluff
of reddish clay, varying from 25 to 75 ft. above mean river level.
It is being gradually undermined, and tumbles into the water
in great blocks, adding to the immense volume of silt which the river
carries. According to Ramon Lista, " the lowest level of the
Parana is in October and November, and, save an occasional freshet,
it remains stationary until the beginning of summer, when its waters
begin to rise, reaching their maximum about the middle of February
in the lower part of their course." The difference between low and
high river is generally about 12 ft., depending upon the varying
quantity of rains in , Brazil and the melting of the Andean snows.
Below its junction with the Paraguay the Parana has an average
current of 2 J m. an hour, and the river varies in width from I to 3 m.,
at low water; but in floods it seems almost a continuous lake, broad-
ening to 10 and 30 m. and burying many of its numerous islands
and marginal swamps under a vast sheet of water, and obliterating
its many parallel lateral channels and intricate systems of connecting
canals.

In the middle Parana, from the mouth of the Iguazu to the mouth
of the Paraguay river, there are many islands, some of them large,
rocky and high above the river. From Paraguay to
the city of Rosario, islands are numerous, many of ' anas or
them of great area ; and again below Rosario they soon Parana.
increase in number and size until the Plata estuary is reached.
In flood-time the upper portion of the trees being out of water, they
have the appearance of floating forests. Then the river often makes
wild work with its banks, and builds up or sweeps away entire islands,
leaving deep channels instead. Mouchez in 1857, searching for two
islands the position of which he had fixed in the previous year, found
in their place 2$ and 32 ft. of water. The lower delta of the Parana
does not share in these phenomena; its islands and main channels
appear more fixed. This probably is due to the less elevation at-
tained by the wat rs in flood-time, and the numerous branches which
distribute them into the Plata estuary. This must have extended,
in a very recent geological period, inland from its present head to
at least 32 ° S. ; but the enormous quantity of silt which the Parana
receives from its Paraguay affluent, and from the tributaries which
reach it from the Andes, has filled this length of about 220 m. with
these muddy islands, which rest upon a sandy bed of great depth.

The frontage of the Parana delta is 40 m. across, almost in a
straight line from north to south. Through this the river finds
its way to the Plata by eleven outlets, large and small,
the two principal ones being the Parana-guazii and the
Parana de las Palmas.

The mean flow of the Mississippi river at New Orleans is 675,000
cub. ft. per second, and its flood maximum about 1,000,000 ft.
The minimum of the Plata past Buenos Aires is 534,000, the maxi-
mum 2,145,000. It may therefore be fairly_ assumed that the
yearly discharge of the great North American river is not superior,
and may be inferior, to that of the Plata.

The Parana is navigable at all times as far up as the Sao Lourenco
river by craft drawing 3 ft. of water, and to within a few miles
ot Asuncion, the capital of Paraguay, by vessels drawing 9 ft.
The city of Parana may always be reached with a draught of 12
and Rosario with 15 ft. of water.

The commercial development of the Plata basin may be con-
veniently illustrated by statistics for the year 1822, which marks
the beginning of independent rule in its republics; for
1854, when the steamboat and the railway first began Commerce.
to play a part in this quarter of the world; and in 1898 and 1899,
as indicating approximately the state of affairs at the end of the 19th
century. In Buenos Aires, for example, the foreign trade (entered
and cleared) in 1822 aggregated 107,170 tons; in 1854, 342,463 tons;
and in 1899, 5,046,847 tons. The coasting and river trade of the
same port increased from 150,741 tons in 1854 to 3,695,088 tons in
1899. But taking into account all the Argentine ports, except

Parank
Delta.

PLATAEA— PLATE

789

those which lie to the south of the Plata, there was for the six years
ending with 1 899 an annual average of 1 4,000,000 tons for the overseas
commerce and 11,000,000 tons for the river and coasting trade.
On the other, or northern, bank of the stream the chief port is Monte-
video; and its foreign commerce increased from an aggregate of
50,000 tons in 1822 to 150,000 tons in 1854 and to 4,069,870 tons in
1898, the river and coasting trade having increased from 50,000 tons
in 1822 to_ 150,000 tons in 1854 , ar >d to 3,915,421 tons in 1898. The
total foreign trade of the Plata valley thus increased from over
157,000 tons in 1822 to nearly 18,100,000 tons in 1898-1899.
Its growth since the opening of the 20th century has been phenomenal
and promises to become gigantic. The Andes on the west, the in-
terior of South America on the north, great rivers, and the Brazilian
mountains on the east of the Plata basin are obstacles which compel
the rich and varied products of at least 1,500,000 sq. m. of fertile
country to seek access to the ocean by a single avenue — the Plata
estuary. (G. E. C.)

PLATAEA, or Plataeae, an ancient Greek city of Boeotia,
situated close under Mt Cithaeron, near the passes leading
from Peloponnesus and Attica to Thebes, and separated from
the latter city's territory by the river Asopus. Though one
of the smallest Boeotian towns, it stubbornly resisted the
centralizing policy of Thebes. In 519 B.C. it invoked Sparta's
help against its powerful neighbour, but was referred by king
Cleomenes to Athens (for the date, see Grote's History of Greece,
ed. 1907, p. 82, note 4). The Athenians secured Plataea's inde-
pendence, and thus secured its enduring friendship. In 490
the Plataeans sent their full levy to the assistance of the
Athenians at Marathon, and during the invasion of Xerxes they
joined eagerly in the national defence. At Artemisium they
volunteered to man several Athenian ships, and subsequently
abandoned their town to be burnt by Xerxes. In 479 they
fought against the Persians under Mardonius in the decisive
battle which bears the name of the city. In this campaign the
Persian commander, retiring from Attica before the combined
Peloponnesian and Athenian levy, had encamped in the Asopus
plain in order to give battle on ground suited to his numerous
cavalry. The Greeks under the Spartan regent Pausanias at
first did not venture beyond the spurs of Cithaeron, but, encour-
aged by successful skirmishing, advanced towards the river and
attempted a flanking movement so as to cut Mardonius off from
his base at Thebes. The operation miscarried, and in their
exposed condition the Greeks were severely harassed by the
enemy's horse, which also blocked the Cithaeron passes against
their supply columns. Pausanias thereupon ordered a night
retreat to the hilly ground near Plataea, but the movement was
badly executed ; for whereas the Peloponnesians in the centre
retired beyond their proper station, the Spartans and Athenians
on the wings were still in the plain at daybreak. The Persians
immediately fell upon these isolated contingents, but the Spartan
infantry bore the brunt of the attack with admirable steadiness,
and both wings ultimately rolled back their opponents upon
the camp. When this was stormed the enemy's resistance
collapsed, and Mardonius's army was almost annihilated. This
great victory was celebrated by annual sacrifices and a Festival
of Liberation (Eleutheria) in every fourth year at Plataea, whose
territory moreover was declared inviolate.

In spite of this guarantee Plataea was attacked by Thebes
at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War (431) and formally
besieged by the Peloponnesians (420-27). The garrison after
capitulating was put to death, and the city razed by the Thebans.
The remaining Plataeans received a qualified franchise in Athens,
and in 42 r were settled on the territory of Scione. Expelled
by Lysander in 404 they returned to Athens, until in 387 Sparta
restored them in their native town as a check upon Thebes.
The city was again destroyed by Thebes in 373, and the inhabi-
tants once more became citizens of Athens. Plataea was
rebuilt by Philip and Alexander of Macedon, and during the rest
of antiquity enjoyed a safe but obscure existence. It continued
to flourish in Byzantine and Frankish times. The walls of the
town, which at various periods occupied different portions of
the triangular ledge on which it stood, remain partly visible.
Recent excavations have discovered the Heraeum; but the
temple of Athena the Warlike, built from the Persian spoils and
adorned by the most famous artists, has not been identified.

Authorities. — Strabo p. 411; Pausanias ix. 1-4; Herodotus
vi. 108, viii. I, ix. 25-85; Plutarch, Aristides, 11-21; Thucydides
ii. 1-16, 71-78, iii. 20-24, 52-68; Isocrates, Plataicus; G.B.Grundy,
The Topography of the Battle of Plataea (London, 1894) and Great
Persian War (London, 1901), ch. xi. ; W. Woodhouse in Journal of
Hellenic Studies (1898), pp. 33-59; H. B. Wright, The Campaign
of Plataea (New Haven, 1904); R. W. Macan, Herodotus, vii.-ix.
(London, 1908), appendix; W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece,
ch. xvi., pp. 323-367 (London, 1835); Amer. Journ. of Archaeo-
logy, 1890, pp. 445-475; 1891, pp. 390-405; B. V. Head, Historia
numorum, p. 294 (Oxford, 1887). (M. O. B. C.)

PLATE. The word " plate " (connected with Gr. irXarbs, flat,
Late Lat. plata= lamina, and Span, plata, silver), in the sense
to which it is restricted in the following article, is employed to
denote works in silver or gold which belong to any class other
than those of personal ornaments or coins. 1 As implying a
thin sheet of metal, the term has come to be used in various
technical connexions, and has been transferred by analogy to
other materials {e.g. glass). A "plate," as the common name
for the table utensil (of whatever material), derives its usage
partly from the metal prototype and partly from an etymological
connexion with French plat, dish, Latin plattus, flat. (See also
Pewter; Sheffield Plate; Metal-Work.)

On account of the ease with which gold can be worked and
the pure state in which it is generally found, it is probable that
this was the first metal used by man; and it is certain that, in
some countries at least, he attained to the most marvellous
skill in its manipulation at a time when the other arts were in
a very elementary condition. As an instance of this we may
mention a sword of the bronze age, found in a barrow near
Stonehenge, and placed in the museum at Devizes. 2 The hilt
of this sword is covered with the most microscopically minute
gold mosaic. A simple design is formed by fixing tesserae, or
rather pins, of red and yellow gold into the wooden core of the
handle. Incredible as it may appear, there are more than two
thousand of these gold tesserae to the square inch. The use of
silver appears to belong to a rather later period, probably because,
though a widely spread metal ir. almost all parts of the world,
it is usually found in s less pure state than gold, and requires
some skill to smelt and refine it. Though both these precious
metals were largely and skilfully used by prehistoric races, they
were generally employed as personal ornaments or decorations
for weapons. Except in Scandinavian countries, but little that
can be called " plate " has been discovered in the early barrows
of the prehistoric period in western Europe.

Ancient Egypt. — An enormous amount of the precious metals
was annually brought as tribute to the Egyptian kings; accord-
ing to Diodorus, who quotes the authority of Hecataeus, the
yearly produce of the royal gold and silver mines amounted to
32 millions of minae — that is, about 133 millions sterling of
modern money. Though this estimate is probably an exaggera-
tion, the amount must have been very great. The gold chiefly
came from the Nubian mines in the western desert in the Wadi
'Alaki and the neighbouring valleys. A map of these mines,
dating from the time of Rameses II. (1300 B.C.), has been pre-
served. Silver was not mined in Egypt itself, and came mostly
from Asia Minor even at the earliest period. Then gold was
comparatively common, silver a great rarity. ' Later, gold
appears to have been relatively more abundant than silver,
and the difference in value between them was very much less
than it is now.

In the language of the hieroglyphs silver is called " white
gold," and gold is the generic name for money — unlike most
languages, in which silver usually has this special meaning —
a fact which points strongly to the priority of the use of gold,
which archaeological discoveries have rendered very probable.
Among the treasures of the " royal tombs " at Abydos, dating
to the 1st and Ilnd Dynasties, much gold was found, but no

1 In medieval English the term " a plate " was occasionally
used in the sense of a silver vessel.. A curious survival of this use
of the word still exists at Queen's College, Oxford, where the
servants may yet be heard asking at the buttery for so many
" plates of beer," that is, silver tankards.

2 Hoare, Ancient Wiltshire (1840).

79°

PLATE

Fig. i.— Gold Vase, from
wall-paintings at Thebes.

silver. On the walls of one of the tombs at Beni Hassan there
is an interesting representation of a gold- and silver-smith's
workshop, showing the various processes employed — weighing,
melting, or soldering with the blow-pipe, refining the metal,
and polishing the almost finished bowl or vase. Owing to the
Egyptian practice of burying with their dead personal ornaments
and jewelry, rather than other possessions less intimately
connected with the person of the deceased, but few specimens
of either gold or silver plate have survived to our times, whereas
the amount of gold jewelry that has been discovered is very
large, and shows the highest degree of skill in working the
precious metals. We can, however, form some notion of what
the larger works, such as plates and vases in gold and silver,
were like from the frequent representations of them in mural
sculpture and paintings. In many cases they were extremely
elaborate and fanciful in shape, formed with the bodies or heads
of griffins, horses, and other animals real or imaginary. Others
are simple and graceful in outline, enriched with delicate surface
ornament of leaves, wave and guilloche patterns, hieroglyphs,
or sacred animals. Fig. i shows a
gold vase of the time of Tethmosis
(Thothmes) III. (Dynasty XVIII.,
about 1500 B.C.), taken from a wall-
painting in one of the tombs at
Thebes. The figure on its side is the
hieroglyph for " gold." Others appear
to have been very large and massive,
with human figures in silver or gold
supporting a great bowl or crater of
the same metal. Vases of this type
were, of course, manufactured in Egypt
itself, but many of those represented in
the Theban tombs were tribute, mostly
of Phoenician workmanship. Already
as early as the time of Tethmosis IJL, when, as we know, the
Phoenician cities had already existed for centuries, we find the
ships of Arvad, of Byblos and of Tyre well known in the har-
bours of the Delta, and even bringing tribute of foreign vases
to the river quays of Thebes itself. We cannot doubt that
much of the precious plate of gold and silver used by the Egyp-
tians at this time and specifically described as foreign tribute was
made in Egyptian or egyptizing style by Phoenician artists.
But plate of really foreign type as well as origin was also brought
to Egypt at this time by the Phoenician " Kefti ships " from
Kefti, the island of Crete, where the " Minoan " culture of
Cnossos and Phaestus was now at its apogee. Ambassadors
from. Kefti also brought gold and silver vases as presents for
the Egyptian king, and on the walls of the tomb of Senmut,
Queen Hatshepsut's architect, at Thebes, we see a Keftian
carrying a vase of gold and silver which is the duplicate of an
actual vase discovered at Cnossos by Dr Arthur Evans. The
art of the " Minoan " and " Mycenaean "goldsmiths exercised
considerable influence upon that of the Egyptians; under the
XXth Dynasty, about 1150 B.C., we find depicted on the tomb
of Rameses III. golden stirrup-vases (Bugelkannen) of the well-
known Mycenaean type, and in that of Imadua, an officer of
Rameses IX., golden vases imitating the ancient Cretan shape
of the cups of Vaphio. In fact, it is more than probable that
the Egyptians and Phoenicians manufactured plate of " Minoan "
and " Mycenaean " types long after the ancient culture of
Crete and the Aegean had come to an end. In the time of
Rameses III., about 1300 B.C., a clearly defined Asiatic influ-
ence appears in the decoration of some of the gold plate.
A gold basket represented in the tomb of this king at Thebes,
has on its side a relief of the sacred tree between two beasts,
an Asiatic idea.

The chief existing specimens of Egyptian plate are five silver
phialae (bowls), found at the ancient Thmuis in the Delta,
and now in the Cairo Museum (Nos. 482-486 in the catalogue).
These are modelled in the form of a lotus blossom, most graceful
in design, but are apparently not earlier than the 4th century
B.C. Of the splendid toreutic art cf a thousand years before,

of which we gain an idea from the wall-paintings mentioned
above, but few actual specimens have survived. The Louvre
possesses a fine gold patera, 6f in. across, with figures of fishes
within a lotus border in repousse work; an inscription on the rim
shows it to have belonged to Thutii, an officer of Tethmosis III.
(Mint, soc. ant. de France, xxiv. 1858). Thutii's bowl is a
typical specimen of the Egyptian plate of the XVIIIth Dynasty,
and its design is precisely that of the hundreds of blue glazed
faience bowls which were made at the time, and of which some
perfect specimens and many fragments (especially from Deir
el-Bahri) are in our museums. These were imitated from metal
originals, just as most of the early Cretan pottery vessels were.
A splendid bronze bowl, which shows us what some of the
finer gold and silver plate was like, was found in the tomb of
Hetaai, a dignitary of the XVIIIth Dynasty, at Thebes a few
years ago, and is now in the Cairo Museum (No. 3553 in von
Bissing's catalogue). The engraved decoration, representing
birds and animals in the papyrus-marshes, is very fine and
evidently of native Egyptian work. The silver bowl at Berlin,
said by di Cesnola to have come from Athienou in Cyprus, is
certainly of XVIIIth Dynasty date, but, though purely Egyptian
in style, more probably of Phoenician than Egyptian work-
manship.

Assyrian and Phoenician Plate. — The art of making gold and
silver plate, whether it originated in Egypt and passed thence to
Crete or not, was evidently on its own ground in Egypt and in
Minoan Crete. In Asia it was an exotic art, introduced from
Egypt through the Phoenicians. In fact, it may be doubted
whether any of the bronze imitations of plate found in Assyria
are of Assyrian manufacture; they are probably Phoenician
imports. The British Museum possesses a fine collection of
these bowls, mostly found in the palace at Nimrud, and so dating
from the oth and 8th centuries (reigns of Assur-nazir-pal to
Sargon). Though they are made of bronze, and only occasionally
ornamented with a few silver studs, they are evidently the
production of artists who were accustomed to work in the precious
metals, some of them in fact being almost identical in form and
design with the silver phialae found at Curium and elsewhere in
Cyprus. They are ornamented in a very delicate and minute
manner, partly by incised lines, and partly by the repoussi
process, finally completed by chasing. Their designs consist
of a central geometrical pattern, with one or more concentric

Fig. 2. — Silver Bowl, about 7 in. in diameter, found in a tomb in
Cyprus, with repousse reliefs of Egyptian and Assyrian style.

bands round it of figures of gods and men, with various animals
and plants, such as antelopes amid papyri, which are derived
from the Egyptian designs of the XVIIIth Dynasty. Often
there is a strange admixture of Assyrian and Egyptian style.

PLATE

791

Bulls, for instance, are usually represented as with a single
mighty horn, curving to the front (in the style of the ancient
Babylonian seals), rather than with both horns 'showing, in
Egyptian fashion. When figures of gods and men are shown,
the principal groups are purely Assyrian imitations of Assyrian
temple-reliefs, in fact — such as the sacred tree between the
two attendant beasts, or the king engaged in combat and van-
quishing a lion single-handed; while mingled with these are
figures and groups purely Egyptian in style, such as the hawk-
headed deity, or a king slaying a whole crowd of captives at
one blow. Occasionally one sees traces of the ancient Mycenaean
influence, or perhaps rather of the young Ionian art which had
now arisen out of the ashes of that of Mycenae. These Phoeni-
cian imitative designs are still good imitations. But a century
or so later we meet with them again on the silver bowls and
dishes from Cyprus, in which the imitations have become bad.
The same mixture of subjects was still in vogue, but confusion
has been superadded to mixture, and we find kings in Assyrian
robes and Egyptian wigs slaying Syrian dragons with Egyptian
wings, and so on. Fig. 2 gives a silver dish from Curium con-
taining examples of the above-mentioned subjects. It is a
characteristic specimen of this mixed Phoenician art, of which
di Cesnola seems to have collected a remarkable number of
examples. In addition to the numerous silver phialae some were
found, with similar decoration, made of pure gold. To the
same period as these bowls from Cyprus belong the similar
specimens of Phoenician plate from Etruscan graves at Praeneste
and Cervetri in Italy. Those from the Regulini-Galassi tomb
can hardly be earlier than the 6th century, so that this peculiar
Mischkunst of the later type may well be dated to the 7th~5th
centuries.

References. — Von Bissing, " Metallgefasse " Cairo Museum
Catalogue (1901); " Eine Bronzeschale mykenischer Zeit," Jahrb.
Inst. (1898); L. P. di Cesnola, Cyprus; Layard, Nineveh, &c.

(H. R. H.)
Prehistoric Greece: " Minoan " and " Mycenaean " Periods. —
In the early history of the goldsmith's art no period is more
important than that of the Greek Bronze age, the period of
the prehistoric civilization which we call " Minoan " and
" Mycenaean," which antedated the classical civilization of
Greece by many centuries, and was in fact contemporary and
probably coeval with the ancient culture of Egypt. In Greece
during this, her first, period of civilization, metal-work was
extensively used, perhaps more extensively than it ever was in
the history of later Greek art. So generally was metal used for
vases that even as early as the " Middle Minoan " period of
Cretan art (some 2000 years B.C.) the pottery forms are obvious
imitations of metal-work. The art of the metal-worker domi-
nated and influenced that of the potter, a circumstance rarely
noted in Egypt, where, in all probability, the toreutic art was
never so'much patronized as in Minoan Greece, although beautiful
specimens of plate were produced by Egyptian and Phoenician
artists. Also but few of these have come down to us, and we
are forced to rely upon pictured representations for much of our
knowledge of them. It is otherwise in early Greece. We
possess in our museums unrivalled treasures of ancient toreutic
art in the precious metals from Greece, which date from about
2500 to 1400 B.C., and as far as mass and weight of gold are
concerned are rivalled only by the Scythian finds. These are
the well-known results of the excavations of Schliemann at
Troy and Mycenae and of others elsewhere. They do not by
any means suffer in point of additional interest from the fact
that they were made and used by the most ancient Greeks,
the men of the Heroic age, probably before the Greek language
was spoken in Greece.

The most ancient of these " treasures " is that discovered
by Schliemann in 1873 buried, apparently in the remains of a
box, deep in the fortification wall of Hissarlik the ancient Troy.
It consists of vases and dishes of gold and silver, and of long
tongue-shaped ingots of silver. In consonance with the early
date (perhaps about 2500 B.C.) to which they are probably to be
assigned (Schliemann ascribes them to the second Trojan city)
these objects are all of simple type, some of the vases being

unornamented jugs with tubular suspension-handles on the
sides. Here we have metal imitating stonework, as, later,
pottery imitates metal. These are of silver. A unique form
in gold is a boat-shaped cup with handles at the sides (Plate I.,
fig. 23), at Berlin, which weighs 600 grammes. One vase is
of electrum (one part of silver to four of gold).

A treasure of much the same date (the second " Early Minoan "
period, about 2500 B.C. or before) was discovered in May 1908
in graves on the island of Mochlos, off the coast of Crete,
by R. B. Seager. This is, however, of funerary character,
like part of the treasures discovered in the shaft-graves of
Mycenae, and, while including diadems, golden flowers, olive
branches, chains, and so forth, for the adornment of the
dead, does not include much gold used by the deceased during
life.

The much later Mycenaean treasures include both funerary
objects of thin gold and objects of plate that had actually been
used. Among the former should be especially noted the breast-
plates, diadems and masks which were placed on the bodies of
the chieftains whom Schliemann, great in faith as in works,
honestly believed to be Agamemnon and his court (and he may
not have been very far wrong). Among the latter we may
mention the small flat objects of gold plate, little sphinxes and
octopuses modelled in relief, small temples with doves, roundels
with spiral designs, and so on, which were ornaments for clothing,
and the golden plate decorations of weapon-handles. The
great cast-silver bull's head with the gold rosette on its forehead
may perhaps have been regarded simply as a beautiful object
of price, and buried with its owner. Similar protomae of bulls
(of gold or silver) were brought by Minoan ambassadors as
presents to the Egyptian court in the reign of Thothmes III.
Gold and silver vases were found both in the shaft-graves, in
the treasure-pit close by, and in chamber tombs at Mycenae.
The most usual shape in the shaft-tombs is that well known to
us from the vases of Vaphio, described below; among other
types may be mentioned specially the S«nxs afufrucvTeWov with
doves feeding above its handles (Plate I., fig. 21 ; from a restored
reproduction) — Soial 8£ ireXeia&s a/j$is tkaxrrov xpuceiai
vepiOovTo; the golden jug with spiral decoration from the
fourth grave; and the cup with lions of Egyptian appearance
chasing each other round its bowl, found in grave 5. The
fragment of a silver vase with a scene in high relief of slingers
and bowmen defending their town against besiegers from grave 4
(Plate I., fig. 22), is an object unrivalled in ancient art. On this,
as on the bull's head, we have gold overlaid on silver (with an
intermediate plating of copper) ; on a silver cup from the same
grave we find gold inlay, and on. another silver cup, from a
chamber-tomb, enamel and gold inlaid. How the Minoan
goldsmith could combine silver with gold and the two with bronze
we see on the marvellous inlaid dagger-blades from Mycenae,
with their pictures in many-coloured metals of lion-hunts,
cats chasing birds, and so forth, which show that he was perhaps
the greatest master of all time in this art.

We speak of him as " Minoan," because most of the metal
objects found at Mycenae are, if not of actual Minoan workman-
ship and imported from Crete, at any rate designed in accord-
ance with the Minoan taste of the " Great Palace Period "
(Late Minoan i. and ii.) at Cnossus. They are only " Mycenaean "
in the sense that they were found at Mycenae. Of the art of
the gold vase maker in the Mycenaean period properly speaking
(Late Minoan iii.) we obtain an idea from the pictures of golden
Bilgelkannen with incised designs of zigzags, &c, represented
on the walls of the tomb of Rameses III. at Egyptian Thebes.
The objects from the Mycenaean shaft-graves are much older
than this, as are also those from the next treasure we shall
mention, that from Aegina, now in the British Museum. The
gold cups and other objects of this treasure, with their fine but
simple decoration, are certainly to be ascribed to the best
Minoan period, although when first published Dr A. J. Evans
was inclined to assign them to so late a date as c. a.d. 800.
They aie surely some seven hundred years older, having no
characteristic of the decadent " sub-Mycenaean " period, as

792

PLATE

Dr Evans would doubtless now agree. These objects were
probably found in a tomb.

Dr Evans's excavations at Cnossus, those of the Italians
at Phaestos and Hagia Triada and those of the British school
at Palaikastro have not produced any very striking examples of
the Minoan goldsmith's art in his own country, though splendid
bronze bowls and vases have been found, which give us a good
idea of what the plate must have been like, as do also the gilt
steatite imitations of plate mentioned below. One of the bronze
vases from Cnossus exactly resembles one of gold and silver
which was brought to Egypt by the ambassadors in Queen
Hatshepsut's time (fresco in the tomb of Senmut). But we
possess a fine silver cup (of the Middle Minoan period) from the
American excavations at Gournia, and two examples of the
finest Minoan gold plate, which were discovered outside Crete, in
the famous " Vaphio cups," with their embossed representations
of bull-netting, which have been illustrated so often as triumphs
of ancient art (Plate I., figs. 24, 25). These are of Cretan work-
manship, though found in Laconia, and are no doubt contem-
porary with the vases of black steatite with reliefs showing a
harvest-home procession, gladiatorial combats, and a king
receiving or bidding farewell to a warrior with his armed
followers, which have been found by the Italians at Hagia
Triada in Crete. These were originally overlaid with gold leaf,
and are undoubtedly imitations in a cheap material of golden
embossed vases of the same style as those found at Vaphio.

Next in order of time came the objects of gold and silver
plate found by the expedition of the British Museum at Enkomi
in Cyprus, which perhaps represent a somewhat later phase of
Minoan art, but certainly cannot now any longer be regarded
as belonging to the very late period to which they were at first
assigned. One silver vase found at Enkomi is of the " Vaphio "
shape, which first appears in Cretan pottery as early as the
Middle Minoan period, contemporary with the Xllth Egyptian
Dynasty (c. 2000 B.C.), and even then is clearly an imitation
of a metal original. Slightly modified, this type remained
late in use, as we find it represented among other golden vases
on the walls of the tomb of Imisib or Imadua, an Egyptian
official of the time of Rameses IX. (c. 1100 B.C.) at Thebes.
But some, at least, of the Enkomi finds must be earlier than this.

The Egyptian representations of Minoan vases of gold and
silver in the tomb of Senmut at Thebes (c. 1500 B.C.) and of
later Mycenaean golden Biigelkannen in that of Rameses III.
(c. 1 150 B.C.) have been mentioned already. During the age of
Mycenaean and sub-Mycenaean decadence the art of the Greek
goldsmith necessarily passed through a period of eclipse, to
arise again, with the other arts, in rich and luxurious Ionia
probably. The Homeric poems preserved for later days a
traditional echo of the glorious works of the metal-workers of
the Heroic age.

References. — Troy and Mycenae: Schuchhardt, Schliemann's
Excavations; Tsountas-Manatt, The Mycenaean Age, passim.
Vaphio: Tsountas-Manatt, Aigina; A. J. Evans in Journ. Hell.
Stud., xiii. 195-226. Cnossus: Evans, Ann. Sch. Ath. (1901-
1907). Hagia Triada: Savignoni, Pernier and. others, Rendiconti
della R. Accademia dei Lincei (Rome, 1902-1906); Gournia: Mrs
Boyd Hawes, Gournia (Philadelphia, 1908), pi. c. ; Mochlos (un-
published). For Egyptian references see Hall, Ann. Sch. Ath.
(1904), " Keftiu and the Peoples of the Sea " (1905); " The Keftiu-
fresco in the Tomb of Senmut." (H. R. H.)

Etruscan Plate. — The Etruscans were specially renowned for
their skill in working all the metals, and above all in their gold
work. Large quantities of exquisite gold jewelry have been found
in Etruscan tombs, including, in addition to smaller objects,
sceptres, wreaths of olive, and plates decorated with filigree-
work and animal figures, which were used as personal ornaments
(breastplates, girdles, diadems, &c). In the Museo Kircheriano
in Rome is a magnificent specimen of the last form of ornament;
it is covered with nearly a hundred little statuettes of lions
arranged in parallel rows; and the Vatican (Museo Gregoriano)
possesses a very fine collection of similar objects from the
" Regulini-Galassi " tomb at Caere. Little, however, that can
be classed under the head of plate has yet been found.

Hellenic Plate.— The period of " geometrical " art which
followed the Mycenaean age was one of decline in material pros-
perity and artistic skill. We possess some specimens of the
work then produced in the precious metals in the gold diadems
placed on the head of corpses interred at Athens {Archdologische
Zeitung, 1884, pis. viii., ix.; cf. Athenische Mittheilungen, it

Fig. 3. — Silver Cantharus from Rhodes, with gold mounts.
Possibly the form of the Homeric Siiras afict>i.KvirtXKov.

p. 367; and G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, Histoire de Part dans
I'antiquite, vii. 245). , The period of Oriental influence is
represented by the finds of gold ornaments made at Camirus in
Rhodes (see Greek Art, fig. 11). Fig. 3 shows a silver cup, with
gold mounts, also found at Camirus, apparently a work of the
same early date. A remarkable find of gold objects was made
in 1882 at Vettersfelde in Brandenburg; the principal piece
was a gold fish (see Greek Art, fig. 10) with ornaments in relief.
These objects recall by their style early Ionic art, but were
probably produced in one of the Black Sea colonies, since similar
objects have been found, together with later work, in Crimean
graves (see below), and exchanged for the amber of the Baltic
coasts. Croesus especially encouraged the art, and paid enor-
mous sums for silver vases and cups to the most renowned
artists of his time, such as Glaucus and Theodorus the Samian.
The British Museum possesses a fine specimen of archaic
Greek plate, found at Agrigentum in Sicily. This is a gold
phiale or bowl, about 5 in. across, with central boss or

Fig. 4. — Archaic Gold Phiale, found at Agrigentum, now in the
British Museum. It is shown in section below. It is 5 in. in
diameter.

omphalos (4>i&\ri ^eao^^aXos) which seems once to have con-
tained a large jewel. Round the inside of the bowl are six figures
of oxen repousse in relief, and at one side a crescent, formed
by punched dots. A delicate twisted moulding surrounds the
edge; the workmanship of the whole is very skilful (see fig. 4).

Pliny (N. H. xxxiii. 154 sqq.) gives a brief valuable account
of the art of silver chasing (caelatura, Gr. TopevnKrj).

In the best times of Greek art the chief works in gold and
silver seem to have been dedicated to religious purposes, and to
have been seldom used for the ostentation of private individuals.
Vessels for the use of the temples, tripods in gold or silver

PLATE

Plate I.

pJr' ll~v 0ldcn A /T W'^tAXo- from Mycenae (Late Minoan i. ; about 1600 B.C.).

p. %=8^&^^^^^J»$$°~ - • ^y; *» Mycenae (Late Minoan ,,

He. 24, 25.— Gold Cups of Valphio (Late Minoan i.).

xxi. ?M . GREEK PLATE OF THE BRONZE AGE (PREHISTORIC PERIOD).

Plate II.

PLATE

Photo, BHh & Sounders bv permission ol Corpus Christi College.

Fig. 26.— GOLD CHALICE AN'D PATEN OF BISHOP FOXE.

Photo. Soiakwo'-k Photo Eng. Co.

Fig. 27. SALT OF THK VINTNERS' COMPANY
(ELIZABETHAN).

From Jackson, History oj English Plate, by permission of C. J. Jackson. F.S.A.

Fig. 29.^GOLD CUP AND COVER, CHARLES II.

From Gardner, Old Silversi'orl\ by permission of LJ. T. Balsford.

Fig. 30.- -'IT DOR CUP.

By permission of Cnckion Bros.

Fig. 28.—BRAIKENBRIDGE MAZER BOWL.

By permission of the Royal Irish Academy,

Fig. 31.— ARDAGH CHALICE.

PLATE

793

of the richest work, and statues of the gods were the chief objects
on which the precious metals were lavished. 1

The gold used by the Greeks probably came from Asia Minor
or Egypt, while the mines of Laurium, in the mountains which
form the promontory of Sunium in Attica, supplied an abundant
amount of silver for many centuries. According to Pliny,

of Ulysses and Diomedes carrying off the Palladium. Enormous
prices were given by wealthy Romans for ancient silver plate
made by distinguished Greek artists; according to Pliny, the
last-mentioned cup, which weighed 2 oz., was sold for 1 0,00c
denarii (£330)- It is worthy of note that a large number of
the artists named by Pliny were natives of Asia Minor; and

Fig. 5. — Greek Silver Vase, 4th_century B.C., from South Russia.

Pheidias was the first sculptor who produced works of great merit
in. the precious metals; he mentions a number of other Greek
artists who were celebrated for this class of work, but does not
give their dates. The chief of these were Mentor and Mys (both
of the 5th century B.C.), Acragas, Boethus, the sculptors Myron

Fig. 6.— Silver Crater, found in Ithaca. (3! in. high.)

and Stratonicus, as well as the well-known Praxiteles and Scopas.
In Pliny's time many works in gold and silver by these artists
still existed in Rhodes and elsewhere. Among later workers
he specially mentions Zopyrus, who made two silver cups,
embossed with the scene of the judgment of Orestes by the
Areopagite court, 2 and Pytheas, who made a bowl with reliefs

1 The gold eagles on the sacred omphalos at Delphi were notable
examples of this ; see Pindar, Pyth. iv. 4.

2 It has been thought that a silver cup in the Corsini collection

it is very probable that the Asiatic school of silversmiths
had at least as much influence on Roman caelatura as that
of Alexandria, whose importance has been overrated by
Schreiber.

The finest extant examples of Greek plate are those found in
the tumuli of south Russia, especially in the neighbourhood of
Kertch, the ancient Panticapaeum. Fig. 5 shows a silver vase
found in 1862 at Nikopol in the tomb of a native Scythian
prince. The native horse-tamers of the steppes are represented
on the shoulder with wonderful naturalism, and the work is
beyond doubt that of an Athenian artist of the 4th century B.C.
Splendid examples of goldwork were found in the tumulus of
Kuloba, about 6J kilometres from Kertch, which was excavated
in 1830 and found to be the burial-place of a Scythian prince
and his wife. The jewelry and plate found in this tomb, which
were clearly of Greek origin, comprised (amongst other objects)
an electrum vase 13 cm. high, representing Scythians in their
native costume, one of whom is extracting a neighbour's tooth,
another binding up a wound, a third stringing a bow, besides
several silver vases and two gold medallions with reproductions
of the head of the Athena Parthenos of Pheidias. In these
Crimean tombs are often found golden crowns in the form of
oak leaves, some of which belong to late Roman times. The
finest extant example of a gold wreath, however, is that discovered
at Armento in south Italy and preserved in the Antiquarium at
Munich; it bears an inscription of the 4th century B.C., showing
that it was dedicated by a certain Kreithonios. In 181 2 Dr
Lee discovered at Ithaca a beautiful crater, 3^ in. high (see
fig. 6), and a phiale or patera, 9! in. across, both of silver, re-
pousse and chased, with very rich and graceful patterns of leaves
and flowers picked out with gilding. 3 These are probably not
later than the 5th century B.C. Many silver mirror-cases, with
repousse figure-subjects in high relief, have been found at various
places; as, for instance, one with a beautiful seated figure of
Aphrodite found at Tarentum and now in the British Museum. 4

at Rome (Michaelis, Das corsinische Silbergefass, 1859; cf. W.
Amelung, in Romische Mitteilungen, 1906, pp. 289 sqq.) may re-
produce the design of Zopyrus.

3 See Arckaeologia, xxxiii. 36-54.

4 Ibid, xxxiv. 265-272.

794

PLATE

The Victoria and Albert Museum contains an exquisite little
silver vase, found in the baths of Apollo at Vicarello in

Italy (fig. 7), enriched with a
band in low relief of storks devour-
ing serpents executed with gem-
like minuteness and finish —
probably not later than the 3rd
century B.C. The British Museum
has a little vase of similar form
and almost equal beauty, though
perhaps later in date; it is
decorated with bands of vine
branches in a graceful flowing
pattern, and is partly gilt.

Graeco-Roman Plate. — During
. jjgg, the last century of the Republic
the growing luxury and osten-
tation of the wealthy Romans
found expression in the collection
of elaborate specimens of plate.

The works of the old Greek
masters were the most highly
prized, but contemporary artists,
such as Pasiteles, also attained
distinction in this branch of
art. Amongst the numerous
finds of silver plate made in
modern times we may distinguish
(a) temple treasures made of up of votive offerings, such as the
treasure of Bernay in France (dep. Eure), discovered in 1830
and preserved in the Cabinet des Medailles, which belonged to
the shrine of Mercurius Canetonnensis; (6) private collections.

Fig. 7. — Greek Silver Vase,
5 in. high, c. 3rd century
B.C. The ornamental band is
shownbelowinplano. (Victoria
and Albert Museum.)

whose decoration recalls that of
(see Roman Art), and a cylix
Athena in high relief, soldered
bowl, which appears to be of

the Ara Pacis Augustae

with a seated figure of

on to the centre of the

Greek workmanship. Such

Fig. 8. — Silver Crater, 15J in. high, from the Hildesheim find.
(Berlin Museum.)

The most famous of these are the Hildesheim treasure, in the
Berlin Museum, discovered in 1869, which has been thought
(without adequate reason) to have formed part of the
campaigning equipment of a Roman military commander,
and the Bosco Reale treasure, found in 1895 in a villa near
Pompeii, whence its owner was endeavouring to remove it
when buried by the eruption of Vesuvius. These collections
contain pieces of various dates. The Bernay treasure, in part
belonging to the 2nd century a.d., contains oenochoai (ewers)
with mythological subjects in relief inspired by classical Greek
models— the theft of the Palladium was the subject of a
famous cup of Pytheas, mentioned by Pliny — which must
belong to the early imperial period. The Hildesheim treasure,
again, contains two barbaric vases, without feet or handles,
together with such fine pieces as the crater figured (fig. 8),

detachable figures were termed emblemata; in the Bosco
Reale treasure is a cup with such a bust, typifying the province
of Africa. Great value was also set upon crustae, i.e. bands
of repoussi work forming an outer covering to a smooth silver
cup (cf. the Rothschild vases, Roman Art). Such works
commonly have Latin inscriptions incised on the foot giving
the weight of the piece, the cup and emblema being weighed
separately. The artistic value of Roman plate is discussed
under Roman Art.

Among later specimens of Roman plate the most remarkable
is the gold patera, nearly 10 in. in diameter, found at Rennes
in 1777, and now in the Paris Bibliotheque — a work of the most
marvellous delicacy and high finish — almost gem-like in its
minuteness of detail. Though not earlier than about 210 a.d.,
a slight clumsiness in the proportion of its embossed figures
is the only visible sign of decadence. The outer rim is set with
sixteen fine gold coins — aurei of various members of the Antonine
family from Hadrian to Geta. The central emblema or medallion
represents the drinking contest between Bacchus and Hercules,
and round this medallion is a band of repousse figures showing
the triumphal procession of Bacchus after winning the contest.
He sits triumphant in his leopard-drawn car, while Hercules is
led along, helplessly intoxicated, supported by bacchanals.
A long line of nymphs, fauns and satyrs complete the circular
band.

Late Roman plate is also represented by a series of large
silver dishes, to which the name missorium is often, though
perhaps wrongly, applied. These were used for presentations
by emperors (whose portraits they sometimes bear) and distin-
guished officials. Three are preserved in the Cabinet des
Medailles of the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris — the " shield
of Scipio," found in the Rhone near Avignon, about 26 in.
in diameter, with a relief representing the restoration of Briseis
to Achilles; 1 the /'shield of Hannibal," 2 chiefly remarkable for

Fig. 9. — Shield of Theodosius.
its size (it is 72 cms. in diameter and weighs 10 kilogrammes);
and a third, decorated with a group of Hercules and the Nemean
lion. 3 Other well-known examples of this form of art are the

1 Cf. S. Reinach in Gazette des beaux-arts (1896).

2 Cf. E. Babelon, in Bulletin de la societe des antiauaires de la
France (1890), p. 228.

8 Cf. E. Piot, in Gazette archeologique (1886).

PLATE

795

" shield of Theodosius " at Madrid (fig. 9), which represents
the emperor seated between Valentinian II. and Arcadius 1 ;
the " shield of Valentinian " at Geneva 2 ; the " shield of Aspar "
at Florence 3 ; and a fine dish found at Aquileia, now at
Vienna. 4

The British Museum contains some fine specimens of late
Roman silver work, found on the Esquiline in 1793 (cf. Visconti,
Una Supelleltile d'argento, Rome, 1825; the objects are published
and described in Mr Dalton's Catalogue of the Early Christian
Antiquities in the British Museum, pp.61 sqq., pis. xiii.-xx.).
The most remarkable of these are: (i.) a silver casket decorated
in repousse, with the inscription SECONDE ET PROJECTA
VTVATIS IN CRISTO, doubtless a wedding gift to a couple
bearing the names of Secundus and Projecta, whose portraits
appear in a medallion on the centre of the lid; (ii.) four statuettes
representing personified cities — Rome, Constantinople, Antioch
and Alexandria (cf. P. Gardiner in J. H. S., 1888, ix. 77 sqq.).
This treasure appears to belong in the main to the 5th century
a.d., though some minor pieces may be earlier.

Bibliography. — A general account will be found in Smith's
Dictionary of Antiquities, 3rd ed., s.v. " Caelatura " (without illus-
trations), and in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquites,
under the same heading (with several cuts). The passages in
ancient writers which refer to the art will be found in Oberbeck's
Antike Schriftquellen Nos. 2167-2205; Pliny's account is most
conveniently studied in K. Jex-Blake and E. Sellers, The Elder
Pliny's Chapters on the History of Art, pp. 2 sqq. The finds made
in southern Russia were published in the Antiquites du Bosphore
cimmerien (St Petersburg, 1854) ; the Comptes rendus de la com-
mission imperiale (St Petersburg, 1859 sqq.) ; and the Recueil
des antiquites de la Scythie (1866-1873). The first of these works,
which is very rare, has been republished on a reduced scale by
M. Salomon Reinach, in his Bibliotheque des monuments figures
(Paris, 1892) with notes; and all the more important objects are
figured in Antiquites de la Russie meridionale, by Kondakoff,
Tolstoy and Reinach (Paris, 1891-1892). For Graeco-Roman
plate the most important works are Heron de Villefosse's publica-
tion of the Bosco Reale treasure in the Monuments Piot, vol. v. (cf.
the articles by the same author and M. Thedenat on " Les Tresors
de vaisselle d'argent trouves en Gaule," Gazette archeologique, 1883-
1884), and Der hildesheimer Silberfund, by E. Pernice and F. Winter
(Berlin, 1901). Reference should also be made to T. Schreiber,
" Die alexandrinische Toreutik," (Abhandlungen der sacks. Gesellsch.
der Wissenschaften, 1894, vol. xiv.), whose theories are somewhat
exaggerated; and A. Odobescu, Le Tresor de Petrossa (1889-1900),
which deals with a find of barbaric plate and jewelry made in
Rumania, but gives much information on the history of the art.
For early Greek work, see R. Schneider, " Goldtypen des griechischen
Ostens,' Berichte der sacks. Gesellsckaft der Wissenschaften (1891,
p. 204), and A. Furtwangler, Der Goldfund von Vettersfelde (1883).
For Etruscan metal-work, see J. Martha, L'Art etrusque, ch. xvii.
An interesting popular account of ancient work in precious
metals will be found in E. T. Cook's Popular Handbook to the
Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum, pp. 569 sqq.

(H. S. J.)

Oriental, African Plate, &c. — Some very curious pieces of plate,
both in gold and in silver, have been found in northern India in
which country the goldsmith's art is of great antiquity; 6 these
appear to be of native workmanship, but the subjects with
which they are embossed, and the modelling of the figures,
show that they were produced under late Roman influence, or
in some cases possibly even Greek influence in a highly degraded
state, handed down from the time of Alexander's Indian con-
quests. A fine gold casket (Buddhist relic} said to date from
about 50 B.C. is worthy of note. 6 In the British Museum are
an Indian silver dish (3rd~4th century a.d.) 7 and an earlier one,
ascribed to c. a.d. 200.

Under the Sassanian kings of Persia (from the 3rd to 6th
centuries) very massive and richly decorated gold vases, bowls,

1 Cf. E. Hiibner, Die antiken Bildwerke in Madrid, pp. 213 sqq.

2 A. Odobescu, Le Tresor de Petrossa, pp. 153 sqq., fig. 68.

* D. Bracci, Dissertazione sopra un clipeo votivo (Lucca, 1771).

4 See R. v. Schneider, Album auserlesenster Gegenstande der
Antikensammlung des allerhochsten Kaiserhauses (1895); and cf.
Verhandlungen der 42 Versammlung deutscher Philologen (1893),
pp. 297 sqq.

6 Sir G. Birdwood, Industrial Arts of India (1880).

6 Wilson's Arcana antiqua (1841).

7 Archaeologia- lv. 534.

Fig. 10. — Sassanian Gold Bottle, about
10 in. high. In the Vienna Museum.

and bottles were made (fig. 10). Those which still exist show
a curious mingling of ancient Assyrian art with that of Rome
in its decline. Reliefs re-
presenting winged lions,
or the sacred treebetween
its attendant beasts,
alternate with subjects
from Roman mythology,
such as the rape of
Ganymede; but all are
treated alike with much
originality, and in a
highly decorative man-
ner. A fine example of
Persian work of the early
1 9th century (dated 1 8 1 7)
is the circular gold dish,
richly enamelled, which
is in the Victoria and
Albert Museum, where
a large collection of
Oriental plate may be
studied. Here may be
seen a gold rose-water
sprinkler of gold, en-
tirely covered with richly
enamelled flowers, Mogul work, 17th century; fine Burmese
gold work found in a.d. ^84-1485 in a Buddhist temple,
Rangoon ; remarkable gold ornaments of the Burmese
regalia; and a large elephant howdah, from the Punjab, made
of silver, parcel gilt, the top covered with silver plates of large
repousse foliage. Tibetan craftsmen work is represented by
numerous vessels for sacred and domestic purposes, mostly of
metal, partially mounted in silver, which display the skill of the
Tibetans in the 19th century. Of the skill of the Hindus as
goldsmiths, abundant evidence is afforded by the Ramayana
and Mahabhdrata, though very little of their ancient gold and
silver work has survived. In India the people of the Cash-
mere valley have long been famous for their natural superiority
as craftsmen, as was Lucknow for its utensils of gold and silver,
much of it richly enamelled in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Chanda in the Central Provinces was once celebrated for its
skilled goldsmiths, and the plate of Cutch and Gujarat in the
Bombay Presidency has enjoyed a well-deserved reputation.
The uncontaminated indigenous designs of the Sind goldsmiths'
work call for special notice. Indian plate, as is quite natural,
has often been influenced by European designs: for instance,
the beautiful gold and silver work of Cutch is Dutch in origin,
while the ornate throne of wood covered with plates of gold,
early 19th century, used by Ran jit Singh (at South Kensington)
also displays European influence. Much of the Siamese decora-
tive plate of the 18th and 19th centuries is of silver-gilt and
nielloed. In the Rijks museum, Amsterdam, is a collection of
silver dishes, boxes of gold and silver, jewelry, &c, all of
excellent workmanship, from Lombok. African goldsmiths'
work is represented in the British Museum by the gold orna-
ments from Ashanti, where there are also some gold ornaments
from graves in Central America and Colombia. Ancient Abys-
sinian work can be studied at the Victoria and Albert Museum
in the gold chalice, gold crown of the Abuna of Abyssinia,
another more ornate crown of silver-gilt, a fine shield with
silver-gilt filigree, and other objects.
' The gold and silver work of Russia resembles in style that of
Byzantium at an early period. Shrines and other magnificent
pieces of plate in the treasury of the cathedral at Moscow (see
Weltmann, Le Tr&sor de Moscou, 1861), though executed at
the end of the 15th and 16th century, are similar in design to
Byzantine work of the nth or 12th century, and even since
then but little change or development of style has taken
place.

The caliphs of Bagdad, the sultans of Egypt, and. other
Moslem rulers were once famed for their rich stores of plate,

796

PLATE

which was probably of extreme beauty both in design and work-
manship. Little or nothing of this Moslem plate now remains,
and it is only possible to" judge of its style and magnificence from
the fine works in brass and other less valuable metals which have
survived to our time.

Towards the end of the ioth century the Rhine valley became
the centre of a school of goldsmiths, who produced splendid
examples of their work — a mixture of Byzantine art with their
own original designs. The book-covers, portable altars and other
objects, preserved at Trier and Aix-la-Chapelle, are notable
examples produced at that centre. The magnificent book-cover
from Echternach, now at Gotha, is of the school of Trier.

Early Medieval Plate. — The Gothic, Gaulish and other
semi-barbarian peoples, who in the 6th century were masters of
Spain, France and parts of central Europe, produced great
quantities of work in the precious metals, especially gold, often of
great magnificence of design and not without some skill in work-
manship. The Merovingians encouraged the art of the gold-
smith by spending immense sums of money on plate and jewelry,
though only two examples of their great wealth in church
vessels have survived — the gold chalice and paten of Gourdon,
now at Paris. Fine examples of Carlovingian work, which was
mainly wrought in the monasteries in the north of the Frankish
dominions and on the Rhine, may be studied in the covers for
the Gospels, in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. In 1837
a large number of pieces of very massive gold plate were found
at Petrossa in Rumania; much of this find was unfortunately
broken up and melted, but a considerable portion was saved,
and is now in the museum at Bucharest. These magnificent
objects are all of solid gold, and consist of large dishes, vases,
ewers, baskets of open work, and personal
ornaments (fig. n). Some of them show a
strong Roman influence in their design,
others are more purely barbaric in style.
To the first of these classes belongs a very
fine phiale or patera, 10 in. in diameter. In
the centre is a seated statuette of a goddess,
holding a cup, while all round, in high relief,
are standing figures of various male and
female deities, purely Roman in style.
Though the execution is somewhat clumsy,
there is much reminiscence of classical grace
in the attitudes and drapery of these figures.
A large basket and other pieces, made of
square bars of gold arranged so as to form
an open pattern of stiff geometrical design,
have nothing in common with the vessels in
which Roman influence is apparent, and can
hardly be the work of the same school of
goldsmiths. 1 The date of this Petrossa treasure
is supposed to be the 6th century. The
celebrated Gourdon gold cup and tray now
preserved in Paris belong to about the
same date. They are very rich and magni-
ficent, quite free from any survival of classic
influence, and in style resemble the Merovin-
gian gold work which was found in the tomb of Childeric I.
The cup is 3 in. high, shaped like a miniature two-handled
chalice; its companion oblong tray or plate has a large cross in
high relief in the centre. They are elaborately ornamented
with inlaid work of turquoises and garnets, and delicate
filigree patterns in gold, soldered on.

In the 6th century Byzantium was the chief centre for the
production of large and magnificent works in the precious
metals. The religious fervour and the great wealth of Justinian
and his successors filled the churches of Byzantium, not only
with enormous quantities of gold and silver chalices, shrines,
and other smaller pieces of ecclesiastical plate, but even large
altars, with tall pillared baldacchini over them, fonts, massive
candelabra, statues, and high screens, all made of the precious
metals.- The wealth and artistic splendour with which St Peter's
1 Soden Smith, Treasure of Petrossa (1869).

Ewer, 15 in. high,
from the Petrossa
treasure.

in Rome and St Sophia in Constantinople were enriched is now
almost inconceivable. To read the mere inventories of these
treasures dazzles the imagination — such as that given in the
Liber pontificalis of Anastasius Bibliothecarius, which includes
the long list of treasures given by Constantine to St Peter's
before he transferred his seat of empire to Byzantium (330), and
the scarcely less wonderful list of gold and silver plate presented
to the same basilica by Pope Symmachus (498-5 14) ?

Some early Byzantine plate of the 6th century is in the British
Museum; an inscribed paten of the ioth and nth centuries is in
Halberstadt Cathedral in Germany, and numerous ecclesiastical
vessels are in the Treasury of St Mark's, Venice.

Early in the medieval period France and other Western
countries were but little behind Italy and Byzantium in their
production of massive works, both secular and religious, in the
precious metals. At this time every cathedral or abbey church
in Germany, France and even England began to accumulate
rich treasures of every kind in gold and silver, enriched with
jewels and enamel; but few specimens, however, still exist of
the work of this early period. The most notable are Charle-
magne's regalia 3 and other treasures at Aix-la-Chapelle, a few
preserved at St Peter's in Rome, and the remarkable set of
ecclesiastical utensils which still exist in the cathedral of Monza
near Milan — the gift of Queen Theodelinda in the early part of
the 7th century. 4 The treasure of Nagy-Szent-Miklos, consist-
ing of several vessels of gold, of Hungarian origin (8th-c)th
century), is in the Imperial Museum at Vienna.

The existing examples of magnificent early work in the precious
metals mostly belong to a somewhat later period. The chief
are the gold and silver altar in Sant' Ambrogio at Milan, of the
9th century; the " Pala d'Oro," or gold retable, in St Mark's at
Venice, begun in the ioth century; the silver altar-front in
St Domenico's Church at Palermo; the shrine of silver-gilt (with
later additions) in the church of St Simeon at Zara, Dalmatia,
by Francesco di Antonio of Sesto near Milan, 1380; and the
gold altar-frontal given by the emperor Henry II. and his wife
Cunigunde, at the beginning of the nth century, to the cathedral
at Basel. The last is about 4 ft. high by 6 ft. long, repousse in
high relief, with figures of Christ, the three archangels, and St
Benedict, standing under an arcade of round arches; it is now
in the Musee Cluny in Paris. 6 A similar gold frontal, of equal
splendour, was that made for the archbishop of Sens in 999.
This was melted down by Louis XV. in 1760, but fortunately
a drawing of it was preserved, and is published by Du Sommerard
{Album, 9th series, pi. xiii.). Reliquaries of great splendour
were made of the precious metals, one of the most notable being
that containing the skulls of the three kings in Cologne Cathedral.
This shrine, which resembles in form a building of two storeys,
was wrought in the 12th century. The covers of the Textus
in the Victoria and Albert Museum are highly important
examples of goldsmiths' work; they are of gold and silver,
decorated with enamel and set with stones, probably dating
from the 12th century.

Celtic. — The skill in metal-working of the Celtic people in
the British Islands, especially in Ireland, in Pagan and Christian
times, is well known, and need hardly be emphasized here.
While much has perished, much happily remains in proof of their
extraordinary skill in working gold and silver, particularly in
jewelry. The most remarkable specimen of their technical skill
and artistic perception is the famous Ardagh chalice of the 9th-
10th century (in the museum at Dublin) (Plate II., fig. 31),
which is composed chiefly of silver, with enrichments of gold and
gilt bronze, and with exquisite enamels. The interlaced ornament
is a feature of Celtic work, and may further be studied in the
celebrated Tara brooch, with its seventy-six varieties of designs
as well as in other exquisite examples of jewelry. Further
evidence of Celtic skill is forthcoming in the shrines for the
sacred bells in Ireland, not to mention other ecclesiastical

2 See D'Agincourt, Histoire de I'art (1823).

3 Bock, Die Kleinodien des heil. romischen Reiches (1864).

4 Arch. Jour, xiv. 8.

6 Archaeoloaia, xxx. 144-148.

PLATE

797

ornaments. These are of great beauty, and the silver shrine
of the bell of St Patrick (1091-1105) displays the interlaced
scroll ornament in a striking degree. With the introduction
of Gothic art into Britain the special characteristics of Christian
Celtic art in Ireland gradually died out.

Anglo-Saxon. — Judged by the examples of Anglo-Saxon
jewelry discovered, the Anglo-Saxon craftsmen brought their
art to a high state of perfection, though hardly equal in merit to
the Celtic. A large quantity of their metal-work is of bronze,
frequently enriched with gold and enamel. Happily, there is
preserved one priceless specimen of the goldsmith's art of this
period— namely, the famous Alfred jewel of gold, now in the
Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, with a portrait, believed to be of
Alfred the Great, in cloisonne enamel. Another notable speci-
men is the Ethelwulf ring in the British Museum. Though
ecclesiastical vessels, doubtless of the precious metals, appear
in Anglo-Saxon illuminated manuscripts, the only piece of plate
of that time at present known is the plain silver cup of the latter
part of the 9th century, found with gold and silver jewelry and
pennies at Trewhiddle in Cornwall, which is now in the British
Museum. 1 There is, however, an important example of metal-
work embellished with silver plates — namely, the portable altar
of St Cuthbert at Durham.

A most valuable description of the various methods of work
practised by gold- and silversmiths in the nth and 12th cen-
turies is given by the monk Theophilus in his Diversarum artiunt
schedula (Hendrie's ed., 1847). He minutely describes every
possible process that could be employed in making and orna-
menting elaborate pieces of ecclesiastical plate — such as smelting,
refining, hammering, chasing and repousse work, soldering,
casting (by the " cire perdue" process) , wire-drawing, gilding with
mercury amalgam, and the application of niello, enamel and gems.
The silversmith of those days, as in classical times, was not
only a thorough artist with a complete sense of beauty and fitness
in his work, but he was also a craftsman of the most varied
fertility of resource, and made himself thoroughly responsible
for every part of his work and every stage through which it
passed — a most striking contrast to the modern subdivision
of labour, and eagerness to produce a show of neatness without
regard to real excellence of work, which is the curse of all 19th-
century handicrafts, and one of the main reasons why our
modern productions are in the main neither works of true art
nor objects of real lasting utility.

Italian Plate. — Before the latter part of the 15th century,
large pieces of silver work were made more for ecclesiastical
use than for the gratification of private luxury. The great
silver shrine in Orvieto Cathedral, made to contain the blood-
stained corporal of the famous Bolsena miracle, is one of the
chief of these. It is a very large and elaborate work in solid
silver, made to imitate the west front of a cathedral, and decor-
ated in the most sumptuous way with figures cast and chased in
relief, and a wonderful series of miniature-like pictures embossed
in low relief and covered with translucent enamels of various
brilliant colours. This splendid piece of silver work was executed
about 1338 by Ugolino da Siena, one of whose other works, a
fine reliquary, is also at Orvieto. The other most important
pieces of silver work in Italy are the frontal and retable of St
James in the cathedral at Pistoia 2 and the altar of San Giovanni
at Florence. On these two works were employed a whole
series of the chief Tuscan artists of the 14th and 15th centuries,
many of whom, though of great reputation in other branches of
art, such as painting, sculpture on a large scale, and architecture,
did not disdain to devote their utmost skill and years of labour,
to work which we now as a rule consign to craftsmen of the very
smallest capacity. The following celebrated artists were
employed upon the altar at Florence: Antonio Pollaiuolo,
Michelozzo, Verrocchio, as well as less prominent artificers, Betto
Geri, Leonardo di Ser Giovanni and Betto di Francesco Betti.
Among the distinguished names of Florentines who during

1 Victoria History of Cornwall, i. 375.

2 E. Alfred Jones, " The Altar of Pistoia, " The Reliquary (January,
906), pp. 19-28.

the space of one century only, the 15th, worked in gold and
silver, the following may be given to suggest the high rank
which this class of work took among the arts: Brunelleschi,
Ghiberti, Donatello, Luca della Robbia, the two Follaiuoli,
Verrocchio, Michelozzo, Ghirlandaio, Botticelli, Lorenzo di
Credi, Baccio Baldini and Francia. The cities of Italy which
chiefly excelled in this religious and beautiful class of silver
work during the 14th and 15th centuries were Florence, Siena,
Arezzo, Pisa, Pistoia, Bologna, where there are fine 14th-century
silver reliquaries executed by Jacopo Roseto da Bologna for
the heads of St Dominic and St Petronio in the church of St
Stefano, Perugia, where Paolo Vanni, Roscetto and others
worked in the 14th and early 15th centuries, and Rome.

Owing to the demoralization and increase of luxury which
grew in Italy with such startling rapidity during the early years
of the 1 6th century, the wealth and artistic skill which in the
previous centuries had been mainly devoted to religious objects
were diverted into a different channel, and became for the most
part absorbed in the production of magnificent pieces of platen-
vases, ewers, dishes, and the like — of large size, and decorated
in the most lavish way with the fanciful and over-luxuriant
forms of ornament introduced by the already declining taste of
the Renaissance. This demand created a new school of metal-
workers, among whom Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1571) was per-
haps the ablest and certainly the most prominent. His graphic
autobiography makes him one of the foremost and most vivid
figures of the wonderful 16th century, in which often the most
bestial self-indulgence was mingled with the keenest enthusiasm
for art. The large salt-cellar made for Francis L, now at
Vienna, is the only piece of plate which can be definitely assigned
to Cellini. The splendid Farnese casket, with crystal plaques
engraved by Giovanni di Bernardi, in the Naples Museum, has
been wrongly attributed to Cellini. His influence on the design
of plate was very great, not only in Italy and France, but also
in Germany. 3 During the 17th century fine pieces of plate
were produced in Italy, many of them still retaining some of the
grace and refinement of the earlier Renaissance.

The papal treasure, containing priceless examples of the
goldsmith's art, was almost entirely depleted by Pius VI. to pay
the indemnity demanded by Napoleon. The tiara of Julius II.
by Caradosso, and the
splendid morse of Clement
VII. by Benvenuto Cellini,
coloured drawings of
which are preserved in
the Print Room, British
Museum, are among the
objects then destroyed.

A valuable source of study
of Italian plate (now de-
stroyed) is contained in the
three volumes of drawings,
executed between 1755 and
1764, by Grauenbroch, in
the Museo Correr at Venice.

Germany. — From very
early times Germany was
specially famed for its
works in the precious
metals, mostly for eccle-
siastical use. In the 15th
century a large quantity
of secular plate was pro-
duced of beautiful design
and skilful workmanship.
Tall covered cups on Fig. 12. — Silver Beaker, decorated
stems, modelled with a with open work, filled in with trans-

c 1 „ „„„„*.i,;„„ lucent enamels. German or Flemish,

series of bosses something of the h ce (s _ K u)

like a pineapple, beakers

and tankards, enriched with Gothic cresting and foliage, are

3 See Eugene Plon, Benvenuto Cellini, sa vie, &c. (1883); also
Cellini's own work, Dell' Oreficeria (1568).

79 8

PLATE

among the most important pieces of plate. During the 16th
century Augsburg and Nuremberg, long celebrated for their
silver work, developed a school of craftsmen whose splendid
productions have often been ascribed to the great Cellini
himself. In the first decade of the 16th century, Paul Milliner,
a Nuremberg goldsmith, furnished Frederick the Wise with
several silver-gilt reliquaries for his collection at Wittenberg.
Later in the same century came the Jamnitzer family of
Nuremberg, chief among them being Wentzel Jamnitzer,
one of whose masterpieces, an enamelled silver centre-piece,
belongs to the baroness James de Rothschild of Paris.
Mathaeus Wallbaum of Augsburg was another celebrated
goldsmith of the 16th century. His chief works are
religious ornaments of ebony mounted in silver, and the Pom-
merscher Kunstschrank in the Kunstgewerbe Museum, Berlin.
But the chief German goldsmith of the 16th century was Anton
Eisenhoit J of Warburg, who wrought the fine crucifix (1589),
the chalice and other ecclesiastical vessels which belong to the
Fiirstenberg family. Other notable craftsmen of this period
were Hans Petzolt and Melchior Bayr, the latter having made
the silver altar (with scenes from the Life of Christ after Durer)

Fig. 13. — Silver Cup, 8J in. high,
usually attributed to Jamnitzer,
but more probably by Paul Flint.
Made at Nuremberg about the mid-
dle of the 16th century. (S. K. M.)

Fig. 14. — Ewer by Fransois
Briot, about 10 in. high.
Middle of 16th century.

for the king of Poland, which is in the Sigismund chapel in Cracow
Cathedral. 2 Jakob Mores, the elder, of Hamburg, was employed
by the royal house of Denmark. A large number of his original
designs for plate are in the public art library at Berlin. Jakob
Mores, the younger, executed the silver altar at Frederiksborg
in the 17th century. In Germany the traditions of earlier
Gothic art were less rapidly broken with, and many purely
Gothic forms survived there till the end of the 16th century,
and Gothic decorative features even later. In the first half of
the 17th century, though the technical skill of the German silver-
smiths reached a high standard of merit, there was some falling
off in the execution and in the purity of outline in their designs.
Germany is richer in secular plate than any other country.
The remarkable royal collections of plate in the green vaults
at Dresden, Gotha and Munich, as well as public museums in
Germany, including the treasure of Liineburg at Berlin, afford
excellent opportunities for the study of the German goldsmith's
art, the remarkable chalice, 12th century, of St Gothard's
church, Hildesheim; the celebrated Kaiserbecher of Osnabriick

1 Lessing, Die Silber-Arbeiten von Anton Eisenhoit (1880).

2 Illustrated by Ordzywolski, in Renesaus w Polsce, pis. n-12.

of the 13th century; the cup given by the emperor Frederick III.
and Mathias Corvinus to Vienna in 1462, and the splendid ewer
of Goslar, 1477, are notable specimens of early German work.
In England the only public collections of German plate worthy
of notice are the " Waddesdon " in the British Museum, and the
Victoria and Albert Museum. Prior to its dispersal among
his five daughters, the late baron Carl von Rothschild's collection
at Frankfort-on-Main was the most extensive private collection
in existence. The Gutmann collection, acquired by Mr J. Pier-
pont Morgan, contains many rare pieces, as does that of the
baronesses Alphonse and Salomon de Rothschild in Paris.

Many of the most beautiful vessels of crystal, agate, &c,
formerly attributed to Italian artists, were carved and engraved
and set in beautiful enamelled gold and silver mounts, in southern
Germany in the 16th and 17th centuries. At the end of
the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries household plate
and other ornaments were frequently decorated with painted
enamels, mostly originating from Augsburg. Dinglinger of
Dresden and his school at about this time exercised considerable
influence in the production of ornaments in pearl and other
materials, elaborately carved, mounted and enamelled.

Several specimens exist of the models of cups required of
candidates for the rank of master-craftsmen in the second half
of the 16th century. One of these, at the Victoria and Albert
Museum, is believed to have been wrought by Martin Rehlein
of Nuremberg in 1572-1573.'

Many of the famous 15th and 16th century artists — such as
Martin Schon, Israel von Mecken, Aldegrever, Altdorfer,
Brosamer, Peter Flotner, the Behams, Hopfer and Hans Holbein
the younger, supplied the silversmiths with designs for plate.
Several of Holbein's original designs, including one for the gold
cup probably wrought by his friend, John of Antwerp, for Queen
Jane Seymour, are in the Print Room, British Museum, where
there is also an original design for a table fountain by the cele-
brated artist, Albrecht Durer. Virgil Solis of Nuremberg
(1514-1562) was especially fertile in designing plate, and he
executed a large series of etchings of designs for vases, cups,
ewers, tazze, &c. 4 Many of the German silver ewers and basins
resemble those made in pewter at the end of the 16th century by
Francois Briot and Gaspar Enderlein, who migrated from
Switzerland to Germany.

Switzerland. — This country produced several silversmiths
whose work in the main follows that of the German school.
The three historical beakers in the national library at Zurich
were made in that city from money sent out as gifts from
England by the three English bishops, Jewel of Salisbury, Horn
of Winchester, and Parkhurst of Norwich, in appreciation of the
hospitality afforded them during their exile at Zurich, in tin
reign of Queen Mary I. 6 Important plate was wrought at
Berne, Rappersweil and other Swiss towns.

Russia. — In no country is the ecclesiastical and secular plate
of greater interest than in Russia, where so many different
influences have been at work in its designs and decoration —
Byzantine, Oriental, Gothic, Renaissance, &c. The " golden
age " of ecclesiastical art was undoubtedly the 17th century,
when the churches and monasteries were being enriched with
many priceless ornaments in the precious metals. Enamels of
great richness — which had been introduced there by Hungarian
artists — niello and precious stones were employed in the decora-
tion. A drinking - cup or bowl exclusively Russian in form and
character, known as bratina, was largely made (see the fine one
of gold, enamelled and set with precious stones, in the royal
collection at Vienna), as was a smaller bowl, called czarka, with
a single handle. Another secular vessel, peculiarly Russian,
is the kovsh, a pointed or boat-shaped bowl with a long handle.
Much of the domestic plate after Peter the Great's time was
influenced by that of western countries, particularly Germany.
Poland. — -Though not without a character of its own, the

3 See Rosenberg in Kunst und Gewerbe (1885).

4 See twenty-one facsimiles of these etchings published by
J. Rimell (London, 1862).

6 Keller, " Three Silver Cups at Zurich," Arch. Journ. xvi. 158.

PLATE

799

ecclesiastical plate of Poland ' came under the influence both
of Germany and Hungary. Many of the sacred vessels of late
medieval times are decorated with enamels and niello. In the
17 th century ecclesiastical vessels encrusted with corals are
met with, such as those given by Michael Wisniowiecki, king of
Poland, to the church of Czeustochowa. A magnificent 17th-
century chalice of gold, beautifully enamelled, given by the
bishop of Plock and Breslau, son of Sigismund III., is in Plock
cathedral. Many important pieces of plate still exist in churches
in Poland, though a Polish origin is not claimed for them; for
instance, the 10th-century chalice at Trzemeszno, where there
is also another chalice of about the same period. The cathedral
of Cracow contains many priceless examples, such as the 14th-
century gold cross given by Casimir the Great; the gold crucifix
of Mathias Corvinus, and the gold reliquary, 16th century, of
St Stanislas, bishop of Cracow.

France. — France, like England, has suffered grievous losses
in its plate, though it can show a larger array of medieval
church vessels than can England. The chief specimens of
medieval plate are the 9th-century casket and the seated
statuette of St Foy (10th century) in the treasure of Conques;
the cross of Laon (c. 1200) in the Louvre; the ciborium (early
13th century) in the treasury of Sens; the cross of the same
period in Amiens Cathedral; the caskets of St Taurin (c. 1250);
the reliquary of St Epine, given by St Louis; the virgin of the
abbey of Roncevaux (Navarre, 14th century); and the virgin
given by Queen Jeanne d'Evreux to St Denis in 1339. One of
the most cherished possessions of the British Museum is the
celebrated gold and enamel cup of the kings of England, French
work of the 14th century. No doubt the visit to Paris of Cellini
exercised a great influence in the goldsmith's art there, though,
unfortunately, no examples have survived. The extravagances
of Louis XIV. and his court led to the destruction of all the royal
plate of France, as did the Revolution of 1789 of vast quantities
of domestic plate. It was not until the early part of the 18th
century that any signs of revival are visible in the art of the
silversmith. Chief among the Paris goldsmiths of that time are
Claude Ballin the younger, Thomas Germain, and, later in the
century, Francois Thomas Germain, who made the royal plate
of Portugal and several pieces for the court of Russia.

The Low Countries. — Flemish silversmiths of the late medieval
period were as skilful as they were in the Renaissance. So
little Flemish plate remains that pictures of the Flemish school
are recommended as the chief sources of study of ecclesiastical
vessels. A fine covered silver beaker, decorated with open
work and translucent enamel in the South Kensington Museum,
and another covered with figures and foliage in niello, in the
print room of the British Museum, are notable examples of
Flemish work of the 15th century. A large triptych, 13th
century, is in the Rothschild bequest to the Louvre. Ornate
rosewater ewers and basins, which came in with the Renaissance,
such as the important pair dated 1535 in the Louvre, were
made at Antwerp and other places.

The Utrecht silversmith, Paul van Vianen (early 17th century)
wrought many fine pieces of plate, including the silver bas-reliefs
in the Rijks Museum at Amsterdam, where there are five fine
bas-reliefs in silver by the Belgian silversmith, Mathias Melin.
Two other members of the same family, Adam and Christian
van Vianen, were also prominent silversmiths of this time.
An earlier Dutch silversmith, Christian van Vianen of Utrecht,
made the vessels for the altar of St George's Chapel, Windsor,
for Henry VIII.

Two important pieces of Dutch plate are the covered tazza-
shaped cup of William the Silent, date about 1573, belonging
to the earl of Yarborough, 2 and another large cup of the same
form (1595), known as the "Breda cup," in the possession of
the Hohenlohe family. Considerable quantities of plate were
produced at Amsterdam (where Johann Lutma the elder— d.
1669 — was a well-known silversmith), Haarlem, the Hague and
many other places. The numerous 17th-century Dutch pictures

1 Pozczdziecke and Rastawiecki, Polish Silver Work (1&53-1869).
2 Archaeologia, lix. 83.

of still-life and other subjects afford opportunities for the study
of tazze, beakers and other domestic vessels in silver. Hendrik
Janssens, a Dutch engraver of about 1640, executed many designs
for goldsmiths and jewellers.

Spain and Portugal. — Spanish plate was largely influenced
in the middle ages by that of France and Flanders and the art
of the Moors. But little medieval plate exists in Spain, most of
it having been destroyed at the time when a taste for more
elaborate ornaments sprang up as a result of the introduction of
fresh wealth from the colonies in the New World. The following
examples may be singled out: a cross of wood, covered with gold
filigree work, set with stones (a.d. 808), in Oviedo Cathedral,
where there is also a larger cross of wood and gold, dating from
later in the same century. A Moorish casket of wood covered
with thin silver plates is in Gerona Cathedral. The reliquary of
Alphonso III. and his queen (a.d. 866-896 covered with
embossed silver plates of the symbols of the evangelists; the nth-
century chalice at Silos; chalices of the 13th and early 14th
centuries in the cathedrals of Santiago and Toledo; and Don
Martin's great armchair, of wood covered with elaborate silver-
gilt plates, in Barcelona cathedral. The Spanish monstrances
of the 15th century are noticeable because of the Flemish
influence displayed, while those of the early part of the 16th
century, such as that by the celebrated silversmith, Enrique
Arfe, in the cathedral of Cordova, is remarkable for its ornate
character. The latter's grandson, Juan de Arfe y Villafane
(who wrote De varia conmensuracion, 1585, on silverwork and
other arts) became a chief maker of these magnificent mon-
strances; for instance, the celebrated example in Seville cathedral.
He was associated with Pacheco in executing statues. About
the 15th century Barcelona became famed as a centre for the
silversmith's art, and the Libros de pasantia, or silversmiths'
examination books, still preserved in that city, contain a large
number of designs for jewel-work. Seville likewise had an
important gild of silversmiths, as did the following cities: Toledo,
Valladolid, Burgos, Cordova and Salamanca. The celebrated
family of Becerril wrought fine plate at Cuenca in the 16th
century. Many chalices and some domestic plate of the 16th
and early 17th centuries are embellished with small enamelled
disks, some of which show Saracenic influence in details. The
Victoria and Albert Museum possesses a fine collection of
Spanish goldsmith's work.

Portuguese plate displays in its Gothic features a very florid
style, in imitation of that adopted by architects in the reign of
Don Manuel (1495-1521). A typical example of this extrava-
gance of Gothic motives may be seen in the monstrance of Belem,
which was made from gold brought from the East by Vasco da
Gama.

Austria and Hungary. — Austrian plate is, like that of Switzer-
land, largely based on German models. The ecclesiastical plate
of Hungary in the 15th and 16th centuries is celebrated for its
enamelled work of a flowered design enclosed in filigree wire —
introduced from Italy. This enamelled decoration was con-
tinued in the 17th century, but without the filigree wire, and it
is then described as " Transylvanian." Much of the secular
plate of the 16th and 17th centuries in north and east Hungary
is influenced by German plate, while that in Transylvania is
frequently inspired by Oriental designs.

English. — There is strong evidence of the importance attached
to English medieval plate by Continental peoples, as there was
to the magnificent English illuminated MSS., and, later, to the
embroidered vestments, opus anglicanum. But, unfortunately,
the ruthless destruction of plate during the Wars of the Roses,
the Reformation and the Great Rebellion has spared but few
medieval pieces to which we can point. Under the name of
Protestantism every ecclesiastical vessel with a device savouring
of " popish superstition " was instantly destroyed. The inven-
tories of the great cathedrals and religious houses plainly reveal
their marvellous wealth in gold and silver vessels.

Norfolk is richer than any other county in pre-Reformatiorj
chalices and patens. 3 The well-known " Gloucester " candlestick,
3 Norfolk Arch. xii. 85.

8oo

PLATE

though composed of inferior metal, is an illustration of the
fine plate wrought in England in the 12th century, while
the ancient anointing spoon of the sovereigns of England at the
Tower of London is an historical relic of the end of the 12th
century (with the bowl altered for Charles II.). The earl of
Carysfort is the fortunate possessor of a silver-gilt censer of
about 1375 and an incense ship, of about 1400, found in Whittle-
sea Mere in 1850, and formerly belonging to Ramsey Abbey. 1
Only one pre-Reformation English gold chalice has survived,
which with its paten and a silver crosier was given to Corpus
Christi College, Oxford, by its founder, Bishop Foxe (Plate II.,
fig. 26). Both bear the London date-letter for 1 507-1 508.
Another historical relic which has come down to the present day,
though in a restored form, is the gold ampulla of about the end
of the 14th century in the Tower of London. The universities
of Oxford and Cambridge, though sadly depleted of their plate,
can still show some notable pieces. The earliest example at
each is a drinking horn, both of the 14th century, at Queen's
College, Oxford, and Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. Other
notable horns are the Pusey horn 2 ; the celebrated Bruce horn
with the seals of John of Gaunt attached, and one at Christ's
Hospital.

Mazer bowls, made of wood mounted in silver and even in
gold, and frequently engraved with scriptural and other inscrip-
tions (see Plate II., fig. 28), were popular drinking vessels in
England in medieval times. Many of these have survived, the
earliest specimen being one of Edward II. at Harbledown
hospital. They ceased to be made after the reign of Elizabeth
(Archaeologia, i. 129). Medieval coco-nut cups, mounted in
silver, are of frequent occurrence in England, the best known
examples being in the possession of the colleges at Oxford and
Cambridge and several of the city companies. As has been men-
tioned before, but few examples of early plate exist; the following
is a brief list of some of the most notable pieces, other than those
previously enumerated: the " Sokborn " cup (c. 1430), and the
" Anathema " cup (1481-1482) at Pembroke College, Cambridge;
the Leigh cup (1499) at Mercers' Hall; the ivory and silver cup
(1525-1526) of the duke of Norfolk; the pastoral staff (c. 1367) at
New College, Oxford; the Richmond cup (c. 1510) at Armourers'
Hall; the " election cup " (c. 1520) at Winchester College; and
the Foundress' plate, consisting of a fine covered cup (1435-1440),
two salts (c. 1500), a beaker and cover (1 507-1 508), and a salt
(1507-1508) at Christ's College, Cambridge. Of Elizabeth's reign,
the finest examples are probably the salt of the Vintners' Com-
pany (Plate II., fig. 27), and the rosewater dish and ewer of the
duke of Rutland. Stoneware jugs, as the well-known example

(1581) from West Mailing, Kent,
and Chinese porcelain vessels
were elaborately mounted in
Elizabethan times, a goodly pro-
portion of the former having
been done by goldsmiths at
Exeter.

The Celtic races of both
England and Ireland appear to
have possessed great wealth in
gold and silver, but especially
the former. It seems, however,
to have been mostly used in the
manufacture of personal orna-
ments, such as torques, fibulae
and the like. A magnificent
suit of gold armour, repoussi
with simple patterns of lines and
dots, was found some years ago
at Mold in Flintshire, and is
now in the British Museum. 3
The amount of old jewelry found in Ireland during the past
century has been enormous; but, owing to the unfortunate
law of " treasure-trove," by far the greater part was immediately

1 Illustrated in Old Cambridge Plate, pp. 102-303.

2 Archaeologia, iii. 3, xii. 377. 3 Ibid. xxvi. 422.

melted down by the finders. Little of this period that can
be called plate has been discovered in the British Isles — unlike
Denmark and other Scandinavian countries, where the excava-
tion of tombs has in many cases yielded rich results in the way
of massive cups, bowls, ladles and horns of solid gold, mostly
decorated with simple designs of spirals, concentric circles, or
interlaced grotesques. Others are of silver, parcel-gilt, and
some have figure subjects in low relief (fig. 15). In like
manner, during the Saxon period, though gold and silver
jewelry was common, yet little plate appears to have been
made, with the exception of shrines, altar-f rentals and vessels
for ecclesiastical use, of which every important church in
England must have possessed a magnificent stock. With
regard to English secular plate, though but few early examples
still exist, we know from various records, such as wills and
inventories, that the 14th century was one in which every
rich lord or burgher prided himself on his fine and massive
collection of silver vessels; on festive occasions this was dis-
played, not only on the dinner-table, but also on sideboards,
arranged with tiers of steps, one above the other, so as to show
off to advantage the weighty silver vases, flagons and dishes
with which it was loaded. The central object on every rich
man's table was the " nef " — a large silver casket, usually (as
the name suggests) in the form of a * ship, and arranged
to contain the host's napkin, goblet, spoon and knife, with
an assortment of spices and salt. No old English " nefs "
are now known. Great sums were often spent on this large
and elaborate piece of plate, e.g. one made for the duke of
Anjou in the 14th century weighed 348 marks of gold.
The English silversmiths of this period were highly
skilled in their art, and produced objects of great beauty
both in design and workmanship. One of the finest
specimensof Edward III.'s plate which
still exists is a silver cup belonging to
the mayor and corporation of King's
Lynn. It is graceful and chalics-like in

Fig. 15. — Silver Cup, 4! in.
high, with embossed gold band;
found in a grave in the east
of Zealand (Denmark). This
cup dates from the earlier part
of the Iron Age.

Fig. 16. — Silver Cup, with Fig. 17. — Silver-gilt

translucent enamels. Probably Salt-cellar, 14J in. high.

English work of the 14th Given to New College,

century. Oxford, in 1493.

form, skilfully chased, and decorated in a very rich and elaborate
way with coloured translucent enamels (fig. 16) of ladies and
youths, several with hawks on their wrists. Silver salt-cellars
were among the most elaborate pieces of plate produced during
the 15th century. Several colleges at Oxford and Cambridge
still possess fine specimens of these (fig. 17); a favourite shape
was a kind of hour-glass form richly ornamented, made between
about 1480 and 1525.

PLATE

801

But few existing specimens of English plate are older than
the beginning of the 15th century. Among the few that remain
the principal are chalices — such as the two large silver-gilt
ones found in the coffin of an archbishop of York, now used
for holy communion in the cathedral, and a fine silver chalice
from the church of Berwick St James, Wilts, now in the British
Museum. Both this and the York chalices are devoid of orna-
ment, and, judging from their shape, appear to be of the first
half of the 13th century, which is the date of the fine medieval
chalice and paten found near Dolgelly some years ago (the latter
now believed in some quarters to be of German origin). Several
Tudor cups are in existence: the celebrated one of 1 521 (Plate II.,
fig. 30), an earlier one, 1500; two covered ones of about 1510
and 1512 at Sandwich and Wymeswold, respectively; one (1515)
at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and the Bodkin cup (1525)
of the Corporation of Portsmouth. A very early beaker (1496)
is in a private collection, as is also a small Tudor bowl (1525-1526).
The earliest known chalices of silver include the Gourdon chalice
and paten, the St Gozlin chalice at Nancy (10th century); the
12th-century specimen in the abbey of Wilten in Tirol.

It is interesting to note the various changes of form through
which the ecclesiastical chalice passed from early Christian times
Chalices. ^" tne ^th century. It was at first an ordinary
secular cup with two handles, classical in form and
of large capacity, because the laity as well as the clergy
received the wine. The double handles were of practical use
in passing the cup round like a modern " loving cup." The first
alteration was the omission of the handles, so that it took the
form of a large hemispherical bowl, with a round foot, and a
knop for security in holding it. For some centuries it appears
to have been the custom for the priest to hold the chalice, while
the communicant sucked the wine through a silver tube or " fistula."
Some of the most magnificent early examples of this form of chalice
have the bowl mounted in bands, set with jewels, and enriched
with minute filigree work — a design which appears to have been
taken from those cups, such as the four magnificent examples in
the treasury of St Mark's at Venice, which have their bowl cut out
of crystal, onyx or some other precious stone. 1 The finest examples
of this class are the Ardagh chalice, now in the Dublin Museum,
and the chalice of St Remigius, in Reims
cathedral; both are most magnificent speci-
mens of the taste and skill of 10th to nth
century goldsmiths. In the 12th and 13th
centuries the design becomes simpler; there
, is a distinct shaft, extending above and below
the knop; and on the foot is marked a cross,
not found in the earlier ones, to show which
side the priest is to hold towards himself at
celebration. The next alteration in the
form of chalice, which occurred in the 14th
century, was to make the foot not circular
in plan but polygonal or lobed, so that the
cup might not roll when laid on its side to
drain, after it had been rinsed out. This
Fig. 18. — Elizabethan form lasted in most countries till about 1500,
Chalice. a "d in England till the Reformation. Then

the bowl, which in the previous two or
three centuries had been slowly reduced in size, owing to the
gradually introduced practice of refusing the wine to the laity,
was suddenly made more capacious, and the form was altered to
the shape shown in fig. 18, in order that the Protestant " com-
munion cup " might bear no resemblance to the old Catholic " mass-
ing chalice." This was ordered to be done in 1562 (see Arch.
Journ. xxv. 44-53). The best account of the evolution in the form
of English medieval chalices and patens is by W. H. St John
Hope and T. M. Fallow, in Archaeologia, vol. xliii.

Secular plate during the 15th and 16th centuries was fre-
quently similar in style to that made in Germany, though the
English silversmiths of the latter century never quite equalled
the skill or artistic talent of the great Nuremberg and Augsburg
silver- workers. In the 1 7th century, during the reigns of James I.
and Charles I., many fine pieces of plate, especially tall cups
and tankards, were made of very graceful form and decoration.
The greater part of this, and all earlier plate, especially the fine
collections belonging to the universities, were melted down
during the Civil War. In Charles II. 's reign returning prosperity
and the increase of luxury in England caused the production
of many magnificent pieces of plate, often on a large scale, such
as toilet services, wine-coolers, and even fire-dogs and other
furniture. These are very florid in their ornament, much of it
1 See De Fleurv. La Messe (Paris, 1882), &c.
xxi. 26

under Dutch influence, and mostly have lost the beautiful forms
of the century before (fig. 19 and Plate II., fig. 29). In the early
part of the 18th century the designs of English plate were to
some extent influenced by the introduction of French ornaments
by the large band of French silversmiths who sought refuge in
England after the revocation of the edict of Nantes. Chief
among these Frenchmen (though probably not a refugee him-
self) was Paul Lamerie, who produced a large number of notable
specimens, the largest of which is a fjne wine-cooler in the Winter
Palace, St Petersburg. Through the greater part of the reign
of George III. English plate is more remarkable for its plain
solidity than for artistic merit. With the advent, however, of
the talented architects, the brothers Adam, came a taste for
plate with classical characteristics. The South Kensington
Museum has a small, though fine, collection of plate, varying

Fig. 19. — Covered Cup of Solid Gold, 6 in. high, c. 1660-1670.
Given to Exeter College, Oxford, by George Hall, Bishop of Chester.

in date from 1770 to 1788, in the Adam style. Many of Flax-
man's designs were produced in plate, among the most important
being the " Shield of Achilles," in silver-gilt, at Windsor Castle.
Thomas Stothard, the painter, executed several designs for gold-
smith's work for Rundell and Bridge.

The Assay of Gold and Silver Plate. — The primitive method of
testing the purity of the metal was by marking a streak with it
on the touchstone, and comparing the colour
of the mark with that made by various pieces
of gold or silver of known degrees of purity.
Assay by cupellation is now employed for
silver: a piece of the silver to be tested is
melted with some lead in a cupel or bone-
ash crucible; the lead is oxidized, and
rapidly sinks into the bone-ash, carrying
with it any other impurities which are
present. The residue of pure silver is then
weighed, and by its loss shows how much
alloy it contained. Gold is now tested by
an elaborate chemical process by which the
trial bit is dissolved in acid, and then
thrown down in the form of precipitate, Fig. 20. — Silver

which can be examined by a careful quan- ^^\ Ix „ ln " J: '
,_.,■■ , . / . J N dated 1772. De-

titative analysis (see Assaying). signed by the

The standard of purity required in the brothers Adam,
time of Edward I. was, for gold, that it
should be of the " Paris touch," i.e. 19J carats out of 24.
Before then 22 carats was the standard. Silver was to be " of
the sterling alloy," viz. n oz. 2 dwt. to the pound. Except for
a time during the 16th century this standard of silver has been
kept up, and is still required by law.

Hall-marks on Silver. — In the 13th century the English Gild
of Gold- and Silver-smiths had grown into'great importance, and
had acquired monopolies and many special privileges. In order
to keep the standard up to the required purity the system of
requiring each article to be stamped with certain marks was
introduced by royal command. The first of these was the

11

8o2

PLATE

king's mark — a leopard's or lion's head crowned. This was
introduced in 1300 by Edward I. (29 Edw. I. stat. 3, c. 30).
The second, the maker's mark, was instituted in 1363 (37 Edw.
III. c. 7). This might be any badge or initial chosen by the
master silversmith himself. The third was the Year letter or
assayer's mark; this was an alphabet, one letter being used
for a year, counting from the day of the annual election of the
warden of the Goldsmiths' Company. When one alphabet was
exhausted another with differently shaped letters was begun.
The earliest existing piece of plate which has the three marks is
the chalice (with paten, 1479-1480), at Nettlecombe, Somerset.
Other marks, subsequently introduced, were the lion passant,
first used in 1544; the lion's head erased; and a full-length figure
of Britannia, used only between 1697 and 1719-1720; and, lastly,
the portrait of the reigning sovereign, which was used from 1784
to 1890, when the duty on gold and silver plate ceased. In
addition to these general hall-marks, the plate made in various
provincial towns had certain special assay and hall-marks.

The best work on hall-marked plate and the marks themselves,
with the history of the Goldsmiths' Company, is C. J. Jackson's
English Goldsmiths and their Marks (1905), where will be found
illustrations of the marks found on plate wrought in Scotland and
Ireland, and at English provincial gilds — York, Norwich, Exeter,
Chester, Lincoln, Newcastle, Birmingham, Sheffield and other
places. E. Alfred Jones's book, Old English Gold Plate (1907),
illustrates and describes gold plate only.

Modern Plate in the East. — Though little plate of real artistic
merit is now made in Europe, in the East among the Moslem
and Hindu races there still survive some real taste in design and
skill in execution. Delhi, Benares, Lucknow, Cutch and other
places in India and Kashmir still produqe a quantity of beautiful
silver and gold work — chiefly ewers, basins, rose-water sprinklers,
salvers, coffee-pots and the like. These are of graceful form,
covered with rich repousse work, or more often with very delicate
chased patterns. Their style in the main is Moslem, but some
combine an Arab form with native Indian surface decoration.
This class of work is not a revival, but has been practised and
handed down by unbroken tradition, and with little or no
change in style from the 16th century or even earlier. 1 The
silversmiths of Persia, Damascus and other Eastern places are
still skilful, and retain some good tradition in their designs.
They are, however, more occupied in the production of personal
ornaments than in making larger works of silver or gold.

Authorities. — Scandinavian and Celtic Plate. — Worsaae, Pri-
meval Antiquities of Denmark (1849); Afbildninger fra de Kongelige
Museum (1854); " Industrial Arts of Denmark," S.K.M. Hand-
book (1882); Atlas de I'archeologie du nord (1857); Anderson,
Mindelblade fra de danske kongers Samling (1867); Danmarks,
Norges, og Sverigs historie (1867); Madsen, Afbildninger af danske
Oldsager (1868-1876); Montelius, Antiquites suedoises (1873-1875);
Stralsund, Der Goldschmuck von Hiddensoe (1881); Hildebrand,
" Industrial Arts of Scandinavia," S.K.M. (1882); Reeves, Shrine
of St Patrick's Bell (1850); Wilde, Catalogue of Antiquities of Gold,
Royal Irish Academy (1862); Margaret Stokes, Early Christian
Art in Ireland (1875); J. Romilly Allen, Celtic Art in Pagan and
Christian Times (1904).

Danish. — C. Nyrop, Meddelelser ond dansk Guldesmedekunst
(1884); Bernhard Olsen, De kjobenhavnske Guldsmedes Marker fra
Tiden for Aaret, 1800 (1892).

Italian. — L. Caglieri, Compendio delle vite dei santi orefici ed argen-
tieri (1727); II Santuario delle reliquie ossia it tesoro delta basilica
di S. Antonio di Padova (1851) ; " Stanziamenti e contratti per opere
di oreficeria (XIV.-XV. cent.)," Perugia: R.Commissione Giornale,
i. 333, iii. 206, 225 (1872-1874); Filangieri, Documenti per la storia,
le arte e le industrie delle provincie napoletane (1 883-1 891); Antonio
Pasini, II Tesoro di San Marco, Venezia (2 vols., 1885-1886);
" Orfevres et l'orfevrerie en Savoie," Chambery: Soc. savoisienne
memoires, xxiv. 329 (1886); A. Guarneri, Esposizione di Palermo.
Catalogo delta collezione di antica oreficeria ed argenteria (1891);
L. Fumi, // Santuario del SS. Corporate net duomo di Orvieto (1896) ;
Congresso eucaristico ed esposizione di arte sacra antica in Orvieto
(1897); Congresso eucaristico di Venezia (1898); A. Cocchi, Les
Anciens reliquaires de Santa Maria del Fiore et de San Giovanni de
Florence (1903) ; O. H. Giglioli, Pistoia, nelle sue opere d'arte (1904) ;
Catalogo generate delta mostra d'arte antica abruzzese in Chieti
(1905) ; E. Manceri, Notizie di Sicilia, arte viii. 388 (1905) ; P. Pic-
cirilli, Oreficeria medievale aquilana: due cimeli nel Victoria and
Albert Museum di Londra (1905); F. Ferrari, L'Oreficeria in Aquila

1 See Birdwood, Industrial Arts of India (1880), p. 144.

(1906) ; S. J. A. Churchill, " The Goldsmiths of Rome under the
Papal Authority," with valuable bibliography, Papers of British
School at Rome, vol. iv. (1907) ; Catalogo delta mostra d 'antica arte
Umbra (Perugia, 1907) ; Corrado Ricci, It Palazzo pubblico di Siena
e la mostra d' antica arte senese.

Russian, &c. — A. P. Sonzoff , an illustrated book on some Russian
plate (1857-1858); A. Maskell, Russian Art and Art Objects in
Russia (1884); C. de Linas, Les Origines de l'orfevrerie cloisonne;
Viollet-le-Duc, Art russe; Antiquities of the Russian Empire.

Austrian and Hungarian. — B. Czobor and I. Szalay, Die histori-
schen Denkmdler Ungarns (1897-1901); E. Radisics and J. Szendrei,
Treasure of Hungarian Art (Hung.) (Budapest, 1897-1901); J.
Mihalik, " History of Goldsmiths' work at Kassa " (Hung.), in
vol. xxi. of Archaeological Proceedings of Hungarian Academy (1899) ;
" Zur Geschichte der Wiener Gold- und Silberschmiedekunst," by

E. Leisching, in Kunst und Kunsthandwerk, vii. 343 (1904); "Alt
Troppauer Goldschmiedekunst," by E. W. Braun, in Zeitschrift f-ilr
Geschichte . . . oesterreichisch Schlesiens, i. 24 (1905); J. Hampel,
Alterthumer des fruhen Mittelalters in Vngarn (Brunswick, 1907) ;
Katalog der Ausstellung von alt-oesterreichtschen Goldschmiede-
arbeiten (Kaiser Franz Josef Museum in Troppau) ; A. Ilg, Wiener
Schmiedewerk.

German, &c. — Manuscripts (W. Jamnitzer) , " Ein gar kunstlicher
und wolgetzicrter Schreibtisch sampt allerhant kunstlichen silbern
und vergulten newerfunden Instrumenten " (1585), col. drawings;
Sibmacher, Entwurfe fur Goldschmiede (1879); R- Bergau,. Wentzel
Jamnitzer (1880); Erzeugnisse der Silber-Schmiede Kunst aus dem
16 bis 18 Jahrh. (1883); Luthmer, Der Schatz des Freiherrn K. von
Rothschild (2 vols., 1883-1885); Luthmer and Schuermann, Gross-
herzoglich-hessische Silberkammer (1884); C. A. von Drach, Altere
Silbsrarbeiten in den kgl. Sammlungen zu Cassel (1888); Marc
Rosenberg, Der Goldschmiede Merkzeichen (1890) ; J. H. Hefner-
Alteneck, Deutsche Goldschmiede-ioerke des 16. Jahrh. (1890); Marc
Rosenberg, 17 Blatt aus dem grossherzoglich sdchsischen Silberschatz
im Schlosse zu Weimar (1891); Die Kunstkammer im grossherzog-
lichen Residenzschlosse zu Karlsruhe (1892); Siebzehn Blatt aus dem
herzoglich Anhaltischen Silberschatz im Schlosse zu Dessau (1895);

F. Sarre, Die berliner Goldschmiede Zunft (1895); P. Seidel,
" Deux ceuvres de Wenzel Jamnitzer," Der Silber- und Goldschatz
der Hohenzollern im kgl. Schlosse zu Berlin (1895); Gaz. des beaux
arts, 3 S. xx. 221 (1898); Eugen von Nottbeck und W. Neumann,
Geschichte u. Kunstdenkmaler der Stadt Reval (1899); Bernhard
Olsen, De hamburgske Guldsmede Jakob Mores d. oeldres og d.
yngres Arbejder for de danske Konger Frederik II. og Christian IV.
(1903), {Die Arbeiten der hamburgischen Goldschmiede Jacob Mores,
Vater und Sohn, fur die ddnischen Konige Frederick II. und
Christian IV.); J. Sembritzki, Verzeichniss in Memel vorhandener,
dlterer Erzeugnisse der Edelschmiedekunst (1904) ; H. P. Mitchell,
" Two works by Wentzel Jamnitzer," Art Journal, p. 105 (1905);
W. Neumann, Verzeichnis baltischer Goldschmiede, ihrer Merk-
zeichen und Werke (1905) ; E. Hintze, Die breslauer Goldschmiede
(1906); E. Alfred Jones, " The gold and silver plate of W. D. von
Raitenau, prince-archbishop of Salzburg, in the Pitti Palace,"
Connoisseur, xviii. 20 (1907) ; " The Plate of the Emperor of
Germany," Connoisseur, nos. 51 and 54; Illustrated Catalogue of
Early German Art (Burlington Fine Arts Club, 1908) ; Richard
Graul, Leipziger Gold- und Silber schmiedearbeiten des Mittelalters
(1908); A. Weiss, Das Handwerk der Goldschmiede zu Augsburg bis
1681 ; E. von Schauss, Die Schatzkammer des bayerischen Konigs-
hauses; " Duke of Portland's Gold Cup," Archeologia, lix. 233.

French, Burgundian, &c. — J. C. Delafosse, Nouvelle iconologie
historique, fol. (1771); E. Aubert, Tresor de I'abbaye de Saint-
Maurice d'Agaune (1872); Mely, Le Tresor de Chartres (1886); L.
Palustre et X. Barbier de Montault, Le Tresor de Treves (1886);
J. D'Arbaumont et L. Marchant, Le Tresor de la Sainte-Chapelle de
Dijon d'apres ses anciens inventaires (1887); C. G. Bapst, Etudes
sur l'orfevrerie francaise au XVIII 6 siecle, le Germain, orfevres-
sculpteurs du Roy (1887); Album de I'exposition de I'art ancien au
pays de Liege: orfevrerie religieuse (1888); Catalogue raisonni des
pieces d' orfevrerie francaise composant la collection du marquis da
Foz (d Lisbonne) ( 1 889) ; V Orfevrerie francaise d la cow de Portugal
au XVIII'. siecle (1892); E. Muntz, Histoire de I'art pendant la
Renaissance (1891) ; W. Cripps, Old French Plate (1893) ; H. Havard,
Histoire de l'orfevrerie francaise (1896); Inventaire de l'orfevrerie
et des joyaux de Louis I. (1903) ; E. Molinier, Un Monument d'orfev-
rerie frangaise du XIII", siecle, Soc. des andq. de France, p. 477
(1904) ; F. Pasquier, " Objets precieux de la maison de Foix au quinzi-
eme siecle," Soci£tes des beaux arts, Memoires (1904); L. de Farcy,
" Croix de la Roche-Foulques," Revue de I'art Chretien, p. 337
(!905) ; J. J. Marquet de Vasselot, Catalogue raisonne de la collection
Martin Le Roy (1906) ; Histoire de I'art, ii. 988-999 (with biblio-
graphy), edited by Andre Michel (1907), &c. ; A. Lefranc, 50 planches
d'ancienne orfevrerie empire.

Low Countries. — Van Loon, Histoire metallique des Pays-Bas
(Hague, 1 732-1 737); Schaepkens, Tresor de I'art ancien en Belgique
(1846); Tentoonstellung Amsterdam (illustrations), (1877); for marks
on Dutch plate, see Nederlandsche Kunstbode (1879); Exposition
retrospective d'objets d'art en or et en argent, Amsterdam (1880);
Roddaz, V Art ancien dU 'exposition nalionale beige (1882) ; Leewarden-
Provincial Friesch Genootschap (1902) ; Catalogue of the Exhibition

PLATE

803

at Bruges (1903); Catalogue of the Exhibition at Liege (1905); J.
Helbig, L'Art Mosan.

Spanish. — Riano, Industrial Arts in Spain (1879); Davillier,
L'Orfevrerie en Espagne (1879); Museo espanol de antiguedades
(1879); Jos6 Villaamil y Castro (on Spanish chalices), Boletin de
la sociedad espanola de excursiones (April, 1893); El Tesoro de la
catedral de Santiago; H. P. Mitchell, Catalogue of the Silversmiths'
Work in the Wyndham Cook Art Collection (1905) ; L. Williams,
Arts and Crafts of Older Spain (1907); Don Enrique de Leguina
Baron de la Vega de Hoz, La Plata espanola; Gestoso, Diccionario
de artifices sevillanos.

American. — J. H. Buck, Old Plate (1903); American Silver
(Boston, 1906) ; Colonial Silverware of the 17th and 18th centuries
(1907); E. Alfred Jones, " Old American Silver Plate," Connoisseur
(December, 1908).

English. — H. Shaw, Dresses and Decorations of the Middle Ages
(1843); Decorative Arts of the Middle Ages (1851); Bray, Life of
Stothard ( 1 85 1 ) ; Catalogue of the A ntiquities and Works of A rt
exhibited at Ironmongers' Hall (1861); Catalogue of the Exhibition
of Objects of Art, South Kensington (1862); W. Cripps, College
and Corporation Plate (1881); Old English Plate (9th ed., 1906) ;
R. S. Ferguson, The Old Church Plate of the Diocese of Carlisle
(1882); Atkinson and Foster, Old Cambridge Plate (1883); W. A.
Scott Robertson, Church Plate in Kent (1886); R. C. Hope, Church
Plate in Rutland (1887); J. E. Nightingale, The Church Plate of
Dorset (1889); Tlie Church Plate of Wilts (1891); A Trollope, The
Church Plate of Leicestershire (1890) ; F. G. Hilton Price, Handbook
of London Bankers, with some account of the Early Goldsmiths (1890-
1891); H. D. Ellis, The Silver Plate of the Armourers' Company
(1892); The Silver Plate of the Merchant Taylors' Company (1892);
" The Plate of Christ's Hospital," Trans, of the London and Middlesex
Arch. Soc. (1902, new series, vol. i., pt. 4); Sir J. Watney, The Plate
of the Mercers' Company (1892); Rev. T. Burns, Old Scottish Com-
munion Plate (1892); J. Starkie Gardner, English Enamels (1894);
Old Silver Work, chiefly English, 15th to 18th centuries (1902) ;
" Charles II. Silver at Welbeck," Burlington Mag. vol. vii. nos. 25
and 26; " Silver Plate of the Duke of Newcastle," Burlington Mag.
vol. vii!. no. 32; " Silver Plate of the Duke of Rutland," Burlington
Mag. vols., viii. and ix. nos. 36 and 37; C. A. Markham, The Church
Plate of the County of Northampton (1894) ; Handbook to Foreign Hall-
marks (1898) ; E. H. Freshfield, The Communion Plate of the Churches
in the City of London (1894); The Communion Plate of the County of
London (1895); The Communion Plate of Middlesex (1897); The
Communion Plate of Essex (1899); Sir W. Prideaux, Memorials of
the Goldsmiths' Company (1896); L. Jewitt and W. H. St John
Hope, The Corporation Plate, &fc, of England and Wales (1805) ;
W. Chaffers, Gilda Aurifabrorum (1896); Hall Marks on Gold and
Silver Plate (1905); Cyril Davenport, The English Regalia (1897);
Haslewood, Church Plate of Suffolk (1897); G. E. Halliday, Llandaff
Church Plate (1901); A. Butler, "The Old English Silver of the
Innholders' Company," Connoisseur (1901), i. 236; " The Old English
Silver of the Skinners' Company," Connoisseur (1903), v. 201, vi. 33;
Percy McQuoid, " The Plate of Winchester College," Burlington
Mag. (1903) ii. 149; " Evolution in English Plate," Burlington Mag.
(1903) i. 167, 359; The History of English Furniture (1904, &c);
Stanhope and Moffatt, The Church Plate of the County of Hereford,
(1903); Guide to the Early Christian .and Byzantine Antiquities,
British Museum (1903); General Guide to the Art Collections {Gold
and Silver), Science and Art Museum, Dublin (1903); Montague
Howard, Old London Silver (1903); E. Radford, " The Church Plate
of St Lawrence Jewry," Connoisseur (1904), viii. 72; H. F. N.
Jourdain, History of the Mess Plate of the 88th Regiment (1904) ;
T. M. Fallow, " Yorkshire Plate and Goldsmiths," Journal of Arch.
Inst, of Great Britain (1904), lxi. 74; J. T. Evans, The Church
Plate of Pembrokeshire (1905) ; The Church Plate of Gloucestershire
(1906); The Church Plate of Carmarthenshire (1908); C. H.
Ashdown, Notes on the Corporation Plate and Insignia of the City
of St Alban (1905); H. C. Casley, "An Ipswich Worker of Eliza-
bethan Church Plate," Suffolk Inst, of Arch, and Nat. Hist.
(1905) vol. xii. pt. 2; F. Guy Laking, The Furniture of Windsor
Castle (1905); H. C. Moffatt, Old Oxford Plate (1906); J. W.
Caldicott, The Values of Old English Silver and Sheffield Plate
(1906); E. Alfred Jones, "The Old Silver Sacramental Vessels
of English Nonconformity," Mag. of Fine Arts (1906), i. 280, 371;
The Church Plate of the Diocese of Bangor (1906) ; The Old Church
Plate of the Isle of Man (1907) ; The Old Silver Sacramental
Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England (1907) ; Old
English Gold Plate (1907) ; Illustrated Catalogue of Leopold de Roths-
child's Collection of Plate (1907) ; Two Illustrated Catalogues of J.
Pierpont Morgan's Collection of Plate (1907-1908); "Old Plate
at the Dublin Exhibition, 1907," Connoisseur (Dec. 1907);
" English Plate at the Church Congress, Great Yarmouth," Bur-
lington Mag. vol. xii. no. 57 (Dec. 1907) ; The Old Plate at the
Tower of London (1908) ; " The Civic Plate, Regalia, &c, of the Norfolk
Boroughs," Memorials of Old Norfolk (1908); The Old English Plate
of the Czar of Russia (1909) ; The Old Plate of the Cambridge Colleges
(1909); "Some Old Plate in the possession of Lord Mostyn,"
Burlington Mag.; " The Plate of Jesus College, Oxford," Y Cymm-
rodor, vol. xvii. ; Guide to the Medieval Room, British Museum
'•'9°7) I Nelson Dawson, Goldsmiths' and Silversmiths' Work (1907);

T. S. Ball, Chester Church Plate (1908); R. H. Cocks, Concerning
some Treasures of the Vintners' Company; Hope and Fallow, " English
Medieval Chalices and Patens," Arch. Journal, xliii. 140; C. J.
Jackson, "The Spoon and its History," Archaeologia, vol. liii. ;
G. R. French, " The Plate of the Vintners' Company," London
and Middlesex Arch. Soc. Trans, vol. iii. ; " The Plate of the Mercers'
Company," London and Middlesex Arch. Soc. Trans, vol. iv. ;
J. G. Nichols, " The Plate of the Stationers' Company," London
and Middlesex Arch. Soc. Trans, vol. ii.; Article on " Drinking and
other Horns," in Chester Arch. Soc. Journal, new series, vol. xi. ;
Somerset Arch. Soc. xlv. 2; Oxfordshire Arch. Soc. Proc. vols,
xxvi., xxiv. ; Norfolk Archaeology.

Designs, &c. — J. Giardini, 100 Designs for Silversmiths' Work,
(pub. in Rome, 1750) ; A. W. Pugin, Designs for Gold- and Silversmiths,
(1836) ; Andronet du Cerceau, Ornemens d'orfevrerie propres pour
ftanquer el emailler: nouveau livre d'ornemens d'orfevrerie (pub.
Paris, c. 1660, London, 1888); H. Bouchot, Cent modeles inedils
de I'orfevrerie francaise des if et 18" si'ecles executes par les orfevres-
sculpteurs royaux Nic. de Launay, J. J. Roettiers, T. Germain,
F. T. Germain et reproduits d'apres les dessins originaux de la
bibliotheque nat. (1888); Le Cabinet des estampes de la bibliotheque
nalionale (1895) ; Reproductions of Paul Flindt's designs for gold-
smiths' work, published 1888; Reproductions d'anciennes gravures
d'orfevrerie hollandaise (1892-1900); Collection of illustrations
entitled Die Schatzkammer des Bayer-Konigshauses (1902). For
an account of the original drawings for silversmiths' work in the
museum at Basle see Jahrbucher der kgl. preuss. Kunstsammlungen
(1905) ; Illustrated reproductions of goldsmiths' designs by the
Dutch silversmith, Adam Vianen; Etienne Delaune (1519-1583),
Reproductions of his goldsmiths' ornaments, Paris; J. F. Forty,
Oeuvres d'orfevrerie a I 'usage des Sglises; J. C. Reiff (18 Jahrh.),
4 Blatt sehr schone Zierrathen fur Goldschmiede, &c. ; Giardini,
Promptuarium artis argentariae (Rome, 1750) ; Holbein, Original
Designs for Plate, in the Print Room, British Museum, and in the
Bodleian at Oxford (the South Kensington Museum also has a fine
collection of original 16th-century designs in pen and ink); Viane,
Models of Silver Vases, &c. (Utrecht, 17th cent.) ; hoie, Brasiers . . .
et autres ouvrages de orfevrerie, and Nouveaux dessins de gueridons,
&c. (Paris, n.d.); Maria, Livre de dessins de jouaillerie, &c. (Paris,
n.d.); Portefeuille d'ornement (Paris, 1841).

Miscellaneous. — Hertfelder, Basilica SS. Udalrici el Afrae
(Augsburg, 1627); Masson, Neue Vorrisse von Sachen die auf allerlei
Goldsmidts Arbeit, &c. (Augsburg, 1710) ; Christyn, Dilices des Pays-
Bas (1769), vol. iii. ; Frisi, Memorie delta chiesa Monzese (1774-1780);
Shaw, Ancient Plate from Oxford (1837) > Du Sommerard, Les Arts au
moyen dge (1838-1848); Kratz, Der Dom zu Hildesheim (1840);
Richardson, Old English Mansions and their Plate (1841-1848);
Drawings and Sketches of Elizabethan Plate (London, n.d.) ; Tarb<5,
TrSsors des eglises de Reims (1843); Smith, " Specimens of College
Plate," Cam. Ant. Soc. (1845) ; Cahierand Martin, Melanges d'archeo-
logie (1 847-1 856); Filimoroff, Plate, Jewellery, &c, in the Musee
d'Armures at St Petersburg (Moscow, 1849); Schotel, La Coupe de
van Nispen (1850); H. Emanuel, Catalogue of the Principal Works
of A rt in Gold, Silver and Jewels shown at the International Exhibition
(1851); King, Metal Work of the Middle Ages (1852); Becker and
Hefner-Alteneck, Kunstwerke und Gerdtschaften (Frankfort, 1852-
'857); Fleury, Tresor de la cathedrale de Laon (1855); Heider,
Mittelalterliche Kunstdenkmale (1 856-1 860); Der Altaraufsatz zu
Klosterneuburg (1 860) ; Aus'm Weerth, Kunstdenkmdler des christlichen
Mittelalters in den Rheinlanden (Leipzig, 1857-1860); Texier,
Dictionnaire d'orfevrerie (1857); Bock, DasheiligeKoln (1858); Der
Reliquienschatz . . . zu Aachen (i860); Der Kronleuchter Kaisers
Barbarossa zu Aachen (1864); Die Kleinodien des heil. romischen
Reiches (1864); Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire du mobilier (1858-
1875); Darcel, articles in Gaz. des beaux-arts, " L'Orfevrerie du
moyen-age " (1859) iv. 224, " La Collection Soltykoff " (1861)
Ix. 212, " Les Tresors de Cologne " (1861) xxiii. 98, " Les Tresors de
la cathedrale de Reims" (1881) xxiii. 98; Way, "Gold Crowns
from Toledo, and St Fillan's Crazier," in Arch. Journ. (1859),
vol. xvi., and "Ancient Ornaments," ibid. vol. iii.; F. W. Fair-
holt, Illustrated Catalogue of Lord Londesborough' s Collection of
Plate (i860); De Lasteyrie, Tresor de Guarrazar (Paris, i860); His-
toire de I'orfevrerie (1875); Coussemaker, Orfevrerie du XIII" siecle
(Paris, 1861); Linas, Orfevrerie merovingienne (1864); Labarte,
Histoire des arts au moyen-age (1864-1866); Baldus, Recueil d'orne-
ments (Paris, 1866), Quarterly Review), cxli. 353; Strada, Entwurfe
fur Prachtgefdsse in Silber und Gold (Vienna, 1869); Zeitschrift des
Kunsl-Gewerbe-Vereins zu Miinchen (1871); La Croix, Arts in the
Middle Ages (1870); Keller, Autotypes of Italian Designs for Plate
(London, 1871); Aubert, Trisor del' abbaye d' Agaune (Paris, 1872);
Kulmer, Die Kunst des Gold-Arbeiters, &c. (Weimar, 1872) ; Schorn,
Kunst und Gewerbe (1874, seq.) ; Fabre, Tresor . . . des dues de Savoie
( J 875); Jacquemart, Histoire du mobilier (1876); Hirth, Formen-
schatz der Renaissance (Leipzig, 1877, seq.); Danko, Graner Dom-
schdtze (1880) ; Luthmer, Goldschmuck der Renaissance (Berlin,
1880) ; Wheatley and Delamotte, Art Work in Gold and Silver (1882) ;
A. Heyden, Das Tafelsilber und Silber arbeiten ihrer kgl. Hoheiten des
Prinzen u. der Prinzessin Wilhelm v. Preussen, Festgeschenk zu
hochstderen Vermahlung am 27. Febrv.ar 1881 dargebracht von preus-
sischen Stadten (1883-1884) ; J. and C. J eideh, Catalogue of Collection

804

PLATEAU— PLATEN-HALLERMUND

of Plate, i6th-l8th Centuries (1883); Greco and Emanuel, Arts of the
Goldsmith and Jeweller (1883); I. F. Sick, Notice sur les ouvrages en
or et argent des rois de Denmark (1884) ; Julius Leasing, " Der Silber
Altar in Riigenwalde," Kbnig. preuss. Kunstsammlungen Jahrbuch
(1885), vi. 58; Gold und Silber (1907); C. Pulsky, E. Radisics and E.
Molinier, Chefs-d'oeuvre d'orfevrerie ayant figure a V exposition de Buda-
pest (2 vols., 1886); R. von Kulraer, Handbuch fur Gold u. Silber-
arbeiter u. Juweliere (1887) ; E. Molinier, " Le Tresor de Saint Marc
a Venise," Gaz. des beaux-arts, 2nd series, vols, xxxv., xxxvii., xxxviii.,
3rd series, vol. i. (1 887-1889) ;Le Tresor de la cathedrale de Coire (1895) ;
Catalogue of Baron Adolphe de Rothschild's collection of Objects of Art
(1902) ; A. Darcel, " Les Collections Spitzer," Gaz. des beaux-arts, 2nd
series, xxxviii. 225 (1888); L. Gmelin, Alte Handzeichnungen nach
dem verlorenen Kirchenschatz der St-Michaels-Hofkirche zu Munchen
(1888); A. Ilg, Kunsthistorisches Hofmuseum, &c. (1891); Arbeiten
der Goldschmiede- u. Steinschlifftechnik (1895); Kunsthistorische
Sammlungen des allerhbchsten Kaiserhauses : A rbeiten der Goldschmiede-
und Steinschlifftechnik (1895); E. Marchal, La Sculpture et les chefs-
d'oeuvre de Vorfevrerie beiges (1895); B. Czobor, Les Insignes royaux
de Hongrie (1896); W. Froehner, Collections de chateau de Goluchow:
Vorfevrerie (1897); R. Hausmann, Der Silberschatz der St Nickolai-
kirche zu Reval ( 1 899) ; Warner Silfersparres nya grafiska aktiebolag
(Stockholm, 1900) ; F. R. Martin, Schwedische konigliche Geschenke
an russische Zaren, i6^^-i6qq (1900) ; Ddnische Silber schdtze aus
der Zeit Christians IV. aufbewahrt in der kaiserlichen Schatzkammer
zu Moskau (1900) ; J. Starkie Gardner, Catalogue of the Collection of
Silversmiths' work of European Origin (Burlington Fine Arts Club,
1901); A. Pit, Het goud en zilverwerk in het Nederlandsch Museum,
&c. (1901); Kaiserliche Ermitage, St Petersburg, Fuhrer durch die
Peter-Gallerie (1901); Illustrated Catalogue of the Waddesdon Bequest,
British Museum (1902) ; H. L. Tilly, The Silver Work of Burma (1902) ;
P. Eudel, L'Orfevrerie algerienne et tunisienne (1902) ; H. Barth,
Das Geschmiede (1903); H. Wilson, Silverwork and Jewellery (1903);
H. P. Mitchell, " A Medieval Silver Chalice from Iceland," Burlington
Mag. (1903) ii. 70, 357; E. Ducharne and P. Vialettes, Manuel
de Vorfevre: la garantie du litre des ouvrages d'or et d 'argent (1904);
W. Stengel, Formalikonographie (Detailaufnahmen) der Gefdsse auf
den Bildern der Anbetung der Konige (1904); " Le Musee Willet-
Holthuyscn: l'orfevrerie et l'argenterie," Art fiamand er hollandais
(1905), iv. 29; O. M. Dalton, Treasure of the Oxus (1905); H. H.
Cunynghame, European Enamels (1906) ; Rosenberg, Geschichte der
Goldschmiedekunst auf technischer Grundlage, Abteilung: Niello
(1907); ibid. Abteilung: Aushdngebogen (1908); Nelson Dawson,
Goldsmiths' and Silversmiths' Work (1907); "Ecclesiastical Gold-
smiths' Work in the Coast Towns of Istria and Dalmatia," The Builder,
xciii. nos. 3384 and 3385; L. Forrer, Dictionary of Medallists, &c.
(in progress), 8 vols. ; T. Olrik, Drikkehorn (wassail horns), in progress ;
Thieme and Becker, Allgemeines Lexikon der bildenden Kunsller von
der Antike bis zur Gegenwart. (E. A. J.)

PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883),
Belgian physicist, was born at Brussels on the 14th of October
1 801, and died on the 15th of September 1883 at Ghent, where he
had been professor of physics from 1835. He was a pupil
and friend of L. A. J. Quetelet, who had much influence on the
early part of his career. The more original investigations of
Plateau refer chiefly to portions of one or other of two branches
of science — physiological optics and molecular forces. We owe
to him the " stroboscopic " method of studying the motion of a
vibrating body, by looking at it through equidistant radial slits
in a revolving disk. In 1829 he imprudently gazed at the
midday sun for 20 seconds, with the view of studying the after
effects. The result was blindness for some days, succeeded by
a temporary recovery; but for the next fourteen years his sight
gradually deteriorated, and in 1843 he became permanently
blind. This calamity did not interrupt his scientific activity.
Aided by his wife and son, and afterwards by his son-in-law
G. L. van der Mensbrugghe, he continued to the end of his life his
researches on vision — directing the course of the experiments
which they made for him, and interpreting the bearing of the
results. He also published a valuable analytical catalogue of
all the more important memoirs which had been written, from
the earliest times to the end of the 18th century, on his favourite
theme of subjective visual phenomena. But even more extra-
ordinary were this blind man's investigations about molecular
forces, embracing hundreds of novel experiments whose results
he saw only with others' eyes. These form the subject of his
great work Statique experimentale et Morique des liquides soumis
aux settles forces moleculaires (2 vols., 1873), a valuable contribu-
tion to our knowledge of capillary phenomena. His son, Felix
Auguste Joseph Plateau (b. 1841), became professor of zoology
and comparative anatomy at Ghent in 1870.

PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of
wood, metal, &c, from plat, flat), in physical geography, an
elevated region of level or gently undulating land-surface, the
term being synonymous with " table-land." The most clearly
defined plateaus have steep flanks in contrast with their level
summits, but the term does not necessarily connote a steep
ascent from the surrounding country. Indeed, it is applied to
such diverse forms as the high-lying plains encircled by the
higher elevations of the Andes, and to those of the west of North
America, which rise almost imperceptibly from the low central
plains. A plateau may have its origin either in the upheaval
of strata which preserve their original horizontal position during
the process, or in the prolonged denudation of an originally broken
surface. The two forms are distinguished respectively as Plateaus
of Deposition and Plateaus of Erosion.

PLATED WARE, articles chiefly intended for table use
consisting of an inferior metal or alloy covered by one of the
precious metals, with the object of giving them the appearance
of gold or silver. Before the introduction of electro-plating the
method employed for silver-plating (the invention of which in
1742 is associated with the name of Thomas Bolsover, of
Sheffield) was to fuse or burn together, by a flux of borax, a
thin sheet of silver on each side of an ingot of base metal, gener-
ally copper, or German silver, which is an alloy of copper. The
silver plates were firmly wired to the ingot, which was then
placed in a heated furnace and brought nearly to the fusing-
point of the silver. The artisan knew the exact moment to
withdraw the ingot. When cold it was rolled down to a
sheet, and from such sheets " silver-plated " articles were made.
Articles like dish-covers were originally only silver-plated on
one side, and after being worked into shape were tinned inside
with pure tin. In Birmingham bar-copper was the base metal
used; when bare of silver this showed blood-red. The Sheffield
manufacturers, on the other hand, used shot-copper mixed with
brass (an alloy of copper and zinc) in the proportion of 4 or 6 to 1.
In this way they got rid of the redness of the copper and rendered
it harder, and their product is the " old Sheffield plate " (q.v.)
that has become famous all over the world. This method of
plating rapidly declined with the introduction of the newer
process of electro-plating (q.v.), by which it has been superseded.
Plating with nickel is extensively used for bedsteads and other
articles of upholstery, and for various parts of bicycles, steam-
ships, railway carriages, &c. Steel sheets are also plated with
nickel for cooking purposes, and iron is plated with brass.

PLATEN-HALLERMUND, AUGUST, Graf von (1796-
1835), German poet and dramatist, was born on the 24th of
October 1796 at Ansbach, the son of the Oberforstmeister in the
little principality of that name. The latter, together with other
Franconian principalities, having shortly after his birth become
incorporated with Bavaria, he entered the school of cadets
(Kadeltenhaus) in Munich, where he showed early promise of
poetical talent. In 1810 he passed into the royal school of pages
(konigliche Pagerie), and in 1814 was appointed lieutenant in the
regiment of Bavarian life-guards. With it he took part in the
short campaign in France of 1815, being in bivouac for several
months near Mannheim and in the department of the Yonne.
He saw no fighting, however, and returned home with his regi-
ment towards the close of the same year. Possessed of an
intense desire for study, and finding garrison life distasteful and
irksome, he obtained a long leave of absence, and after a tour in
Switzerland and the Bavarian Alps, entered the university of
Wiirzburg in 18 18 as a student of philosophy and philology. In
the following year he migrated to that of Erlangen, where he
sat at the feet of F. W. J. von Schelling, and became one of his
most enthusiastic admirers. As a result of his Oriental studies
he published a little volume of poems — Ghaselen (1821), each
consisting of ten to twenty verses, in which he imitates the style
of Ruckert; Lyriscke Blatter (1821); Spiegel der Hasis (1822);
Vermischte Schriften (1822); and Neue Ghaselen (1823). These
productions attracted the attention of eminent men of letters,
among them Goethe, both by reason of their contents, which
breathe the spirit of the East, and also of the purity and elegance

PLATERSPIEL— PLATINUM

805

of their form and diction. Though he was at first influenced
by the school of Romanticism, and particularly by Spanish
models, yet the plays written during his university life at
Erlangen, Der gldserne Pantojfel, Der Schatz des Rhampsinit,
Berengar, Treue um Treue, Der Turm mit sieben Pjorten, show a
clearness of plot ard expression foreign to the Romantic style.
His antagonism to the literature of his day became more and
more pronounced, and he vented his indignation at the want
of art shown by the later Romanticists, the inanity of the
lyricists, and the bad taste of the so-called fate tragedies
(Schicksalstragodien) , in the witty " Aristophanic " comedies
Die verhangnisvolle Gabel (1826) and Der romantische Oedipus
(1828).

The want of interest, amounting even to hostility, with which
Platen's enthusiasm for the purity and dignity of poetry was
received in many literary circles in Germany increased the
poet's indignation and disgust. In 1826 he visited Italy, which
he henceforth made his home, living at Florence, Rome and
Naples. His means were slender, but, though frequently
necessitous, he felt happy in the life he had chosen, that of a
" wandering rhapsodist." Der romantische Oedipus earned for
him the bitter enmity of Karl Immermann and Heinrich Heine,
and in the literary feud which ensued Heine launched the most
baseless calumnies at the poet, which had the effect of prejudicing
public opinion against him. But he retained many stanch
admirers, who delighted in the purity of the subject matter of
his productions and their beauty of form and diction. In
Naples, where he formed the friendship of August Kopisch, the
poet and painter, were written his last drama Die Liga von
Cambrai (1833) and the delightful epic fairy-tale Die Abbassiden
(1830; 1834), besides numerous lyrical poems, odes and ballads.
He also essayed historical work in a fragment, Geschichten des
Kbnigreichs Neapel (1838), without, however, achieving any
marked success. In 1832 his father died, and after an absence
of eight years Platen returned to Germany for a while, and in
the winter of 1832-1833 lived at Munich, where he revised the first
complete edition of his poems, Gedichte (1833). In the summer
of 1834 he returned to Italy, and, after living in Florence and
Naples, proceeded in 1835 to Sicily. Dread of the cholera,
which was at that time very prevalent, induced him to move
from place to place, and in November of that year he was
taken ill at Syracuse, where he died on the 5th of December
1835. Like Heine himself, Platen failed in the drama, but his
odes and sonnets, to which must be added his Poleniieder
(1831), in which he gives vent to his warm sympathy for the
Poles in their rising against the rule of the Tsar, are in language
and metre so artistically finished as to rank among the best
classical poems of modern times.

Platen's Gesammelte Werke were first published in one volume in
1839, and have been frequently reprinted; a convenient edition
is that edited by K. Goedeke in Cotta's Bibliothek der Wellliteratur
(4 vols., 1882). His Tagebuch (1796-1825), was published in its
entirety by G. von Laubmann and L. von Schemer (2 vols., 1896-
1900). See J. Minckwitz, Graf Platen als Mensch und Dichler
(1838); P. Besson, Platen, Stude biographique et litteraire (1894);
O. Greulich, Platens Literaturkomodien (1901); A. Fries, Platen-
Forschungen (1903); and R. Unger, Platen in seinem Verhdltnis zu
Goethe (1903).

PLATERSPIEL, Blaterpfeife, a medieval simplified bagpipe,
consisting of an insufflation tube, a bladder and a chaunter;
the double reed in its socket at the top of the chaunter
being concealed within the bladder. In the platerspiel we
recognise the early medieval chorus, a word which in medieval
Latin was frequently used also for the bagpipe. In the earlier
forms of platerspiels of which we possess illustrations, such as
the well-known example of the 13th century reproduced by
Martin Gerbcrt from a MS. at St Blasius, the bladder is unusually
large, and the chaunter has, instead of a bell, the grotesque
head of an animal with gaping jaws. At first the chaunter
was a straight conical tube terminating in a bell, as in the
bagpipe. The later instruments have a pipe of larger calibre
more or less curved and bent back as in the cromorne. One of
these appears in the 13th-century Spanish MS., known as the

Cantigas de Santa Maria 1 in the Escurial, together with a
platerspiel having two pipes, a chaunter and a drone side by
side. Another is figured by Virdung (15 n).

There was practically no technical difference between the bent
platerspiel and the cromorne, the only distinction being the form
and size of the air-chamber in which the reed was set in vibration
by the compressed air forced into it through the insufflation tube
or the raised slit respectively of the two instruments. The earlier
form of platerspiel is found at the end of the 15th century, in the
magnificent Book of Hours, known as the Sforza Book 2 (Brit. Mus.).
An interesting allusion to the platerspiel occurs in an old English
ballad. 3 Eight shepherds were playing on various instruments:
" the fyrst hed ane drone bagpipe, the next hed ane pipe maid
of ane bleddir and of ane reid, the thrid playit on ane trump, &c,"
from which it is evident that the platerspiel retained its individu-
ality and did not become merged in the bagpipe. (K. S.)

PLATFORM (Fr. plateforme, i.e. ground plan), a word now
generally confined to a raised flat structure or stage, temporary
or permanent, erected in a building or in the open air, from which
speeches, addresses, lectures, &c, can be delivered at a public
cr other meeting. Similar structures of wood, brick or stone,
are used in railway stations at such a level above the rails as to
enable passengers to have easy access to the carriages; and in
fortification the word is used of the raised level surface on which
guns are mounted. The earlier uses of the word, such as for a
plane geometrical figure, the ground plan of a building, and
figuratively, for a plan, design, scheme, &c, are now obsolete.
In a figurative sense the term is applied to a common basis on
which members of a political party may agree, and especially
in the United States to the declaration made by a party at a
national or state convention*.

PLATINUM [symbol Pt, atomic weight 195-0 (0=i6)], a
metallic chemical element. The name, derived from platina, the
diminutive of Span, plata (silver), was first given to a mineral,
platinum ore or native platinum, originally discovered in
South America, from the resemblance to silver. Russia
furnishes about 95% of the world's annual supply of platinum.

Native platinum occurs usually in small metallic scales or
flat grains, sometimes in the form of irregular nuggets, and
occasionally, though rarely, in small crystals belonging to the
cubic system. Grains of platinum have been found embedded,
with cbromite, in serpentine derived from an olivine-rock, the
metal having probably separated out from an original basic
magma. It is said to occur also in veins in syenitic and other
rocks. Usually, however, platinum is found in detrital deposits,
especially in auriferous sands, where it is associated with osmiri-
dium (known also as iridosmine), chromite, magnetite, corundum,
zircon, &c. The platinum has a steel grey cr silver-white colour
and a metallic lustre; is often magnetic, sometimes with polarity;
has a hardness of about 4-5 and a specific gravity varying with
its composition from 14 to 19. Native platinum usually con-
tains more or less iron and copper, often gold, and invariably a
small proportion of some of the allied metals — iridium, osmium,
ruthenium, rhodium and palladium. From the associated
metals it was named by J. F. L. Hausmann polyxene (Gr. iro\vs,
many, and £,kvos, a guest), whilst from its occurrence as a white
metal in auriferous alluvia it is sometimes known to miners as
" white gold."

Platina del Pinto was the name by which native platinum
was first introduced into Europe from South America about
the middle of the 18th century. Although it appears to have
been known locally much earlier, the attention of scientific men in
Europe was first directed to it by Antonio de Ulloa y Garcia de
La Torre, a Spaniard who joined a French scientific expedition
to Peru in 1735, and published in 1748 an account of his
journey, in which he refers to platinum, though not under that
name, as occurring with gold in New Granada (now Colombia).
Sir William Watson, an English physicist, had, however, in
1 741 received some grains of the mineral, probably from the

1 Reproduced by J. F. Riano, in Studies of Early Spanish Music
(London, 1887).

2 See facsimile edited by Dr George Warner, pi. xxviii. fol. 51.

3 See F. J. Furnivall, Captain Cox, his ballads and Books, or
Robert Laneham's Letter a.d. 1575 (London, 1871), clx. 86.

8o6

PLATINUM

same locality, though brought by way of Jamaica; and it was
he who first described it in 1750 as a new metal.

Native platinum was discovered in 1819 in the gold washings
of Verkhniy-Isetsk, in the Urals, but it was not until 1822 that
its true nature was recognized. The chief Russian localities
are in the districts of Nizhne Tagilsk and Goroblagodatsk,
where it is found in shallow drift deposits, containing pebbles of
serpentine, which represent the original matrix. The Iset
district has acquired importance in recent years. Although the
platinum-bearing gravels usually contain a very small propor-
tion of the metal, the average in 1895 being only 15 dwt. to the
ton, rich discoveries have occasionally been made in the history
of the workings, and nuggets of exceptional size have been
unearthed. The largest recorded specimens are one of 310 oz.
from Nizhne Tagilsk, and another of 72 j oz. from the Goro-
blagodatsk district.

In 1 83 1 platinum ore was recognized in the gold-bearing
deposits of Borneo, where it had previously been regarded as
worthless, being known to the natives as mas kodok (frog gold).
Although recorded from various parts of the island, its occur-
rence seems to be definitely known only in Tanah-Laut, in the
south-east of Borneo. In Australia platinum ore has been found
near Fifield (near Condobclin), New South Wales; whilst in New
Zealand it occurs in sands and gravels in the Thames gold-field,
the Takaka River and the Gorge River flowing into Awarua
Bay. Many localities in North America have yielded platinum,
generally in beach sands or in auriferous alluvia, and in some
cases the deposits are of commercial importance. The metal is
found in Alaska, British Columbia, Oregon (Douglas county) and
California (Butte county, Trinity county, Del Norte ccunty).
It has been recorded also from the states of New York and North
Carolina. In a nickeliferous sulphide ore worked at Sudbury,
in Ontario, platinum has been discovered in the form of an
arsenide (Pt As 2 ), which has been called sperrylite by H. L. Wells,
who analysed it in 1889, and named it after F. L. Sperry, of
Sudbury. It belongs to the pyrites group, and is interesting
as being the only known mineral in which platinum occurs in
combination except as alloy.

Native platinum seems to be a mineral of rather wide distri-
bution, but in very sparse quantity. The sands of the Rhine,
derived from Alpine rocks, have been found to contain plati-
num in the proportion of 0-0004%. It has also been found in
the sands of the Ivalo River in 'Lapland; it is recorded from
Roros in Norway; and it was detected by W. Mallet in some of
the gold-sands of the streams in Co. Wicklow, Ireland.

The table shows the official amount (in ounces Troy) of
platinum produced in Russia for certain years, the actual amounts
are much larger: —

Year.

Amount.

Year.

Amount.

1890

116,640

1904

161,950

1895

I4L757

1905

167.950

1900

163,060

1906

185,492

1901

203,257

1 1907

172,758

1902

197,024

1908

157.005

1903

192,976

(Rothwell's Mineral Industry, 1908.)
Platinum is largely used for the manufacture of chemical
apparatus, incandescent lamps, thermo-couples; in the manu-
facture of sulphuric acid by the contact process, in photography,
and in jewelry. The price of the metal has risen considerably,
not so much on account of the restricted supply, but chiefly
because the sources of supply have passed into the hands of a
few individuals. The following data show the fluctuations in
'he average price of platinum ingot per once Troy: — -
£ a. d. £ s. d.

1874-1898: 1 5 2 to 2 2 o
1 899-1905: 3 13 6 „ 4 10 4
1906: 4 15 2 ,, 7 19 8
1907: 700,, 6 18 8
1908: 526 (average) price.
Platinum may be extracted from its ore by both wet and dry
processes. In the latter method, due to H. Sainte-Claire-Deville
and H. J. Debray, the ore is smelted in a furnace constructed of
two blocks of lime, and the metallic button so obtained is | corresponding to the formula PtO

re-melted in a reverberatory furnace with galena or litharge, the
lead platinum alloy being then cupeled, and the platinum
fused into an ingot by re-smelting in a lime furnace (see
Dingler's Polytech. Journ. 1859, 153, p. 38; 1859, 154, p. 383,
1862, 165, p. 205). The platinum so obtained is not pure. In
Wollaston's wet method the ore is dissolved in aqua regia, the
osmiridium, ruthenium and rhodium being left unattacked, and
the platinum precipitated as ammonium platinochloride by adding
ammonium chloride in the presence of an excess of acid. The
double chloride is then washed, dried and ignited, leaving a residue
of metal. G. Matthey (Chem. News, 1879, 39. P- J 75) obtains pure
platinum from the commercial metal by fusing the latter with a
large excess of lead. The lead alloy is then treated with a dilute
nitric acid and the insoluble portion taken up in dilute aqua regia..
From the solution so obtained lead is precipitated as sulphate,
and platinum and rhodium as double ammonium chlorides. The
rhodium ammonium chloride is converted by fusing with potassium
and ammonium bisulphates into rhodium sulphate, which is then
removed by extraction with water, when a residue of finely divided

Clatinum remains. The German firm of Heraus (in Hanover)
eat the raw ore with aqua regia and water under pressure,
evaporate the solution to dryness, and heat the residue to 125 ° C.
A clear aqueous extract of the residue is then acidified with hydro-
chloric acid and precipitated with ammonium chloride. The
double chloride is ignited and the finely divided platinum so
obtained is fused in the oxyhydrogen blowpipe.

Platinum is a greyish-white metal which is exceedingly
malleable and ductile; the addition of a small quantity of
iridium hardens it and diminishes its ductility very considerably.
Its specific gravity is 20-85 t0 21 'l 1 i ar >d its mean specific heat
from o to 100° C. is 0-0323 (J. Violle, Comptes renins, 1877, 85,
p. 543); W. P. White (Amer. Journ. Sci., 1909, iv. 28, p. 334)
gives the general formula S t = o-o3i98+3-4Xio -6 /. S t being
the specific heat at l°C. Its temperature of fusion is in the
neighbourhood of 1700 to i8oo°C, various intermediate values
having been obtained by different investigators (see J. A.
Harker, Chem. News, 1905, 91, p. 262; C. Fery and C. Cheneveau,
Comptes rendus, 1909, 148, p. 401 ; also C. W. Waidner and G. H.
Burgess, ibid., 1909, 148, p. 1177). Its latent heat of fusion is
27-18 calories (Violle, loc. cit). The metal has been obtained
in the crystalline condition by distillation in the electric furnace,
or by decomposing its fluoride at a red heat (H. Moissan).
Platinum, like palladium, absorbs large quantities of hydrogen
and other gases, the occluded gas then becoming more "active";
for this reason platinum is used largely as a catalytic agent.
Several forms of platinum, other than the massive form, may be
obtained. Spongy platinum is produced when ammonium
platinochloride is ignited; platinum black on the reduction
of acid solutions of platinum salts; and colloidal platinum by
passing an electric arc between two platinum wires under the
surface of pure water (G. Bredig, Zeit. phys. Chem., 1901, 37,
pp. 1, 323). Platinum is practically unoxidizable; it combines
directly with phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, silicon, boron, and
fluorine, and with almost all other metals. It is practically
unattacked by all acids, dissolving only in aqua regia or in
mixtures which generate chlorine. When fused with alkaline
hydroxides in the presence of air it forms platinates. It is
readily attacked by fused nitrates, and by potassium cyanide
and ferrocyanide. All the platinum compounds when heated
strongly decompose, a"nd leave a residue of the metal. Of
platinum salts, in the true sense of the word, none exist; there
is no carbonate, nitrate, sulphate, &c; halide salts, however,
are known, but are obtained in an indirect manner.

Platinum monoxide, PtO, obtained by heating the corresponding
hydrate, is a dark-coloured powder which is easily reduced to the
metal (L. Wohler, Ber., 1903, 36, p. 3475). The hydrated form,
PtO-2HaO, is obtained impure by precipitating the dichloride with
caustic soda, or by adding caustic soda to a boiling solution of
potassium platinous chloride, K 2 PtCl 4 , the precipitate being rapidly
washed and dried in vacuo (L. Wohler, Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1904, 40,
p. 423). It is a black powder; when freshly prepared it is soluble
in concentrated acids, but when dried it is insoluble. It is an acidic
oxide, the dioxide being both acidic and basic. It behaves as a
strong oxidizing and reducing agent. C. Engler and L. Wohler
{Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1901, 29, p. 1) have shown that platinum
black, containing occluded oxygen, is soluble in dilute hydro-
chloric acid and also liberates iodine from potassium iodide, and
that the ratio between the amount of platinum dissolved and the
amount of oxygen occluded agrees with the formation of a compound

Platinum dioxide (platinic

PLATINUM

807

oxide), PtOi^HiO, is obtained by adding an excess of caustic soda
solution to a boiling solution of chlorplatinic acid, the hot solution
being diluted and neutralized with acetic acid. It loses its water
of hydration when heated, finally decomposing into platinum and
oxygen. When freshly prepared it is soluble in dilute acids. Other
hydrated forms of composition, Pt0 2 -3H 2 and Pt0 2 -2H 2 0, have been
described (E. Prost, Bull. soc. chim., 1886, 46, p. 156; H. Topsoe,
Ber., 1870, 3, p. 462). The tetrahydrate may be considered as an
acid, H 2 Pt(OHj6, for salts are known (namely the platinates) corre-
sponding to it, those of the alkali metals being soluble in water,
and possessing an alkaline reaction (M. Blondel, Ann. chim. phys.,
1905 [viii.], 6, p. 81). A similar set of chlorine-holding compounds
is also known, the chlorine replacing one or more hydroxyl groups
and giving rise to complexes of composition, HJPtCWOH)],
H 2 [PtCU(OH) 2 ], H £ [PtCl 2 (OH)J and H 2 [PtCl(OH) 6 ]. The platinic
salts (derived from Pt0 2 ) are yellow or brown solids, which are
readily reduced to the metallic condition. They give with sulphu-
retted hydrogen a dark brown precipitate, soluble in excess of
ammonium sulphide. Potassium iodide gives a brown solution
with gradual formation of a precipitate. They form characteristic
precipitates with potassium and ammonium chlorides. The
platinous salts are brown or colourless solids which, with sulphu-
retted hydrogen, give a dark brown precipitate of platinum sulphide,
and with potassium iodide a gradual precipitation of platinic
iodide, Ptl 2 . Platinum trioxide, Pt0 3 , is obtained as K 2 0-3Pt03, by
electrolysing a solution of platinic hydroxide in potash, this
compound with acetic acid giving the oxide as a brown, easily
decomposable powder (L. Wohbr and F. Martin, Ber., 1909, 42,
P- 3326).

•Platinum bichloride, PtCl 2 , is obtained by heating chlorplatinic
acid to 300-350 C. (j. J. Berzelius), or, mixed with more or less
platinic chloride, by passing chlorine over spongy platinum at a
temperature of 250 C. (P. Schutzenberger, Comptes rendus, 1870,
70, pp. 1 134, 1287). It may also be obtained by the decomposition
of the compound HCl-PtCl 2 -2H 2 (see below) at 100* C, this method
giving a very pure product (L. F. Nilson, Journ. prak. Chem., 1877
(2), 15, p. 260). It is a brown or greyish green coloured solid, which
is soluble in hydrochloric acid. It decomposes into its constituent
elements when heated. It combines with many chlorides to form
characteristic double salts. Platinum bichloride combines with
carbon monoxide, yielding compounds of composition, PtCl 2 .CO,
PtCl 2 -2CO, 2PtCl 2 -3CO (P. Schutzenberger, Ann. chim. phys., 1870
(4), 21, p. 350). Hydrogen platinochloride or chlorplatinous acid,
H 2 PtCU, is only known in solution, and as such is obtained when
platinum bichloride is dissolved in hydrochloric acid, or by decom-
posing the barium salt with sulphuric acid, or the silver salt with
hydrochloric acid. Its salts, the platinochlorides or chlorplatinites,
are obtained by reducing the chlorplatinates or directly from the
acid itself. They are mostly soluble in water giving red solutions.
They are readily oxidized, and nascent hydrogen reduces them
to metallic platinum. Potassium platinochloride or chlorplatinite,
K 2 PtClj, is prepared by reducing hydrogen platinichloride with
sulphur dioxide, or potassium platinichloride with potassium oxalate
in the presence of iridium (Klason, Ber., 1904, 37, p. 1360); or by
adding potassium chloride to a solution of platinum bichloride in
hydrochloric acid. It crystallizes in dark red prisms, is readily
soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol. The solution of the
free acid when concentrated in vacuo leaves a residue of
HCl.PtCl2.2H2O. When the free acid is reduced by alcohol, or
when ethylene is passed into a solution of platinum bichloride in
hydrochloric acid, PtCl 2 C 2 H4 is obtained as a brown amorphous
mass which decomposes when heated. When the bichloride is
heated in a current of carbon monoxide, a sublimate of platino-
monocarbonyl dichloride, PtCl 2 CO, dicarbonyl dichloride,PtCl2(CO) 2 ,
and tricarbonyl tetrachloride, Pt 2 Cl4(CO)3, is obtained. The first
forms bright yellow needles and the second white acicular crystals.
The bichloride also combines with phosgene to form PtCl 2 .2COCl 2 .
Platinic chloride, PtCU, is obtained when chlorplatinic acid is
heated in a current of dry hydrochloric acid gas to 165° C. (W.
Pullinger, Journ. Chem. Soc, 1892, 61, p. 422) or in a current of dry
chlorine at 275 C. (A. Rosenheim and W. Lowenstamm, Zeit.
anorg. Chem., 1903, 37, p. 394). It forms a reddish brown crystalline
mass which is very hygroscopic. Numerous hydrates are known.
The chloride is characterized by the readiness with which it forms
double salts with the metallic chlorides and with the hydrochlorides
of most organic bases. Chlorplatinic acid, H2PtCl 6 -6H 2 0, is obtained
by dissolving platinum in aqua regia containing an excess of hydro-
chloric acid, or by the action of chlorine (dissolved in hydrochloric
acid) on platinum sponge. It crystallizes in needles, which are very
deliquescent and dissolve easily in water. It melts in its own water
of crystallization at 70 C, and when heated in vacuo to 100° C. it
leaves a residue of composition HCl.PtCU.2H2O. The potassium and
ammonium salts and the salts it forms with organic bases are char-
acterized by their exceedingly small solubility in water. The aqueous
solution of the acid reddens litmus and decomposes the metallic car-
bonates. Its salts may be prepared by the direct action of the acid
on the metallic hydroxides or carbonates, and are usually of an
orange or yellow colour and are mostly soluble in water. Potassium
chlorplatinate, K 2 PtCl 6 , is obtained, in the form of a yellow crystal-
line precipitate, when a concentrated solution of a potassium salt

is added to a solution of chlorplatinic acid. It crystallizes in
octahedra which are scarcely soluble in water, and practically
insoluble in absolute alcohol. It decomposes at a red heat into
platinum, chlorine and potassium chloride. The corresponding
sodium salt, Na2PtCl6.6H 2 0, is much more soluble in water and in
alcohol. The ammonium salt, (NHj^PtCls, resembles the potas-
sium salt in its solubility in water and in alcohol. Corresponding
bromo- and iodo- compounds are known. Platinum bifluoride and
tetrafluoride, PtF 2 and PtF*, were obtained simultaneously by H.
Moissan (Ann. chim. phys., 1894 (6), 24, p. 282) by the action of
fluorine on platinum at 500-600 C. T+iey may be separated by
taking advantage of their different solubilities in water.

Platinum monosulphid'e, PtS, is obtained by the direct union of
platinum and sulphur ; by heating ammonium chlorplatinate with sul
phur; or by the action 01 sulphuretted hydrogen on the chlorplati-
nites. It is a dark coloured powder which is almost insoluble in
aqua regia. It decomposes when heated strongly leaving a residue
of metallic platinum, the same reduction taking place at com-
paratively low temperatures when it is heated in a current of
hydrogen. Platinic sulphide, PtS2, is formed when the chlor-
platinates are heated with sulphuretted hydrogen to 6o° C. The
precipitate must be rapidly washed and dried in vacuo, since it
oxidizes rapidly on exposure to air. It is a black powder, which
when heated strongly in air decomposes and leaves a residue of
platinum, but if heated in absence of air leaves a residue of the
monosulphide. It is scarcely affected by acids and is little soluble
in solutions of the alkaline sulphides. Sulphides of composition
Pt 2 S 3 and PtsSe have been described (R. Schneider, Pogg. Ann.,
1869, 138, p. 604; 1873, 148, P- 633; 1873, 149, p. 381). A salt
of composition, Pt(OH) 4 .H 2 S0 4 .H 2 0, has been prepared by M.
Blondel (Ann. chim. phys., 1905, (8), 6, p. 81) by the solution of the
hydrate H 2 Pt(OH) 6 , i.e. Pt(J2-4H 2 0, in dilute sulphuric acid (1:1)
at 0° C. On the addition of cold concentrated sulphuric acid to
the solution so obtained, the above salt is precipitated in the form
of minute needles, which readily decompose in the presence of
water. A platinum sulphate, Pt(S04) 2 .2H 2 0, has been obtained
by L. Stuchlik (Ber., 1904, 37, p. 2913) by the action of sulphuric
acid (s.g. 1-84) on platinum under the influence of an alternating
current. A crystalline precipitate is obtained, which is soluble
in water and is very hygroscopic.

The platinonitrites of composition M 2 Pt(N0 2 )4 are mostly obtained
by double decomposition from the potassium salt, which is formed
by adding a warm aqueous solution of potassium nitrite to
one of potassium chlorplatinate. They are mostly colourless or
pale yellow solids which are more or less soluble in water (L. F.
Nilson, Ber., 1876, 9, p. 1722). The corresponding platino-oxalates
M 2 Pt(C 2 04) 2 were first obtained by J. W. Dobereiner (Pogg. Ann.,
1833, 104, p. 180) and their constitution was determined by H. G.
Soderbaum (Ber., 1888, 21, p. 567 R; Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1894, 6,
p. 45). The sodium salt, from which the others are obtained by
double decomposition, is formed by adding a warm solution of oxalic
acid to sodium platinate. On recrystallization from alkaline
solutions the salts are obtained in yellow or orange crystals (see
M. Vezes, Bull. soc. chim., 1898 (3), 19, p. 875). These salts are
scarcely soluble in water and decompose explosively when suddenly
heated. The free acid is obtained by decomposing the silver salt
with hydrochloric acid, the indigo blue solution so obtained on
concentration in vacuo yielding a red crystalline mass, which dis-
solves in water with an indigo blue colour, changing to yellow on
dilution.

Platinum cyanide, Pt(CN) 2 , is formed by the addition of mercuric
cyanide to a solution of a chlorplatinite, or by the decomposition
of mercury or ammonium platinocyanide by heat. It is an amor-
phous powder which is insoluble in water, acids or alkalis, but is
soluble in a solution of hydrocyanic acid. It burns when heated.
The platinocyanides are derived from the acid H 2 Pt(CN)e,
which is formed by the decomposition of the mercury or copper-
salt with sulphuretted hydrogen, or of the barium salt with
sulphuric acid. It crystallizes from water in cinnabar-red prisms
which contain five molecules of water of crystallization; in the
anhydrous condition it is of a yellowish green colour. It decom-
poses carbonates. Its salts, which are characterized by the property
of polychroism, may be prepared by the usual methods, or bv the
solution of metallic platinum in the alkaline cyanides or alkaline
earth cyanides under the influence of an alternating current (A.
Brochet and J. Petit, Ann. chim. phys., 1904 (8), 3, p. 460; M.
Berthelot, Comptes rendus, 1904, 138, p. 1 130). Those of the
alkali and alkaline earth metals are soluble in water. Many combine
with the halogen elements to form complex salts of the type
M 2 Pt(CN) 4 .Cl 2 . x H 2 0. By the decomposition of the barium salts
of this tvpe, addition products of the free acid, of composition
H 2 Pt(CN) 4 .Cl2.4H 2 and H 2 Pt(CN)4.Br 2 , have been obtained (C.
Blomstrand, Ber., 1869, 2, p. 202). They are deliquescent solids
which are exceedingly soluble in water. Potassium platinocyanide,
K 2 Pt(CN)j.3H 2 0, is obtained by dissolving platinum bichloride
in potassium cyanide; by heating potassium ferrocyanide with
spongy platinum; or by heating ammonium chlorplatinate with
potassium cyanide. It crystallizes in needles which effloresce readily.
The dry salt is exceedingly hygroscopic and is very soluble in
water. When boiled wich aqua regia it forms the chlorine addition

8o8

PLATO

product, K 2 Pt(CN)4.Cl 2 .2H 2 0. It combines directly with iodine.
Barium platinocyanide, BaPt(CN)4.4H 2 0, is prepared by the action
of baryta water on the copper salt; by dissolving platinum in
barium cyanide under the influence of an alternating current; by
the addition of barium cyanide to platinum bichloride; or by the
simultaneous action of hydrocyanic and sulphurous acids on a
mixture of baryta and chlorplatinic acid (P. Bergsoe, Zeit. anorg.
Chem., 1899, 19, p. 318). It crystallizes in yellow monoclinic
prisms and is soluble in hot water. It is employed for the manu-
facture of fluorescent screens used for the detection of X-rays.

The platinum salts combine with ammonia to form numerous
derivatives which can be considered as salts of characteristic bases.
The first compound of this type was isolated in 1828 by Magnus,
who obtained a green salt by the action of ammonia on platinum
bichloride. Two series of these salts are known, one in which the
metal corresponds to bivalent platinum, the other in which it
corresponds to tetravalent platinum. The general formulae of
the groups in each series are shown below, the method of classi-
fication being that due to Werner.

Divalent (platinous) Salts.

Tetravalent (platinic) Salts.

Tetrammine salts[Pt(NH 3 ) 4 ]X 2
Triammine „ [Pt(NH 3 ) 3 X]X
Diammine „ [Pt(NH 3 ) 2 X 2 ]
Monammine „ [Pt(NH 3 )X 3 ]R

Hexammine salts[Pt(NH 3 ) 6 ]X 4
Tetrammine „ [Pt(NH 3 ) 4 X 2 ]X 2
Triammine „ [Pt(NH 3 ) 3 X 3 ]X
Diammine „ [Pt(NH 3 ) 2 X 4 ]
Monammine ,, [Pt(NH 3 )X 6 ]R

In the above table X represents a monovalent acid radical and
R a monovalent basic radical. For methods of preparation of
salts of these series see P. T. Cleve, Bull. soc. chim. 1867 et seq.;
S. M. Jorgensen, Journ. prak. Chem. 1877 et seq. ; C. W. Blomstrand,
Ber. 1871 et seq.; and A. Werner, Zeit. anorg. Chem. 1893 et seq.
A very complete account of the method of classification and
the general theory of the metal ammonia compounds is given
by A. Werner, Ber. 1907, 40, p. 15.

Platinum also forms a series of complex phosphorus compounds.
At 250° finely divided platinum and phosphorus pentachloride
combine to form PtCl 2 .PCl 3 , as dark claret-coloured crystals. With
chlorine this substance gives PtCl 3 .PCU as a yellow powder, and
with water it yields phosphmplatinic acid, PtCl2.P(OH) 3 , which
may be obtained as orange-red deliquescent prisms.

The atomic weight of platinum was determined by K. Seubert
(Ann. 1888, 207, p. 1; Ber. 1888, 21, p. 2179) by analyses of
ammonium and potassium platinochlorides; the value 194-86 being
obtained.

PLATO, the great Athenian philosopher, was born in 427 B.C.,
and lived to the age of eighty. His literary activity may be
roughly said to have extended over the first half of the 4th
century b.c. His father's name was Ariston, said to have
been a descendant of Codrus; and his mother's family, which
claimed descent from Solon, included Critias, one of the thirty
tyrants, and other well-known Athenians of the early 4th cen-
tury B.C. That throughout his early manhood he was the
devoted friend of Socrates, that in middle life he taught those
who resorted to him in the grove named Academus, near the
Cephisus, and there founded the first great philosophical
school, that (with alleged interruptions) be continued to pre-
side over the Academy until his death, are matters of estab-
lished fact. It is said by Aristotle that he was at one time
intimate with Cratylus the Heraclitean. Beyond this we have
no authentic record of his outward life. That his name was at
first Aristocles, and was changed to Plato because of the breadth
of his shoulders or of his style or of his forehead, that he wrestled
well, 1 that he wrote poetry 2 which he burnt on hearing Socrates,
fought in three great battles, 3 that he had a thin voice,
that (as is told of other Greek philosophers) he travelled to
Cyrene and conversed with priests in Egypt, are statements
of Diogenes Laertius, which rest on more or less uncertain tradi-
tion. The express assertion — which this author attributes to
Hermodorus — that after the death of Socrates Plato and other
Socratics took refuge with Euclides in Megara, has a somewhat
stronger claim to authenticity. But the fact cannot be regarded
as certain, still less the elaborate inferences which have been
drawn from it. The romantic legend of Plato's journeys to
Sicily, and of his relations there with the younger Dionysius and
the princely but unfortunate Dion, had obtained some degree

1 See Laws, vii. 814 c.

2 Some epigrams in the Anthology are attributed to him.

3 This is told on the authority of Aristoxenus. But Plato cannot
have been at Delium.

of consistency before the age of Cicero, and at an unknown but
probably early time was worked up into the so-called Epistles
of Plato, now all but universally discredited. Nor is there
sufficient ground for supposing, as some have done, that an
authentic tradition is perceptible behind the myth.

The later years of the Peloponnesian War witnessed much
mental disturbance and restlessness at Athens. More than
at any time since the age of Cleisthenes, the city
was divided, and a man's foes were often men

Antecedent
Conditions.

of his own tribe or deme. Contention in the law-
courts and rivalries in the assembly had for many men a more
absorbing interest than questions of peace and war. Hereditary-
traditions had relaxed their hold, and political principles were
not yet formulated. Yet there was not less scope on this
account for personal ambition, while the progress of democracy,
the necessity of conciliating the people, and the apportionment of
public offices by lot had a distracting and, to reflecting persons,
often a discouraging effect. For those amongst \fhom Plato was
brought up this effect was aggravated by the sequel of the
oligarchical revolution, while, on the other hand, for some years
after the restoration of the democracy, a new stimulus had been
imparted, which, though of short duration, was universally felt.

These events appear in two ways to have encouraged the
diffusion of ideas. The ambitious seem to have welcomed them
as a means of influence, while those who turned from public life
were the more stimulated to speculative disputation. However
this may have been, it is manifest that before the beginning of
the 4th century B.C. the intellectual atmosphere was already
charged with a new force, which although essentially one may be
differently described, according to the mode of its development, as
(1) rhetorical and (2) theoretical and " sophistical." This last
word indicates the channel through which the current influences
were mostly derived. A new want, in the shape both of inter-,
ested and of disinterested curiosity, had insensibly created a new
profession. Men of various fatherlands, some native Athenians,
but more from other parts of Hellas, 4 had set themselves to
supplement the deficiencies of ordinary education, and to train
men for the requirements of civic life. More or less consciously
they based their teachings on the philosophical dogmas of an
earlier time, when the speculations of Xenophanes, Heraclitus
or Parmenides had interested only a few '' wise men." Those
great thoughts were now to be expounded, so that " even
cobblers might understand." 5 The self-appointed teachers
found a rich field and abundant harvest among the wealthier
youth, to the chagrin of the old-fashioned Athenian, who sighed
with Aristophanes for the good old days when men knew less and
listened to their elders and obeyed the customs of their fathers.
And such distrust was not wholly unfounded. For, amidst
much that was graceful and improving, these novel questionings
had an influence that, besides being unsettling, was aimless and
unreal. A later criticism may discern in them the two great
tendencies of naturalism and humanism. But it may be doubted
if the sophist was himself aware of the direction of his own
thoughts. For, although Prodicus or Hippias could debate a
thesis and moralize with effect, they do not appear to have been
capable of speculative reasoning. What passed for such was often
either verbal quibbling or the pushing to an extreme of some
isolated abstract notion. That prudens quaestio which is
dimidium scientiae had not yet been put. And yet the hour for
putting it concerning human life was fully come. For the sea
on which men were drifting was profoundly troubled, and would
not sink back into its former calm. Conservative reaction was
not less hopeless than the dreams of theorists were mischievously
wild. In random talk, with gay, irresponsible energy, the
youth were debating problems which have exercised great minds
in Europe through all after time.

Men's thoughts bad begun to be thus disturbed and eager when
Socrates (q.v.) arose. To understand him is the most necessary
preliminary to the study of Plato. There is no reason to doubt

4 It had been the policy of Pericles to invite distinguished
foreigners to Athens.

5 Theaet. 180 D.

PLATO

809

the general truth of the assertion, which Plato attributes to
him in the Apologia, that he felt a divine vocation to examine
Socrates himself by questioning other men. He was really
doing for Athenians, whether they would or no,
what the sophist professed to do for his adherents, and what
such men as Protagoras and Prodicus had actually done in part.
One obvious difference was that he would take no fee. But
there was another and more deep-lying difference, which dis-
tinguished him not only from the contemporary sophists but
from the thinkers of the previous age. This was the Socratic
attitude of inquiry. The sceptical movement had confused
men's notions as to the value of ethical ideas. 1 If " right is
one thing in Athens and another in Sparta, why strive to follow
right rather than expediency? The laws put restraint on nature,
which is. prior to them. Then why submit to law? " And the
ingenuities of rhetoric had stirred much unmeaning disputation.
Every case seemed capable of being argued in opposite ways.
Even on the great question of the ultimate constitution of things,
the conflicting theories of absolute immutability and eternal
change appeared to be equally irrefragable and equally
untenable. Men's minds had been confused by contradictory
voices — one crying " All is motion," another " All is rest " ;
one " The absolute is unattainable," another " The relative
alone is real " ; some upholding a vague sentiment of traditional
right, while some declared for arbitrary convention and some for
the law " of nature." Some held that virtue was spontaneous,
some that it was due to training, and some paradoxically denied
that either vice or falsehood had any meaning. The faith of
Socrates, whether instinctive or inspired, remained untroubled by
these jarring tones. He did not ask " Is virtue a reality? "
or " Is goodness a delusion? " But, with perfect confidence
that there was an answer, he asked himself and others " What is
it?" (rt tori); or, more particularly, as Xenophon testifies,
"What is a state? What is a statesman? What is just?
What is unjust? What is government? What is it to be a
ruler of men ? " In this form of question, however simple, the
originality of Socrates is typified; and by means of it he laid
the first stone, not only of the fabric of ethical philosophy,
but of scientific method, at least in ethics, logic and psychology.
Socrates never doubted that if men once knew what was best,
they would also do it. They erred, he thought, from not seeing
the good, and not because they would not follow it if seen.
This is expressed in the Socratic dicta: " Vice is ignorance,"
" Virtue is knowledge." This lifelong work of Socrates, in
which the germs of ethics, psychology and logic were contained,
was idealized, developed, dramatized — first embodied and then
extended beyond its original scope — in the writings of Plato,
which may be described as the literary outcome of the profound
impression made by Socrates upon his greatest follower. These
writings (in pursuance of the importance given by Socrates to
conversation) are all cast in the form of imaginary dialogue.
But in those which are presumably the latest in order of compo-
sition this imaginative form interferes but little with the direct
expression of the philosopher's own thoughts. The many-
coloured veil at first inseparable from the features is gradually
worn thinner, and at last becomes almost imperceptible.

Plato's philosophy, as embodied in his dialogues, has at once
an intellectual and a mystical aspect; and both are dominated
Plato's by a pervading ethical motive. In obeying the
Dialogues. Socratic impulse, his speculative genius absorbed and
harmonized the various conceptions which were present in con-
temporary thought, bringing them out of their dogmatic isolation
into living correlation with one another, and with the life and
experience of mankind. His poetical feeling and imagination,
taking advantage of Pythagorean and Orphic suggestions,
surrounded his abstract reasonings with a halo of mythology
which made them more fascinating, but also more difficult for
the prosaic intellect to comprehend. Convinced through the
conversations of Socrates that truth and good exist and that
they are inseparable, persuaded of the unity of virtue and of its
dependence upon knowledge, he set forth upon a course of inquiry,
1 See Caird, Hegel, p. 168.

in which he could not rest until the discrepancies of ordinary
thinking were not only exposed but accounted for, and resolved
in relation to a comprehensive theory. In this " pathway
towards reality," from the consideration of particular virtues
he passed to the contemplation of virtue in general, and thence
to the nature of universals, and to the unity of knowledge and
being. Rising still higher on the road of generalization, he dis-
cussed the problem of unity and diversity, the one and the many.
But in these lofty speculations the facts of human experience
were not lost to view. The one, the good, the true, is otherwise
regarded by him as the mora] ideal, and this is examined as
realized both in the individual and in the state. Thus ethical
and political speculations are combined. And as the method
of inquiry is developed, the leading principles both of logic and of
psychology become progressively more distinct and clear.
Notwithstanding his high estimate of mathematical principles,
to him the type of exactness and certitude, Plato contributed
little directly to physical science. Though he speaks with
sympathy and respect of Hippocrates, he had no vocation for
the patient inductive observation cf natural processes, through
which the Coan physicians, though they obtained few lasting
results, yet founded a branch of science that was destined to be
beneficently fruitful. And he turned scornfully aside from the
Atomists, Leucippus and Democritus, whose first principle, the
basis of so much in modern physics, appeared to him to be tainted
with materialism. Yet his discursive thought, as in later years
he held high intercourse with Archytas and other contemporary
minds, could not fail, unlike his master's, to include a theory
of the Cosmos in its purview. In this regard, however, the
poet-philosopher brought imagination to the aid of reason, thus
creating a new mythology, of which the Timaeus is the most
conspicuous example.

Amidst great diversity, both of subject and of treatment,
Plato's dialogues are pervaded by two dominant motives, a
passion for human improvement and a persistent faith in the
power and supremacy of mind. What is commonly known as
his doctrine of Ideas is only one phase in a continuous progress
towards the realization of a system of philosophy in which the
supreme factor is reason guiding will. But the objectivity,
which from the first was characteristic of all Greek thinking, and
his own power of poetic presentation, obscured for a time, even
for Plato himself, the essential spirituality of his conceptions, and
at one time even threatened to arrest them at a stage in which the
universal was divorced from the particular, the permanent from
the transient, being from becoming, and in which the first princi-
ples of reality were isolated from one another as well as from the
actual world. Gradually the veil was lifted, and the relation
between the senses and the intellect, phenomena and general
laws, the active and the contemplative powers, came to be more
clearly conceived. The true nature of abstraction and general-
ization, and of predication and inference, began to be discerned,
and speculation was verified through experience. The ideas were
seen as categories, or forms of thought, under which the infinite
variety of natural processes might be comprised. And thus the
dialogues present, as in a series of dissolving views, a sort of
model or compendium of the history of philosophy. Plato's
system is nowhere distinctly formulated, nor are the views put
forward in his dialogues always consistent with each other, but
much especially of his later thought is systematized, and as it
were crystallized in the treatises of Aristotle; by whom the point
of view which Plato had approached, but not finally attained,
was made the starting-point for more precise metaphysical
determinations and carried into concrete theories having the
stamp of a more rigid logical method. The departments of ethics
and politics, of dialectic and of psychology, of physics and meta-
physics, thus came to be more clearly distinguished, but some-
thing was lost of the unity and intensity of spiritual insight
which had vitalized these various elements, and fused them in a
dynamic harmony.

The student of philosophy, whatever may be the modern
system to which he is most inclined, sensational, intuitional,
conceptional, transcendental, will find his account in returning

8io

PLATO

to this well-spring of European thought, in which all previous
movements are absorbed, and from which all subsequent lines
of reflection may be said to diverge. As was observed by Jowett
(St Paul, 1855), " the germs of all ideas, even of most Christian
ones, are to be found in Plato."

Two great forces are persistent in Plato : the love of truth and
zeal for human improvement. In the period culminating with
Historical the Republic, these two motives, the speculative and
influence the practical, are combined in one harmonious
of Plato. W orking. In the succeeding period, without ex-
cluding one another, they operate with alternate intensity. In
the varied outcome of his long literary career, the metaphysical
" doctrine of ideas " which has been associated with Plato's
name underwent many important changes. But pervading all
these there is the same constant belief in the supremacy of
reason and the identity of truth and good. From that abiding
root spring forth a multitude of thoughts concerning the mind
and human things — turning chiefly on the principles of psycho-
logy, education and political reform — thoughts which, although
unverified, and often needing correction from experience, still
constitute Plato the most fruitful of philosophical writers. While
general ideas are powerful for good or ill, while abstractions are
necessary to science, while mankind are apt to crave after
perfection, and ideals, either in art or life, have an acknowledged
value, so long the renown of Plato will continue. " All philo-
sophic truth is Plato rightly divined; all philosophic error is Plato
misunderstood " — is the verdict of one of the keenest of modern
metaphysicians. 1

Plato's followers, however, have seldom kept the proportions
of his teaching. The diverse elements of his doctrine have
survived the spirit that informed them. The pythagorizing
mysticism of the Timaeus has been more prized than the subtle
and clear thinking of the Theaetetus. Logical inquiries have been
hardened into a barren ontology. Semi-mythical statements have
been construed literally and mystic fancies perpetuated without
the genuine thought which underlay them. A part (and not the
essential part) of his philosophy has been treated as the whole.
But the influence of Plato has extended far beyond the limits of
the Platonic schools. The debt of Aristotle to his master has
never yet been fully estimated. Zeno, Chrysippus, Epicurus
borrowed from Plato more than they knew. The moral ideal of
Plutarch and that of the Roman Stoics, which have both so
deeply affected the modern world, could not have existed without
him. Neopythagoreenism was really a crude Neoplatonism.
And the Sceptics availed themselves of weapons either forged by
Plato or borrowed by him from the Sophists. A wholly distinct
line of infiltration is suggested by the mention of Philo and the
Alexandrian school (cf. section in Arabian Philosophy, ii. 26bc,
gth edition), and of Clement and Origen, while Gnostic heresies
and even Talmudic mysticism betray perversions of the same
influence. The effect of Hellenic thought on Christian theology
and on the life of Christendom is a subject for a volume, and has
been pointed out in part by E. Zeller and others (cf. Neo-
platonism). Yet when Plotinus in the 3rd century (after
hearing Ammonius), amidst the revival of religious paganism,
founded a new spiritualistic philosophy upon the study of Plato
and Aristotle combined, this return to the fountain head had
all the effect of novelty. And for more than two centuries, from
Plotinus to Proclus, the great effort to base life anew on the
Platonic wisdom was continued. But it was rather the ghost
than the spirit of Plato that was so " unsphered." Instead of
striving to reform the world, the Neoplatonist sought after a
retired and cloistered virtue. Instead of vitalizing science with
fresh thought, he lost hold of all reality in the contemplation of
infinite unity. He had skill in dealing with abstractions, but laid
a feeble hold upon the actual world.

" Hermes Trismegistus " and " Dionysius Areopagita " are
names that mark the continuation of this influence into the
middle ages. The pseudo-Dionysius was translated by Erigena
in the gth century.

Two more "Platonic" revivals have to be recorded— at
"•Ferrier, Institutes of Metaphysics, p. 169 (§ i. prop. vi. § 12).

Florence in the 15th and at Cambridge in the 17th century.
Both were enthusiastic and both uncritical. The translation
of the dialogues into Latin by Marsilio Ficino was the most
lasting effect of the former movement, which was tinged with
the unscientific ardour of the Renaissance. The preference still
accorded to the Timaeus is a fair indication of the tendency to
bring fumum ex fulgore which probably marred the discussions
of the Florentine Academy concerning the " chief good." The
new humanism had also a sentimental cast, which was alien from
Plato. Yet the effect of this spirit on art and literature was
very great, and may be clearly traced not only in Italian but in
English poetry.

The " Cambridge Platonists " have been described by Principal
Tulloch in his important work on Rational Theology in England
in the 17th century, and again by Professor J. A. Stewart in the
concluding chapter of his volume on the Myths of Plato. Their
views were mainly due to a reaction from the philosophy of
Hobbes, and were at first suggested as much by Plotinus as by
Plato. It is curious to find that, just as Socrates and Ammonius
(the teacher of Plotinus) left no writings, so Whichcote, the
founder of this school, worked chiefly through conversation
and preaching. His pupils exercised a considerable influence for
good, especially on English theology; and in aspiration if not in
thought they derived something from Plato, but they seem to
have been incapable of separating his meaning from that of his
interpreters, and Cudworth, their most consistent writer, was at
once more systematic and less scientific than the Athenian
philosopher. The translations of Sydenham and Taylor in the
1 8th century and the beginning of the 19th are proofs of the
continued influence of Platonism in England.

The critical study of- Plato begins from Schleiermacher, who
did good work as an interpreter, and tried to arrange the dialogues
in the order of composition. His attempt, which, critical
like many efforts of constructive criticism, went far History.
beyond possibility, was vitiated by the ground-fallacy of sup-
posing that Plato had from the first a complete system in his
mind which he partially and gradually revealed in writing. At
a considerably later time Karl Friedrich Hermann, to whom all
students of Plato are indebted, renewed the same endeavour on
the far more plausible assumption that the dialogues faithfully
reflect the growth of Plato's mind. But he also was too sanguine,
and exaggerated the possibility of tracing a connexion between
the outward events of Plato's life and the progress of his thoughts.
This great question of the order of the dialogues, which has been
debated by numberless writers, is one which only admits of an
approximate solution. Much confusion, however, has been
obviated by the hypothesis (first hinted at by Ueberweg, and
since supported by Lewis Campbell and others) that the Sophistes
and Politicus, whose genuineness had been called in quescion by
Joseph Socher, are really intermediate between the Republic and
the Laws. The allocation of these dialogues, not only on grounds
of metaphysical criticism, but also on philological and other
evidence of a more tangible kind, supplies a point of view from
which it becomes possible to trace with confidence the general
outlines of Plato's literary and philosophical development.
Reflecting at first in various aspects the impressions received
from Socrates, he is gradually touched with an inspiration which
becomes his own, and which seeks utterance in half-poetical
forms. Then first the ethical and by and by the metaphysical
interest becomes predominant. And for a while this last is all
absorbing, as he confronts the central problems which his own
thoughts have raised. But, again, the hard-won acquisitions
of this dialectical movement must be fused anew with imagi-
nation and applied to fife. And in a final effort to use his
intellectual wealth for the subvention of human need the great
spirit passed away.

It may not be amiss to recapitulate the steps through which
the above position respecting the order of the dialogues has
become established. Lovers of Hegel had observed
that the point reached in the Sophistes in defining DialogueSi
" not being " was dialectically in advance of the
Republic. But Kantian interpreters might obviously have said

PLATO

811

the same of the Partnenid.es: and Grote as a consistent utilitarian
looked upon the Protagoras as the most mature production of
Plato's genius. It seemed desirable to find some criterion that
was not bound up with philosophical points of view. Dr
Thompson, the Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, had
vindicated the genuineness of the Sophistes against the objections
of Socher, but had not accounted for the peculiarities of language,
which that acute critic had perceived. By comparing those
peculiarities with the style of the Laws, Plato's latest work, and
with that of the Timaeus and Criliqs, which presupposed the
Republic, Lewis Campbell argued in 1867 that the Sophistes and
Politicus, with the Philebus, were in chronological sequence
intermediate between the Republic and the Laws. Thus a
further defence of their authenticity was at the same time
a long step towards the solution of the problem which Schleier-
macher had proposed. Many years afterwards the more
detailed stylistic investigations of W. Dittenberger, Constantin
Ritter and others arrived independently at the same conclusion.
It was vehemently supported by W. Lutoslawski in his work on
Plato's Logic, and has been frankly accepted with ample acknow-
ledgments by the high authority of Dr Theodor Gomperz (see
especially the Notes to his Greek Thinkers, iii. 310, 315 of
English translation).

The Works or Plato

The Platonic dialogues are not merely the embodiment of the
mind of Socrates and of the reflections of Plato. They are the
portraiture of the highest intellectual life of Hellas in the time
of Plato — a life but distantly related to military and political
events, and scarcely interrupted by them. Athens appears as
the centre of the excitable Hellenic mind, profoundly stirred by
the arrival of great sophists, and keenly alive to the questions of
Socrates, although in the pages of Plato, even more than in
reality, he only " whispers with a few striplings in a corner."
For, in the Platonic grouping, the agora, which was the chief
scene of action for the real Socrates, retires into the background,
and he is principally'seen consorting with his chosen companions,
who are also friends of Plato, and with the acquaintances whom
he makes through them. The scene is narrowed (for the Academy
was remote from the bustle of resort, and Plato judged the Hellenic
world securely from the vantage-ground of partial retirement) —
but the figures are distinct and full of life. In reading the dia-
logues we not only breathe the most refined intellectual atmo-
sphere, but are also present witnesses of the urbanity, the freedom,
the playfulness, the generous warmth of the " best society " in
Athens. For Plato has a numerous repertory of dramatis
personae, who stand in various relations to his chief character —
the impetuous Chaerephon, Apollodorus the inseparable weak
brother, old Crito the true-hearted, Phaedo the beloved disciple,
Simmias and Cebes, who have been with Philolaus, the graceful
and ingenuous Phaedrus, the petulant Philebus, Theaetetus of
the philosophic nature, who is cut off in his prime, and the
incorrigible Alcibiades; then Plato's own kinsmen — Glaucon the
irrepressible in politics, in quarrel and in love; Adeimantus, solid
and grave; Critias in his phase of amateur philosopher, and not as
what he afterwards became; Charmides, not in fiery manhood,
but in his first bloom of diffident youth; and many others who
appear as mere acquaintances, but have an interest of their own
— the. accomplished Agathon, the gay Aristophanes, Eryxi-
machus the all- worthy physician; Meno, light of spirit; Callias,
entertainer of sophists; Callicles the wilful man of the world;
Cephalus the aged father of Lysias; and Nicias the honoured
soldier. All these appear, not as some of them do on the page of
history, in sanguinary contention or fierce rivalry, but as peaceful
Athenians, in momentary contact with Socrates, whose electric
touch now benumbs and now exhilarates, and sometimes goads
to frenzy of love or anger. Still more distantly related to him,
as it were standing in an outer circle, are the imposing forms of
Gorgias and Protagoras, surrounded with the lesser lights of
Hippias, Prodicus and Polus. Thrasymachus, Euthydemus,
Dionysodorus hang round like comic masks, adding piquancy
to the design. The adversaries Anytus and Meletus are allowed

Laches.

to appear for a moment, but soon vanish. The older philosophers,
though Socrates turned away from them, also make their entrance
on the Platonic stage. Parmenides with his magnificent depth
is made to converse with the imaginary Socrates, who is still
quite young. A stranger from Elea plays an important part in
some later dialogues, and Timaeus the Pythagorean is introduced
discoursing of the creation of the world. In these dialogues
Socrates is mostly silent; in the Philebus he has lost himself in
Plato; and in the twelve books of the Laws, where an unnamed
Athenian is the chief speaker, even the Platonic Socrates finally
disappears.

Now, in evolving his philosophy from the Socratic basis,
Plato works along three main lines — the ethical and political,
the metaphysical or scientific, and the mystical. All three are
often intimately blended, as in the close of Rep., bk. vi., and even
where one element is uppermost the others are not wholly
suppressed. But this distinction, like that sometimes made in
modern philosophy between the good, the true and the beautiful,
is one which, if not unduly pressed, may be usefully borne in
mind.

Having noted this once for all, we pass to the more detailed
consideration of the several dialogues.

I. Laches, Charmides, Lysis. — In this first group Socrates is
dealing tentatively with single ethical notions. The result in
each case is a confession of ignorance, but the subject has been so
handled as to point the way to more fruitful discussions in the
future. And suggestions are casually thrown out which antici-
pate some of the most far-reaching of Plato's subsequent
contemplations.

The Laches is a vigorous sketch, in which the characters of the
soldier, the aged citizen, and the prudent general are well
preserved; and Socrates is seen conversing with his
elders, although with reference to the treatment of
the young. The question raised is the definition of courage;
and the humour of the piece consists in showing that three men,
all of whom are unquestionably brave, are unable to give an
account of bravery, or to decide whether courage is an animal
instinct or a mental accomplishment.

Similarly, in the dialogue which bears his name, the temperate
Charmides, of whom all testify that (as Aristophanes has it), 1 he
" fills up the gracious mould of modesty," is hopelessly „. . .
embarrassed when challenged by the Socratic method
to put in words his conception of the modesty or temperance
which he possesses, and which, as Socrates assures him, is a
priceless gift. The Charmides contains some hints of Platonic
notions, such as that of knowledge as self-consciousness, and of
virtue as " doing one's own business."

The graceful little dialogue which bears the name of Lysis
ends, like the two former, with a confession of failure. Socrates,
Lysis and Menexenus are all friends, and think , .
highly of friendship, yet after many efforts they
are unable to tell " what friendship is." Yet some] of the sug-
gestions which are here laid aside are afterwards allowed to
reappear. The notion that " what is neither good nor evil loves
the good because of the presence of evil " is expanded and
emphasized in the Symposium. And the conception of an ideal
object of friendship, an avro 4>&ov (though rejected as in the
criticism of Aristotle by the characteristic reductio ad infinitum),
is destined to have a wider scope in the history of Platonism.

II. Protagoras, Io, Meno. — The previous dialogues have
marked the distinction between unconscious and conscious
morality, and have also brought out the Socratic tendency to
identify virtue with the knowledge of good. Now, the more
strongly it is felt that knowledge is inseparable from virtue the
more strange and doubtful appears such unconscious excellence
as that of Laches, Charmides or Lysis. Hence arises the
further paradox of Socrates: " Virtue is not taught, and that
which is commonly regarded as virtue springs up spontaneously
or is received unconsciously by a kind of inspiration."

Protagoras, in the dialogue named after him, is the professor
of popular, unscientific, self-complacent excellence; while

1 Nub., 995i T V aUoOs yueXAeis ray a\fi' &pair\rjaai.

8l2

PLATO

Socrates appears in his life-long search after the ideal knowledge
of the best. The two men are naturally at cross purposes.
Protagoras. Prota g° ra s contends that virtue is taught by himself
and others more or less successfully, and is not one
but many. Socrates disputes the possibility of teaching virtue
(since all men equally profess it, and even statesmen fail to give
it to their sons), but affirms that, if it can be taught, virtue is not
many, but one. The discussion, as in the former dialogues, ends
inconclusively. But in the course of it Plato vividly sets forth
the natural opposition between the empiric and scientific points
of view, between a conventional and an intellectual standard.
He does full justice to the thesis of Protagoras, and it is not to be
supposed that he was contented to remain in the attitude which
he has here attributed to Socrates. In his ideal state, where the
earlier training of the best citizens is a refinement on the actual
Hellenic education, he has to some extent reconciled the con-
ceptions which are here dramatically opposed.

The preparations for the encounter and the description of it
include many life-like touches — such as the eagerness of the
young Athenian gentleman to hear the sophist, though he would
be ashamed to be thought a sophist himself; the confusion into
which the house of Callias has been thrown by the crowd of
strangers and by the self-importance of rival professors; the
graceful dignity of the man who has been forty years a teacher,
the graphic description of the whole scene, the characteristic
speeches of Prodicus and Hippias (from which some critics have
elicited a theory of their doctrines), and the continued irony with
which Socrates bears them all in hand and soothes the great man
after disconcerting him.

In the argument there are two points which chiefly deserve notice.
(i) Protagoras, in accordance with his relative view of things
(which Plato afterwards criticized in the Theaetetus), claims not
to teach men principles but to improve them in those virtues which
Providence has given in some measure to all civilized men. (2)
Socrates in postulating a scientific principle, which he expressly
reserves for future consideration, would have it tested by the power
of calculating the amount of pleasure. Grote dwells with some
complacency on the " utilitarianism " of Socrates in the Protagoras.
And it is true that a principle of utility is here] opposed to con-
ventional sentiment. But this opposition is intended to prepare
the way for the wider and deeper contrast between an arbitrary
and a scientific standard, or between impressions and conceptions
or ideas. And when Plato (in the Gorgias and Philebus) endeavours
to define the art of measurement, which is here anticipated, it is
not wonderful that differences here unthought of should come into
view, or that the pleasant should be again contradistinguished
from the good.- In all three dialogues he is equally asserting the
supremacy of reason.

On the first vision of that transcendental knowledge 1 which is
to be the key at once to truth and good, philosophy is apt to lose
her balance, and to look with scorn upon " the trivial round, the
common task," and the respectable commonplaces of "ordinary
thinking." Yet, as Socrates is reminded by Protagoras, this
unconscious wisdom also has a value. And Plato, who, when
most ideal, ever strives to keep touch with experience, is fully
convinced of the reality of this lower truth, of this unphilosophic
virtue. But he is long puzzled how to conceive of it. For, if
knowledge is all in all, what are we to make of wisdom and goodness
in those who do not know? Protagoras had boldly spoken of
honour and right as a direct gift from Zeus, and Socrates, in the
Io and Meno, is represented as adopting an hypothesis of inspiration
in order to account for these unaccredited graces of the soul.

Socrates has observed that rhapsodists and even poets have no
definite knowledge of the things which they so powerfully repre-
lo sent (cf. Apol. 22; Phaed., 245 A.; Rep. iii. 398 A).

He brings the rhapsode Io to admit this, and to
conclude that he is the inspired medium of a magnetic influence.
The Muse is the chief magnet, and the poet is the first of a series
of magnetic rings. Then follow the rhapsode and the actor, who
are rings of inferior power, and the last ring is the hearer or
spectator.

The Meno raises again the more serious question, Can virtue be
taught? Socrates here states explicitly the paradox with which
Meno. the Protagoras ended. " Virtue is knowledge;
therefore virtue can be taught. But virtue is not
taught. Therefore (in the highest sense) there can be no virtue."
And he repeats several of his former reasons — that Athenian
1 Phaed. 82 B ; Rey. x. 619 C.

statesmen failed to teach their sons, and that the education given
by sophists is unsatisfying. (The sophists are here denounced
by Anytus, who is angered by Socnates's ironical praise of them.)
But the paradox is softened in two ways: (1) the absence of
knowledge does not preclude inquiry, and (2) though virtue
cannot be taught, yet there is asense in which virtue exists.

1. Meno begins in gaiety of heart to define virtue, but is soon
'! benumbed " by the "torpedo" shock of Socrates, and asks
" How can one inquire about that which he does not know?" Socrates
meets this " eristic " difficulty with the doctrine of reminiscence
(AvA/wijais). All knowledge is latent in the mind from birth
and through kindred (or association of) ideas much may be re-
covered, if only a beginning is made. Pindar and other poets
have said that the soul is immortal and that she has passed through
many previous states. 2 And Socrates now gives a practical illus-
tration of the truth that knowledge is evolved from ignorance.
He elicits, from a Greek slave of Meno's, the demonstration of a
geometrical theorem. 3 About the middle of the process he turns
to Meno and observes that the slave (who has made a false start)
is now becoming conscious of ignorance. He then gradually draws
from the man, by leading questions, the positive proof.

2. Though virtue is not yet defined, it may be affirmed " hypo-
thetically " that, if virtue is knowledge, virtue can be taught.
And experience leads us to admit two phases of virtue — the one a
mode of life based on scientific principle, which hitherto is an ideal
only; the other sporadic, springing of itself, yet of divine origin,
relying upon true opinion, which it is, however, unable to make
fast through demonstration of the cause or reason. But if there
were a virtuous man who could teach virtue he would stand amongst
his fellows like Teiresias amongst the shades. 4

This mystical account of ordinary morality is in keeping with
the semi-mythical defence of the process of inquiry — that all know-
ledge is implicit in the mind from birth.

III. Euthyphro, Apologia, Crito, Phaedo. — There is no ground
for supposing that these four dialogues were written consecu-
tively, or that they .belong strictly to the same period of Plato's
industry. But they are linked together for the reader by their
common reference to the trial and death of Socrates; no one of
them has been proved to be in the author's earliest or latest
manner; and they may therefore fitly end the series of dialogues
in which the personal traits of the historic Socrates are most
apparent, and Plato's own peculiar doctrines are as yet but
partially disclosed.

The little dialogue known by the name of Euthyphro might
have been classed with the Laches, Charmides and Lysis, as
dealing inconclusively with a single notion. But,
although slight and tentative in form, it has an under- " ¥P "*'
tone of deeper significance, in keeping with the gravity of the
occasion. Plato implies that Socrates had thought more deeply
on the nature of piety than his accusers had, and also that
his piety was of a higher mood than that of ordinary religious
men.

Euthyphro is a soothsayer, well-disposed to Socrates, but not
one of his particular friends. They meet at the door of the king
Archon, whither Socrates has been summoned for the " precog-
nition" (drajcpuris) preliminary to his trial. Both men are inter-
ested in cases of alleged impiety. For Euthyphro's business is to
impeach his father, who has inadvertently caused the death of a cri-
minal labourer. The prophet feels the duty of purging the stain
of blood to be more imperative the nearer home. Socrates is struck
by the strong opinion thus evinced respecting the nature of piety
and detains Euthyphro at the entrance of the court, that he may
learn from so clear an authority " what piety is," and so be for-
tified against Meletus. He leads his respondent from point to
point, until the doubt is raised whether God loves holiness be-
cause it is holy, or it is holy because loved by God. Does God
will what is righteous, or is that righteous which is willed by God?
Here they find themselves wandering round and round. Socrates
proves himself an involuntary Daedalus who makes opinions move,
while he seeks for one which he can " bind fast with reason."

" The holy is a portion of the just." But what portion? " Due
service of the gods by prayer and sacrifice." But how does this
affect the gods? " It pleases them." Again we are found to be
reasoning in a circle.

" Thus far has Socrates proceeded in placing religion on a moral
foundation. He is seeking to realize the harmony of religion and

2 The origin of this traditional belief is very obscure. The Greeks
themselves were apt to associate it with Pythagoras and with the
" Orphic " mysteries.

3 Eucl. i. 47 (the case where the triangle is isosceles).

4 Horn. Odyss. x. 495, Ofy weirvwdai., rai Si aniaX ataaovoiv.

PLATO

813

Apology.

morality, which the great poets Aeschylus, Sophocles and Pindar
had unconsciously anticipated, and which is the universal want of
all men. To this the soothsayer adds the ceremonial element,
' attending upon the gods.' When further interrogated by So-
crates as to the nature of this ' attention to the gods,' he replies that
piety is an affair of business, a science of giving and asking and the
like. Socrates points out the anthropomorphism of these notions.
But when we expect him to go on and show that the true service
of the gods is the service of the spirit and co-operation with them
in all things true and good, he stops short; this was a lesson which
the soothsayer could not have been made to understand, and which
everyone must learn for himself." 1

In Plato's Apology the fate of Socrates is no longer the subject
of mere allusions, such as the rage of Anytus at the end of the
Meno, and the scene and occasion of the Euthyphro.
He is now seen face to face with his accusers, and with
his countrymen who are condemning him to death.

What most aggravated his danger (after life-long impunity) is
thus stated by James Riddell, in the introduction to his edition
of the dialogue: "The kiuuKua" (clemency) "of the restored
people did not last long, and was naturally succeeded by a sensi-
tive and fanatical zeal for their revived political institutions.
Inquiry into the foundations of civil society was obviously
rather perilous for the inquirer at such a time. Socrates knew
the full extent of his danger. But, according to Xenophon
(Mem. iv. c. 8, § 14), he prepared no defence, alleging that his
whole life had been a preparation for that hour."

The tone of the Platonic Apology is in full accordance with that
saying; but it is too elaborate a work of art to be taken literally as
a report of what was actually said. Jowett well compares it to
" those speeches of Thucydides in which he has embodied his
conception of the lofty character and policy of the great Pericles."
Yet '' it is significant that Plato is said to have been present at
the defence, as he is also said to have been absent at the last
scene of the Phaedo. Some of the topics may have been actually
used by Socrates, and the recollection of his very words may have
rung in the ears of his disciple."

The Platonic Apology is in three parts: (1) before conviction,
(2) after conviction and before sentence, (3) after the sentence.

I. Socrates cares not for acquittal. But he does care to ex-
plain his life. And he selects those aspects of it which there is
hope of making his audience understand. That he partly suc-
ceeded in this is shown by the large number of those (220 out of
500) who voted for his acquittal.

a. His answer to Meletus, as least important, is reserved for the
middle of his speech. He addresses himself first to " other accusers "
— comic poets and the rest, who have prejudiced his reputation by
falsely identifying him with the physical philosophers and the
sophists. But what then is the strange pursuit which has given to
Socrates the name of wise? It is the practice of cross-examining,
to which he was first impelled by the oracle at Delphi, and which
he has followed ever since as a religious mission. The god said
" Socrates is wise," when he was conscious of no wisdom great or
small. So he went in search of some one wiser than himself, but
could find none, though he found many who had conceit of wis-
dom. And he inferred that the god must mean " He is wisest who,
like Socrates, is most aware of his own ignorance." This unceasing
quest has left him in great poverty, and has made him enemies,
who are represented by Anytus, Meletus and Lycon. And their
enmity is further embittered by the pleasure which young men
take in seeing pretence unmasked, and in imitating the process of
refutation. Hence has arisen the false charge that Socrates is a
corrupter of youth.

b. Here he turns to Meletus. " If I corrupt the youth, who does
them good?" Mel. " The laws, the judges, the audience, the
Athenians generally " (cf. Protagoras and Meno). " Strange, that
here only should be one to corrupt and many to improve; or
that any one should be so infatuated as to wish to have bad
neighbours." Mel. " Socrates is an atheist. He believes the sun
to be a stone." " You are accusing Anaxagoras. I have said that
I knew nothing of such theories. And you accuse me of introduc-
ing novel notions about divine things. How can I believe in divine
things (iai/xovia) and not in divine beings (Salmons) ? and how
in divine beings, if not in gods who are their authors?"

c. That is a sufficient answer for his present accuser. He re-
turns to the general long-standing defamation, which may well be
his death, as slander has often been and again will be the death of
many a man.

Yet if spared he will continue the same course of life, in spite of
the danger. As at Potidaea and Delium he faced death where the
Athenians posted him, so now he will remain at the post where he

1 jowett.

is stationed by the god. For to fear death is to assume pretended
knowledge.

One thing is certain. A worse man cannot harm a better. But
if the Athenians kill Socrates they will harm themselves. For
they will lose the stimulus of his exhortations — and his poverty
is a sufficient witness that he was sincere. Not that he would
engage in politics. If he had done that he would have perished long
before, 2 as he nearly did for his independent vote after the battle
of Arginusae, and for disobeying the murderous command of the
Thirty Tyrants.

But have not Socrates's disciples, Alcibiades, Critias, Charmides,
proved bad citizens? He has no disciples. Any one, bad or good,
may come and hear him, and the talk which is his life-work is not
unamusing. But why are no witnesses brought to substantiate
this charge ? There are elder friends of his companions, who
would be angry if he had used his influence for harm. But these
men's confidence in Socrates is unshaken.

He will not appeal ad misericordiam. That would be a disgrace
for one who (rightly or not) has been reputed wise, and to admit
such an appeal in any case is a violation of the juror's oath.

Socrates has told the Athenians the whole truth, so far as a
mixed audience of them could receive it. Elaboration and subtlety
could have no place in addressing the Heliastic court, nor could that
universal truth towards which he was leading men be made intelli-
gible to a new audience while the clepsydra was running. But
his tone and attitude must have made a strong appeal to the better
nature of his hearers. With Meletus he " played rather than fought,"
but he has shown clearly that he has no fear of death, that he chooses
to obey God rather than man, and that for very love of the Athenians
he will not be swayed by their desires.

2. One convicted on a capital charge had the right of pleading
before sentence in mitigation of the penalty proposed by his
accuser. Socrates was convicted by fewer votes than he himself
anticipated. The indictment of Meletus was ineffectual, and if it
had not been for the speeches of Anytus and Lycon the defendant
would have been triumphantly acquitted. Could he but have
conversed with his judges more than once, he might have removed
their prejudices. In no spirit of bravado, therefore, but in simple
justice to himself, he meets the claim of Meletus that he shall be
punished with death by the counterclaim that he shall be main-
tained in the prytaneum as a public benefactor. He cannot ask
that death, which may be a good, shall be commuted for imprison-
ment or exile, which are certainly evils. A fine would be no evil:
but he has no money — he can offer a mina. Here Plato and others
interpose, and with their friendly help he offers thirty minae.

3. He is sentenced to death, and the public business of the court
is ended. But while the record is being entered and the magis-
trates are thus occupied, Socrates is imagined as addressing (a) the
majority, and (b) the minority in- the court.

a. To those who have condemned him he speaks in a prophetic
tone. " For the sake of depriving an old man of the last dregs of
life they have given Athens a bad name. He would not run away,
and so death has overtaken him. But his accusers are overtaken
by unrighteousness, and must reap the fruits of it.

" Nor will the Athenians find the desired relief. Other reprovers,
whom Socrates has hitherto restrained, will now arise, not in a
friendly but in a hostile spirit. The only way for the citizens to
escape reproof is to reform their lives."

b. To the minority, who would have acquitted him, he speaks
with gentle solemnity. " Let them know to their comfort that the
divine voice has not once checked him throughout that day. This
indicates that death is not an evil. And reason shows that death
is either a long untroubled sleep, or removal to a better world,
where there are no unjust judges.

" No evil can happen to a good man either in life or after death.
Wherefore Socrates will not be angry with his condemners, who have
done him no harm, although they meant him anything but good.
He will only ask of them to do to the sons of Socrates as Socrates
has done to them."

Is the love of truth consistent with civic duties? Is the
philosopher a good citizen? are questions which are sure to arise
where the truth involves practical improvement.
In the Apology Socrates appears as an intrepid
reformer; the Crito gives an impressive picture of him as a loyal
and law-abiding Athenian.

Execution had been delayed during the annual mission to Delos
(during which no one could be put to death). But the returning
vessel had just been reported as descried from Sunium. At early
dawn Crito, the oldest friend of Socrates, obtained access to his cell,
and found him sleeping peacefully. Presently he awoke, and Crito
told him of the approach of the fatal ship. Socrates replies by
telling his dream. A fair form stood over him and said,

" The third day hence to Phthia shalt thou come "
And it would seem that the day after to-morrow will really be the
day for going home.

2 Cf . Gorg. 52 1 ; Rep. vi. 4.96.

Crtto.

814

PLATO

Crito then reveals his plan for an escape. And Socrates argues
the question in the old familiar way. " Crito's zeal is excellent,
and most men would think his object right. But the few who
think soundly say that it is wrong to return evil for evil. The
laws of Athens (through the fault of men) are doing Socrates harm,
But ought he therefore to infringe the law ? Might not the laws of
his country plead with him and say : ' You owe to us your birth
and breeding; and when grown up you voluntarily submitted to
•us. For you might have gone elsewhere. But you preferred us
to all other laws, and have been the most constant resident in
Athens. Even at the last you accepted death rather than exile.
If you now break your covenant you will ruin your friends and
will be rejected by all well-ordered cities. You might be received
in Thessaly, but could only live there by cringing to foreigners for
food. Where in that case will be your talk about virtue? You
would not take your sons thither, And your friends would be
equally kind to them if you were dead. Think not of life and children
first and of justice afterwards, but think of justice first, that you
may be justified in the world below.' "

Crito admits these arguments to be unanswerable.

The Meno referred to the immortality and pre-existence of the
soul as a traditional doctrine, and it was there associated with
the possibility of inquiry. In the Phaedo Flato
' undertakes to substantiate this belief and base it
anew by narrating the last hours of Socrates, who is represented
as calmly discussing the question with his friends when his own
death was immediately at hand. The argument turns chiefly
on the eternity of knowledge, and is far from satisfying. For,
granting that eternity of knowledge involves eternity of mind,
does the eternity of mind assure continued being to the indivi-
dual? l Yet no unprejudiced reader of the Phaedo can doubt
that Plato, at the time of writing it, sincerely believed in a
conscious personal existence after death. The words of Socrates,
when he declares his hope of going to be with other friends, are
absolutely unambiguous, and his reply to Crito's question,
" How shall we bury you ?" has a convincing force beyond all
dialectic: " I cannot persuade Crito that I here am Socrates —
I who am now reasoning and ordering discourse. He imagines
Socrates to be that other, whom he will see by and by, a corpse."
This and similar touches not only stamp the Phaedo as a marvel
of art, but are indisputable evidence of the writer's profound
belief. They may be inventions, but they have nothing " my-
thical " about them, any more than the charge of Socrates to his
friends, that they would best fulfil his wishes by attending to
their own lives.

The narrative, to be appreciated, must be read in full. But a
short abstract of the argument may be given here.

I. Death is merely the separation of soul and body. And this
is the very consummation at which philosophy aims. The body
hinders thought. The mind attains to truth by retiring into her-
self. Through no bodily sense does she perceive justice, beauty,
goodness and other ideas. The philosopher has a life-long quarrel
with bodily desires, and he should welcome the release cf his soul.
Thus he alone can have true courage, even as temperance and all
the virtues are real in him alone.

But does the soul exist after death?

a. An old tradition tells of many successive births, the soul
departing to Hades and returning again, so that the living are
born from the dead. And if the dead had no existence, this could
not be, since from nothing nothing can arise. Moreover, experi-
ence shows that opposite states come from their opposites, and that
such a process is always reciprocal. Death certainly succeeds to
life. Then life must succeed to death. And that which undergoes
these changes must exist through all. If the dead came from the
living, and not the living from the dead, the universe would ulti-
mately be consumed in death.

This presumption is confirmed by the doctrine (here attributed
to Socrates, cf. Meno) that knowledge comes from recollection.
What is recollected must be previously known. Now we have
never since birth had intuition of the absolute equality of which
(through association) we are reminded by the sight of things approxi-
mately equal. And we cannot have seen it at the moment of birth,
for at what other moment can we have forgotten it? Therefore,
if ideals be not vain, our souls must have existed before birth, and,
according to the doctrine of opposites above stated, will have
continued existence after death.

b. To charm away the fears of the " child within," Socrates adds,
as further considerations : —

1 In the Timaeus immortality is made to rest on the goodwill of
God, because " only an evil being would wish to dissolve that which
is harmonious and happy " (Tim. 41 A).

i. The soul is uncompounded, incorporeal, invisible, and there-
fore indissoluble and immutable.

ii. The soul commands, the body serves; therefore the soul is
akin to the divine.

iii. Yet even the body holds together long after death, and the
bones are all but indestructible.

The soul, if pure, departs to the invisible world, but, if tainted
by communion with the body, she lingers hovering near the earth,
and is afterwards born into the likeness of some lower form. That
which true philosophy has purified alone rises ultimately to the
gods. The lesson is impressively applied.

2. A pause ensues; and Simmias and Cebes are invited to express
their doubts. For, as the swan dies singing, Socrates would die
discoursing.

o. Simmias desires not to rest short of demonstration, though
he is willing to make the highest attainable probability the guide
of life.

If the soul is the harmony of the body, what becomes of her
" when the lute is broken " ?

b. Cebes compares the body to a garment which the soul keeps
weaving at. The garment in which the weaver dies outlasts him.
So the soul may have woven and worn many bodies in one lifetime,
yet may perish and leave a body behind. Or even supposing her
to have many lives, does even this hypothesis exempt her from
ultimate decay?

Socrates warns his friends against losing faith in inquiry.
Theories, like men, are disappointing; yet we should be neither
misanthropists nor misologists. Then he answers his two friends.

a — i. The soul is acknowledged to be prior to the body. But
no harmony is prior to the elements which are harmonized.

ii. The soul has virtue and vice, i.e. harmony and discord. Is
there harmony of harmony ? Cf. Rep. x. 609.

iii. All soul is equally soul, but all harmony is not equally har-
monious.

iv. If the soul were the harmony of the body they would be
agreed: but, as has been already shown, they are perpetually
quarrelling.

v. The soul is not conditioned by the bodily elements, but has
the power of controlling them.

b. Cebes has raised the wide question whether the soul is inde-
pendent of generation and corruption. Socrates owns that he him-
self (i.e. Plato ?) had once been fascinated by natural philosophy,
and had sought to give a physical account of everything. Then,
hearing out of Anaxagoras that mind was the disposer of all, he had
hoped to learn not only how things were, but also why. But he
found Anaxagoras forsaking his own first principle and jumbling
causes with conditions. ("The cause why Socrates sits here is not
a certain disposition of joints and sinews, but that he has thought
best to undergo his sentence — else the joints and sinews would
have been ere this, by Crito's advice, on the way to Thessaly.")
Physical science never thinks of a power which orders everything
for good, but expects to find another Atlas to sustain the world
more strong and lasting than the reason of the best.

Socrates had turned from such philosophers and found for him-
self a way, not to gaze directly on the universal reason, but to
seek an image of it in the world of mind, wherein are reflected
the ideas, as, for example, the idea of beauty, through partaking of
which beautiful things are beautiful. Assuming the existence of
the ideas, he felt his way from hypothesis to hypothesis.

Now the participation of objects in ideas is in some cases essential
and inseparable. Snow is essentially cold, fire hot, three odd, two
even. And things thus essentially opposite are inclusive of each
other's attributes. (When it was said above that opposites come
from opposites, not opposite things were meant, but opposite states
or conditions of one thing). Snow cannot admit heat, nor fire cold;
for they are inseparable vehicles of heat and cold respectively.
The soul is the inseparable vehicle of life, and therefore, by parity
of reasoning, the soul cannot admit of death, but is immortal and
imperishable.

3. What follows is in the true sense mythological, and is admitted
by Socrates to be uncertain: " Howbeit, since the soul is proved
to bejimmortal, men ought to]charm their spirits with such tales."

The earth, a globe self-balanced in the midst of space, has many
mansions for the soul, 2 some higher and brighter, some lower and
darker than our present habitation. We who dwell about the
Mediterranean Sea are like frogs at the bottom of a pool. In some
higher place, under the true heaven, our souls may dwell hereafter,
and see not only colours and forms in their ideal purity but truth
and justice as they are.

In the Phaedo, more than elsewhere, Plato preaches with-
drawal from the world. The Delian solemnity is to Socrates

2 Cf. Milton, II Penseroso, 88-92—

" To unsphere
The spirit of Plato, to unfold
What worlds or what vast regions hold
The immortal mind that hath forsook
Her mansion in this fleshly nook."

PLATO

815

and his friends a period of " retreat," in which their eyes are
turned from earthly things to dwell on the eternal. The theory
of ideas here assumes its most transcendental aspect, and it is
from portions of this dialogue and of the Phaedrus and Timaeus
that the popular conception of Platonism has been principally
derived. But to understand Plato rightly it is not enough to
study isolated passages which happen to charm the imagi-
nation; nor should single expressions be interpreted without
regard to the • manner in which he prssents the truth else-
where.

It has already been shown (1) that Socratic inquiry implied a
standard of truth and good, undiscovered but endlessly dis-
coverable, and to be approached inductively; and (2) that in
Plato this implicit assumption becomes explicit, in the identifi-
cation of virtue with knowledge {Lack., Charm.) as an art of
measurement (Protag.), and in the vision (towards the end of the
Lysis) of an absolute object of desire. The Socratic " self-
knowledge " has been developed (Charm.) into a science of mind
or consciousness, apart from which no physical studies can be
fruitful. (3) Co-ordinate with these theoretical tendencies there
has appeared in Plato the determination not to break with
experience. In the Phaedo, a long step is made in the direction
of pure idealism. The ordinary virtue, which in the Protagoras
and Meno was questioned but not condemned, is here rejected as
unreal, and the task proposed to the philosopher is less to under-
stand the world than to escape from it. The universal has
assumed the form of the ideal, which is supposed, as elsewhere in
Plato, to include mathematical as well as moral notions. The
only function of perception is to awaken in us some reminiscence
of this ideal. By following the clue thus given, and by searching
for clearer images of truth in the world of mind, we may hope to
be emancipated from sensation, and to lay hold upon the sole
object of pure reason.

It is obvious that when he wrote the Phaedo Plato conceived
of universals as objective entities rather than as forms of thought.
The notion of " ideal colours " (though occurring in the myth) is
an indication of his ontological mood. Yet even here the eidy
are not consistently hypostatized. The notion of " what is
best " has a distinctly practical side, and the " knowledge
through reminiscence " is in one aspect a process of reflection on
experience, turning on the laws of association. 1 It is also said
that objects " partake " of the ideas, and some concrete natures
are regarded as embodiments or vehicles of some of them. Still
if regarded as a whole, notwithstanding the scientific attitude of
Socrates, the Phaedo is rather a meditation than an inquiry — a
study of the soul as self-existent, and of the mind and truth as
coeternal.

IV. Symposium, Phaedrus, Cralylus. — Socrates is again
imagined as in the fullness of life. But the real Socrates is be-
coming more and more inextricably blended with Platonic
thought and fancy. In the Apology there is a distinct echo of the
voice of Socrates; the Phaedo gives many personal traits of him;
but the dialogues which are now to follow are replete with original
invention, based in part, no doubt, on personal recollections.

The Symposium admits both of comparison and of contrast
with the Phaedo. Both dialogues are mystical, both are
spiritual, but the spirituality in either is of a different
order. That is here immanent which was there
transcendent; the beautiful takes the place of the good. The
world is not now to be annihilated, but rather transfigured, until
particular objects are lost in universal light. Instead of flying
from the region of growth and decay, the mind, through inter-
course with beauty, is now the active cause of production. Yet
the life of contemplation is still the highest life, and philosophy
the truest juouctuc^.

The leading conception of the Symposium has been anticipated
in the Lysis, where it was said that " the indifferent loves the good,
because of the presence of evil."

The. banqueters {including Socrates), who are met to celebrate
the tragic victory of Agathon, happen not to be disposed for hard
drinking. They send away the flute-girl and entertain each other
with the praise of Love. Phaedrus tells how Love inspires to

1 Cf. Theaet. 184-186.

Symposium.

honourable deeds, and how Alcestis and Achilles died for Love.
Pausanias rhetorically distinguishes the earthly from the heavenly
Love. The physician Eryximachus, admitting the distinction,
yet holds that Love pervades all nature, and that art consists in
following the higher Love in each particular sphere. So Empedocles
had spoken of Love as overcoming previous discord. For opposites
cannot, as Heraclitus fancied, coexist. Aristophanes, in a comic
myth, describes the origin of Love as an imperfect creature's longing
for completion. The original double human beings were growing
impious, and Zeus split them in twain, ever since which act the
bereaved halves wander in search of one another. Agathon speaks,
or rather sings, of Love and his works. He is the youngest, not the
eldest of gods, living and moving delicately wherever bloom is
and in the hearts of men — the author of all virtue and of all good
works, obeyed by gods, fair and causing all things fair, making men
to be of one mind at feasts — pilot, defender, saviour, in whose
footsteps all should follow, chanting strains of love.

Socrates will not attempt to rival the poet, and begins by stipu-
lating that he may tell the truth. He accepts the distinction
between Love and his works, but points out that, since desire
implies want, and the desire of Love is toward beauty, Love, as
wanting beauty, is not beautiful. So much being established in
the Socratic manner, he proceeds to unfold the mystery once
revealed to him by Diotima, the Mantinean wise woman. Love
is neither beautiful nor ugly, neither wise nor foolish, neither god
nor mortal. Between gods and mortals is the world of mediating
spirits (t6 baxubviov) . And Love is a great spirit, child of Resource
(the son of Prudence) and Poverty the beggar maid, who conceived
him at the birthday feast of Aphrodite. He is far from living
" delicately," but is ragged and shoeless, always in difficulties,
yet always brimming with invention, a mighty hunter after wisdom
and all things fair; sometimes "all full with feasting " on them,
the next moment " clean starved " for lackj never absolutely
knowing nor quite ignorant. That is to say, he is a " philosopher. '
For knowledge is the most beautiful thing, and love is of the beau-
tiful.

But what does love desire of the beautiful? The possession is
enough. But there is one kind of love — called " being in love " —
which desires beauty for a peculiar end. The lover is seeking, not
his " other half," but possession of the beautiful and birth in beauty.
For there is a season of puberty both in body and mind, when
human nature longs to create, and it cannot, save in presence of
beauty. This yearning is the earnest of immortality. Even in
the bird's devotion to its mate and to its young there is a craving
after continued being. In individual lives there is a flux, not
only of the body, but in the mind. Nay the sciences themselves
also come and go (here the contrast to the Phaedo is at its height).
But in mortal things the shadow of continuity is succession.

The love of fame is a somewhat brighter image of immortality
than the love of offspring. Creative souls would bring into being
not children of their body, but good deeds. And such a one is
readiest to fall in love with a fair mind in a fair body, and then is
filled with enthusiasm and begets noble thoughts. Homer, Hesiod,
Lycurgus, Solon, were such genial minds. But they stopped at
the threshold (cf. Prot., Meno), and saw not the higher mysteries,
which are reserved for those who rise from noble actions, institu-
tions, laws, to universal beauty. The true order is to advance from
one to all fair forms, then to fair practices, fair thoughts, and
lastly to the single thought of absolute beauty. In that com-
munion only, beholding beauty with the eye of the mind, one shall
bring forth realities and become the friend of God and be immortal,
if mortal man may.

Alcibiades here breaks in and is vociferously welcomed. He is
crowning Agathon, when, on perceiving Socrates, he declares that
he will crown him too. Then he announces himself king of the
feast, and insists upon hard drinking (though this will make no
difference to Socrates). Eryximachus demands from the newcomer
a speech in praise of love. But Alcibiades will praise no one else when
Socrates is near. And with the freedom of one who is deep in wine
he proceeds with his strange encomium of " this Marsyas." " In
face and outward bearing he is like a Satyr or Silenus, and by his
voice he charms more powerfully than they do by their pipings.
The eloquence of Pericles has no effect in comparison with his.
His words alone move Alcibiades to shame, and fascinate him until
he stops his ears and runs from him." — " I often wish him dead.
Yet that would break my heart. He brings me to my wit's end."
— " And, as carved Sileni are made to encase images of gods, so this
Silenus-mask entreasures things divine. He affects ignorance and
susceptibility to beauty. Thus he mocks mankind. But he cares
nothing for outward shows, and his temperance (<ruxj>pocripr)) is
wonderful." To prove this Alcibiades reveals his own heart-secret.
(He is not ashamed to speak it amongst others who have felt the,
pang which Socrates inflicts). And he makes it abundantly mani-
fest that in their widely rumoured intercourse (cf. Protag. init.)
Socrates had never cared for anything but what was best for his
younger friend. Alcibiades then relates as an eyewitness the
endurance shown by Socrates at Potidaea, his strange persistence
in solitary meditation — standing absorbed in thought -for a day
and a night together — and his intrepid conduct in the retreat from
Delium (cf. Laches). " The talk of Socrates is of pack-asses and

8i6

PLATO

cobblers, and he is ever saying the same things in the same words ;
but one who lifts the mask and looks within will find that no other
words have meaning." Alcibiades ends by warning his companions
against the wiles of Socrates.

Some raillery follows, and they are invaded by another band ot
revellers, who compel them to drink still more deeply. The soberly
inclined (led by Eryximachus) slink off, and Anstodemus, the
reporter of the scene, only remembers further that when he awoke
at cock-crow Socrates was still conversing with Agathon and
Aristophanes, and showing them that tragedy and comedy were
essentially one. He talked them both asleep, and at daybreak went
about his usual business.

The philosopher of the Symposium is in the world and yet not
of it, apparently yielding but really overcoming. In the
Phaedo the soul was exhorted to " live upon her servant's loss,"
as in Shakespeare's most religious sonnet; this dialogue tells of a
" soul within sense " in the spirit of some more recent poetry.
By force of imagination rather than of reason, the reconciliation
of becoming (yevecns) with being (ovala), of the temporal with
the eternal, is anticipated. But through the bright haze of
fancy and behind the mask of irony, Socrates still appears the
same strong, pure, upright and beneficent human being as in the
Apology, Crito and Phaedo.

The impassioned contemplation of the beautiful is again
imagined as the beginning of philosophy. But the " limitless
ocean of beauty " is replaced by a world of supra-
Phaedms. mundane f ormS! beheld by unembodied souls, and
remembered here on earth through enthusiasm, proceeding by
dialectic from multiform impressions to one rational conception,
and distinguishing the " lines and veins " of truth. The Phaedrus
records Plato's highest " hour of insight," when he willed the
various tasks hereafter to be fulfilled. In it he soars to a pitch
of contemplation from whence he takes a comprehensive and
keen-eyed survey of the country to be explored, marking off the
blind alleys and paths that lead astray, laying down the main
roads and chief branches, and taking note of the erroneous
wanderings of others. Reversing the vulgar adage, he flies that
he may walk.

The transcendent aspiration of the Phaedo and the mystic
glow of the Symposium are here combined with the notion of a
scientific process. No longer asking, as in the Protagoras, Is
virtue one or many? Plato rises to the conception of a scientific
one and many, to be contemplated through dialectic — no barren
abstraction, but a method of classification according to nature.
This method is to be applied especially to psychology, not
merely with a speculative, but also with a practical aim. For the
" birth in beauty " of the Symposium is here developed into an
art of education, of which the true rhetoric is but the means, and
true statesmanship an accidental outcome. .

Like all imaginative critics, Plato falls to some extent under
the influence of that which he criticizes. The art of rhetoric
which he so often travestied had a lasting effect upon his style.
Readers of his latest works are often reminded of the mock
grandiloquence of the Phaedrus. But in this dialogue the poetical
side of his genius is at the height. Not only can he express or
imitate anything, and produce any effect at will, but he is
standing behind his creation and disposing it with the most
perfect mastery, preserving unity amidst profuse variety, and
giving harmony to a wildness bordering on the grotesque.

The person of Socrates is here deliberately modified. He
no longer (as in the Symposium) teaches positive wisdom under
the pretence of repeating what he has heard, but is himself
caught by an exceptional inspiration, which is accounted for by
the unusual circumstance of his finding himself in the country
and alone with Phaedrus. He has been hitherto a stranger to the
woods and fields, which would tempt him away from studying
himself through intercourse with men. But by the promise of
discourse— especially of talk with Phaedrus— he may be drawn
any whither.

Phaedrus has been charmed by a discourse of Lysias, which after
some coy excuses he consents to read.

It is a frigid erotic diatribe, in which one not in love pleads lor
preference-over the lover. Socrates hints at criticism, and is chal-
lenged to produce something better on the same theme.

I. Distinguishing desire from true opinion, he defines love as

desire prevailing against truth, and then expatiates on the harmful
tendencies of love as so defined. But he becomes alarmed at his
own unwonted eloquence, and is about to remove, when the " divine
token " warns him that he must first recite a " palinode in praise
of love. For no divine power can be the cause of evil.

2. Love is madness; but there is a noble madness, as is shown
by soothsayers (called ixavrm from p,alvonai). And of the higher
madness there are four kinds.

To explain this it is necessary to understand psychology. the
soul is self-existent and self-moving, and therefore eternal. And
her form is like a pair of winged steeds with their charioteer. In
divine souls both steeds are good, but in human souls one of them is
bad. Now before entering the body the soul lost her wings, which in
her unembodied state were nourished by beauty, wisdom, goodness,
and all that is divine. For at the festival of souls, in which they
visit the heaven that is above the heavens, che unruly steed caused
the charioteer to see imperfectly. So the soul cast her feathers
and fell down and passed into the human form. And, according
to the comparative clearness or dimness of that first vision, her
earthly lot is varied from that of a philosopher or artist down
through nine grades (including woman) to that of a tyrant. On
her conduct in this state of probation depends her condition when
again born into the world. And only in ten thousand years can
she return to her pristine state, except through a life of philosophy
(cf. Phaedo) or of pure and noble love (cf. Symposium).

The mind of the philosopher alone has wings. He is ever being
initiated into perfect mysteries, and his soul alone becomes complete.
But the vulgar deem him mad and rebuke him; they do not see
that he is inspired. ,. „

This divine madness (the fourth kind of those above mentioned)
is kindled through the renewed vision of beauty. For wisdom is
not seen; her loveliness would have been transporting if she had
a visible form. The struggle of the higher passion with the lower
is then described with extraordinary vividness, under the image
of the two steeds. When the higher impulse triumphs the issue
is a philosophic friendship, at once passionate and absolutely pure.
3. From his " palinode " Socrates returns to Lysias, who is
advised to leave speech-writing for philosophy. _ ... ,

a. Phaedrus remarks that the speech-writer is despised by the
politician. Socrates replies that speech-writing and politics are
one concern. The real difference is between those who base their
teaching on philosophy and those who are content with rules of
art. For example, if the first speech of Socrates is compared with
that of Lysias, the one is found to distinguish and define, the other
not; the one observes order in discourse, the other " begins where
he should end," and his utterance is like a disordered chain. A
speech should be an organic whole, a " creature having hands and
feet." So in the " palinode " there was a classification of the kinds
of madness, which led the way to " a possibly true though partly
erring myth." This approximation to truth in the midst of much
that was playful was due to the observance of two principles,
generalization and division (ovva.yoi'rq, diaipecns) . Whoever sees the
one and many in nature, him Socrates follows and walks in his
footsteps, as if he were a god. In comparison of dialectic, as thus
conceived, the frigid rules of Lysias, Thrasymachus, Theodoras,
Evenus, Tisias, Gorgias, Polus and Protagoras are futile and absurd.

b. Another condition of teaching (or true rhetoric) is the science
of mind. Whether the soul be one or many, complex or multiform,
and if multiform what are its parts and kinds, are questions which
the teacher must have already solved. And he must likewise have
classified all arguments and know them in their various applic-
ability to divers souls. An art of speaking that should fulfil this
condition is non-existent. Yet how can even verisimilitude be
attained without knowledge of truth?

c. The art of writing is kindred to the art of speech. But
Socrates maintains that oral teaching through the living contact of
mind with mind has many advantages over written composition,
which is, comparatively speaking, a dead thing. Men may write for
amusement or to record the intercourse that has been. But the
serious occupation of the true thinker and teacher is the com-
munication of truth through vital converse with others like-minded
—the creation of " thoughts that breathe " in spirits conscious
of their value. ,

In conclusion, a friendly hint is given to Isocrates that he may do
better than Lysias if he will but turn his attention to philosophy.

The Phaedrus anticipates much that Plato afterwards slowly
elaborated, and retains some things which he at last eliminated.
(1) The presence of movement or impulse in the highest region
is an aspect of truth which reappears in the Sophistes and other
later dialogues. It has been thought strange that it should be
found so early as in the Phaedrus. But does not this remark
imply an unwarrantable assumption, viz. that Plato's idealism
took its departure from the being of Parmenides ? Is it not
rather the fact that his own theory was formulated before the
Megarian ascendancy led him to examine the Eleatic doctrine,
and that it was by a tendency from the first inherent in Platonism
that that doctrine was modified in his final teaching? (2) The

PLATO

817

outlines of method which are thrown out at white heat in the
Phaedrus are a preparation for the more sober treatment of
the ideas in the dialectical dialogues. In these, however, the
conception of classification is somewhat altered through contact
with Eleaticism. (3) The Phaedrus aims, not merely at realizing
universals, but at grasping them in and thiough particulars.
This is an ideal of knowledge which was" lost as soon as seen,"
but one which in some of his latest dialogues, such as the Politicus
and Philebus, Plato again endeavoured to work out. (4) The
Phaedrus contains the elements of that true psychology into
which the ontological theory of the ideas is gradually transmuted
in Plato's more advanced writings, when the difficulties of his
ideal doctrine in its cruder forms have been clearly felt and under-
stood. (5) Plato here appears as a professor of education
preferring oral intercourse to authorship. In this paradox he at
once exalts the work of Socrates and avows his own vocation as a
teacher. The passage throws an interesting light upon the form
of dialogue in which his works are cast. But it is not to be sup-
posed that he remained long unconscious of the influence he was
destined to wield by writing. In executing a great task like the
Republic, he practically diverged from the untenable view
asserted here; and in the Laws he recommends his longest and
least dramatic work as a suitable basis for the education of the
future. (6) It must always appear strange, even to those most
familiar with the conditions of Hellenic life, that in portraying
the idealizing power of passionate love Plato should have taken
his departure from unnatural feeling.

On this subject he has sung his own " palinode " in the Laws,
which he intended as his final legacy to mankind. 1 Not that he
ceased to exalt genius and originality above mere talent, or to
demand for philosophy the service of the heart as well as the head,
nor yet that friendship was less valued by him in later years.
All this remained unchanged. And in the Republic the passion
of love is still distantly referred to as the symbol of ideal aspira-
tion. But a time came when he had learned to frown on the
aberration of feeling which in the Symposium and Phaedrus he
appears to regard as the legitimate stimulus of intellectual
enthusiasm. And already in the Theaetelus not love but wonder
is described as the only beginning of philosophy.

While calling attention to this change of sentiment, it is right
to add that Platonic love in the " erotic " dialogues of Plato is
very different from what has often been so named, and that
nothing even in the noble passage of the Laws above referred to
casts the slightest shadow of blame on the Socrates of the
Symposium. Such changes are, amongst other things, a ground
for caution in comparing the two steeds of the Phaedrus with
the spirit (dvfibs) and desire (emdvuia) of the Republic and
Timaeus. The Phaedrus, in common with these dialogues,
asserts the existence of higher and lower impulses in human
nature, but there is no sufficient ground for supposing that when
Plato wrote the Phaedrus he would have defined them precisely
as they are defined in the Republic.

The Cratylus is full of curious interest as marking the highest
point reached by the " science of language " in antiquity; but,
as this dialogue " hardly derives any light from
Plato's other writings," 2 so neither does it reflect
much light on them. It deals slightly with the contrast between
Heracliteanism and Eleaticism, the importance of dialectic, the
difficulty about the existence of falsehood, and ends with a brief
allusion to the doctrine of ideas— but these topics are all more
fully discussed elsewhere.

Three persons maintain different views respecting the nature and
origin of language.

Hermogenes affirms that language is conventional, Cratylus (the
Heraclitean) that it is natural. Socrates, mediating between these
sophistical extremes, declares that language, like other institutions,
is rational, and therefore (1) is based on nature, but (2) modified
by convention.

In his dialectical treatment of the subject, Socrates displays a
tissue of wild etymologies in reliance on the " inspiration " of
Euthyphro. Presently a distinction appears between primary and

1 Laws viii. 836.

1 jowett — who has, notwithstanding, thrown much light on the
Cratylus in his brilliant introduction.

Cratylus.

secondary words. Many primary words convey the notion of
movement and change. It follows that the legislator or Word-maker
held Heraclitean views. Socrates thus far presses on Hermogenes
the view of Cratylus. Then turning to Cratylus he asks if there are
no false names. " False language," Cratylus argues, " is impossible."'
Socrates shows that a true image may be inadequate, so that we
have a right to criticize the work of the word-maker. And the
facts indicate an element of meaningless convention. Nor was the
original word-maker consistently Heraclitean. For some important
words point not to motion but to rest.

But the question returns — Are we sure that the theory of nature
which the word-maker held was true? This difficulty cannot
be touched by verbal arguments. In seeking to resolve it we must
consider, not words, but things. If there is a true beauty and a
true good, which are immutable, and if these are accessible to
knowledge, that world of truth can have nothing to do with flux
and change.

V. Gorgias, Republic. — In the Symposium and Phaedrus
Plato largely redeems the promise implied in the Phaedo, where
Socrates tells his friends to look among themselves for a charmer
who may soothe away the fear of death. But he was pledged also
to a sterner duty by the warning of Socrates to the Athenians,
in the Apology, that after he was gone there would arise
others for their reproof more harsh than he had been. To this
graver task, which he had but partially fulfilled with the light
satire upon Lysias or the gentle message to Isocrates, the philo-
sopher now directs his powers, by holding up the mirror of what
ought to be against what is, the principles of truth and right
against the practice of men. For the good has more than one
aspect. The beautiful or noble when realized in action becomes
the just. And to the question, What is just? are closely
allied those other questions of Socrates — What is a state? What
is it to be a statesman?

In the Gorgias Plato asserts the absolute supremacy of justice
through the dramatic portraiture of Socrates in his opposition
to the world; in the Republic he strives at greater length to define
the nature of justice through the imaginary creation of an ideal
community.

In the Gorgias the Platonic Socrates appears in direct antagon-
ism with the Athenian world. The shadow of his fate is impend-
ing. Chaerephon (who is still alive) understands Q
him, but to the other interlocutors, Gorgias, Polus,
Callicles, he appears perversely paradoxical. kYet he effectively
dominates them all. And to the reader of the dialogue this
image of " Socrates contra mundum " is hardly less impressive
than that other image of Socrates confronting death.

1. Gorgias asserts that rhetoric is an art concerned with justice,
and that persuasion is the secret of power.

a. Socrates, after suggesting some ironical doubts, declares his
opinion that rhetoric is no art, but a knack of pleasing, or in other
words " the counterfeit of a subsection of statesmanship." This
oracular definition rouses the interest of Gorgias, and Socrates
proceeds with the following " generalization and division ": —
Management of

1

Soul.

1

1

Body

1 1

Real. Pretended.
1 1

Real

1

Pretended.

1

ffoAlTlKTf. |~ [
, ,1 ,., «' «

1

a

Gymnastic.

J

Medicine.

1, 1,

a B'

1 1 Sophistic. Rhetoric.

P II
Legis- Juris- | j

Cosmetic. Confeo
| tionery.

lanon. prudence. ~ ~ 1

1

Flattery.

Flattery influences men through pleasure without knowledge.
And the rhetor is a kind of confectioner, who can with difficulty
be distinguished from the sophist.

b. Rhetoric, then, is not an art. And persuasion is not the
secret of power. Here Socrates maintains against Polus the three
paradoxes : —

The tyrant does what he chooses but not what he wishes;

It is less evil to suffer wrong than to do wrong;

It is better for the wrongdoer to be punished than to escape
punishment.

The only use of rhetoric, therefore, is for self-accusation, and (if
it is ever permissible to do harm) to prevent the punishment of
one's enemy.

2. Callicles here loses patience and breaks in. He propounds
his theory, which is based on the opposition of nature and custom.

8i8

PLATO

Republic.

" There is no natural right but the right of the stronger. And
natural nobility is to have strong passions and power to gratify
them. The lawful

is a word that cowards use,
Devised at first to keep the strong in awe."

Socrates entangles him in an argument in which it is proved that
pleasure is different from good, and that there are good and bad
pleasures.

Now the question is whether the life of philosophy, or the life
which Callicles defends, is conducive to good. And it has been
shown that rhetoric is one of a class of pursuits which minister to
pleasure without discriminating what is good.

Callicles again becomes impatient. Did not Themistocles,
Cimon, Pericles labour for their country's good? Socrates then
renews his demonstration, proving that if the just man is wronged
the evil lies with the wrongdoer, not with him, and that it is
worst for the wrongdoer if he escape. And for avoidance of this
greatest evil not rhetoric avails anything, nor any of the arts
which save life (seeing that life may be used well or ill), nor even
such an art of politics as Themistocles, Cimon, or Pericles knew,
but another science of politics which Socrates alone of the Athenians
practises. The pursuit of it may well endanger him; but his
strength lies in having done no wrong. For in the world to come
he can present his soul faultless before her judge. Not the show
of justice but the reality will avail him there.

This truth is enforced by an impressive myth. And Callicles is
invited to leave the life which relies on rhetoric and to follow
Socrates in practising the life of philosophic virtue.

The value of justice has been shown. But what is justice ?
Is the life upheld by Socrates sufficiently definite for practical
guidance? The views of Callicles have been over-'
borne; but have they been thoroughly examined?
Socrates claims to be the only politician. But how can that
deserve the name of policy which results in doing nothing?
These and cognate questions may well have haunted Plato when
he planned the Republic, the greatest of his works. For that
which lay deepest in him was not mere speculative interest or
poetic fervour, but the practical enthusiasm of a reformer.
The example of Socrates had fired him with an ideal of wisdom,
courage, temperance and righteousness, which under various
guises, both abstract and concrete, has appeared and reappeared
in the preceding dialogues. But the more vividly he conceived
of this ideal life, the more keenly he felt its isolation in the present
world — that of the restored Athenian democracy. For to a Greek
mind above all others life was nothing without the social environ-
ment, and justice, of all virtues, could least be realized apart from
a community. Hence it became necessary to imagine a form of
society in which the ideal man might find himself at home, a state
to which the philosopher might stand in harmonious relationship,
no longer as an alien sojourner, but as a native citizen, not
standing aloof in lonely contemplation, but acting with the
full consent of other men and ruling in the right of wisdom.
Plato did not regard his own republic as a barren dream. He
believed that sooner or later in the course of time a state essen>-
tially resembling his ideal commonwealth would come into being.
Still more firmly was he convinced that until then mankind would
not attain their highest possible development. To ignore this
real aspect of his most serious work is to lose much of the
author's meaning. Yet it is hardly less erroneous to interpret a
great imaginative creation au pied de la lettre, as if examining a
piece of actual legislation. Even in his Laws, a far more prosaic
writing, Plato himself repeatedly protests against such criticism.
In his most aspiring flights he is well aware of the difference
between the imaginary and actual embodiment of an ideal, 1
although as a literary artist he gives to his creations, whether in
anticipation or retrospect, an air of sober reality and matter-of-
fact. He is more in earnest about principles than about details,
and if questioned would probably be found more confident with
regard to moral than to political truth. He may have been
wholly unconscious of the inconsistencies of his scheme, but it
would not have greatly disconcerted him to have discovered
them, or to have been told that this or that arrangement would
not " work." He would have trusted the correction of his own
rough draft to the philosopher-kings of the future.

The Republic falls naturally into five portions, (i) Bk. i. is
preliminary, raising the main question about justice. (2) Bks. ii.,

1 See especially Rep. v. 472 ; Lege,, v. 746.

iii., iv. contain the outlines of the perfect state, including the
education of the " guardians," and leading up to the definition of
justice (a) in the state, and (6) in the individual. (3) Bks. v.,
vi., vii. (which to some critics present the appearance of an after-
thought or excrescence on the original design) contain the cardinal
provisions (1) of communism (for the guardians only), (2) that
philosophers shall be kings, (3) of higher education for the rulers
(viz. the philosopher-kings). This third provision occupies bks.
vi. and vii. (which have again, as some think, the appearance of
an outgrowth from bk. v.). (4) Bks. viii. and ix., resuming the
general subject from bk. iv., present the reverse of the medal by
showing the declension of the state and individual through four
stages, until in the life of tyranny is found the image of ideal
injustice, as that of justice was found in the life of the perfect state.
(5) Bk. x. forms a concluding chapter, in which several of the
foregoing enactments are reviewed, and the work ends, like the
Gorgias, with a vision of judgment.

Thus the main outlines of the scheme are contained in bks. ii.,
iii., iv., viii., ix. And yet bks. v., vi., vii. form the central portion,
a sort of inner kernel, and are of the highest significance.

In speculating about the composition of the Republic (as is
the fashion of some interpreters) it is important to bear in mind
the general character of Plato's writings.

" The conception of unity," says Jowett, 2 " really applies in
very different degrees to different kinds of art — to a statue, for
example, far more than to any kind of literary composition, and
to some species of literature far more than to others. Nor does the
dialogue appear to be a style of composition in which the require-
ment of unity is most stringent ; nor should the idea of unity derived
from one sort of art be hastily transferred to another. . . . Plato
subjects himself to no rule of this sort. Like every great artist
he gives unity of form to the different and apparently distracting
topics which he brings together. He works freely, and is not to
be supposed to have arranged every part of the dialogue before
he begins to write. He fastens or weaves together the frame of
his discourse loosely and imperfectly, and which is the warp and
which the woof cannot always be determined."

It should be added, that as Dialectic was still a " world not
realized," and he was continually conscious of using imperfect
methods, he was not solicitous to bind himself to any one method,
or to watch carefully over the logical coherence of his work.
" Sailing with the wind of his argument," he often tacks and
veers, changing his method with his subject-matter, much as a
poet might adopt a change of rhythm. Absorbed as he is in
each new phase of his subject, all that precedes is cancelled for
the time. And much of what is to come is deliberately kept
out of view, because ideas of high importance are reserved
for the place where their introduction will have most effect.
Another cause of apparent inconsequence in Plato is what he
himself would call the use of hypothesis. He works less deduc-
tively and more from masses of generalized experience than
Platonists have been ready to admit. And in the Republic he
is as much engaged with the criticism of an actual as with the
projection of an ideal condition of society. If we knew more of
the working of Attic institutions as he observed them, wt should
often understand him better.

These general considerations should be weighed against
the inequalities which have led some critics to suppose that
the " first sketch of the state" in bks. ii.— iv. is much earlier than
the more exalted views of bks. v.-vii. 3 If in these later books new
conditions for choosing the future rulers are allowed to emerge,
if in discussing the higher intellectual virtues the simple psycho-
logy of bk. iv. is lost sight of (it reappears in the Timaeus) , if
the " knowledge of the expedient " at first required falls far
short of the conception of knowledge afterwards attained, all
this is quite in keeping with Plato's manner elsewhere, and may
be sufficiently accounted for by artistic and dialectical reserve.
It can hardly be an altogether fortuitous circumstance that the
culminating crisis, the third and highest " wave " of [difficulty —
the declaration that philosophers must be kings and kings
philosophers— comes in precisely at the central point of the
whole long work.

The great principle of the political supremacy of mind, though
thus held back through half the dialogue, really dominates the
whole. It may be read between the lines all through, even in
the institution of gymnastic and the appraisement of the cardinal

! Introd. to the Phaedrus.

3 Krohn, Der platonische Staat (Halle, 1876).

PLATO

819

virtues. It is a genuine development of Socratic thought.
And it is this more than any other single feature which gives the
Republic a prophetic significance as "an attempt towards
anticipating the work of future generations." l

Other aspects of the great dialogue, the Dorian framework,
so inevitable in the reaction from Ionian life, the traces of
Pythagorean influence, the estimate of oligarchy and democracy,
the characters of the interlocutors in their bearing on the exposition,
have been fully treated by recent writers, and for brevity's sake
are here passed over.

There are other points, however, which must not be omitted,
because they are more intimately related to the general develop-
ment of Plato's thoughts.

1. The question debated by Proclus has been raised before and
since, whether the proper subject of the Republic is justice or the
State. The doubt would be more suggestive if put in a somewhat
different form: Is Plato more interested in the state or the indi-
vidual? That he is in earnest about both, and that in his view
of them they are inseparable, is an obvious answer. And it is
almost a truism to say that political relations were prior to ethical
in the mind of a Greek. Yet if in some passages the political
analogy reacts on moral notions (as in the definition of temperance) ,
in others the state is spoken of in language borrowed from individual
life. And it remains questionable whether the ethics or the politics
of the Republic are less complete. On the whole Plato himself
seems to be conscious that the ideal derived from the life-work of
Socrates could be more readily stamped on individual lives than
on communities of men (see especially Rep. vii. 528 A, ix. 592).

2. The analogy of the individual is often used to enforce the
requirement of political unity and simplicity (see especially v. 462 C).
This is also to be referred, however, to Plato's general tendency
to strain after abstractions. He had not yet reached a point
of view from which he could look steadily on particulars in the
light of universal principles. He recurs often to experience, but
is soon carried off again into the abstract region which to him seemed
higher and purer.' 2 " It has been said that Plato flies as well as
walks, but this hardly expresses the whole truth, for he flies and
walks at the same time, and is in the air and on firm ground in
successive instants " (Jowett). Plato's scheme of communism
had been suggested to him partly by Dorian institutions and partly
by the Pythagorean rule. But it was further commended by the
general consideration that the state is a higher and more abstract
unity than the family. The lower obligation must give way to
the higher ; the universal must overrule the particular bond.

3. Similarly it may be argued that, while the subordination of
music to state discipline, and the importance attached to rhythm
and harmony in education, had likewise a connexion with Sparta
and the Pythagoreans severally, Plato's deliberate attitude towards
poetry and art could hardly be other than it is. Philosophy,
while still engaged in generalization, could not assign to the imagina-
tion its proper function. " Aesthetik " could not enter into her
purview. For a moment, in the Symposium, the ancient quarrel
of poetry and philosophy had seemed to be melted in a dominant
tone, but this was only a fond anticipation. Plato, if man ever
did so, had felt the siren charm, but he is now embarked on a more
severe endeavour, and, until the supreme unity of truth and good
is grasped, vagrant fancy must be subdued and silent.

4. In the early education of the guardians a place is found for
the unconscious virtue acquired through habit, which the Prota-
goras and Meno stumbled over and the Phaedo treated with disdain.
In the ideal state, however, this lower excellence is no longer a
wild plant, springing of itself through some uncovenanted grace
of inspiration, but cultivated through an education which has
been purified by philosophy so as to be in harmony with reason.
But if Plato were cross-questioned as to the intrinsic value of habits
so induced as a preservative for his pupils against temptation,
he would have replied, " I do not pretend to have removed all
difficulties from their path. Enough of evil still surrounds them
to test their moral strength. I have but cleared the well-springs
of the noxious weeds that have been fatal to so many, in order
that they may have little to unlearn, and be exposed only to such
dangers as are inevitable."

5. It is a singular fact, and worth the attention of those who
look for system in Plato, that the definition of justice here so
laboriously wrought out, viz. the right division of labour between
the three classes in the state and between the three corresponding
faculties in the individual soul, is nowhere else repeated or applied,
although the tripartite division of the soul recurs in the Timaeus,
and the notion of justice is of great importance to the arguments
of the Politicus and the Laws.

6. Before leaving the Republic, it is important to mark the

stage which has now been reached by Plato's doctrine of ideas.

The statements of the Republic on this subject are by no means

everywhere consistent.

_____ ___

8 See, for example, the admission of luxury and the after-purifi-
cation through " music," bks. ii., iii.

a. Towards the end of bk. v. philosophers are defined as lovers
of the whole, who recognize the unity of justice, goodness, beauty,
each in itself, as distinguished from the many just or good or beautiful
things. The former are said to be objects of knowledge, the latter
of opinion, which is intermediate between knowledge and ignorance.
Knowledge is .of being, ignorance of the non-existent, opinion of
that which is and is not.

b. In bk. vi. there is a more elaborate statement, implying a
more advanced point of view. The " contemplation of all time
and all existence ' is a riper conception than " the love of each thing
as a whole." Ignorance and nonentity have now disappeared,
and the scale is graduated from the most evanescent impression of
sense to the highest reach of absolute knowledge. And in the
highest region there is again a gradation, rising to the form of good,
and descending from it to the true forms of all things. In the
application of this scheme to the theory of education in bk. vii.
there are still further refinements. The psychological analysis
becomes more subtle, and more stress is laid on the connexion of
ideas.

c. The doctrine reverts to a cruder aspect in bk. x., where we
are told of an ideal bed, which is one only and the pattern of all the
many actual beds.

d. A yet different phase of idealism presents itself in bk. ix.
{sub fin.), in the mention of a " pattern " of the perfect state laid
up in heaven which the philosopher is to make his rule of life.

What is said above concerning Plato's mode of composition has
some bearing on these inconsistencies of expression. And that
bks. vi., vii., as being the most important, were finished last is a
not untenable hypothesis. But that Plato, in preparing the way
for what he had in contemplation, should content himself with
provisional expressions which he had himself outgrown, or that
in a casual illustration (as in bk. x.) he should go back to a crude
or even childish form of his own theory, is equally conceivable and
in accordance with his manner elsewhere. Socrates in the Parme-
nides confessedly wavers on this very point. And there are " ideas "
of the four elements in the Timaeus.

VI. Euthydemus, Parmenides, Theaetetus, Sophist, Statesman,
Philebus (the dialectical dialogues). — Even in the most advanced
metaphysics of the Republic there is a hyperbolical, trans-
cendental tendency, from which Plato ultimately to some extent
worked himself free. But it was not in conversation with " dear
Glaucon," or " between the lines " of an ethico-politicai writing,
that this partial emancipation could be effectually attained. We
have now to consider a series of dialogues, probably intended
for a narrower circle of readers, in which Plato grapples directly
with the central difficulties of his own theory of knowing and
being. It is not necessary to assume that all of these are later
than the Republic. The position of the Euthydemus and Par-
menides in the order of composition is very uncertain. The
Theaetetus has points of affinity with the Republic. The Sophist,
Politicus and Philebus are in a later style. But, on account of
their cognate subject-matter, these six dialogues may be con-
veniently classed together in a group by themselves. And the
right place for such a group is intermediate between the Republic
and the Laws.

The unity of the object of definition, the identity of virtue
and knowledge, the existence of an absolute good, which would
be universally followed if universally known, and of a standard
of truth which is implied in the confession of ignorance, were
postulates underlying the Socratic process, which in so far made
no claim to be a " philosophy without assumptions." These
postulates^, when once apprehended, drew Plato on to speculate
concerning the nature, the object and the method of knowledge.
Now, so far as we have hitherto followed him, his speculation
has either been associated with ethical inquiry, or has been
projected in a poetical and semi-mythical form. In the Phaedrus
however, the vision of ideas was expressly conjoined with an
outline of psychology and _ foreshadowing of scientific method.
And, while the opposition of ideas to phenomena and of know-
ledge to opinion has been repeatedly assumed, it has also been
implied that there is a way between them, and that the truth
can only be approached by man through interrogation of experi-
ence. For it is nowhere supposed that the human inquirer is
from the first in a position to deduce facts from ideas. Much
rather, the light of the ideas is one which fitfully breaks in upon
experience as men struggle towards the universal.

But it is not less true that the metaphysical aspirations from
which Socrates had seemed to recall men's thoughts had been
reawakened in consequence of the impulse which Socrates

820

PLATO

himself had given. From asking, Is virtue one? Can virtue
be taught? Plato passes on to ask, What is unity? What
are knowledge and being? From criticizing imperfect modes of
teaching virtue, he has begun to speculate about the right and
wrong uses of the intellect, and from dramatic portraits of the
individual Protagoras or Gorgias goes on to the ideal delineation
of the sophist. He has entered upon the " longer way," and is
no longer contented with mere " hypotheses." With this
demand for scientific precision his conception of the ideas them-
selves is modified, and he strives anew to conceive of them in
relation to one another, to the mind, and to the world. As the
balance of ethical truth was restored by admitting an uncon-
scious (or inspired) conformity to reason, so now a fresh attempt
is made on the intellectual side to bridge the gulf between sense
and knowledge.

This endeavour involves, not only an expansion of the method
of Socrates, but an examination of the earlier philosophies from
which Socrates had turned away. Their influence on Plato has
been traceable in the preceding dialogues, though, except in the
case of Pythagoreanism (Gorg., Phaed., Rep.) it has been mostly
indirect and casual. But in these dialectical dialogues he mani-
fests his serious conviction that the contemporary fallacies which
formed the chief hindrance to inquiry were deeply rooted in
forms of thought created by earlier thinkers, above all by
Heraclitus and Parmenides. To the exclusiveness of their first
principles as held by their followers Plato attributed the
barrennesss and impracticable unreality of many discussions,
which put shadow-fighting and controversy in the place of real
investigation, and led men to think that truth was unattainable.
He therefore enters into conversation, as it were, with the great
minds of former times, and in the spirit of Socrates compels
each of them to yield up his secret, and to acknowledge a supple-
mental truth. To this effort he may very probably have been
stimulated by the dialectical activity of his Socratic friends at
Megara, whose logical tastes had drawn them towards Eleaticism.
But, unlike them, while strengthening his metaphysical theory,
he was also led to give to his political speculations a more
practical turn.

The Euthydemus is a treatise " De Sophisticis Elenchis " in
the form of a farce, and may serve to introduce the five other
Bath demus dialogues, as the encounter with Thrasymachus
' introduces the serious part of the Republic. Under
the mask of mockery there is more of concentrated thought, and
also more of bitterness, in this dialogue than in the Protagoras or
the Gorgias.

A sample of educational dialectic — in which Socrates draws out
of young Cleinias the admissions (i) that a philosophy is needed,
(2) that the highest philosophy is a science of kingcraft, which
remains for the present undefined — is contrasted with a series
of ridiculous sophisms, propounded by Dionysodorus and his
brother Euthydemus, in which absolute and relative notions,
whether affirmative or negative, object and subject, universal
and particular, substance and attribute, action and modality,
are capriciously confused. Crito, to whom Socrates narrates the
scene, is moved to contempt. But Socrates warns him not on
this account to despair of philosophy. In conclusion, Isocrates,
or some one else, who prematurely mixes up philosophy with
practical politics, is cautioned against spoiling two good things.
Such puzzles as — How can I learn either what I know or what
I do not know? 1 How can things become what they are not?
How is falsehood or denial possible? — although treated jocularly
here, will be found returning afterwards to " trouble the mind's
eye."

Plato appears in the same act to have become aware of his
affinity with Parmenides, and to have been led to reconsider the
P rmealdes foundations of his own doctrine. The one being
' of Parmenides was a more abstract notion than
justice, beauty or the good. And the Zenonian method had
more pretension to exactness than the Socratic. But it remained
barren, because contented to repeat its own first essays in
the destructive analysis of experience, without rising to the

1 Cf. Meno.

examination of its own first principles. For this higher criticism,
of which he himself also stood in need, Plato looks up from
the disciples to the master Parmenides. The appeal to him
is put into the mouth of Socrates, as a very young man, who has
framed for himself a theory of ideas, and would gladly see the
Zenonian process applied to the notions of sameness, difference,
likeness, unlikeness, unity and being.

Parmenides, whom Plato treats with tender reverence not
unmixed with irony, proposes to the youth a series of questions
which reveal the crudity of the doctrine of effiij. (1) Are there
ideas of trivial things? 2 (2) How do things '"partake" of
them? (3) Must not idealism proceed in infinitum? (4) If
ideas are thoughts, do they and their participants think ? (5)
If they are patterns, and things resemble them, must there not
be a pattern of the resemblance, and so on in infinitum ? (6) If
absolute, are they thinkable by man ?

These difficulties are real, and yet to deny ideas is to destroy
philosophy. (As the paradoxical doubts in the Protagoras do
not shake the faith of Socrates in the existence of good, so neither
does Plato here intend for a moment to derogate from the belief
in the existence of the One and the True.)

Parmenides advises Socrates to arm himself for the further pur-
suit of truth (1) by the higher application and (2) by the extension
or completion of the Zenonian method. (1) The method is to be
applied to abstractions. (2) It is not enough to show the inferences
which may be drawn from the admission of an hypothesis, but
account must also be taken of the inferences which follow from
its rejection.

Parmenides exemplifies his suggestion by examining his own first
principle in conversation with a youth who, while a contemporary
of Socrates, is a namesake of Plato's pupil Aristotle. 3 Not content
with the affirmative and negative hypotheses, he pursues either
along two lines , according as either term of the proposition is
emphasized, and this not only as regards the hypothesis of unity,
but also as applied to the alternative hypothesis of plurality. The
result, as in the Protagoras, is purely destructive, and the dialogue
ends abruptly without a word of reply from Socrates.

The second part of the Parmenides may be regarded as an
experiment in which Plato " assays to go " in Eleatic armour.
Yet the strange web is " shot " with colours of original thought.
The mode of conceiving time and becoming, and the vision of
nothingness towards the end, may be noted as especially
Platonic. These passages may be regarded in the same light as
the wise words of Protagoras or the sober truths which occur
amidst the wild fancies of the Cratylus. They should not mislead
the interpreter into a search for recondite meanings.

The Zenonian method has been carried out to the utmost in
application to the highest subject, and has led the mind into a
maze of contradiction. It remains to call in question
the method itself, and the notion of absolute identity
and difference on which it hinges, and so to lay anew the foun-
dation-stone of thought. Before this can be attempted, how-
ever, another set of difficulties have to be met, and another set
of philosophers examined. For the current scepticism had
undermined the conception of knowledge as well as that of being,
and the fame of Heraclitus was hardly second to that of Par-
menides. Protagoras appeared in a former dialogue as the
champion of ordinary morality; he is now made the exponent
of ordinary thinking. His saying " Man the measure " is shown
to rest on the unstable basis of the Heraclitean flux. By an
elaborate criticism of both theories knowledge is at last separated
from the relativity of sense; but the subsequent attempt to
distinguish on abstract grounds between true and false opinion,
and to define knowledge as true opinion with a reason (cf.
Meno), proves ineffectual. Plato still shows traces of Megarian
influence. But the disjunctive method of the Parmenides is
not resumed. The indirect proofs are so arranged as to exhibit
the skill of Socrates in " bringing to the birth " the germs of
thought in a richly endowed and " pregnant " young mind.
Theaetetus is the embodiment of the philosophic nature des-
cribed in Rep. bk. vi., and has already been trained by Theodorus
of Cyrene in geometry and the other preparatory sciences of

* Cf. Rep. x. 597.

* Cf. the younger Socrates of the Politicus. It would be
precarious to draw any inference from this minute fact.

PLATO

821

Rep. bk. vii. It is in conversation with Theodorus that Socrates
impressively contrasts the lives of the lawyer and the philosopher.
The Theaetetus marks a great advance in clearness of metaphysical
and psychological expression. See for example the passage
(184-186) in which the independent function of the mind is
asserted, and ideas are shown to be the truth of experience.
There is also a distinct approach towards a critical and historical
method in philosophy, while the perfection of style continues
unimpaired, and the person of Socrates is as vividly represented
as in any dialogue.

Notwithstanding the persistence of an indirect and negative
method, the spirit of this dialogue also is the reverse of sceptical.
" Socrates must assume the reality of knowledge or deny himself "
(197 A). Perhaps in no metaphysical writing is the balance more
firmly held between experience, imagination and reflection.
Plato would seem to have made a compact with himself to abstain
rigidly from snatching at the golden fruit that has so often eluded
his grasp, and to content himself with laboriously " cutting
steps " towards the summit that was still unsealed.

With Plato, as with other inventive writers, a time seems to
have arrived when he desired to connect successive works in a
series. Thus in planning the Sophistes he linked it to
op s the Theaetetus (which had been written without any
such intention), and projected a whole tetralogy of dialectical
dialogues, Theaetetus, Sophistes, Politicus, Philosophus, of which
the last piece seems never to have been written. -»

After an interval, of which our only measure is a change of
style, the philosopher returns to the great central question of
knowledge and being. The obstacle in his path, on which he has
often played with light satire, dramatic portraiture and indirect
allusion, is now to be made the object of a seriously planned
attack. He has made his approaches, and the enemy's fortress
is to be forthwith sapped and overthrown. This hostile position
is not merely the " Sophistik " which, as some tell us, is an
invention of the Germans, and as Plato himself declares is only
the reflection or embodiment of the average mind, 1 but the
fallacy of fallacies, the prime falsehood {irpCrrov \ptv80s) of all
contemporary thought. This is nothing else than the crude
absoluteness of affirmation and negation which was ridiculed in
the Euthydemus, and has been elsewhere mentioned as the first
principle of the art of controversy. 2 For dramatic purposes
this general error is personified. And the word " sophist,"
which had somehow become the bite noire of the Platonic school,
thus for the first time fixedly acquires the significance which has
since clung to the name. That Plato himself would not adhere
pedantically to the connotation here implied is shown by the
admission, at the opening of the dialogue, that amongst other
disguises under which the philosopher walks the earth the sophist
is one. '

In the Sophistes, as in the Parmenides, a new method is intro-
duced, and again by an Eleatic teacher. This method is repeated
with improvements in the Politicus, and once more referred to
in the Philebus. It bears a strong resemblance to the " syna-
goge " and " diaeresis " of the Phaedrus, but is applied by the
" friend from Elea " with a degree of pedantry which Socrates
nowhere betrays. And the two methods, although kindred,
have probably come through different channels — the classifi-
cations of the Phaedrus being Plato's own generalization of the
Socratic process, while the dichotomies of the Stphistes and
Politicus are a caricature of Socrates cast in the Megarian mould.
Plato seems to have regarded this method as an implement which
might be used with advantage only when the cardinal principles
on which it turned had been fully criticized.

1. After various attempts to " catch the sophist," he is defined
as the maker of an unreal likeness of truth. Here the difficulty
begins — for the definition implies the existence of the unreal, i.e.
of not-being. In our extremity it is necessary to " lay hands on
our father Parmenides."

2. The contradictions attendant on the notion of " being,"
whether as held by Parmenides or his opponents or by the " less
exact " thinkers who came after them, are then examined, and in
an extremely subtle and suggestive passage (246-249) an attempt

1 Rep. vi. 493.

2 iiriXoYwoJ.

is made to mediate between idealism and materialism. The result
is that while consummate being is exempt from change it cannot
be devoid of life and motion. " Like children, ' Give us both,'
say we."

3. This leads up to the main question: (a) are different notions
incommunicable, or (b) are all ideas indiscriminately communicable,
or (c) is there communion of some kinds and not of others? The
last view is alone tenable, and is confirmed by experience. And
of the true combination and separation of kinds the philosopher
is judge.

4. Then it is asked (in order to " bind the soDhist ") whetheK
being is predicable of not-being.

Five chief kinds (or categories) are now examined, viz. being,
rest, motion, sameness, difference. Rest and motion are mutually
incommunicable, but difference is no less universal than being itself.
For everything is " other " than the rest, i.e. is not. Thus positive
and negative not only coexist but are coextensive.

5. And, in spite of Parmenides, we have discovered the existence,
and also the nature, of not-being. It follows that the mere pursuit
of contradictions is childish and useless and wholly incompatible
with a philosophic spirit.

Negation, falsity, contradiction, are three notions which Plato
from his height of abstraction does not hold apart. His position
is the converse of the Spinozistic saying, " Omnis determinatio
est negatio." According to him, every negative implies an
affirmative. And his main point is that true negation is cor-
relative to true affirmation, much as he has said in the Phaedrus
that the dialectician separates kinds according to the " lines and
veins of nature." The Sophistes is a standing protest against
the error of marring the finely-graduated lineaments of truth,
and so destroying the vitality of thought.

The idealists whom the Eleatic stranger treats so gently have
been identified with the Megarians. But may not Plato be
reflecting on a Megarian influence operating within the Academy?
Here, as partly already in the Parmenides and Theaetetus, the
ideas assume the nature of categories, and being is the sum of
positive attributes, while negation, as the shadow of affirmation,
is likewise finally comprehended in the totality of being.

The remark made incidentally, but with intense emphasis,
that the universe lives and moves "according to God," 1 is an
indication of the religious tone which reappears increasingly in
the Politicus, Philebus, Timaeus and Laws.

In passing on to consider the statesman, true and false, the
Eleatic stranger does not forget the lesson which has just been
learned. While continuing his method of dicho- Pomicus
tomies, he is careful to look on both sides of each (States-
alternative, and he no longer insists on dividing
between this and not-this when another mode of classification
is more natural. A rule not hitherto applied is now brought
forward, the rule of proportion or right measure (rd //.erpiov),
as distinguished from arbitrary limitations. Nor is formal
logical treatment any longer felt to be adequate to the subject
in hand, but an elaborate myth is introduced. On the ethico-
political side also a change has come over Plato. As he has
stripped his ideas of transcendental imagery, so in reconsidering
his philosopher-king he turns away from the smiling optimism of
the Republic and looks for a scientific statesmanship that shall
lay a strong grasp upon the actual world. He also feels more
bitterly towards the demagogues and other rulers of Hellas.
The author of the Politicus must have had some great quarrel
with mankind. But so far as they will receive it he is still intent
on doing them good.

1. The king is first defined as a herdsman of men, who as " slow
bipeds " are distinguished from the pig and the ape. But the king
is not all in all to his | charges, as the herdsman is. The above
definition confuses human with divine rule.

2. Now the universe is like a top, which God first winds in one
direction and then leaves to spin the other way. In the former
or divine cycle all was spontaneous, and mankind who had all
things in common, were under the immediate care of gods. They
were happy, if they used their leisure in interrogating nature. But
in this reign of Zeus it is far otherwise. Men have to order their
own ways and try to imitate in some far-off manner the ail-but
forgotten divine rule.

3. Therefore in our present definition the term " superintendent "

must be substituted for " herdsman ."

What special kind of superintendence is true statesmanship?
______

822

PLATO

4. By way of an example, the art of weaving is denned. The
example shows that kingcraft has first to be separated from other
kindred arts, both causal and co-operative. Nine categories are
adduced which exhaust social functions. Eight are eliminated,
and the ninth, the class of ministers, remains. Of these (a) slaves,
(b) hirelings, (c) traders, (d) officials, (e) priests are again parted off,
although the last are only with difficulty separated from the king,
when (f) a strange medley of monstrous creatures come into view.
Some are fierce like lions, some crafty like the fox, and some have
mixed natures like centaurs and satyrs. These are the actual rulers
of mankind, more sophistical and juggling than the sophist himself.
And they too must be separated from the true king.

5. The familiar tripartite distinction of monarchy, oligarchy,
democracy, is doubled by introducing into each the distinction
involved in the presence or absence of wealth, and in the observance
or non-observance of law. But no one of the six carries in itself a
scientific principle.

The true government is the rule, not of many, but of one or of
a few. " And they may govern, whether poor or rich, by free-will
or compulsion, and either with or without law, so long as they
govern scientifically."

6. The respondent, a youthful namesake of Socrates, is shocked
at the remark that the true ruler may govern without law.

This leads to a discussion of the nature of law, which is compared
to the prescription left by a physician. If present, he might
dispense with his own rule. So the presence of a competent ruler
is better than the sovereignty of law, which makes no allowance
for nature or circumstance, but tyrannically forces its own way.
Imagine medicine, navigation, &c, similarly conducted by time-
honoured prescription, with penalties for innovation ;— what would
become of civilization? Yet if law is disregarded by rulers who
are unscientific and warped by self-interest, this leads to far worse
evils. For the laws are based on some experience and wisdom.
Hence, in the continued absence of the true ruler, the best course,
though only second best, is the strict observance of law. And he
who so rules in humble imitation of the scientific governor may be
truly called a king, although if the divine lawgiver were to appear
his living will would supersede the law.

7. As it is, though cities survive many evils, yet many are ship-
wrecked because of the ignorance of those at the helm. The order
of badness in the actual states is —

1. Constitutional monarchy.

2. Constitutional oligarchy.

I — 3. Law-abiding democracy.

' — 4. Law-breaking democracy.

5. Law-defying oligarchy.

5. Tyranny.

8. It remains to separate from the true ruler those who co-operate
with him as subordinates, the general, the judge, the orator. His
own peculiar function is an art of weaving strength (the warp) with
gentleness (the woof), when education has prepared them — -and
this (1) by administration, (2) by marriage.

The four preceding dialogues have shown (1) the gradual
transformation of the Platonic ideas (while still objective) into
forms of thought, (2) the tendency to group them into series of
categories, (3) a corresponding advance in psychological classifi-
cation, (4) an increasing importance given to method, (5) the
inclination to inquire into processes {yevtaus) as well as into the
nature of being.

Meanwhile Plato's approach to the Eleatics, though in the
way of criticism, has brought into prominence the notions of
Pbttebas un i t y> being, sameness, difference, and has left some-
what in abeyance the idea of good. To this " highest
of all studies " Plato now returns, equipped with his improved
instruments, and ready to forge new ones in the same laboratory,
or in some other, should occasion serve. His converse with
Parmenides ended in his assertion of an element of difference
pervading all things — in other words, of an indeterminate element
underlying all determinations. This brings him again into
relation with the Pythagoreans, who had similarly asserted the
combination of finite and infinite in the universe. Taking
advantage of their help, he gains a more advanced (but still ideal)
conception of the concrete harmony of things, and approaches
the definition of that which in the Republic he but shadowed
forth. With this most serious inquiry there is combined (as in
the Sophistes and Politicus) an ironical and controversial use of
dialectic, by which the juggler and false pretender (who is in this
case the goddess of pleasure), after claiming the highest place, is
thrust down to the lowest.

It must be admitted that the style of the Philebus is far from
brilliant, or even clear. In the effort of connecting abstractions

Plato's movement is more laboured than in his first glad realiza-
tion of them.

Instead of attempting here to follow the windings of the
dialogue, it must suffice to state the main result. Neither
pleasure nor knowledge is the highest good, and the good eludes
definition; but the shrine, or habitation, of the good is a complex
life of which the elements are, in order of merit: (r) measure,
the cause of all right mixture; (2) (a) beauty, the effect, and (b)
reality, the inseparable condition; (3) intellect; (4) science, art
and right opinion; (5) pure pleasure unaccompanied with pain.
" Not all the animal kingdom shall induce us to put pleasure
first."

The Philebus introduces us to the interior of the Academy in
the lifetime of the master. More than any other of the dialogues
it recalls Aristotle's description of Plato's teaching. But, while
his followers seem early to have fallen under the dominance of
the latest phase of his doctrine, Plato himself, even in the
Philebus, is still detached from any servitude to the creations
of his own mind. He manipulates them as the medium for
expressing his fresh thoughts, but they are not yet crystallized
into a system.

" I will remind you," Socrates, " of what has been omitted,"
says Protarchus at the conclusion of this dialogue. The last
(presumably) of Plato's metaphysical writings thus fitly ends
with a confession of incompleteness. But if, as Renan says,
" the most fatal error is to believe that one serves one's country
by calumniating those who founded it," neither is it for the
interest of science to ignore these imperfect anticipations. By
methods elaborated in the course of centuries, and far more sure
than any which Plato had at his command, mankind have gained
an extent of knowledge which he dreamt not of. 1 But the Greek
metaphysician is none the less a pioneer of knowledge, 2 while
the special sciences of ethics and psychology had been carried
from infancy to adolescence in a single lifetime.

VII. Timaeus, Critias [Hermoerates]. — As the Sophistes and
Politicus were written in continuation of the Theaetetus, so, at
some uncertain time, Plato conceived the design of writing a
great trilogy, for which the ideal state depicted in the Republic
should be the point of departure. The grand outline there
sketched by Socrates was now to be filled up by Critias and
Hermoerates. The form set up by reasoning should be made
alive, the " airy burghers " should be seen " making history."
As a prelude to this magnificent celebration, Timaeus, the
Pythagorean philosopher, who is present at the Panatbenaea,
is invited to discourse of the origin of all things, and to bring
down the glorious theme to the creation of man. What should
have followed this, but is only commenced in the fragment of
the Critias, would have been the story, not of a fall, but of the
triumph of reason in humanity.

In the Philebus (50 A, cf. 62 D) Plato speaks with a touch
of contempt of the life-long investigation of nature, as being
concerned only with this visible universe, and immersed in the
study of phenomena, whether past, present or to come, which
admit of no stability and therefore of no certainty. " These
things have no absolute first principle, and can never: be the
objects of reason and true science."

Yet even this lower knowledge is there admitted as an element
of that life which is the habitation of the good. And there are
not wanting signs in his later dialogues that Plato's imagination
had again been strongly drawn towards those physical studies
which, as the Phaedo shows, had fascinated him in youth. That
nature and the world proceed " according to God and not
according to chance " is the belief of the Eleatic stranger, to
which he perceives that Theaetetus will be irresistibly drawn as
he grows older (Soph. 265 D). In the midst of dialectical
abstractions, the processes of actual production (yev&<reis) have
been increasingly borne in mind. And the myth in the Politicus
turns on cosmological conceptions which, although differing
from those in the Timaeus, and more accordant with Plato's
bitterest mood, yet throw a new light on the deeper current of

1 See, however, Polit. 272 C, D.

2 See Jowett, Introd. to the Timaeus.

PLATO

823

Timaeus.

his thoughts. In the same passage (272 C) there occurs the first
clear anticipation of an interrogatio naturae.

The impulse in this new direction, if not originated, was
manifestly reinforced, through closer intercourse with the
Pythagorean school. And the choice of Timaeus the Pytha-
gorean as chief speaker is an acknowledgment of this obvious
tendency. If in the course of the dialogue there occur ideas
apparently borrowed from the Atomists, whom Plato persist-
ently ignored, this fact ought probably to be referred to some
early reaction of Atomic on Pythagorean doctrine. It is import-
ant to observe, however, that not only the Timaeus, but the
unfinished whole of which it forms the introduction, is pro-
fessedly an imaginative creation. For the legend of prehistoric
Athens and of Atlantis, whereof Critias was to relate what
belonged to internal policy and Hermocrates the conduct of the
war, would have been no other than a prose poem, a " mytho-
logical lie," conceived in the spirit of the Republic, and in the
form of a fictitious narrative. And, therefore, when Timaeus
professes to give only a probable account of shadowy truths,
he must be taken at his word, and not criticized in too exacting
a spirit. His descriptions have much the same relation to the
natural philosophy of Plato's time that Milton's cosmology
has to the serious investigations of Galileo or Copernicus — except
that all physical speculation hitherto partook in some measure
of this half-mythological 'character, and that Plato's mind,
although working in an unfamiliar region, is still that of a
speculative philosopher.

As Parmenides, after demonstrating the nonentity of growth
and decay, was yet impelled to give some account of this non-
existent and unintelligible phenomenal world, so
Plato, although warned off by Socrates, must needs
attempt to give a probable and comprehensive description of
the visible universe and its creation. In doing so he acknow-
ledges an imperfect truth in theories which his dialectic had
previously set aside. In examining the earlier philosophers
he has already transgressed the limits prescribed by Socrates,
and the effort to connect ideas has made him more and more
conscious of the gap between the ideal and the actual. He
cannot rest until he has done his utmost to fill up the chasm —
calling in the help of imagination where reason fails him. His
dominant thought is still that of a deduction from the " reason
of the best," as in the Phaedo, or " the idea of good," as in the
Republic. But both his abstract idealism and his absolute
optimism were by this time considerably modified, and, although
not confounding " causes with conditions," as he once accused
Anaxagoras of doing, he yet assigns more scope to " second
causes " than he would then have been willing to attribute to
them. This partly comes of ripening experience and a deepening
sense of the persistency of evil, and partly from the feeling —
which seems to have grown upon him in later life — of the distance
between God and man.

Timaeus begins by assuming (1) that the universe being corporeal
is caused and had a beginning, and (2) that its mysterious Author
made it after an everlasting pattern. Yet, being bodily and visible,
it can only be made the subject, humanly speaking, of probable
discourse. Thus much being premised, he proceeds to unfold —
(a) the work of mind in creation, (b) the effects of necessity, including
the general and specific attributes of bodies, (c) the principles of
physiology, and (d) an outline of pathology and medicine. _

To give a full account of such a comprehensive treatise is beyond
our scope, and the Timaeus, however great and interesting, has been
well described as an out-building of the great fabric of original
Platonism. A very few scattered observations are all that there is
space for here.

a. J. In the mythology of the Timaeus some of the conceptions
which attained logical clearness in the Sophist and Philebus resume
an ontological form. Thus, in compounding the soul-stuff of the
universe, the father of all takes of the continuous and discrete and
fuses them into an essence (the composite being of the Philebus).
Again he takes of the same and other (cf. the Sophist), over-
coming their inherent repugnance by his sovereign act.

2. The notion of an economy or reservation in Plato has been
often exaggerated and misapplied. But it is difficult to acquit
him of intentional obscurity in speaking of the creation of the Earth.
It is clear, though Plato does not say so, that she is meant to have
been created together with the Heaven and together with Time,
and so before the other " gods within the heaven," i.e. the sun and

moon and five planets, and it is a plausible supposition that she is
the "artificer of day and night," by interposing her bulk to the
sun's rays. If the word eiWopivri in p. 40 implies motion (as
Aristotle thought 1 ), it cannot be, as Grote supposed, a motion con-
sentaneous with that of the outer sphere, but either some far slower
motion, perhaps assumed in order to account for the shifting of the
seasons, or an equal retrograde motion which is supposed to neutral-
ize in her case the " motion of the same." She clings to the centre,
as her' Natural abode. And the diurnal motion of the heavens
is due not to any mechanical force but to the soul of the world
extending from the centre to the poles and comprehending all.

3. Immortality is in the Timaeus dependent on the will of the
Eternal. And the sublime idea of eternity is here first formulated.

4. The phenomena of vision and hearing are included among the
works of reason, because the final cause of these higher senses is
to give men perception of number, through contemplation of the
measures of time.

b. 1. It has been commonly said that the four elements of the
Timaeus are geometrical figures, without content. This is not true.
For what purpose does Plato introduce, " besides the archetype and
the created form, a third kind, dim and hard to conceive, a sort of
limbec or matrix of creation," if not to fill up the triangles which
are elements of elements, and to be the vehicle of the forms com-
pounded of them ? It has been supposed that this " nurse of
generation " is identical with " space," and it cannot be said that
they are clearly kept apart by Plato. But he had a distinct nomen-
clature for either, and, although gravity is explained away (so that
his molecules, unlike Clerk Maxwell's, may be called imponderable),
yet extension, or the property of filling space, is sufficiently implied.

2. The difference of size in the triangles and varying sharpness
of their outlines are ingenious though inadequate expedients, adopted
in order to account for qualitative difference and physical change.

3. In criticizing the illusory notion of "up and down," Plato,
apparently for the first time, broaches the conception of antipodes.

4. More distinctly than in the Philebus, bodily pleasure is ex-
plained by " a sudden and sensible return to nature " (cf. Ar. Rhet.
i. 11, §1; N.E., vii. 10).

5. Natural philosophers are warned against experimenting on the
mixture of colours, which is a divine process and forbidden to man
(Tim. 68 d). (Ancient science was at a loss for a theory of colours.)

c. I. Plato tends more and more in his later writings to account
for moral evil by physical conditions, thus arriving at the Socratic
principle of the mvoluntariness of vice by a different road.

Hence in the Timaeus not the body only is made by the inferior
gods, but they also create the lower and mortal parts of the human
soul: the principle of anger which is planted in the breast, within
hearing of reason, and that of appetite which is lodged below the
diaphragm like an animal tied in a stall, with the stomach for a
crib and the liver for a " soothsaying " looking-glass to soothe or
terrify it when tempted to break loose.

2. The brain-pan was left bare of protecting flesh " because the
sons of God who framed us deliberately chose for us a precarious
life with capability of reason, in preference to a long secure existence
with obstruction of thought."

3. The nails are a rudimentary provision for the lower animals,
into which degenerate souls were afterwards to be transformed.

4. Vegetables have sensation but not motion.

5. By way of illustrating the very curious account here given of
respiration, it is asserted that what is ccmmonly thought to be
the attraction of the magnet is really due to rotatory motion and
displacement: a remarkable anticipation (Tim. 80c).

6. When the original particles wear out, and the bonds of soul
and body in the marrow give way, the soul escapes delightedly and
flies away. This is the painless death of natural decay.

d. 1. The dependence of mental disease on bodily conditions is
more fully recognized in the Timaeus than elsewhere in Plato
(contrast the Charmides, for example).

2. He has also changed his mind about the treatment of disease,
and shows more respect for regimen and diet than in the Republic.
Diseases are a kind of second nature, and should be treated
accordingly.

3. It is also a remark in contrast with the Republic, that over-
study leads to head complications, which physicians ascribe to
chill and find intractable. . .

Lastly, it is one of the strange irregularities in the composition
of the Timaeus that the creation of woman and the relation of
the sexes 2 to each other are subjects reserved to the end, because
this is the place given to the lower animals, and woman (cf. the
Phaedrus) is the first transmigration from the form of man. This
order is probably not to be attributed to Plato's own thought, but
to some peculiarity of Pythagorean or Orphic tradition.

VIII. The Laws. — The two series of dialogues, the dialectical
and the imaginative— Sophistes, Politicus, Philosophus —
Timaeus, Critias, Hermocrates — were left Incomplete. For
Plato had concentrated his declining powers, in the evening of

1 Aristotle, however uses elXov/ikvri, a different word.

2 There is an anticipation of microscopic observation in the words
ibpara iiri a-fiiKporriTos nal 48i&7rXa<rTa f$ a = spermatozoa.

824

PLATO

Laws,

his life, l upon a different task. He was resolved to leave behind
him, if he could so far overcome the infirmities of age, 2 a code
of laws, conceived in a spirit of concession, and such as he still
hoped that some Hellenic state might sanction. The motive
for this great work may be gathered from the Politicus. The
physician in departing is to give a written prescription, adapted
as far as possible to the condition of those from whom he goes
away. This is the second-best course, in the absence of the
philosopher-king. And, as the Hellenic world will not listen
to Plato's heroic remedy, he accommodates his counsel to their
preconceptions. He returns once more from abstract
discussions to study the application of ideas to life,
and though, by the conditions of the problem, his course is
" nearer earth and less in light," this long writing, which is said
to have been posthumous, 3 has a peculiar interest. The ripeness
of accumulated experience and the mellowness of wise contem-
plation make up for the loss of prophetic insight and poetic
charm.

The form of dialogue is still retained, and an aged Athenian
is imagined as discoursing of legislation with the Lacedaemonian
Megillus and the Cretan Cleinias, who has in view the foundation
of a new colony, and is on his way with his two companions
from Cnossus to the temple and oracle of Zeus.

Plato now aims at moderating between Dorian and Ionian
law, freely criticizing both, and refining on them from a higher
point of view. " The praise of obedience, the authority assigned
to elders, the prohibition of dowries, the enforcement of marriage,
the common meals, the distribution and inalienability of land,
the institution of the Crypteia, the freedom of bequest to a
favourite son, the dislike of city walls — all reflect the custom of
Sparta." ..." The use of the lot, the scrutiny of magistrates,
the monthly courses of the council, the pardon of the forgiven
homicide, most of the regulations about testaments and the
guardianship of orphans, the degrees of consanguinity recognized
by law, correspond to Athenian laws and customs " (Jowett).

The philosopher's own thoughts come out most strongly in
the " preludes " to the laws, 4 and in the regulations concerning
education, marriage and the punishment of impiety (i.e. ist,
atheism; 2nd, denial of providence; 3rd and worst, immoral
superstition). The difficulty which is met in the Politicus by
the abandonment of the world for a time, and in the Timaeus
by the lieutenancy of lower gods, here leads to the hypothesis
of an evil soul. The priority of mind (often before asserted)
and the increased importance attached to numbers are the chief
indications of Plato's latest thoughts about the intelligible
world. But it must be remembered that the higher education
(answering to Rep. vi., vii.) is expressly reserved. 5 Had Plato
written his own Epinomis, the proportions of the whole work
(not then " acephalous ") might have been vastly changed.

The severity of the penalties attached to the three forms of
heresy, especially to the third and worst of them, has led to the
remark that Plato, after asserting " liberty of prophesying,"
had become intolerant and bigoted in his old age (Grote). But
the idea of toleration in the modern sense was never distinctly
present to the mind of any ancient philosopher. And, if in the
Laws the lines of thought have in one way hardened, there are
other ways in which experience has softened them. Plato's
" second-best " constitution contains a provision, which was
not admissible in the " perfect state," for possible changes and
readaptations in the future. The power of self-reformation is
hedged round indeed with extreme precautions; and no young
or middle-aged citizen is ever to hear a word said in depreciation
of any jot or tittle of the existing law. But that it should be
provided, however guardedly, that select commissioners, after

1 Otitis S' iv Svcr/xaU tou jSiov, Legg. vi. 770 A.

3 &v . . . 717PWS €7rtKpaTwju€P ye roaovrov, Legg. vi. 75 2 A.

3 Published by Philippus the Opuntian.

4 See especially iv. 716 seq.; v. 727 seq. ; 735 seq.; vi. 766; vii.
773 seq., 777, 794, 803 seq., 811, 817; viii. 835 seq. ; ix. 875 ; x. 887 seq.
897 seq., 904 seq.

6 Legg. xii. 968 E. (Ath.) " I am willing to share with you the
danger of stating to you my views about education and nurture,
which is the question coming to the surface again."

travelling far and wide, should bring back of the fruit of their
observations for the consideration of the nocturnal council, and
that a power of constitutionally amending the laws should thus
be admitted into the state, is sufficiently remarkable, when the
would-be finality of ancient legislation is considered. Plato
even comes near to the reflexion that " constitutions are not
made, but grow " (iv. 709 A).

Plato in the Laws desists finally from impersonating Socrates.
But he is in some ways nearer to his master in spirit than when
he composed the Phaedrus. The sympathy with common life,
the acceptance of Greek religion, the deepening humanity, are
no less essentially Socratic than the love of truth which breathes
in every page. And : some particular aspects of Socratism
reappear, such as the question about courage 6 and that concer-
ning the unity of virtue. 7

Doubtful and Spurious Works. — Of the dialogues forming
part of the " Platonic canon," and not included in the preceding
survey, the Lesser Hippias, First Alcibiades and Menexenus are
the most Platonic, though probably not Plato's. The Greater
Hippias and the Clitophon are also admitted to have some
plausibility. The Second- Alcibiades (on Prayer), the Hipparchus
(touching on Peisistratus and Homer), Minos (" de lege"),
Epinomis, Erastae, Theages, are generally condemned, though
most of them are very early forgeries or academic exercises. 8
And the Axiochus (though sometimes prized for its subject,
"the contempt of death "), the Dejuslo, De virtute, Demodocus,
Sisyphus, Eryxias] (a not-uninteresting treatise on the use of
money), together with the so-called Definitions, were rejected
in ancient times, and are marked as spurious in the MSS.

Editions. — (1) Complete: Aldine, Ven., 1513; H. Stephanus,
3 vols. (1578), with Latin version by Serranus (i.e. De Serre, the real
editor); (the paging of this edition is preserved for convenience of
reference on the margins of most subsequent editions) ; G. Stallbaum,
(12 vols., 1821-1825); G. Stallbaum, the text in 1 vol. (1850); C. F.
Hermann (6$Vols., 1851-1853); Immanuel Bekker (1816-1823);
the Zurich edition by Baiter, Orelli and Winkelmann (1839-1842);
Hirschig and Schneider, in Didot's series (1856-1873) ; M. von
Schanz, with critical notes (1875-1887) ; J. Burnet (Oxford, 1902). (2)
Partial : L. F. Heindorf , Lysis, Charmides, Hippias Major, Phaedrus,
Gorgias, Theaetetus, Cratylus, Parmenides, Euthydemus, Phaedo,
Sophist, Protagoras; Philebus, C. Badham, E. Poste (1861), R. G.
Bury; Apologia, J. Riddell (with Digest of Platonic Idioms) (1861);
Protagoras, Wayte (1854) 1871; Theaetetus, L. Campbell (1861) 1883,
B. Kennedy; Sophist and Politicus, L. Campbell (1867); Phaedo,
W. Geddes, Archer Hind ; Timaeus, Archer Hind (1888) ; Parmenides,
Waddell (1894) ; Meno, J. Adam, Seymer Thompson; Apologia, Crito,
Meno, St G. Stock; Euthydemus, Gifford; Phaedrus, Gorgias, W. H.
Thompson; Symposium, Euthydemus, Laches, C. Badham; Par-
menides, Stallbaum, Maguire, Waddell; Leges, F. Ast (1814), C.
Ritter (Commentary) (1896) ; Republic, Jowett and Campbell (1894),
J. Adam (1902).

Translations. — Latin: A Latin version of the Timaeus by
Chalcidius existed in the middle ages and was known to Dante.
It was printed at Paris in 1520 (Teubner, 1876). The complete
rendering by Marsiglio Ficino (1496) formed the basis of other Latin
translations, such as that of Serranus (supra), which accompanied
the edition of Stephanus. It was printed in the Basel edition of
1534. English: (1) Complete: Sydenham and Taylor (1804);
Jowett (1871-1892). (2) Partial: Republic, Davies and Vaughan,
Jowett (in a separate volume; 3rd ed., 2 vols., 1908); Philebus,
E. Poste; Georgias, Cope; Timaeus, Archer Hind (in his edition);
Apology, Crito, Phaedo, Church, Jowett (reprinted from the complete
translation with preface by E. Caird) ; Theaetetus, Paley, Kennedy ;
German: Schleiermacher (1817-1828), J. H. Muller (1850-1866);
French: V. Cousin (13 vols., 1822-1840). Italian: Bonghi. j

Dissertations. — English: F. Schleiermacher's Introductions,
translated by W. Dobson (1836); Ed. Zeller's Plato and the Older
Academy, translated by F. Alleyne, &c. (1876) ; B. Jowett's Intro-
ductions, in his complete translation, final edition (1892); G. Grote,
Plato and the other Companions of Socrates (1865); F. C. Conybeare
on an Armenian version (1891); W. Pater, Plato and Platonism
(1893); R. L. Nettleship, Lectures on the Republic, &c. (1898)
(cf. also his essay in Hellenica, 1880); Th. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers,
vols. ii. and iii. in Eng. trans. (1905) ; W. Lutoslawski, Plato's Logic,
&c. ; L. Campbell on Plato's Republic in Murray's " Home and School
Series " (1902); L. Campbell, Religion in Greek Literature (London,
1898); J. A. Stewart, The Myths of Plato (1905); A. E. Taylor, Plato
(1908); J. A. Stewart, Plato's Doctrine of Ideas (1909). German:

6 Cf. Laches. 7 Cf. Protagoras.

8 According to Schaarschmidt, only nine dialogues are genuine —
Protag., Phaedr., Symp., Apol., Crito, Phaedo, Rep., Tim., Leges.

PLATO— PLATTSBURG

825

C. F. Hermann, Geschichte und System, &c. (1839) ; A. Boeckh, Unter-
suchungen (1852); Ed. Zeller, Geschichte der gr. Philosophic; Fr.
Uberweg, Untersuchungen (1861); S. Ribbing, Genetische Darstellung
(1863) ; Fr. Susemihl, Genetische Entwicklung (1855-1898) ; E. Alberti,
Geist und Ordnung (1864); C. Schaarschmidt, Die Sammlung der
piatonischen Schriften (1866); M. Vermehren, Plat. Studien (1870);

D. Peipers, Untersuchungen iiber das System Platons. Teil i., " Die
Erkenntnisstheorie " (Leipzig, 1874) ; O. Apelt, Beitrdge zur Geschichte
der griechischen Philosophien; L. Spengel, Isocrates und Plaion
(1863); A. Krohn, Die platonische Frage (1878); E. Teichmuller,
Literarische Fehder (1881); H. Bonitz, Platonische Studien (especially
valuable) (1886); E. Pfleiderer, Socrates und Platon (1896); H.
Windenband, Plaion (1900) ; C. Ritter, Untersuchungen ; Th. Gomperz,
Platonische Aufsdlze : Griechische Denker, vol. ii. ; P. Natorp, PL Ideen*
lehre (1903); C. Ritter, Platon: sein Leben, seine Schriften, seine
Lehre (1909), vol. i. ; and Neue Untersuchungen (1910). Other refer-
ences will be found in the volumes named. French: V. Cousin;
T. H. Martin, Etudes sur la Timee (1 841 ). Italian : Felice Tocco.

Dictionaries and Indices. — Mitchell's Index to Plato; F. Ast,
Lexicon platonicum; E. Abbott, Index to Plato (English, 1875).

On the MSS. — See especially Bekker's edition; Gaisford's Lec-
tiones platonicae (1820); M. Schanz's edition with critical notes;
Jowett and Campbell's Republic, vol. ii.; J. Burnett's Oxford
edition. The important Codex Clarkianus in the Bodleian library
has been reproduced in facsimile, with a preface by T. W. Allen
(1898-1899). . (L. C.)

PLATO, Athenian comic poet of the Old Comedy, flourished
between 428-389 B.C. According to Suldas, he was the author
of thirty comedies. Some of these deal with political matters.
Such were the Cleophon and Hyperbolus, directed against the
well-known demagogues, and the Symmachia, referring to a
coalition formed by Nicias, Alcibiades and Phaeax to get rid
of Hyperbolus by ostracism. His later plays treat the vices
and failings of mankind in the spirit of burlesque and parody.
Such were the Sophistae, akin to the Clouds of Aristophanes;
the Cinesias, an attack on a contemporary poet; the Festivals,
satirizing the useless expenditure and extravagance common on
such occasions; mythological subjects — Adonis, Europe, lo,
the Ants (on the Aeginetan legend of the change of ants into
men); Phaon, the story of the Lesbian ferryman, who was
presented by Aphrodite with a marvellous ointment, the use of
which made women madly in love with him.

See T. Kock, Comicorum atticorum fragmenta, i. (1880); A.
Meineke, Poetarum comicorum graecorum fragmenta (1855).

PLATON, LEVSHIN (1737-1812), Russian divine, was born at
Chashnikovo near Moscow, and educated in the academy of
that city. In 1763 the empress Catherine II. invited him to
instruct her son Paul in theology, and he became one of the
court chaplains. Three years afterwards Platon was appointed
archimandrite of the monastery of the Trinity (Troitskaya
Lavra) near Moscow, in 1770 archbishop of Tver, and in 1787
archbishop of Moscow and metropolitan. He died in 181 2, one
of his last acts having been to write an encouraging letter to
the emperor Alexander I. in view of the French invasion.
Platon was a brilliant and learned man, and the author of several
works which enjoyed a high reputation in their time, including
A Short History of the Russian Church, which has been translated
into English.

PLATONIC LOVE, a term commonly applied to an affectionate
relation between a man and a woman into which the sexual
element does not enter. The term in English goes back as far
as Sir William Davenant's Platonic Lovers (1636). It is derived
from the conception, in Plato's Symposium, of the love of the
idea of good which lies at the root of all virtue and truth.
Amor platonicus was used, e.g. by Marsilio Ficino (15th century),
as a synonym for amor socraticus, referring to the affection
which subsisted between Socrates and his pupils.

PLATOON (Fr. peloton, from Fr. pelote, a ball or pellet; cf.
Ger. Haufe, heap), a small group of soldiers. In the early
17th century it was a definite tactical unit of infantry, corre-
sponding to the modern section or half company. In the 18th
century the battalion, irrespective of its organization into
companies, was told off on parade into six, eight or ten platoons
of equal strength. " Platoon fire " was the systematic and
regulated fire of platoon volleys, the platoons firing one after
the other. Hence a " platoon " sometimes means a volley.

The fire of a long line of infantry was as a rule conducted on the
same principles, each battalion of the front line employing
platoon fire, which is often picturesquely described as a " rolling
platoon fire," or " rolling volleys." The word is obsolete in
the British army, but is used in the United States, and, in various
forms, in the armies of France and other Latin nations.

PLATT, THOMAS COLLIER (1833-1910), American politician,
was born in Owego, Tioga county, New York, on the 1 5th of July
1833. He studied in 1840-1852 at Yale, from which he received
the honorary degree of A.M. in 1876. He made money in lumber-
ing out West, and returning to Owego became a banker and
railway director. He helped to organize its Republican party in
Tioga county, and in 1873-1877 was a representative in Congress.
In 1877 he was chairman of the state Republican Convention at
Rochester. On the 18th of January 1881 he was elected United
States senator, but resigned, with his colleague, Roscoe Conkling,
on the 1 6th of May following, chiefly because President Garfield,
in spite of their protest, had appointed as collector of the port
of New York, Judge William H. Robertson, a political opponent.
Within ten years he became the acknowledged Republican
" boss " of the state, and he again served in the United States
Senate from 1897 to 1909. But his power waned steadily after
about 1903: He died in New York City on the 6th of March
1910.

PLATTE (so named, from the French, because of its shallow-
ness), or Nebraska, a river system of Colorado, Wyoming and
Nebraska, tributary to the Missouri river, which it enters
immediately north of Plattsmouth, Nebraska, 18 m. below
Omaha, in about 41 3' N. lat. Including the North Platte it
is about 900 m. long from its headwaters, with a drainage
basin for the entire system of 90,000 sq. m. The Platte proper
is formed by the junction of the North Platte and the South
Platte, sometimes called the North and South Forks of the
Platte, immediately below the city of North Platte in Lincoln
county, Nebraska. The North Platte and South Platte rise
respectively in North Park and South Park in Colorado. The
tributaries of the main stream all flow in from the north; the
most important being the Loup, which empties immediately
east of Columbus in Platte county, and the Elkhorn, which
joins the Platte in Douglas county, due west of Omaha.

See J. C. Stevens, Surface Water Supply of Nebraska (Washington,
1909).

PLATTNER, KARL FRIEDRICH (1800-1858), German
metallurgical chemist, was born at Kleinwaltersdorf, near
Freiberg in Saxony, on the 2nd of January, 1800. His father,
though only a poor working miner, found the means to have
him educated first at the Bergschule and then at the Berg-
akademie of Freiberg, and after he had completed his courses
there in 1820 he obtained employment, chiefly as assayer, in
connexion with the royal mines and metal works. Having taken
up the idea of quantitative mouth-blowpipe assaying, which was
then almost unknown — except that E. Harkort (1797-1835) itk
1827, while a student in Freiberg Academy, had worked out a
blowpipe assay for silver — he succeeded in devising trustworthy
methods for all the ordinary useful metals; in particular his
modes of assaying for nickel and cobalt quickly found favour with
metallurgists. He also devoted himself to the improvement
of qualitative blowpipe analysis, and summed up his experience
in a treatise Die Probierkunst mit dem Lblhrohr (1835), which
became a standard authority. In 1840 he was made chief
of the royal department of assaying. Two years later he was
deputed to complete a course of lectures on metallurgy at the
Bergakademie in place of W. A. Lampadius (1772-1842), whom
he subsequently succeeded as professor. He died at Freiberg
on the 22nd of Tanuary 1858.

In addition to many memoirs on metallurgical subjects he also
published Die metallurgischen Rostprocesse theoretisch belrachtet
(1856), and posthumously Vorlesungen iiber allgemeine Huttenkunde
(i860).

PLATTSBURG, a city, port of entry and the county-seat of
Clinton county, New York, U.S.A., situated on the west shore
of Lake Champlain, at the mouth of the Saranac river, 168 m.

8s6

PLATTSMOUTH— PLATYELMIA

(by rail) N.N.E. of Albany. Pop. (1890), 7010; (1900), 8434,
of whom 1053 were foreign-born; (1910, census), 11,138. It
is served by the Delaware & Hudson railway, and has steamer
connexions with lake ports. Its situation in the region of lakes
and mountains and its delightful climate have made it a summer
resort. Among its institutions are the Samuel F. Vilas Home
(for aged and infirm women); the Home for the Friendless of
Northern New York (1874), for the care of homeless children;
the Plattsburg State Normal and Training School, the D'You-
ville Academy for girls (founded in i860, chartered in 1871),
under the direction of the Grey Nuns; the College St Pierre
(Roman Catholic, 1903), and the Champlain Valley Hospital.
The barracks, about a mile away, is an important military post.
Cliff Haven, 2 m. south, is the seat of the Catholic summer
school. Plattsburg has a fine harbour and is the port of entry
of the Champlain customs district; in 1909 its exports were
valued at $15,169,502 and its imports at $8,167,527. Among
the city's manufactures are lumber, wood pulp, paper, shirts,
sewing-machines and automobiles. The total value of the
factory products in 1905 was $1,056,702.

Plattsburg was incorporated as a village in 1795, and derived
its name from Zephaniah Piatt (1740-1807), who had led a
colony of settlers to this place from Long Island; it became a
city in 1902. About Valcour Island (5 m. south-east of Platts-
burg), on the nth of October 1776, a British fleet under Captain
Thomas Pringle and an American flotilla under Benedict Arnold
engaged in the first conflict between American and British
fleets, the British being victorious. On the outbreak of the
War of 1 81 2 the village became the headquarters of the American
army on the northern frontier. On the nth of September
1814, in Plattsburg (or Cumberland) Bay, Captain George
Downie, commanding a British flotilla, was defeated by an
American flotilla commanded by Commodore Thomas Mac-
donough, losing his life in the engagement (see Champlain,
Lake).

PLATTSMOUTH, a city and the county-seat of Cass county,
Nebraska, U.S.A., situated in the valley and on the bluffs of
the Missouri river near the mouth of the Platte. Pop. (1900),
4964 (979 foreign-born); (1910) 4287. It is served by the
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the Missouri Pacific railway
systems. There are railway car-shops, and a considerable trade
is done in grain and cattle. A trading-post licensed by the
United States government was opened here in 1853, and a town
platted in 1854. Plattsmouth was first incorporated as a city
in 1855, being one of the oldest settlements and cities of the
state.

PLATYELMIA, a phylum of the animal kingdom which
comprises three classes, the, Planarians, Trematodes {q.v.) and
Cestodes. It is the group of animals in which the act of creeping
has first become habitual. In association with this movement
in a definite direction the body has become vermiform and
bilaterally symmetrical. One end of the body, through contact,
during locomotion, with fresh tracts of medium and other forms
of stimuli, has become more specialized than the rest, and here
the nervous system and sense-organs are more densely aggregated
than elsewhere, forming a means of controlling locomotion and
of correlating the activities of the inner organs with the varying
stimuli that impinge upon the body. The form and habits of
the group vary widely. The Planarians are free-hVing animals,
the Trematodes are parasitic upon and within animals, and the
Cestodes are wholly endoparasitic.

Structure. — The chief features which Platyelmia possess in common
are the following. The body is not metamerically segmented and is
composed of a muscular tunic covered externally by a more or less
modified cellular layer. Within this muscular tube lies a parenchy-
matous tissue which may be uniform (Cestodes) or differentiated into a
central or digestive, and a peripheral portion (some Turbellaria), or
finally the central portion becomes tubular and forms the digestive
sac (Trematodes), while the peripheral portion is separated from it
by a space lined in some forms by a flattened epithelium (most
Planarians). It is characteristic of the group that the mouth should
be the only means of ingress to and egress from the digestive sac and
that no true perivisceral space or coelom exists in the sense in which
these terms are used in higher Invertebrates. The peripheral paren-

chyma gives rise to protonephridia, that is to coiled tubes commenc-
ing in pyriform cells containing a flame-like bundle of cilia and
provided with branched outgrowths, and communicating with the
exterior by long convoluted canals which open at the surface of the
body. These protonephridia are the excretory organs. The nervous
system, though centralized at one end of the body, contains diffused
nerve-cells in the course of its tracts, which are disposed in two or
more longitudinal bundles interconnected by transverse bands.
The Platyelmia are hermaphrodite and the reproductive organs are
complex. The male organs consist of paired testes communicating
by delicate canals with a protrusible penis. This organ is generally
single but sometimes paired and occasionally multiple. It is fre-
quently armed with spines, hooks or stylets, and is further compli-
cated by the addition of a nutritive secretion (the prostate gland)
which may Open at its base or pass separately by a special duct to
the exterior. There is some reason to believe that this complicated
and variable apparatus is used for stabbing the body of another
animal and that beginning as a weapon for catching prey it has
become modified for hypodermic impregnation and only gradually
adapted for insertion into the bursa copulatrix. The female organs
are no less complex. They consist of solid or tubular ovaries which
may be single, double or multiple. In the majority of Platyelmia
the primitive ovary becomes divided into fertile and sterile portions,
i.e. into distinct ovarian and vitellarian regions. The yolk prepared
by the latter is conducted by one or more specialized ducts to the
oviduct and the point of union is distinguished by the opening of
a " shell-gland " which secretes a membrane around the conjoined
mass of ovum and yolk. From this junction there proceeds an
oviduct or " uterus " (paired or single) which before opening to the
exterior expands to form a muscular protrusible pouch — the bursa
copulatrix. Frequently also from this junction of the ovaria and
the vitellaria a median tube is given off which either opens to the
exterior or into the intestine, in the latter case it appears to serve as
means of conveying superfluous yolk to the gut, where it may serve
as food.

Inter-relationships. — The inter-relationships of the three members
of the Platyelmia are of a more doubtful nature than is the unity
of the phylum. The Turbellaria undoubtedly form the most primi-
tive division, as is shown by their free-living habits, ciliation and
sense-organs. The Trematodes are somewhat modified in accord-
ance with their ecto- or endoparasitic life, but they exhibit such a
close similarity of structure with the Turbellaria that their origin
from Planarians can hardly be doubted, and indeed the Temnocepha-
loidea (see Planarians) form an almost ideal annectant group link-
ing the ectoparasitic Trematodes and Rhabdocoel Planarians. The
Cestodes, however, are connected by no such intermediate forms
with the other Platyelmia. Their adaptations to parasitic life in
vertebrate animals appear to have involved such modifications of
structure and development that their affinities are quite problemati-
cal. The entire absence of any trace of a distinct alimentary tract,
the loss of true regenerative power, the peculiar gametic segmenta-
tion of the body into hundreds of "proglottides" budded off from

Ivsla

(From Cambridge Natural History, vxjl. ii., "Worms, &c," by permission of
Macmillan & Co., Ltd)

Fig. I. — Free-swimming Larva (Miiller's Larva) of a Polyclad
Planarian to illustrate the trochosphere-hypothesis of the origin of
Platyelmia. The larva is seen in optical section, and its dis-
tinguishing feature is the ciliated lobed band {vl, si, dl), which
corresponds to the pre-oral ciliated band of a trochosphere-larva.
It is here drawn out .into eight processes, of which six are shown,
their continuity being expressed by the dotted line.

br, Brain. mg, Stomach.

dr, Glands. «, Nerves.

ep, Epidermis. ph, Pharynx.

mo, Mouth. par, Parenchyma.

PLATYPUS

827

one extremity, and the absence of any morphologically distinct
antetior extremity, are adaptations to the wholly parasitic life of this
class. Their structure is similar to that of Trematodes, from which
in the opinion of most zoologists they have been derived.

Affinities. — As the Turbellaria (Planarians) are the most primitive
division of the Platyelmia, the problem of the affinities of this phylum
resolves itself into that of the relationships of the Turbellaria. With
regard to the origin of this class two divergent views are still held.
On the one hand the Turbellaria are considered to be an offshoot
of the early Coelomate stock, on the other they are held to be
descendants of a simpler two-layered stock. The former hypothesis
with its variants may be called the Trochosphere-hypothesis, the
latter the Gastraea-hypothesis. The Trochosphere-hypothesis (2),
(3) is based chiefly on the occurrence in certain Polyclad Turbellaria,
of a larval form (Muller's larva) which is comparable to a certain
stage (pro-trochula) in the development of the Trochosphere-larva.
This Trochosphere is the characteristic larva of Mollusca, Annelida

(After Abbott, TSkyo Zool. Society's Anno). ZoologicaeJaponmsis, iv. 4, 2 and 3.)
Fig. 2. — Dorsal view of Coeloplana to illustrate the similarity
between Ctenophora and Turbellaria. The branched intestine
(G) is drawn on one side of the animal only; it cpens to the
exterior by means of a pharynx (not shown). The mouth is
shown by the line surrounding the otolith (OT) in the centre. The
mouth is ventral, the otolith dorsal. The two branched tentacles
(TB) are seen partially extruded from their sheaths (TS) ; when
fully extended they exceed the diameter of the animal five or six
times. The short tentacles (T) are drawn on one side only.
Coeloplana has been found in shallow water in the Red Sea and
on the coast of Japan. Ctenophora possess two similar long
branched tentacles, a ventral mouth and dorsal otolith.

and some Gephyrea ; and the Rotif era appear to remain throughout
life as modified Trochospheres. It is a top-shaped, free-swimming
organism provided with a preoral band of cilia, an apical sense-
organ, a simple gut, protonephridia and schizocoele. The impor-
tance of this resemblance between the Polyclad larva and the Trocho-
sphere-larva of higher invertebrates is increased if the widely adopted

VEp

(After F. E. Schultze, Kgl. Preuss. Akad. der Wissenschaft, Berlin, 1891.)
Fig. 3. — Trichoplax adhaerens, an organism considered, on the
Gastraea-hypothesis, to be closely allied to the progenitors of the
Platyelmia. (The recent work by Krumbach [Zoolog. Anzeiger
1907, xxxi. 450], serves to show that Trichoplax is the planula-
larva of a Hydromedusa.)

A, a small specimen drawn from life. The spherical granules
(G) are probably gland-secretions ; the dark bodies (Z) are probably
xantnellae, i.e. algal cells living in association with the animal.

B, a specimen undergoingfission.

C, part of a vertical section.
D.Ep, The dorsal epidermis.
G, Refringent corpuscles.
PC, Parenchymatous cells.

V.Ep, Ventral epidermis. The
hair-like processes are
cilia.

view (held on other grounds) that the Polyclads are the most primi-
tive of the Turbellaria, is soundly based. The grounds for this
view are the radial symmetry of several Polyclads and the supposed
origin of gonads and excretory flame-cells from the walls of gut, the
occurrence of nematocysts in Anonymus, one of the most radially
constructed Polyclads, and lastly the presence of two peculiar
animals Clenoplana and Coeloplana, which suggests a transition from
Ctenophora to Polyclads. At the present time, however, none of
these grounds can be said to possess so much force as they did some
years ago (4). The argument has come to rest on the agreement
between the cell-lineage of Polyclads and that of certain Mollusca
and Annelids. This resemblance is considered by Hubrecht (5)
to give reason for concluding that the Polyclads are an qffshoot, and
possibly a degenerate offshoot, from the early Coelomate stock.

The Gastraea-hypothesis is founded on quite other considerations.
In effect (6) it traces the Turbellaria to small two-layered organisms
consisting of an outer ciliated epidermis and a central syncytial
tissue. Such an organism is found in the peculiar Trichoplax,
Lohmanniella, &c. The early stages of most animals pass through
such a stage, which is known as a " planula." From such begin-
nings the evolution of the Turbellaria leads first through the Acoelous
forms in which the central syncytium is partly differentiated
into digestive, muscular and skeletotrophic tissue, then to the
more specialized Rhabdocoela, and so through the Alloeocoela
to the Triclads and finally to the Polyclads. The careful study of
the development of one Acoelous form and of certain Rhabdocoels
has strengthened this hypothesis by showing that no definite enteron
or gut is at first laid down, but that certain embryonic syncytial
tracts become digestive tracts, others excretory, others again muscu-
lar. The study of Rhabdocoels t7) has led to the important discovery
that the rudiment of the gonads and that of the pharynx are the
first organs to appear, and that the alimentary sac arises inde-
pendently of them. t This segregation of the germ cells and their
independence of the intestinal sac is an indication that the origin of
these cells is not coelomic nor enteric, and until we possess further
information as to the evolution of the complex genitalia of the higher
Turbellaria we cannot hope to understand the presence of such
highly modified structures in animals of an otherwise low grade or
organization.

Literature. — Recent discussions of the affinities of the Platy-
elmia will be found in (1) A. Sedgwick, Textbook of Zoology (1898),!.
212; (2) Hatschek, Lehrbuch der Zoologie (1891), pp. 316-326; (3)
A. Lang, Die Trophocoel-Theorie (Jena, 1903); (4)E.RayLankester,
Treatise on Zoology (1900), pt. ii. Introduction and ch. vii. pp. 15-
x 9 ; (5) A. A. W. Hubrecht, Jenaische Zeitschrift fur Naturwissen-
schaft (1905), pp. 151-176; (6) Von Graff, Die Acoela, p. 519 (Leipzig,
1891). For the development of Rhabdocoelida see (7) Bresslau,
Zeitschrift fiir viissenschaftliche Zoologie (1904), vol. 76.

(F. W. Ga.)
PLATYPUS. The duck-billed platypus {Platypus anatinus)
was the name assigned to one of the most remarkable of known
animals by George Shaw (1751-1813), who had the good fortune
to introduce it to the notice of the scientific world in the
Naturalist's Miscellany (vol. x., 1799). In the following year it
was independently described by Blumenbach (Voigts Magazin,
ii. 205) under the name of Ornithorhynchus paradoxus. Shaw's
generic name, although having priority to that of Blumenbach,
could not be retained, as it had been used at a still earlier time
(1793) by Herbst for a genus of Coleoptera. Ornithorhynchus
(Gr. opvis, bpvidos, bird, and pvy%os, bill) is therefore now
universally adopted as the scientific designation, although
duck-billed platypus (Gr. ifKarvs, flat, and xofe, foot) may be
conveniently retained as a vernacular appellation. By the
colonists it is called " water-mole," but its affinities with the
true moles are of the slightest and most superficial description.
The anatomical differences by which the platypus, and its
only allies the echidnas, are separated from all other mammals,
so as to form a distinct sub-class, are described in the article
Monotremata, where also will be found the main distinctive
characters of the two existing representatives of the group. It
is there stated that the early stages of the development of the
young are not yet fully known. Sir R. Owen, and later E. B.
Poulton, showed that the ovum of the platypus was large
compared with that of other mammals, whilst W. H. Caldwell
showed that it was filled with yolk, and finally established the
fact that Platypus as well as Echidna is oviparous. Two eggs
are produced at a time, each measuring about three-fourths of
an inch in its long and half an inch in its short axis, and enclosed
in a strong, flexible, white shell.

The platypus is pretty generally distributed in situations
suitable to its aquatic habits throughout the island of Tasmania
and the southern and eastern portions of Australia.

828

PLAUEN— PLAUTUS

The length of the animal when full grown is from 18 to 20 in.
from the extremity of the beak to the end of the tail, the male
being slightly larger than the female. The fur is short, dense
and rather soft to the touch, and composed of an extremely
fine and close under-fur, and of longer hairs which project
beyond this, each of which is very slender at the base, and
expanded, flattened and glossy towards the free end. The
general colour is deep brown, but paler on the under parts. The
tail is short, broad and depressed, and covered with coarse hairs,
which in old animals generally become worn off from the under

(From Gould's Mammals of Australia.)

Platypus.

surface. There are no true teeth in the adult, although the
young possess a set which are shed after being worn down by
friction with food and sand, their purposes being afterward
served by horny prominences, two on each side of each, jaw —
those in the front narrow, longitudinal, sharp-edged ridges, and
those behind broad, flattened and molariform. The upper
surface of the lateral edges of the mandible has also a number of
parallel fine transverse ridges, like those on the bill of a duck.
In the cheeks are tolerably capacious pouches, which appear to be
used as receptacles for food.

The limbs are strong and short, each with five well-developed
toes provided with strong claws. In the fore feet the web not
only fills the interspaces between the toes, but extends consider-
ably beyond the ends of the long, broad and somewhat flattened
nails, giving great expanse to the foot when used for swimming,
though capable of being folded back on the palm when the
animal is burrowing or walking on the land. On the hind foot
the nails are long, curved and pointed, and the web extends
only to their base. On the heel of the male is a strong, curved
sharply pointed, movable horny spur, directed upwards and
backwards, attached by its expanded base to the accessory bone
of the tarsus. This spur, which attains the length of nearly an
inch, is traversed by a minute canal, terminating in a fine longi-
tudinal slit near the point, and connected at its base with the
duct of a large gland situated at the back part of the thigh.
The whole apparatus is so exactly analogous in structure to the
poison-gland and tooth of a venomous snake as to suggest a
similar function, and there is now evidence that it employs this
organ as an offensive weapon.

The platypus is aquatic in its habits, passing most of its time
in the water or close to the margin of lakes and streams, swim-
ming and diving with the greatest ease, and forming for the
purpose of sleeping and breeding deep burrows in the banks,
which generally have two orifices, one just above the water
level, concealed among long grass and leaves, and the other
below the surface. The passage at first runs obliquely upwards
in the bank, sometimes to a distance of as much as 50 ft., and

expands at its termination into a cavity, the floor of which is
lined with dried grass and leaves, and in which, it is said, the
eggs are laid 1 and the young brought up. Their food consists
of aquatic insects, small crustaceans and worms, which are
caught under water, the sand and small stones at the bottom
being turned over with their bills to find them. They appear
at first to deposit what they have thus collected in their cheek
pouches, and when these are filled they rise to the surface and
quietly triturate their meal with the horny teeth before swallow-
ing it. Swimming is effected chiefly by the action of the broad
forepaws, the hind feet and tail taking little share in locomotion
in the water. When asleep they roll themselves into a ball, as '
shown in the figure. In their native haunts they are extremely
timid and wary, and very difficult to approach, being rarely
seen out of their burrows in the daytime. Mr A. B. Crowther,
who supplemented the often quoted observations of Dr George
Bennett upon the habits of these animals in confinement,
states: " They soon become very tame in captivity; in a few days
the young ones appeared -to recognize a call, swimming rapidly
to the hand paddling the water; and it is curious to see their
attempts to procure a worm enclosed in the hand, which they
greedily take when offered to them. I have noticed that they
appear to be able to smell whether or not a worm is contained
in the closed hand to which they swim, for they desisted from
their efforts if an empty fist was offered." (W. H. F. ; H. Sc.)

PLAUEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on
the Weisse Elster, 60 m. south of Leipzig, on the railway to Hof
and Munich and at the junction of lines to Eger and Gera. Pop.
(1890), 47,007; (1900), 73,891; (1905), 105,383. It was formerly
the capital of Vogtland, or Voigtland, a territory governed by
the imperial vogt, or bailiff, and this name still clings in popular
speech to the hilly district in which the town lies. Of its three
Evangelical churches the most prominent is the fine Gothic
church of St John, with twin spires, which was restored in 1886.
Other buildings of note are the town hall, dating from about
1550; and the old castle of Hradschin, now used as a law court.
Plauen is now the chief place in Germany for the manufacture
of embroidered white goods of all kinds, for the finishing of woven
cotton fabrics, known as Plauen goods, and for the making of lace.

Plauen was probably founded by the Slavs. First mentioned
in 1122, it passed under the authority of Bohemia in 1327 and
came to Saxony in 1466, remaining permanently united with the
electorate since 1569. The manufacture of white goods was
introduced by Swabian, or Swiss, immigrants, about 1570. The
advance in its material prosperity has been especially rapid since
the incorporation of Saxony in the German Zollverein.

See Fiedler, Die Stadt Plauen im Vogtland (Plauen, 1874); and
Beitrage zur Geschichte der Stadt Plauen (Plauen, 1876); Metzner,
Filhrer dutch Plauen (1903) ; and the publications of the Alter-
lumsverein zu Plauen (1875 seq.).

PLAUTUS, TITUS MACCIUS (originally perhaps Maccus;
cf. Asin. Viol, n), the great comic dramatist of ancient Rome,
was born at Sarsina in Umbria according to the testimony of
Festus, who calls him Umber Sarsinas, and Jerome. The date
of his death was 184 B.C. (Cicero, Brutus, xv. 60). The date
of his birth depends upon an inference based on the statement
of Cicero (De senectute, xiv. 50) that he was an old man when he
wrote his Tructdentus and Pseudolus. The latter play was

1 Some doubt has been expressed as to whether the eggs are
extruded or hatched within the body. At a scientific meeting of
the Zoological Society of London, on the 17th of December 1901,
Mr Oldfield Thomas read a letter from Mr G. Metcalfe, who had
lived many years in a region inhabited by these animals. He had
made special inquiries of the authorities of the Sydney, Melbourne,
Brisbane and Hobart museums, and published questions in the
newspapers, but no evidence has reached him that the eggs of
Ornithorhyncus have ever been obtained except by the dissection of
the mother. Mr Thomas laid stress on what had been advanced
on the other side by Mr Caldwell {Philosophical Transactions,
clxxviii. 463), Professor Spencer {Nature, xxxi. 132) and Mr J.
Douglas Ogilby {Catalogue of Australian Mammals, p. 1, Sydney,
1902), but expressed the hope " that further inquiries might be
madeby naturalists in Australia as to the actual finding of such
eggs in the burrows, so that this roost interesting point might
be finally settled."

PLAUTUS

829

produced in 191 B.C.; hence we get 254-251 B.C. as the approxi-
mate date of his birth. The only record that we possess as to
his life is that contained in Aulus Gellius iii. 3, 14 (based on
Varro), the historical character of which is doubted by Leo
(Plautinische Forschungen, p. 60, sqq.). According to this
statement he left his native town at an early age and settled at
Rome, where he got employment in a theatre, though it is not
clear in what capacity. The words of Gellius in operis artificum
scaenicorum, are interpreted by F. Marx as indicating that
Plautus was a member of the theatrical staff of Livius Andro-
nicus. At Rome he saved a little money, and embarked on
some mercantile enterprise, probably abroad. Having lost his
money he returned to Rome penniless, and was driven to support
himself by manual labour in a mill (cum . . . ad circumagendas
molas quae Irusatiles appellantur operant pistori locasset); and in
this pistrinum he wrote three of his plays (the Saturio, the
Addictus and another). The main body of his works belongs,
so far as can be ascertained from the scanty evidence which we
have, to the latter half of his life; 206 B.C. is the approximate
date of the Miles gloriosus; cf. line 211 seq., quoi bini custodes
. . . occubant (present tense), which alludes to the imprisonment
of Naevius, an event which cannot be proved to be earlier than
206 B.C. The defects of construction and the absence of " can-
tica " in the Miles also point to this as one of his early plays.
On the other hand it is hardly likely that all his comedies (which
greatly exceeded in number the extant twenty) were produced
during the last twenty years of his life. Radermacher assigns
the Asinaria to a date as early as 212 B.C. Of the extant plays
the Cistellaria and the Stichus must be associated with the
Miles as comparatively early works; for the former was clearly
produced before (though not long before) the conclusion of the
Second Punic War, see 1. 201 seq.; and the Stichus is proved by
its didascalia to have been produced in 200 B.C. The Pseudolus
and the Truculentus fall within the last seven years of his life.
The dates of the rest of the extant plays, here given in alpha-
betical order, are quite uncertain, namely, Amphitruo, Aulularia,
Bacchides, Caplivi, Casina, Curculio, Epidicus, Menaechmi,
Mercator (probably later than the Rudens, as shown by F. Marx) ,
Mostellaria, Persa, Poenulus, Rudens, Trinummus (later than
194 B.C.; cf. novi aediles in 1. 990). Of the Vidularia we possess
only the fragments contained in the Codex Ambrosianus.

The plays of Plautus are all based on Greek originals. 1 To
what extent he is dependent on these originals, and how far he
departed from them, we shall perhaps never know exactly. But
such evidence as we have points to a pretty close imitation on
the part of the Roman poet: there are passages in which he
does not hesitate to take over from his originals allusions which
can hardly have been intelligible to a Roman audience, e.g. the
reference to Stratonicus, a musician of the time of Alexander
the Great (Rudens, 932); and in the delineation of character
we have no reason to suppose that he improved on his models
(cf. Aul. Gell. ii. 23). Even the prologues, which later
researches have shown to be in the main by the hand of Plautus
himself, though certain passages were clearly added at a later
date, e.g. Cas. prol. 5-20, may in most cases have formed part
of the Greek original. Plautus must therefore be regarded as
primarily a translator or adapter, so far as our present knowledge
goes. Where he varies his plot on lines of his own by amalga-
mating the plots of two distinct Greek comedies (e.g. in the Miles
and the Poenulus) the result is generally not happy; and the
romanization of the plays by way of allusions to towns in Italy,
to the streets, gates and markets of Rome, to Roman magistrates
and their duties, to Roman laws and the business of Roman
law-courts, banks, comitia and senate, &c, involves the poet
in all the difficulties of attempting to blend two different civiliza-
tions. The inconsistency of his attitude is shown by his use,
side by side, of the. contemptuous expressions barbarus (applied
to the Romans) and pergraecari (applied to the Greeks). In
some passages the poet seems to take delight in casting dramatic
illusion to the winds (e.g. Pseudolus, 720; Poenulus, 550).

1 See further P. E. Legrand, Daos: tableau de la comidie grecque
pendant la ptriode dits nouveUe (igto).

But as a translator Plautus is nothing less than masterly.
His command of the art is such that his plays read like original
works, and it may be at least said that some of his characters
stand out so vividly from his canvas that they have ever since
served as representatives of certain types of humanity, e.g. Euclio
in the A ulularia, the model of Moliere's miser. Alliteration, asso-
nance, plays upon words and happy coinages of new terms, give
his plays a charm of their own. " To read Plautus is to be once
for all disabused of the impression that Latin is a dry and unin-
teresting language " (Skutsch, in Die Cultur der Gegenwart;
1905). It is a mistake to regard the Latin of Plautus as
" vulgar " Latin. It is essentially a literary idiom, based in
the main upon the language of intercourse of the cultivated
Roman society of the day (cf. Cic. De oratore, iii. 12, 45);
though from the lips of slaves and other low persons in the
plays we no doubt hear expressions which, while they are quite
in keeping with the characters to whom they are allotted, would
have shocked the ears of polite society in the 2nd century B.C.

The characters in his plays are the stock characters of the new
comedy of Athens, and they remind us also of the standing figures
of the Fabulae atellanae (Maccus, Bucco, Dossennus, &c).
We may miss the finer insight into human nature and the delicate
touch in drawing character which Terence presents to us in his
reproductions of Menander, but there is wonderful life and vigour
and considerable variety in the Plautine embodiments of these
different types. And the careful reader will take note of
occasional touches of serious thought, as in the enumeration of
the ten deadly political sins (Persa, 555 seq.) and allusions to
ethical philosophy (Pseud. 972 seq.; Stick. 124; Trin. 305 sqq.,
320 sqq., 363 seq., 447; Rud. 767, 1235-1248, &c). Virtue is
often held up for admiration, and vice painted in revolting
colours or derided. The plots of Plautus also are more varied
than those of Terence. We have from him one mythological
burlesque, the Amphitruo, and several plays dealing with
domestic subjects like the Captivi, Cistellaria, Rudens, Stichus
and Trinummus; but most of his plays depend for their main
interest on intrigue, such as the Pseudolus, Bacchides, Mostel-
laria. In the Menaechmi and, as a subordinate incident, in the
Amphitruo we have a " comedy of errors."

In one respect Plautus must be regarded as distinctly original,
viz. in his development of the lyrical element in his plays. The
new comedy of Greece was probably limited for the most part
to scenes written in the metres of dialogue; it remained for
Plautus, as Leo has shown, to enliven his plays with cantica
modelled on the contemporary lyric verse of Greece or Magna
Graecia, which was in its turn a development of the dramatic
lyrics of Euripides. A new light has been thrown on the
irapcucKavcrWvpov of the Curculio (147-155) by the discovery of
the Alexandrian erotic fragment published by Grenfell and
Hunt (Oxford, 1896). The lyrical metres of Plautus are wonder-
fully varied, and the textual critic does well not to attempt to
limit the possibilities of original metrical combinations and
developments in the Roman comedian. Recent investigation
has considerably extended the list of his numeri innumeri.

Plautus was a general favourite in the days of republican
Rome. Cicero, though he found fault with the iambics of the
Latin comedians generally as abiecti, " prosaic " (Orator, lv.
184), admired Plautus as elegans, urbanus, ingeniosus, facetus
(De offic. i. 29, 104). To the fastidious critics of the Augustan
age, such as Horace, he seemed rude (cf. Ars Poetica, 270-274),
just as Addison declared Spenser to be no longer fitted to please
" a cultivated age." In another passage (Epist. ii. 1, 170-176)
Horace accuses him of clumsiness in the construction of his plays
and the drawing of his characters, and indifference to everything
excepting immediate success: gestit enim nummum in loculos
demittere, post hoc securus cadat an recto stet fabula talo. That
there are many inconsistencies and signs of carelessness in his
work has been proved in detail by Langen. But that he found
many admirers, even in the Augustan age, Horace himself bears
witness (ibid. 1. 58), where he says that Plautus was regarded as
a second Epicharmus: Plautus ad exemplar Siculi proper are
Epicharmi — a passage which is important as suggesting that

8 3 o

PLAY

Plautus was under some obligation to the Sicilian representatives
of the old Dorian comedy; cf. Varro's statement (in Priscian
ix. 32), deinde ad Siculos se applicant. It is possible that
Plautus may have been working on the lines of the old comedy
in the tell-tale names which he is so fond of inventing for his
characters, such as Polymachaeroplagides {Pseud. 988), Pyrgo-
polinices {Mil. 56), Thensaurochrysonicochrysides {Capt. 285)
— names which stand in remarkable contrast to the more
commonplace Greek names employed by Terence.

In the middle ages Plautus was little regarded, and twelve
of his plays {Bacchides-Truculentus} disappeared from view
until tbey were discovered (in the MS. called D) by Nicholas
of Treves in the year 1429. Apparently some early archetype
had been divided into two volumes, of which only the first
(containing eight plays, Amphitruo-Epidicus) had escaped
oblivion or destruction. After the revival of learning Plautus
was reinstated, and took rank as one of the great dramatists
of antiquity; cf. Shakespeare, Hamlet, 1. ii. 420, where Polonius
says, " The best actors in the world . . . Seneca cannot be
too heavy nor Plautus too light."

Manuscripts. — The chief MSS. of Plautus belong to two families,
which are proved by the errors which they have in common to be
descended from a single source (Sicker, " Novae quaestiones plau-
tinae," in Philologus suppl. xi. 2 ; 1908) : (i.) that represented by the
fragmentary palimpsest of the Ambrosian Library at Milan {A,
4th century a.d.), discovered in 1815 by Cardinal Mai and now acces-
sible in the Apograph of Studemund, edited by Seyffert (1889); (ii.)
that represented by the Palatine MSS. (P, ioth-i2th century),
viz. B, now in the Vatican, containing all the twenty plays preceded
by the spurious Querolus; C, now at Heidelberg, containing the last
twelve plays, i.e. Bacchides-Truculentus; D, now in the Vatican,
containing the Amphitruo, Asinaria, Aulularia, half of the Captivi
and the last twelve plays: to the same family belong the following
less important MSS.: E (at Milan), V (at Leiden), / (in the British
Museum), O (in the Vatican).

Editions. — The editio princeps, based mainly on a transcript of
D, was printed at Venice, 1472 : the first scientific text, based on
B, C and D, was that of Camerarius, completed 1 552, in whose
steps followed Lambinus (with a commentary which is still useful),
*576; Taubmann, 1605-1621; Pareus (a meritorious edition) , 1619
and 1623; Guyet, edited by Marolles, 1658; Gronovius (the
" Vulgate "), 1 664-1684 ; then, after the lapse of more than a century,
came the editions of Bothe, 1809-1811; Naudet, 1830; and Weise,
1 837-1 848. A new era began with the great critical edition of
certain plays by Ritschl, 1 848-1 854, in which a collation of A was
used; a revised and completed form of this work Was commenced
by Ritschl himself and continued by his disciples Goetz, Loewe and
Schoell, 1871-1894: and of this an entirely rewritten editio minor
by Goetz and Schoell appeared in 1893-1896 (continued by a 2nd
ed. of Fasciculus ii. in 1904), which is still the most useful of modern
editions for a critical study of the text, exhibiting, as it does, the MS.
tradition with only such emendations as are securely established
by the results of modern investigation. The other modern editions
of the text are those of Fleckeisen (containing ten plays, excellent
for his time), 1859; Ussing (with a commentary), 1 875-1 887, 2nd ed.
of vol. hi. 1888; Leo (a very important work), 1 895-1 896; Lindsay,
1904-1905. Among modern editions of separate plays with commen-
taries the following are probably the most useful: Amphitruo by
Palmer, 1890, and Havet, 1895; Asinaria by Gray, 1894; Aulularia
by Wagner, 1866 and 1876; Captivi by Brix, 6th ed., revised by
Niemeyer, 1910; an English edition of this work by Sonnenschein
(with introduction on prosody), 1880; same play by Lindsay (with
metrical introduction), 1900; Epidicus by Gray, 1893; Menaechmi
by Brix, 4th ed., revised by Niemeyer, 1 891; Miles gloriosus by
Lorenz, 2nd ed., 1886; by Brix, 3rd ed., revised by Niemeyer, 1901 ;
by Tyrrell, 3rd ed., 1894; Mostellaria by Lorenz, 2nd ed., 1883; by
Sonnenschein, 2nd ed., 1907; Pseudolus by Lorenz, 1876; Rudens
by Sonnenschein, 1891, editio minor (with a metrical appendix),
1901 ; Trinummus (with a metrical introduction) by Brix, 5th ed.,
revised by Niemeyer, 1907; by Gray, 1897; Truculentus by Spengel
and Studemund, 1898.

Criticism. — Good characterizations of Plautus, from the literary
point of view, are given by Sellar in his Roman Poets of the Republic,
and Wight Duff, in his Literary History of Rome (1909). A summary
of recent critical works bearing on the text and interpretation is
given by Seyffert in his admirable reports (in Bursian's Jahres-
berichte uber die Fortschritie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft),
1883-1885, 1886-1889, 1890-1894, continued by Lindsay, 1895-
1906. Important contributions to textual criticism are contained
in Ritschl Parerga (1845), Neue plautinische Excurse (1869), and his
collected Opuscula philologica; Studemund, Studia in priscos
scriptpres latinos (vol. i. 1873, vol. ii. 1891); Langen, Beitrage
(1877) and Plautinische Studien (1886); Leo, Plautinische Forsch-
ungen (1895); Lindsay, Codex Turnebi (1898). Bentley's Plautine
Emendations were published by Sonnenschein partly in his edition

of the Captivi (1880), partly in the Anecdota oxoniensia series
(1883).

Metre and Prosody. — The most important treatises (apart
from those mentioned under " Editions ") are MttUer, Plautinische
Prosodie (1869); Spengel, Reformvorschlage zur Metrik der lyrischen
Versarten{ 1882); Klotz,Grundzuge altromischer Metrik{i8go) ; Skutsch ,
Forschungsn zur lateinischen Grammatik und Metrik (1892), Iamben-
kiirzung und Synizese (Satura Viadrina) (1896), continued by the
author in a work called Tipm (1903) ; Leo, Die plautinischen Cantica
und die hellenistische Lyrik (1897); Maurenbrecher, Hiatus und
Verschleifung im alten Latein (1899); Ahlberg, De proceleusmaticis
(1900), De correptione iambica plautina (1901); Jacobsohn, Quaesti-
ones plautinae (1904) ; Radford, on the " Recession of the Latin
Accent " (in Amer. Journ. Phil., 1904), " Studies in Latin Accent
and Metric" (in Trans. Amer. Phil. Assoc, 1904), "Plautine
synizesis " (ibid., 1905, continued in Amer. Journ. Phil., 1906), (a
work on cognate subjects is promised by Exon); Sudhaus, Der
Aufbau der plautinischen' Cantica (1909),

Syntax. — The most recent works bearing on Old Latin syntax,
are Sjogren, Zum Gebrauch des Futurums im Altlateinischen (1906);
Lindsay, Syntax of Plautus (1907) ; Sonnenschein, The Unity of the
Latin Subjunctive (1910). A work by H. Thomas, entitled A
catalogue raisonni of the Subjunctive in Plautus, in support of the
theory 0} the unity of origin of the Latin Subjunctive, is announced as
in preparation.

Lexica. — The only completed lexicon (apart from the Indices
of Naudet, 1832, and Weise, 1838) is that of Pareus (2nd ed., 1634).
New lexica have been begun by Waltzing (1900; apparently not to
be continued) and Lodge (1901 ;' in progress). The latter work,
when completed, will be indispensable.

Translations and Adaptations. — A comprehensive view of
the influence of Plautus on modern literatures is given by Reinhard-
stoettner, Spdtere Bearbeitungen plautinischer Lustspiele (1886).
Many adaptations for the Italian stage were produced between the
years i486 and 1550, the earliest (the Menaechmi) under the direction
of Ercole I., duke of Ferrara. From Italy the practice spread to
France, Spain, England and other countries.

Of English plays, the interlude called Jack Juggler (between 1547
and 1553) was based on the Amphitruo, and the lost play called
the Historie of Error (acted in 1577) was probably based on the
Menae-chmi; Nicholas Udall's Ralph Royster Doyster, the first English
comedy (acted before 1551, first printed 1566), is founded on the
Miles gloriosus; Shakespeare's Comedy of Errors (about 1591) is an
adaptation of the Menaechmi; and his Falstaff may be regarded
as an idealized reproduction or development of the braggart soldier
of Plautus and Terence — a type of character which reappears in
other forms not only in English literature {e.g. in Shakespeare's
Parolles and Ben Jonson's Captain Bobadil) but also in most of the
literatures of modern Europe. Shakespeare's Taming of the Shrew
has been influenced in several respects (including the names Tranio
and Grumio) by the Mostellaria. Ben Jonson produced a skilful
amalgamation of the Aulularia and the Captivi in his early play
The Case is Altered (written before 1599). Thomas Heywood
adapted the Amphitruo in his Silver Age (r6i3), the Rudens in his
Captives (licensed 1624), and the Mostellaria in his English Traveller
(1633). Dryden's Amphitryon or the two Sosias (1690) is based partly
on the Amphitruo, partly on Moliere's adaptation thereof; Fielding's
Miser (acted 1732) on Moliere's L'Avare rather than on the Aulularia,
and his Intriguing Chambermaid (acted 1733) on Regnard's Le Retour
imprbiu rather than on the Mostellaria. There was no English
translation, strictly so called, of any play of Plautus in the 16th or
17th century, except that of the Menaechmi by W. W. (probably
William Warner), first printed in 1595, which Shakespeare may
possibly have used (in MS.) for his Comedy of Errors. A translation
of the whole of Plautus in " familiar blank verse " by Bonnell Thorn-
ton and others appeared in 1767 (2nd ed., 1769-1774). Five plays
have been translated in the metres of the original by Sugden (1893).

(E. A. So.)

PLAY, a word of which the primary meaning is that of free
or active movement or exercise. The O. Eng. plegan or plegian,
from which comes the substantive plega, play, is apparently
cognate with Ger. pflegen, to take care or charge of, and Pflege,
care, and the connexion in sense is to be found in the primary
meaning, that of exercise or active movement. In its primary
meaning " play " is used of the rapid changing movement of
light and colour, and also figuratively of thought or fancy, and
specifically of the free movement of parts of a mechanism on
each other, of a joint or limb, &c. To play a musical instrument
is to move the fingers upon it, and until the 18th century the
verb was intransitive, and " on " or " upon " was always used
with the name of the instrument. The very general use of the
word for sport, game or amusement, is an early and easy develop-
ment from the meaning of active movement or exercise as a
recreation after work; that of a dramatic performance (see
Drama) is very early; the New English Dictionary quotes from
King Alfred's Orosius {c. 893).

PLAYA— PLEADING

831

The primitive play instinct or play impulse in man has been much
discussed in recent years by psychologists in connexion with child-
study (see Child), and with the expression of the emotions (see
J. Sully, On Laughter, 1902, &c; also Aesthetics). See generally
Carl Groos, The Play of Animals (1898) and The Play of Man
(1901) ; and Baldwin's Diet, of Philosophy, s.v.

PLAYA (a Spanish word meaning " shore "), the name applied
in America to a level plain formed of the deposits of a river
which has no outlet to the sea or a lake. If at seasons of high
water a river floods any area and temporarily converts it into a
lake, which subsequently dries up in hot weather, the tract thus
left dry is called a playa. The barren Black Rock Desert in
north-western Nevada, about 100 m. in length by 1 5 in breadth,
is typical.

PLAYFAIR, JOHN (1748-1819), Scottish mathematician and
physicist, was born at Benvie, Forfarshire, where his father was
parish minister, on the 10th of March 1748. He was educated
at home until the age of fourteen, when he entered the university
of St Andrews. In 1766, when only eighteen, he was candidate
for the chair of mathematics in Marischal College, Aberdeen,
and, although he was unsuccessful, his claims were admitted
to be high. Six years later he made application for the chair
of natural philosophy in his own university, but again without
success, and in 1773 he was offered and accepted the living of
the united parishes of Liff and Benvie, vacant by the death of
his father. He continued, however, to carry <jn his mathematical
and physical studies, and in 1782 he resigned his charge in order
to become the tutor of Ferguson of Raith. By this arrangement
he was able to be frequently in Edinburgh, and to cultivate the
literary and scientific society for which it was at that time
specially distinguished ; and through Maskelyne, whose acquain-
tance he had first made in the course of the celebrated Schiehallion
experiments in 1774, he also gained access to the scientific circles
of London. In 1785 when Dugald Stewart succeeded Ferguson
in the Edinburgh chair of moral philosophy, Playfair succeeded
the former in that of mathematics. In 1802 he published his
celebrated volume entitled Illustrations of the Hultonian Theory
of the Earth. To its publication the influence exerted by James
Hutton on the progress of geological knowledge is largely due.
In 1805 he exchanged the chair of mathematics for that of
natural philosophy in succession to Dr John Robison, whom also
he succeeded as general secretary to the Royal Society of
Edinburgh. He took a prominent part, on the Liberal side,
in the ecclesiastical controversy which arose in connexion with
Leslie's appointment to the post he had vacated, and published
a satirical Letter (1806) which was greatly admired by his friends.
He was elected F.R.S. in 1807. He died in Edinburgh on the
20th of July 1819.

A collected edition of Playfair's works, with a memoir by James
G. Playfair, appeared at Edinburgh in 4 vols. 8vo. His writings
include a number of essays contributed to the Edinburgh Review
from 1804 onwards, various papers in the Phil. Trans, (including his
earliest publication, " On the Arithmetic of Impossible Quantities,"
1779, and an " Account of the Lithological Survey of Schehallion,"
181 1 ) and in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
(" On the Causes which affect the Accuracy of Barometrical
Measurements," &c), alsp the articles "Aepinus" and "Physical
Astronomy," and a "Dissertation on the Progress of Mathematical
and Physical Science since the Revival of Learning in Europe," in
the Encyclopaedia Britannica (Supplement to fourth, fifth and
sixth editions). His Elements of Geometry first appeared in 1795
and have passed through many editions; his Outlines of Natural
Philosophy (2 vols., 1812-1816) consist of the propositions and
formulae which were the basis of his class lectures. Playfair's con-
tributions to pure mathematics were not considerable, his paper
"On the Arithmetic of Impossible Quantities," that " On the
Causes which affect the Accuracy of Barometrical Measurements,"
and his Elements of Geometry, all already referred to, being the
most important. His lives of Matthew Stewart, Hutton, Robison,
many of his reviews, and above all his " Dissertation ' are of the
utmost value.

PLAYFAIR, LYON PLAYFAIR, 1st Baron (1818-1898), was
born at Chunar, Bengal province, on the 21st of May 181 8. He
was sent to Europe by his father at an early age, and received
his first education at St Andrews. Subsequently he studied
medicine at Glasgow and Edinburgh. A short visit to India
(in 1837-1838) was followed by his return to Europe to study

chemistry, which had always attracted him. This he did at
University College, London, and afterwards under Liebig at
Giessen, where he took his doctor's degree. At Liebig's request,
Playfair translated into English the former's work on the
Chemistry of Agriculture, and represented Liebig at a meeting
of the British Association at Glasgow. The outcome of his
studies was his engagement in 1841 as chemical manager of the
Primrose print-works at Clitheroe, a post which he held for rather
more than a year. In 1843 ne was elected honorary professor
of chemistry to the Royal Institution of Manchester, and soon
afterwards was appointed a member of the Royal Commission
on the Health of Towns, a body whose investigations may be
said to have laid the foundations of modern sanitation. In
1846 he was appointed chemist to the geological survey, and
thenceforward was constantly employed by the public depart-
ments in matters of sanitary and chemical inspection. The
opportunity of his life came with the 1851 Exhibition, of which
he was one of the special commissioners. For his services in this
connexion he was made C.B., and his work had the additional
advantage of bringing him into close personal relations with
the Prince Consort, who appointed him gentleman usher in his
household. From 1856 to 1869 he was professor of chemistry
at Edinburgh University. In 1868 he was elected to represent
the universities of Edinburgh and St Andrews in parliament,
and retained his seat till 1885, from which date until 1892 he
sat as member for Leeds. In 1873 he was made postmaster-
general, and in the following year, after the dissolution of
parliament, was applied to by the incoming Tory government
to preside over a commission to inquire into the working of the
civil service. Its report established a completely new system,
which has ever since been officially known as the " Playfair
scheme." The return of Mr Gladstone to power in 1880 afforded
opportunity for Playfair to resume his interrupted parliamentary
career, and from that time until 1883 he acted as chairman of
committees during a period when the obstructive tactics of the
Irish party were at their height. On his retirement from the
post he was made K.C.B. In 1892 he was created Baron Playfair
of St Andrews, and a little later was appointed lord-in-waiting
to the queen. In 1895 he was given the G.C.B. In spite of
failing health the last years of his life were full of activity, one
of his latest public acts being his suggestion that Queen Victoria's
Diamond Jubilee of 1897 should be commemorated by the
completion of the South Kensington Museum. He died in
London, after a short illness, on the 29th of May 1898, and was
buried at St Andrews. He was three times married. He was
the author of a number of papers on scientific and social topics,
a selection from which he published in 1889 under the title of
Subjects of Social Welfare.

A memoir by Sir Wemyss Reid was published in 1899.

PLEADING (Fr. plaider, plaidoyer), the term applied in
English law to the preparation of the statement of the facts on
which either party to a criminal prosecution or a civil action
founds his claim to a decision in his favour on the questions
involved in the proceeding; and also to the document in which
these statements are embodied. The term " pleadings " is used
for the collected whole of the statements of both parties; the
term " pleading " for each separate part of the pleadings. The
term " plea " {placitum, plaid) 1 is now applied in England oftenest
to the defence made by an accused person. To " plead " is to
make a pleading or plea. 2

All systems of law agree in making it necessary to bring the
grounds of a claim or defence before the court in a more or less
definite and technical form.

Roman System. — In Roman law the action passed through three
stages (see Action), and the manner of pleading changed with the
action. In the earliest historical period, that of the legis actiones,
the pleadings were verbal, and made in court by the parties them-
selves, the proceedings imitating as far as possible the natural

1 In Scots and ecclesiastical law the word " plea " is used as to
the statements of both parties to a cause.

2 In French law plaider and plaidoyer are still applied to the
oral arguments of counsel, and in English popular speech " to
plead " has much the same sense.

8 3 2

PLEADING

conduct of persons who had been disputing, but who suffered their
quarrel to be appeased (Maine, Ancient Law, ch. x.). The use of
technical language in pleading at an early date came to be regarded
as so important that, as Gaius tells us, the party who made even the
most trifling mistake would lose his suit. This excessive reverence
for formality is a universal characteristic of archaic law. In the
second period, that of the procedure by formulae, the issue which
the judex decided was made up by the praetor in writing from the
statements of the parties before him. The formula was a short
summary of the facts in dispute in technical language, with instruc-
tions to the judex, and corresponded to what would now be called
the submission or terms of reference to an arbitrator chosen by the
parties. The part of the formula which contained the plaintiff's
claim was called the intentio. Any equitable defence included in
the formula was set up by means of an exceptio, which was either
peremptory, denying the right of the plaintiff to recover at all,
or dilatory, denying only that the action could be brought at the
time or by the particular plaintiff. The plaintiff might meet the
exceptio by a replicatio, the defendant on his side might set up a
duplicatio, and the plaintiff might traverse the duplicatio by a
triplicatio. The parties might proceed even further, but beyond
this point the pleadings had no special names. Actions bonae
fidei implied every exceptio that could be set up; in other actions
the exceptio must be specially pleaded. From the formula the
judex derived his whole authority, and he was liable to an action
for exceeding it. He could not amend the formula: that could
only be done by the praetor. In the third period the formula
did not exist, the plaintiff's claim appeared in the summons
(libellus conventionis), and the defendant might take any defence
that he pleased, all actions being placed on the footing of actions
bonae fidei. The issue to be tried was determined by the judge
from the oral statements of the parties.

English System. — The English system of pleading seems to
have drawn largely from, if it was not directly based upon, the
Roman. Bracton {temp. Henry III.) uses many of the Roman
technical terms. Pleading was oral as late as the reign of
Henry VIII., but in the reign of Edward III. pleadings began to
be drawn up in writing, perhaps at first more for the purpose of
entry on the court records than for the instruction of the court
(see 2 Reeves, History of English Law, p. 398). The French
language was used until 1362, after which English was used for
oral pleading, but Latin for enrolment, except for a short period
during the Commonwealth. Latin was the language of written
pleadings at common law until 1731. The period of the Roman
formula has its analogue in the period of the original writ in
England. 1 The writ was at first a formal commission from the
Crown to a judicial officer to do justice between the parties, the
claim being made by a count (conte, narrative). The issue of
the writ was part of the prerogative of the Crown, unlimited
until the Provisions of Oxford (1258) forbade the issue of fresh
writs except " writs of course " (de cursu) without the consent
of the council. Gradually the writ came to absorb the count
and included the plaintiff's claim and sometimes the nature of
his evidence. The defendant pleaded to the writ. The writ
became the universal form of instituting proceedings in the
king's court, irrespective of the method of trial which followed,
and probably grew fixed in form about the reign of Henry II.
(see Bigelow, History of Procedure, ch. iv.). At a later date the
writ again tended to approach its earlier form and to split into
two parts— the writ of summons and the declaration or plaintiff's
claim. The writ of summons was addressed to the defendant,
and not, as the original writ, to a judicial officer. The pleadings
became the act of the party, differing in this from Roman law,
in which they were a judicial act. The writs became precedents
for the forms of action, which, like the writs, were limited in
number. The plaintiff's declaration was a substantial repetition
of the writ. In the writ, as in the formula, the slightest failure
in form was as a rule fatal. " The assigning of a writ of a par-
ticular frame and scope to each particular cause of action, the
appropriating process of one kind to one action and of a different
kind to another, these and the like distinctions rendered pro-
ceedings very nice and complex, and made the conduct of an
action a matter of considerable difficulty " (1 Reeves, Hist, of
English Law, p. 147). Fines were levied for mistakes in pleading,
non-liability to which was sometimes granted by charter as a

1 The original writ was so called to distinguish it from the judicial
writ, which was a part of the process of the court. The judicial
writs still exist, e.g. writs of certiorari or fieri facias.

special privilege to favoured towns. In both Roman and English
law fictions, equity and legislation came to mitigate the rigour
of the law. In England this result was largely attained by the
framing of the action of trespass on the case under the powers
of the Statute of Westminster the Second (1285), and by the
extension of the action of assumpsit to non-feasance. The
difficulties and technicalities of the common law system were
met by elaboration of what is known as " special pleading," 2 , which
became an art of the utmost nicety, depending on numerous
rules, some of them highly technical (see Coke upon Littleton,
p. 303). Those who made it their business to frame pleadings
were called special pleaders. They were not necessarily members
of the bar, but might be licensed to practise under the bar. At
one time it was usual to practise for a time as a special pleader
before call to the bar. Such licences are now rarely sought,
and the Law List of 1906 contained only one name of a special
pleader who was not a barrister. The art became necessary
because of the absolute particularity with which claims must
be framed, and the narrowness of the powers of amendment
possessed by the courts. The result was that substantive law
was smothered in procedure, and the practical questions at issue
were of less moment than the phraseology in which they were
to be stated. As an extreme instance, a learned judge in the
19th century challenged a pleading for putting the year without
adding a.d., on the ground that " non constat that a.c. might
not be intended." '

Some of the difficulties as to amendment were removed by
the statutes of Jeofails (j'aifailli) beginning in 1340. But until
the 19th century the courts of common law and equity worked
side by side in Westminster Hall, administering each their own
system without due regard to the other; and even in so simple
a matter as the right of a defendant to set off against a claim on
him a debt due to him from the plaintiff required statutory
provision. Many of the defects and technicalities of the common
law system were removed by the Common Law Procedure Acts
and the general rules of practice made thereunder. Wide powers
of amendment were given, and the parties were allowed to raise
and try claims which theretofore could have been dealt with
only in courts of equity. In the court of chancery the pleadings
used were bill (or in certain public matters an information by
the attorney-general), answer and replication. 3 Demurrers were
used, or " exceptions " could be taken to the bill or answer.
They differed from the common law forms by being much more
diffuse, by pleading matters of evidence, and in that the answer
was on oath. Beyond the replication chancery proceedings did
not go, the place of further pleadings being supplied by amend-
ment. Exceptions might be taken to the bill or answer on various
grounds. Equity pleadings were signed by counsel. On the
creation of the divorce court the pleadings authorized were
(and still are) as follows: petition (which must be verified by
oath), answer (which is so verified if it goes beyond a mere denial)
and reply; and a special pleading called "act on petition"
(derived from the ecclesiastical courts) with answer thereto,
generally used for the determination of some preliminary
question in the suit, e.g. the domicile of the husband. In the
court of admiralty the pleadings used were petition, answer,
reply and conclusion. In the probate court the common law
terms were used (declaration, plea and replication), but the
procedure was not the same as in the common law courts.

Under the old common law system 4 as modified in the 19th
century the pleadings in use were as follows: — •

1. Declaration, made up of one or more counts (contes), or modes
of framing the plaintiff's claim so as to state his grievances in fact
in a form suggesting the appropriate remedy at law, and concluding
by demand for a plea. The counts were spoken of as common or
special according as the facts of the case allowed the use of common

2 The ingenuity of the pleader showing itself chiefly in framing
special as opposed to general pleas, the term " special pleading "
grew to be used for the whole proceedings of which it was the
most important part.

3 In Chancery the " English Bill," so called from its being in
the English language, had existed, according to G. Spence, as
early as the reign of Henry V. (Equitable Jurisdiction, i. 348).

* Bullen and Leake, Precedents of Pleading (3rd ed., 1868).

PLEADING

forms or required special statement. The declaration corresponds
to the Roman formula and intentio.

2. Plea by the defendant to the counts of the declaration. The
plea corresponds to the Roman exceptio.

3. Replication by the plaintiff to the plea. In this pleading the
plaintiff usually took issue upon the statements in the defence-
but he might do what was termed " new assign," e.g. complain of
acts in excess of a justification alleged in the plea.

4. Rejoinder by the defendant to the replication, answering to
the Roman duphcaho. °

5. Surrejoinder by the plaintiff to the rejoinder, answering to
the Roman triplicatio.

6. Rebutter by the defendant to the surrejoinder.

7. Surrebutter by the plaintiff to the rebutter.

Nos. 4, 5, 6 and 7 were rarely necessary, as the parties usually
came to a definite issue on the facts in the replication, and the last
of them is only kept in legal memory because Lord Wensleydale
(the last and best versed of the old common law pleaders) was
nicknamed Chief Baron Surrebutter. At any stage of the plead-
ings after (1), the party might instead of pleading to the preceding
document demur, i.e. admit the facts as therein stated and contend
that assuming the truth of those facts the document was insufficient
in law to found a claim or a defence as the case might be De-
murrers (q.v.) were general or special according as they went to
the substance of the claim or plea or to a mere defect in the mode
of statement. When the pleadings had reached a stage at which
the parties were in flat contradiction on matters of fact, they con-
cluded by ;oinder of issue, upon which the record was made uo
and the action was ripe for trial.

Pleas fell into the following classes : —

1. In abatement also described as temporary or dilatory (terms
ot Roman law), directed either to the jurisdiction of the court
or to the abatement or defeat of the action for defects of form.

2. In bar, also described as peremptory, which answered the
alleged cause of action by denying facts stated in the declaration
which were material, or by confessing their truth, but stating new
matter of fact which destroyed their legal effect.

Some of these were by way of justification or excuse, e.g. by setting
up the truth of matter alleged to be defamatory, or legal warrant
tor an arrest complained of as illegal; others were by wav of
discharge, e.g. of an alleged debt by payment.

Pleas in denial were known (a) as general traverses or general
issues, when they denied in a general and appropriate form one
or more of the facts alleged (e.g. " never indebted " to a claim in
assumpsit or not guilty " to a claim for tort) ; (b) as specific
traverses of separate and material allegations in the declaration
setting out with particularity the facts relied on.

It was permissible to plead alternatively, i.e. to set up a number
of different answers to the facts on which the claim was based.
As a general rule a plea must be " issuable," i.e. must put the merits
pt the cause in issue on the facts or the law, so that the decision of
judge and jury thereon would put an end to the action upon the
merits. r

All the above forms of pleading, except in matrimonial causes,
were abolished by the Judicature Acts, and a new system was
set up by these acts and the rules of the Supreme Court. Under
this system the pleadings proper are " statement of claim "
" defence," " reply," and, if need be, " rejoinder."

When pleadings are allowed they must contain, and contain
only, a statement in a summary form of the material facts on
which the party pleading relies for his claim or defence, as the
case may be, but not the evidence by which they are to be proved ;
and must, when necessary, be divided into paragraphs, numbered
consecutively. Dates, sums and numbers are expressed in
figures and not in words. Signature of counsel is not necessary;
but where pleadings have been settled by counsel or a special
pleader they are to be signed by him, and if not so settled they
are to be signed by the solicitor or by the party if he sues or
defends in person (0. 19, r. 4). 1 There has been a growing dis-
position to dispense with formal pleadings in the simpler kinds
of action. A plaintiff is allowed to proceed to trial without
pleadings if the writ of summons is endorsed in a manner sufficient
to indicate the nature of his claim and the relief or remedy which
he seeks (O. 18a), and contains a notice of his intention. In
no case is a statement of claim other than that endorsed on the
writ necessary unless the defendant on appearance asks for one,
and his right to insist has been cut down by the provisions
presently to be stated. In commercial cases a statement by
the parties to the points of law and fact which they propose to
raise is substituted for ordinary pleadings. In cases where

1 Before the Judicature Acts equity pleadings were signed by
counsel, but common law pleadings were not.
xxi. 27

833

the demand is for a liquidated sum certain, or to recover land
from a tenant on expiration of his term or its forfeiture for non-
payment of rent, the statement of claim must be endorsed on
the writ; and m all other cases no statement of claim beyond
that on the writ may be delivered except under order of the
master or judge at chambers (Ords. 18a and 30). A statement
of defence may not be delivered except under order made on the
summons for directions (which must be taken out immediately
after the appearance of the defendant in answer to the writ)
nor a reply without special leave. The result of the present
practice is to substitute " particulars," i.e. specific statement
of the details which the parties intend to prove, for the more
general terms in which pleadings were formerly framed.

sDe^anv'rlbtW 8 /^! 1 ? 1316 10 aI1 P le , a <?ings, there are certain rules
natnrlnf thl. g t0 f state . men ts of claim, with reference to the
which Z.5 I ^ °f. a ?A 10n T hlch ma y be deluded and the relief
which may be claimed (O. 20). As to the defence proper, there
are also special rules intended to prevent evasive, inadequate or
unnecessary contradiction of the plaintiff's statements (O 19, 20).
H,t tn e & nt ls allc T d *° "«« off" against the claim 9 sums

»Z Zt T the P - amtl ? or , to raise fa y wa y of counter-claim
any right or claim against the plaintiff or a third party, whether

* nnn£ln n % ¥ dam ages or not The counter-claim is in substance
a conjoined action in which the defendant is plaintiff and the plaintiff
or third party affected may put in a defence to it. Except in such
twwiT rep i? and s " bs equent pleadings are now seldom permitted.
Both the parties and the court or a judge have large powers of
amending the pleadings both before and at the trial Issues are

phnS!? Ca !f Setded "? y the court or a J ud S e - Demurrers are
"S a f nd a Pfrty is now entitled to raise by his pleading
a nJ P ?u f- W - Where decl sion of a point of law woulcfput an
end to the action steps may be taken for obtaining such decision
,?„ ^l , ob y. late the . necessity of trying the issues of fact raised
n = „,? £ ? lu gS V Forms ° f pleading are given in Appendices C,
JJ and fc. to the Supreme Court Rules. In all actions such ground
of defence or reply as if not raised would be likely to take the
opposite party by surprise, or would raise issues of fact not arising
out ot the preceding pleadings, must be specially pleaded. Such
are compulsory pilotage fraud, the Statute of Limitations, the
Statute of Frauds and the Gaming Act. The Supreme Court
■a t£ , apP V *? P r ?ceedings in Crown suits or in the Crown
side of the king s bench division. In actions for damages by
col hsion between ships each party must as a general rule file a
sealed document called a preliminary act containing details as to
the time and place of collision, the speed, tide, lights, &c. The
case may be tried on the preliminary act without pleadings, but
it there are pleadings the act may not be unsealed until they are
completed and certain consents given. The document was peculiar
t <-! u PU u rt i- of adl S lr alty, but may now be used in all divisions
of the High Court (O 19, r. 28). The High Court system of plead-
ings has been adopted in the chancery courts of the counties palatine
of Lancaster and Durham. The place of the " record " is supplied
by copies of the pleadings delivered for the use of the iudge and of
the officer entering the judgment (O. 36, r. 30; O. 41, r. 1).
1 11 j county courts proceedings are commenced by a plaint,
followed by an ordinary or default summons. No " pleadings "are
necessary, but the defendant is precluded from setting
up certain special defences such as set-off or infancy County

or statutory defences, without the consent of the Courts.
plaintiff, unless he has given timely notice in writing of his intention
to set up the special defence. This system is made workable by
insisting on the insertion of adequate details or particulars of the
nature of the claim in the plaint. But in cases where a special
defence is not required considerable inconvenience is caused bv
uncertainty as to the line of defence.

In some of the local civil courts of record which have survived
the creation of the county courts, the pleadings are still in the
form recognized by the Common Law Procedure Acts. , , _
This is the case in the Mayor's Court of London. In ' nfer ' or
others (.eg. the Liverpool Court of Passage and the b. 00 "' ,
Salford Hundred Court) the system of the Judicature S *
Acts has been adopted with or without official sanction. Kecord -
the policy of the lord chancellor and the treasury has been to
ret use reform of procedure to all but the most used of these local
courts so as to extinguish them in favour of the county courts.

In the ecclesiastical courts the statements of the parties are
called generally pleas. The statement of the plaintiff in civil
suits is called a libel; of the promoter in criminal suits
articles. Every subsequent plea is called an allegation. Ecclesl-
lo the responsive allegation of the defendant the pro- astical.
moter may plead a counter-allegation. The cause is concluded
when the parties renounce any further allegation. There exists
in addition a more short and summary mode of pleading called
an act on petition.

In Roman criminal procedure the indictment (inscriptio or

11

«34

PLEASURE— PLEBS

libellus accusationis) was usually in writing, and contained a
formal statement of the offence. In some cases oral accu-
sations were allowed. The pleading of the accused
seems to have been informal. In English criminal
cases the expression " pleadings " is limited to those tried on in-
dictment or information before a jury. In matters dealt with by
justices of the peace there are informations sometimes in writing,
but they are never regarded as " pleadings." English criminal
pleading has been less affected by legislation than civil pleading,
and retains more of what is called the common law system.
Cases in which the Crown was a party early became known as
" pleas of the Crown " (placita coronae), as distinguished from
"common pleas" {communia placita), or pleas between subject
and subject — that is to say, ordinary civil actions. Pleas of the
Crown originally included all matters in which the Crown was
concerned, such as exchequer cases, franchises and liberties,
but gradually became confined to criminal matters, strictly to
the greater crimes triable only in the king's courts. In criminal
pleading the Crown states the case in an indictment or information.
The answer of the accused is a plea, which must be pleaded by
the accused in person, except in certain cases of misdemeanour
tried in the High Court {Crown Office Rules, 1906). The plea,
according to Blackstone, is either to the jurisdiction, a demurrer,
in abatement, special in bar, or the general issue. The last is
the only plea that often occurs in practice; it consists in the
answer (usually oral) of " guilty " or " not guilty " to the
charge. A demurrer is strictly not a plea at all, but an objection
on legal grounds. Pleas to the jurisdiction or in abatement
do not go to the merits of the case, but allege that the court has
no jurisdiction to try the particular offence, or that there is a
misnomer or some other technical ground for stay of proceedings.
The powers of amendment given in 1851 (14 & 15 Vict. c. 100)
and the procedure by motion in arrest of judgment have rendered
these pleas of no practical importance. The special pleas in
bar are autrefois convict or autrefois acquit (alleging a previous
conviction or aquittal for the same crime) and pardon (see
Pardon). The plea of autrefois attaint has fallen out of use
since the abolition of attainder by the Forfeitures Act 1870.
There are also special pleas of justification to indictments' for
defamatory libel under the Libel Act 1843; and to indictments
for non-repair of highways and bridges the accused may plead
that the liability to repair falls upon another person. These
special pleas are usually, and in some cases must be, in writing.
When there is a special plea in writing the Crown puts in a
replication in writing.

Ireland— The practice as to civil and criminal pleading in Ireland
is substantially the same as in England, though to some extent
based on different statutes and rules of court.

Scotland. — In Scotland an action in the Court of Session begins
by a summons on the part of the pursuer, to which is annexed a
condescendence, containing the allegations in fact on which the action
is founded. The pleas in law, or statement of the legal rule or rules
relied upon (introduced by the Court of Session Act 1825), are
subjoined to the condescendence. The term libel is also used (as
in Roman law) as a general term to express the claim of the pursuer
or the accusation of the prosecutor. The statement of the^de-
fender, including his pleas in law, is called his defences. They are
either dilatory or peremptory. There is no formal joinder of issue,
as in England, but the same end is attained by adjustment of the
pleadings and the closing of the record. Large powers of amend-
ment and revisal are given by the Court of Session Act 1868. In
the sheriff court pleadings are very similar to those in the Court
of Session. They are commenced by a petition, which includes a
condescendence and a note of the pursuer's pleas in law. The
defender may upon notice lodge defences. The procedure is now
governed by the Sheriff Courts Scotland Act 1876. The term
' pleas of the Crown " is confined in Scotland to four offences —
murder, rape, robbery and fire-raising. The criminal procedure
of Scotland was simplified and amended in 1887. The old pro-
cedure by criminal letters has been abolished, and prosecutions
fcr the public interest whether in the high court of justiciary or
before the sheriff with a jury are by indictment in the name of His
Majesty's advocate. The Scots indictment differs from the English
in not being found by a grand jury, except in cases of high treason,
and resembles rather the ex officio information of English law.
Until 1887 it was in the form ofa syllogism, the major proposition
stating the nature of the crime, the minor the actual offence com-
mitted and that it constitutes the crime named in the major, the

conclusion that on conviction of the panel he ought to suffer punish-
ment. Under the present practice it is in the second person
addressed to the accused, and follows the forms scheduled to the
act of 1887, which also makes specific provisions for simplification,
and if need be for amendment (s. 70). A copy of the indictment
with a list of the witnesses and the productions must be served on
the accused. There are two sittings (diets) to deal with the in-
dictment. At the first, held before the sheriff, the accused (termed
the panel) may plead guilty or raise preliminary objections to the
relevancy of the indictment, &c, or otherwise (such as want of
jurisdiction or res judicata); or without taking such objections,
or after they are overruled, may plead not guilty. The second
diet is the diet of trial. If the trial is before the sheriff his rulings
at the first diet are final, if before the court of justiciary his rulings
may be reviewed. At the second diet, besides his plea of not
guilty, the panel may rely on certain special defences, e.g. insanity
or alibi, but only if his special and written plea was tendered and
recorded at the first diet or the delay explained, and he cannot call
evidence in support of these pleas except on written notice specify-
ing the names of the witnesses and the documents not included in
the prosecutor's lists (s. 36). (See Macdonald, Criminal Law of
Scotland.)

British Dominions Beyond Seas. — In most of the Australian
states, and in Ontario and New Zealand, civil pleadings are governed
by rules adopted from the English Judicature Acts. In New South
Wales a system based on the Common Law Procedure Acts is
retained. Civil pleadings in India are regulated by the Civil
Procedure Code. Indictments, except in India, are based on the
English system as modified by the criminal codes or other legisla-
tion of the colony. Indictments in India are regulated by the
Criminal Procedure Code of 1898.

United Slates. — In the United States two systems of pleading
in civil procedure exist side by side. Up to 1848 the pleading did
not materially differ from that in use in England at the same date.
But in 1848 the New York legislature made a radical change in
the system, and the example of New York has been followed by
many states. The New York Civil Code of 1848 established a
uniform procedure called the civil action, applicable indifferently
to common law and equity. The pleadings are called complaint,
answer (which includes counterclaim) and reply. The demurrer
also is still used. In some states which follow this procedure the
complaint bears the name of petition. In inferior courts, such as
courts of justices of the peace, the pleadings are more simple, and
in many cases oral. In states which do not adopt the amended
procedure the pleading is much the same as it was in the days of
Blackstone, and the old double jurisdiction of common law and
equity still remains. Criminal pleading is on the lines of the common
law system of England. (W. F. C.)

PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please;
Gr. ■qhovq), a term used loosely in ordinary language as practically
synonymous with " enjoyment." As such it is applied equally
to what are known as the " higher " or " intellectual " pleasures,
and to purely " sensual," " animal " or " lower " pleasures.
The conditions under which a man is pleased are the subject
both or psychological and of ethical investigation. In general
it may be said that pleasure and pain follow respectively upon
the success of the failure of some effort, mental or physical (see
Psychology) ; they may also attend upon purely passive sensa-
tions, e.g. a warm sun, a heavy shower, or upon associations with
previous states of mind {i.e. a man may enjoy a sensation which
is intrinsically painful, if it has pleasant associations). Recogni-
tion of the fact that mankind seeks pleasure and avoids pain has
led some moralists to the conclusion that all human conduct
is actuated by hedonic considerations: this is the direct antithesis
to ethical theories which maintain an absolute criterion of right
and wrong (see Hedonism; Ethics). Aristotle took a middle
view, holding that pleasure, though not the end of virtuous action
yet necessarily follows upon it {hruyevbixtvov tl t«Xos).

PLEBISCITE (Lat. plebiscilum, a decree of the plebs), a term
borrowed from the French for a vote of all the electors in a
country taken on some specific question (see also Referendum).
The most familiar example of the use of the plebiscite in French
history was in 1852, when the coup d'Stat of 1851 was confirmed
and the title of emperor was given to Napoleon III. In Roman
constitutional law the plebiscitum was a decree enacted in the
assembly of the plebs, the comitia tributa, presided over by a
plebeian magistrate.

PLEBS (from the root seen in Lat. plenus, full; cf. Gr. Tkfjdos),
the " multitude," or unprivileged class in the early Roman state.
For the origin and history of this order see Patricians and
Nobility. Its disqualifications were originally based on

PLEDGE— PLEISTOCENE

835

descent; but after the political equalization of the two orders
the name was applied to the lower classes of the population with-
out reference to their descent. Under the empire the word is
regularly used of the city proletariate, or of the commons as
distinct from knights and senators.

PLEDGE, 1 or Fawn, in law " a bailment of personal property
as a security for some debt or engagement " (Story on Bailments,
§ 286). The term is also used to denote the property which
constitutes the security. Pledge is the pignus of Roman law,
from which most of the modern law on the subject is derived.
It differs from hypothec and from the more usual kind of mort-
gage in that the pledge is in the possession of the pledgee; it
also differs from mortgage in being confined to personal property.
A mortgage of personal property in most cases takes the name
and form of a bill of sale. The chief difference between Roman
and English law is that certain things, e.g. wearing apparel,
furniture and instruments of tillage, could not be pledged in
Roman law, while there is no such restriction in English law.
In the case of a pledge, a special property passes to the pledgee,
sufficient to enable him to maintain an action against a wrong-
doer, but the general property, that is the property subject to
the pledge, remains in the pledgor. As the pledge is for the
benefit of both parties, the pledgee is bound to exercise only
ordinary care over the pledge. The pledgee has the right of
selling the pledge if the pledgor make default in payment at
the stipulated time. No right is acquired by the wrongful sale
of a pledge except in the case of property passing by delivery,
such as money or negotiable securities. In the case of a wrongful
sale by a pledgee, the pledgor cannot recover the value of the
pledge without a tender of the amount due.

The law of Scotland as to pledge generally agrees with that of
England, as does also that of the United States. The main differ-
ence is that in Scotland and in Louisiana a pledge cannot be sold
unless with judicial authority. In some of the American states
the common law as it existed apart from the Factors' Acts is still
followed; in others the factor has more or less restricted power to
give a title by pledge.

See also Factor and Pawnbroking.

PLEHVE, VIATSCHESLAF KONSTANTINOVICH (1846-1904),
Russian statesman, was born of Lithuanian stock in 1846. He
was educated at Warsaw and studied law at the university in
St Petersburg before he entered the bureaucracy in the depart-
ment of justice, in which he rose rapidly to be assistant solicitor-
general in Warsaw, then solicitor-general in St Petersburg, and
in 1881 director of the state police. As assistant to the minister
of the interior he attracted the attention of Alexander III. by
the skill he showed in investigating the circumstances of the
assassination of Alexander II. He received the title of secretary
of state in 1894, became a member of the council of the empire,
and in 1902 succeeded Sipiaguine as minister of the interior.
Plehve carried out the " russification " of the alien provinces
within the Russian Empire, and earned bitter hatred in Poland,
in Lithuania and especially in Finland. He despoiled the
Armenian Church, and was credited with being accessory to the
Kishinev massacres. His logical mind and determined support
of the autocratic principle gained the tsar's entire confidence.
He opposed commercial development on ordinary European
lines on the ground that it involved the existence both of a
dangerous proletariat and of a prosperous middle class equally
inimical to autocracy. He was thus a determined opponent
of M. de Witte's policy. An attempt was made on his life early
in 1904, and he was assassinated on the 28th of July of the same
year by a bomb thrown under his carriage as he was on his way
to Peterhof to make his report to the tsar; the assassin, Sasonov,
was a member of the fighting organization of the socialist
revolutionary party.

PLEIAD (Gr. IlXetds), in Greek literature, the name given
(by analogy from Pleiades, below) by the Alexandrian critics
to seven tragic poets who flourished during the reign of Ptolemy

1 The word " pledge " is adapted from the O. Fr. plege, mod.
pleige, security, hostage, Med. Lat. plivium. This is a formation
form Med. Lat. plevire or plebire, to undertake or engage for some-
one, cf. " replevin "; it is now considered to be a word of Teutonic
origin and connected with Ger. pflegen and " plight."

Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.). In French literature, in addition
to the Pleiad of Charlemagne, there were two famous groups of
the kind. The first, during the reign of Henri III. (1574-1589),
the chief member of which was Pierre de Ronsard, sought to
improve the French language and literature by enthusiastic
imitation of the classics; the second, under Louis XIII. (1610-
r643), consisted of authors who excelled in the composition of
Latin verse.

PLEIADES, in Greek mythology, the seven daughters of Atlas
and Pleiione, and sisters of the Hyades. Owing to their grief
at the death of their sisters or at the sufferings of their father,
they were changed into stars. In another account, the Pleiades
and their mother met the hunter Orion in Boeotia, and the sight
of them inflamed his passion. For five years he pursued them
through the woods, until Zeus translated them all — Pleiione and
her daughters, Orion, and his dog — to the sky. The Pleiades
rose in the middle of May and set at the end of October, and their
connexion with spring and autumn explains the legend. As
bringers of the fertilizing rains of spring, which have their origin
in the west, they are the daughters of Atlas; as the forerunners
of the storms of autumn, they are represented as being driven
onward by Orion .in pursuit. The word is probably connected
with 7rXeiwi', either in the sense of " many in number," since
the stars formed a close group, resembling a bunch of grapes
(hence sometimes called floTpvs), or as " more in number " than
their sisters. Others derive the name from t\cIv (to sail),
because navigation began at the time of their rising. They are
probably alluded to in Homer (Odyssey, xii. 62) as the doves
GreXeiaSes) who brought ambrosia from the west to Zeus. One
of these doves was always lost during the passage of the Planctae
(wandering rocks), referring to the fact that one of the seven
Pleiades was always invisible. This was Merope, who hid her
light from shame at having had intercourse with a mortal,
Sisyphus. All the Pleiades became the ancestresses of divine
or heroic families. They were called Vergiliae (probably con-
nected with ver, spring) by the Romans.

See Hesiod, Works and Days, 383; Apollodorus iii. 10; Diod.
Sic. iii. 60; Theocritus xiii. 25; Hyginus, Astronom. ii. 21; Ovid,
Fasti, iv. 1691 v. 599.

PLEIADES, Atlantides or Vergiliae, in astronomy, a
group of stars situated in the constellation Taurus. They are
supposed to be referred to in the Old Testament (Job. ix. 9,
xxxviii. 31). This group is particularly rich in bright stars, and
is full of nebulosity, but there are fewer faint stars than in equal
areas of the surrounding sky; the central star is Alcyone (3rd
magnitude) ; Pleiione and Atlas are also of the 3rd magnitude.

PLEISTOCENE, in geology, the epoch which succeeded the
Pliocene; it is the last of the Tertiary periods, and hence the
lower subdivision of the quaternary or modern era. The name
was introduced by Sir C. Lyell in 1839 (from Gr. ttKuotov,
most, and xaivds, recent), the rocks of this period containing
a higher percentage of living forms than the youngest of the
Tertiary formations. By many writers " Pleistocene " has been
regarded as synonymous with " Glacial Period " or the
" Diluvium " of some geologists. In the northern hemisphere
the protracted period of glaciation, with its predominating
influence upon modern topography and fauna! distribution, was
undoubtedly the outstanding feature of the time. The pheno-
mena of the Glacial period (q.v.), which was by no means strictly
limited to the northern latitudes, are dealt with under that head,
but there are certain other characteristics of the Pleistocene
period which bear no direct relationship to glaciation, and these
will be dealt with here.

The gradual inception of colder conditions in the northern
hemisphere which lead up to the more extreme conditions of
glaciation clearly began in the latter part of the Pliocene period,
and the effects of this cooling are seen not only in northern
Europe and America but as far south as the Mediterranean.
The result of this is that there is a certain indefiniteness as to
the exact base line to be adopted for the Pleistocene formations;
thus the Forest Bed of Cromer and certain beds in Sicily and
Italy are by some authors placed in this period and by others

8 3 6

PLEONASM— PLESIOSAURUS

in the Pliocene (q.v.). Again it is clear that in parts of northern
Europe, Siberia and North America, the conditions character-
istic of a glacial period are still existent; even in Scotland and
Norway the last traces of glacial action are remarkably fresh,
and the last remnants of great glacial centres still linger in the
Alps and other lofty southern mountains. Many of the formations
of this period can be Shown by their fossil contents to belong
to early quaternary time, but since so many of these deposits
are strictly local in character, and since the fauna and flora
present in any one spot have been determined by local geo-
graphical conditions which have assisted or retarded the
migration of certain forms, it is a matter of extreme difficulty — ■
one may say impossibility— to reduce the Pleistocene formations
to any generally applicable chronological order. For similar
reasons it is impossible to define strictly the upper limit of the
formations of this period, and to say where the Pleistocene ends
and where the Recent or Holocene period begins.

The composition and distribution of the Pleistocene fauna and
flora present many points of extreme interest. The feature of great-
est importance is that man existed somewhere and in some con-
dition before and in this period; but no really satisfactory proof
has so far been forthcoming which will set back his first appear-
ance before the beginning of the glacial peripd (Pithecanthropus
erectus found by E. Dubois in Java is regarded as of Pliocene age).
The presence of the remains of man or of his works might reason-
ably be taken as a criterion of the Pleistocene age of a deposit —
if we omit the remains of historical time. But here again it has to
be borne in mind that historical time is continually being set back
by archaeological research, and further, the difficulty of employing
artefacs of stone as chronological indicators is shown by the fact
that even at the present day implements of stone are still in use,
and that different local races of early men must have been in
diverse stages of development in Pleistocene as in later ages. It
is, therefore, only with the utmost caution that chronological
subdivisions of the period, such as those mentioned below, based'
upon the form and degree of finish of stone implements, can be
used in anything but local correlations unless the evidence is
supported by satisfactory fossils.

Next to the appearance of man the most striking characteristic
of the land fauna was the existence of numerous large-bodied mam-
mals; Elephas antiquus, for instance, attained a more excessive
bulk than any other proboscidean either before or since, the woolly
rhinoceros, the great hippopotamus, the cave bear, cave lion and
giant deer were all larger than their living representatives. No
less striking is the disappearance of these large forms together
with highly specialized creatures such as Machaerodus within the
same period, through the action of the same causes which had re-
moved the bulky and specialized reptiles of an earlier geological
period. The Pleistocene mammalia of Europe include Elephas
antiquus, E. primogenius (mammoth), R. antiquitatis (tichorhinus)
(the woolly rhinoceros), R. mercki (especially in Silesia), R. lepto-
rhinus (south-east Europe) , Elasmotherium (Silesia and south
Russia), Hippopotamus major, Bos primigenius (aurochs, extinct
in historical time), Bison priscus, Bison europaeus (still living in
the Caucasus and Lithuania), Bos (Bubalus) pallasi (north Europe),
camels in south Russia and Rumania, Equus fossilis and varieties,
Cervus (Megaceros) giganteus ( = hibernicus) (the great Irish "elk"
and its varieties) ; Cervus elaphus, C. aleus, Rangifer tarandus and
R. groenlandicus (reindeer), Capreolus caprea, Capra ibex, Saiga
tatarica, Ovibos moschalus, Felis spelaeus. Hyaena spelaea, Ursus
spelaeus, badger, weasel, glutton, hare, lemming (Myodes torquatus
and M. lemmus), Spermophilus, Alactaga, Arctomys, Castor fiber,
Lagomys, Trogontherium. In North America there were numerous
mammals common to Europe and North Asia, including the musk-
ox, mammoth and horse ; the mastodon held on into this period
in America but not in Europe ; there were also lamas, tapirs, camels
(Camelus auchenia), Machaerodus, Mylodon, Procyon, Alces. In
South America there was at first a very characteristic endemic
fauna including Megatherium, Mylodon, Grypotherium, Lestodon,
Toxodon, Typotherium, Glyptodon, Macrauchenia, Capybara, Rhea,
to which were added later, Mastodon, Machaerodus, Lama and other
North American forms. In Australia a very distinct assemblage
of iarge marsupials and monotremes lived in the Pleistocene period ;
including Phascolus, Diprolodon, Thylacoleo, Nototherium and a
large extinct Echidna; placental mammals were not then known
in this region. In Madagascar the Aepiornis, Megaladapis, and
certain extinct lemuroid creatures have left their remains.

The advance and retreat of glacial conditions in northern latitudes
had a marked influence upon animal and plant life, and was the
means of determining the present distribution of many of the living
mammalia and plants; some were driven permanently southward,
some northern forms still live isolated on the higher mountain
regions, others like the reindeer and musk-ox returned northward
as soon as the conditions permitted. The apparently curious
admixture of what are now often regarded as tropical or sub-tropical

forms (Hon, hyena, rhinoceros and elephants) with cold-temperate
or arctic genera, presents no real difficulty, since their distribution
was doubtless merely a matter of food supply; and some of these,
like the woolly rhinoceros and mammoth, were provided with a
thick hairy pelt.

Although in the main the arrangement of land and sea was little
different from that which obtains at the present time, one or two
features existed in the Pleistocene period which had a considerable
influence on faunal migration. For instance, the absence of the
Bering Straits permitted free communication between Europe
and North America, and the absence of the Straits of Dover allowed
a similar interchange between Great Britain and France; while
an extension of the sea in the Caspian region and of the Arctic
Sea in northern Russia acted as a bar to free passage between
Europe and Asia in those regions.

The formations of Pleistocene age, other than those of direct
glacial origin, include deposits on the floors of caves in limestone
and dolomitic rocks, calcareous sinter (travertine or tufa) formed
by springs, ancient river and lake alluvial and lacustrine terraces,
elevated marine beaches, submerged forests, ancient lake deposits
and peat beds, laterite, loess and sand dunes.

Some of the prevalent styles of classifying the deposits of the
glacial formations of this period are mentioned in the article
Glacial Period. The following subdivisions are often employed by
European geologists: a younger division, Reindeer time = Magda-
l^nien 1 stage; a middle division, Mammoth time = Salutreen 2
stage; and an older division, Elephas antiquus time = Chellfcn 3
stage. While some authors include all the above in the " glacial
period," others would place the Magdal6nien in a post-glacial
division. The terms Magdalenien, &c, are really archaeological,
based upon the characters of the implements found in the deposits,
and like the similar terms " eolithic " and " palaeolithic "they are
of little value in geological chronology unless they are supported
by palaeontological evidence.

See E. Geinitz, Das Quartar von nord Europa (Stuttgart, 1904),
with very full references; T. C. Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury,
Geology, vol. iii. (New York, 1906), for references to American
authorities. (J. A. H.)

PLEONASM (Gr. ir\eovao-ii6s, from irKeova^av, to abound or
be superfluous, irKeov, comparative of xoXiis, many, great, large),
redundancy or superfluity in speaking or writing, hence an
unnecessary work or phrase. The word, more usually in the
Latin form " pleonasmus," is used in pathology of an abnormal
growth or formation.

PLESIOSAURUS, an extinct marine reptile belonging to the
Order Sauropterygia, which characterized the Mesozoic period
and had an almost world-wide distribution (see 'Reptiles).
The animal is best known by nearly complete skeletons from
the Lias of England and Germany. It was named Plesiosaurus
(Gr. more-lizard) by W. D. Conybeare in 182 1, to indicate that
it was much more nearly a normal reptile than the strange

(From a memoir by Professor W. Dames in the' Abhandlungm der kg. preuss.
Aiad. d. Wiss.)

Plesiosaurus guilelmi-imperatoris, restored.
Ichthyosaurus, which had been found in the same Liassic forma-
tion a few years previously. It has a small head, a long and
slender neck, a round body, a very short tail, and two pairs
of large, elongated paddles. The snout is short, but the gape
of the mouth is wide, and the jaws are provided with a series
of conical teeth in sockets, much like those of the living gavial

1 Magdalenien from the caves of Madelaine, Perigord.

2 Saiutr6, Bourgogne.

8 Chelles, near Paris. Other subordinate stages are the Mou-
sterien from Moustier, Dordogne, and Acheuleen, Saint Acheul.

PLEURISY

837

of Indian rivers. The neck, though long and slender, must have
been rather stiff, because the bodies of the vertebrae are nearly
flat-ended, while they bear short ribs: it could not have been
bent in the swan-fashion represented in many restorations. The
other vertebrae are similarly almost flat-ended and firmly united,
but there is no sacrum. The ribs are single-headed, and in the
middle of the trunk, between the supports of the paired limbs,
they meet a dense plastron of abdominal ribs. The short tail
is straight and rapidly tapering, but one specimen in Berlin
suggests that it was provided with a rhomboidal flap of skin in
a vertical plane. The bones in the ventral wall of the body which
support the paired limbs are remarkably expanded, and those
of the pectoral arch have often been compared with the corre-
sponding bones of turtles. The limbs are elongated paddles,
with five complete digits, of which the constituent bones
(phalanges) are unusually numerous. The only traces of skin
hitherto discovered suggest that it was smooth. The reptile
must have been almost exclusively aquatic, feeding on cuttle-
fishes, fishes and other animal prey. It propelled itself chiefly
by the paddles, scarcely by the tail.

The typical species is Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus, from the
Lower Lias of Lyme Regis, which attains a length of about three
metres. Other species from the same formation seem to have
measured five to six metres in length, and there are species of
allied genera from the Upper Lias which are probably still
larger. A fine large skeleton from the Upper Lias of Wiirttem-
berg, now in the Berlin Museum, is named Plesiosaurus guilelmi-
imperatoris (see figure above). Cryptoclidus, known by complete
skeletons from the Oxford Clay of Peterborough, differs very
little from Plesiosaurus. The Cretaceous Cimoliosaurus, found
in North and South America, Europe and New Zealand, is also
very similar. The fossilized contents of the stomach in some
of the later Plesiosaurs show that these reptiles swallowed stones
for digestive purposes like the existing crocodiles.

References. — R. Owen, Fossil Replilia of the Liassic Formations,
pt. iii. (Monogr. Palaeont. Soc., 1865) ; W. Dames, paper in Abhandl-
k. preuss. Akad. Wiss. (1895), p. 1. (A. S. Wo.)

PLEURISY, or Pleuritis (Gr. irXeDpfc=ribs), inflammation
of the pleura, caused by invasion by certain specific micro-
organisms. (See Respiratory System: Pathology.) Secondary
pleurisies may occur from extension of inflammation from
neighbouring organs.

The morbid changes which the pleura undergoes when inflamed
consist of three chief conditions or stages of progress. (1) In-
flammatory congestion and infiltration of the pleura, which may
spread to the tissues of the lung on the one hand, and to those
of the chest wall on the other. (2) Exudation of lymph on the
pleural surfaces. This lymph is of variable consistence, some-
times composed of thin and easily separated pellicles, or of
extensive thick masses or strata, or again showing itself in the
form of a tough membrane. It is of greyish-yellow colour, and
microscopically consists mainly of coagulated fibrin along with
epithelial cells and red and white blood corpuscles. Its presence
causes roughening of the two pleural surfaces, which, slightly
separated in health, may now be brought into contact by bands
of lymph extending between them. These bands may break
up or may become organized by the development of new blood
vessels, and adhering permanently may obliterate throughout
a greater or less space the pleural sac, and interfere to some extent
with the free play of the lungs. (3) Effusion of fluid into the
pleural cavity. This fluid may vary in its characters.

The chief varieties of pleurisy are classified according to the
variety of the effusion, should effusion take place. (1) Some
pleurisies do not reach the stage of effusion, the inflammation
terminating in the exudation of lymph. This is termed dry
pleurisy. (2) Fibrinous or plastic pleurisy. In this variety
the pleura is covered by a thick layer of granular, fibrinous
material. Fibrinous pleurisy is usually secondary to acute
diseases of the lung such as pneumonia, cancer, abscess or
tuberculosis. (3) Sero-fibrinous pleurisy. This is the most
common variety, and produces the condition commonly known
as pleurisy with effusion. The amount may vary from an

almost inappreciable quantity to a gallon or more. When
large in quantity it may fill to distension the pleural sac, bulge
out the thoracic wall- externally, and compress the lung, which
may in such cases have all its air displaced and be reduced to a
mere fraction of its natural bulk. Other organs, such as the
heart and liver, may in consequence of the presence of the fluid
be shifted away from their normal position. In favourable cases
the fluid is absorbed more or less completely and the pleural
surfaces again may unite by adhesions; or, all traces of inflamma-
tory products having disappeared, the pleura may be restored
to its normal condition. When the fluid is not speedily absorbed
it may remain long in the cavity and compress the lung to such a
degree as to render it incapable of re-expansion as the effusion
passes slowly away. The consequence is that the chest wall
falls in, the ribs become approximated, the shoulder is lowered,
the spine becomes curved and internal organs permanently
displaced, while the affected side scarcely moves in respiration.
Sometimes the unabsorbed fluid becomes purulent, and an
empyema is the result.

The symptoms of pleurisy vary; the onset is sometimes
obscure but usually well marked. It may be ushered in by
rigors, fever and a sharp pain in the side, especially on breathing.
Pain is felt in the side or breast, of a severe cutting character,
referred usually to the neighbourhood of the nipple, but it may
be also at some distance from the affected part, such as through
the middle of the body or in the abdominal or iliac regions. On
auscultation the physician recognizes sooner or later " friction,"
a superficial rough rubbing sound, occurring only with the
respiratory acts and ceasing when the breath is held. It is due
to the coming together during respiration of the two pleural
surfaces which are roughened by the exuded lymph. The pain
is greatest at the outset, and tends to abate as the effusion
takes place. A dry cough is almost always present, which is
particularly distressing owing to the increased pain the effort
excites. At the outset there may be dyspnoea, due to fever and
pain; later it may result from compression of the lung.

On physical examination of the chest the following are among
the chief points observed: (1) On inspection there is more or
less bulging of the side affected, should effusion be present,
obliteration of the intercostal spaces, and sometimes elevation
of the shoulder. (2) On palpation with the hand applied to the
side there is diminished expansion of one-half of the thorax,
and the normal vocal fremitus is abolished. Should the effusion
be on the right side and copious, the liver may be felt to have
been pushed downwards, and the heart somewhat displaced to
the left; while if the effusion be on the left side the heart is dis-
placed to the right. (3) On percussion there is absolute dullness
over the seat of the effusion. If the fluid does not fill the pleural
sac the floating lung may yield a hyper-resonant note. (4) On
auscultation the natural breath sound • is inaudible over the
effusion. Should the latter be only partial the breathing is
clear and somewhat harsh, with or without friction, and the
voice sound is aegophonic. Posteriorly there may be heard
tubular breathing with aegophony. These various physical
signs render it impossible to mistake the disease for other
maladies the symptoms of which may bear a resemblance to it,
such as pleurodynia.

The absorption or removal of the fluid is marked by the
disappearance or diminution of the above-mentioned physical
signs, except that of percussion dullness, which may last a long
time, and is probably due in part to the thickened pleura.
Friction may again be heard as the fluid passes away and the
two pleural surfaces come together. The displaced organs are
restored to their position, and the compressed lung re-expanded.
Frequently this expansion is only partial.

In most instances the termination is favourable, the acute
symptoms subsiding and the fluid (if not drawn off) becoming
absorbed, sometimes after reaccumulation. On the other hand
it may remain long without undergoing much change, and thus
a condition of chronic pleurisy becomes established.

Pleurisy may exist in a latent form, the patient going, about
for weeks with a large accumulation of fluid in his thorax, the

8 3 8

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA— PLEVNA

ordinary acute symptoms never having been present in any
marked degree. Cases of this sort are often protracted, and
'heir results unsatisfactory as regards complete recovery.

In the treatment of early pleurisy, pain may be relieved by
a hypodermic of morphia or the application of leeches. A
purgative is essential. Fixation of the affected side of the thorax
by strapping with adhesive plaster gives great relief. The ice-
bag is useful in the early stages, as in pneumonia. The open-air
treatment of cases is recommended, as the majority of the cases
are of tuberculous origin. When effusion has taken place,
counter irritation and the exhibition of iodide of potassium are
useful. Dry diet and saline purgatives have been well spoken
of. The most satisfactory method of treatment is early and
if necessary repeated aspiration of the fluid. The operation
(thoracentesis) was practised by ancient physicians, but was
revived in modern times by Armand Trousseau (1801-1867)
in France and Henry I. Bowditch (1808-1892) in America; by
the latter an excellent instrument was devised for emptying
the chest, which, however, has been displaced in practice by the
still more convenient aspirator. The chest is punctured in the
lateral or posterior regions, and in most cases the greater portion
or all of the fluid may be safely drawn off. In many instances
not only is the removal of distressing symptoms speedy and
complete, but the lung is relieved from pressure in time to
enable it to resume its normal function.

In cases of chronic pleurisy after the failure of repeated
aspirations, Samuel West reports well of free incision and drain-
age. He has reported cases of recovery of effusion, fifteen or
eighteen months standing. Sir James Barr has advocated the
treatment of these cases by the withdrawal of the fluid and the
substitution of sterilized air and solution of supra-renal extract;
others have introduced physiological salt solution or formalin
solution into the cavity, after the removal of the fluid. Vaquez
injects nitrogen into the cavity and reports a number of cases
in which it prevented recurrence.

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA, or Lung-Plague, a contagious disease
peculiar to cattle, generally affecting the lungs and the lining
membrane of the chest, producing a particular form of lobar
or lobular pleuro-pneumonia, and, in the majority of cases,
transmitted by the living diseased animal, or, exceptionally,
by mediate contagion. It cannot be communicated to animals
other than those of the bovine race. Inoculation of healthy
cattle with the fluid from the diseased lungs produces, after a
certain interval, characteristic changes at the seat of inoculation,
and though it does not develop the lung lesions always observed
in natural infection, yet there is a local anatomical similarity
or identity. Though numerous investigations have been made,
the nature of the infective agent remains doubtful. In 1888
Arloing, of Lyons, described various bacilli obtained from the
lesions, but the pathogenic organism of lung-plague has not been
discovered.

The earliest notices of this disease testify that it first prevailed
in central Europe, and in the 18th century it was present in
certain parts of southern Germany, Switzerland and France,
and had also appeared in upper Italy. Though Valentine
described an epizooty occurring among cattle in 1693 in Hesse,
doubts have been entertained as to whether it was this malady.
It was not until 1769 that it was definitely described as prevailing
in Franche-Comte by the name of " murie." From that date
down to 1789 it appears to have remained more or less limited
to the Swiss mountains, the Jura, Dauphine and Vosges, Pied-
mont and upper Silesia; it showed itself in Champagne and
Bourbonnais about the time of the Revolution, when its spread
was greatly accelerated by the wars that followed. In the 19th
century its diffusion was accurately determined. It invaded
Prussia in 1802, and soon spread over north Germany. It was
first described as existing in Russia in 1824; it reached Belgium
in 1827, Holland in 1833, the United Kingdom in 1841, Sweden
in 1847, Denmark in 1848, Finland in 1850, South Africa in
1854, the United States — Brooklyn in 1843, New Jersey in 1847,
Brooklyn again in 18 so and Boston in 1850; it was also carried
to Melbourne in 1858, and to New South Wales in i860; New

Zealand and Tasmania received it in 1864, but it was eradicated
in both countries by the sanitary measures adopted. It was
carried to Asia Minor, and made its presence felt at Damascus.
It prevails in various parts of China, India, Africa and Austialia,
and until quite recently it existed in every country in Europe,
except Scandinavia, Holland, Spain and Portugal. In Great
Britain cases occurred in 1897.

Symptoms. — The malady lasts from two to three weeks to
as many months, the chief symptoms being fever, diminished
appetite, a short cough of a peculiar and pathognomonic charac-
ter, with quickened breathing and pulse, and physical indications
of lung and chest disease. Towards the end there is great
debility and emaciation, death generally ensuing after hectic
fever has set in. Complete recovery is rare.

The pathological changes are generally limited to the chest
and its contents, and consist in a peculiar marbled-like appear-
ance of the lungs on section, and fibrinous deposits on the pleural
membrane, with oftentimes great effusion into the cavity of
the thorax.

Willems of Hasselt (Belgium) in 1852 introduced and practised
inoculation as a protective measure for this scourge, employing
for this purpose the lymph obtained from a diseased lung. Since
that time inoculation has been extensively resorted to, not only
in Europe, but also in Australia and South Africa, and its pro-
tective value has been generally recognized. When properly
performed, and when certain precautions are adopted, it would
appear to confer temporary immunity from the disease. The
usual seat of inoculation is the extremity of the tail, the virus
being introduced beneath the skin by means of a syringe or a
worsted thread impregnated with the lymph. Protection against
infection can also be secured by subcutaneous or intravenous
injection of a culture of Arloing's pneumo-bacillus on Martin's
bouillon, and by intravenous injection of the lymph from a
diseased lung, or from a subcutaneous lesion produced in a calf
by previous inoculation.

PLEVNA (Bulgarian Pleven), the chief town of the department
of Plevna, Bulgaria; 85 m. N.E. of Sofia, on the Tutchinitza,
an affluent of Vid, which flows north into the Danube and on
the Sofia-Varna railway (opened in 1899). Pop. (1906), 21,208.
A branch line, 25 m. long, connects Plevna with Samovit on
the Danube, where a port has been formed. After the events
of 1877, it was almost entirely forsaken by the Turks, and most
of the mosques have gone to ruin; but, peopled now mainly by
Bulgarians, it has quite recovered its prosperity, and has a large
commerce in cattle and wine.

Battles of 1877. — Plevna, prior to the Russo-Turkish War of
1877 (see Russo-Turkish Wars) a small and unknown town
without fortifications became celebrated throughout the world
as the scene of Osman Pasha's victories and his five months'
defence of the entrenched camp which he constructed around
the town, a defence which upset the Russians' plans and induced
them to devote their whole energies to its capture. Osman
Pasha left Widin on the 13th of July with a column consisting
of 19 battalions, 6 squadrons and 9 batteries, a total of 12,000
men and 54 guns. Hearing that he was too late to relieve
Nikopol, he pushed on to Plevna, where there was a garrison
of 3 battalions and 4 guns, under Atouf Pasha.

Passing through Plevna on the afternoon of the 19th of July
he at once took up a position, previously selected by Atouf
Pasha, on the hills covering the town to the north and east.
The column had been joined en route by 3 battalions from the
banks of the Danube, so that Osman's command now consisted
of 25 battalions. He was none too soon. General Schilder-
Schuldner, commanding the 5th division of the The First
IX. corps, which had just captured Nikopol, had Battle ot
been ordered to occupy Plevna, and his guns were WevM#
already in action. The Turkish batteries came into action
as soon as they arrived and returned the fire. A desultory
artillery duel was carried on till nightfall, but no attack was made
by the Russians on the 19th. Osman distributed his troops
in three sections: on the Janik Bair, facing north, were 13
battalions and 4 batteries, with advanced posts of 2 battalions

PLEVNA

839

and 1 battery each, at Opanetz and Bukova, facing east and
north-east, 5 battalions and 10 guns were posted on the eastern
end of the Janik Bair; to the hills south of the Bulgareni road
4 battalions and 2 batteries were allotted, and on either side
of the road, under cover, in rear of them, most of the cavalry
was placed. The remaining troops formed a general reserve,
which was posted on the hill just east of the town. The hills
to the north and east of Plevna were perfectly bare. The Turks
had covered the 115 m. from Widin in seven days, in trying
heat, and were exhausted, but a few trenches were thrown up.
On the 20th of July at 5 a.m., having made no preliminary
reconnaissance, the Russian commander brought his guns into
action, and, after a short bombardment, advanced his infantry

sent a force of 6 battalions and 1 battery under Rifaat
Pasha to occupy Lovcha (Lovatz), where they entrenched
themselves.

The Plevna garrison now numbered 20,000 (35 battalions,
8 squadrons, 57 guns and 400 mounted irregulars), who were
organized in two wings with a general reserve. Adil Pasha
commanded the left wing consisting of 12 battalions, 3 batteries
and 2 squadrons, and held the ground from the Vid bridge
to Grivitza, Hassan Sabri Pasha commanded the right wing,
of equal strength, covering from Grivitza to the south. The
remainder, as general reserve, was posted on the crest and slopes
of the hill east of the town, with one battalion in Plevna itself.
The west front was not fortified till October. Trenches were

PLEVNA

English Miles

Turkish fntrenchments,September r 7th.,I877, _ J

Additional Turkish Intrenchments, December, 10th.,1877.....l
TurMlgh Camp* shown thus

Dolny Jg
Metropol^

/
I
I

i

SS ./

/ '<!

\
\

(J

'v

, ijji *h %

7r: ^ : ^A<?i

~"i?*S?

Umtty V«uccr ft

in four separate columns. On the north flank they pressed
into Bukova, and also succeeded in driving back the Turkish
right wing; but in both cases Turkish reinforcements arrived
and with vigorous counter-attacks pressed back the Russians,
with the result that by noon they were in full retreat, having
lost 2800 men out of a total of 8000. The Turks lost 2000.
Osman made no attempt to reap the fruits of his victory by
pursuit. He at once drew up plans for the fortification of
the position, and the troops were employed night and day
constructing redoubts and entrenchments. A plentiful supply
of tools and daily convoys of stores reached Plevna from
Orcbanie, and on the 24th of July Osman's strength was
increased by 14 battalions and a battery from Sofia. In order
to secure his line of communications, on the 25th of July he

4 ft. deep and the redoubts had a command of 10 to 16 ft.,
with parapets about 14 ft. thick. In addition to the trenches
to the flanks, there were in some cases two lines of trench to the
front, thus giving three tiers of fire.

In accordance with orders from the Russian headquarters
at Tirnova, a fresh attack was made by General Kriidener on
the 30th of July. He had been reinforced by three brigades
of infantry and one of cavalry under General Shakovskoi, and
his force numbered over 30000 with 176 guns. After a
preliminary cannonade the infantry advanced at 3
before in widely spread columns. The columns
attacking from the north and north-east were
repulsed with heavy loss. Shakovskoi advancing
from Radischevo, his left flank safeguarded by Skobelev from

p.m., as

Second
Battle of
Plevna.

840

PLEYEL— PLIGHT

the neighbourhood of Krishin, temporarily occupied two redoubts,
but a heavy counter-stroke by the Turkish reserves forced him
back with severe loss. The Russians retreated, the northern
column to Tristenik and Karagakh, the southern to Poradim.
Their losses amounted to 7300, while the Turkish losses
exceeded 2000. Had the Turkish garrison of Lovcha been
called in, the result would have been still more disastrous to
the Russians.

The victory was decisive, but Osman again failed to pursue.
His troops were elated by success, the moral of the enemy
severely shaken, the undefended Russian bridge over the Danube
was within 40 m. of him, but he lost his opportunity, and
contented himself with strengthening his defensive works. It
is said that he was tied down to Plevna by orders from
Constantinople.

The Russians now concentrated all their available forces
against Plevna and called in the aid of the Rumanians. By
the end of August they had assembled a force of 74,000 infantry,
10,000 cavalry and 440 guns, including 24 siege guns, about
100,000 men in all. On the 30th of August Osman moved out
of Plevna with all his cavalry, 3 batteries of artillery and 19
battalions of infantry, and on the 31st attacked the Russians
about Pelishat. He returned to Plevna the same evening.
The Turks lost 1300 and the Russians 1000 men. The Russians
determined to occupy Lovcha, and so cut Osman's communi-
cations before again attacking Plevna. After three days'
fighting this was accomplished by Skobelev, acting under
Imeretinski, with a force of 20,000 men, on the 3rd of September.
Osman moved out to the relief of the garrison that day with a
strong column, but, finding he was too late, returned to Plevna
on the 6th. The survivors from Lovcha were re-formed into
3 battalions, including which Osman had been reinforced by
13 battalions, 25 batteries of artillery and n squadrons of
cavalry. His strength was now 30,000, with 72 guns, 46
battalions, 19 squadrons and 12 batteries. This force was
organized in 4 approximately equal commands, the northern,
south-eastern and southern, and a general reserve.

The Russians moved to their preliminary positions on the
night of September 6th~7th. Their plan was for the Rumanians,
Third the IX. and IV. corps and Imeretinski's column to
Battle of attack the north-east, south-east and south fronts
Plevna. simultaneously. An artillery bombardment began
at 6 a.m. on the 7th of September, was carried on till 3 p.m. on
the nth, when the infantry advanced. The Rumanians took
one Grivitza redoubt; Skobelev occupied two redoubts on the
south front, but the centre attack on the Radishevo front failed.
On the 1 2th the Turks recaptured the southern redoubts, the
Rumanians remained in possession of the Grivitza redoubt,
but the Russian losses already amounted to 18,000 and they
withdrew, and entrenched themselves on a line Verbitza-
Radishevo, with cavalry on either flank to the Vid. The Turkish
losses totalled 5000, of which only a few hundred were caused by
the artillery fire of the first few days. There was no question of
pursuit. The Russians were greatly superior in numbers and the
Turks were completely exhausted.

Several causes contributed to the Russian defeat. The
Russian bombardment, at ranges beyond the powers of their
guns and lacking the co-operation of the infantry to give them
a target, had been useless. No reconnaissance had been made
of the position. The infantry attacks were not simultaneous,
and were beaten in detail, besides which, they were spread over
the whole of a strongly fortified front in equal strength, instead
of being pressed home at definite points. The lack of unity of
command, in that the commander-in-chief interfered with the
dispositions and conduct of the operations as arranged by
the commander of the Plevna forces also militated against the
Russian success.

This was the last open-force attack on Osman's lines.
investment General Todleben, the defender of Sevastopol, was now
and Pall entrusted with the conduct of the siege, and he de-
of Plevna, termined to complete the investment, which was
accomplished by the 24th of October, Osman's request to retire

from Plevna having been refused by Constantinople. Supplies
eventually gave out and a sortie on the night of the 9th-ioth
of December failed, with the result that he and his army
capitulated.

Plevna is a striking example of the futility of the purely
passive defence, which is doomed to failure however tenaciously
carried out. Osman Pasha repelled three Russian attacks and
practically held the whole Russian army. It remained for the
other Turkish forces in the field to take the offensive and by a
vigorous counterstroke to reap the fruits of his successes.
Victories which are not followed up are useless. War without
strategy is mere butchery. The position of Plevna, threatening
the Russian bridge and communications, was strategically
important, but there was no necessity for the Russians to attack
the position. On the eastern flank was an army stronger than
Osman's and the fortress of Rustchuk was nearer the bridge than
Plevna, but they did not consider it necessary to attack them.
They might have contained Osman's force as they did the army
under Mehemet Ali, and either awaited his attack or attacked
when he evacuated the position. They failed to realize the
resisting force of improvised fortifications and the strength
conferred by extensive and well-placed entrenchments, and
despising their adversary made direct frontal attacks on a well-
fortified position, instead of aiming at a flank or the rear. The
part played by Plevna in the war was due in the first place to the
imaginary importance set by the Russians on its capture, and
later to their faulty procedure in attack on the one hand, and to
the skill evinced by the Turks in fortifying and defending the
position on the other. (J. H. V. C.)

See W. V. Herbert, The Defence of Plevna, 1877 (London, 1895);
F. V. Greene, The Russian Army and its Campaign in Turkey
(London, 1880); General Kuropatkin (Ger. trans, by Krahmer),
Kritische Ruckblicke auf den russisch-tiirkischen Krieg; Mouzaffer
Pacha and Talaat Bey, Defense de Plevna; Krahmer's German
translation of the Russian Official History; General H. Langlois,
Lessons of Two Recent Wars (Eng. trans., War Office, 1910) ; Th.
von Trotha, Kampf um Plewna (Berlin, 1878); Vacaresco (Ger.
trans.), Rumanians Antheil am Kriege, 1877-1878 (Leipzig, 1888).

PLEYEL, IGNAZ JOSEPH (1757-1831), Austrian musician,
was born at Ruppersthal, near Vienna, on the 1st of June 1757,
the twenty-fourth son of a poor village' schoolmaster. He
studied the pianoforte under Van Hal (known in England as
Vanhall), and in 1772 learned composition from Haydn, who
became his dearest friend. He was appointed temporary maltre
de chapelle at Strasburg in 1783, receiving a permanent appoint-
ment to the office in 1789. In 1791 he paid a successful visit to
London. He narrowly escaped the guillotine on returning to
Strasburg, and was only saved by the existence of a cantata
which he had written, and in which the inspiration could fairly
be claimed to be on the side of liberty; so that he was permitted
to remain until 1795, when he migrated to Paris. Here he opened
a large music shop, published the first complete edition of Haydn's
quartets, and founded, in 1807, the pianoforte manufactory
which still bears his name. The latter years of his life were
spent in agricultural pursuits. The July revolution of 1830
inflicted upon him a severe shock, and on the 14th of November
1 83 1 he died in Paris.

Maria Pleyel, nie Moke (1811-1875), the wife of his eldest
son, Camille, was one of the most accomplished pianists of her
time.

PLIGHT, an homonymous word now used chiefly with two
meanings, (1) pledge, and (2) condition or state. The first
appears more generally in the verbal form, " to plight one's
troth," &c, and the second with a direct or impj'ed sense of
misfortune. The derivations of the two words show they are
quite distinct in origin. The O. Eng. pliht meant danger or risk,
hence risk of obligation (cf. Ger. Pflicht, Du. plicht, care, duty).
The root pleh- or pleg- is probably also to be seen in the much
disputed word " pledge." The M. ~E.-ag.-plU or plyt, on the other
hand, is an adaptation of O. Fr. ploit, fold, and therefore a doublet
of " plait," but appears in the 14th century with the neutral
sense of condition or state in general.

PLIMER, A.— PLINY, THE ELDER

PLIMER, ANDREW (c. 1763-1837), English miniature
painter, was the son of a clock-maker at Wellington. Disliking
his father's business, he and his brother Nathaniel joined a
party of gypsies and wandered about with them, eventually
reaching London, where he presented himself to Mrs Cosway in
1781 and was engaged by her as studio boy. His skill in painting
was quickly detected by Cosway, who sent him to a friend to
learn drawing, and then received him into his own studio,
where he remained until 1785, when he set up for himself in
Great Maddox Street. It was of this artist that Cosway said
" Andrew will be my Elisha," adding with characteristic vanity,
" if I am not constrained to carry my mantle up to Paradise with
me." Plimer married Joanna Louisa Knight, whose sister,
Mary Ann, was his pupil and a well-known artist. He had five
children, only one of whom, Louisa, married. He exhibited
many times in the Royal Academy, resided for a while in Exeter,
travelled a good deal through England, and died at Brighton and
was buried at Hove. His miniatures are of great brilliance and
in considerable demand among collectors. They are to be dis-
tinguished by the peculiar wiry treatment of the hair and by
the large full expressive eyes Plimer invariably gave to his female
sitters, eyes resembling those of his own wife and daughters.

See Andrew and Nathaniel Plimer, by G. C. Williamson (London,
1903). (G. C. W.)

PLIMER, NATHANIEL (1757-c. 1822), English miniature
painter, was the brother of Andrew Plimer (q.v.). He worked for
a while with Henry Bone the enameller, eventually entering
Cosway's studio. He exhibited at the Royal Academy from
1787 until r8i5, when he is lost sight of, although he is said to
have lived until 1822. He had four daughters, one of whom
married the painter, Andrew Geddes, and left children. He
exhibited twenty-six works, and many of his smaller portraits
are of extreme beauty.

See Andrew and Nathaniel Plimer, by G. C. Williamson (London,
1903). (G. C. W.)

PLIMSOLL, SAMUEL (1824-^898), British politician and
social reformer, was born at Bristol on the 10th of February 1824.
Leaving school at an early age, he became a clerk, and rose to be
manager of a brewery in Yorkshire. In 1853 he endeavoured to
set up a business of his own in London as a coal merchant. The
venture proved a failure, and Plimsollwas reduced to destitution.
He has himself related how for a time he lived in a common
lodging-house on 7s. q\&. a week. Through this experience he
learnt to sympathize with the struggles of the poor; and when the
success of his enterprise placed him in possession of a competence,
he resolved to devote his leisure to the amelioration of their
lot. His efforts were directed more especially against what were
known as " coffin-ships " — unseaworthy and overloaded vessels,
often heavily insured, in which unscrupulous owners were allowed
by the law to risk the lives of their crews. Plimsoll entered
parliament as Liberal member for Derby in 1868, and endeavoured
in vain to pass a bill dealing with the subject. In 1872 he
published a work entitled Our Seamen, which made a great im-
pression throughout the country. Accordingly, on PlimsolPs
motion in r873, a royal commission was appointed, and in 1875
a government bill was introduced, which Plimsoll, though regard-
ing it as inadequate, resolved to accept. On the 22nd of July,
the premier, Disraeli, announced that the bill would be dropped.
Plimsoll lost his self-control, applied the term " villains " to
members of the house, and shook his fist in the Speaker's face.
Disraeli moved that he be reprimanded, but on the suggestion
of Lord Hartington agreed to adjourn the matter for a week' to
allow Plimsoll time for reflection. Eventually Plimsoll made an
apology. The country, however, shared his view that the bill had
been stifled by the pressure of the shipowners, and the popular
agitation forced the government to pass a bill, which in the
following year was amended into the Merchant Shipping Act.
This gave stringent powers of inspection to the Board of Trade.
The mark that indicates the limit to which a ship may be loaded
is generally known as Plimsoll's mark. Plimsoll was re-elected
for Derby at the general election of 1880 by a great majority, but

gave up his seat to Sir W. Harcourt, in the belief that the latter,
as home secretary, could advance the sailors' interests more
effectively than any private member. Though offered a seat by
some thirty constituencies, he did not re-enter the house, and
subsequently became estranged from the Liberal leaders by what
he regarded as their breach of faith in neglecting the question of
shipping reform. He held for some years the presidency of the
Sailors' and Firemen's Union, raised a further agitation, marred
by obvious exaggeration, about the horrors of the cattle-ships.
Later he visited the United States with the object, in which he
did good service, of securing the adoption of a less bitter tone
towards England in the historical textbooks used in American
schools. He died at Folkestone on the 3rd of June 1898.

PLINLIMMON (Plynlimmon, Pumplumon, Pumlumon,
Penlumon: Pumlumon is the name used locally: pump
means five: lumon, chimney, flag or beacon; pen, head), a
mountain of Wales of the height of 2463 ft., equidistant
(about 10 m.) from Machynlleth and Llanidloes. Much
inferior in elevation to Snowdon or Cader Idris, Plinlim-
mon is certainly the most dangerous of the Welsh hills
because of its quaking bogs. The scenery is comparatively poor,
consisting chiefly of sheep-downs (in Montgomeryshire) and
barren turbaries (in Cardiganshire). If the name means " five-
beacons," only three of these are high, with a carnedd (stone-pile,
probably a military or other landmark, rather than the legendary
barrow or tomb) on each of the three. Plinlimmon is notable
as the source of five streams — three small: the Rheidol, the
Llyfnant and the Clywedog; and two larger and famous: the
Wye (Gwy) and the Severn (Hafren).

The morasses of Plinlimmon saw many a struggle, notably the
war to the knife between Owen Cyfeilog (fl. c. 900), prince of
Powys, and Hywel ab Cadogan. Here also Owen Glendower
unfurled the banner of Welsh independence; from here, in 1401,
he harassed the country, sacking Montgomery, burningWelshpool,
and destroying Cwm Hir (long " combe," or valley) abbey, of
which some columns are said to be now in Llanidloes old church.
On the side of Plinlimmon, some 2 m. from the Steddfagurig inn,
is Blaen Gwy (the point of the Wye), the course of the streamlet
being traceable up to Pont-rhyd-galed (the hard ford bridge),
some 4 m. distant from the inn. Near this bridge are numerous
barrows and cairns, on the right from Aberystwyth. There are
slate quarries, with lead and copper mines. Machynlleth (per-
haps Maglona in Roman times') has Owen Glendower's " senate
house " (T402), and is known as the scene of Glendower's at-
tempted assassination by Dafydd Gam. Llyn pen rhaiadr (the
waterfall-head pool), or Pistyll y llyn (pool spout), is some 6 m.
south of Machynlleth. Llanidloes has a trade in Plinlimmon
slates and minerals besides flannel and wool manufactures.

PLINTH (Gr. -Kblvdos, a square tile), the term in architecture
given to the lower mouldings of a podium, pedestal or skirting,
also to any rectangular block on which a statue or vase is placed,
and in the Classic Orders to the square block of moderate height t
under the base mouldings of the column or pedestal.

PLINY, THE ELDER. Gaius Plinius Secundus (c. A.D. 23-79),
the author of the Naturalis historia, was the son of a Roman
eques by the daughter of the senator Gaius- Caecilius of Novum
Comum. He was born, at Comum, not (as is sometimes supposed)
at Verona: it is only as a native of Gallia Transpadana that he
calls Catullus of Verona his conterraneus, or fellow-countryman,
not his municeps, or fellow-townsman (Praef. § 1). Before A.D.
35 (N. H. xxxvii. 81) Lis father took him to Rome, where he
was educated under his father's friend, the poet and military
commander, P. Pomponius Secundus, who inspired him with a
lifelong love of learning. Two centuries after the death of the
Gracchi Pliny saw some of their autograph writings in his
preceptor's library (xiii. 83), and he afterwards wrote that
preceptor's Life. He makes mention of the grammarians and
rhetoricians, Remmius Palaemon and Arellius Fuscus (xiv. 49,
xxxiii. 152), and he may have been instructed by them. In
Rome he studied botany in the garden of the aged Antonius
Castor (xxv. 9), and saw the fine old lotus-trees in the grounds
that had once belonged to Crassus (xvii. 5). He also viewed the

842

PLINY, THE ELDER

vast structure raised by Caligula (xxxvi. in), and probably
witnessed the triumph of Claudius over Britain (iii. 119; a.d.
44). Under the influence of Seneca he became a keen student of
philosophy and rhetoric, and began practising as an advocate.
He saw military service under Corbulo in Lower Germany
(a.d. 47), taking part in the Roman conquest of the Chauci and
the construction of the canal between the Maas and the Rhine
(xvi. 2 and 5). As a young commander of cavalry (praef edits
alae) he wrote in his winter-quarters a work on the use of missiles
on horseback (de jaculatione equestri), with some account of the
points of a good horse (viii. 162). In Gaul and Spain he learnt
the meanings of a number of Celtic words (xxx. 40). He .took
note of sites associated with the Roman invasion of Germany,
and, amid the scenes of the victories of Drusus, he had a dream
in which the victor enjoined him to transmit his exploits to
posterity (Plin. Epp. iii. 5, 4). The dream prompted Pliny to
begin forthwith a history of all the wars between the Romans
and the Germans. He probably accompanied his father's
friend, Pomponius, on an expedition against the Chatti
(a.d. 50), and visited Germany for a third time (57) as a comrade
of the future emperor, Titus {Praef. § 3). Under Nero he lived
mainly in Rome. He mentions the map of Armenia and the
neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea, which was sent to Rome by
the staff of Corbulo in a.d. 58 (vi. 40). He also saw the building
of Nero's "golden house" after the fire of 64 (xxxvi. in).
Meanwhile he was completing the twenty books of his History
of the German Wars, the only authority expressly quoted in the
first six books of the Annals of Tacitus (i. 69), and probably one
of the principal authorities for the Germania. It was superseded
by the writings of Tacitus, and, early in the 5th century, Sym-
machus had little hope of finding a copy (Epp. xiv. 8). He also
devoted much of his time to writing on the comparatively safe
subjects of grammar and rhetoric. A detailed work on rhetoric,
entitled Studiosus, was followed by eight books, Dubii sermonis
(a.d. 67). Under his friend Vespasian he returned to the
service of the state, serving as procurator in Gallia Narbonensis
(70) and Hispania Tarraconensis (73), and also visiting the
Provincia Belgica (74). During his stay in Spain he became
familiar with the agriculture and the mines of the country,
besides paying a visit to Africa (vii. 37). On his return to Italy
he accepted office under Vespasian, whom he used to visit before
daybreak for instructions before proceeding to his official duties,
after the discharge of which he devoted all the rest of his time to
study (Plin. Epp. iii. 5, 9). He completed a History of his Times
in thirty-one books, possibly extending from the reign of Nero
to that of Vespasian, and deliberately reserved it for publication
after his decease (N. H., Praef. 20). It is quoted by Tacitus
(Ann. xiii. 20, xv. 53; Hist. iii. 29), and is one of the authorities
followed by Suetonius and Plutarch. He also virtually com-
pleted his great work, the Naturalis historia. The work had
been planned under the rule of Nero. The materials collected
for this purpose filled rather less than 160 volumes in a.d. 23,
when Larcius Licinus, the praetorian legate of Hispania Tarra-
conensis, vainly offered to purchase them for a sum equivalent
to more than £3200. He dedicated the work to Titus in a.d. 77.
Soon afterwards he. received from Vespasian the appointment of
praefect of the Roman fleet at Misenum. On the 24th of August
a.d. 79 he was stationed at Misenum, at the time of the great
eruption of Vesuvius, which overwhelmed Pompeii and Hercu-
laneum. A desire to observe the phenomenon from a nearer
point of view, and also to rescue some of his friends, from their
perilous position on the shore of the Bay of Naples, led to his
launching his galleys and crossing the bay to Stabiae (Castella-
mare), where he perished, in the fifty-sixth year of his age. The
story of his last hours is told in an interesting letter addressed
twenty-seven years afterwards to Tacitus by the Elder Pliny's
nephew and heir, the Younger Pliny (Epp. vi. 16), who also sends
to another correspondent an account of his uncle's writings and
his manner of life (iii. 5) : —

" He began to work long before daybreak. ... He read nothing
without making extracts; he used even to say that there was no
book so bad as not to contain something of value. In the country

it was only the time when he was actually in his bath that was
exempted from study. When travelling, as though freed from
every other care, he devoted himself to study alone. ... In
short, he deemed all time wasted that was not employed in study."

The only fruit of all this unwearied industry that has survived
to our own times is the Naturalis historia, a work which in its
present form consists of thirty-seven books, the first book
including a characteristic preface and tables of contents, as well
as lists of authorities, which were originally prefixed to each of
the books separately. The contents of the remaining books
are as follows: ii., mathematical and physical description of
the world; iii.— vi., geography and ethnography; vii., anthro-
pology and human physiology; viii.-xi., zoology; xii.-xxvii.,
botany, including agriculture, horticulture and materia medica;
xxviii.-xxxii., medical zoology; xxxiii.-xxxvii., mineralogy,
especially in its application to life and art, including chasing in
silver (xxxiii. 154-157), statuary in bronze (xxxiv.), painting
(xxxv. 15-149), modelling (151-158), and sculpture in marble
(xxxvi.).

He apparently published the first ten books himself in a.d. 77,
and was engaged on revising and enlarging the rest during the
two remaining years of his life. The work was probably pub-
lished with little, if any, revision by the author's nephew, who,
when telling the story of a tame dolphin, and describing the
floating islands of the Vadimonian Lake, thirty years later
(viii. 20, ix. a), has apparently forgotten that both are to be
found in his uncle's work (ii. 209, ix. 26). He describes the
Naturalis historia, as a Naturae historia, and characterizes it as
a " work that is learned and full of matter, and as varied as
nature herself." The absence of the author's final revision may
partly account for many repetitions, and for some contradic-
tions, for mistakes in passages borrowed from Greek authors,
and for the insertion of marginal additions at wrong places in the
text.

In the preface the author claims to have stated 20,000 facts
gathered from some 2000 books and from 100 select authors. The
extant lists of his authorities amount to many more than 400,
including 146 of Roman and 327 of Greek and other sources of
information. The lists, as a general rule, follow the order of the
subject matter of each book. This has been clearly shown in
Heinrich Brunn's Disputatio (Bonn, 1856).

Pliny's principal authority is Varro. In the geographical books
Varro is supplemented by the topographical commentaries of
Agrippa which were completed by the emperor Augustus; for his
zoology he relies largely on Aristotle and on Juba, the scholarly
Mauretanian king, studiorum claritate memorabilior quam regno
(v. 16). Juba is also his principal guide in botany. Theophrastus
is also named in his Indices. In the History of Art the original
Greek authorities are Duris of Samos (born c. 340 B.C.), Xeno-
crates of Sicyon (fl. 280), and Antigonous of Carystus (born c. 295
B.C.). The anecdotic element has been ascribed to Duris (xxxiv.
61, Lysippum Sicyonium Duris negat ullius fuisse discipulum. &c);
the notices of the successive developments of art, and the list of
workers in bronze and painters, to Xenocrates ; and a large amount
of miscellaneous information to Antigonus. The last two autho-
rities are named in connexion with Parrhasius (xxxv. 68, hanc ei
gloriam concessere Antigonus et Xenocrates, qui de pictura scripsere) ,
while Antigonus is named in the Indices of xxxiii.-xxxiv. as a writer
on the " toreutic " art. Greek epigrams contribute their share
in Pliny's descriptions of pictures and statues. One of the minor
authorities for books xxxiv.-xxxv. is Heliodorus (fl. 1 50 B.C.), the
author of a work on the monuments of Athens. In the Indices to
xxxiii.-xxxvi. an important place is assigned to Pasiteles of Naples
(fl. 88 B.C.), the author of a work in five volumes on famous works of
art xxxvi. 40), probably incorporating the substance of the earlier
Greek treatises; but Pliny's indebtedness to Pasiteles is denied by
Kalkmann,who holds that Pliny used the chronological work of Apollo-
dorus, as well as a current catalogue of artists. Pliny's knowledge
of the Greek authorities was probably mainly due to Varro, whom
he often quotes (e.g. xxxiv. 56, xxxv. 113, 156, xxxvi. 17, 39, 41).
Varro probably dealt with the history of art in connexion with
architecture, which was included in his Disciplinae. For a number
of items relating to works of art near the coast of Asia Minor, and
in the adjacent islands, Pliny was indebted to the general, states-
man, orator and historian, Gaius Licinius Mucianus, who died before
a.d. 77. Pliny mentions the works of art collected by Vespasian
in the Temple of Peace and in his other galleries (xxxiv. 84), but
much of his information as to the position of such works in Rome
is due to books, and not to personal observation. The main merit
of his account of ancient art, the only classical work of its kind,
is that it is a compilation ultimately founded on the lost text-
books of Xenocrates and on the biographies of Duris and Antigonus.

PLINY, THE ELDER

843

He shows no special aptitude for art criticism; in several passages,
however, he gives proof of independent observation (xxxiv. 38,
46, 63, xxxv. 17, 20, 116 seq.). He prefers the marble Laocoon in
the palace of Titus to all the pictures and bronzes in the world
(xxxvi. 37) ; in the temple near the Flaminian Circus he admires
the Ares and the Aphrodite of Scopas, " which would suffice to
give renown to any other spot." " At Rome indeed (he adds) the
works of art are legion ; besides, one effaces another from the memory
and, however beautiful they may be, we are distracted by the
overpowering claims of duty and business; for to admire art we
need leisure and profound stillness " (ibid. 26-27).

Like many of the finest spirits under the early empire, Pliny
was an adherent to the Stoics. He was acquainted with their
noblest representative, Thrasea Paetus, and he also came under
the influence of Seneca. The Stoics were given to the study of
nature, while their moral teaching was agreeable to one who, in
his literary work, was unselfishly eager to benefit and to instruct
his contemporaries (Praef. 16, xxviii. 2, xxix. 1). He was also
influenced by the Epicurean and the Academic and the revived
Pythagorean schools. But his view of nature and of God is
essentially Stoic. It was only (he declares) the weakness of
humanity that had embodied the Being of God in many human
forms endued with human faults and vices (ii. 148). The
Godhead was really one; it was the soul of the eternal world,
displaying its beneficence on the earth, as well as in the sun and
stars (ii. 1 2 seq. , 1 54 seq. ) . The existence of a divine Providence was
uncertain (ii. 19), but the belief in its existence and in the punish-
ment of wrong-doing was salutary (ii. 26); and the reward of
virtue consisted in the elevation to Godhead of those who
resembled God in doing good to man (ii. 18, Deus est mortali
juvare mortalem, el haec ad aeternam gloriam via). It was wrong
to inquire into the future and do violence to nature by resorting
to magical arts (ii. 114, xxx. 3); but the significance of prodigies
and portents is not denied (ii. 92, 199, 232). Pliny's view of life
is gloomy; he regards the human race as plunged in ruin and in
misery (ii. 24, vii. 130). Against luxury and moral corruption
he indulges in declamations, which are so frequent that (like
those of Seneca) they at last pall upon the reader; and his
rhetorical flourishes against practically useful inventions (such
as the art of navigation) are wanting in good sense and go^d
taste (xix. 6).

With the proud national spirit of a Roman he combines an
admiration of the virtues by which the republic had attained its
greatness (xvi. 14, xxvii. 3, xxxvii. 201). He does not suppress
historical facts unfavourable to Rome (xxxiv. 139), and while
he honours eminent members of distinguished Roman houses,
he is free from Livy's undue partiality for the aristo-
cracy. The agricultural classes and the old landlords of
the equestrian order (Cincinnatus, Curius Dentatus, Serranus
and the Elder Cato) are to him the pillars of the state; and he
bitterly laments the decline of agriculture in Italy (xviii. 21 and
35, latifundia perdidere Italiam). Accordingly, for the early
history of Rome, he prefers following the prae-Augustan writers;
but he regards the imperial power as indispensable for the govern-
ment of the empire, and he hails the salutaris exortus Vespasiani
(xxxiii. 51). At the conclusion of his literary labours, as the
only Roman who had ever taken for his theme the whole realm
of nature, he prays for the blessing of the universal mother on his
completed work.

In literature he assigns the highest place to Homer and to
Cicero (xvii. 37 seq.); and the next to Virgil. He takes a keen
interest in nature, and in the natural sciences, studying them in a
way that was then new in Rome, while the small esteem in which
studies of this kind were held does not deter him from endeavour-
ing to be of service to his fellow countrymen (xxii. 15). The
scheme of his great work is vast and comprehensive, being
nothing short of an encyclopaedia of learning and of art so far
as they are connected with nature or draw their materials from it.
With a view to this work he studied the original authorities on
each subject and was most assiduous in making excerpts from
their pages. His indices auctorum are, in some cases, the authori-
ties which he has actually consulted (though in this respect they
are not exhaustive) ; in other cases, they represent the principal
writers on the subject, whose names are borrowed second-hand

for his immediate authorities. He frankly acknowledges his
obligations to all his predecessors in a phrase that deserves to be
proverbial (Praef. 21, plenum ingenui pudoris fateri per quos
profeceris). He had neither the temperament for original
investigation, nor the leisure necessary for the purpose. It is
obvious that one who spent all his time in reading and in writing,
and in making excerpts from his predecessors, had none left for
mature and independent thought, or for patient experimental
observation of the phenomena of nature. But it must not be
forgotten that it was his scientific curiosity as to the phenomena
of the eruption cf Vesuvius that brought his life of unwearied
study to a premature end; and any criticism of his faults of omis-
sion is disarmed by the candour of the confession in his preface:
nee dubitamus multa esse quae et nos praeterierint; homines
enim sumus et occupati officiis.

His style betrays the unhealthy influence of Seneca. It aims
less at clearness and vividness than at epigrammatic point. It
abounds not only in antitheses, but also in questions and excla-
mations, tropes and metaphors, and other mannerisms of the
silver age. The rhythmical and artistic form of the sentence is
sacrificed to a passion for emphasis that delights in deferring the
point to the close of the period. The structure of the sentence is
also apt to be loose and straggling. There is an excessive use of
the ablative absolute, and ablative phrases are often appended
in a kind of vague " apposition " to express the author's own
opinion of an immediately previous statement, e.g. xxxv. 80,
dixit (Apelles) . . . uno se praestare, quod manum de tabula sciret
tollere, memorabili praecepto nocere saepe nimiam diligentiam.

About the middle of the 3rd century an abstract of the
geographical portions of Pliny's work was produced by Solinus;
and, early in the 4th, the medical passages were collected in the
Medicina Plinii. Early in the 8th we find Bede in possession of
an excellent MS. of the whole work. In the 9th Alcuin sends to
Charles the Great for a copy of the earlier books {Epp. 103, Jaff6) ;
and Dicuil gathers extracts from the pages of Pliny for his own
Mensura orbis terrae (c. 825). Pliny's work was held in high
esteem in the middle ages. The number of extant MSS. is about
200; but the best of the more ancient MSS., that at Bamberg,
contains only books xxxii.-xxxvii. Robert of Cricklade, prior
of St Frideswide at Oxford, dedicated to Henry II. a Defloratio
consisting of nine books of selections taken from one of the MSS.
of this class, which has been recently recognized as sometimes
supplying us with the only evidence for the true text. Among the
later MSS. the codex Vesonlinus, formerly at Besancon (1 ith century),
has been divided into three portions, now in Rome, Paris and
Leiden respectively, while there is also a transcript of the whole
of this MS. at Leiden.

In modern times the work has been the theme of a generous
appreciation in several pages of Humboldt's Cosmos (ii. 195-199,
E. T., 1848). Jacob Grimm, in the first paragraph of c. 37 of his
Deutsche Mythologie, writing with his own fellow-countrymen in
view, has commended Pliny for condescending, in the midst of his
survey of the sciences of botany and zoology, to tell of the folk-
lore of plants and animals, and has even praised him for the pains
that he bestowed on his style. It may be added that a special
interest attaches to his account of the manufacture of the papyrus
(xiii. 68-83), and of the different kinds of purple dye (ix. 130),
while his description of the notes of the nightingale is an elaborate
example of his occasional felicity of phrase (xxix. 81 seq.). Most
of the recent research on Pliny has been concentrated on the
investigation of his authorities, especially those which he followed
in his chapters on the history of art — the only ancient account
of that subject which has survived.

A carnelian inscribed with the letters C. Plin. has been re-
produced by Cades (v. 211) from the original in the Vannutelli
collection. It represents an ancient Roman with an almost com-
pletely bald forehead and a double chin; and is almost certainly
a portrait, not of Pliny the Elder, but of Pompey the Great. Seated
statues of both the Plinies, clad in the garb of scholars of the year
1500, maybe seen in the niches on either side of the main entrance
to the cathedral church of Como. The elder Pliny's anecdotes of
Greek artists supplied Vasari with the subjects of the frescoes
which still adorn the interior of his former home at Arezzo.

Bibliography. — Editions by Hermolaus Barbarus (Rome,
1492); Dalecampius (Lyons, 1587); Gronovius (Leiden, 1669);
Hardouin (Paris, 1685) ; Franz (Leipzig, 1778-1791); Sillig, with
index by O. Schneider (Gotha, 1853-1855) ; L. von Jan (Leipzig,
1854-1865); D. Detlefsen (Berlin, 1866-1873), and critical edition
of the geographical books (Berlin, 1905) ; Mayhoff (Leipzig, 1906-
) ; Eng. trans., Philemon Holland (London, 1601) ; French,
Littre (1855); Chrestomathia Pliniana, Li Urlichs, with excellent
Einleitung (Berlin, 1857); The Elder Pliny's Chapters on the History

8 44

PLINY, THE YOUNGER

of Art, trans, by K. Jex Blake, with commentary, and historical
introduction by E. Sellers (London, 1896). On Pliny's supposed
portrait, see Bernoulli, Rom. Ikenogr. i. 288; on the Defloratio
Pliniana of Robert of Cricklade, K. Ruck, in 5. Ber. of Munich
Acad., May 3, 1902, pp. 195-285 (1903). On Pliny's Authorities,
see especially F. Miinzer, Beitrage zur Quellenkritik (Berlin, 1897)
and Detlefsen, Quellen und Forschungen zur alien Gesch. und Geog.
(1904 and 1908); on his Religion, Vorhauser (Innsbruck, i860);
his Cosmology, Friese (Breslau, 1862); his Botany, Brosig (Gaudenz,
1883); Sprengel (Marburg, 1890, and in Rhein. Mus., 1891); Renjes
(Rostock, 1893) ; Abert (Burghausen, 1896) ; and Stadler (Munich,
1891); his Mineralogy, Nies (Mainz, 1884); his History of Art, 0,
Jahn, in Sdchsische Berichte (Leipzig, 1850) ; A. Brieger (Greifswald,
1857); Wustmann, Rhein. Mus. (1867); H. Brunn (Bonn, 1856,
and Munich, 1875); Th. Schreiber (Leipzig, 1872, and in Rhein.
Mus., 1876) ; Furtwangler, in Fleckeisen's Jahrb., Suppt.(l8yy)vol. ix. ;
Bliimner, in Rhein. Mus. (1877); L. Urlichs (Wiirzburg, 1878);
Oehmichen (Erlangen, 1880); Dalstein (Metz, 1885); H. Voigt
(Halle, 1887); H. L. Urlichs (Wiirzburg, 1887); Holwerda, in
Mnemos. (1889); F. Miinzer, in Hermes (1895, and Berlin, 1897);
Kalkmann (Berlin, 1898).

The fragments of the eight books, Dubii sermonis, have been
collected by J. W. Beck (Leipzig, 1894). For further bibliographical
details, see Mayor, Lat. Lit. (1875), 136-138; and Schanz, Rom. Litt.
(Munich, 1901), §§ 490-494. (J. E. S.*)

PUNY, THE YOUNGER, Publius Caecilius Secundus, later
known as Gams Plinius Caecilius Secundus (a.d. c. 61-c. 113),
Latin author of the Letters and the Panegyric on Trajan, was the
second son of Lucius Caecilius Cilo, by Plinia, the sister of the
Elder Pliny. He was born at Novum Comum, the modern Como,
the date of his birth being approximately determined by the
fact that he was in his 18th year at the death of his uncle in
August a.d. 79 (Epp. vi. 20, 5). Having lost his father at an
early age, he owed much to his mother and to his guardian,
Verginius Rufus, who had twice filled the office of consul and
had twice refused the purple (ii. 1,8). He owed still more to his
uncle. When the Elder Pliny was summoned to Rome by
Vespasian in a.d. 72, he was probably accompanied by his nephew,
who there went through the usual course of education in Roman
literature and in Greek, and at the age of fourteen composed a
" Greek tragedy " (vii. 4, 2). He afterwards studied philosophy
and rhetoric under Nicetes Sacerdos and Quintilian (vi. 6, 3,
ii. 14, 9), and modelled his own oratorical style on that of Demos-
thenes, Cicero and Calvus (i. 2). The Elder Pliny inspired his
nephew with something of his own indomitable industry; and in
August 79, when the author of the Historia naturalis lost his
life in the famous eruption of Vesuvius, it was the sister of the
Elder and the mother of the Younger Pliny who first descried
the signs of the approaching visitation, and, some twenty-seven
years later, it was the Younger Pliny who wrote a graphic account
of the last hours of his uncle, in a letter addressed to the historian
Tacitus (vi. 16). By his will the Elder Pliny had made his
nephew his adopted son, and the latter now assumed the nomen
and praenomen of his adoptive father.

A year later he made his first public appearance as an advocate
(v. 8, 8), and soon afterwards became a member of the board of
decemviri stiitibus judicandis, which was associated with the
praetor in the presidency of the centumviral court. Early in
the reign of Domitian he served as a military tribune in Syria
(a.d. 81 or 82), devoting part of his leisure to the study of philo-
sophy under the Stoic Euphrates (i. 10, 2). On returning to
Rome he was nominated to the honorary office of sevir equitum
romanorum, and was actively engaged as a pleader before the
rentumviri, the chancery court of Rome (vi. 12, 2).

His official career began in a.d. 89, when he was nominated by
Domitian as one of the twenty quaestors. He thus became a
member of the senate for the rest of his life. In December 91
he was made tribune, and, during his tenure of that office, with-
drew from practice at the bar (i. 23). Early in 93 he was
appointed praetor (iii. n, 2), and, in his year of office, was one of
the counsel for the impeachment of Baebius Massa, the pro-
curator of Hispania Baetica (iii. 4, vi. 29, vii. 33). During the
latest and darkest years of Domitian he deemed it prudent to
withdraw from public affairs, but his financial abilities were
recognized by his nomination in 94 or 95 to the praefectura serarii
miliiaris (ix. 13, 11).
On the death of Domitian and the accession of N/.iva he

delivered a speech (subsequently published) in prosecution of
Publicius Certus, who had been foremost in the attack on
Helvidius Priscus (ix. 13). Early in 98 he was promoted to the
position of praefect of the public treasury in the temple of
Saturn. After the accession of Trajan in the same year, Pliny
was associated with Tacitus in the impeachment of Marius
Priscus for his maladministration of the province of Africa
(ii. 11). The trial was held under the presidency of the emperor,
who had already nominated him consul suffectus for part of
the year a.d. 100. The formal oration of thanks for this nomi-
nation, described by Pliny himself as his gratiarum actio (iii.
13, 1 and 18, 1), is called in the MSS. the Panegyricus Trajano
dictus.

The following year was marked by the death of Silius Italicus
and Martial, who are gracefully commemorated in two of his
Letters (iii. 7 and 21). It is probable that in 103-104 he was
promoted to a place in the college of Augurs, vacated by his
friend Frontinus (iv. 8), and that in 105 he was appointed
curator of the river Tiber (v. 14, 2). In the same year he
employed part of his leisure in producing a volume of hendeca-
syllabic verse (iv. 14, v. 10). He usually spent the winter at his
seaside villa on the Latian coast near Laurentum, and the
summer at one of his country houses, either among the Tuscan
hills, near Tifernum, or on the lake of Como, or at Tusculum,
Tibur or Praeneste.

It was probably in 104, and again in 106, that he was retained
for the defence of a governor of Bithynia, thus becoming familiar
with the affairs of a province which needed a thorough re-
organization. Accordingly, about 111, he was selected by
Trajan as governor of Bithynia, under the special title of " legate
propraetor with consular power." He reached Bithynia in
September, held office for fifteen months or more, and probably
died in 113.

His health was far from robust. He speaks of his delicate
frame {gracUitas mea) ; and he was apt to suffer from weakness of
the eyes (vii. 21) and of the throat or chest (ii. 11, 15). Frugal
and abstemious in his diet (i. 15; iii. 1 and 12), studious and
methodical in his habits (i. 6, v. 18, ix. 36 and 40), he took a
quiet delight in some of the gentler forms of outdoor recreation.
We are startled to find him telling Tacitus of his interest in
hunting the wild boar, but he is careful to add that, while the
beaters were at work, he sat beside the nets and was busily
taking notes, thus combining the cult of Minerva with that of
Diana (i. 6). He also tells the historian that, when his uncle left
Misenum to take a nearer view of the eruption of Vesuvius,
he preferred to stay behind, making an abstract of a book of
Livy (vi. 20, 5).

Among his friends were Tacitus and Suetonius, as well as
Frontinus, Martial and Silius Italicus; and the Stoics, Musonius
and Helvidius Priscus. He was thrice married; on the death
of his second wife without issue, Trajan conferred on him the
jus trium liberorum (a.d. 98), and, before 105, he found athird
wife in the accomplished and amiable Calpurnia (iv. 19). He
was generous in his private and his public benefactions (i. 19, 2,
ii. 4, 2, vi. 32). At his Tuscan villa near Tifernum Tiberinum
(iv. 1, 4), the modern Citta di Castello, he set up a temple at his
own expense and adorned it with statues of Nerva and Trajan
(x. 8). Tn his lifetime he founded and endowed a library at his
native place (i. 8, v. 7), and, besides promoting local education
(iv. 13), established an institute for the maintenance and
instruction of the sons and daughters of free-born parents (vii.
18). By his will he left a large sum for the building and the
perpetual repair of public baths, and the interest of a still larger
sum for the benefit of one hundred freedmen of the testator and,
ultimately, for an annual banquet.

On a marble slab that once adorned the public baths at Comum,
his distinctions were recorded in a long inscription, which was
afterwards removed to Milan. It was there broken into six
square pieces, four of which were built into a tomb within
the great church of Sant' Ambrogio. Of these four fragments
only one survives, but with the aid of transcripts of the other
three made by Cyriacus of Ancona in 1442, the whole was

PLINY, THE YOUNGER

845

restored by Mommsen [C.I.L. v. 5262]. It is to the following
effect : —

Gaius Plinius Caecilius <Secundus> , son of Lucius, of the Ufentine
tribe ; <consul ;> augur ; legate-propraetor of the province of Pontus
and Bithynia, with consular power, by decree of the senate sent
into the said province by the emperor Nerva Trajan <Augustus,
Germanicus, Dacicus, pater patriae) ; curator of the bed and banks
of the Tiber and of the <sewers of the city> ; praefectof the Treasury
of Saturn; praefect of the Treasury of War; <praetor> , tribune of
the plebs; emperor's quaestor, sevir of the <Roman> knight?;
military tribune of the <third> Gallic legion ; <decemvir> for the ad-
judication of <suits> ; provided by will for the erection of baths at
a cost of ... , adding for the furnishing of the same 300,000
sesterces (£2400) and furthermore, for maintenance, 200,000
sesterces (£1600); likewise, for the support of one hundred of his
own freedmen <he bequeathed) to the township 1 ,866,666 sesterces
(c. £15,000), the eventual accretions <whereof> he devised to the
townsfolk for a public entertainment; . . . dikewise, in his life-
time> he gave for the support of sons and daughters of the towns-
folk <5oo,ooo> sesterces (£4000) ; dikewise a library, and> , for the
maintenance of the library, 100,000 sesterces (£800).

With the exception of two mediocre sets of verses, quoted by
himself (vii. 4 and 9), his poems have perished. His speeches
were apt to be prolix, and he defended their prolixity on principle
(i. 20). He was apparently the first to make a practice of reciting
his speeches before a gathering of his friends before finally
publishing them (iii. 18). The only speech that has survived is
the Panegyric on Trajan, first delivered by Pliny in the emperor's
presence, next recited to the orator's friends for the space of
three days, and ultimately published in an expanded form (Epp.
iii. 18) . It is unduly florid and redundant in style, but it supplies
us with the fullest account of the emperor's antecedents, and of
his policy during the first two years and a half of his rule.

It describes his entering Rome on foot, amid the rejoicings of
the citizens; his liberality towards his soldiers and to the citizens
of Rome, a liberality that was extended even to persons under eleven
years of age; his charities for the maintenance of the children of
the poor; his remission of succession-duties in cases where the
property was small or the heirs members of the testator's family;
his establishment of free trade in corn between the various parts
of the empire; his abandonment of vexatious and petty prosecu-
tions for " high treason " ; his punishment of informers; his abolition
of pantomimes; his repairs of public buildings and his extension
and embellishment of the Circus Maximus. The speech was dis-
covered by Aurispa at Mainz in 1432, as part of a collection of
Panegyrici; and was first printed by Fr. Puteolanus at Milan
about fifty years later.

Besides the Panegyric, we possess the nine books of Pliny's
Letters, and a separate book containing his Correspondence with
Trajan.

In the first letter of the first book Pliny states that he has
collected certain of his letters without regard to chronological
order (non servato temporis ordine). Pliny's learned biographer,
the Dutch scholar, Jean Masson (1709), wrongly assumed that this
statement referred to the whole of the collection. He inferred
that all the nine books were published simultaneously; and he
also held that Pliny was governor of Bithynia in a.d. 103-105.
It was afterwards maintained by Mommsen (1868) that the books
were in strictly chronological order, that the letters in each book
were in general arranged in order of date, that all of them were
later than the death of Domitian (September 96), that the several
books were probably published in the following order: i. (97);
ii. x (ioo); iii. (101-102); iv. (105); v. and vi. (106); vii. (107); viii.
(108); and ix. (not later than 109); and, lastly, that Pliny was
governor of Bithynia from a.d. 111-112 to 113. The letter which
is probably the earliest (ii. 20) has since been assigned to the last
part of the reign of Domitian, and it has been suggested by Professor
Merrill that the nine books were published in three groups: i.-ii.
(97 or 98) ; iii.-vi.(lo6) ; vii.-ix. (108 or 109).

In his Letters Pliny presents us with a picture of the varied
Interests of a cultivated Roman gentleman. The etiquette of
the imperial circle, scenes from the law-courts and the recitation-
room, the reunions of dilettanti and philosophers, the busy life
of the capital or of the municipal town, the recreations of the
seaside and of the country — all these he brings vividly before
our eyes. He elaborately describes his Laurentine and his
Tuscan villa, and frankly tells us how he spends the day at each
(ii . 1 7 , v. 6 , ix. 36 and 40) j'expatiates on his verses and his speeches,
his holiday-tasks in Umbria (vii. 9, ix. 10), and his happy
memories of the Lake of Como (i. 6) . He gives an enthusiastic
account of a statuette of Corinthian bronze he has recently
purchased (iii. 6). He is interested in providing a teacher of

rhetoric for the place of his birth (iv. 13); he exults in the devo-
tion of his wife, Calpurnia (vi. 19); towards his servants he is an
indulgent master (viii. 16) ; he intercedes on behalf of the freed-
man of a friend (ix. 21), and, when a freedman of his own is in
delicate health, sends him first to Egypt and afterwards to the
Riviera (v. 19). He consults Suetonius on the interpretation of
dreams (i. 18); he presents another of his correspondents with a
batch of ghost-stories (vii. 27) or a marvellous tale about a tame
dolphin on the north coast of Africa (ix. 33). He discourses on
the beauties of the Clitumnus (viii. 8) and the floating islands of
the Vadimonian lake (viii. 20). He describes an eruption of
Vesuvius in connexion with the last days of the Elder Pliny
(vi. 16 and 20), giving elsewhere an account of his manner of
life and a list of his writings (iii. 5). He laments the death of
Silius Italicus (iii. 7), of Martial (iii. 21), and of Vergihius Rufus
(ii. 1), and of others less known to fame. He takes as his
models Cicero and Tacitus (vii. 20), whose name is so often (to
his delight) associated with his own (ix. 23). He rejoices to
learn that his writings are read at Lyons (ix. n). He complains
of the inanity of circus-races (ix. 6), of the decay of interest in
public recitations (i. 13), of bad taste in matters of hospitality
(ii. 6), and of the way in which time is frittered away in the
social duties of Rome (i. 9). He lays down the principles that
should guide a Roman governor in Greece (viii. 24) ; he maintains
the cause of the oppressed provinces of Spain and Africa; and he
exposes the iniquities of the informer Regulus, the only living •
man whom he attacks in his Letters, going so far as to denounce
him as omnium bipedum nequissimus (i. 5, 14)."

The Letters are models of graceful thought and refined expres-
sion, each of them dealing with a single topic and generally
ending with an epigrammatic point. They were imitated by
Symmachus (Macrobius v. 1, 7) and by Apollinaris Sidoniug
(Epp. ix. r, 1). In the middle ages they were known to Ratherius
of Verona' (10th century), who quotes a passage from i. 5, 16
(Migne, cxxxvi. p. 391). Selections were included in a volume oi
Flores compiled at Verona in 1329; and a MS. of bks. i.-vii. and ix.
was discovered by Guarino at Venice in 141 9. These books were
printed in the editio princeps (Venice, 1471). Part of bk. viii.
appeared for the first time at the end of the next edition (Rome,
c. 1474). The whole of bk. viii. was first published in its propel
place by Aldus Manutius (Venice, 1508),

Pliny's Correspondence with Trajan supplies us with many
interesting details as to the government of Bithynia, and as to
the relations between the. governor and the central authority.
It reflects the greatest credit on the strict and almost punctilious
conscientiousness of the governor, and on the assiduity and the
high principle which animated the emperor.

On reaching the province, Pliny celebrates the emperor's birth-
day, and proceeds to examine the finances of Prusa. His request
for a surveyor to check the outlay on the public works is refused
on the ground that the emperor has hardly enough surveyors for
the works he is carrying on in Rome. He asks the emperor to
sanction the repair of the ancient baths at Prusa, the building of
an aqueduct at Nicomedia and a theatre at Nicaea, and the covering
in of a stream that has become a public nuisance at Amastris.
When he consults the emperor as to the baths at Claudiqpolis,
the emperor sensibly replies: " You, who are on the spot, will be
best able to decide " (40). When Pliny hesitates about a small
affair relating to Dio Chrysostom (the Bithynian friend of Nerva
and Trajan), the emperor betrays a not unnatural impatience in
his response: potuisti non haerere, mi Secunde carissime (82).
Pliny also asks for a decision on the status and maintenance of
deserted children (65), and on the custom of distributing public
doles on the occasion of interesting events in the life of a private
citizen. The emperor agrees that the custom might lead to
" political factions," and should therefore be strictly controlled
(117). Owing to a destructive fire at Nicomedia, Pliny suggests
the formation of a volunteer fire-brigade, limited to 150 members.
The emperor is afraid that the fire-brigade might become a
" political club," and cautiously contents himself with approving
the provision of a fire-engine (34).

Trajan's fear of factions and clubs in these two last cases has
sometimes been connected with the question of his attitude towards
the Christians in Bithynia. Pliny {Epp. 96) states that he had never
taken part in formal trials of Christians, and was therefore un-
familiar with precedents as to the extent of the investigation,
and as to the degree of punishment. He felt that a distinction
might be drawn between adults and those of tender years ; and that

846

PLIOCENE

allowance might be made for any one who recanted. There was
also the question whether any one should be punished simply for
bearing the name of Christian or only if he was found guilty of
" crimes associated with that name.' Hitherto, in the case of
those who were brought before him, he had asked them three dis-
tinct times whether they were Christians, and, if they persisted in
the admission, had ordered them to be taken to execution. What-
ever might be the real character of their profession, he held that
such obstinate persistence ought to be punished. There were
others no less " demented," who, being Roman citizens, would be
sent to Rome for trial. Soon, as the natural consequence of these
proceedings, a variety of cases had come under his notice. He had
received an anonymous statement giving a list of accused persons.
Some of them, who denied that they had ever been Christians,
had consented to pray to the gods, to adore the image of the
emperor, and to blaspheme Christ; these he had dismissed. Others
admitted that they were Christians, but presently denied it, adding
that they had ceased to be Christians for some years. All of these
worshipped images of the gods and of the emperor, and blasphemed
Christ. They averred that the sum and substance of their " fault "
was that they had been accustomed to meet on a fixed day before
daylight to sing in turns a hymn to Christ as God, and to bind
themselves by a solemn oath (sacramento) to abstain from theft
or robbery, and from adultery, perjury and dishonesty; after which
they were wont to separate and to meet again for a common meal.
This, however, they had ceased to do as soon as Pliny had pub-
lished a decree against collegia, in accordance with the emperor's
edict. To ascertain the truth, he had also put to the torture two
maid-servants described as deaconesses, but had discovered nothing
beyond a perverse and extravagant superstition. He had accord-
ingly put off the formal trial with a view to consulting the emperor.
The question appeared to be worthy of such a consultation, es-
pecially in view of the number of persons of all ages and ranks,
and of both sexes, who were imperilled. The contagion had spread
through towns and villages and the open country, but it might
still be stayed. Temples that had been wellnigh deserted were
already beginning to be frequented, rites long intermitted were
being renewed, and the trade in fodder for sacrificial victims was
reviving. It might be inferred from this how large a number
might be reclaimed, if only room were granted for repentance.

Trajan in his reply (Epp. 97) expresses approval of Pliny's course
of action in the case of the Christians brought before him. It was
impossible (he adds) to lay down any uniform or definite rule.
The persons in question were not to be hunted out, but if they were
reported and were found guilty, they were to be punished. If,
however, any one denied that he was a Christian, and ratified his
denial by worshipping the gods of Rome, he was to receive pardon.
But no attention was to be paid to anonymous charges. It would
be a bad precedent and unworthy of the spirit of the age.

The view that the Christians were punished for being members
of a collegium or sodalitas (once held by E. G. Hardy, and still
maintained by Professor Merrill) is hard to reconcile with Pliny's
own statement that the Christians had promptly obeyed the
emperor's decree against collegia (§ 7). Further reasons against
this view have been urged by Ramsay, who sums up his main
results as follows: (1) There was no express law or formal edict
against the Christians. (2) They were not prosecuted or
punished for contravening any formal law of a wider character.
(3) They were judged and condemned by Pliny (with Trajan's
full approval) by virtue of the imperium delegated to him, and in
accordance with the instructions issued to governors of provinces
to search out and punish sacrilegious persons. (4) They had
already been classed as outlaws, and the name of Christian in
itself entailed condemnation. (5) This treatment was a settled
principle of imperial policy, not established by the capricious
action of a single emperor. (6) While Trajan felt bound to carry
>ut the established principle his personal view was to some
extent opposed to it. (7) A definite form of procedure had been
established. (8) This procedure was followed by Pliny (W. M.
Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire, p. 223).

It has been well observed by E. G. Hardy that the " double
aspect of Trajan's rescript, which, while it theoretically con-
demned the Christians, practically gave them a certain security,"
Explains "the different views which have since been taken of
it ; but by most of the church writers, and perhaps on the whole
with justice, it has been regarded as favourable and as rather
discouraging persecution than legalizing it " {Pliny's Corre-
spondence with Trajan, 63,210-217).

Authorities. — The correspondence with Trajan was apparently
preserved in a single Paris MS.; Epp. 41-121 were first printed by
Avantius of Verona (1502); and Epp. 1-40 by Aldus Manutius
(1508). The original MS. has vanished; but the " copy " supplied

to the printers of the Aldine text was discovered by Mr. E. G.
Hardy in the Bodleian in 1888. The two letters on the Christians
were known to Tertullian (Apol. c. 2). The attacks on the genuine-
ness of the whole or part of the collection have been refuted by
Wilde (Leiden, 1889).

For a critical edition of text, see H. Keil (Leipzig, 1870), with
full index of names by Mommsen; for plain text, Keii (1853), &c,
C. F. W. Miiller (1903); the best annotated editions are those of
Gesner and Schaefer (1805) and G. E. Gierig (1796-1806); of the
Letters alone, G. Kortte (1734), and the less trustworthy edition
of M. Doring (1843); of bks. i. and ii., Cowan (1889); of iii.,
Mayor (1880, with Life by G. H. Rendall); of vi., Duff (1906);
of the Panegyricus, C. G. Schwarz (1846); of the Correspondence
with Trajan, E. G. Hardy (1889); of Selected Letters, E. T. Merrill
(1903) ; best Eng. trans, by J. D. Lewis (1879).

On Pliny's life, see the works by J. Masson (Amsterdam, 1709);
H. Schontag (Hof, 1876) ; and Giesen (Bonn, 1885). On the
chronology of the letters, &c, Mommsen, in Hermes, iii. 31-114
(1868; trans, into French by Morel, 1873); criticized by Stobbe
(Philologus, 1870); Gemoll (Halle, 1872); C. Peter (Philologus,
1873); Asbach (Rhein. Mus., 1 881); and Schultz (Berlin, 1899).
For style, the works of H. Holstein (1862-1869); K. Kraut (1872);
J. P. Lagergren (1872); and Morillot (Grenoble, 1888). On the
villas, Burn's Rome and the Campagna (1871), 411-415; Aitchison,
in the Builder (Feb. 8, 1890); Winnefeld, in Jahrb. des arch. Inst.
(1891), pp. 201-217; and Magoun, in Trans. Amer. Philol. Assoc.

(1895).

See also bibliography in Hiibner and Mayor's Lai. Lit. (1875),
pp. 147-149; and in Schanz, Rom. Lit. §§ 4^4-449.

For recent literature on Pliny and the Christians, see C. F. Arnold,
Studien (KSnigsberg, 1887); Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, ii. 7
(ed. 1889) ; Neumann, Der rdmische Stoat und die allgemeine Kirche
(1890) vol. i. ; Mommsen, in Hist. Zeitschrift (189c) ; W. M. Ramsay,
The Church in the Roman Empire (ed. 1893), en. 10, pp. 196-225;
and E. G. Hardy, Christianity and the Roman Government (1894),
reprinted in Studies in Roman History (1906), pp. 1-162; with the
literature quoted in these works and in Schanz, Rom. Lit. § 641.

(J. E. S.*)

PLIOCENE (from the Gr. irKetov, mr>re, and kcuv6s, recent), in
geology, the name given by Sir C. Lyell to the formations above
the Miocene and below the Pleistocene (Newer Pliocene) strata.
During this period the great land masses of the earth were rapidly
approaching to the configuration which they exhibit at the present
day. The marine Pliocene deposits are limited to comparatively
few areas; in Europe, in the beginning of the period, the sea
washed the shores of East Anglia and parts of the south coast
of England; it extended well into Belgium and Holland and just
touched here and there on the northern and north-western coasts
of France; it sent an arm some distance up the valley of the

Pliocene Period

Hypothetical continental outlth'es

after W.Dl Matthews

By permission of UK American Museum of Natural History

EnutyWalkslsov

Guadalquivir and formed small bays on several points of the
southern coast of France; and up the Rhone basin a considerable
gulf reached as far as Lyons. Early in the period the sea
covered much of Italy and Sicily; but the eastward extension
of the ancient Mediterranean in south-east Europe, through
the Danube basin, the Aral, north Caucasian and Caspian
regions, continued to suffer the process of conversion to
lagoons and large lakes which had begun in the Miocene.

PLIOCENE

847

Generally all over the world the majority of Pliocene for-
mations are non-marine, and the limited and local nature
of the elevations since the inception of the period has
exposed to view only the shallow marginal marine deposits.
The principal exception to the last statement is to be found in the
Pliocene of Italy and Sicily, where a continuous crustal depres-
sion permitted the accumulation of great thicknesses of material,
which later on, towards the close of the period, were elevated
some thousands of feet. With these deformatory movements
are associated the Italian volcanoes, Etna certainly began its
career beneath the sea, for its older tuffs are found interstratified
with marine beds, and possibly some of the others had a similar
origin. At the same time volcanic outbursts, some apparently
comparable to that of Martinique in recent times, were taking
place in central France, while far away in southern Sumatra
thousands of feet of submarine tuffs were being thrown out and
deposited, and great lava flows were being erupted in Australasia.

Considerable differences of opinion are exhibited among
geologists as to the lower limits of the Pliocene formations;
this is partly to be accounted for by the absence of widely-spread
marine deposits, and partly by the comparatively short time-
differences between one deposit and another, and hence the
similarity of the faunas of contiguous strata-groups in local
vertical series of beds. Following A. de Lapparent (Traite de
g&ologie, 5th ed., 1906), we shall regard the Pliocene as divisible
into three stages: an upper Sicilian stage, a middle Astian stage,
and a lower Plaisancian stage. Other writers, however, have
selected a different nomenclature, which often involves a
different grouping of the formations; thus E. Kayser in his
Formationskunde (3rd ed., 1908) distinguishes three stages under
the names Arnian (upper), Astian (middle) and Messinian
(lower) = Zanclean. The lower stage, however, includes the
Pontian, Epplesheim, Pikermi and other formations which are
here placed in the Miocene. This stage has been referred to a
so-called Mio-Pliocene inter-period.

The Pliocene rocks of Britain now occupy but a small area in
Norfolk, Suffolk and part of Essex; but from the presence of
small outlying patches in Cornwall (St Erth and St Agnes),
Dorsetshire (Dewlish) and Kent (Lenham), it is evident that
the Pliocene Sea covered a considerable part of southern England.
Moreover, these patches show by their present altitude above
the sea that the Downs of Kent must have been elevated more
than 850 ft., and the west coast of Cornwall 400 ft. since Pliocene
times. The Pliocene rocks rest with strong unconformity upon
the older strata in Britain. In the eastern counties the shelly,
sandy beds are called " Crag"; this name has come into very
general use for all the members of the series, and it is frequently
employed as a synonym for Pliocene.

The English Pliocene strata are classified by the Geological Survey
of England and Wales as follows: —

• Yoldia (Leda) myalls bed (provisionally placed here).

Forest-bed group and Dewlish gravels with Elephas
meridionalis.

Weybourne crag (and Chillesford clay?).

Chillesford crag.

Norwich crag and Scrobicularia crag.

Red crag of Butley.
. Red crag of Walton, Newbourn and Oakley.

(St Erth and St Agnes beds.
Coralline crag.
Lenham beds (Diestian).
Box-stones and phosphatic beds with derived early
Pliocene and other fossils.

The box-stones are rounded pieces of brown earthy sandstone
containing casts of fossils; the phosphatic beds contain the phos-
phatized bones of whale, deer, mastodon, pig, tapir, rhinoceros, &c,
and have been worked as a source of manure. These basal con-
glomerate deposits underlie the red crag and sometimes the coralline
crag. The last-named formation, known also as the " white " or
" Suffolk crag," or as the " Bryozoan crag " (it was the presence of
Bryozoa which led to the name coralline), is essentially a shell bank,
which was accumulated at a depth of from 20 to 40 fathoms. It is
best exposed near Aldeburgh and Gedgrave in Suffolk. The Red
Crags are sandy, marine, shallow-water deposits, with an abundant
fauna ; they vary rapidly from point to point, and in general the more
southern localities are richer in southern (older) forms than those
farther north. The Norwich crag (fluvio-marine or mammaliferous

Newer
Pliocene

Older

crag) is not always very clearly marked off from the Red Crags.
Marine fresh-water and land shells are found in these beds, together
with many mammalian remains, including Elephas antiquus, Masto-
don arvernensis, Equus stenonis, Cervus carnuiorum, and dolphins,
cod and other fish. The Forest-Bed group or Cromer forest-bed is
exposed beneath the boulder clay cliffs of the Norfolk coast ; it con-
tains transported stumps of trees and many plants still familiar
in Britain, many living fresh-water and estuarine molluscs and a
large number of mammals, many of which are extinct (Ma'haerodus,
Cants lupus, Ursus spelaeus, Hyaena crocuta, Hippopotamus amphi-
bius, Rhinoceros etruscus, Elephas antiquus and E. meridionalis,
Bison bonasus, Ovibos moschatus, numerous species of deer, Equus
caballus and E. stenonis, Castor fiber, Talpa europaea and many
others). The only record of Pliocene remains in the northern part
of England consists of a few teeth of Elephas meridionalis found in a
fissure in the limestone at Dove Holes, Derbyshire.

The Pliocene deposits of Belgium and Holland and the northern
extremity of France are closely related with those of Britain, though
as a whole they are very much thicker. The older marine beds may
be traced from Lenham across the Channel at Calais and through
Cassel to Diest. The newer marine Pliocene runs in a parallel belt
to the north of the older beds through Antwerp. Belgian geologists
have divided the local Pliocene into the following groups (from above
downwards) : Poederlian, Scaldisian, Casterlian, Diestian. F. W.
Harmer {Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, 1898 and 1900) proposed the
following scheme for the Pliocene of Britain and the Low
Countries : —

Cromerian = Forest-bed of Cromer.

(Iceno-Cromerian = Chillesford beds and Weybourne crag.
Icenian = marine crag of Norwich.
Amstelian = Red Crag, comprising the Newbournian and But-

leyan sub-stages.
Waltonian = Walton crag and Poederlian and Scaldisian.
Gedgravian = Coralline crag and Casterlian.
Lenhamian = Diestian.

In addition to the deposits just mentioned in French Flanders,
the early Pliocene sea has left numerous small patches of marls and
sands in Brittany and Normandy. In southern France marine sands,
gravels and marls of Plaisancian and Astian ages occur in the de-
pression of Roussillon, followed by Sicilian marls and gravels. In
Languedoc (Montpellier, Nimes, Beziers) marine marls and sands
are followed by calcareous conglomerate (40 metres) or by marls and
lignite; gravels and loams constitute the uppermost beds. In the
Rhone basin the earliest deposits are the Congeria beds of Bollene
(Vaucluse) ; this brackish formation differs from the beds of the •
same name in Vienna, but resembles those of Italy and Rumania.
Then followed a marine invasion (groupe de Saint-Aries) ; these beds
are now found at considerable elevations increasing northward
and westward. The later formations in this area. are fluviatile or
lacustrine in origin, with remarkable torrential gravel deposits at
several horizons. The marine Pliocene of the maritime Alps,
consisting of blue and yellow clays and limestone, are now elevated
170 metres above the sea, and even up to 350 m. in the neighbourhood
of Nice. In central France no marine beds are found, but many
interesting and in some cases highly fossiliferous deposits occur in
association with volcanic rocks, such as the lower conglomerate and
upper trachytic breccia of Perrier (Issoire), the fine tuffs (cinentes)
with plants of Cantal, the lignitiferous sandstones beneath the basalt
of Cezallier, the diatomite of Ceyssac, &c. In Italy, Pliocene rocks
form the low ranges of hills on both sides of the Apennines, hence
the term " sub-Apennine " given to these rocks by A. d'Orbigny.
They are marine marls and sands; the blue marls which crop out
near Rome at the base of Mt Mario and Mt Vatican with the succeed-
ing sands and gravels; the conglomerate followed by deep-sea marls
of Calabria, and the marls, sands, limestones and blue clay of Sicily,
all belong to the Plaisancian stage. To the next stage belong the
yellow sands full of massive fossils, including the conglomerate of
Castrovillari in Calabria and the white marls of the Val dArno.
In the final (Sicilian) stage fluvio-lacustrine sands and gravels are
found in Italy, except in Calabria and in Sicily where thick marine
beds were formed. In Switzerland some of the deposits of Nagelfluh
and Deckenschotter, glacial plateau gravels, belong to the Sicilian
stage. In south-eastern Europe a great series of sands and marls
with lignites, termed the Paludina beds, rests directly upon the
Pontian formation. From their great development in the Levant,
they have been given the rank of a " Levantine stage " by F. von
Hochstetter; they are found in Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Bosnia,
Rumania, Bulgaria, southern Russia, the Cyclades, and the Caspian
region. On the north coast of Africa marine and brackish sands and
marls occur in Morocco, Algeria and Egypt; and the " rifts " of the
Red Sea and Suez have been assigned to this period.

In North America marine Pliocene is found fringing the coasts_ of
California and the Gulf of Mexico. In the latter region marine
marls, clays and limestones are best developed in Florida and can be
traced into the Carolinas and Virginia ; they have been classed asthe
Lafayette group (with lignites), the Florida group, and the Caloo-
shatchis stage. On the Pacific coast the marine beds have attained
great thicknesses, notably in the Merced series of San Francisco. In
the San Luis Obispo region the non-marine Paso Robles beds, said to
be 1000 ft. thick, belong to this period. Other local formations of

8 4 8

PLOCK

marine origin in California are those of San Diego and Wild Cat.
In the Rocky Mountains are large lacustrine formations of consider-
able thickness, and certain conglomerates in Wyoming and Bishop
Mountain are assigned to this age. The sands and clays with
gypsum of Entre Rios in South America contain fossils of the
Atlantic type.

Lignitiferous shale with petroleum and great thickness of volcanic
tuffs have been found in southern Sumatra. In New South Wales
Pliocene river terraces and alluvial deposits are covered by Mid-
Pliocene lavas and from these " deep leads " or buried river beds
much gold has been obtained. In Victoria great basaltic and dole-
ritic flows have filled up the Pliocene river valleys, and marine beds
have been found at elevations of iooo ft. above present sea-level.
Very similar deposits and volcanic rock, belonging to the Wanganui
system of F. W. Hutton, are found in New Zealand.

See C. Reid, " The Pliocene Deposits of Britain " (Mem. Geol.
Survey, 1890); E. T. Newton, "The Vertebrates of the Pliocene
Deposits of Britain " (Mem. Geol. Survey, 1 891) (both contain a
bibliography): C. Reid, Origin of the British Flora (1899); and
'^■Geological Literature " (Geol. Soc. London Annual, since 1893).

(J. A. H.)

PLOCK, or Plotsk, a government of Russian Poland, on the
right bank of the Vistula, having the Prussian provinces of
West and East Prussia on the N. and the Polish governments
of Lomza on the E. and Warsaw on the S. Its area is 4160 sq. m.
Its flat surface, 350 to 500 ft. above the sea-level, rises gently
towards the north, where it merges into the Baltic coast-ridge
of the Prussian lake district. Only a few hills reach 600 ft. above

TABLE OF PLIOCENE FORMATIONS.

Stages.

England.

Belgium

and
Holland.

Rhone Basin.

Languedoc

and
Roussillon.

Italy.

Eastern
Europe.

Other Countries. 1

Cromer Forest
Bed.

Sicilian.

Fluvio-marine
Norwich
crag.

Red crag of
Suffolk.

Clays of
Campine.
Amstelian.

Marls of St

Cosme.
Gravels of

Chagny.
Conglomerates
of

Chambaran.
Sands of Tre-

voux and

Mollon.
Travertine of

Meximieux.

Durfort beds
with Elephas
meridionalis.

Sands of Val d'Arno.

Limestones of Paler-
mo and clays with
northern mollusca.

Upper
Paludina
(Vivipara)
beds.

Marine beds of

Entre Rios.
Volcanic tuffs of

S. Sumatra.

Astian.

Base of Red
crag.

Poederlian.

Scaldisian
sands with
Trophon
antiquum.

Conglomerates
of Montpellier
and Fourres.

Sands of Rous-
sillon with
Mastodon
arvernensis.

Marls of Val d'Arno
with Mastodon
arvernensis.

Yellow sands of Asti,
Plaisantin, Monte
Maria and Tuscany.

Conglomerates of
Castrovillari.

Middle
Paludina
beds.

Petroleum-bearing
beds of Sumatra.

Marine sands of
Moghara and
Mokatta.

Plaisancian.

Coralline crag.
Lenham beds.

Sands with
Isocardia
car.
Diestian
sandstones.

Marine marls
of Bresse,
Hauterives.

Congeria beds
of Bollene.

Yellow sands of
Montpellier.

Blue marls of
Millas.

Blue marls of Pia-
cenza, Bologna,
and Vatican.

Lower
Paludina
beds.

Marine beds of

Florida.
Lacustrine beds of
1 Rocky Moun-
tains.

Life of the Pliocene Period. — Sir C. Lyell defined the Pliocene strata
as those which contained from 36-95 % of living marine molluscs.
This rule can no longer be strictly applied to the widely scattered
marine deposits, and it is of course inapplicable to the very numerous
formations of lacustrine and fluviatile origin. On the whole the
marine organisms are very like their living representatives, and
there is often practically no specific difference; Nassa, Volula,
Chenopus, Dentalium, Fusus, Area, Pecten, Pectunculus, Panopoea,
Cyprina and Mactra may be mentioned among the marine genera;
Congeria (Dreyssensia) , Auricula, Paludina, Melanopsis and Helix
are found in the lacustrine deposits. One of the most interesting
facts exposed by the study of the mollusca is the gradual lowering
of the temperature of Europe during the period. In Britain the
early Pliocene was, if anything, warmer than at present, but the
percentage of northern forms ascends steadily through the higher
beds, and finally arctic forms, such as Buccinum groenlandicum,
Trichopteris borealis, My a truncata, Cyprina islandica, &c, appear
on the coasts of Norfolk and Suffolk, and some of the northern
species even reached the Mediterranean (Sicily) at the close of the
period. The flora exhibits the same gradual change, the large palms
and camphor trees disappeared from Europe, the sabal palm lin-
gered in Languedoc, and Chamerops humilis lived about Marseilles
until the end ; the sequoias and bamboos held on for some time, and
the aspect of the vegetation in mid-Pliocene times was not unlike
that of Portugal, Algeria and Japan of to-day. Not a few species
that dwelt in Pliocene Europe are found in the forests of America.
The flora of the Cromer forest beds is very like that of the same dis-
trict at the present time. The mammals of the British Pliocene
show a curious blending of northern and southern forms; they
include Machaerodus (the sabre-toothed lion), hyenas, dogs, fox,
wolf, glutton, marten, bears, Ursus arvernensis and the grizzly and
cave bear, seals, whales, dolphins, bisons, musk ox, gazelle, the red
deer and many others now extinct, the roebuck, pigs and wild boar,
hippopotamus, hipparion and horse (Equus caballus and E. stenonis),
several species of rhinoceros, tapir, hyrax, elephants (Elephas
meridionalis and E. antiquus), several mastodons, squirrel, beaver,
hare, mice, voles, &c. The mastodon disappeared from Europe
before the close of the period, but lived much longer in America.
No generally accepted fossil man has been found in the Pliocene;
Pithecanthropus erectus, found by E. Dubois in Java, is the nearest
to the human type. Monkeys, Macacus and Semnopithecus, occur
in the Pliocene of Europe. At this time the Pliocene mammals of
North America were able to migrate into South America, and a few
ot the southern forms travelled northwards.

the sea, while the broad valley of the Vistula has an elevation
of only 130 to 150 ft. In the west (district of Lipno) broad
terraces, covered with forests, small lakes and ponds, and very
poor in vegetation, descend from the Baltic lake-district towards
the plains of PJock; and in the central district of Mlawa extensive
marshes fill the upper basin of the Wkra. The Vistula borders
the government on the south, almost all the way from Warsaw
to Thorn, receiving the Skrwa and Wkra. The Drweca, or
Drewenz, flows along the north-west boundary, while several
small tributaries of the Narew drain the north-eastern district
of Ciechanow. Peat-bogs, used for fuel, and marshes containing
bog-iron, fill many depressions in the north, while the more
elevated parts of the plains are covered with fertile clays, or a
kind of " black earth." Lacustrine post-Glacial deposits fill
all the depressions of the thick sheet of boulder clay, with
Scandinavian erratic boulders, which extends everywhere over
the Tertiary sands and marls — these last containing masses of
silicated wood and lignite. Layers of gypsum are found in the
hills beside the Vistula.

The estimated population in 1906 was 619,000. About one-
third are Jews and 36,000 Germans. The government is divided
into seven districts, of which the chief towns are Plock, Ciechanow,
Lipno, Mlawa, Prasnysz, Rypin and Sierpc. Agriculture is the
chief industry. The principal crops are rye, oats, barley, wheat
and potatoes; beetroot is cultivated for sugar, especially on the
large estates of the west, where modern machinery is used.
Gardening and bee-keeping are extensively practised. In the
north the property is much divided, and the landholders, very
numerous in Ciechanow, are far from prosperous. The forests
have been lavishly cut, but Plock is still one of the best wooded
governments (20%) in Poland. Other occupations are provided
by shipping on the Vistula, mining and various domestic indus-
tries, such as the fabrication of wooden cars, sledges and wheels,
and textile industry. The manufactures include flour-mills,
saw-mills, sugar factories, distilleries, tanneries, breweries,

PLOCK— PLOTINUS

849

agricultural implement works, match factories and ironworks.
There is some export trade, especially in the Lipno district;
but its development is hampered by lack of communications,
the best being those offered by the Vistula. The railway from
Warsaw to Danzig, via Ciechanow and Miawa, serves the
eastern part of the government.

After the second dismemberment of Poland in 1793, what is
now the government of Plock became part of Prussia. It fell
under Russian dominion after the treaty of Vienna (1815), and,
in the division of that time into five provinces, extended over
the western part of the present government of Lomza, which was
created in 1864 from the Ostrolenka and Pultusk districts of
Plock, together with parts of the province of Augustowo.

PLOCK, or Plotsk, a town of Russia, capital of the govern-
ment of the same name, on the right bank of the Vistula, 67 m.
by the Vistula W.N.W. of Warsaw. Pop. 27,073. It has a
cathedral, dating from the 12th century, but restored in 1903,
which contains tombs of Polish dukes and of Kings Ladislaus
and Boleslav (of the nth and 12th centuries). There is consider-
able navigation on the Vistula, grain, flour, wool and beetroot
being exported, while coal, petroleum, salt and fish are imported.

PLOEN, a town of Germany, in Schleswig-Holstein, beautifully
situated between two lakes, the large and the small Ploener-See,
20 m. S. from Kiel by the railway to Eutin and Lubeck. Pop.
(1905), 3735. It has a palace built about 1630 and now converted
into a cadet school, a gymnasium and a biological station.
Tobacco, soap, soda, beer and furniture are manufactured, and
there is a considerable trade in timber and grain. The lakes
afford good fishing, and are navigated in summer by steamboats.

Ploen is mentioned as early as the nth century as a Wendish
settlement, and a fortified place. It passed in 1559 to Duke
John the Younger, founder of the line of Holstein-Sonderburg,
on the extinction of which, in 1761, it fell to Denmark, and
in 1867, with Schleswig-Holstein, to Prussia. The sons of the
emperor William II. received their early education here.

See H. Eggers, Schloss und Stadt Ploen (Kiel, 1877), and J. C.
Kinder, Urkundenbuch zur Chronik der Stadt Ploen (Plon, 1890).

PLOENNIES, LUISE VON (1803-1872), German poet, was born
at Hanau on the 7th of November 1803, the daughter of the
naturalist Philipp Achilles Leisler. In 1824 she married the
physician August von Ploennies in Darmstadt. After his death
in 1847 she resided for some years in Belgium, then at Jugenheim
on the Bergstrasse, but finally at Darmstadt, where she died on
the 22nd of January 1872. Between 1844 and 1870 she published
several volumes of verse, being particularly happy in eclectic
love songs, patriotic poems and descriptions of scenery. She
also wrote two biblical dramas, Maria Magdalena (1870) and
David (1873).

As a translator froir 1 the English, Luise von Ploennies published
two collections of poems, Britannia (1843) and Englische Lyriker
des igten Jahrhunderts (1863, 3rd ed., 1867).

PLOfiRMEL, a town of western France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Morbihan, 36 m. N.N.E. of Vannes
by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 2492; commune, 5424. The Renais-
sance church of St Armel (16th century) is remarkable for the
delicate carving of the north facade and for fine stained glass.
It also possesses statues of John II. and John III., dukes of
Brittany, which Were transferred to the church from their tomb
in an ancient Carmelite monastery founded in 1273 and destroyed
by the Protestants in 1592 and again at the Revolution. The
lower ecclesiastical seminary has an apartment in which the
Estates of Brittany held several meetings. Remains of ramparts
of the 15th century and some houses of the 16th century are also
of interest. Farm-implements are manufactured, slate quarries
are worked in the neighbourhood, and there is trade in cattle,
wool, hemp, cloth, &c. Ploermel (Plou Armel, people of Armel)
owes its name to Armel, a hermit who lived in the district in the
6th century.

PLOESCI (Ploescii), the capital of the department of Prahova,
Rumania; at the southern entrance of a valley among the Carpa-
thian foothills, through which flows the river Prahova; and at the
junction of railways to Buzeu, Bucharest and Hermannstadt in

Transylvania. Pop. (1900), 42,687. As the name Ploesci
(pluviena, rainy) implies, the climate is moist. The surrounding
hills are rich in petroleum, salt and lignite. There are cardboard
factories, roperies, tanneries and oil mills. Ploesci possesses
schools of commerce and of arts and crafts, several banks, and
many synagogues and churches, including the Orthodox church
of St Mary, built in 1740 by Matthew Bassarab.

PLOMBIERES, a town of eastern France, in the department
of Vosges, on a branch line of the Eastern railway, 17 m. S. of
Epinal by road. Pop. (1906), 1882. The town is situated at
a height of 1410 ft. in a picturesque valley watered by the
Augronne. It is well known for its mineral springs, containing
sodium sulphate and silicic acid, varying from 66° to 166° F.
Plombieres has a handsome modern church and a statue of the
painter Louis Francais, born in the town in 1814. The waters
were utilized by the Romans and during the middle ages. In
later times Montaigne, Richelieu, Stanislas, duke of Lorraine
and Voltaire were among the distinguished people who visited
the place. Napoleon III. built the most important of the bathing
establishments and made other improvements.

PLOT, ROBERT (1640-1696), English naturalist and anti-
quary, was born at Borden in Kent in 1640. He was educated
at Wye, and at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, where he graduated B.A.
yi 1661, and proceeded to M.A. (1664) and D.C.L. (1671). He
was distinguished for his folio work The Natural History of
Oxfordshire (1677), in which various fossils, as well as other
objects of interest, were figured and described. It was regarded
as a model for many subsequent works. In 1677 Plot was
elected F.R.S., and he was secretary for the Royal Society from
1682 to 1684. He was appointed in 1683 the first keeper of the
Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, and in the same year he became
professor of chemistry. In 1686 he wrote The Natural History
of Staffordshire. Two years later he became historiographer-
royal. He died on the 30th of April 1696.

PLOT, a term originally meaning a space of ground used for a
specific purpose, especially as a building site, formerly in frequent
usage in the sense of a plan, a surveyed space of ground; hence
the literary sense of a plan or design. The word is of doubtful
origin; there is a collateral form " plat," which appears in the
1 6th century, according to the New English Dictionary, under
the influence of " plat, " flat place, surface (Fr. plat, Late Lat.
plattus, probably from Gr. irAa-rus, broad). Skeat (Etym.
Diet.) refers " plot," in the sense of a space of ground, to the
O. Eng. plaec, Mid. Eng. pleck, later plalch, patch. " Plot," in
the sense of plan, scheme, would then be identical with " plot,"
a conspiracy, which may be a shortened form of " complot,"
a French word, also of doubtful origin, meaning in the
1 2 th century " a compact body of men "; in the 14th century
" conspiracy."

PLOTINUS (a.d. 204-270), the most important representative
of Neoplatonism, was born of Roman parents at Lycopolis in
Egypt. At Alexandria he attended the lectures of Ammonius
Saccas (q.v.), the founder of the system, until 242, when he joined
the Persian expedition of Gordian III., with the object of
studying Persian and Indian philosophy on the spot. After
the assassination of Gordian in 244, Plotinus was obliged to
take refuge in Antioch, whence he made his way to Rome and
set up as a teacher there. He soon attracted a large number of
pupils, the most distinguished of whom were Amelius, Eusto-
chius and Porphyry. The emperor Gallienus and his wife
Salonina were also his enthusiastic admirers, and favoured his
idea of founding a Platonic Commonwealth (Platonopolis) in
Campania (cf. Bishop Berkeley's scheme for the Bermuda
islands), but the opposition of Gallienus's counsellors and the
death of Plotinus prevented the plan from being carried out.
Plotinus's wide popularity was due partly to the lucidity of his
teaching, but perhaps even more to his strong personality.
Assent developed into veneration; he was considered to be
divinely inspired, and generally credited with miraculous
powers. In spite of ill-health, he continued to teach and write
until his death, which took place on the estate of one of his
friends near Minturnae in Campania.

8 5 o

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING

Under Ammonius Plotinus became imbued with the eclectic
spirit of the Alexandrian school. ' Having accepted the Platonic
metaphysical doctrine, he applied to it the Neo-Pythagorean
principles and the Oriental doctrine of Emanation (q.v.). The
results of this introspective mysticism were collected by him in
a series of fifty-four (originally forty-eight) treatises, arranged
in six " Enneads," which constitute the most authoritative
exposition of Neoplatonism. This arrangement is probably
due to Porphyry, to whose editorial care they were consigned.
There was also another ancient edition by Eustochius, but all
the existing MSS. are based on Porphyry's edition.

The Enneades of Plotinus were first made known in the Latin
translation of Marsilio Ficino (Florence, 1492) which was reprinted
at Basel in 1580, with the Greek text of Petrus Perna. Later editions
by Creuzer and Moser (" Didot Series," 1855), A. Kirchhoff (1856),
H. F. Miiller (1878-1880), R. Volkmann (1883-1884). There is an
English translation of selected portions by Thomas Taylor, re-edited
in Bonn's Philosophical Library (1895, with introduction and biblio-
graphy by G. R. S. Mead).

On Plotinus generally see article in Suidas; Eunapius vitae
sophistarum ; and above all the Vita Plotini by his pupil Porphyry.
Among modern works, see the treatises on the school of Alexandria
by J. F. Simon, i. (1845), and £. Vacherot (1846); A. Richter, Ueber
Leben und Geistesentwicklung des Plotin (Halle, 1864-1867); T.
Whittaker, The Neoplatonists (1901) ; A. Drews, Plotin und der Unter-
gang der antiken Weltanschauung (1907) ; E. Caird, Evolution of
Theology in the Greek Philosophers (1904), ii. 210-257; Rufus M.
Jones, Studies in Mystical Religion (1909). A detailed account
of Plotinus's philosophical system and an estimate of its importance
will be found in the article Neoplatonism, the works above referred
to, and the histories of philosophy. For his list of categories, see
Categories; also Logos; Mysticism; Magic.

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING. To enable the soil to grow
good crops the upper layer must be pulverized and weathered.
This operation, performed in the garden by means of the spade,
is carried on in the field on a larger scale by the plough, 1 which
breaks the soil and by inverting the furrow-slice, exposes fresh
surfaces to the disintegrating influence of air, rain and frost.

The first recorded form of plough is found on the monuments
of Egypt, where it consists simply of a wooden wedge tipped with
iron and fastened to a handle projecting backwards and a beam,
pulled by men or oxen, projecting forwards. Many references
to the plough are found in the Old Testament, notably that in
1 Sam. xiii. 20: " All the Israelites went down to the Philistines
to sharpen every man his share and his coulter." Descriptions
of ploughs found in Hesiod's Works and Days and in Virgil's
Georgics i. 169-175, show little development in the implement.
The same may be said of the Anglo-Saxon ploughs. These are
shown with coulter and share and also with wheels, which had
in earlier times been fitted to ploughs by the Greeks and also
by the natives of Cis-Alpine Gaul (Pliny, Hist. nat. 18, 18). A
mattock with which to break the clods is often found represented
in Anglo-Saxon drawings as subsidiary to the plough. All these
types of plough are virtually hoes pulled through the ground,
breaking but not inverting the soil. In the first half of the 18th
century a plough with a short convex mould-board of wood
was introduced from the Netherlands into England and, as
improved at Rotherham in Yorkshire, became known as the
Rotherham plough and enjoyed considerable vogue. At this
period ploughs were made almost wholly of wood, the mould-
board being cased with plates of iron. Small, of Berwickshire,
brought out a plough in which beam and handle were of wrought

1 The O. Eng. form is p^oh, which is usually found in the sense
of " plough-land," a unit for the assessment of land (see Hide),
the regular O. Eng. word for the implement being sulh, still found
in some dialects in the form sull. It appears in many Teutonic
languages, cf. Du. ploeg, Ger. Pflug, Swed. plog, Dan. plov. The
Slavonic forms, such as Russ. or Pol. plug, are borrowed from the
German. It does not appear in Gothic, where the word used is
hoha. The ultimate origin of " plough " is unknown. Max-Muller
(Science of Language, i. 296) connects the word with the Indo-
European root meaning " to float," seen in the Gr. jtXotow, a boat or
ship; the same word would be applied to the ship " ploughing "
through the waves, and to the implement " ploughing " through
the earth. A Celtic origin has been suggested, connecting the word
with Gael, ploe, stump of a tree, as forming the original plough.
The form " plow " was common in English until the beginning of
the 18th century, and is usual in America.

iron, the mould-board of cast iron. The shares, when made of
the same material, required constant sharpening; this necessity
was removed by the device, patented by Robert Ransome in
1803, of chilling and so hardening the under-surface of the share;
the upper surface, which is soft, then wears away more quickly
than the chilled part, whereby a sharp edge is always assured.
Nowadays the mould-board is of steel with a chilled and polished
surface to give greater wearing qualities and to reduce friction.
In the latter part of the 19th century there were numerous
improvements but no fundamental alterations in the construction
of the ordinary plough.

The working parts of the plough are the coulter, the share,
and the breast or mould-board. These are carried on the beam,
to which are attached the handles or tilts at the back, and the
hake or clevis and draught-chain at the front. The hake is
notched so that, by moving the draught-chain higher or lower
thereon, the plough is caused to go more or less deeply into the
ground. It may also be adjusted to suit the height of the
horses used. The hake moves laterally on a quadrant and it is
thus possible to give the plough a tendency to left or right by
moving the hake in the reverse direction. A frame is bolted
to the beam and this carries the breast or mould-board to the
fore-end of which the share is fitted. The side-cap, a plate of

Newcastle Plough.

iron fixed to the land-side of the frame, is intended to keep the
edge of the unploughed soil vertical and prevent it from falling
into the furrow. A piece of iron called the slade is bolted to the
bottom of the frame, and this, running along the sole of the fur-
row, acts as a base to the whole implement. The coulter (either
knife or disk) and sometimes a skim-coulter (or jointer) are
attached adjustably to the beam, so as to act in the front of
the share.

The coulter is a knife or revolving disk which is fixed so that
its point clears the point of the share. The skim-coulter is
shaped like a miniature plough, substituted for or fixed in front
of the coulter; it is used chiefly on lea land, to pare off the
surface of the soil together with the vegetation thereon, and turn
it into the previous furrow, where it is immediately buried by the
fuirow slice. Two wheels of unequal height are commonly
fitted to the front of the beam. By means of them the depth
and width of the furrow are regulated, whereas in the case of
" swing " or wheelless ploughs these points depend chiefly on the
skill of the ploughman. In the wheeled plough some of the
weight and downward pull due to its action on the ground is
taken by the wheels; the sliding friction is thus to some extent
converted into a rolling friction, and the draught is correspond-
ingly diminished.

In operation the coulter makes a perpendicular cut separating
the furrow-slice which is divided from the " sole " of the furrow

•//////////////////////////////////A W////////////////////////////7///////.
Crested Furrow. Rectangular Furrow,

by the share and then inverted by the curve of the breast as the
plough moves forward. The process is indicated in the illustra-
tion of different types of furrow. The form of a furrow is

PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING

851

regulated by the shape and 'width of the share, working in
combination with a proper shaped breast. A " crested "
furrow is obtained by the use of a share, the wing of which is
set at a higher altitude than the point, but this type of furrow

Wide Broken Furrow,
is less generally found than the " rectangular " form obtained
by a level-edged share, which leaves a flat bottom.

During the greater part of the 19th century the ideal of plough-
ing was to preserve the furrow-slice unbroken, and this object
was attained by the use of long mould-boards which turned the

Digging Plough.

slices gently and gradually, laying them over against one another
at an angle of 45 , thus providing drainage at the bottom of the
furrow, and exposing the greatest possible surface to the influ-
ences of the weather. Subsequently the digging plough came
into vogue; the share being wider, a wider furrow is cut, while
the slice is inverted by a short concave mould-board with a
sharp turn which at the same time breaks up and pulverizes
the soil after the fashion of a spade. Except on extremely
heavy soils or on shallow soils with a subsoil which it is unwise
to bring upon the surface, the modern tendency is in favour of
the digging plough.

A ploughed field is divided into lands or sections of equal
width separated by furrows. On light easy draining land 22 yds.
is the usual width; on the heaviest lands it may be as little as
S yds., and in the latter case the furrows will act as drains into
which the water flows from the intervening ridges. 1

Certain important variations of the ordinary plough demand
consideration. The one-way plough lays the furrows alter-

counteract the tendency for the soil to work down the slope.
One-way ploughs also leave the land level and dispense with the
wide open furrows between the ridges which are left by the
ordinary plough. They are made on different principles. One
type comprises two separate ploughs, one right hand and one
left, which revolve on the beam, one working, while the other
stands vertically above it. In another the mould-board and

Turnwrest Plough,
nately to its left and right, so that they all slope in the same
direction. This is found advantageous on hill-sides where the
work is easier if all the furrows are turned downhill; or from
another point of view the furrows may be all laid uphill so as to
1 Methods of the " setting-out " of land to be ploughed together
with a full discussion of other technical details relating to ploughing
will be found in ch. vii. of W. J. Maiden's Workman's Technical
Instructor (London, 1905).

Balance Plough,
share are shaped so that they can be swung on a swivel under
the beam when the latter is lifted. A third type is made on
the " balance " principle, two plough beams with mould-boards
being placed at right angles to one another, so that while the
right-hand plough is at work the left-hand is elevated above the
ground.

Double-furrow or multiple ploughs are a combination of two
or more ploughs arranged in echelon so as to plough two or more
furrows. The weight of these implements necessitates some
provision for turning them at the headlands, and this is supplied
either by a bowl wheel, enabling the plough to be turned on
one side, or by a pair of wheels cranked so that they can be raised
by a lever when the plough is working. The double-furrow

Riding Plough,
plough was known as early as the 17th century, but, till the
introduction of the latter device by Ransome in 1873, cannot be
said to have been in successful use.

The " sulky " or riding plough is little known in the United
Kingdom, but on the larger arable tracts of other countries
where quick work is essential and the character of the surface
permits, it is in general use. In this form of plough the frame
is mounted on three wheels, one of which runs on the land,
and the other two in the furrow. The furrow wheels are placed
on inclined axles, the plough beam being carried on swing links,
operated by a hand lever when it is necessary to raise the plough
out of the furrow. The land wheel and the forward furrow wheel
are adjustable vertically with reference to the frame, for the
purpose of controlling the action of the plough.

In the disk plough, which is built both as a riding and a walking
plough, the essential feature is the substitution of a concavo-

8 5 2

PLOVER

convex disk, pivoted on the plough beam, for the mould-board
and share of the ordinary plough. This disk is carried on an
axle inclined to the line of draught, and also to a vertical plane.
As the machine is drawn forward the disk revolves and cuts
deeply into the ground, and by reason of its inclination crowds
the earth outwards and thus turns a furrow. A scraper is

Multiple Disk Plough.

provided to keep the disk clean and prevent sticking. The
controlling levers and draught arrangements are similar to those in
the " sulky ' ' plough. The advantage of this plough over the ordi-
nary form is in the absence of sliding friction, and in the mellow
and porous condition in which it leaves the bottom of the furrow.

Disk ploughs are unsuitable for heavy sticky soils and for
stony land, but may be used with effect on stubbles and on land in
a dry hard state. Perhaps their most common use is in
ploughing on a large scale in conjunction with steam power.

Steam is employed as motive power when it is necessary to
plough large areas in a short time. In the United Kingdom
steam ploughing is generally carried on on the double-engine
system (introduced by Messrs John Fowler about 1865), in which
case two sets of ploughs are arranged on the one-way balance
principle, so that while one set is at work the other is carried
clear of the ground. In this arrangement, a pair of locomotive
engines, each having a plain winding drum fixed underneath
the boiler, are placed opposite to each other at the ends of the
field to be operated upon; the rope of each of the engines is
attached to the plough, or other tillage implement, which is
drawn to and fro betwixt them by each working in turn. While
the engine in gear is coiling in its rope and drawing the plough
towards itself, the rope of the other engine is paid out with
merely so much drag on it as to keep it from kinking or getting
ravelled on the drum.

In the United States and elsewhere engines drawing behind
them a number of ploughs, arranged in echelon and taking perhaps

The subsoil plough has the beam and body but not the
mould-board of an ordinary plough. Following in the furrow
of an ordinary plough it breaks through the sub-soil to a depth
of several inches, making it porous and penetrable by plant roots.

Gripping and draining ploughs are employed in opening the
grips and trenches necessary both in surface and underground
drainage.

See Davidson and Chstse,Farm Motors and Farm Machinery ; articles
in L. H. Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Agriculture (New York,
1907) and Standard Encyclopaedia (London, 1908), &c.

PLOVER, a bird whose name (Fr. pluvier, O. Fr. plovier)
doubtless has its origin in the Latin pluvia, rain (as witness the
German equivalent Regenpfeifer, rain-fifer). P. Belon (1555)
says that the name Pluvier is bestowed " pour ce qu'on le prend
mieux en temps pluvieux qu'en nulle autre saison," which is not
in accordance with modern observation, for in rainy weather
plovers are wilder and harder to approach than in fine. Others
have thought it is from the spotted (as though with rain-drops)
upper plumage of two of the commonest species of plovers, to
which the name especially belongs — the Charadrius pluvialis
of Linnaeus, or golden plover, and the Squatarola helvetica of
recent ornithologists, or grey plover. Both these birds are
very similar in general appearance, but the latter is the larger
and has an aborted hind-toe on each foot. 1 Its axillary feathers
are also black, while in the golden plover they are pure white.
The grey plover is a bird of almost circumpclar range, breeding
in the far north of America, Asia and eastern Europe, frequenting
in spring and autumn the coasts of the more temperate parts
of each continent, and generally retiring farther southward
in winter — examples not unfrequently reaching Cape Colony,
Ceylon, Australia and even Tasmania. Charadrius pluvialis
has a much narrower distribution, though where it occurs it is
much more numerous. Its breeding quarters do not extend
farther than from Iceland to western Siberia, but include the
more elevated tracts in the British Islands, whence in autumn
it spreads itself, often in immense flocks, over the cultivated
districts if the fields be sufficiently open. Here some will remain
so long as the absence of frost or snow permits, but the majority
make for the Mediterranean basin, or the countries beyond, in
which to winter; and stragglers find their way to the southern
extremity of Africa. Two other cognate forms, C. virginicus
and C. fulvus, respectively represent C. pluvialis in America
and eastern Asia, where they are also known by the same
English name. The discrimination of these two birds from one
another requires a very acute eye, 2 but both are easily distin-
guished from their European ally by their smaller size, their
greyish-brown axillary feathers, and their proportionally longer

American Steam Plough.

30 ft. at a time, are frequently seen. On smaller areas petrol
motors with one or more ploughs attached are sometimes used.

There is a large variety of ploughs which differ in their purpose
from the ordinary plough.

The ridging plough is an implement with a mould-board on
each side, terminating in front in a flat point, and used for
moulding up potatoes, and for throwing up the ridge on which
to plant roots.

and more slender legs. All, however — and the same is the case
with the grey plover — undergo precisely the same seasonal

1 But for this really unimportant distinction both birds could
doubtless have been kept by ornithologists in the same genus, for
they agree in most other structural characters.

s Schlegel (Mus. Pays-Bas, Cursores, p. 53) states that in some
examples it seems impossible to determine the form to which they
belong; but ordinarily American specimens are rather larger and
stouter, and have shorter toes than those from Asia.

PLUCK— PLUCKER

»53

change of colour, greatly altering their appearance and equally
affecting both sexes. In spring or early summer nearly the
whole of the lower plumage from the chin to the vent, which
during winter has been nearly pure white, becomes deep black.
A corresponding alteration is at the same season observable in
the upper plumage.

Though the birds just spoken of are those most emphatically
entitled to be called plovers, the group of ringed plovers (see
Killdeer and Lapwing), with its allies, has, according to usage,
hardly less claim to the name, which is also extended to some
other more distant forms that can here have only the briefest
notice. Among them one of the most remarkable is the " Zick-
zack " (so-called from its cry) — the rpoxi^os of Herodotus (see
Humming-bird), the Pluvianus or Hyas aegyptius of ornitholo-
gists, celebrated for the services it is said to render to the croco-
dile—a small bird whose plumage of delicate lavender and cream
colour is relieved by markings of black and white. This belongs
to the small family Glareolidae, of which the members best
known are the coursers, Cursorius, with some eight or ten
species inhabiting the deserts of Africa and India, while one,
C. gallicus, occasionally strays to Europe and even to England.
Allied to them are the curious pratincoles (q.v.) , also peculiar to
the Old World, while the genera Thinocoris and Attagis form an
outlying group peculiar to South America, that is by some
systematists regarded as a separate family Thinocoridae, near
which are often placed the singular Sheathbills (q.v.). By most
authorities the Stone-curlews (see Curlew), the Oyster-catchers
(q.v.) and Turnstones (q.v.) are also regarded as belonging to the
family Charadriidae, and some would add the Avocets (Recurvi-
rostra) and Stilts (q.v.), among which the Cavalier, or Crab-plover,
Dromas ardeola — a form that has been bandied about from one
family and even order to another — should possibly find its
resting-place. It frequents the sandy shores of the Indian
Ocean and Bay of Bengal from Natal tc Aden, and thence to
Ceylon, the Malabar coast, and the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands — a white and black bird, mounted on long legs, with
webbed feet, and a bill so shaped as to have made some of the
best ornithologists lodge it among the Terns (q.v.).

Though the various forms here spoken of as plovers are almost
certainly closely allied, they must be regarded as constituting
a very indefinite group, for hardly any strong line of demarcation
can be drawn between them and the Sandpipers and Snipes (q.v.).
United, however, with both of the latter under the name of
Limicolae, after the method approved by the most recent
systematists, the whole form an assemblage the compactness of
which no observant ornithologist can hesitate to admit, even if
he be uncertain of the exact kinship.

For " plovers' eggs " see Lapwing. (A. N.)

PLUCK, to pull or pick off something, as flowers from a plant,
feathers from a bird. The word in O. Eng. is pluccian or ploccian
and is represented by numerous forms in Teutonic languages,
cf. Ger. pflilcken, Du. plukken, Dan. plakke, &c. In sense and
form a plausible identification has been found with Ital. piluc-
care, to pick grapes, hair, feathers, cf. Fr. tplucher, pick. These
romanic words are to be referred to Lat. pilus, hair, which has
also given " peruke " or " periwig " and " plush." Difficulties
of phonology, history and chronology, however, seem to show
that this close similarity is only a coincidence. " Pluck," in the
sense of courage, was originally a slang word of the prize-ring,
and Sir W. Scott (Journal, Sept. 4, 1827) speaks of the " want
of that article blackguardly called pluck." In butcher's parlance
the " pluck " of an animal is the heart, liver and lungs, probably
so called from their being " plucked " or pulled out of the carcase
immediately after slaughtering. The heart being the typical
seat of courage, the transference is obvious. In university
colloquial or slang use, " to pluck " is to refuse to pass a candi-
date on examination; the more usual colloquial word is now " to
plough." At the granting of degrees at Oxford objection to a
candidate could be taken for other reasons than failure at
examination, and the person thus challenging drew the atten-
tion of the proctor in congregation by " plucking " a piece of
black silk attached to the back of his gown.

PLUCKER, JULIUS (1801-1868), German mathematician and
physicist, was born at Elberfeld on the 16th of June 1801.
After being educated at Diisseldorf and at the universities of
Bonn, Heidelberg and Berlin he went in 1823 to Paris, where
he came under the influence of the great school of French
geometers, whose founder, Gaspard Monge, was only recently
dead. In 1825 he was received as Privatdozent at Bonn,
and after three years he was made professor extraordinary
The title of his " habilitationsschrift," Generalem analyseos
applicationem ad ea quae geometriae altioris et mechanicae basis et
fundamenta sunt e serie Tayloria deducit Julius Plucker (Bonn,
1824), indicated the course of his future researches. The mathe-
matical influence of Monge had two sides represented respec-
tively by his two great works, the Geomitrie descriptive and the
Application de V analyse a la glomitrie. Plucker aimed at fur-
nishing modern geometry with suitable analytical methods
so as to give it an independent analytical development. In
this effort he was as successful as were his great contempor-
aries Poncelet and J. Steiner in cultivating geometry in its
purely synthetic form. From his lectures and researches at
Bonn sprang his first great work, Analytisch-geometrische
Entwickelungen (vol. i., 1828; vol. ii., 1831).

In the first volume of this treatise Plucker introduced for the
first time the method of abridged notation which has become one
of the characteristic features of modern analytical geometry
(see Geometry, Analytical). In the first volume of the
Entwickelungen he applied the method of abridged notation to
the straight line, circle and conic sections, and he subsequently
used it with great effect in many of his researches, notably in
his theory of cubic curves. In the second volume of the Ent-
wickelungen he clearly established on a firm and independent
basis the great principle of duality.

Another subject of importance which Plucker took up in the
Entwickelungen was the curious paradox noticed by L. Euler and
G. Cramer, that, when a certain number of the intersections of two
algebraical curves are given, the rest are thereby determined. Ger-
gonne had shown that when a number of the intersections of two
curves of the (/>+g)th degree lie on a curve of the £th degree the rest
lie on a curve of the 5th degree. Plucker finally (Gergonne Ann.,
1828-1829) showed how many points must be taken on a curve
of any degree so that curves of the same degree (infinite in number)
may be drawn through them, and proved that all the points, beyond
the given ones, in which these curves intersect the given one are
fixed by the original choice. Later, simultaneously with C. G. J.
Jacobi, he extended these results to curves and surfaces of unequal
order. Allied to the matter just mentioned was Pliicker's discovery
of the six equations connecting the numbers of singularities in alge-
braical curves (see Curve). Plucker communicated his formulae in
the first place to Crelle's Journal (1834), vol. xii., and gave a further
extension and complete account of his theory in his Theorie der
algebraischen Curven (1839).

In 1833 Plucker left Bonn for Berlin, where he occupied a
post in the Friedrich Wilhelm's Gymnasium. He was then
called in 1834 as ordinary professor of mathematics to Halle.
While there he published his System der analytischen Geometric,
auf neue Betrachtungsweisen gegriindet, und insbesondere eine
ausfuhrliche Theorie der Curven dritter Ordnung enthaltend
(Berlin, 1835). In this work he introduced the use of linear
functions in place of the ordinary co-ordinates; he also made the
fullest use of the principles of collineation and reciprocity.
His discussion of curves of the third order turned mainly on
the nature of their asymptotes, and depended on the fact that
the equation to every such curve can be put into the form
pqr-\-fis = o. He gives a complete enumeration of them,
including two hundred and nineteen species. In 1836 Plucker
returned to Bonn as ordinary professor of mathematics. Here
he published his Theorie der algebraischen Curven, which formed
a continuation of the System der analytischen Geometrie The
work falls into two parts, which treat of the asymptotes and
singularities of algebraical curves respectively; and extensive
use is made of the method of counting constants which plays
so large a part in modern geometrical researches.

From this time Pliicker's geometrical researches practically
ceased, only to be resumed towards the end of his life. It is
true that he published in 1846 his System der Geometrie des

8 5 4

PLUM

Raumes in neuer analytischer Behandlungsweise, but this
contains merely a more systematic and polished rendering of his
earlier results. In 1847 he was made professor of physics at
Bonn; and from that time his scientific activity took a new and
astonishing turn.

His first physical memoir, published in Poggendorfs Annalen
(1847), vol. lxxii., contains his great discovery of magnecrystallic
action. Then followed a long series of researches, mostly
published in the same journal, on the properties of magnetic
and diamagnetic bodies, establishing results which are now part
and parcel of our magnetic knowledge. In 1858 {Fogg. Ann.
vol. ciii.) he published the first of his classical researches on the
action of the magnet on the electric discharge in rarefied gases.

Pliicker, first by himself and afterwards in conjunction with
J. W. Hittorf, made many important discoveries in the spectro-
scopy of gases. He was the first to use the vacuum tube with
the capillary part now called a Geissler's tube, by means of which
the luminous intensity of feeble electric discharges was raised
sufficiently to allow of spectroscopic investigation. He antici-
pated R. W. Y. Bunsen and G. Kirchhoff in announcing that the
lines of the spectrum were characteristic of the chemical sub-
stance which emitted them, and in indicating the value of this
discovery in chemical analysis. According to Hittorf he was
the first who saw the three lines of the hydrogen spectrum,
which a few months after his death were recognized in the spec-
trum of the solar protuberances, and thus solved one of the
mysteries of modern astronomy.

Hittorf tells us that Pliicker never attained great manual
dexterity as an experimenter. He had always, however, very
clear conceptions as to what was wanted, and possessed in a high
degree the power of putting others in possession of his ideas
and rendering them enthusiastic in carrying them into practice.
Thus he was able to secure from the Sayner Hiitte in 1846 the
great electromagnet which he turned to such use in his magnetic
researches; thus he attached to his service his former pupil the
skilful mechanic Fessel; and thus he discovered and fully availed
himself of the ability of the great glass-blower Geissler.

Induced by the encouragement of his mathematical friends in
England, Pliicker in 1865 returned to the field in which he first
became famous, and adorned it by one more great achievement
— the invention of what is now called " line geometry." His
first memoir on the subject was published in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. It became the
source of a large literature in which the new science was de-
veloped. Pliicker himself worked out the theory of complexes
of the first and second order, introducing in his investigation of
the latter the famous complex surfaces of which he caused those
models to be constructed which are now so well known to the
student of the higher mathematics. He was engaged in bringing
out a large work embodying the results of his researches in line
geometry when he died on the 22nd of May 1868. The work was
so far advanced that his pupil and assistant Felix Klein was
able to complete and publish it (see Geometry, Line). Among
the very numerous honours bestowed on Pliicker by the various
scientific societies of Europe was the Copley medal, awarded to
him by the Royal Society two years before his death.

See R. F. A. Clebsch's obituary notice (Abh. d. kon. Ges. d. Wiss. z.
Gottingen, 1871, vol. xvi.), to which is appended an appreciation of
Plucker's physical researches by Hittorf, and a list of Plucker's
works by F. Klein. See also C. I. Gerhardt, Geschichte der Mathematik
in Deulschland, p. 282, and Plucker's life by A. Dronke (Bonn, 1871).

PLUM, the English name both for certain kinds of tree and
also generally for their fruit. The plum tree belongs to the
genus Prunus, natural order Rosaceae. Cultivated plums are
supposed to have originated from one or other of the species
P. domestica (wild plum) or P. insititia (bullace). The young
shoots of P. domestica are glabrous, and the fruit oblong; in
P. insititia the young shoots are pubescent, and the fruit
more or less globose. A third species, the common sloe or
blackthorn, P. spinosa, has stout spines; its flowers expand
before the leaves; and its fruit is very rough to the taste, in
which particulars it differs from the two preceding. These

distinctions, however, are not maintained with much constancy.
P. domestica is a native of Anatolia and the Caucasus, and is con-
sidered to be the only species naturalized in Europe. P. insititia
is wild in southern Europe, in Armenia, and along the shores of
the Caspian. In the Swiss lake-dwellings stones of the P.
insititia as well as of P. spinosa have been found, but not those
of P. domestica. Nevertheless, the Romans cultivated large
numbers of plums. The cultivated forms are extremely numer-
ous, some of the groups, such as the greengages, the damsons
and the egg plums being very distinct, and sometimes reproduc-
ing themselves from seed. The colour of the fruit varies from
green to deep purple, the size from that of a small cherry to
that of a hen's egg; the form is oblong acute or obtuse at both
ends, or globular; the stones or kernels vary in like manner; and
the flavour, season of ripening and duration are all subject to
variation. From its hardihood the plum is one of the most
valuable fruit trees, as it is not particular as to soil, and the
crop is less likely to be destroyed by spring frosts. Prunes
and French plums are merely plums dried in the sun. Their
preparation is carried on on a large scale in Bosnia and Servia,
as well as in Spain, Portugal and southern France.

Plums are propagated chiefly by budding on stocks of the
Mussel, Brussels, St Julien and Pear plums. The damson,
wine-sour and other varieties, planted as standards, are generally
increased by suckers. For planting against walls, trees which
have been trained for two years in the nursery are preferred,
but maiden trees can be very successfully introduced, and by
liberal treatment may be speedily got to a fruiting state. Any
good well-drained loamy soil is suitable for plums, that of
medium quality as to lightness being decidedly preferable.
Walls with an east or west aspect are generally allowed to
them. The horizontal mode of training and the fan or half-fan
forms are commonly followed; where there is sufficient height
probably the fan system is the best. The shoots should be laid
in nearly or quite at full length. The fruit is produced on small
spurs on branches at least two years old, and the same spurs
continue fruitful for several years. Standard plum trees should
be planted 25 ft. apart each way, and dwarfs 15 or 20 ft. The
latter are now largely grown for market purposes, being more
easily supported when carrying heavy crops, fruiting earlier,
and the fruit being gathered more easily from the dwarf bush
than from standard trees.

The following is a selection of good varieties of plums, with
their times of ripening: —

Dessert Plums.

Early Green-gage . . e. July

Early Transparent Gage b. Aug.

Denniston's Superb . b. Aug.
Oullin's Golden . .

Green-gage . . .
M'Laughlin's . .
Angelina Burdett .

m. Aug.
m.e.Aug.
e. Aug.
b. Sept.

Transparent Gage . . b.

Jefferson b.

Kirke's m.

Coe's GoldenDrop . . e.

Reine Claude de Bavay ] f'

Ickworth Impdratrice b.

Late Rivers .... j ^

Sept.

Sept.

Sept.

Sept.

Sept.

Oct.

Oct.

Oct.

Nov.

Culinary Plums.

Early Prolific .... e. July Victoria Sept.

Belle de Louvain . . Aug. White Magnum Bonum Sept.

Belgian Purple . . . m. Aug. Pond's Seedling . . . m. Sept.

Czar . e. Aug. Diamond m. Sept.

Pershore e. Aug. Monarch e. Sept.

Prince Englebert . . e. Aug. Grand Duke .... Oct.

Mitchelsons' .... b. Sept. Wyedale e. Oct.

Diseases. — The Plum is subject to several diseases of fungal
origin. A widespread disease known as pocket-plums or bladder-
plums is due to an ascomycetous fungus, Exoaccus pruni, the
mycelium of which lives parasitically in the tissues of the host plant,
passes into the ovary of the flower and causes the characteristic
malformation of the fruit which becomes a deformed, sometimes
curved or flattened, wrinkled dry structure, with a hollow occupying
the place of the stone ; the bladder plums are yellow at first, subse-
quently dingy red. The reproductive spores are borne in sacs (asci)
which form a dense layer on the surface, appearing like a bloom in
July; they are scattered by the wind and propagate the disease.
The only remedy is to cut off and burn the diseased branches.

Plum-leaf blister is caused by Polystigma rubrum, a pyrenomy-
cetous fungus which forms thick fleshy reddish patches on the leaves.

PLUMBAGO— PLUMBING

855

The reproductive spores are formed in embedded flesh-shaped recep-
tacles (perithecia) and scattered after the leaves have fallen. The

spots are not often so numerous
as to do much harm to the leaves,
but where the disease is serious
diseased leaves should be collected
and burned. Sloes and bird-
cherries should be removed from
the neighbourhood of plum-trees,
as the various disease-producing
insects and fungi live also on these
species. The branches are some-
times attacked by weevils {Rhyn-
cites) and the larvae of various
moths, and saw-flies (chiefly Erio-
campa) feed on the leaves, and
young branches and leaves are
sometimes invaded by Aphides.
Leaf-feeding beetles and larvae of
moths are best got rid of by
shaking the branches and collecting
the insects. Slug-worms or saw-fly
larvae require treatment by wash-
ing with, soapsuds, tobacco and
lime-water or hellebore solution,
and Aphides by syringing from
below and removing all surplus
young twigs.

(After Sadebeck. From Strasburger's
Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission
of Gustav Fischer.)

Taphrina Pruni. — Transverse
section through the epidermis
of ah infected plum. Four
ripe asci, 01, 02, with eight
spores a», a t , with yeast-like
conidia abstricted from the
spores.

st, Stalk-cells of the asci.

m, Filaments of the mycelium
cut transversely.

cut, Cuticle.

ep, Epidermis.

PLUMBAGO (from Lat. plum-
bum, lead), a name frequently
applied to graphite {q.v.), in
allusion to its remote resem-
blance to lead, whence it is
popularly called " black-lead."
It was formerly held in repute
in medicine, but is now regarded as having no medicinal
properties of any value.

PLUMBAGO DRAWINGS. What we should now speak of as
pencil drawings were in the 17th and 18th centuries usually
known as drawings " in plumbago," and there is a group of
artists whose work is remarkable for their exquisite portraits
drawn with finely pointed pieces of graphite and upon vellum.
In some books of reference they are grouped as engravers, and
as such Horace Walpole describes several of them. There is no
doubt that many of their fine pencil drawings were prepared for
the purpose cf engraving, but this is not likely to have been
the case with all, and we have evidence of certain commissions
executed, by Forster for example, when the portrait was not
required for the preparation of a plate. One of the earliest of
this group of workers was Simon Van de Pass (1 5957-1647) ,
and in all probability his pencil drawings were either for repro-
duction on silver tablets or counters or for engraved plates.
A very few pencil portraits by Abraham Blooteling, the Dutch
engraver, have been preserved, which appear to have been first
sketches, from which plates were afterwards engraved. They
are of exceedingly delicate workmanship, and one in the present
writer's collection is signed and dated. By David Loggan
(1635-1700), a pupil of Van de Pass, there also remain a few
portraits, as a rule drawn on vellum and executed with the
utmost dexterity and with marvellous minuteness, the lines
expressing the intricacies of a lace ruffle or the curls of a wig
being perfectly rendered. It is evident that these were not
always prepared for engraving, because there is one representing
Charles II., set in a beautiful gold snuff box, which was given by
the king to the duchess of Portsmouth and now belongs to the
duke of Richmond, and a similar portrait of Cromwell in the
possession of Lord Verulam, while several others belong to Lord
Caledon, and there are no engravings corresponding to these.
On the other hand, a large drawing by Loggan in the writer's
collection, representing Charles II., is the sketch for the finished
engraving and bears a declaration to that effect. An artist
who is better known to the general collector is William Faithorne
(1616-1601). He was the pupil of Sir Robert Peake, the
engraver, but derived much of his skill from the time he spent
with Nanteuil, whose involved minute style he closely followed,
triumphing over technical difficulties with great success. There
are important drawings by him in the Bodleian, at Welbeck

Abbey and at Montagu House, and two fine portraits in the
British Museum. Thomas Forster (fl. 1695-1712) was one of
the greatest draughtsmen in this particular form of portraiture.
His drawings are both on vellum and on paper, as a rule on
vellum. Of the details of his life very little is known. He
engraved a few prints, but they are of the utmost rarity. His
finest portraits are executed with very great refinement and
delicacy, the modelling of the face being quite wonderful. It is
in fact one of the marvels of this type of portraiture how such
exquisite lines could have been drawn with the roughly cut
pieces of graphite which were at the disposal of the artists. In
some instances in Forster's work the lines representing the
modelling of the face are so fine as to be quite indistinguishable
without the aid of a glass. His work can be studied at Welbeck
Abbey, in the Holburne Museum at Bath, in the Victoria and
Albert Museum and elsewhere. Two other Englishmen should
be referred to, Robert and George White, father and son. The
former (164 5-1704) was a pupil of Loggan and a prolific engraver,
and most of his drawings, executed on vellum, were for the
purpose of engraving. George White (c. 1684-1732) was taught
by his father, and finished some of his father's plates. His own
pencil drawings are of even finer execution than those of Robert
White. These three men, Forster and the two Whites, carefully
signed their drawings and dated them. By Robert White there
are remarkable portraits of Bunyan and Sir Matthew Hale in
the British Museum, and his own portrait at Welbeck; and by
him and his son there are other drawings in private collections,
depicting Sir Godfrey Kneller, Archbishop Tennyson and others.
The two Fabers (i66o?-i72i and 16957-1756) were from
Holland, the elder having been born at the Hague, as he himself
states on his portrait which was in Vertue's collection. In
addition to the portraits these two men usually added beautiful
drawn inscriptions, often found within circles around the por-
traits and occasionally extending to many lines below them.
The son was the greater artist and a famous mezzotinter. The
portrait painter Jonathan Richardson (1665-1745) executed
many fine drawings in pencil, examples of which can be seen in
the British Museum. One of the best of these plumbago
draughtsmen was a Scotsman, whose work is of the utmost
rarity, David Paton, who worked in 1670. The chief of his
drawings belong to the earl of Dysart and are at Ham House,
and two examples of his portraiture are in the possession of the
Dalzell family. Of Paton's history nothing is known save that
he was a Catholic who worked for more than one Dominican
house, a devoted adherent of the Stuart cause, and was attached
to the court of Charles II., when the king was in Scotland. At
that time he drew his remarkable portrait of the king now at
Ham House. There are drawings of the same character as his,
the work of George Glover (d. 1618) and Thomas Cecill (/?. 1630),
but they are of extraordinary rarity and were evidently first
studies for engravings. Of Glover's work the only signed
example known is in the writer's collection. A Swiss artist,
Joseph Werner (b. 1637) or Waerner, drew well in pencil,
adopting brown paper as the material upon which his best
drawings were done, and in some cases heightening them with
touches of white paint. The most notable of his portraits is
one which is in the collection at Welbeck Abbey.

The earlier miniature painters also drew in this manner, notably
Hilliard in preparing designs for jewels and seals, and Isaac and
Peter Oliver in portraits. By Isaac Oliver there is a fine drawing in
Lord Derby's collection; and one by Peter, a marvellous likeness
cf Sir Bevil Grenville, in that of the writer. The later men, Hone,
Grimaldi, Lens and Downman, also drew finely in plumbago. Other
notable exponents of this delightful art were Thomas Worlidge
(1 700-1 766), F. Steele (c. 1 7 14), W. Robins (c. 1730), G. A. Wolff-
gang (1692-1775), George Vertue the engraver (1684-1756), Johann
Zoffany (1733-1810), and the Swede, Charles Bancks (c. 1748), who
resided in England for some years. (G. C. W.)

PLUMBING, properly working in lead (Lat. plumbum), now a
term embracing all work not only in lead, but also in tin, zinc
and other metals, connected with the installation, fitting,
repairing, soldering, &c, of pipes for water, gas, drainage, on
cisterns, roofs and the like in any building, i.e. the general work
of a plumber. (See Building and Sewerage.)

8 5 6

PLUMPTRE— PLUNKET, BARON

PLUMPTRE, EDWARD HAYES (1821-1891), English divine
and scholar, was born in London on the 6th of August 1821.
A scholar of University College, Oxford, he graduated with a
double-first class in 1844, and in the same year he was elected
fellow of Brasenose College. He was ordained in 1847, and
shortly afterwards appointed chaplain, and then professor of
pastoral theology, at King's College, London. In 1863 he was
given a prebendal stall at St Paul's, and from 1869 to 1874 he
was 1 a member of the committee appointed by Convocation
to revise the authorized version of the Old Testament. He
was Boyle lecturer in 1866-1867 (" Christ and Christendom "),
and Grinfield lecturer on the Septuagint at Oxford 1872-1874.
After successively holding the livings of Pluckley and Brickley
in Kent, he was installed in 1881 as dean of Wells. He died on
the 1st of February 1891.

Plumptre was a man of great versatility and attained high repu-
tation as a translator of the plays of Sophocles (1865) and Aeschylus
(1868), and of the Divina commedia of Dante (1886). In verse his
main achievements were Lazarus (1864), and Master and Scholar
(1866). Among his many theological works may be mentioned
An Exposition of the Epistles to the Seven Churches of Asia (1877),
The Spirits in Prison (1884), " The Book of Proverbs " (which he
annotated in the Speaker's Commentary), the " Synoptic Gospels,
Acts, and II. Corinthians," in Bishop Ellicott's New Testament
Commentary, and Life of Bishop Ken (1888).

PLUNDER, to rob, to pillage, especially in war. The word
came into English usage directly from Ger. plundern (derived
from a substantive Plunder meaning " household stuff," bed-
clothes, clothing, &c), particularly with reference to the pillaging
of the Thirty .Years' War. Thomas May (History* of the Long
Parliament, 1647; quoted in the New English Dictionary) says:
" Many Tounes and Villages he (Prince Rupert) plundered,
which is to say robb'd, for at that time first was the word plunder
used in England, being borne in Germany." The New English
Dictionary's earliest quotation is from the Swedish Intelligencer
(1632).

PLUNKET, OLIVER (1620-1681), Irish Roman Catholic
divine, was born at Loughcrew, Co. Meath. He was edu-
cated privately and at Rome, whither he went with Father
Scarampi in 1645. From 1657 to 1669 he was professor of
theology at the College of the Propaganda, enjoyed the friend-
ship of the historian, Pallavicini, and acted as representative
of Irish ecclesiastical affairs at Rome. Pope Clement IX.
appointed him to the archbishopric of Armagh and primacy of
Ireland in July 1669, and in November he was consecrated at
Ghent, reaching Ireland in March 1670. Lord Berkeley of
Stratton, the viceroy, showed him much kindness and allowed
him to establish a Jesuit school in Dublin. Plunket showed
amazing diligence in furthering the cause of his Church. He
was in very straitened circumstances, the revenue of his see
being only £62 in good years. The repressive measures following
on the Test Act bore hardly upon him, and in December 1678 he
was imprisoned in Dublin Castle for six weeks. Accused of a
share in the Irish branch of the " Popish Plot," he was brought
to London, and in June 1681 arraigned in the King's Bench,
charged with conspiring to bring a French army to Carlingford.
He made a good defence, but on the absurdest of evidence the
jury convicted him of treason, and on the 1st of July he was
hanged, drawn and quartered at Tybum.

PLUNKET, WILLIAM CONYNGHAM PLUNKET, ist Baron
(1764-1854), Irish lawyer, orator and statesman, was born in
the county of Fermanagh in July 1764. 1 He was educated first
by his father, a Presbyterian minister of considerable ability
and reputation, and in 1779 he became a student of Trinity
College, Dublin. He was conspicuous as the acknowledged
leader of the Historical Society, the debating club of Trinity
College, then full of young men of remarkable promise. Having
entered Lincoln's Inn in 1784, Plunket was called to the Irish
bar in 1787. He gradually obtained a considerable practice
in equity; and was made a king's counsel in 1797.

1 The Irish Plunkets are distinguished by the spelling of the name
from the Plunketts of the families of the barons Dunsany (cr. 1439)
and the" earls of Fingall (cr. 1628), though the earlier members of
these houses are often given the spelling of Plunket.

In 1798 he entered the Irish parliament as member for Charle-
mont. He was an anti- Jacobin Whig of the school of Burke,
not ungracefully filled with a. fervent Irish patriotism. But he
was a sincere admirer of the constitutional government of
England as established in 1688; he even justified the ascendancy
it had given to the Established Church, although he thought
that the time had arrived for extending toleration to Roman
Catholics and dissenters. To transfer it to Ireland as thus
modified, and under an independent legislature, was the only
reform he sought for his country; he opposed the union because
he thought it incompatible with this object.

When Plunket entered the Irish parliament, the Irish Whig
party was almost extinct, and Pitt was feeling his way to
accomplish the union. In this he was seconded ably by Lord
Castlereagh, by the panic caused by a wild insurrection, and by
the secession of Grattan from politics. When, however, the
measure was brought forward, among the ablest and fiercest of
its adversaries was Plunket, whose powers as a great orator
were now universally recognized. His speeches raised him
immediately to the front rank of his party; and when Grattan
re-entered the moribund senate he took his seat next to
Plunket, thus significantly recognizing the place the latter had
attained.

After the union Plunket returned to the practice of his
profession, and became at once a leader of the equity bar. In
1803, after Emmet's rebellion, he was selected as one of the
Crown lawyers to prosecute the unfortunate enthusiast, and at
the trial, in summing up the evidence, delivered a speech of
remarkable power, which shows his characteristic dislike of
revolutionary outbursts. For this speech he was exposed to
much unmerited obloquy, and more especially to the abuse of
Cobbett, against whom he brought a successful action for
damages. In 1803, in Pitt's second administration, he became
solicitor-general, and in 1805 attorney-general for Ireland; and
he continued in office when Lord Grenville came into power in
1806. Plunket held a seat in the Imperial parliament during
this period, and there made several able speeches in favour of
Catholic emancipation, and of continuing the war with France;
but when the Grenville cabinet was dissolved he returned
once more to professional life.

In 181 2, having amassed a considerable fortune, he re-entered
parliament as member for Trinity College, and identified himself
with the Grenville or anti-Gallican Whigs. He was soon acknow-
ledged as one of the first orators, if not the first, of the House of
Commons. His reverence for the English constitution in church
and state, his steady advocacy of the war with Napoleon, and
his antipathy to anything like democracy made him popular
with the Tory party. In 1822 Plunket was once more attorney-
general for Ireland, with Lord Wellesley as lord-lieutenant.
One of his first official acts was to prosecute for the " bottle
riot," an attempt on his part to put down the Orange faction
in Ireland. He strenuously opposed the Catholic Association,
which about this time, under the guidance of O'Connell, began
its agitation. In 1825 he made a powerful speech against it;
thus the curious spectacle was seen of the ablest champion of
an oppressed church doing all in his power to check its efforts to
emancipate itself.

In 1827 Plunket was made master of the rolls in England;
but, owing to the professional jealousy of the bar, who regarded
an Irishman as an intruder, he resigned in a few days. Soon
afterwards he became chief justice of the common pleas in
Ireland, and was then created a peer of the United Kingdom.
In 1830 he was appointed lord chancellor of Ireland, and held
the office, with an interval of a few months only, until 1841,
when he finally retired from public life. He died on the 4th of
January 1854, and was succeeded by his eldest son, the bishop of
Tuam (1 792-1866) as 2nd baron. The 4th baron (1828-1897)
was bishop of Meath and afterwards archbishop of Dublin and
primate of Ireland, and an active ecclesiastical statesman; and
his younger brother David Plunket (b. 1838), solicitor-general
for Ireland in 1875-1877, and first commissioner of works in the
Unionist administration of 1885-1892, was in 189s created Baron

PLUNKETT— PLUTARCH

857

Rathmore. William Lee Plunket, 5th baron (b. 1864), was
governor of New Zealand from 1904 to 1910.

PLUNKETT, SIR HORACE CURZON (1854- ), Irish
politician, third son of Edward, 16th baron Dunsany, was born
on the 24th of October 1854, and was educated at Eton and
University College, Oxford, of which college he became honorary
fellow in 1909. He spent ten years (1879-1889) ranching in
Montana, U.S.A., where, together with a substantial fortune,
he acquired experience that proved invaluable in the work
of agricultural education, improvement and development, to
which he devoted himself on his return to Ireland in 1889. At
first Plunkett resolved to hold himself aloof from party politics,
and he set himself to bring together men of all political views
for the promotion of the material prosperity of the Irish people.
In 1894 he founded the Irish Agricultural Organization Society,
which accomplished a work of incalculable importance by
introducing co-operation among Irish farmers, and by proving
to the latter the benefits obtainable through more economical
and efficient management. But already in 1892 he had felt
compelled to abandon his non-political attitude, and he entered
parliament as Unionist member for south Dublin (county).
Continuing, however, his policy of conciliation, Plunkett sug-
gested in August 1895 that a few prominent persons of various
political opinions should meet to discuss and frame a scheme of
practical legislation. The outcome of this proposal was the forma-
tion of the " Recess Committee " with Plunkett as chairman,
which included men of such divergent views as the earl of Mayo,
Mr John Redmond, The O'Conor Don and Mr Thomas Sinclair.
In July 1896 the Recess Committee issued a report, of which
Plunkett was the author, containing valuable accounts of the
systems of state aid to agriculture and of technical instruction
in foreign countries. This report, and the growing influence
of Plunkett, who became a member cf the Irish Privy Council
in 1897, led to the passing of an act in 1899 which established a
department of agriculture and technical instruction in Ireland,
of which the chief secretary was to be president ex officio. Plun-
kett was appointed vice-president, a position which gave him
control of the department's operations. It was intended that
the vice-president should be responsible for the department in
the House of Commons, but at the general election of 1900
Plunkett lost his seat. An extensively signed memorial, sup-
ported by the Agricultural Council, prayed that he might not
be removed from office, and at the government's request he
continued to direct the policy of the department without a seat
in parliament. He was created K.C.V.O. in 1903.

On the accession of the Liberal party to power in 1906, Sir
Horace Plunkett was requested by Mr Bryce, the new chief
secretary, to remain at the head of the department he had
created. But, having sat in the House of Commons as a Unionist,
Plunkett had incurred the hostility of the Nationalist party,
whose resentment had been further excited by the bold statement
of certain unpalatable truths in his book, Ireland in the New
Century (1904), in which he described the economic condition
and needs of the country and the nature of the agricultural
improvement schemes he had inaugurated. A determined
effort was therefore made by the Nationalists to drive from
office the man who had probably done more than any one else
of his generation to benefit the Irish people; and in moving a
resolution in the House of Commons with this object in 1907,
a Nationalist declared that his party " took their stand on the
principle that the industrial revival could only go hand in hand
with the national movement." The government gave way,
and in the summer of 1907 Sir Horace Plunkett retired from
office. Since the year 1900 a grant of about £4000 had been
made annually by the Department of Agriculture to the Irish
Agricultural Organization Society; but the new vice-president,
Mr T. W. Russell, who had been himself previously a member
of the Unionist administration, withdrew in 1907 this modest
support of an association with which Sir Horace Plunkett
was so closely identified, and of which he continued to be the
guiding spirit. In addition to the publication mentioned,
Sir Horace Plunkett published Noblesse Oblige: An Irish

Rendering (1908), and Rural Life Problems of the United States
(1910).

See Sir Horace Plunkett, Ireland in the New Century (London,
1904); Report of the Committee of Inquiry: Department of Agriculture
and Technical Instruction {Ireland), (Cd. 3572) (1907).

PLURALISM (Lat. plus, plures, many, several), a term used
generally in the sense of plurality (see below), and in philosophy
for any theory which postulates more than one absolutely dis-
tinct being or principle of being, opposed to monism. Plural-
istic systems are based on the difficulty of reconciling with the
monistic principle the principles of variety and freewill. The
chief difficulty which besets any such view is that if the elements
are absolutely independent, the cosmos disappears and we are
left with chaos: if, on the other hand, there is interrelation
(as in Lotze's system), the elements are not ultimate 'in any
intelligible sense.

PLURALITY (O. Fr. pluralite, Late Lat. pluralitas, plural
number), in a general sense, a word denoting more than one;
applied particularly to the holding of two or more offices by
the same person (called then a pluralist). In ecclesiastical law,
plurality or the holding of more than one benefice or preferment
was always discountenanced, and is now prohibited in England
by the Pluralities Act 1838, as amended by the Pluralities Act
1850 and the Pluralities Acts Amendment Act 1885. By the
latter act a provision was made that two benefices might be
held together, by dispensation of the archbishop on the recom-
mendation of the bishop, if the churches be within four miles
of each other, and if the annual value of one does not exceed
£200 (see Benefice). It was formerly a practice to evade
enactments against plurality by means of commendams, i.e. by
committing or commending a benefice to a holder of other
benefices until an incumbent should be provided for it. Com-
mendams were abolished by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners
Act 1836 (6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 77, § 18). See also Colt v. Bishop
of Coventry, 1613, Hob. 14c seq., where much learning on the
subject will be found.

In elections, particularly where there are three or more
candidates, and no one candidate receives an absolute majority
of votes, the excess of votes polled by the first candidate over
the second is often termed plurality, especially in the United
States.

PLUSH (Fr. peluche), a textile fabric having a cut nap or pile
the same as fustian or velvet. Originally the pile of plush
consisted of mohair or worsted yarn, but now silk by itself or
with a cotton backing is used for plush, the distinction from
velvet being found in the longer and less dense pile of plush.
The material is largely used for upholstery and furniture
purposes, and is also much employed in dress and millinery.

PLUTARCH (Gr. nXourapxos) (c. a.d. 46-120), Greek bio-
grapher and miscellaneous writer, was born at Chaeronea in
Boeotia. After having been trained in philosophy at Athens he
travelled and stayed some time at Rome, where he lectured on philo-
sophy and undertook the education of Hadrian. 1 Trajan bestowed
consular rank upon him, and Hadrian appointed him procurator
of Greece. He died in his native town, where he was archon
and priest of the Pythian Apollo. In the Consolation to his
Wife on the loss of his young daughter, he tells us (§ 2) that they
had brought up four sons besides, one of whom was called by the
name of Plutarch's brother, Lamprias. We learn incidentally
from this treatise (§ 10) that the writer had been initiated in
the secret mysteries of Dionysus, which held that the soul was
imperishable. He seems to have been an independent thinker
rather than an adherent of any particular school of philosophy.
His vast acquaintance with the literature of his time is every-
where apparent.

The celebrity of Plutarch, or at least his popularity, is mainly
founded on his forty-six Parallel Lives. He is thought to have
written this work in his later years after his return to Chaeronea.
His knowledge of Latin and of Roman history he must have
partly derived from some years' residence in Rome and other

1 There seems no authority for this statement earlier than the
middle ages.

8 5 8

PLUTARCH

parts of Italy, 1 though he says he was too much engaged in
lecturing (doubtless in Greek, on philosophy) to turn his attention
much to Roman literature during that period.

Plutarch's design in writing the Parallel Lives — for this is
the title which he gives them in dedicating Theseus and Romulus
to Sosius Senecio — appears to have been the publication, in
successive books, of authentic biographies in pairs, taking
together a Greek and a Roman. In the introduction to the
Theseus he speaks of having already issued his Lycurgus and
Numa, viewing them, no doubt, as bearing a resemblance to
each other in their legislative character. Theseus and Romulus
are compared as the legendary founders of states. In the
opening sentence of the life of Alexander he says that " in this
book he has written the lives of Alexander and Caesar " (Julius),
and in his Demosthenes, where he again (§ i) mentions his friend
Sosius, be calls the life of this orator and Cicero the fifth book. 2
It may therefore fairly be inferred that Plutarch's original idea
was simply to set a Greek warrior, statesman, orator or legislator
side by side with some noted Roman celebrated for the same
qualities, or working under similar conditions. Nearly all the
lives are in pairs; but the series concluded with single biographies
of Artaxerxes, Aratus (of Sicyon), Galba and Otho. In the life
of Aratus, not Sosius Senecio, but one Polycrates, is addressed.

The Lives are works of great learning and research, long lists
of authorities are given, and they must for this very reason,
as well as from their considerable length, have taken many years
in compilation. It is true that many of the lives, especially of
Romans, do not show such an extent of research. But Plutarch
must have had access to a great store of books, and his diligence
as an historian cannot be questioned, if his accuracy is in some
points impeached. From the historian's point of view the
weakness of the biographies is that their interest is primarily
ethical. The author's sympathy with Doric characters and
institutions is very evident; he delights to record the exploits,
the maxims and virtues of Spartan kings and generals.
This feeling is the key to his apparently unfair and virulent
attack on Herodotus, who, as an Ionian, seemed to him to have
exaggerated the prowess and the foresight of the Athenian
leaders.

The voluminous and varied writings of Plutarch exclusive
of the Lives are known under the common term Opera moralia.
These consist of above sixty essays, some of them long and
many of them rather difficult, some too of very doubtful genuine-
ness. Their literary value is greatly enhanced by the large
number of citations from lost Greek poems, especially verses of
the dramatists, among whom Euripides holds by far the first
place. The principal treatises in the Opera moralia are the
following: —

On the Education of Children (regarded as spurious by some)
recommends (i) good birth, and sobriety in the father; (2) good
disposition and good training are alike necessary for virtue; (3)
a mother ought to nurse her own offspring, on the analogy of all
animals; (4) the paedogogus must be honest and trustworthy; (5)
all the advantages of life and fortune must be held secondary to
education; (6) mere mob-oratory is no part of a good education;
(7) philosophy should form the principal study, but not to the
exclusion of the other sciences ; (8) gymnastics are to be practised ;
(9) kindness and advice are better than blows; (10) over-pressure
in learning is to be avoided, and plenty of relaxation is to be allowed ;

(11) self-control, and not least over the tongue, is to be learned;

(12) the grown-up youth should be under the eye and advice of his
father, and all bad company avoided, flatterers included ; (13) fathers
should not be too harsh and exacting, but remember that they were
themselves once young; (14) marriage is recommended, and without
disparity of rank; (15) above all, a father should be an example of
virtue to a son.

How a Young Man ought to Hear Poetry is largely made up of
quotations from Homer and the tragic poets. The points of the
essay are the moral effects of poetry as combining the true with the
false, the praises of virtue and heroism with a mythology depraved
and unworthy of gods, tlBtolrt Spuai. <pav)u>i>, o!>k eiaip Beol (§21).

1 Demosth. § 2. Plutarch's orthography of Roman words and
names is important as bearing on the question of pronunciation.
A curious example (De fortun. Rem. § 5) is Virtutis et honoris,
written OfoproOrts re nai 'OvSipis. The Volsci are OtioXoOorot, ibid.

! It is quite evident that the original order of the books has been
altered in the series of Lives as we now have them.

On the Right Way of Hearing (ir*pi toO &koI>*i.v) advocates the
listening in silence to what is being said, and not giving a precipitate
reply to statements which may yet receive some addition or modifica-
tion from the speaker (§ 4). The hearer is warned not to give too
much weight to the style, manner or tone of the speaker (§7), not
to be either too apathetic or too prone to praise, not to be impatient
if he finds his faults reproved by the lecturer (| 16). He concludes
with the maxim, " to hear rightly is the beginning of living rightly,"
and perhaps he has in view throughout his own profession as a
lecturer.

How a Flatterer may be Distinguished from a Friend is a rather
long and uninteresting treatise. The ancient writers are full of
warnings against flatterers, who do not seem to exercise much
influence in modern society. The really dangerous flatterer (§ 4)
is not the parasite, but the pretender to a disinterested friendship
— one who affects similar tastes, and so insinuates himself into your
confidence. Your accomplished flatterer does not always praise,
but flatters by act, as when he occupies a good seat at a public
meeting for the express purpose of resigning it to his patron (§ 15).
A true friend, on the contrary, speaks freely on proper occasions.
A good part of the essay turns on irapprjaia, the honest expression
of opinion. The citations, which are fairly numerous, are mostly
from Homer.

How one may be Conscious of Progress in Goodness is addressed to
Sosius Senecio, who was consul in the last years of Nerva, and more
than once (99, 102, 107) under Trajan. If, says Plutarch, a man
could become suddenly wise instead of foolish, he could not be
ignorant of the change; but it is otherwise with moral or mental
processes. Gradual advance in virtue is like steady sailing over a
wide sea, and can only be measured by the time taken and the forces
applied (§3). Zeno tested advance by dreams (§ 12); if no excess
or immorality presented itself to the imagination of the sleeper, his
mind had been purged by reason and philosophy. When we love
the truly good, and adapt ourselves to their looks and manners,
and this even with the loss of worldly prosperity, then we are really
getting on in goodness ourselves (§ 15). Lastly, the avoidance of
little sins is an evidence of a scrupulous conscience (§17).

How to get Benefit out of Enemies argues that, as primitive man
had savage animals to fight against, but learnt to make use of their
skins for clothing and their flesh for food, so we are bound to turn
even our enemies to some good purpose. One service they do to
us is to make us live warily against plots; another is, they induce us
to live honestly, so as to vex our rivals not by scolding them, but
by making thein secretly jealous of us (§ 4). Again, finding fault
leads us to consider if we are ourselves faultless, and to be found
fault with by a foe is likely to be plain truth speaking, ixovarkav
iarl vapi. t&v ixOp&v ti\v iMfiuav (§ 6). Jealousies and strifes, so
natural to man, are diverted from our friends by being legitimately
expended on our enemies (§ 10).

On Having Many Friends, On Chance, On Virtue and Vice, are
three short essays, the first advocating the concentration of one's
affections on a few who are worthy (roils anions <j>i\ias Sii>Keu>, §4),
rather than diluting them, as it were, on the many; the second
pleads that intelligence, 0p6n;axs, not mere luck, is the ruling
principle of all success; the third shows that virtue and vice are
but other names for happiness and misery. All these are inter-
spersed with citations from the poets, several of them unknown
from other sources.

A_ longer treatise, well and clearly written, and not less valuable
for its many quotations, is the Consolation addressed to Apollbnius
(considered spurious by some) on the early death of his " generally
beloved and "religious and dutiful son." Equality of mind both in
prosperity and in adversity is recommended (§ 4), since there are
" ups and downs " (v\j/os ko.1 Taimcorijs) in life, as there are storms
and calms on the sea, and good and bad seasons on the earth. That
man is born to reverses he illustrates by citing fifteen fine verses from
Menander (§ 5). The uselessness of indulging in grief is pointed out,
death being a debt to all and not to be regarded as an evil (§§ 10-12),
Plato's doctrine is cited (§ 13) that the body is a burden and an
impediment to the soul. Death may be annihilation, and therefore
the dead are in the same category as the unborn (§ 15). The lament-
ing a death because it is untimely or premature has something of
selfishness in it (§ 19), besides that it only means that one has arrived
sooner than another at the end of a common journey. If a death
is more grievous because it is untimely, a new-born infant's death
would be the most grievous of all (§ 23). One who has died early
may have been spared many woes rather than have been deprived
of many blessings; and, after all, to die is but to pay a debt due to
the gods when they ask for it (§ 28). Examples are given of fortitude
and resignation under such affliction (§ 33). If, says the author
in conclusion, there is a heaven for the good hereafter, be sure that
such a son will have a place in it. The author has borrowed from the
IlepJ irkvBovs of Crantor.

Precepts about Health commences as a dialogue, and extends to
some length as a lecture. It is technical and difficult throughout,
and contains but little that falls in with modern ideas. Milk, he
says, should be taken for food rather than for drink, and wine
should not be indulged in after hard work or mental effort, for it
does but tend to increase the bodily disturbance (§ 17). Better
than purges or emetics is a temperate diet, which induces the bodily

PLUTARCH

functions to act of themselves (§ 20). Another wise saying is that
idleness does not conduce to health (068' &Xi;0« <<tti to p,SXKov iyiaivtiv
■roiis Tiavxiav ayovras) (§21), and yet another that a man should learn
by experience his bodily capabilities without always consulting a
physician (§ 26).

Advice to the Married is addressed to his newly wedded friends
Polhanus and Eurydice. It is simply and plainly written, and
consists chiefly of short maxims and anecdotes, with but few citations
from the poets.

The Banquet of the Seven Wise Men (considered spurious by some)
is a longer treatise, one of the several " Symposia " or imaginary
conversations that have come down to us. It is supposed to be
given by Periander in the public banqueting-room {iariarbpiov)
near the harbour of Corinth (Lechaeum) on the occasion of a sacrifice
to Aphrodite. The whole party consisted of " more than twice
seven, the friends of the principal guests being also present. Like
Plato s Symposium this treatise takes the form of a narrative of what
was said and done, the narrator being one Diccles, a friend of Perian-
der, who professes to give Nicarchus a correct account as having
been present. The dinner was simple, and in contrast with the
usual splendour of " tyrants " (§ 4). The conversation turns on
various topics; Solon is credited with the remarkable opinion that

a king or tyrant is most likely to become celebrated it he makes a
democracy out ot a monarchy" (§ 7). There is much playful banter
throughout, but neither the wit nor the wisdom seems of a very high
standard. Solon delivers a speech on food being a necessity rather
than a pleasure of life (§ 16), and one Gorgus, a brother of the host,
comes in to relate how he has just shaken hands with Arion, brought
across the sea on the back of a dolphin (§ 18), which brings on a dis-
cussion about the habits of that creature. Among the speakers are
Aesop, Anacharsis, Thales, Chilo, Cleobulus and one Chersias, a poet.

A short essay On Superstition contains a good many quotations
from the poets. It opens with the wise remark that ignorance about
the gods, which makes the obstinate man an atheist, also begets
credulity in weak and pliant minds. The atheist fears nothing
because he believes nothing; the superstitious man believes there
are gods, but that they are unfriendly to him (j 2). A man who
fears the gods 13 never free from fear, whatever he may do or what-
ever may befall him. He extends his fears beyond his death, and
believes in the " gates of hell," and its fires, in the darkness, the
ghosts, the infernal judges, and what not (§ 4). The atheist does not
believe in the gods; the superstitious man wishes he did not, but
tears to disbelieve (§11). On the whole, this is a most interesting
treatise.

On I sis and Osiris is a rather long treatise on Egyptian symbolism,
interesting chiefly to students of Egyptology. It gives an exposition
ot the strange myths and superstitions of this ancient solar cult,
including a full account of the great antagonist of Osiris, Typhon,
or the Egyptian Satan. Plutarch thus lays down the Zoroastrian
theory of good and bad agencies (§ 45) : " If nothing can happen
without cause, ana good cannot furnish cause for evil, it follows that
the nature of evil, as of good, must have an origin and principle of
its own.

On the Cessation of Oracles is a dialogue, discussing the reasons
why divine inspiration seemed to be withdrawn from the old seats
of prophetic lore. The real reason of their decline in popularity
is probably very simple; when the Greek cities became Roman
provinces the fashion of consulting oracles fell off, as unsuited to
the more practical influences of Roman thought and Roman politics.
the question is discussed whether there are such intermediate
beings as daemons, who according to Plato communicate the will
ot the gods to men, and the prayers and vows of men to the gods.

1 he possibility of a plurality of worlds is entertained, and of the
planets being mere or less composed of the essence of the five
elements, fire, ether, earth, air and water (§ ^7). The whole treatise
is metaphysical, but it concludes with remarks on the exhalations
at Delphi having different effects on different people and at different
times The ancient notion doubtless was that the vapour was the
breath of some mysterious being sent up from the under-world.

On the Pythian Responses, why no longer given in Verse, is also a
dialogue, the first part of which is occupied mainly with conver-
sation and anecdotes about the statues and other offerings at Delphi.
It is rather an amusing essay, and may be regarded as a kind of
appendix to the last. The theory propounded (§ 24) is that verse
was the older vehicle of philosophy, history and religion, but that
plain prose has become the later fashion, and therefore that oracles
are now generally delivered "in the same form as laws speak to
citizens, kings reply to their subjects, and scholars hear their teachers
speak. Discredit, too, was brought on the verse-oracle by the
tacihty with which it was employed by impostors (§ 25). Moreover
verse is better suited to ambiguity, and oracles nowadays have less
need to be ambiguous (§ 88).

On the E at Delphi is an inquiry why that letter or symbol was
written on or in the Delphic temple. Some thought it represented
the number five, others that it introduced the inquiry of oracle-
seekers, // sp-and-so was to be done ; while one of the speakers, Am-
monius, decides that it means El, " thou art," an address to Apollo
containing the predication of existence (§ 17).

On the Face of the Moon's Disk is a long and curious if somewhat
tntling speculation, yet not without interest from its calculations

859

of the sizes and the distance from earth of the sun and moon (§10)
and from the contrast between ancient lunar theories and modern
mathematics. The cause of the moon's light, its peculiar colour
the possibility of its being inhabited and many kindred questions
are discussed in this dialogue, the beginning and end of which are
alike abrupt. Some of the " guesses at truth " are very near the
mark, as when :t is suggested (§§ 21-22) that the moon, like the
earth, contains deep recesses into which the sun's light does not
descend, and the appearance of the " face " is nothing but the
shadows of streams or of deep ravines.

On the Late Vengeance of the Deity is a dialogue consequent on a
supposed lecture by Epicurus. An objection is raised to the
ordinary dealings of providence, that long-delayed punishment
encourages the sinner and disappoints the injured, the reply to
which is_(§ 5) that the god sets man an example to avoid hasty
and precipitate resentment, and that he is willing to give time for
repentance (§ 6). Moreover, he may wish to await the birth of
good progeny from erring parents (§ 7). Another fine reflection is
that sin has its own punishment in causing misery to the sinner,
and thus the longer the life the greater is the share of misery (S 9)
1 he essay cone hides with a long story about one Thespesius, and
the treatment which he saw, during a trance, of the souls in the other
world.

On Fate (probably spurious) discusses the law of chance as against
the overruling of providence. This treatise ends abruptly ; the point
ot the argument is that both fate and providence have their due
influence in mundane affairs (§9), and that all things are constituted
for the best.

On pie Genius of Socrates is a long essay, and, like so many of the
rest, in the form of a dialogue. The experiences of one Timarchus
and his supernatural visions in the cave of Trophonius, are related
at length in the Platonic style (§ 22), and the true nature of the
oaigovt, is revealed to him. They are the souls of the just, who
still retain regard for human affairs and assist the good in their
efforts after virtue (§ 28). The dialogue ends with an interesting
narrative of the concealment of Pelopidas and some of the Theban
conspirators against the Spartans in the house of Gharon.

On Exile is a fine essay, rendered the more interesting from its
numerous quotations from the poets, including several from the
Fhoemssae. Man is not a plant that grows only in one soil; he
belongs to heaven rather than to earth, and wherever he goes there
are the same sun, the same seasons, the same providence, the same
laws of virtue and justice (§ 5). There is no dfecredit in being driven
trom ones country; Apollo himself was banished from heaven and
condemned to live for a time on earth (§ 18).

The Consolation to his Wife, on the early death of their only
daughter Timoxena (§ 7), is a feeling and sensible exhortation to
moderate her grief.

Nine books of Symposiaca extend to a great length, discussing
inquiries (ipo^X^ara) on a vast number of subjects. The general
treatment of these, in which great literary knowledge is displayed,
is not unlike the style of Athenaeus.

The Amorous Man is a dialogue of some length, describing a con-
versation on the nature of love held at Helicon, pending a quin-
quennial feast of the Thespians, who specially worshipped that deity
along with the Muses. It is amply illustrated: by poetical quotations.
In & 24 mention is made of the emperor Vespasian. It is followed
by a short treatise entitled Love Stories, giving a few narratives of
sensational adventures of lovers.

Short Sayings (i.To^8ky M ara), dedicated to Trajan, extend to a
great length, and are divided into three parts: (1) of kings and
commanders (including many Roman); (2) of Spartans; %) of
Spartan women (a short treatise on Spartan institutions being
interposed between the last two). The names of the authors are
added, and to some of them a large number of maxims are attributed

A rather long treatise On the Virtues of Women contains a series
ot narratives of noble deeds done by the sex in times of danger
and trouble, especially from " tyrants." Many of the stories are
interesting, ana the style is easy and good.

Another long and learned work bears the rather obscure title
K&t>a\<uav Karaypa.^. It is generally known as Quaestiones Ro-
manae and Graecae, in two parts. In the former, which contains
one hundred and thirteen headings, the inquiry (on some matter
political religious or antiquarian) always commences with St A ri,
usually iollowed by vbrtpov, with alternative explanations. In the
Greek Questions the form of inquiry is more often Ws or rive's, not
followed by jc&repov. This treatise is of great interest and import-
ance to classical archaeology, though the inquiries seem occasionally
trilling, and sometimes the answers are clearly wrong.

Parallels (spurious) are a series of similar incidents which occurred
respectively to Greeks and Romans, the Greek standing first and the
Roman counterpart following. Many of the characters are mytho-
logical, though Plutarch regards them as historical.

On the Fortune of the Romans discusses whether, on the whole,
good luck or valour had more influence in giving the Romans the
supremacy. This is followed by two discourses on the same
?j^ St J° n ? s a PP licable to the career of Alexander the Great, and
Whether the Athenians were more renowned for War or for Wisdom?
The conclusion is (§ 7) that it was not so much by the fame of their
poets as by the deeds of their heroes that Athens became renowned.

86o

PLUTARCH— PLUTO

Gryllus is a most amusing dialogue, in which Circe, Odysseus and
a talking pig take part. Odysseus wishes that all the human beings
that have been changed by the sorceress into bestial forms should
be restored ; but the pig argues that in moral virtues, such as true
bravery, chastity, temperance and general simplicity of life and
contentment, animals are very far superior to man.

Whether Land Animals or Water Animals are the Cleverer is a
rather long dialogue on the intelligence of ants, bees, elephants,
spiders, dogs, &c, on the one hand, and the crocodile, the dolphin,,
the tunny and many kinds of fish, on the other. This is a good
essay, much in the style of Aristotle's History of Animals.

On Flesh-eating, in two orations, discusses the origin of the
practice, viz. necessity, and makes a touching appeal to man not
to destroy life for mere gluttony (§ 4). This is a short but very
sensible and interesting argument. Questions on Plato are ten in
number, each heading subdivided into several speculative replies.
The subjects are for the most part metaphysical; the essay is not
long, but it concerns Platonists only. Whether Water or Fire is
more Useful is also short ; after discussing the uses of both elements
it decides in favour of the latter, since nothing can exceed in im-
portance the warmth of life and the light of the sun. On Primary
Cold is a physical speculation on the true nature and origin of
the quality antithetical to heat. Physical Reasons (Quaestiones
Naturales) are replies to inquiries as to why certain facts or pheno-
mena occur, e.g. " Why is salt the only flavour not in fruits ? "
" Why do fishing-nets rot in winter more than in summer ? " " Why
does pouring oil on the sea produce a calm ? " On the Opinions
accepted by the Philosophers (spurious), in five books, is a valuable
compendium of the views of the Ionic school and the Stoics on the
phenomena of the universe and of life. On the Ill-nature of Herodotus
is a well-known critique of the historian for his unfairness, not only
to the Boeotians and Lacedaemonians, but to the Corinthians and
other Greek states. It is easy to say that this essay " neither
requires nor merits refutation "; but Plutarch knew history, and he
writes like one who thoroughly understands the charges which
he brings against the historian. The Lives of the Ten Orators from
Antiphon to Dinarchus (now considered spurious) are biographies
of various lengths, compiled, doubtless, from materials now lost.

Two rather long essays, Should a Man engage in Politics when he
is no longerYoung, and Precepts for Governing(iro\iTiKa irapayyiXnaTa),
are interspersed with valuable quotations. In favour of the
former view the administrations of Pericles, of Agesilaus, of
Augustus, are cited (§ 2), and the preference of older men for the
pleasures of doing good over the pleasures of the senses (§ 5). In the
latter, the true use of eloquence is discussed, and a contrast drawn
between the brilliant and risky and the slow and safe policy (§ 10).
The choice of friends, and the caution against enmities, the dangers
of love, of gain and of ambition, with many topics of the like kind,
are sensibly advanced and illustrated by examples.

(F.A. P.; J. M. M.)
Bibliography. — Editio princeps, by H. Stephanus (1572); other
complete editions by J. J. Reiske (1774-1782), J. G. Hutten (1791-
1804), T. Dohner and F. Diibner (1846-1855). Of the Lives, there
are editions by A. Coray (1809-1814), C. Sintenis (1839-1846; ed.
min., 1874-1881), and of many separate lives by Siefert-Blass,
Sintenis-Fuhr, Holden, Hardy and others. There are many English
translations, of which the most popular is that by John and William
Langhorne; also the old French version by Jacques Amyot (1559)
from which Sir Thomas North's (1579) was made, newly edited
by G. Wyndham (1895) ; many of the Roman lives have been trans-
lated, with notes, by George Long. The Moralia has been edited
by D. Wyttenbach (1795-1830), and G. N. Bernardakes (1888-1896).
The old English translation by Philemon Holland (1603) has been
revised by C. W. King and A. R. Shilleto in Bohn's Classical Library
(1882-1888), and a later translation by various hands (London,
1684-1694), edited by W. W. Goodwin with introduction by R. W.
Emerson, has been republished at Cambridge, Massachusetts (1874-
1878). Mention may also be made of P. Holland's Romane Questions,
edited with introductory dissertations by F. B. Jevons (1892) ; Roman
Problems, with essay on " Roman Worship and Belief," by G. C.
Allen (1904); De la Musique, ed. H. Weil and Th. Reinach (1900);
J. Oakesmith, The Religion of Plutarch as expounded in his Ethics
(1902); Archbishop Trench, A Popular Introduction to Plutarch
(1873) ; O. Greard, De la Morale de Plutarque (1866) ; R. Volkmann,
Leben, Schriften und Philosophie des Plutarch (1869). The earlier
literature of Plutarch is very extensive, for which W. Engelmann,
Scriptores graeci (1881), may be consulted.

PLUTARCH, of Athens (c. 35°-43°), Greek philosopher,
head of the Neoplatonist school at Athens at the beginning
of the 5th century, was the son of Nestorius and father of
Hierius and Asclepigenia, who were his colleagues in the school.
The origin of Neoplatonism in Athens is not known, but Plutarch
and his followers (the " Platonic Succession ") claim to be the
disciples of Iamblichus, and through him of Porphyry and
Plotinus. Plutarch's main principle was that the study of
Aristotle must precede that of Plato, and that the student should
be taught to realize primarily the fundamental points of agree-

ment between them. With this object he wrote a commentary
on the De anima which was the most important contribution
to Aristotelian literature since the time of Alexander of Aphro-
disias. His example was followed by Syrianus and others of
the school. This critical spirit reached its greatest height in
Proclus, the ablest exponent of this latter-day syncretism.
Plutarch was versed in all the theurgic traditions of the school,
and believed in the possibility of attaining to communion with
the Deity by the medium of the theurgic rites. Unlike the Alex-
andrists and the early Renaissance writers, he maintained
that the soul which is bound up in the body by the ties of imagina-
tion and sensation does not perish with the corporeal media of
sensation. In psychology, while believing that Reason is the
basis and foundation of all consciousness, he interposed between
sensation and thought the faculty of Imagination, which, as
distinct from both, is the activity of the soul under the stimulus
of unceasing sensation. In other words, it provides the raw
material for the operation of Reason. Reason is present in
children as an inoperative potentiality, in adults as working
upon the data of sensation and imagination, and, in its pure
activity, it is the transcendental or pure intelligence of God.

See Marinus, Vita Prodi, 6, 12; Zeller's History of Greek Philo-
sophy; Bouillet, Enneades de Plotin, ii. 667-668; Windelband,
History of Philosophy (trans. J. H. Tufts, p. 225).

PLUTO (JSXoinuv), in Greek mythology, the god of the
lower world. His oldest name was Hades, Aides or Aiidoneus,
" the Unseen." He was the son of Cronus and Rhea, and brother
of Zeus and Poseidon. Having deposed Cronus, the brothers cast
lots for the kingdoms of the heaven, the sea, and the infernal
regions. The last, afterwards known as Hades from their
ruler, fell to Pluto. Here he ruled with his wife Persephone
over the other powers below and over the dead. He is stern
and pitiless, deaf to prayer or flattery, and sacrifice to him is of
no avail; only the music of Orpheus prevailed upon him to restore
his wife Eurydice. His helmet, given him by the Cyclopes
after their release from Tartarus, rendered him invisible (like
the Tarn — or Nebelkappe of German mythology). He is hated
and feared by gods and men, who, afraid to utter his name,
both in daily life and on solemn occasions make use of euphe-
mistic epithets: Polydectes (the receiver of many), Clymenus (the
Illustrious), Eubulus (the giver of good counsel). Later, owing
to his connexion with Persephone and under the influence of
the Eleusinian mysteries, the idea of his character, underwent
a radical change. Instead of the life-hating god of death, he
became a beneficent god, the bestower of grain, minerals, and
other blessings produced in the depths of the earth. In this
aspect he was called Pluto, the " giver of wealth " (a name that
first occurs in the Attic poets of the 5th century), and at most
of the centres of his cult he was so worshipped; at Elis alone he
was Hades, the god of the dead. The plants sacred to him
were the cypress and narcissus; black victims were sacrificed to
him, not white, like those offered to the other gods. In art he
was represented like Zeus and Poseidon; his features are gloomy,
his hair falls over his forehead; his attributes are a sceptre and
Cerberus; he carries the key of the world below (cf. the epithet
irvXaprris, " keeper of the gate "), and is frequently in company
with Persephone. He is sometimes represented as an agri-
cultural god, carrying a cornu copiae and a two-pronged fork.
Amongst the Romans Hades was usually called Dis pater (the
" wealthy father ") and Orcus, although the name Pluto is
often used. Orcus, however, was rather the actual slayer, the-
angel of death, while Father Dis was the ruler of the dead.
The Etruscan god of death was represented as a savage old man
with wings and a hammer; »t the gladiatorial games of Rome a
man masked after this fashion removed the corpses from the
arena. In Romanesque folk-lore Orcus (possibly English " ogre,"
q.v.) has passed into a forest-elf, a black, hairy, man-eating
monster, upon whose house children lost in the woods are apt
to stumble, and who sometimes shows himself kindly and
helpful.

The " house of Hades " was a dreadful abode deep down in the
earth, and the god was invoked by rapping on the ground. According

PLUTOCRACY— PLYMOUTH

861

to another view, the realm of Hades was beyond the ocean in
the far west, which to the Greek was always the region of darkness
and death, as the east of light and life. This is the view of Hades
presented in the Odyssey. Besides this gloomy region, we find in
another passage of the Odyssey (iv. 561 seq.) a picture of Elysium,
a happy land at the ends of the earth, where rain and snow fall
not, but the cool west wind blows and men live at ease. After
Homer this happy land, the abode of the good after death, was
known as the Isles of the Blest (g.n.). 1 But in the oldest Greek
mythology the " house of Hades " was simply the home of the dead,
good and bad alike, who led a dim and shadowy reflection of life
on earth.

See article " Hades," in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; Preller-
Robert, Griechische Mythologie (1894) ; L. Farnell, Cults of the Greek
States, vol. iii., who regards Hades as an evolution from Zeus and
his counterpart; according to J. E. Harrison, in Classical Review
(Feb. 1908), Hades is the under-world sun.

PLUTOCRACY (Gr. 7r\ouTOKparia, from irXoDros, wealth,
and uparos, power), government or power exercised by the
possessors of wealth, power obtained by the mere possession
of riches ; hence a body or ruling class whose influence is due only
to their money.

PLUTO MONKEY, a guenon, Cercopithecus (Mono) leucampyx,
nearly allied to the Mona (q.v.), which takes its name from the
black fur of the under-parts, passing into blackish grey on the
head and back. The violet-coloured face, which has no beard,
is fringed by large bushy whiskers and surmounted by a white
band above the brows. The range of the species extends from
the Congo and Angola to Nyasaland. (See Primates.)

PLUTUS, in Greek mythology, son of Iasion and Demeter,
the personification of wealth (xXoOros). According to Aristo-
phanes, he was blinded by Zeus because he distributed his gifts
without regard to merit. At Thebes there was a statue of For-
tune holding the child Plutus in her arms; at Athens he was
similarly represented in the arms of Peace; at Thespiae he was
represented standing beside Athena the Worker. Elsewhere
he was represented as a boy with a cornu copiae. He is the subject
of one of the extant comedies of Aristophanes, the Plutus.

PLYMOUTH, EARLS OF, a title first borne by Charles
(1657-1680), an illegitimate son of the English king Charles II.
by Catharine Pegge, who was created earl in 1675. The title
became extinct on his death in October 1680. In 1682 Thomas
Windsor Hickman-Windsor, 7th Baron Windsor de Stanwell
(c. 1627-1687), who had fought for Charles I. at Naseby, was
created earl of Plymouth. His father was Dixie Hickman of
Kew, Surrey, and his mother, Elizabeth, was a sister of Thomas
Windsor, 6th Baron Windsor de Stanwell (1596-1641); having
inherited the estates of his uncle and taken the additional name
of Windsor, the abeyance of the barony of Windsor de Stanwell
was terminated in his favour and he became the 7th baron.
From 1661-1663 he was nominally governor of Jamaica. His
grandson Other (1679-1725) was the 2nd earl, and the earldom
became extinct when Henry, the 8th earl, died in December
1843. Called again out of abeyance, the barony of Windsor
came in 1855 to Harriet, a daughter of Other Archer, the 6th
earl (1709-1833), and the wife of Robert Henry Clive (1789-1854),
a younger son of Edward Clive, 1st earl of Powis. She was
succeeded in 1869 by her grandson, Robert George Windsor-
Clive, who became the 14th Baron Windsor. After serving as
paymaster-general in 1891-1892 and first commissioner of works
from 1902-1905, Lord Windsor was created earl of Plymouth in
1003-

1 The Samoan Islanders unite the two conceptions: the entrance
to their spirit-land is at the westernmost point of the westernmost
island, where the ghosts descend by two holes into the under-world.
Long ago the inhabitants of the French coast of the English Channel
believed that the souls of the dead were ferried across to Britain,
and there are still traces of this belief in the folk-lore of Brittany
(Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii. 64; Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, ii.
694). In classical mythology the underground Hades prevailed
over the western. It was an Etruscan custom at the foundation
of a city to dig a deep hole in the earth and close it with a stone ;
on three days in the year this stone was removed and the ghosts
were then supposed to ascend from the lower world. In Asia Minor
caves filled with mephitic vapours or containing hot springs were
known as Plutonia or Charonia. The most famous entrances to
the under-world were at Taenarum in Laconia, Heraclea on the
Euxine, and at the Lake Avernus in Italy.

PLYMOUTH, a municipal county (1888, extended 1896)
and parliamentary borough and seaport of Devonshire, England,
231 m. W.S.W. of London. Pop. (1910), 126,266. It lies at
the head of Plymouth Sound, stretching westward from the
river Plym towards the mouth of the Tamar, from which it is
separated by the township of East Stonehouse and the borough
of Devonport, the two later constituting with it the " Three
Towns." The prince of Wales is lord high steward of the
borough, which is divided into 14 wards, under e mayor,
14 aldermen and 42 councillors. The parliamentary borough,
returning two members, is not coextensive with the municipal
borough, part of the latter being in the Tavistock (county) division
of Devon. The water frontage of the Three Towns consists
of Plymouth Sound, with its inlets, in order from east to west,
the Catwater, Sutton Pool, Mill Bay, Stonehouse Pool and the
Hamoaze. The Catwater and Hamoaze are flanked on the east
and west respectively by high ground, on which are built forts
that command the harbour and its approaches. On the western
side of the entrance to Catwater is the Citadel, founded in the
reign of Henry VIII. and rebuilt by Charles II. The adjacent
Hoe extends along the northern edge of the Sound, and from it
can be obtained a splendid view, embracing the rugged Staddon
Heights on the east and the wooded slopes of Mount Edgcumbe on
the west. To the north is seen the town of Plymouth rising up
to the hills known as Mannamead. On the site of an old Trinity
House obelisk landmark is Smeaton's lighthouse tower, removed
from its original position on the Eddystone Reef in 1884. It
is now used as a wind-recording station in connexion with
the adjoining Meteorological Observatory. On the Hoe there
stands the striking Drake statue by Sir Edgar Boehm, and the
Armada Memorial, while at the north-east end is an obelisk
monument to the memory of troops engaged in the South African
War. A municipal bowling-green recalls a probable early
use of the Hoe. Adjacent to the Citadel, at its south-west angle,
is the Marine Biological Station, and, further west, projects the
Promenade Pier. In the Sound is Drake's (formerly St Nicholas's)
Island, now strongly fortified, at one time the property of the
corporation, and serving in Stuart times as a place of imprison-
ment of certain Plymouth Baptist ministers. Few evidences,
however, of the antiquity of the town remain. Below, and to
the north-east of the Citadel, is the Barbican with its " May-
flower " commemoration stone, a large fish-buying trade being
done on the adjacent quay, near which is the Custom House.
From the Barbican winding streets lead past the old Guildhall
(1800) which contained the municipal library, pending its
removal to more commodious quarters in the new museum,
opposite the technical and art schools, situated in the most
northern part of the town. At a short distance west stands
the new Guildhall, with the enlarged post office, central police
station, law courts and municipal buildings in close proximity.
Opened in 1874, the Guildhall is built in a bold, rather exotic,
Early Pointed French style. The tower at the south-west end
is 190 ft. high, and the building is ornamented with a series of
coloured windows relating to events in the history of Plymouth
or commemorating men and families connected with the town.
The large hall contains a fine organ. In the mayor's parlour
is a contemporary portrait of Sir Francis Drake and some
interesting prints of the town of Plymouth.

Near the eastern entrance to Guildhall Square is St Andrews,
the mother church of Plymouth, erected on the site of a chapel
dedicated to the Virgin. The church is typical of the Devon-
shire Perpendicular style of 1480-1520, but, though large, pre-
sents few features of artistic or archaeological interest. It
underwent complete restoration in 1874. The burying-ground
on the north side has been levelled, and on it erected a stone
monument. The church, furnished with one of the finest
organs in the west of England, contains the tombs of a son of
Admiral Vernon, of Sir John Skelton (a former governor of
the Citadel), and of Charles Mathews the comedian, as well as
portions of the bodies of Frobisher and Drake. Here Katherine
of Aragon returned thanks for a safe voyage from Spain to
Plymouth. In 1640 a second parish was formed with Charles

862

PLYMOUTH

Church (1658) at its head, the last-named being popularly known
as New Church, in contradistinction to St Andrews or " Old
Church." The New Church is an interesting specimen of
Stuart "debased" Gothic architecture. South of Andrews
church is the site of a Franciscan Friary with some early 15th-
century remains. Near the church are a few old houses scattered
along the crooked little streets going down to the water These
houses date from Elizabethan times, but are not of any unusual
mterest. The Citadel (now used as army headquarters and

PLYMOUTH

and Environs

foundation, and intermediate day and evening school and numerous
primary departments. The philanthropic institutions include the
enlarged South Devon and East Cornwall hospital, eye infirm-
ary homoeopathic hospital, blind institution and female orphan
asylum. y

The public recreation grounds, other than the Hoe, are few and
small; Hartley Reservoir Grounds at the northern extremity of
the town commands extensive moorland views; the Freedom Park
by its plain, unfinished monument, recalls the siege of Plymouth
by the Royalists in 1646, and the Beaumont Park contains the tem-
porary home of the nucleus for a museum and art gallery. The

Victoria Park, reclaimed from a part of

btonehouse Creek, is under the joint ad-
ministration of Plymouth, Stonehouse and
Devonport.

barracks) is a fine specimen of 17th-century military architec-
ture. It is an irregular bastioned pentagon in trace. It pos-
sesses a fine florid classical gateway. In the centre stands a
dignified Jacobean house, once the residence of the governor
of Plymouth.

_ Plymouth is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishopric founded
in 185 1, the cathedral, in Wyndham Street, being completed in
1858 through the efforts of Bishop Vaughan, who was the second
occupant of the see (until 1902). The building is in the Early
English style, and adjoining are the bishop's house and the
convent of Notre Dame. In the immediate vicinity is the only
Presbyterian church in the Three Towns. Noteworthy among
the many Nonconformist places of worship are the Baptist
chapel (George Street), with its tablet recording the imprison-
ment of ministers on Drake's Island; Sherwell (Congregational)
on the Tavistock Road, the most ornate in its style of architec-
ture; the Wesleyan Methodist chapel in the main thoroughfare
of the residential suburb of Mutley, unique among Methodist
edifices in the town in respect of its fine spire. All the principal
religious bodies have places for worship or for assembly in the
town, and the borough has given, in popular speech, the name of

Plymouth Brethren " to one body.

In addition to the Plymouth College (for boys), there are several
educational institutions administered by the borough council

sc°h m cSr3 a - SCle ^ e ' art and - techni ^ school, a mixed secondary
school replacing the corporation grammar school of Elizabethan

The township of East Stonehouse,
having Plymouth on the east, is separ-
ated from Devonport on the west by the
Stonehouse Pool Creek, which is crossed
by a toll-bridge and thoroughfare known
locally as the " Half-penny Gate Bridge."
A manor of the Mount Edgcumbe family,
East Stonehouse, is an urban district, in
the administrative county of Devon,
with a council of 15 members, but is
united for parliamentary purposes with
Devonport, with which it returns two
members. Within the boundaries of
Stonehouse are the Royal Naval Hos-
pital (1762), the Royal Marine Barracks
(179S) in Durnford Street, and the
Royal William Victualling Yard (1825),
the last-named having frontage on the
Hamoaze, which separates the Devon
from the Cornish portion of the Stonehouse
manor.

The Stanehus(e) of Domesday Book
ultimately passed into the bands of the
Valletorts, whose hamlet of West Stone-
house stood on the Cornish side of the
Tamar, for (to quote Carew's Survey)
" certaine old ruines yet remaining con-
firm the neighbours' report that near
the water's side, there stood once a
towne called West stone house until the
French (1350?) by fire and sword over-
threw it."

St George's (1798) is the oldest of
the three parishes of Stonehouse, and on
the site of the present church stood the chapel of St George
in which, during the years 1681-1682, worshipped, in addition
to the English congregation, one composed, as at Plymouth,
of Huguenots who fled from France at the Revocation of the
Edict of Nantes.

Facing the Sound are Stone Hall and the Winter Villa. The
former, occupied by the lords of the manor before the building
of Mount Edgcumbe House, was originally a castellated building,
and the latter was built primarily as an alternative residence
for a countess of Mount Edgcumbe. A fink with the past is the
Mill Bridge Causeway, over what was the " Dead Lake," now
a road, which, at the head of Stonehouse Creek, is the second
approach to the Stoke Damerel portion of Devonport. Built
in 1525, it possesses a toll-gate house at which payment from
vehicles is still demanded.

In addition to the Victualling Yard, with its naval ordnance
department, repairing shops and armoury, the Barracks, accom-
modating some 1500 men, and the Naval Hospital of 24 acres
abutting on the Creek, there are within the boundaries a theatre
seating over 2000 persons, the Devonport Corporation Electricity
Works, a clothing factory and part of the Great Western Railway
Docks. the stationary character of the township— which from
its situation is incapable of expansion— is seen from the statistics
of population :(i88 1), 15,041; (1901), 15,108; (1910), 15,111.

The "Port of Plymouth" in 131 1 embraced Plympton,
Modbury and Newton Ferrers, and received a customs grant

Emery Walker 10,

PLYMOUTH

863

from Richard II. In 1435 sixty-five cargoes were imported,
and in the reign of Elizabeth it rose to be the foremost port in
England. The 18th century saw a great development of trade
with Virginia and the West Indies, resulting in the establishment
of a sugar-refining industry that was maintained until a recent
date.

In 1749 the " town's water " was carried to the Barbican to
supply shipping. The port of Plymouth, as at present constituted,
embraces " the waters of Plymouth Sound and the Hamoaze,
including all bays, creeks, lakes, pools, ponds and rivers as far
as the tide flows within or to the northward of a straight line
drawn across the entrance of Plymouth Sound from Penlee
Point on the west to the Shagstone on the east." The chief
water area within the limits of the port is the Sound with its
inlets, the Catwater (200 acres), Sutton Pool, Mill Bay, Stone-
house Pool and the Hamoaze. The Sound itself covers an area
of 4500 acres and is sheltered from south-west gales by the
breakwater completed in 1841 at a cost of 15 million sterling.
It lies 2§ m. south of the Hoe, and is nearly a mile long, 360 ft.
wide at the base and 45 ft. at the top. Its cants bend inwards
at angles of 120°; at the western end is a lighthouse and at the
eastern extremity is a pyramidal beacon with a cage capable
of accommodating several men.

The town is served by the Great Western and the London &
South-Western railways. The former company has a main line
entering from the west through Devonport and going east to Exeter,
having Dartmoor on the west; the latter company has a terminal
station in the eastern quarter of the town, and its route to Exeter
is by way of the Tamar valley, and the western and northern
moorland districts.

The industries of Plymouth include soap manufacture, prepara-
tion of artificial manure and sulphuric acid and paper staining.
The water supply, inaugurated by Drake in 1590, and drawn from
the Dartmoor watershed, is the most important municipal under-
taking. The service of electricity both for lighting and tramway
traction is in the hands of the town, but the gasworks belong to
a private company.

Plymouth, the Suton of Domesday, was afterwards divided
into the town of Sutton Prior, the hamlet of Sutton Valletort
and the tithing of Sutton Ralph, the greater part belonging to
the priory of Plympton. The market, established about 1253,
became in 13 n town property, with the mayor as clerk of the
market. In 1292 the town first returned members to parliament.
In the 14th century it was frequently the port of embarcation
and of disembarcation in connexion with expeditions to France,
and suffered considerably at the hands of the French. In 141 2
the inhabitants petitioned for a charter, which, after strenuous
opposition from the priors of Plympton, was granted by Henry
VI. in 1439. In the discovery of the New World it played a
part of great importance. Cockeram, a native of the town,
sailed with John Cabot in 1497. Sir John Hawkins and
his father William were also natives, the former being port
admiral and (in 1571) M.P. From Plymouth in 1577 Drake
set out on his voyage round the world; in 1581 he became
mayor and represented the borough in parliament during
1592-1593. Sir Humphrey Gilbert (M.P. 1571) sailed on his
second colonizing expedition to America in 1583 from the port,
and hither Drake brought the remnant of Raleigh's Virginian
colony. Plymouth supplied seven ships against the Armada, and
it was in the Sound that the English fleet awaited the sighting
of the Spaniards. A stone on a quay at the Barbican records
the fact that this was the last port touched by the Pilgrim
Fathers on their voyage to America.

During the Civil War Plymouth was closely invested by the
Royalists, whose great defeat is commemorated by the monu-
ment at Freedom Park. It was the only town in the west
that never fell into their hands. It early declared for William
of Orange, in whose reign the neighbouring dockyard was
begun.

Authorities. — Histories of Plymouth by Jewitt and Worth;
Wright's Plymouth with its Surroundings and Story of Plymouth;
Whitfeld, Plymouth and Devonport, in times of War and Peace;
Municipal Records (Plymouth Corporation); Worth, " Notes on
Early History of Stonehouse " (Plymouth Instit. Proc).

(H.G.deW.)

PLYMOUTH, a township and the county-seat of Plymouth
county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., in the southeastern part of
the state, on Plymouth Bay, about 37 m. S.E. of Boston. Pop.
(1905) 11,119; (1910) 12,141. It is served by the New York, New
Haven & Hartford railway, by inter-urban electric lines and
in summer by steamers to Boston. The harbour is well sheltered
but generally shallow; it has been considerably improved by
the United States government and also by the state, which
in 1909 was making a channel 18 ft. deep and 150 ft. wide from
deep water to one of the township's wharves. The township
has an area of 107-3 sq. m., is 18 m. long on the water front and
is from 5 to 9 m. wide. Plymouth is a popular resort for visitors,
having, in addition to its wealth of historic associations and
a healthy summer climate, thousands of acres of hilly woodland
and numerous lakes and ponds well stocked with fish. Morton
Park contains 200 acres of woodland bordering the shores of
Billington Sea (a freshwater lake).

Few, if any, other places in America contain so many interest-
ing landmarks as Plymouth. The famous Plymouth Rock,
a granite boulder on which the Pilgrims are said to have landed
from the shallop of the " Mayflower," lies on the harbour shore
near the site of the first houses built on Leyden Street, and is
now sheltered by a granite canopy. Rising above the Rock is
Cole's Hill, where during their first winter in America the
Pilgrims buried half their number, levelling the graves and sowing
grain over them in the spring in order to conceal their misfor-
tunes from the Indians. Some human bones found on this hill
when the 'town waterworks were built in 1855 have been placed
in a chamber in the top of the canopy over the Rock. Burial
Hill (originally called Fort Hill, as it was first used for defensive
purposes) contains the graves of several Pilgrims and of many of
their descendants. The oldest stone bears the date 1681;
many of the stones were made in England, and bear quaint
inscriptions. Here also are a tablet marking the location of
the old fort (1621), which was also used as a place of worship,
a tablet showing the site of the watch-tower built in 1643, an <l
a marble obelisk erected in 1825 in memory of Governor William
Bradford. Pilgrim Hall, a large stone building erected by the
Pilgrim Society (formed in Plymouth in 1820 as the successor
of the Old Colony Club, founded in 1769) in 1824 and remodelled
in 1880, is rich in relics of the Pilgrims and of early colonial
times, and contains a portrait of Edward Winslow (the only
extant portrait of a " Mayflower " passenger), and others of later
worthies, and paintings illustrating the history of the Pilgrims;
the hall library contains many old and valuable books and
manuscripts — -including Governor Bradford's Bible, a copy of
Eliot's Indian Bible, and the patent of 1621 from the Council
for New England — and Captain Myles Standish's sword. The
national monument to the Forefathers, designed by Hammatt
Billings, and dedicated on the 1st of August 1889, thirty years
after its corner-stone was laid, stands in the northern part of
the town. It is built entirely of granite. On a main pedestal,
45 ft. high, stands a figure, 36 ft. high, representing the Pilgrim
Faith. From the main pedestal project four buttresses, on
which are seated four monolith figures representing Morality,
Education, Law, and Freedom. On the faces of the buttresses
below the statues are marble alto-reliefs illustrating scenes from
the early history of the Pilgrims. On high panels between the
buttresses are the names of the passengers of the " Mayflower."
The court-house was built in 1820, and was remodelled in 1857.
From it have been transferred to the fireproof building of the
Registry of Deeds many interesting historical documents,
among them the records of the Plymouth colony, the will of
Myles Standish, and the original patent of the 23rd of January
1630 (n.s.).

Modern Plymouth has varied and important manufactures
comprising cordage, woollens, rubber goods, &c. In 1905 the
total value of the factory products was $11,115,713, the worsted
goods and cordage constituting about nine-tenths of the whole
product. The cordage works are among the largest in the world,
and consume immense quantities of sisal fibre imported from
Mexico and manila from the Philippine Islands; binder-twine

864

PLYMOUTH— PLYMOUTH BRETHREN

for binding wheat is one of the principal products. From 1900
to 1905 the capital invested in manufactures increased 83%
and the value of the product 101%. Large quantities of
cranberries are raised in the township. Plymouth is a port of
entry, but its foreign commerce is unimportant; it has a consider-
able coasting trade, especially in coal and lumber. The town-
ship owns its waterworks.

Plymouth was the first permanent white settlement in New
England, and dates its founding from the landing here from the
" Mayflower " shallop of an exploring party of twelve Pilgrims,
including William Bradford, on the 21st of December (n.s.)
1620. The Indian name of the place was Patuxet, but the
colonists called it New Plymouth, because they had sailed from
Plymouth, England, and possibly because they were aware
that the name of Plymouth had been given to the place six years
before by Captain John Smith. When and how the town and
the colony of Plymouth became differentiated is not clear.
Plymouth was never incorporated as a township, but in 1633
the General Court of the colony recognized it as such by ordering
that " the chief e government be tyed to the towne of Plymouth."
In 1686 the colony submitted to Sir Edmund Andros, who had
been commissioned governor of all New England, and chose
representatives to sit in his council. Plymouth remained the
seat of government of the colony until 1692, when Plymouth
Colony, and with it the town of Plymouth, was united to Massa-
chusetts Bay under the charter of 1691 (see Massachusetts:
History). Part of Plymouth was established as Plympton in
1707, and part as Kingston in 1726.

Bibliography. — For the sources of the early history of Plymouth
consult (George) Mourt's Relation, or Journal of the Plantation of
Plymouth (Boston, 1865, and numerous other editions) ; William
Bradford's History of the Plimouth Plantation (Boston, 1858, and
several later editions), the most important source of information
concerning Plymouth before 1646; the Plymouth Colony Records
(12 vols., Boston, 1855-1861); the Records of the Town of Plymouth
(3 vols., Plymouth, 1889-1903); J. A. Young's Chronicles of the
Pilgrim Fathers (Boston, 1841); and E. Arber's Story of the Pilgrim
Fathers (London, 1897), the two last containing excerpts from the
leading sources. See also, James Thacher's History of the Town
of Plymouth (Boston, 1832) ; W. T. Davis's History of the Town of
Plymouth (Philadelphia, 1885); also his Ancient Landmarks of
Plymouth (Boston, 2nd ed., 1899); and his Plymouth Memories
of an Octogenarian (Plymouth, 1906) ; and John A. Goodwin, The
Pilgrim Republic (Boston, 1888). For accounts in general histories,
see J. G. Palfrey's History of New England, I. (Boston, 1858); the
appreciative sketch by J. A. Doyle, in his English Colonies in
America, II. (New York, 1889); and, especially, the monograph by
Franklin B. Dexter, in Justin Winsor's Narrative and Critical
History of America, vol. iii. (Boston, 1884). As to the truth of the
tradition that the Pilgrims landed on Plymouth Rock, consult
the Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society (1903), 2nd
series, vol. xvii. containing articles by E. Channing and W. W.
Goodwin; the article by Herbert B. Adams in the Magazine of
American History, ix. 31 sqq., and that by S. H. Gay in the Atlantic
Monthly, xlviii. 612 sqq.

PLYMOUTH, a borough of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the north branch of the Susquehanna river, imme-
diately west of and across the river from Wilkes-Barre, of
which it is a suburb. Pop. (1910), 16,996. Plymouth is served
by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railroad. The
borough is finely situated in the Wyoming Valley among the
rich anthracite coalfields of eastern Pennsylvania, and its
inhabitants are chiefly engaged in the coal industry; in 1906
and 1907 (when it shipped 24,081,491 tons) Luzerne county
shipped more anthracite coal than any other county in Pennsyl-
vania. In 1905 the total value of the factory products was
$902,738, 69-4% more than in 1900. Before the coming of
white settlers there was an Indian village called Shawnee on
the site of the present borough. The township of Plymouth
was settled in 1769 by immigrants from New England — many
originally from Plymouth, Litchfield county, Connecticut,
whence the name — under the auspices of the Susquehanna
Company, which claimed this region as a part of Connecticut,
and Plymouth became a centre of the contest between the
" Pennamites " and the " Yankees " (representing respectively
Pennsylvania and Connecticut), which grew out of the conflict
of the royal charter of Pennsylvania (granted in 1681) with the

royal charter of Connecticut (granted in 1662), a matter which
was not settled until 1799. (See Wyoming Valley.) In its
earlier history the region was agricultural. Two brothers, Abijah
and John Smith, originally of Derby,. Conn., settled in
Plymouth in 1806 and began shipping coal thence in 1808;
this was the beginning of the anthracite coal trade in the United
States. The borough was incorporated in 1866, being then
separated from the township of Plymouth, which had a popula-
tion in 1890 of 8363 and in 1900 of 9655.

See H. B. Wright's Historical Sketches of Plymouth (Philadelphia,
1873).

PLYMOUTH BRETHREN, a community of Christians who
received the name in 1830 when the Rev. J. N. Darby induced
many of the inhabitants of Plymouth, England, to associate
themselves with him for the promulgation of his opinions.
Although small Christian communities existed in Ireland and
elsewhere calling themselves Brethren, and holding similar views,
the accession to the ranks of Darby so increased their numbers
and influence that he is usually reckoned the founder of Ply-
mouthism. Darby (born in Nov. 1800 in London; graduated
at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1819; died April 29, 1882, at
Bournemouth) was a curate in Wicklow 1825-1827, when he felt
himself constrained to leave the Anglican communion; going to
Dublin, he became associated with several devout people who
met statedly for public worship, and called themselves " Breth-
ren." Among these were A. N. Groves and J. G. Bellett, who
deserve to rank among the founders of the movement. In
1830 Darby at Plymouth won over many people to his way of
thinking, among them James L. Harris, a Plymouth clergyman,
and the well-known Biblical scholar Samuel Prideaux Tregelles.
The Brethren started a periodical, The Christian Witness,
continued from 1849 as The Present Testimony, with Harris as
editor and Darby as the most important contributor. During
the next eight years the progress of the sect was rapid, and
communities were founded in many of the principal towns in
England.

In 1838 Darby went to reside in French Switzerland, and made
many disciples. Congregations were formed in Geneva, at
Lausanne, where most of the Methodist and other dissenters
joined the Brethren, at Vevey and elsewhere in Vaud. His
opinions also found their way into France, Germany, German
Switzerland, and Italy; but French Switzerland has always
remained the stronghold of Plymouthism on the Continent,
and for his followers there Darby wrote two of his most important
tracts, Le Ministkre considSre dans sa nature and De la Prisence
el de faction du S. Esprit dans I'eglise. The revolution in the
canton Vaud, brought about by Jesuit intrigue in 1845, brought
persecution to the Brethren in the canton and in other parts
of French Switzerland, and Darby's life was in great jeopardy.

He returned to England, and his reappearance was followed
by divisions among the Brethren at home. These divisions
began at Plymouth. Benjamin Wills Newton, head of the
community there, who had been a fellow of Exeter College,
Oxford, was accused of departing from the testimony of the
Brethren by reintroducing the spirit of clericalism. Unable
to detach the congregation from the teacher, Darby began a
rival assembly. The majority of the Brethren out of Plymouth
supported Darby, but a minority remained with Newton. The
separation became wider in 1847 on the discovery of supposed
heretical teaching by Newton. In 1848 another division took
place. The Bethesda congregation at Bristol, where George
Muller was the most influential member, received into com-
munion several of Newton's followers and justified their action.
Out of this came the separation into Neutral Brethren, led by
Muller, and Exclusive Brethren or Darbyites, who refused to
hold communion with the followers of Newton or Muller. The
Exclusives, who were the more numerous, suffered further
divisions. An Irish clergyman named Samuel O'Malley Cluff had
adopted views similar to those of Pearsall Smith, who preached
a doctrine of sanctification called " Death to Nature " as an
antidote to the supposed prevalent Laodiceanism, and when
these were repudiated seceded with his followers. The most

PLYMPTON ST MARY— PNEUMATIC DESPATCH

.8.65

important division among the Exclusives came to a crisis in
1881, when William Kelly and Darby became the recognized
leaders of two sections who separated on a point of discipline.
This was followed (1885) by the disruption of the strict Darbyite
section, two communions being formed out of it upon points
of doctrine.

There were thus six sections of Plymouthists: (1) the
followers of B. W. Newton, who promulgated the prophetic
views peculiar to their leader; (2) the Neutrals — open brethren,
leaning to Baptist views and to the Congregationalist idea that
each assembly should judge for itself in matters of discipline,
headed by George Miiller; (3) the Exclusives, the Darbyites,
holding what may be described as a Pauline view of the Church,
who claim to be the original Brethren, represented by J. B.
Stoney and C. H. Mackintosh; (4) the Exclusives associated
in Great Britain with C. E. Stuart, in America with F. W.
Grant; (5) the Exclusives who followed W. Kelly, giving a
general adhesion to Darby but with a tendency to place con-
science above church action, holding the Pauline view of the
Church modified by Johannine elements; and (6) the Exclusives
who followed Cluff. The fundamental principle of the Exclu-
sives, " Separation from evil God's principle of unity," has
led to many unimportant excommunications and separations
besides those mentioned.

The theological views of the Brethren differ considerably from
those held by evangelical Protestants (for a list of divergences,
see Teulon, History and Doctrines of the Plymouth Brethren). They
make the baptism of infants an open question and celebrate the
Lord's Supper weekly. Their distinctive doctrines are ecclesiastical.
They hold that all official ministry, whether on Episcopalian,
Presbyterian or Congregationalist theories, is a denial of the
spiritual priesthood of all believers, and sets aside the Holy Spirit's
guidance. The gradual growth of this opinion, and perhaps the
reasons for holding it, may be traced in Darby's earlier writings.
While a curate in Ireland he was indignant with Archbishop
Magee, who had stopped the progress of mission work among Roman
Catholics by imposing on all who joined the church the oath of
supremacy. This led Darby to the idea that established churches
are as foreign to the spirit of Christianity as the papacy is (" Con-
siderations addressed to the Archbishop of Dublin, &c, Coll.
Works, i. 1). The parochial system, when enforced to the extent
of prohibiting the preaching of the gospel within a parish where the
incumbent was opposed to it, led him to consider the whole system
a hindrance to the proper work of the church and therefore anti-
Christian (" Thoughts on the present position of the Home Mission,"
Coll. Works, i. 78). And the waste of power implied in the refusal
to sanction lay preaching seemed to him to lead to the conclusion
that an official ministry was a refusal of the gifts of the Spirit to
the church (" On Lay Preaching," Coll. Works, p. 200). The
movement, if it has had small results in the formation of a sect,
has at least set churches to consider how they might make their
machinery more elastic. Perhaps one of the reasons of the com-
paratively small number of Brethren may be found in their idea
that their mission is not to the heathen but to the " awakened in
the churches."

The movement has a distinct interest for students of church
history: (1) as illustrating again the desire of certain Christians to
pass over the garnered experience of the centuries, -and by going
straight to the Bible to make a fresh start without any other autho-
rity, precedent or guidance; (2) in its development alongside the
Evangelical, Tiactarian and Broad Church movements of the 19th
eentjry and its affinities with them all, A certain haphazardism
that has always marked the Brethren is responsible for the present
lack of qualified leaders. The early enthusiasm has waned, and
no provision was made for proper theological study.

Authorities. — Darby, Collected Works (32 vols., edited by
Kelly, with supplementary volume, 1867-1883); A. Miller, The
Brethren, their Rise, Progress and Testimony (1879); Rogers, Church
Systems of the Nineteenth Century; Teulon, History and Doctrines
of the Plymouth Brethren (1883); article "John Nelson Darby,"
in Contemp. Rev. (Oct. 1885); W. B. Neatby, A History of the Ply-
mouth Brethren (London, 1902, 2nd ed.). (T. M. L.; A. J. G.)

PLYMPTON ST MARY and PLYMPTON MAURICE (or

Earl's), two small adjacent towns in the southern parliamentary
division of Devonshire, England, 5 m. E.N.E. of Plymouth, on
the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), Plympton St Mary,
3587; Plympton Maurice, 1139. Plympton St Mary contains a
fine Decorated and Perpendicular church, with a lofty tower of
the later period. Near it are remains of the former rich Augus-
tinian priory of Plympton, founded by William Warelwast, bishop
of Exeter (1107-1 136). They include an Early English refectory

TDa. 28

with Norman undercroft, the kitchen and other fragments;
but there are no remains of the great priory church. At Plymp-
ton Maurice are slight ruins of the castle built by Richard de
Redvers, 1st earl of Devon (whence the variant of the name),
in the time of Henry I. There are several picturesque old houses
in the town, together with a guildhall dated 1696, and a grammar
school founded in 1658, of which Sir Joshua Reynolds's father
was master.

Plympton (Plinlona) bears traces of very ancient settlement,
the earthworks on which in the 1 2th century Richard de Redvers
reared his Norman castle being probably of British origin, while
a Saxon document dated 904 records a grant by Edward the
Elder to Asser, bishop of Sherborne, of twelve manors in
exchange for the monastery of " Plymentun." According to
the Domesday survey " Plintona " was a royal manor assessed
at i\ hides, and the fact that the canons of Plympton held two
hides apart from these shows the origin of the later division into
the priory parish of Plympton St Mary and the secular borough
of Plympton Erie. In the 12th century Plympton appears
as a mesne borough under the lordship of the Redvers, earls
of Devon, and in 1224 the burgesses claimed to have received
a charter from William, the 6th earl, of which however nothing
further is known, and the first charter of which a copy is extant
was issued by Baldwin de Redvers in 1242, granting to the
burgesses of Plympton the borough, with fairs and markets,
and the liberties enjoyed by the citizens of Exeter, in considera-
tion of a yearly payment of £24, 2s. 2d. In 1437 a charter from
Edward IV. granted to the burgesses an eight-days' fair at the
Feast of the Nativity of St John the Baptist, but at this period
the growing importance of Plymouth was steadily robbing
Plympton of its position as head of the district. In 1602, in
response to a petition of the burgesses, Elizabeth issued a charter
of incorporation, instituting a common council to consist of a
mayor and 8 principal burgesses; a Saturday market, and fairs
at the Feasts of the Ascension and the Annunciation. A code
of by-laws dated 1623 mentions a fair on St Luke's Day in
addition to the three above mentioned. The borough surren-
dered its charter to Charles II. in 1684, and in 1685 received a
fresh charter from James II. instituting an additional market
on Wednesday and a fair on the 1st of August. This charter
was declared invalid in 1690, but its provisions were reaffirmed
in 1692, with the addition of an eight-days' fair to begin on the
14th of February. The borough, which had returned two
members to parliament since 1295, was disfranchised by the
Reform Act of 1832 and from this date the municipal privileges
gradually lapsed, and in 1859 were finally abolished.

See Victoria County History: Devonshire; William Cotton, Some
Account of the Ancient Borough Town of Plympton St Maurice
(London, 1859); J. Brooking Rowe, Notes of Plympton Castle
(Plymouth, 1880).

PNEUMATIC DESPATCH, the name given to a system of
transport of written despatches through long narrow tubes by the
agency of air pressure. It was introduced in 1853 by J. Latimer
Clark, between the Central and Stock Exchange stations of
the Electric and International Telegraph Company in London.
The stations were connected by a tube ij in. in diameter
and 220 yds. long. Carriers containing batches of telegrams,
and fitting piston-wise in the tube, were sucked through it
(in one direction only) by the production of a partial vacuum
at one end. In 1858 C. F. Varley improved the system by using
compressed air to force the carriers in one direction, a partial
vacuum being still used to draw them in the other direction.
This improvement enables single radiating lines of pipe to be
used both for sending and for receiving telegrams between a
central station supplied with pumping machinery and outlying
stations not so supplied.

Radial System. — In the hands of R. S. Culley and R. Sabine
the radial system of pneumatic despatch was in 1870 brought
to great perfection in connexion with the telegraphic department
of the British post office, since that date the total length of
tubes (which are employed for telegrams only) has been very
largely increased (in 1909 there was in London a total length of

866

PNEUMATIC DESPATCH

40 m.), whilst in all large and also in very many smaller
provincial towns there are installations; these are constantly
being added to, as it is found more economical to transmit local
message-work by tube rather than by wire, as skilled telegraph-
ists are not required, but only tube attendants. In some cases
only a single tube is necessary, but three or four, or even more,
are in use in some towns, according to local circumstances.
Short tubes, known as " house tubes " are in use in a great
number of offices; such tubes, which are worked either by hand-
pumps (when the tubes are very short and the traffic incon-
siderable) or by power, are usually 1% in. in diameter, and
are used for the purpose of conveying messages from one
part of a telegraph instrument-room to another, or from the
instrument-room to the public counter. The underground,
or " street " tubes are chiefly 2j in. in diameter, but there are
also a number of 3-in. tubes in use; those in the large provincial
towns (Birmingham, Bradford, Cardiff, Edinburgh, Glasgow,
Grimsby, Liverpool, Manchester, Newport, Leeds, Newcastle,
Southampton and Swansea) are 2j in. in diameter; but in
Dublin, Gloucester, Lowestoft and Milford 15-in. tubes are
employed. There are fifty street tubes in London, varying in
length from 100 to 2000 yds. (central office to the Houses of
Parliament), and also seventy-five house tubes; the pumps
for the whole system are worked by four 100 horse-power
steam-engines. At Cardiff, Edinburgh, Gloucester, Leeds,
Lowestoft, Newport, Southampton and Swansea the pumps
are driven by electric motors; at Bradford and Grimsby gas-
engines are used, and at Milford an oil-engine.

The tubes are in all cases of lead, the 2j-in. tubes weighing
8 lb per foot run and being made in lengths of 28 ft.; they are
enclosed in 3-in. cast-iron pipes made in lengths of 9 ft.

Great care is exercised in making the joints in the lead pipes.
Before the tube is placed in its trench a strong chain is passed
through it, and a polished steel mandrel, 6 in. long and slightly
less in diameter than the diameter of the tube, is heated and
attached to the chain, and pushed half its length into the end of
the tube already laid; the new length of tube is then forced over
the projecting end of the mandrel until the tube ends (which have
been previously cut flat) butt perfectly together; an ordinary
plumber's joint is then made. By this means the tube is made
perfectly air-tight, and the mandrel keeps the surface of the tube
under the joint as smooth as at any other part of its length. After
the joint is completed the mandrel is drawn out by the chain
attached to it, the next length is drawn on, and the above process
repeated. The tubes are laid about 2 ft. below the surface of
the ground.

The tubes radiate from the central to the branch offices,
the principal offices having two tubes, one for " inward " and
the other for " outward " traffic. At the smaller
offices both the inward and the outward traffic is
carried on through one tube. The " carriers " are made with gutta-
percha bodies, covered with felt, the front of the carrier being
provided with a buffer or piston formed of several disks of felt
which closely fit the tube; the messages are prevented from get-
ting out of the carrier by the end being closed by an elastic band,
which can be stretched sufficiently to allow the message forms
to be inserted. The 3-in. carriers will hold 75 ordinary message
forms, the 2j-in. carriers 25 forms, and the ij-in. carriers 20
forms. The carriers are propelled in one direction (from the
central office) by " pressure," and drawn in the opposite direction
by " vacuum," the standard pressure and vacuum being 10 lb
and 6j lb per sq. in. respectively, which values give approxi-
mately the same speed.

The time of transit of a carrier through a tube when the air
pressure does not exceed 20 lb per square inch is given very ap-
proximately by the empirical formula : —

/ = -oo872<\/^;

where Z = length of tube in yards, d = diameter of tube in inches,
P = effective air-pressure in pounds per square inch, / = transit
time in seconds. For vacuum the formula is : —

, - °825 , /7».

i--234Vi5-5-PiV d'
where Pi = effective vacuum in pounds per square inch.

Working,

The horse-power required to propel a carrier is approximately,
for pressure: —

H.P. = (- 5 74+-oouP)^/Ep;
for vacuum : —

H.P. = ( 5 -i87-i.2i 4 Vi5-5-Pi)Pi\/t
For a given transit time the actual horse-power required is much
less in the case of vacuum than in the case of pressure working,
owing to the density of the air column moved being much less:
thus, for example, the transit time for 10 lb pressure is the same
as for 6j lb vacuum, but the horse-power required in the two cases
is as 1-83 to I. A tabe I m. long, 2| in. in diameter, and worked
at 10 R> per square inch pressure, will have a transit time of 2\
minutes, and will theoretically require 3-35 horse-power to be
expended in working it, although actually 25 % more horse-power
than this must be allowed for, owing to losses through various
causes. The transit time for a 2|-in. tube is 16% more than for
a 3-in. tube of the same length, when both are worked at the same
pressure, but the horse-power required is 50% less; it is not ad-
visable, therefore, to use a tube larger than is absolutely necessary
to carry the volume of traffic required.

The somewhat complicated pattern of " double sluice valve "
originally used at the central stations has been superseded by
a simpler form, known as the "D" box — so named Despatching
from the shape of its cross section. This box is of and
cast iron, and is provided with a close-fitting, Receiving
brass-framed, sliding lid with a glass panel. This A P oaraius >
lid fits air-tight, and closes the box after a carrier has been
inserted into the mouth of the tube; the latter enters at
one end of the box and is there bell-mouthed. A supply
pipe, to which is connected a " 3-way " cock, is joined on to
the box and allows communication at will with either the
" pressure " or " vacuum " mains, so that the apparatus becomes
available for either sending (by pressure) or receiving (by vacuum)
a carrier. Automatic working, by which the air supply is
automatically turned on on the introduction of the carrier into
a tube and on closing of the D box, and is cut off when the
carrier arrives, was introduced in 1909.

On the long tubes (over about 1000 yds.) a modification of
the " D " box in its simplest form is necessary; this modification
consists in the addition of a " sluice " valve placed at a distance
of about 9 in. (i.e. rather more than the length of a carrier)
from the mouth of the tube. The sluice valve, by means of an
interlocking arrangement, is so connected with the sliding lid
of the box that the lid cannot be moved to the open position
unless the sluice valve has closed the tube, nor can the sluice
valve be opened unless the sliding lid is closed. The object of
this sluice valve is to prevent the back rush of air which would
take place into the tube when the sliding lid is opened to take
out a carrier immediately on the arrival of the latter; for although
the vacuum may be turned off by the 3-way cock, yet, owing
to the great length of the tube, equilibrium does not immediately
take place in the latter, and the back rush of air into the vacuum
when the lid is opened to extract the carrier will cause the latter
to be driven back into the tube. The sluice also prevents a
similar, but reverse, action from taking place when pressure
working is being carried on.

As a rule, only one carrier is despatched at a time, and no
second carrier is inserted in the tube until the arrival of the
first one at the farther end is automatically signalled (by an
electric apparatus) to the despatching office. On some of the
long tubes a carrier, when it passes the midway point in the
tube, strikes a trigger and sends back an electrical signal indicat-
ing its passage; on the receipt of this signal a second carrier may
be despatched. This arrangement has been almost entirely
superseded by a signalling apparatus which by a clock movement
actuates an indicating hand and moves the latter to " tube clear "
a certain definite time (30 to 40 seconds) after a carrier has been
inserted in the tube. By this arrangement carriers can be
despatched one after the other at comparatively short intervals
of time, so that several carriers (separated by distinct intervals)
may be travelling through the tube simultaneously. It is
necessary that the carriers be separated by a definite interval,
otherwise they tend to overtake one another and become jammed

PNEUMATIC GUN

in the tube. Although the stoppage of a carrier in a tube is of
exceedingly rare occurrence, it does occasionally take place,
through picks being driven into the tube by workmen executing
repairs to gas or water pipes, but the locality of such a stoppage
is easily determined by a simple inspection along the route of
the tube. In no case is any special means of testing for the
locality from the central office found necessary.

Circuit System. — Another method of working, extensively
used in Paris and other continental cities, is the circuit system,
in which stations are grouped on circular or loop lines, round
which carriers travel in one direction only. In one form of
circuit system — that of Messrs Siemens — a continuous current
of air is kept up in the tube, and rocking switches are provided
by which carriers can be quickly introduced or removed at
any one of the stations on the line without interfering with the
movement of other carriers in other parts of the circuit. More
•usually, however, the circuit system is 'worked by despatching
carriers, or trains of carriers, at relatively long intervals, the
pressure or vacuum which gives motive power being applied
only while such trains are on the line. On long circuits means
are provided at several stations for putting on pressure or
vacuum, so that the action may be limited to that section of the
line on which the carriers are travelling at any time. In America,
in New York, Boston and Philadelphia, tubes (Batcheller
system) up to 8 in. in diameter are in use. The tubes are of
cast iron made in 12-ft. lengths and are carefully bored; they
resemble ordinary water pipe. Short bends are made in
seamless brass tube carefully bent to a uniform radius of twelve
times the diameter of the tube, the tube being slightly larger
in diameter than the main tube. The sending apparatus, or
transmitter, is similar to the Siemens switch before described,
and consists of two sections of the tube supported in a swinging
frame so arranged that either section can be brought into line
with the main tube, in which a current of air is constantly
flowing. One of these tube sections maintains the continuity
of the main tube, while the other is swung to one side to receive
a carrier. In despatching, a carrier is
placed in an iron trough and then
pushed into the open tube section.
The frame carrying the two tube sec-
tions is then swung until the section
containing the carrier is brought into
line with the main tube, when the
carrier is swept along with the current
of air. When the frame is swinging
from one position to another the air
is prevented from escaping by plates
that cover the ends of the tube, and
a by-pass is provided so that the
current is not interrupted. An air-
motor, consisting of a cylinder and
piston, furnishes the power to swing
the frame, the operation requiring
an instant only. When the con-
trolling [lever is pulled and latched the
frame swings, and as the carrier
passes out of the apparatus it trips
the lever, and the frame swings back automatically^ into
position to receive another carrier. To prevent carriers from
being despatched too frequently and overtaking each other a
time lock is attached to the sending apparatus; this locks the
controlling valve when a carrier is despatched, and keeps it
locked for a given period of time, varying from five to fifteen or
twenty seconds, according to the adjustment of the lock. The
carrier is received at the farther end of the tube into an air
cushion formed by closing the end of the tube with a sluice-gate,
and allowing the air to flow out into a branch pipe through slots
in the tube located about 4 ft. in the rear of the sluice-gate.
When a carrier arrives it passes over the slots, enters the air
cushion and is brought to rest without injury or shock. The
carriers are thin steel cylinders closed at the front end by a
convex disk of the same material carrying a buffer of felt and

867

leather; the rear end is closed by a hinged lid secured by a lock.
The shell of the carrier is 24 in. long and 7 in. in diameter for
the 8-in. tube; it is secured by two bearing-rings of woven
cotton fabric clasped between metal rings; the rings are renewed
after about 2000 m. of travel. The tubes are worked at a
pressure of 6 lb per sq. in., and for a distance of 4500 ft. require
about 30 horse-power, the transit speed being 30 m. per hour.

In addition to its use for postal and telegraphic purposes
the pneumatic despatch is employed for internal communication
in offices, hotels, &c, and also in shops for the transport of
money and bills between the cashier's desk and the counters.

References. — The system, as used in the United Kingdom is
fully described in a paper by Messrs Culley and Sabine {Min. Proc.
Inst. Civ. Eng. vol. xliii.). The same volume contains a description
of the pneumatic telegraphs of Paris and of experiments on them
by M. Bontemps, and also a discussion of the theory of pneumatic
transmission by Professor W. C. Unwin. Reference should also
be made to a paper, by C. Siemens (Min. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.
vol. xxxiii.), describing the Siemens circuit system; and to Les Teli-
graphes, by M. A. L. Ternant (Paris, 1881); General Post Office
Technical Instructions, vol x., "Pneumatic Tubes"; Kempe's
Engineers' Year-Book (1908 edition). (H. R. K.)

PNEUMATIC GUN. Air as a propellant has in recent years
been applied to guns of large calibre, in which its comparatively
gentle action has proved advantageous when high explosives
contained in their shells are employed as projectiles. In 1883
Mr Mefford of Ohio utilized an air pressure of 500 lb per sq.
in. in a 2-in. gun, and succeeded in propelling a projectile
2100 yds. The arrangement was of the simplest form — a
hose with an ordinary cock by which the air was admitted into
the gun behind the projectile. The question was then taken
up by Capt. E. L. Zalinski (1840-1009) of the United States
Artillery, who in 1888 reduced the so-called " dynamite gun "
to a practical shape and obtained excellent firing results.

The principal features of his system are: (1) An extremely in-
genious balanced valve admitting the air pressure into the gun.
This valve is opened and closed by a simple movement of the firing
lever, and is capable of adjustment so that the propelling force,

Dynamite gun, mounted at Sandy Hook, New York Harbour.

and consequently the range, can be regulated. (2) A light steel
projectile carrying the bursting charge, and provided with a tail
to which vanes are attached in order to give rotation. (3) Electric
fuses of entirely original design. Each shell carries a wet battery,
the current from which fires the charge on impact with any solid
object, and a dry battery which becomes active after the shell has
dived below the surface of the water, and ignites the charge after
delay capable of regulation. For safety all the electric circuits are
made to pass through a disconnector, which prevents them from
being completed until the shell has been fired. The gun is a built-up
smooth-bore tube, 15 in. or less in diameter. The full-calibre
shell weighs 1000 lb, and carries a bursting charge of 600 ft of
blasting gelatine, cut into the form of cheeses, fitting the steel
envelope, and provided with a core of dry gun-cotton as a primer.
Sub-calibre projectiles, 10 in. and 8 in., can also be used. In their
case, rotation is given by vanes or fins attached to the body of the
shell. Air at 1000 lb pressure is stored in tubes close to the gun,
and is supplied from primary reservoirs, to which it is directly

868

PNEUMATICS— PNEUMATOLYSIS

pumped at a pressure of about 2000 lb. There is always, there-
fore, a considerable reserve of power available without pumping.
Pneumatic guns of this description (see figure) have been mounted
for the protection of New York and San Francisco. With a full-
calibre shell (1000 lb) these guns have a range of 2400 yds.; with
a sub-calibre 8-in. shell (250 lb) the maximum range is 6000 yds.
The official trials showed remarkable accuracy. At 5000 yds.
75% of the projectiles fell in an area of 360X90 ft. When the
gun was tried at Shoeburyness the accuracy was far greater than
could be obtained with howitzer shells propelled by explosives.
On account of the power of exploding the shell under water, and
thus securing a torpedo action, a direct hit upon a ship is not
required, and the target offered is largely in excess of the deck
plan. The gun is, in fact, capable of replacing systems of sub-
marine mines with economy, and without the great objection of
interfering with a waterway.

The only employment of the dynamite gun afloat has been
in the case of the U.S. gunboat " Vesuvius," carrying three in
the bows. These guns are fixed at a constant angle of elevation,
and the range is regulated by the air valve, training being given
by the helm. Thus mounted on an unstable platform, the
accuracy of fire obtainable must evidently be much less than
on shore. The " Vesuvius " was employed during the Spanish-
American War of 1898, when on several nights in succession
she approached the defences of Santiago under cover of dark-
ness and discharged three projectiles. Fire delivered under
such conditions could not be sufficiently accurate to injure
coast defences; but the shells burst well, and made large craters.
A small dynamite gun on a field-carriage was used in the land
operations above Santiago in the same war.

PNEUMATICS (Gr. irvwua, wind, air), the branch of
physical science concerned with the properties of gases and
vapours (see Gas). A pneumatic trough is simply a basin con-
taining water or some other liquid used for collecting gases.

PNEUMATOLYSIS (Gr. irvev^a, vapour, and \veiv, to set free),
in petrology, the discharge of vapours from igneous magmas
and the effects produced by them on rock masses In all vol-
canic eruptions the gases given off by the molten lavas are
powerful agencies. The slaggy clots of lava thrown out from
the crater are so full of gas that when they cool they resemble
spongy pieces of bread. The lava streams as they flow down
the slopes of the volcano are covered with white steam clouds,
while over the orifice of the crater hangs a canopy of vapour
which is often darkened by fine particles of ash. Most authors
ascribe volcanic explosions to the liberation of steam from the
magma which held it in solution, and the enormous expansive
powers which free water vapour possesses at very high
temperatures.

Of these gases the principal are water and carbonic acid,
but by analysis of the discharges from the smaller fumaroles,
for the active crater is generally too hot to be approached during
an eruption, it has been ascertained that hydrogen, nitrogen,
hydrochloric acid, boron, fluorine, sulphuretted hydrogen
and sulphurous acid are all emitted by volcanoes. A recent
lava flow has been likened to a great fumarole pouring out
volatile substances at every crack in its slaggy crust. Many
minerals are deposited in these fissures, and among the sub-
stances produced in this way are ammonium chloride, ferric
chloride and oxide, copper oxide (tenorite and euprite) and
sulphur; by reacting on the minerals of the rock many zeolites
and other secondary products are formed. These processes
have been described as " juvenile " or " post eruptive," and
it is believed that the amygdales which occupy the cavities of
many porous lavas are not due really to weathering by sur-
face waters percolating in from above, but to the action of the
steam and other gases set free as the lava crystallizes. The zeo-
lites are the principal group of minerals which originate in this
way together with chlorite, chalcedony and calcite. The larger
cavities (or geodes) are often lined with beautiful crystal groups
of natrolite, scolecite, thomsonite, stilbite, and other minerals
of this order.

The active gases were evidently in solution in the magma as
it rose to the surface. Some geologists believe it is of
subterranean origin like the lava itself, and is an essential or
original component of the magma. They point to the exist-

ence of gases in considerable quantity in meteorites, and, com-
paring the earth to a great aerolite, insist that it should con-
tain gases in solution like the smaller masses of the same kind.
Others hold it more probable that the water has percolated
in from the surface, or seeing that many volcanoes stand near
the sea margin and by their linear disposition may be dis-
posed along fissures or lines of weakening in the crust, they
argue that the water of the sea may have filtered down even
in spite of the great outward pressure exerted by the steam
generated by contact with the intensely heated rock. The
abundance of chlorides and hydrochloric acid is appealed to
also in favour of a marine origin for the water. Against this
we may place the fact that at great depths whence active mag-
mas ascend the rocks are under so great pressures that every
fissure is closed up; in fact in some of the deepest mines the
quantity of water found in the workings is often exceedingly
small. Probably there is some truth in both theories, but the-
balance of probability seems to incline in favour of the view
that the water is an original and essential part of the magma
and not an introduction from above.

Long after a lava has cooled down and become rigid the
vapours continue to ooze out through its fissures, and around
many volcanoes which are believed to be extinct there are
orifices discharging gas in great quantities. This state of
activity is said to be " solfataric," and a good example of it is
the volcano called the Solfatara near Naples. The numerous
"Soufrieres" of the West Indies are further instances. The
prevalent gas is steam with sulphuretted hydrogen and car-
bonic acid. At the Grotto del Cane in the Phlegraean Fields
(Italy) the carbonic acid rising from fissures in the bottom of a
cave covers the floor as a heavy layer, and a dog placed in the
interior of the cave becomes stupefied by the narcotic gas; such
gas-springs have been called " mofettes." Around them
there is often a deposit of sulphur, produced by oxidation of the
sulphuretted hydrogen, and the rocks are bleached, softened
and decomposed. White crusts of alum, various sulphates,
and sulphides such as pyrites, also carbonates of soda and other
bases, are formed by the action of the acid vapours on the
volcanic rocks. The final manifestation of volcanic activity
in such a region may be the discharge of heated waters, which
have ascended from the deep-seated magma far below the
surface, and make their appearance as groups of hot springs;
these springs persist long after the volcanoes which give rise
to them have become quite extinct.

It is now believed by a large number of geologists and mining
engineers that these ascending hot waters are of paramount im-
portance in the genesis of some of the most important types of
ore deposits. Analyses have proved that the igneous rocks often
contain distinct though very small quantities of the heavy metals;
it is also established beyond doubt that veins of gold, silver, lead,
tin and mercury most commonly occur in the vicinity of intrusive
igneous masses. At Steamboat in Nevada, hot springs, probably
of magmatic origin, are forming deposits of cinnabar. At Cripple
Creek, Colorado, and in many other places gold-bearing veins
occur in and around intrusive plugs of igneous rock. Tin ores
in all parts of the world are found in association with tourmaline
granites. In all cases the veins bear evidence of having been filled
from below by hot waters set free during the cooling of the igneous
intrusions. Volcanic rocks are consequently the parent sources
of many valuable mineral deposits, and the agency by which they
were brought into their present situations is the volatile products
discharged as the magma crystallized. The process was no doubt
a long one and it is most probable that both steam and water
took part in it. Above 365 C. water is a gas under all pressures
and the action is strictly pneumatolytic; below that temperature
steam is changed to water by pressure and the action may be
described as hydatogenetic. The distinction is unessential, and in
our ignorance of the temperatures and pressures prevailing at con-
siderable depths we lack the means of classification. In what con-
dition the metallic ores are dissolved and by what reactions they
are precipitated depends on many factors only partly understood.
The tin ores are so often associated with minerals containing boron
and fluorine that it is quite probable that they were combined
with these elements in some way, but they were deposited in nearly
all cases as oxides. Other gaseous substances, such as sulphuretted
hydrogen, carbonic acid and hydrochloric acid, probably have
an important part in dissolving certain metals; and the alkaline
carbonates, sulphides and chlorides have been shown by experiment
to act also as solvents. In these ore deposits not only the heavy

PNEUMONIA

869

metals are found, but often a much larger quantity of minerals
such as calcite, barytes, fluorspar, quartz and tourmaline which
serve as a matrix or gangue, and have been deposited by the same
agencies, and often at the same time as the valuable minerals.

In their passage upwards and outwards through the rocks of
the earth's crust, these gases and liquids not only deposit minerals
in the fissures along which they ascend, but attack the surrounding
rocks and alter them in many ways. The granite or other plutonic
mass from which the vapours are derived is especially liable to these
transformations, probably because it is at a high temperature,
not having yet completely cooled down. Around the tin-bearing
veins in granite there is extensive replacement of felspar and biotite
by quartz, tourmaline and white micas (the last-named often rich
in lithia). In this way certain types of altered granite are produced,
such as greisen (q.v.) and schorl rock (see Schorl). In the slates adja-
cent to the tin veins tourmalinization also goes on, converting them
into schorl-schists. The alteration of felspar into kaolin or china
clay is also a pneumatolytic process, and is often found along with
tin veins or other types of mineral deposit; probably both fluorine
and carbonic acid operated in this instance along with water.
Equally common and important is the silicification of rocks near
mineral veins which carry gold, copper, lead and other metals.
Granites and felsites may be converted into hard cherty masses
of silica. Limestones undergo this transformation very readily;
at the same time they are regarded as rocks very favourable to the
deposition of ores. Probably the great frequency with which
they undergo silicification and other types of metasomatic replace-
ment is one of the main causes of the abundance of valuable deposits
in them. The process known as " propylitization," which has
extensively affected the andesites of the Hungarian goldfields,
is believed to be also a consequence of the action of pneumatolytic
gases. The andesites change to dull, soft, greenish masses, and
their original minerals are to a large extent replaced by quartz,
epidote, chlorite, sericite and kaolin. Around granites intrusive
into serpentine and other rocks containing much magnesia, there
js often extensive " steatisation," or the deposit of talc and steatite
in place of the original minerals of the rock. Some of the apatite
veins of Canada and Norway accompany basic rocks of the gabbro
group; it has been argued that the apatite (which contains phos-
phorus and chlorine) was laid down by vapours or solutions contain-
ing those gases, which may play a similar part in the basic rocks
to that taken by fluorine and boron in the pneumatolytic veins
around granites. In the country rock around the veins scapolite
(q.v.), a lime alumina silicate, containing chlorine, often is substituted
for lime-felspar.

These extensive changes attending the formation of mineral
veins are by no means common phenomena, but in many plutonic
masses pneumatolytic action has contributed to the formation of
pegmatites (g.t/.). (J. S .F.)

PNEUMONIA (Gr. irvevyuv, lung), a term used for inflam-
mation of the lung substance. Formerly the disease was
divided into three varieties: (1) Acute Croupous or lobar
pneumonia; (2) Catarrhal or Broncho-pneumonia; (3) Inter-
stitial or Chronic pneumonia.

1. Acute Croupous or Lobar Pneumonia (Pneumonic Fever)
is now classed as an acute infective disease of the lung, char-
acterized by fever and toxaemia, running a definite course and
being the direct result of a specific micro-organism or micro-
organisms. The micrococcus lanceolatus (pneumococcus, or
diplococcus pneumoniae) of Frankel and Weichselbaum is
present in a large number of cases in the bronchial secretions,
in the affected lung and in the blood. This organism is also
present in many other infective processes which may com-
plicate or terminate lobar pneumonia, such as pericarditis,
endocarditis, peritonitis and empyema. The bacillus pneu-
moniae of Friedlander is also present in a proportion of cases,
but is probably not the cause of true lobar pneumonia. Various
other organisms may be associated with these, but they are to
be regarded as in the nature of a secondary invasion. Lobar
pneumonia may be considered as an acute endemic disease of
temperate climates, though epidemic forms have been de-
scribed. It has a distinct seasonal incidence, being most
frequent in the winter and spring. Osier strongly supports the
view that it is an infectious disease, quoting the outbreaks
reported by W. L. Rodman of Frankfort, Kentucky, where
in a prison of 735 inhabitants there were 118 cases in one year;
but direct contagion does not seem to be well proved, and it is
undoubted that the pneumococcus is present in the fauces of
numbers of healthy persons and seems to require a lowered
power of resistance or other favouring condition for the pro-
duction of an attack.

Lobar Pneumonia begins by the setting up of an acute in-
flammatory process in the alveoli. The changes which take
place in the lung are chiefly three. (1) Congestion, or engorge-
ment, the blood-vessels being distended and the lung more
voluminous and heavier than normal, and of dark red colour.
Its air cells still contain air. (2) Red Hepatization, so called
from its resemblance to liver tissue. In this stage there is
poured into the air cells of the affected part an exudation con-
sisting of amorphous fibrin together with epithelial cells and
red and white blood corpuscles, the whole forming a viscid mass
which occupies not only the cells but also the finer bronchi, and
which speedily coagulates, causing the lung to become firmly
consolidated. In this condition the cells are entirely emptied
of air, their blood-vessels are pressed upon by the exudation,
and the lung substance, rendered brittle, sinks in water. The
appearance of a section of the lung in this stage has been likened
to that of red granite. It is to the character of the exudation,
consisting largely of coagulable fibrin, that the term croupous
is due. (3) Grey Hepatization. In this stage the lung still re-
tains its liver-like consistence, but its colour is now grey, not
unlike the appearance of grey granite. This is due to the change
taking place in the exudation, which undergoes resolution by a
process of fatty degeneration, pus formation, liquefaction and
ultimately absorption — so that in a comparatively short period
the air vesicles get rid of their morbid contents and resume
their normal function. During resolution the changes in the
exudate take place by a process of autolysis or peptonization
of the inflammatory products by unorganized ferments, absorp-
tion taking place into the lymphatics and circulation. The
absorbed exudate is mainly excreted by the kidneys, excess of
nitrogen being found in the urine during this period. This is
happily the termination of the majority of cases of lobar pneu-
monia. One of the most remarkable phenomena is the rapidity
with which the lung tissue clears up, and its freedom from
alteration or from infiltration into the connective tissue as fre-
quently takes place after broncho-pneumonia. When resolution
does not take place, death may occur from extension of the
disease and subsequent toxaemia, from circulatory failure,
from the formation of one or more abscesses or more rarely from
gangrene of the lung or from the complication mentioned below.
Chronic interstitial pneumonia is infrequent, following on the
acute variety. The most frequent seat of pneumonia is the
base or lower lobes, but occasionally the apices are the only
parts affected. The right lung is the most often attacked. Pneu-
monia may extend to the entire lung or it may affect both
lungs. The death rate of acute lobar pneumonia in the chief
London hospitals is 20%. With an organism so prevalent
as the pneumococcus it follows that alcoholism, diabetes and
other general diseases and intoxications must render the body
liable to an attack. Males are more commonly attacked than
females, and a previous attack seems to give a special liability
to another. The incubation period of pneumonia is unknown;
it is probably very short.

The symptoms are generally well marked from the beginning.
The attack is usually ushered in by a rigor (or in children a con-
vulsion), and the speedy development of the febrile condition, the
temperature rising to a considerable degree — 101 to 104° or more.
The pulse is quickened, and there is a marked disturbance in the
respiration, which is rapid, shallow and difficult, the rate being
usually accelerated to some two or three times its normal amount.
The lips are livid s and the face has a dusky flush. Pain in the side
is felt, especially should any amount of pleurisy be present, as is
often the case. Cough is an early symptom. It is at first frequent
and hacking, and is accompanied with a little tough colourless
expectoration, which soon, however, becomes more copious and of
a rusty red colour, either tenacious or frothy and liquid. Micro-
scopically this consists mainly of epithelium, casts of the air cells
and fine bronchi, together with granular matter, blood and pus
corpuscles and haematoidin crystals. The micro-organisms usually
present are the pneumococcus, Friedlander's bacillus, and sometimes
the influenza bacillus. The following are the chief physical signs
in the various stages of the_ disease. In the stage of congestion
fine crackling or crepitation is heard over the affected area; some-
times there is very little change from the natural breathing. In
the stage of red hepatization the affected side of the chest is seen
to expand Jess freely than the opposite side; there is dullness on

870

PNEUMONIA

percussion, and increase of the vocal fremitus; while on ausculta-
tion the breath sounds are tubular or bronchial in character, with,
it may be, some amount of fine crepitation in certain parts. In
the stage of grey hepatization the percussion note is still dull and
the breathing tubular, but crepitations of coarser quality than
before are also audible. These various physical signs disappear
more or less rapidly during convalescence. With the progress
of the inflammation the febrile symptoms and rapid breathing
continue. The patient during the greater part of the disease lies
on the back or on the affected side. The pulse, which at first was
full, becomes small and soft owing to the interruption to the
pulmonary circulation. Occasionally slight jaundice is present,
due probably to a similar cause. The urine is scanty, sometimes
albuminous, and its chlorides are diminished. In favourable cases,
however severe, there generally occurs after six or eight days a
distinct crisis, marked by a rapid fall of the temperature accom-
panied with perspiration and with a copious discharge of lithates
in the urine. Although no material change is as yet noticed in
the physical signs, the patient breathes more easily, sleep returns,
and convalescence advances rapidly in the majority of instances.
In unfavourable cases death may take place either from the extent
of the inflammatory action, especially if the pneumonia is double,
from excessive fever, from failure of the heart's action or general
strength at about the period of the crisis, or again from the disease
assuming from the first a low adynamic form with delirium and
with scanty expectoration of greenish or " prune juice " appear-
ance. Such cases are seen in persons worn out in strength, in the
aged, and especially in the intemperate.

The complications of acute pneumonia are pleurisy, which is
practically inevitably present, empyema (in which the pneumococcus
is frequently present and occasionally the streptococcus), peri-
carditis and endocarditis, both due to septic poisoning, while perhaps
the most serious complication is meningitis, which is responsible
for a large percentage of the fatal cases. The pneumococcus has
been found in the exudate. Secondary pneumonias chiefly follow
the specific fevers, as diphtheria, enteric fever, measles and influenza,
and are the result of a direct poisoning. Bacteriologically a number
of different organisms have been found, together with the specific
microbe of the primary disease; the striking features of primary
lobar pneumonia are often masked in these types.

The treatment of acute pneumonia has of late undergone a
marked change, and may be divided into 3 heads: (1) General
hygienic treatment; (2) the treatment of special symptoms;
(3) treatment by vaccines and sera. The same treatment of
absolute rest should be carried out as in enteric fever; this
absolute rest is necessary to limit the auto-inoculation by the
absorption of toxins. Fresh air in abundance and even open-
air treatment if possible has been attended with good results.
Ice poultices over the affected part are useful in the relief of
pain, while tepid sponging and tepid or even cold baths may
be freely given, and the patient's strength supported by milk,
soups and other light forms of nourishment. Stimulants may
be called for, and strychnine and digitalin are the most valu-
able; disinfection of the sputum should be systematically
carried out. Many trials have been made with antipneumo-
coccic serum, but it has not been shown to ha^e a very
marked effect in cutting short the disease. The polyvalent
serum of Romer ]jas given the best results. Much more favour-
able results have been obtained from the use of a vaccine. The
results of vaccine treatment obtained by Boellke in 30 cases of
severe pneumonia and one case of pneumococcic endocarditis
are encouraging. The vaccine, to produce the best effects,
should be made from the patient's own pneumococcus, as it is
evident there are different strains of pneumococci, the doses
(5 to 50 million dead pneumococci) being regulated by the
guidance of the opsonic index. The objection to the prepara-
tion of the vaccine from the patient's own organisms is the
time (several days) which is required, valuable time being
thereby lost; but the results are much more certain than with
the use of a " stock" vaccine.

2. Broncho- Pneumonia (Catarrhal or Lobular-Pneumonia or
Capillary Bronchitis). An acute form of lobular pneumonia
has been described, having all the characters of acute lobar
pneumonia except that the pneumonic patches are disseminated.
The term "broncho-pneumonia" is however here used to
denote a widespread catarrhal inflammation of the smaller
bronchi which spreads in places to the alveoli and produces
consolidation. All forms of broncho-pneumonia depend on
the invasion of the lung by micro-organisms. _ No one organism

has however been constantly found which can be said to be
specific, as in lobar pneumonia; the influenza bacillus, micro-
coccus catarrhalis, pneumococcus, Friedlander's bacillus and
various staphylococci having been found. John Eyre, in
Allbutt's System of Medicine, gives 62% of mixed infection in
the cases investigated by him. Broncho-pneumonia may occur
as an acute primary affection in children, but is more usually
secondary. It may be a sequence of infectious fevers, measles,
diphtheria, whooping cough, scarlet fever and sometimes typhoid
fever. In these it forms a frequent and often a fatal com-
plication. The large majority of the fatal cases are those of
early childhood. In adults it may follow influenza or com-
plicate chronic Bright's disease or various other disorders.
Broncho-pneumonia also may follow operations on the mouth
or trachea, or the inhalation of foreign bodies into the trachea.
It is a frequent complication of pulmonary tuberculosis.

The following changes take place in the lung: at first the
affected patches are dense, non-crepitant, with a bluish red
appearance tending to become grey or yellow. Under the
microscope the air vesicles and finer bronchi are crowded with
cells, the result of the inflammatory process, but there is no
fibrinous exudation such as is present in croupous pneumonia.
In favourable cases resolution takes place by fatty degenera-
tion, liquefaction, and absorption of the cells, but on the other
hand they may undergo caseous degenerative changes, abscesses
may form, or a condition of chronic interstitial pneumonia be
developed, in both of which cases the condition passes into one
of pulmonary tuberculosis. Evidence of previous bronchitis
is usually present in the lungs affected with catarrhal pneu-
monia. In the great majority of instances catarrhal pneu-
monia occurs as an accompaniment or sequel of bronchitis, either
from the inflammation passing from the finer bronchi to the
pulmonary air vesicles, or from its affecting portions of lung
which have undergone collapse.

The symptoms characterizing the onset of catarrhal pneumonia
in its more acute form are the occurrence during an attack of
bronchitis or the convalescence from measles or whooping cough,
of a sudden and marked elevation of temperature, together with
a quickened pulse and increased difficulty in breathing. The
cough becomes short and painful, and there is little or no expectora-
tion. The physical signs are not distinct, being mixed up with those
of the antecedent bronchitis; but, should the pneumonia be exten-
sive, there may be an impaired percussion note with tubular breath-
ing and some bronchophony. Dyspnoea may be present in a marked
degree; and death frequently occurs from paralysis of the heart.
Broncho-pneumonia is a serious disease, the death-rate in children
under five has been estimated at 30 to 50 %.

The treatment of broncho-pneumonia is mainly symptomatic,
At the outset a mild purgative is given, and should the secre-
tion accumulate in the bronchial tubes an emetic is useful.
Inhalations are useful to relieve the cough, and circulatory
stimulants such as strychnine are valuable, together with bella-
donna and oxygen. When orthopnoea and lividity are present,
with distension of the right heart, venesection is necessary.
The treatment of broncho-pneumonia by serum and vaccines
is not so successful as in lobar pneumonia, owing to the difficulty
of ascertaining the precise bacterial infection. The great
danger of broncho-pneumonia is the subsequent development
of pulmonary tuberculosis.

3. Chronic Interstitial Pneumonia (Cirrhosis of the Lung)
is a fibroid change in the lung, chiefly affecting the fibrous
stroma and may be either local or diffuse. The changes pro-
duced in the lung by this disease are marked chiefly by the
growth of nucleated fibroid tissue around the walls of the bronchi
and vessels, and in the intervesicular septa, which proceeds to
such an extent as to invade and obliterate the air cells. The
lung, which is at first enlarged, becomes shrunken, dense in
texture and solid, any unaffected portions being emphyse-
matous; the bronchi are dilated, the pleura thickened, and the
lung substance often deeply pigmented, especially in the case
of miners, who are apt to suffer from this disease. The other
lung is always greatly enlarged and distended from emphysema; 1
the heart becomes hypertrophied, particularly the right ven-
tricle; and there may be marked atheromatous changes in the

PNOM-PENH— POBEDONOSTSEV

871

blood vessels. Later the lung becomes converted into a series
of bronchiectatic cavities. This condition is usually present to
a greater or less degree in almost all chronic diseases of the lungs
and bronchi, but it is specially apt to arise in an extensive form
from pre-existing catarrhal pneumonia, and not unfrequently
occurs in connexion with occupations which necessitate the
habitual inhalation of particles of dust, such as those of col-
liers, flax-dressers, stonemasons, millers, &c, to which the
term pneumonokoniosis is now applied (including anthracosis,
siderosis, chalicosis and the so-called " grinder's rot" ).

The symptoms are very similar to those of chronic phthisis (see
Tuberculosis), especially increasing difficulty of breathing, particu-
larly on exertion, cough either dry or with expectoration, some-
times copious and fetid. In the case of coal-miners the sputum is
black from containing carbonaceous matter. The physical signs
are deficient expansion of the affected side — the disease being
mostly confined to one lung — increasing dullness on percussion,
tubular breathing and moist sounds. As the disease progresses
retraction of the side becomes manifest, and the heart and liver
may be displaced. Ultimately the condition, both as regards
physical signs and symptoms, takes the characters of the later
stages of pulmonary phthisis with colliquative symptoms, in-
creasing emaciation and death. Occasionally dropsy is present
from the heart becoming affected in the course of the disease.
The malady is usually of long duration, many cases remaining
for years in a stationary condition and even undergoing temporary
improvement in mild weather, but the tendency is on the whole
downward.

See Allbutt and Rolleston, System of Medicine (1909) ; R. W. Allen,
Vaccine Therapy and the Opsonic Method of Treatment (1908);
Osier, Practice of Medicine (1909) ; The Practitioner (May 1908) ;
Clinical Journal (Jan. 1908) ; American Journal of the Medical Sciences
(Jan. 1908) ; W. C. Bosanquet and J. Eyre, Serums, Vaccines and
Toxines (1909).

PNOM-PENH, a town of French Indo-China, capital, since
1866, of the protectorate of Cambodia and seat of the resident-
superior. Pop. about 60,000, consisting of Cambodians, An-
namese, Chinese, Malays, Indians and about 600 Europeans.
It is situated on the Mekong about 173 m. from its mouth at
the point where it divides into two arms and is joined by the
branch connecting it with the Great Lake (Tonle-Sap). Its
position makes it the market for the products of Cambodia,
Laos, Upper Burma and part of Siam (dried fish, rice, cotton,
indigo, cardamoms, &c.) The town is lighted by electricity.
The palace of the king of Cambodia occupies a large space in
the Cambodian quarter. The town gets its name from the
Pnom, a central hill surmounted by an ancient pagoda.

PO (anc. Padus, Gr. IldSos), a river of northern Italy, and
the largest in the whole country, with a total length of about
310 m. direct from the source to the mouth, but, including its
many windings, of some 417 m. The navigable portion from
Casale Monferrato to the mouth is 337 m.; the minimum width
of this portion 656 ft., and its minimum depth 7 ft. Owing
to the prevalence of shallows and sandbanks, navigation is
difficult.

The Po is the dominating factor in north Italian geography,
north Italy practically consisting of the Po basin, with the sur-
rounding slopes of the Alps and Apennines. For a description
of its course, and a list of its principal tributaries see Italy.
The area of its basin, which includes portions of Switzerland
and Austria, is estimated at 26,798 sq. m.

In the first 21 m. of its course, down to Revello (west of Saluzzo),
the Po descends no less than 5250 ft., or a fall of 47-3: 1000, forming
a very remarkable contrast to its fall lower down. From the con-
fluence of the Ticino its fall is about 0-3:1000; from the beginning
of the delta below Ferrara, 0-08:1000. At Turin it has an average
width of 400 to 415 ft., a mean depth of 3! to 5J ft., and a velocity
of 1 to 3 ft. in the second. The mean depth from the confluence
of the Ticino (altitude 217 ft.) downwards is 6 to 15 ft. The river
is embanked from Piacenza, and continuously from Cremona,
the total length of the embankments exceeding 600 m. Owing to
its confinement between these high banks, and to the great amount
of sedimentary matter which the river brings down with it, its bed
has been gradually raised, so that in its lower course it is in many
places above the level of the surrounding country. A result of
confining the stream between its containing banks is the rapid
growth of the delta. Lombardini calculated that the annual
increase in the area of the Po delta during the period 1300 to 1600
amounted to 127 acres; but during the period 1600 to 1830 it rose
to 324 acres. Marinelii l estimated that between the years 1823

and 1893 the annual increase was at the average rate of 173 to
175 acres, and the total accretion at about 20 sq. m. ; and the total
area of inundated land north and south of the delta at nearly
60 sq. m. 1 He further estimated that the Po della Maestra advances
282 ft. annually, the Po delle Tolle 262 ft., the Po della Gnocca
III I ft., and the Po di Goro 259 ft. The low ground between
the lower Po and the lower Adige and the sea is known as Polesine,
a name the derivation of which is much discussed. It is generally
applied only to the province of Rovigo, but is sometimes extended
to the neighbourhood of Adria and Ferrara. All along its course
from Chivasso (below Turin) down to the delta the river is con-
nected with several of its tributaries by canals, and at the same time
other canals connect the tributaries and carry off their waters and
the waters of the Po purely for purposes of irrigation.

The researches of Helbig (Die Italiker in der Po-Ebene, Leipzig,
1879) show that the lower valley of the Po was at an early period
occupied by people of the Palaeolithic and Neolithic stages of
civilization, who built houses on piles along the swampy borders
of the streams. It is possible that even they may have begun by
crude dikes the great system by which the waters are now con-
trolled ; at least it is certain that these works date their origin from
pre-Roman antiquity. Pliny refers them to the Etruscans. The
reclaiming and protecting of the riparian lands went on rapidly
under the Romans, and in several places the rectangular divisions
of the ground, still remarkably distinct, show the military character
of some of the agricultural colonies. During the time of the bar-
barian invasions much of the protective system was allowed to fall
into decay; but the latter part of the middle ages saw the works
resumed with great energy, so that the main features of the present
arrangement were in existence by the close of the 1 5th century.

The earlier Roman writers speak of the region between the
northern boundaries of Etruria and Umbria and the Alps as Gallia
Cisalpina. It was separate from Italy proper, the Aesis first and
then the Rubicon being the boundary on the east, and the Arnus
the boundary on the west, so that, for example, Luca remained
outside the boundaries of Italy proper, even in 89 B.C. Romaniza-
tion had, however, progressed considerably, the foundation of
colonies and the construction of roads had gone on during the
2nd century, and the whole district as far as the Padus was given
the Roman franchise in 89 B.C., while the Transpadanes received
Latin rights, and were fully enfranchised forty years later. Cis-
alpine Gaul was apparently formed into a province by Sulla in
81 B.C. and continued to be so until the fall of the Republic.

The Ligurian name of the Po was Bodincus or Bodencus, i.e.
the bottomless. The name Padus was taken from the Celts or the
Veneti. Thus we find Bodincomagus as a town name (Industria)
on the upper course, and TLa&oa (Padua, Catull. 95, 7) as a name
of one of the mouths of the river. The name 'HpiSavis (Eri-
danus) of Greek poetry was identified with it at a comparatively
late period.

POACH (probably from Fr. poche, bag, or Eng. " poke,"
thrust into), to trespass on private property in pursuit of game
or fish; also, generally, to catch game or fish by means or at
times not permitted by the law, or in an unsportsmanlike
manner (see Game Laws). The etymology is rather obscure, but
as used in the independent sense of " poaching" an egg, i.e.
cooking by breaking into boiling water, the word appears to
be from the same original.

POBEDONOSTSEV, CONSTANTINE PETROVICH (1827-
1907), Russian jurist, state official, and writer on philosophical
and literary subjects. Born in Moscow in 1827, he studied at
the School of Law in St Petersburg, and entered the public
service as an official in one of the Moscow departments of the
senate. From i860 to 1865 he was professor of Russian civil
law in the Moscow University, and instructed the sons of Alex-
ander II. in the theory of law and administration. In 1868
he became a senator in St Petersburg, in 1872 a member of the
council of the empire, and in 1880 chief procurator of the Holy
Synod. He always showed himself an uncompromising Con-
servative, and never shrank from expressing boldly his opinions.
Consequently, in the so-called Liberal camp he was always
denounced an an " obscurantist" and an enemy of progress.
In the early years of the reign of Alexander II. (1855-1881),
Pobedonostsev maintained, though keeping aloof from the
Slavophils, that Occidental institutions were radically bad in
themselves and totally inapplicable to Russia. Parliamentary
methods of administration, modern judicial organization and pro-
cedure, trial by jury, freedom of the press, secular education —
these were among the principal objects of his aversion. He

1 See G. Marinelii, in Atti inst. veneto set., 8th series, vol. viii.
(1896-1897); and " L'Accrescimento del Delta del Po nel Secolo
XIX.," in Riv. Georg. Ital. (1898), vol. v.

872

POCHARD— POCKET-MOUSE

subjected all of them to a severe analysis in his Reflections of a
Russian Statesman (English by R. C. Long, London, 1898).
To these dangerous products of Occidental rationalism he
found a counterpoise in popular vis inertiae, and in the respect of
the masses for institutions developed slowly and automatically
during the past centuries of national life. Among the practical
deductions drawn from these premisses is the necessity of pre-
serving the autocratic power, and of fostering among the people
the traditional veneration for the ritual of the national Church.
In the sphere of practical politics he exercised considerable
influence by inspiring and encouraging the Russification policy
of Alexander III. (1881-1894), which found expression in an
administrative Nationalist propaganda and led to a good deal
of religious persecution. After the death of Alexander III. he
lost much of his influence, for Nicholas II., while clinging to
his father's Russification policy and even extending it to Fin-
land, disliked the idea of systematic religious persecution, and
was not wholly averse from the partial emancipation of the
Russian Church from civil control. During the revolutionary
tumult which followed the disastrous war with Japan Pobe-
donostsev, being nearly 80 years of age, retired from public
affairs. He died on the 23rd of March 1907.

POCHARD, Pockard, or Poker, 1 names properly belonging
to the male of a species of duck (the female of which is known
as the Dunbird), the Anas ferina of Linnaeus, and Nyroca ferina
of later ornithologists — but names very often applied by writers
in a general way to most of the group or sub-family Fuligulinae,
commonly called Diving or Sea-Ducks (see Duck). The Pochard
in full plumage is a very handsome bird, with a coppery-red
head, on the sides of which sparkle the ruby irides of his eyes,
relieved by the greyish-blue of the basal half of his broad bill,
and the deep black of his breast, while his back and flanks
appear of a light grey, being really of a dull white closely barred
by fine undulating black lines. The tail-coverts both above
and below are black, the quill feathers brownish-black, and the
lower surface of a dull white. The Dunbird has the head and
neck reddish-brown, with ill-defined whitish patches on the
cheeks and chin; the back and upper tail-coverts are dull brown,
and the rest of the plumage, except the lower tail-coverts, which
are brownish-grey, resembles that of the Pochard. This
species is very abundant in many parts of Europe, northern
Asia, and North America, generally frequenting in winter the
larger open waters, and extending its migrations to Barbary
and Egypt, but in summer retiring northward and inland to
breed. The American Pochard is slightly larger, has yellow
eyes, and is now regarded as specifically distinct under the
name of Nyroca americana; but America has a perfectly distinct
though allied species in the celebrated canvas-back duck,
iV. vallisneria, a much larger bird, with a longer, higher and
narrower bill, which has no blue at the base, and, though
the plumage of both, especially in the females, is very similar,
the male canvas-back has a darker head, and the black lines
on the back and flanks are much broken up and farther
asunder, so that the effect is to give these parts a much
lighter colour, and from this has arisen the bird's common
though fanciful name. Its scientific epithet is derived from
the fresh-water plant, a species of Vallisneria, usually known
as " wild celery," from feeding on which its flesh is believed to
acquire the delicate flavour that is held in so great a repute.
The Pochard and Dunbird in Europe are in much request for
the table (as the German name of the species, Tafelente, testi-
fies) when they frequent fresh- water; birds killed on the sea-
coast are so rank as to be almost worthless.

Among other species nearly allied to the Pochard that frequent
the northern hemisphere may be mentioned the Scaup-Duck,
Fuligula marila, with its American representative F. affinis, in

1 The derivation of these words, in the first of which the ch is
pronounced hard (though Dr Johnson made it soft), and the
in all of them generally long, is very uncertain. Cotgrave has
pocheculier (modern French poche-cuiller), which he renders

Shoueler," nowadays the name of a kind of duck, but in his time
meaning the bird we commonly call Spoonbill (?-».). Littr6 gives
pochard as a popular French word signifying drunkard.

both of which the male has the head black, glossed with blue or
green; but these are nearly always uneatable from the nature of
their food, which is mostly gathered at low tide on the " scaups "
or " scalps," — as the banks on which mussels and other marine
molluscs grow are in many places termed. Then there are the
Tufted Duck, F. cristata — black with a crest and white flanks—
and its American equivalent F. collaris, and the White-eyed Pochard,
F. nyroca, and the Red-crested Pochard, F. rufina — both peculiar
to the Old World, and well known in India. In the southern hemi-
sphere the genus is represented by three species, F. capensis, F.
australis and F. novae-zealandiae, whose respective names indicate
the country each inhabits, and in South America exists a some-
what divergent form which has been placed in a distinct genus as
Metopiana peposaca.

Generally classed with the Fuligulinae is the small group known
as the Eiders, which differ from them in several respects: the bulb
at the base of the trachea in the male, so largely developed in the
members of the genus Fuligula, is here much smaller and wholly
of bone ; the males take a much longer time, two or even three years,
to attain their full plumage, and some of the feathers on the head,
when that plumage is completed, are always stiff, glistening and of
a peculiar pale-green colour. This little group of hardly more
than half a dozen species may be fairly considered to form a separate
genus under the name of Somateria. Many authors indeed have —
unjustifiably, as it seems to the present writer — broken it up into
three or four genera. The well-known Eider, S. mollissima, is the
largest of this group, and, beautiful as it is, is excelled in beauty
by the King-Duck, S. spectabilis, and the little 5. stelleri. A most
interesting form generally, but obviously in error, placed among
them, is the Logger-head, Racehorse or Steamer-Duck, Micropterus
(or more probably Tachyeres) cinereus of Chile, the Falkland Islands
and Straits of Magellan — nearly as large as a tame goose, and subject
to the, so far as known, unique peculiarity of losing its power of
flight after reaching maturity. Its habits have been well de-
scribed by C. Darwin in his Journal of Researches, and its anatomy
is the subject of an excellent paper in the Zoological Society's
Transactions (vii. 493-501, pis. lviii.-lxii.) by R. 0. Cunningham.

(A. N.)

POCKET, a small bag, particularly a bag-like receptacle
either fastened to or inserted in an article of clothing. As a
measure of capacity " pocket" is now only used for hops; it
equals 168 lb. The word appears in Mid. Eng. as poket, and
is taken from a Norman diminutive of O. Fr. poke, pouque, mod.
poche, cf. " pouch." The form " poke " is now only used
dialectically, or in such proverbial sayings as a " pig in a poke,"
and possibly in the " poke-bonnet," the coal-scuttle bonnet
fashionable during the first part of the 19th century, and now
worn by the female members of the Salvation Army; more
probably the name of the bonnet is connected with " poke,"
to thrust forward, dig. The origin cf this is obscure. Dutch
has poken, pook, a dagger; Swedish p&k, a stick.

POCKET-GOPHER (i.e. pouched rat), the name of a group-
of, chiefly North, American rat-like rodents, characterized
by the possession of large cheek-pouches, the openings of
which are external to the mouth; while their inner surface
is lined with fur. The cheek-teeth, which comprise two pairs
of premolars and three of molars in each jaw, are in the form
of simple prisms of enamel, which do not develop roots. The
fore and hind limbs are of approximately equal length, but the
second and third front-claws are greatly enlarged, and all the
claws are furnished at the base with bristles. The eyes are
small, and the external ears rudimentary.

Pocket-gophers, which typify a family, the Geomyidae, spend
the whole of their time underground, and are specially organ-
ized for such a mode of existence, their powerful claws being
adapted for digging, while the bristles on the toes prevent the earth
from passing between them. The upper incisor teeth are employed
to loosen the ground, like a fork; and the little rodents are able
to move both backwards and forwards in their runs. The cheek-
pouches are employed solely in carrying food, which consists largely
of roots. In the typical genus Geomys the upper incisors are grooved,
but in the allied Thomomys they are smooth. The common pocket-
gopher, Geomys bursarius, of the Mississippi Valley measures about
8 in. in length, with a tail of between 2 and 3 in. ; its colour being
rufous brown and greyish beneath. A well-known representative
of the second genus is Thomomys talpoides, which is considerably
smaller than the former. To the farmer and the gardener pocket-
gophers are an unmitigated source of annoyance. (See Rodentia.)

POCKET-MOUSE, the name of a number of small jerboa-like,
chiefly North, American rodents belonging to the family Geo-
myidae, and constituting the genus Perognathus and Heteromys.
They are nearly allied to the American kangaroo-rats (see

POCOCK— PODEBRAD

873

Kangaroo-Rat), but differ in having rooted molar teeth. The
typical pocket-mouse P. fasciatus, which is a native of Mon-
tana, Missouri, and Wyoming, is a sandy-coloured rodent
marked with black lines above and with white beneath, and
measuring about 6 in. in length, this length being equally divided
between the head and body and the tail. (See Rodentia.)

POCOCK, SIR GEORGE (1 706-1 792), British admiral, son
of Thomas Pocock, chaplain in the navy, was born on the 6th
of March 1706, and entered the navy under the protection of
his maternal uncle, Captain Streynsham Master (1682-1724),
in the " Superbe " in 1718. He became lieutenant in April
1725, commander in 1733, and post-captain in 1738. After
serving in the West Indies he was sent to the East Indies in
1754 as captain of the " Cumberland" (58) with Rear-Admiral
Charles Watson (1714-1757). Watson's squadron co-operated
with Clive in the conquest of Bengal. In 1755 Pocock became
rear-admiral, and was promoted vice-admiral in 1756. On the
death of Watson he took the command of the naval forces in
the eastern seas. In 1758 he was joined by Commodore Charles
Steevens (d. 1761), but the reinforcement only raised the squadron
to seven small line-of-battle ships. War being now in pro-
gress between France and England the French sent a naval
force from their islands in the Indian Ocean into the Bay of
Bengal to the assistance of Pondicherry. To intercept the
arrival of these reinforcements for the enemy now became
the object of Pocock. The French force was indeed of less
intrinsic strength than his own. Count D'Ache (i7oo?-i775),
who commanded, had to make up his line by including several
Indiamen, which were only armed merchant ships. Yet the
number of the French was superior and Pocock was required
by the practice of his time to fight by the old official fighting
instructions. He had to bring his ships into action in a line
with the enemy, and to preserve his formation while the en-
gagement lasted. All Pocock's encounters with D'Ache were
indecisive. The first battle, on the 29th of April 1758, failed to
prevent the Frenchmen from reaching Pondicherry. After a
second and more severe engagement on the 3rd of August,
the French admiral returned to the Mauritius, and when the
monsoon set in Pocock went round to Bombay. He was back
early in spring, but the French admiral did not return to the
Bay of Bengal till September. Again Pocock was unable to
prevent his opponent from reaching Pondicherry, and a well-
contested battle between them on the 10th of September 1759
proved again indecisive. The French government was nearly
bankrupt, and D'Ache could get no stores for his squadron.
He was compelled to return to the islands, and the English
were left in possession of the Coromandel and Malabar coasts.
Pocock went home in 1760, and in 1761 was made Knight of the
Bath and admiral. In 1762 he was appointed to the com-
mand of the naval forces in the combined expedition which took
Havana. The siege, which began on the 7th of June, and
lasted till the 13th of August, was rendered deadly by the climate.
The final victory was largely attributable to the vigorous and
intelligent aid which Pocock gave to the troops. His share in
the prize money was no less than £122,697. On his return to
England Pocock is said to have been disappointed because
another officer, Sir Charles Saunders (1713-1775), was chosen
in preference to himself as a member of the admiralty board,
and to have resigned in consequence. It is certain that he re-
signed his commission in 1766. He died on the 3rd of April
1792. His monument is in Westminster Abbey.

POCOCKE, EDWARD (1604-1691), English Orientalist and
biblical scholar, was born in 1604, the son of a Berkshire clergy-
man, and received his education at the free school of Thame in
Oxfordshire and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford (scholar in
1620, fellow in 1628). The first-fruit of his studies was an edition
from a Bodleian MS. of the four New Testament epistles (2 Peter,
2 and 3 John, Jude) which were not in the old Syriac canon, and
were not contained in European editions of the Peshito. This
was published at Leiden at the instigation of G. Vossius in 1630,
and in the same year Pococke sailed for Aleppo as chaplain to the
English factory. At Aleppo he made himself a profound Arabic

scholar, and collected many valuable MSS. At this time Wm.
Laud was bishop of London and chancellor of the university of
Oxford, and Pococke became known to him as one who could
help his schemes for enriching the university. Laud founded
an Arabic chair at Oxford, and invited Pococke home to fill it,
and he entered on his duties on the 10th of August 1636; but
next summer he sailed again for Constantinople to prosecute
further studies and collect more books, and remained there for
about three years. When he returned to England Laud was in
the Tower, but had taken the precaution to place the Arabic
chair on a permanent footing. Pococke does not seem to have
been an extreme churchman or to have meddled actively in
politics. His rare scholarship and personal qualities raised him
up influential friends among the opposite party, foremost among
these being John Selden and John Owen. Through their offices
he was even advanced in 1648 to the chair of Hebrew, though as
he could not take the engagement of 1649 he lost the emoluments
of the post soon after, and did not recover them till the Restora-
tion. These cares seriously hampered Pococke in his studies, as
he complains in the preface to his Eutychius; he seems to have
felt most deeply the attempts to remove him from his parish of
Childrey, a college living which he had accepted in 1643. In
1649 he published the Specimen historiae arabum, a short
account of the origin and manners of the Arabs, taken from
Barhebraeus (Abulfaragius), with notes from a vast number of
MS. sources which are still valuable. This was followed in 1655
by the Porta Mosis, extracts from the Arabic commentary of
Maimonides on the Mishna, with translation and very learned
notes; and in 1656 by the annals of Eutychius in Arabic and
Latin. He also gave active assistance to Brian Walton's poly-
glot bible, and the preface to the various readings of the Arabic
Pentateuch is from his hand. After the Restoration Pococke's
political ajrd pecuniary troubles were removed, but the reception
of his Magnum opus — a complete edition of the Arabic history of
Barhebraeus (Greg. Abulfaragii historia compendiosa dynastia-
rum), which he dedicated to the king in 1663, showed that the new
order of things was not very favourable to profound scholarship.
After this his most important works were a Lexicon heptaglotton
(1669) and English commentaries on Micah (1677), Malachi
(1677), Hosea (1685) and Joel (1691), which are still worthreading.
An Arabic translation of Grotius's De veritate, which appeared in
1660, may also be mentioned as a proof of Pococke's interest in
the propagation of Christianity in the East. This was an old
plan, which he had talked over with Grotius at Paris on his way
back from Constantinople. Pococke married in 1646, and died in
1691. One of his sons, Edward (1648-1727), published several
contributions to Arabic literature — a fragment of Abdallatif's
description of Egypt and the Philosophus autodidactus of Ibn
Tufail.

The theological works of Pococke were collected, in two volumes,
in 1740, with a curious account of his life and writings by L. T wells.

PODEBRAD, GEORGE OP (1420-1471), king of Bohemia, was
the son of Victoria of Kunstat and Podebrad, a Bohemian noble-
man, who was one of the leaders of the " Orphans" or modern
Taborites during the Hussite wars. George himself as a boy of
fourteen took part in the great battle of Lipan, which marks the
downfall of the more advanced Taborites. Early in life, as one
of the leaders of the Calixtine party, he defeated the Austrian
troops of the German King Albert II., son-in-law and successor
of King Sigismund. He soon became a prominent member of
the national or Calixtine party, and after the death of Ptacek of
Pirkstein its leader. During the minority of Ladislas, son of
Albert, who was born after his father's death, Bohemia was
divided into two parties — the Romanist or Austrian one, led by
Ulrich von Rosenberg (1403-1462), and the national one, led by
Podebrad. After various attempts at reconciliation, Podebrad
decided to appeal to the force of arms. He gradually raised an
armed force in north-eastern Bohemia, where the Calixtine cause
had most adherents and where his ancestral castle was situated.
With this army, consisting of about 9000 men, he marched in
1448 from Kutna Hora to Prague, and obtained possession of the
capital almost without resistance. Civil war, however, broke

8 74

PODESTA— PODIUM

out, but Podfibrad succeeded in defeating the Romanist nobles.
In 1451 the emperor Frederick III., as guardian of the young
king Ladislas, entrusted Podebrad with the administration of
Bohemia. In the same year a diet assembled at Prague also
conferred on Podebrad the regency. The struggle of the Bohe-
mians against Rome continued uninterruptedly, and the position
of Podebrad became a very difficult one when the young king
Ladislas, who was crowned in 1453, expressed his sympathies
for the Roman Church, though he had recognized the compacts
and the ancient privileges of Bohemia. In 1457 King Ladislas
died suddenly, and public opinion from an early period
accused Podebrad of having poisoned him. The Bohemian
historian, Palacky, fifty years ago thoroughly disproved this
accusation, and, though it has recently been revived by German
historians, it must undoubtedly be considered as a calumny.
On the 27th of February 1458 the estates of Bohemia unani-
mously chose Podebrad as king; even the adherents of the
Austrian party voted for him, not wishing at that moment to
oppose the popular feeling, which demanded the election of a
national sovereign. A year after the accession of Podebrad
Pius II. (Aeneas Sylvius) became pope, and his incessant hostility
proved one of the most serious obstacles to Podebrad's rule.
Though he rejected the demand of the pope, who wished him to
consent to the abolition of the compacts, he endeavoured to
curry favour with the Roman see by punishing severely all the
more advanced opponents of papacy in Bohemia. PodSbrad's
persecution of the newly-founded community of the Bohemian
brethren is certainly a blemish on his career. All Podebrad's
endeavours to establish peace with Rome proved ineffectual,
and though the death of Pius II. prevented him from carrying
out his planned crusade against Bohemia, his successor was a
scarcely less bitter enemy of the country. Though the rule of
Podebrad had proved very successful and Bohemia had under it
obtained a degree of prosperity which had been unknown since
the time of Charles IV., the Calixtine king had many enemies
among the Romanist members of the powerful Bohemian nobility.
The malcontent nobles met at Zelena Hora (Griineberg) on the
28th of November 1465, and concluded an alliance against
the king, bringing forward many — mostly untrue — accusations
against him. The confederacy was from its beginning supported
by the Roman see, though Podebrad after the death of his im-
placable enemy, Pius II., attempted to negotiate with the new
pope, Paul II. These negotiations ended when the pontiff grossly
insulted the envoys of the king of Bohemia. On the 23rd
of December 1466 Paul II. excommunicated Podebrad and
pronounced his deposition as king of Bohemia, forbidding all
Romanists to continue in his allegiance. The emperor Frederick
III., and King Matthias of Hungary, Podebrad's former ally,
joined the insurgent Bohemian nobles. King Matthias conquered
a large part of Moravia, and was crowned in the capital of that
country, Brno(Brunn), as king of Bohemiaon the3rdof May 1469.
In the following year Podebrad was more successful in his resist-
ance to his many enemies, but his death on the 22nd of March
1471 put a stop to the war. In spite of the misfortunes of the
last years of his reign, Podebrad's memory has always been
cherished by the Bohemians. He was the only king of Bohemia
who belonged to that nation, and the only one who was not a
Roman Catholic.

See H. Markgraf, Tiber das Verhdltniss des Konigs Georg von
Podebrad zu Papst Pius II. (1867); Jordan, Das Konigthum Georgs
von Podlbrad (1861); A. Bachmann, Ein Jahr bbhmischer Geschichte
(1876), and Urkunden . . . zur oeslerreichischen Geschichte . . .
im Zeiialter Georgs von Podebrad (1879); E.. W. Kanter, Die
Ermordung Konig Ladislaus (1906) ; Novotry, Uber den Tod Konig
Ladislaws Postumus (1906). All histories of Bohemia, particularly
that of F. Palacky (1836-1867), contain detailed accounts of the
career of King George of Podebrad. (L.).

PODESTA (Lat. potestas, power), the name given during the
later middle ages to a high official in many Italian cities. Podes-
tas or rectors were first appointed by the emperor Frederick I.
when about 1158 he began to assert his Imperial rights over
the cities of northern Italy. Their business was to enforce
these rights; from the first they were very unpopular, and their

arbitrary behaviour was a factor in bringing about the formation
of the Lombard league and the rising against Frederick in
1167.

Although the emperor's experiment was short-lived podestas
soon became general in northern Italy, making their appearance
in most communes about 1200. These officials, however, were
now appointed by the citizens or by their representatives. They
exercised the supreme power in the city, both in peace and war,
both in foreign and domestic matters, but they only held office
for a period of a year. In order to avoid the intestine strife
so common in Italian civic life, it soon became the custom
to select a stranger to fill this position. Venetians were in
special request for this purpose during the 12th and 13th cen-
turies, probably because at this time, at least, they were less
concerned than other Italians in the affairs of the mainland.
Afterwards in a few cases the term of office was extended to
cover a period of years, or even a lifetime.

During the later part of the 12th and the whole of the 13th
century most of the Italian cities were governed by podestas.
Concerning Rome, Gregorovius says that in 1205 " the pope
changed the form of the civic government; the executive power
lying henceforward in the hand of a single senator or podesta,
who, directly or indirectly, was appointed by the pope." In
Florence soon after n 80 the chief authority was transferred
from the consuls to the podesta, and Milan and other cities
were also ruled by these officials. There were, moreover, podestas
in some of the cities of Provence. Gradually the podestas be-
came more despotic and more corrupt, and sometimes a special
official was appointed to hear complaints against them; in the
13th century in Florence and some other cities a capitano del
popolo was chosen to look after the interests of the lower classes.
In other ways also the power of the podestas was reduced; they
were confined more and more to judicial functions until they
disappeared early in the 16th century.

The officials who were sent by the Italian republics to ad-
minister the affairs of dependent cities were sometimes called
podestas. At the present day the cities of Trent and Trieste give
the name of podesta to their chief magistrate.

The example of Italy in the matter of podestas was sometimes
followed by cities and republics in northern Europe in the
middle ages, notably by such as had trade relations with Italy.
The officers thus elected sometimes bore the title of podesta or
podestat. Thus in East Friesland there were podestas identical
in name and functions with those of the Italian republics;
sometimes each province had one, sometimes the federal diet
elected a podesta-general for the whole country, the term of
office being for a limited period or for life (see J. L. Motley, Dutch
Republic, i. 44, ed. 1903).

Lists of the Italian podestas are given in Stokvis, Manuel d'histoire ;
vol. iii. (Leiden, 1889). See also W. F. Butler, The Lombard
Communes (1906).

PODGORITSA (Croatian, Podgorica), the largest town in Mon-
tenegro; on the left bank of the river Moracha, and in a fertile
valley which strikes inland for 18 m. from the shores of Lake
Scutari to the mountains of central and eastern Montenegro.
Pop. (1900), about 5500. Spread out on a perfectly flat plain,
Podgoritsa has two distinct parts: the picturesque Turkish
quarter, with its mosques and mined ramparts, and the Monte-
negrin quarter, built since 1877, and containing a prison and an
agricultural college. These quarters are separated by the river
Ribnitsa, a tributary of the Moracha. A fine old Turkish bridge
crosses the main stream. Podgoritsa receives from the eastern
plains and the north-eastern highlands a great quantity of
tobacco, fruit, rereals, honey, silk, livestock and other commodi-
ties, which it distributes through Plavnitsa, its port on Lake
Scutari, and through Riyeka to Cettigne and Cattaro. After
being captured from Turkey in 1877, Podgoritsa was in 1878
recognized as Montenegrin territory by the Treaty of Berlin.

PODIUM (Gr. t65iov, diminutive of toOs, foot), the name in
architecture for a continuous pedestal, or low wall on which
columns are carried, consisting of a cornice or capping, a dado or
die, and a moulded plinth. In the Etruscan and Roman temples

PODOLIA— POE

875

the whole structure was raised on a podium, with a flight of steps
on the principal front, enclosed between the prolongation of the
podium wall.

PODOLIA, a government of south-western Russia, having
Volhynia on the N.. Kiev and Kherson on the E. and S., Bess-
arabia on the S.W., and Galicia (Austria) on the W., from which
it is separated by the Zbrucz, or Rodvocha, a tributary of the
Dniester. It has an area of 16,219 sq. m., extending for 200 m.
from N.W. to S.E. on the left bank of the Dniester. In the
same direction the government is traversed by two ranges of
hills separated by the Bug, ramifications of the Avratynsk heights.
These hills nowhere exceed an elevation of 1185 ft. Two large
rivers, which numerous tributaries, drain the government — the
Dniester, which forms its boundary with Bessarabia and is
navigable throughout its length, and the Bug, which flows almost
parallel to the former in a higher, sometimes swampy, valley,
and is interrupted at several places by rapids. The Dniester is
an important channel for trade, corn, spirits and timber being
exported from Mogilev, Kalus, Zhvanets, Porog and other
Podolian river-ports. The rapid smaller tributaries of the
Dniester supply numerous flour-mills with motive power. The
soil is almost throughout " black earth," and Podolia is one of
the most fertile governments of Russia. Forests cover nearly
15% of the total area. Marshes occur only beside the Bug.
The climate is moderate, the average temperature of the year at
Kamenets being 48-3° (24-5° in January, 6o° in July).

The estimated population in 1906 was 3,543,700. It consists
chiefly of Little Russians, Poles (3?%), and Jews (12%). There
are besides a few Armenians, some Germans, and 50,000 Moldav-
ians. There are many Nonconformists (18,000) among the
Russians, Tulchin being the seat of their bishops and a centre of
propaganda. After Moscow, Podolia is the most densely in-
habited government of Russia outside Poland. It is divided
into twelve districts, the chief towns of which are Kamenets-
Podolskiy, the capital, Balta, Bratslav, Gaisin, Letichev, Litin,
Mogilev-on-Dniester, Novaya-Ushitsa, Olgopol, Proskurov,
Vinnitsa and Yampol. The chief occupations of the people are
agriculture and gardening. The principal crops are wheat, rye,
oats, barley, maize, hemp, flax, potatoes, beetroot and tobacco.
Podolia is famous for its cherries and] mulberries, its melons,
gourds and cucumbers. Nearly 67,000 gallons of wine are
- obtained annually. Large numbers of horses, cattle and sheep
are bred, the cattle being famous. Bee-keeping is an important
industry. Sugar factories, distilleries, flour-mills, woollen mills,
tanneries, potteries, tobacco factories, breweries, candle and soap
factories, have an annual output valued at £4,000,000. An
active trade is carried on with Austria, especially through the
Isakovets and Gusyatin custom-houses, corn, cattle, horses,
skins, wool, linseed and hemp seed being exported, in exchange
for wooden wares, linen, woollen stuffs, cotton, glass and agri-
cultural implements. The trade with the interior is also carried
on very briskly, especially at the twenty-six fairs, the chief of
which are Balta and Yarmolintsy. Podolia is traversed by a
railway which runs parallel to the Dniester, from Lemberg to
Odessa, and has two branch lines, to Kiev (from Zhmerinka)
and to Poltava (from Balta).

History. — The country has been inhabited since the beginning
of the Neolithic period. Herodotus mentions it as the seat of the
Graeco-Scythian Alazones and the Scythian Neuri, who were
followed by the Dacians and the Getae. The Romans left traces
of their rule in the Wall of Trajan, which stretches through the
modern districts of Kamenets, Ushitsa and Proskurov. During
the great migrations many nationalities passed through this
territory, or settled within it for some time, leaving traces in
numerous archaeological remains. Nestor mentions that the
Bujanes and Dulebes occupied the Bug, while the Tivertsi and
Ugliches, apparently all four Slav tribes, were settled on the
Dniester. These peoples were conquered by the Avars in the
7th century. Oleg, prince of Kiev, extended his rule over this
territory — the Ponizie, or " lowlands," which became later a part
of the principalities of Volhynia, Kiev and Galicia. In the 13th
century the Ponizie was plundered by the Mongols; a hundred

years afterwards Olgierd, prince of Lithuania, freed it from their
rule, annexing it to his own territories under the name of Podolia,
a word which has the same meaning as Ponizie. After the death
(1430) of the Lithuanian prince Vitovt, Podolia was annexed to
Poland, with the exception of its eastern part, the province of
Bratslav, which remained under Lithuania until its union
(1501) with Poland. The Poles retained Podolia until the
third division of their country in 1793, when it was taken by
Russia. (P.A.K.; J.T.Be.)

PODOLSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Moscow,
26 m. S. of the city of Moscow, at the junction of the two main
roads from Moscow to the Crimea and to Warsaw. Pop. (1881),
1 1,000; (1897), 3808. It is picturesquely built on the hilly banks
of the Pakhra, here crossed by a suspension bridge for carriages
as well as by the railway bridge. Down to 1781 the wealthy
village of Podol was a dependency of the Danilov monastery in
Moscow. Before the opening of the southern railway the cara-
vans of wagons and sledges to and from Moscow used to halt here;
the principal occupation of the inhabitants was innkeeping and
supplying the caravans with provisions and other necessaries
of travel. The limestone quarries, at the confluence of the
Desna and the Pakhra, supply the capital with good building
material; and there are a cement, lime and brick factory and a
paper-mill.

PODOPHYLLIN, a drug obtained from the rhizome of the
American mandrake or may apple, Podophyllum peltatum, an
herbaceous perennial belonging to the natural order Berberi-
daceae, indigenous in woods in Canada and the United States.
The plant is about 1 ft. high, bearing two peltate, deeply-
divided leaves, which are about 5 in. in diameter, and bear
in the axil a solitary, stalked, white flower, about the size and
shape of the garden anemone, with six or more petals and twice
as many hypogynous stamens. The fruit is ripe in July, and
is an oval, yellowish, fleshy berry, containing twelve or more
seeds, each surrounded by a pulpy outer coat or aril. The
rhizome, as met with in commerce, occurs in cylindrical pieces
2 or 3 in. long and about j in. in diameter, of a chocolate or
purplish-brown colour, smooth, and slightly enlarged where the
juncture of the leafy stem is indicated by a circular scar on the
upper and a few broken rootlets on the under side. The odour
is heavy and disagreeable, and the taste acrid and bitter.

Podophyllin is a resinous powder obtained by precipitating an
alcoholic tincture of the rhizome by means of water acidulated
with hydrochloric acid. It varies in colour from greyish to bright
yellow or greenish-brown, the first-named being the purest. The
powder is soluble in alcohol and strong solutions of alkalis, such
as ammonia. Its composition is somewhat complex. There are
certainly at least two resins in the powder (which is known offici-
ally as Podophylli resina), one of them being soluble and the other
insoluble in ether. Each of these contains an active substance,
which can be obtained in crystalline foim, and is known as podo-
phyllotoxin. It is soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform and boiling
water. Alkalis decompose it into picro-podophyllic acid and
picro-podophyllin, minute traces of both of which occur in a free
state in the rhizome. The acid is inert, but picro-podophyllin is
the active principle. It is a crystalline body, soluble only in con-
centrated alcohol. Hence the inutility of the pharmacopeial
tinctura podophylli, which cannot be diluted before administration.
The properties of podophyllin resin vary with the reaction of the
tissue with which it is in contact ; where this is acid the drug is inert,
the picro-podophyllin being precipitated.

The resin does not affect the unbroken skin, but may be ab-
sorbed from a raw surface, and will then cause purging. When
taken internally it is both a secretory and an excretory cholagogue,
but so irritant and powerful that its use in cases of jaundice is
generally undesirable. Its value, however, in certain cases of
constipation of hepatic origin is undeniable. It is largely used in
patent medicines, usually as an auxiliary to aloes. The best method
of prescribing podophyllin is in pill form. In toxic doses podo-
phyllin causes intense enteritis, with all its characteristic symptoms,
and severe depression, which may end in death. The treatment
is symptomatic, there being no specific antidote.

POE, EDGAR ALLAN (1800-1849), American poet, writer of
fiction and critic, was born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the 19th
of January 1809. The family was of English origin, but was settled
in Ireland, whence the poet's great-grandfather emigrated to
Maryland. His grandfather, David Poe, served with credit as a

876

POERIO

soldier in the War of Independence, was known to Washington,
and was the friend of Lafayette. His son David Poe was bred
as a lawyer, but deeply offended his family by marrying an actress
of English birth, Mrs Elizabeth Hopkins,n£e Arnold, and by himself
going on the stage. In 181 1 he and his wife died, leaving three
children — William, Edgar, and a daughter Rosalie — wholly des-
titute. William died young, and Rosalie became mad. Edgar
was adopted by John Allan, a tobacco merchant of Scottish ex-
traction, seemingly at the request of his wife, who was childless.
The boy was indulged in every way, and encouraged to believe
that he would inherit Mr Allan's fortune. Mr Allan, having
come to England in 1815, placed Edgar in a school at Stoke
Newington, kept by a Dr Bransby. In 1820 Mr Allan returned
to Richmond, Virginia, and Edgar was first placed at school in
the town and then sent to the university of Virginia at Char-
lottesville in 1826. Here the effects of a very unwise training
on a temperament of inherited neurotic tendency were soon seen.
He was fond of athletics, and was a strong and ardent swimmer ;
but he developed a passion for gambling and drink. His dis-
orders made it necessary to remove him, and he was taken away
by Mr Allan, who refused to pay his debts of honour. He enlisted
on the 26th of May 1827 at Boston, and served for two years in
the United States army. As a soldier his conduct must have
been exemplary, for he was promoted sergeant-major on the 1st
of January 1829. It is to be noted that throughout his life,
when under orders, Poe could be a diligent and capable subor-
dinate. In May 1829 Mr Allan secured his discharge from the
army, and in 1 830 obtained a nomination for him to the West Point
military academy. As a student he showed considerable faculty for
mathematics, but his aloofness prevented him from being popular
with his comrades, and he neglected his duty. When court-
martialled he made no answer to the charges, and was expelled on
the 6th of March 1831. Mr Allan's generosity was now exhausted.
The death of his first wife in- 1829 had doubtless removed an
influence favourable to Poe. A second marriage brought him
children, and at his death in 1834 he left his adopted son
nothing. A last meeting between the two, shortly before Mr
Allan's death, led only to a scene of painful violence.

In 1827 Poe had published his first voiume of poetry, Tamer-
lane and other Poems, at Boston. He did not publish under his
name, but as " A Bostonian." In 183 1 he published a volume
of Poems under his name at New York. His life immediately
after he left West Point is very obscure, but in 1833 he was living
at Baltimore with his paternal aunt, Mrs Clemm, who was
throughout life his protector, and, in so far as extreme poverty
permitted, his support. In 1833 he won a prize of $100 offered
for the best story by the Baltimore Saturday Visitor. He would
have won the prize for the best poem if the judges had not
thought it wrong to give both rewards to one competitor. The
story, MS. found in a Bottle, is one of the most mediocre of his
tales, but his success gave him an introduction to editors and
publishers, who were attracted by his striking personal appear-
ance and his fine manners, and were also touched by his mani-
fest poverty. From 1833 till his death he was employed on
different magazines at Richmond, New York and Philadelphia.
His famous poem " The Raven " was published first in 1845,
and soon became extraordinarily popular; but Poe only got
£2 for it.

The facts of his life have been the subject of very ill-judged
controversy. The acrimonious tone of the biography by Rufus
Griswold, prefixed to the first collected edition of his works in
1850, gave natural offence, and attempts have been made to show
that the biographer was wrong as to the facts. But it is no real
kindness to Poe's memory to deny the sad truth that he was
subject to chronic alcoholism. He was not a boon companion,
and never became callous to his vice. When it seized him he
drank raw spirits, and was disordered by a very little. But when
he was free from the maddening influence of alcohol he was
gentle, well-bred, and a hard worker on the staff of a magazine,
willing and able to write reviews, answer correspondents, pro-
pound riddles or invent and solve cryptograms. His value as a
contributor and sub-editor secured him successive engagements

on the Southern Literary Messenger of Richmond, on the New
York Quarterly Review, and on Graham's Magazine at Phila-
delphia. It enabled him in 1843 to have a magazine of his own,
the Stylus. His mania sooner or later broke ofl all his engage-
ments and ruined his own venture. In 1835 he married his
cousin, Virginia Clemm, a beautiful girl of fourteen years of age.
A false statement as to her age was made at the time of the
marriage. She died after a long decline in 1847. Poe made two
attempts to marry women of fortune — Mrs Whitman and Mrs
Shelton. The first of these engagements was broken off. The
second was terminated by his death in hospital at Baltimore,
Md., on the 7th of October 1849. ,

His life and death had many precedents, and will always recur
among Bohemian men of letters and artists. What was indi-
vidual in Poe, and what alone renders him memorable, was his
narrow but profound and original genius (see American Litera-
ture). In the midst of much hack-work and not a few failures
in his own field he produced a small body of verse, and a hand-
ful of short stories of rare and peculiar excellence. The poems
express a melancholy sensuous emotion in a penetrating melody
all his own. The stories give form to horror and fear with an
exquisite exactness of touch, or construct and unravel mysteries
with extreme dexterity. He was a conscientious literary artist
who revised and perfected his work with care. His criticism,
though often commonplace and sometimes ill-natured, as when
he attacked Longfellow for plagiarism, was trenchant and
sagacious at his best.

Bibliography. — The Life and Letters of Edgar Allan Poe, by J. A.
Harrison (New York, 1903) and The Life of Edgar Allan Poe (Boston,
new ed. 1909), by G. E. Woodberry, are the best biographies. The
standard edition of his Works is that published in 1894-1895 at Chi-
cago, in ten volumes, by E. C. Stedman and G. E. Woodberry. There
have been many partial reprints. For Poe's influence in France,
which has been great, see C. Baudelaire, Histoires extraordinaires
(Paris, 1856); S. Mallarm6, Poemes d' Edgar Poe (Brussels, 1888);
and Les Nevroses, by Arvede Barine (Paris, 1899). (D. H.)

POERIO, ALESSANDRO (1802-1848), Italian poet and patriot,
was descended from an old Calabrian family, his father, Baron
Giuseppe Poerio, being a distinguished lawyer of Naples. In
1815 he and his brother Carlo accompanied their father, who had
been identified with Murat's cause, into exile, and settled at
Florence. In 1818 they were allowed to return to Naples, and
on the proclamation of the constitution in 1820 the Poerios were
among the stoutest defenders of the newly-won freedom. Alles-
sandro fought as a volunteer, under General Guglielmo Pepe,
against the Austrians in 1821, but when the latter reoccupied
Naples and the king abolished the constitution, the family was
again exiled and settled at Gratz. Alessandro devoted himself
to study in various German universities, and at Weimar he
became the friend of Goethe. In 1835 the Poerios returned to
Naples, and Alessandro, while practising law with his father,
published a number of lyrics. In 1848 he accompanied Pepe as
a volunteer to fight the Austrians in northern Italy, and on the
recall of the Neapolitan contingent Alessandro followed Pepe to
Venice and displayed great bravery during the siege. He was
severely wounded in the fighting round Mestre, and died on the
3rd of November 1848. His poetry " reveals the idealism of a
tender and delicate mind which was diligent in storing up
sensations and images that for others would, have been at most
the transient impressions of a moment." But he could also
sound the clarion note of patriotism, as in his stirring poem
77 Risorgimento.

His brother Carlo (1803-1867), after returning to Naples,
practised as an advocate, and from 1837 to 1848 was frequently
arrested and imprisoned; but when King Ferdinand, moved by
the demonstration of the 27th of January of the latter year,
promulgated a constitution, he was made minister of education.
Discovering, however, that the. king was acting in bad faith, he
resigned office in April and returned to Naples to take his seat in
parliament, where he led the constitutional opposition. The
Austrian victory of Novara (March 1849) set the king free to
dissolve parliament and trample on the constitution, and on the
19th of July 1849 Poerio was arrested, tried, and condemned to

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877

nineteen years in irons. Chained in pairs, he and other political
prisoners were confined in one small room in the bagno of Nisida,
near the lazaretto. The eloquent exposure (1851) of the horrors
of the Neapolitan dungeons by Gladstone, who emphasized
especially the case of Poerio, awakened the universal indignation
of Europe, but he did not obtain his liberty till 1858. He and
other exiles were than placed on board a ship bound for the United
States, but the son of Settembrini, another of the exiles, who was
on board in disguise, compelled the crew to land them at Cork,
whence Poerio made his way to London. In the following year
he returned to Italy, and in i860 he was elected deputy to the
parliament of Turin, of which he was chosen vice-president in
1861. He died at Florence on the 28th of April 1867.

See Baldachini, Delia Vita e de' tempi di Carlo Poerio (1867);
W. E. Gladstone, Two Letters to the Earl of Aberdeen (1851); Carlo
Poerio and the Neapolitan Police (London, 1858); Vannucci, i"
Martiri delta liberta italiana, vol. iii. (Milan, 1880) ; Imbriani, Ales-
sandro Poerio a Venezia (Naples, 1884); Del Giudice, / Fratelli
Poerio (Turin, 1899); Countess Martinengo Cesaresco, Italian
Characters (London, 1901).

POETRY. In modern criticism the word poetry {i.e. the art
of the poet, Gr. ttoit/ttjs, maker, from iroielv, to make) is used
sometimes to denote any expression (artistic or other) of imagin-
ative feeling, sometimes to designate a precise literary art,
which ranks as one of the fine arts. As an expression of imagin-
ative feeling, as the movement of an energy, as one of those
great primal human forces which go to the development of the
race, poetry in the wide sense has played as important a part as
science. In some literatures (such as that of England) poetic
energy and in others (such as that of Rome) poetic art is the
dominant quality. It is the same with individual writers.
In classical literature Pindar may perhaps be taken as a type of
the poets of energy; Virgil of the poets of art. With all his
wealth of poetic art Pindar's mastery over symmetrical methods
never taught him to " sow with the hand," as Corinna declared,
while his poetic energy always impelled him to " sow with the
whole sack." In English poetical literature Elizabeth Barrett
Browning typifies, perhaps, the poets of energy; while Keats
(notwithstanding all his unquestionable inspiration) is mostly
taken as a type of the poets of art. In French literature Hugo,
notwithstanding all his mastery over poetic methods, represents
the poets of energy.

In some writers, and these the very greatest — in Homer,
Aeschylus, Sophocles, Dante, Shakespeare, Milton, and perhaps
Goethe — poetic energy and poetic art are seen in something like
equipoise. It is of poetry as an art, however, that we have
mainly to speak here; and all we have to say upon poetry as an
energy is that the critic who, like Aristotle, takes this wide view
of poetry — the critic who, like him, recognizes the importance of
poetry in its relations to man's other expressions of spiritual
force, claims a place in point of true critical sagacity above that
of a critic who, like Plato, fails to recognize that importance.
And assuredly no philosophy of history can be other than in-
adequate should it ignore the fact that poetry has had as much
effect upon human destiny as that other great human energy by
aid of which, from the discovery of the use of fire to that of the
electric light, the useful arts have been developed.

With regard to poetry as an art, most of the great poems of the
world are dealt with elsewhere in this work, either in connexion
with the names of the writers or with the various literatures to
which they belong; consequently these remarks must be confined
to general principles. Under Verse the detailed questions of
prosody are considered; here we are concerned with the essential
principles which underlie the meaning of poetry as such.

All that can be attempted is to inquire: (1) What is poetry?

(2) What is the position it takes up in relation to the other arts ?

(3) What is its value and degree of expressional power in relation
to these ? and, finally, (4) What varieties of poetic art are the
outcome of the two great kinds of poetic impulse, dramatic
imagination and lyric or egoistic imagination ?

1. What is Poetry? — Definitions are for the most part alike
unsatisfactory and treacherous; but definitions of poetry are
proverbially so. Is it possible to lay down invariable principles

of poetry, such as those famous " invariable principles " of
William Lisle Bowles, which in the earlier part of the century
awoke the admiration of Southey and the wrath n
of Byron ? Is it possible for a critic to say of any
metrical phrase, stanza or verse, " This is poetry," or " This is
not poetry " ? Can he, with anything like the authority with
which the man of science pronounces upon the natural objects
brought before him, pronounce upon the qualities of a poem ?
These are questions that have engaged the attention of critics
ever since the time of Aristotle. Byron, in his rough and
ready way, answered them in one of those letters to his
publisher John Murray, which, rich as they are in nonsense, are
almost as rich in sense. " So far are principles of poetry from
being invariable," says he, " that they never were nor ever will
be settled. These principles mean nothing more than the
predilections of a particular age, and every age has its own and a
different from its predecessor. It is now Homer and now Virgil;
once Dryden and since Sir Walter Scott; now Corneille and now
Racine; now Crebillon and now Voltaire." This is putting the
case very strongly — perhaps too strongly. But if we remember
that Sophocles lost the first prize for the Oedipus tyr -annus; if we
remember what in Dante's time (owing partly, no doubt, to the
universal ignorance of Greek) were the relative positions of
Homer and Virgil, what in the time of Milton were the relative
positions of Milton himself, of Shakespeare, and of Beaumont and
Fletcher; again, if we remember Jeffrey's famous classification
of the poets of his day, we shall be driven to pause over Byron's
words before dismissing them. Yet some definition, for the
purpose of this essay, must be here attempted; and, using ,
the phrase " absolute poetry " as the musical critics use the
phrase " absolute music," we may, perhaps, without too great
presumption submit the following: —

Absolute poetry is the concrete and artistic expression of the
human mind in emotional and rhythmical language.

This at least will be granted, that no literary expression can,
properly speaking, be called poetry that is not in a certain deep
sense emotional, whatever may be its subject-matter, concrete
in its method and its diction, rhythmical in movement, and
artistic in form.

That the expression of all real poetry must be concrete in
method and diction is obvious, and yet this dictum would exclude
from the definition much of what is called didactic poetry. With
abstractions the poet has nothing to do, save to take them and
turn them into concretions; for, as artist, he is simply the man
who by instinct embodies in concrete forms that " universal
idea" which Gravina speaks of — that which is essential and
elemental in nature and in man; as poetic artist he is simply
the man who by instinct chooses for his concrete forms metrical
language. And the questions to be asked concerning any work
of art are simply these — Is that which is here embodied really
permanent, universal and elemental? and, Is the concrete form
embodying it really beautiful — acknowledged as beautiful by
the soul of man in its highest moods? Any other question is an
impertinence.

As an example of the absence of concrete form in verse take the
following lines from George Eliot's Spanish Gypsy: —

" Speech is but broken light upon the depth
Of the unspoken ; even your loved words
Float in the larger meaning of your voice
As something dimmer."

Without discussing the question of blank verse cadence, and the
weakness of a line where the main accent falls upon a positive
hiatus, " of the unspoken," we would point out that this powerful
passage shows the spirit of poetry without its concrete form.
The abstract method is substituted for the concrete. Such
an abstract phrase as " the unspoken " belongs entirely to
prose.

As to what is called ratiocinative poetry, it might perhaps be
shown that it does not exist at all. Not by syllogism, but per
saltum, must the poet reach in every case his conclusions. We
listen to the poet — we allow him to address us in rhythm or in
rhyme — we allow him to sing to us while other men are only

878

POETRY

allowed to talk, not because he argues more logically than they,
but because he feels more deeply and perhaps more truly. It is
for his listeners to be knowing and ratiocinative; it is for him to
be gnomic and divinely wise.

That poetry must be metrical or even rhythmical in movement,
however, is what some have denied. Here we touch at once the
very root of the subject. The difference between all literature
and mere " word-kneading " is that, while literature is alive,
word-kneading is without life. This literary life, while it is
only bipartite in prose, seems to be tripartite in poetry; that is to
say, while prose requires intellectual life and emotional life,
poetry seems to require not only intellectual life and emotional
life but rhythmic life, this last being the most important of all
according to many critics, though Aristotle is not among these.
Here indeed is the " fork " between the old critics and the new.
Unless the rhythm of any metrical passage is so vigorous, so
natural, and so free that it seems as though it could live, if need
were, by its rhythm alone, has that passage any right to exist?
and should it not, if the substance is good, be forthwith demetri-
cized and turned into prose? Thoreau has affirmed that prose,
at its best, has high qualities of its own beyond the ken of poetry;
to compensate for the sacrifice of these, should not the metrical
gains of any passage be beyond all cavil?

This argument might be pressed farther still. It might seem
bold to assert that, in many cases, the mental value of poetry
may actually depend upon form and colour, but would it not be
true ? The mental value of poetry must be judged by a standard
not applicable to prose; but, even with regard to the different
kinds of poetry, we must not compare poetry whose mental value
consists in a distinct and logical enunciation of ideas, such as that
of Lucretius and Wordsworth, and poetry whose mental value
consists partly in the suggestive richness of passion or symbol
latent in rhythm (such as that of Sappho sometimes, Pindar often,
Shelley always), or latent in colour, such as that of some of the
Importance P ers ' an poets. To discuss the question, Which of these
ot Metrical twc kinds of poetry is the more precious ? would be
Questions. 'die, Du * are we noi - driven to admit that certain
poems whose strength is rhythm, and certain other
poems whose strength is colour, while devoid of any logical state-
ment of thought, may be as fruitful of thoughts and emotions
too deep for words as a shaken prism is fruitful of tinted
lights ? The mental forces at work in the production of a
poem like the Excursion are of a very different kind from the mental
forces at work in the production of a poem like Shelley's "Ode to
the West Wind." In the one case the poet's artistic methods,
like those of the Greek architect, show, and are intended to show,
the solid strength of the structure. In the other, the poet's artistic
methods, like those of the Arabian architect, contradict the idea
of solid strength — make the structure appear to hang over our
heads like the cloud pageantry of heaven. But, in both cases,
the solid strength is, and must be, there, at the base. Before the
poet begins to write he should ask himself which of these artistic
methods is natural to him ; he should ask himself whether his natural
impulse is towards the weighty iambic movement whose primary
function is to state, or towards those lighter movements which we
still call, for want of more convenient words, anapaestic and dactylic,
whose primary function is to suggest. Whenever Wordsworth
and Keats pass from the former to the latter they pass at once
into doggerel. Nor is it difficult to see why English anapaestic
and dactylic verse must suggest, and not state, as even so compara-
tively successful a tour de force as Shelley's " Sensitive Plant "
shows. Conciseness is a primary virtue of all statement. The
moment the English poet tries to " pack " his anapaestic or dactylic
line as he can pack his iambic line, his versification becomes rugged,
harsh, pebbly — becomes so of necessity. Nor is this all: anapaestic
and dactylic verse must in English be obtrusively alliterative,
or the same pebbly effect begins to be felt. The anapaestic line
is so full of syllables that in a language where the consonants
dominate the vowels (as in English), these syllables grate against
each other, unless their corners are artfully bevelled by one of the
only two smoothing processes at the command of an English versifier
— obtrusive alliteration, or an obtrusive use of liquids. Now these
demands of form may be turned by the perfect artist to good
account if his appeal to the listener's soul is primarily that of
suggestion by sound or symbol, but if his appeal is that of direct
and logical statement the diffuseness inseparable from good ana-
paestic and dactylic verse is a source of weakness such as the true
artist should find intolerable.

Using the word " form " in a wider sense still, a sense that
includes " composition, " it can be shown that poetry, to be entitled
to the name, must be artistic in form. Whether a poem be a
Welsh triban or a stornello improvised by an Italian peasant girl,

whether it be an ode by Keats or a tragedy by Sophocles, it is
equally a work of art. The artist's command over form may
be shown in the peasant girl's power of spontaneously
rendering in simple verse, in her stornello or rispetto, M™ e *"
her emotions through nature's symbols; it may be
shown by Keats in that perfect fusion of all poetic elements of
which he was such a master, in the manipulation of language so
beautiful both for form and colour that thought and words seem
but one blended loveliness; or it may be shown by Sophocles
in a mastery over what in painting is called composition, in the
exercise of that wise vision of the artist which, looking before and
after, sees the thing of beauty as a whole, and enables him to grasp
the eternal laws of cause and effect in art and bend them to his
own wizard will. In every case, indeed, form is an essential
part of poetry; and, although George Sand's saying that " L'art
est une forme " applies perhaps more strictly to the plastic arts
(where the soul is reached partly through mechanical means),
its application to poetry can hardly be exaggerated.

Owing, however, to the fact that the word irovtyrris (first used
to designate the poetic artist by Herodotus) means maker,
Aristotle seems to have assumed that the indispensable basis
of poetry is invention. He appears to have thought that a poet
is a poet more on account of the composition of the action than
on account of the composition of his verses. Indeed he said as
much as this. Of epic poetry he declared emphatically that
it produces its imitations either by mere articulate words or
by metre superadded. This is to widen the definition of poetry
so as to include all imaginative literature, and Plato seems to
have given an equally wide meaning to the word 7roiJj(ro. Only,
while Aristotle considered iroiricns to be an imitation of the facts
of nature, Plato considered it to be an imitation of the dreams
of man. Aristotle ignored, and Plato slighted, the importance
of versification (though Plato on one occasion admitted that
he who did not know rhythm could be called neither musician
nor poet).

Perhaps the first critic who tacitly revolted against the dictum
that substance, and not form, is the indispensable basis of poetry
was Dionysius of Halicarnassus, whose treatise upon the arrange-
ment of words is really a very fine piece of literary criticism. In
his acute remarks upon the arrangement of the words in the
sixteenth book of the Odyssey, as compared with that in the story
of Gyges by Herodotus, was perhaps first enunciated clearly the
doctrine that poetry is fundamentally a matter of style. The
Aristotelian theory as to invention, however, dominated all
criticism after as well as before Dionysius. When Bacon came
to discuss the subject (and afterwards) the only division between
the poetical critics was perhaps between the followers of Aristotle
and those of Plato as to what poetry should, and what it should
not, imitate. It is curious to speculate as to what would have
been the result had the poets followed the critics in this matter.
Had not the instinct of the poet been too strong for the schools,
would poetry as an art have been lost and merged in such
imaginative prose as Plato's ? Or is not the instinct for form too
strong to be stifled ? By the poets themselves metre was always
considered to be the one indispensable requisite of a poem, though,
as regards criticism, even in the time of the appearance of the
Waverley Novels, the Quarterly Review would sometimes speak of
them as " poems "; and perhaps even later the same might be
said of romances so concrete in method and diction, and so full of
poetic energy, as Wuthering Heights and Jane Eyre, where we
get absolutely all that Aristotle requires for a poem. On the
whole, however, the theory that versification is not an indis-
pensable requisite of a poem seems to have become nearly
obsolete. Perhaps, indeed, many critics would now go so far in
the contrary direction as to say with Hegel (Aesthetik, ii. 289)
that " metre is the first and only condition absolutely demanded
by poetry, yea even more necessary than a figurative picturesque
diction." At all events this at least may be said, that the division
between poetical critics is not now between Aristotelians and
Baconians; it is of a different kind altogether. While one group
of critics may still perhaps say with Dryden that " a poet is a
maker, as the name signifies," and that " he who cannot make,

POETRY

879

that is, invent, has his name for nothing," another group con-
tends that it is not the invention but the artistic treatment, the
form, which determines whether an imaginative writer is a poet
or a writer of prose — contends, in short, that emotion is the
basis of all true poetic expression, whatever be the subject-
matter, that thoughts must be expressed in an emotional manner
before they can be brought into poetry, and that this emotive
expression demands even yet something else, viz. style and
form.

Although many critics are now agreed that " L'art est une
forme," that without metre and without form there can be no
The impor- P oe try, there are few who would contend that poetry
tanceof can exist by virtue of any one of these alone, or
Ideas and even by virtue of all these combined. Quite inde-
Atutude. p en( i en t f verbal melody, though mostly accompany-
ing it, and quite independent of " composition," there is an
atmosphere floating around the poet through which he sees
everything, an atmosphere which stamps his utterances as
poetry; for instance, among all the versifiers contemporary with
Donne there was none so rugged as he occasionally was, and yet
such songs as " Sweetest love, I do not go for weariness of thee "
prove how true a poet he was whenever he could master those
technicalities which far inferior poets find comparatively easy.
While rhythm may to a very considerable degree be acquired
(though, of course, the highest rhythmical effects never can),
the power of looking at the world through the atmosphere that
floats before the poet's eyes is not to be learned and not to be
taught. This atmosphere is what we call poetic imagination.
But first it seems necessary to say a word or two upon that high
temper of the soul which in truly great poetry gives birth to
this poetic imagination.

The " message " of poetry must be more unequivocal, more
thoroughly accentuated, than that of any of the other fine arts.
With regard to modern poetry, indeed, it may almost be said
that if any writer's verse embodies a message, true, direct and
pathetic, we cannot stay to inquire too curiously about the degree
of artistic perfection with which it is delivered, for Wordsworth's
saying " That which comes from the heart goes to the heart "
applies very closely indeed to modern poetry. The most truly
passionate poet in Greece was no doubt in a deep sense the most
artistic poet; but in her case art and passion were one, and that
is why she has been so cruelly misunderstood. The most truly
passionate nature, and perhaps the greatest soul, that in recent
years has expressed itself in English verse is Elizabeth Barrett
Browning; at least it is certain that, with the single exception
of Hood in the " Song of the Shirt," no writer of the 19th century
really touched English hearts with a hand so powerful as hers —
and this notwithstanding violations of poetic form, or defective
rhymes, such as would appal some of the contemporary versifiers
of England and France " who lisp in numbers for the numbers
[and nothing else] come." The truth is that in order to produce
poetry the soul must for the time being have reached that state
of exaltation, that state of freedom from self-consciousness,
depicted in the lines: —

" I started once, or seemed to start, in pain,

Resolved on noble things, and strove to speak,
As when a great thought strikes along the brain,
And flushes all the cheek."

Whatsoever may be the poet's " knowledge of his art," into
this mood he must always pass before he can write a truly poetic
line. For, notwithstanding all that may be said upon poetry as
a fine art, it is in the deepest sense of the word an " inspiration."
No man can write a line of genuine poetry without having been
" born again " (or, as the true rendering of the text says, " born
from above "); and then the mastery over those highest reaches
of form which are beyond the ken of the mere versifier comes to
him as a result of the change. Hence, with all Mrs Browning's
metrical blemishes, the splendour of her metrical triumphs at
her best.

For what is the deep distinction between poet and proseman?
A writer may be many things besides a poet; he may be a warrior
like Aeschylus, a man of business like Shakespeare, a courtier

like Chaucer, or a cosmopolitan philosopher like Goethe; but the
moment the poetic mood is upon him all the trappings of the
world with which for years he may perhaps have been clothing
his soul — the world's knowingness, its cynicism, its self-seeking,
its ambition — fall away, and the man becomes an inspired child
again, with ears attuned to nothing but the whispers of those
spirits from the Golden Age, who, according to Hesiod, haunt
and bless the degenerate earth. What such a man produces may
greatly delight and astonish his readers, yet not so greatly as it
delights and astonishes himself. His passages of pathos draw
no tears so deep or so sweet as those that fall from his own
eyes while he writes; his sublime passages overawe no soul so
imperiously as his own; his humour draws no laughter so rich
or so deep as that stirred within his own breast.

It might almost be said, indeed, that Sincerity and Conscience,
the two angels that bring to the poet the wonders of the poetic
dream, bring him also the deepest, truest delight of form. It might
almost be said that by aid of sincerity and conscience the
poet is enabled to see more clearly than other men the eternal
limits of his own art — to see with Sophocles that nothing, not
even poetry itself, is of any worth to man, invested as he is by
the whole army of evil, unless it is in the deepest and highest
sense good, unless it comes linking us all together by closer bonds
of sympathy and pity, strengthening us to fight the foes with
whom fate and even Nature, the mother who bore us, sometimes
seem in league — to see with Milton that the high quality of
man's soul which in English is expressed by the word virtue is
greater than even the great poem he prized, greater than all the
rhythms of all the tongues that have been spoken since Babel —
and to see with Shakespeare and with Shelley that the high passion
which in English is called love is lovelier than all art, lovelier
than all the marble Mercuries that " await the chisel of the
sculptor " in all the marble hills.

2. What Position does Poetry take up in Relation to the other
Arts? — Notwithstanding the labours of Lessing and his followers,
the position accorded by criticism to poetry in Po e tryta
relation to the other arts has never been so uncertain Relation to
and anomalous as in recent years. On the one hand tne other
there are critics who, judging from their perpetual s "
comparison of poems to pictures, claim her as a sort of handmaid
of painting and sculpture. On the other hand the disciples of
Wagner, while professing to do homage to poetry, have claimed
her as the handmaid of music. With regard to the relations of
poetry to painting and sculpture, it seems necessary to glance
for a moment at the saying of Simonides, as recorded by Plutarch,
that poetry is a speaking picture and that painting is a mute
poetry. It appears to have had upon modern criticism as much
influence since the publication of Lessing's Laocoon as it had
before. Perhaps it is in some measure answerable for the
modern vice of excessive word-painting. Beyond this one
saying, there is little or nothing in Greek literature to show that
the Greeks recognized between poetry and the plastic and
pictorial arts an affinity closer than that which exists between
poetry and music and dancing. Understanding artistic methods
more profoundly than the moderns, and far too profoundly to
suppose that there is any special and peculiar affinity between
an art whose medium of expression is marble and an art whose
medium of expression is a growth of oral symbols, the Greeks
seem to have studied poetry not so much in its relation to painting
and sculpture as in its relation to music and dancing. It is
matter of familiar knowledge, for instance, that at the Dionysian
festival it was to the poet as "teacher of the chorus"
(xopo5iSa(TKaAos) that the prize was awarded, even though the
" teacher of the chorus " were Aeschylus himself or Sophocles.
And this recognition of the relation of poetry to music is
perhaps one of the many causes of the superiority of Greek to
all other poetry in adapting artistic means to artistic ends. In
Greek poetry, even in Homer's description of the shield of
Achilles, even in the famous description by Sophocles of his
native woods in the Oedipus coloneus, such word-painting
as occurs seems, if not inevitable and unconscious, so alive
with imaginative feeling as to become part and parcel of the

88o

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dramatic or lyric movement itself. And whenever description
is so introduced the reader of Greek poetry need not be told
that the scenery itself rises before the listener's imagination
with a clearness of outline and a vigour of colour such as
no amount of detailed word painting in the modern fashion can
achieve. The picture even in the glorious verses at the end of
the eighth book of the Iliad rises before our eyes — seems actu-
ally to act upon our bodily senses — simply because the poet's
eagerness to use the picture for merely illustrating the solem-
nity and importance of his story lends to the picture that very
authenticity which the work of the modern word-painter lacks.
That the true place of poetry lies between music on the one
hand and prose, or loosened speech, on the other, was, we say,
taken for granted by the one people in whom the artistic instinct
was fully developed. No doubt they used the word music in a
very wide sense, in a sense that might include several arts. But
it is a suggestive fact that, in the Greek language, long before
poetic art was called "making" it was called "singing." The
poet was not 71-01177-17$ but aoifids. And as regards the Romans it
is curious to see how every now and then the old idea that poetry
is singing rather than making will disclose itself. It will be
remembered for instance how Terence, in the prologue of
Phormio, alludes to poets as musicians. That the ancients were
right in this could well be shown by a history of poetry: music
and the lyrical function of the poet began together, but here, as
in other things, the progress of art from the implicit to the explicit
has separated the two. Every art has its special function, has a
certain work which it can do better than any one of its sister
arts. Hence its right of existence. For instance, before the
" sea of emotion " within the soul has become " curdled into
thoughts," it can be expressed in inarticulate tone. Hence,
among the fine arts, music is specially adapted for rendering it.
It was perhaps a perception of this fact which made the Syrian
Gnostics define life to be " moving music." When this sea of
emotion has "curdled into thoughts," articulate language
rhythmically arranged — words steeped in music and colour, but
at the same time embodying ideas — can do what no mere word-
less music is able to achieve in giving it expression, just as
unrhythmical language, language mortised in a foundation of
logic, that is to say prose, can best express these ideas as soon as
they have cooled and settled and cleared themselves of emotion
altogether. Yet every art can in some degree invade the domain
of her sisters, and the nearer these sisters stand to each other the
more easily and completely can this invasion be accomplished.
Prose, for instance, can sometimes, as in the case of Plato, do
some of the work of poetry (however imperfectly, and however
trammelled by heavy conditions); and sometimes poetry, as in
Pindar's odes and the waves of the Greek chorus, can do, though
in the same imperfect way, the work of music.

The poems of Sappho, however, are a good case in point. Here
the poet's passion is expressed so completely by the mere sound
of her verses that a good recitation of them to a person ignorant
of Greek would convey something of that passion to the listener;
and similar examples almost as felicitous might be culled from
Homer, from Aeschylus and from Sophocles. Nor is this power
confined to the Greek poets. The students of Virgil have often
and with justice commented on such lines as Aen. v. 481 (where
the sudden sinking of a stricken ox is rendered by means of rhythm),
and such lines as Georg. ii. 44I, where, by means of verbal sounds,
the gusts of wind about a tree are rendered as completely as though
the voice were that of the wind itself. In the case of Sappho the
effect is produced by the intensity of her passion, in the case of
Homer by the intensity of the dramatic vision, in the case of Virgil
by a supreme poetic art. But it can also be produced by the mere
ingenuity of the artist, as in Edgar Poe's " Ulalume." The poet's
object in that remarkable tour de force was to express dull and
hopeless gloom in the same way that the mere musician would
have expressed it — that is to say, by monotonous reiterations,
by hollow and dreadful reverberations of gloomy sounds — though
a6 an artist whose vehicle was articulate speech he was obliged
to add gloomy ideas, in order to give to his work the intellec-
tual coherence necessary for its existence as a poem. He
evidently _ set out to do this, and he did it, and 'Ulalume"
properly intoned would produce something like the same effect
upon a listener knowing no word of English that it produces
upon us.

On the other hand, music can trench very far upon the

domain of articulate speech, as we perceive in the wonderful
instrumentation of Wagner. Yet, while it can be shown that
the place of poetry is scarcely so close to sculpture and painting
as to music on the one side and loosened speech on the other, the
affinity of poetry to music must not be exaggerated. We must
be cautious how we follow the canons of Wagner and the more
enthusiastic of his disciples, who almost seem to think that
inarticulate tone can not only suggest ideas but express them —
can give voice to the Verstand, in short, as well as to the Vernunft
of man. Even the Greeks drew a fundamental distinction
between melic poetry (poetry written to be sung) and poetry
that was written to be recited. It is a pity that, while modern
critics of poetry have understood, or at least have given
attention to painting and sculpture, so few have possessed any
knowledge of music — a fact which makes Dante's treatise De
vulgari eloquio so important. Dante was a musician, and
seems to have had a considerable knowledge of the relations
between musical and metrical laws. But he did not, we think,
assume that these laws are identical.

If it is indeed possible to establish the identity of musical and
metrical laws, it can only be done by a purely scientific investi-
gation; it can only be done by a most searching inquiry into the
subtle relations that we know must exist throughout the universe
between all the laws of undulation. And it is curious to re-
member that some of the greatest masters of verbal melody have
had no knowledge of music, while some have not even shown any
love of it. All Greek boys were taught music, but whether
Pindar's unusual musical skill was born of natural instinct and
inevitable passion, or came from the accidental circumstance that
his father was, as has been alleged, a musician, and that he was
as a boy elaborately taught musical science by Lasus of Hermione,
we have no means of knowing. Nor can we now learn how much
of Milton's musical knowledge resulted from a like exceptional
" environment," or from the fact that his father was a musician.
But when we find that Shelley seems to have been without the
real passion for music, that Rossetti disliked it, and that
Coleridge's apprehension of musical effects was of the
ordinary nebulous kiiiu, we must hesitate before accepting the
theory of Wagner.

The question cannot be pursued here; but if it should on in-
quiry be found that, although poetry is more closely related to
music than to any of the other arts, yet the power over verbal
melody at its very highest is so all-sufficing to its possessor, as in
the case of Shelley and Coleridge, that absolute music becomes
a superfluity, this would only be another illustration of that
intense egoism and concentration of force — the impulse of all
high artistic energy — which is required in order to achieve the
rarest miracles of art.

With regard to the relation of poetry to prose, Coleridge once
asserted in conversation that the real antithesis of poetry was
not prose but science. If he was right the difference in kind
lies, not between the poet and the prose writer, but between the
literary artist (the man whose instinct is to manipulate language)
and the man of facts and of action whose instinct impels him to
act, or, if not to act, to inquire. One thing is at least certain,
that prose, however fervid and emotional it may become, must
always be directed, or seem to be directed, by the reins of logic.
Or, to vary the metaphor, like a captive balloon it can never
really leave the earth.

Indeed, with the literature of knowledge as opposed to the
literature of power poetry has nothing to do. Facts have no
place in poetry until they are brought into relation with the
human soul. But a mere catalogue of ships may become poetical
if it tends to show the strength and pride and'glory of the warriors
who invested Troy; a detailed description of the designs upon
a shield, however beautiful and poetical in itself, becomes still
more so if it tends to show the skill of the divine artificer and the
invincible splendour of a hero like Achilles. But mere dry
exactitude of imitation is not for poetry but for loosened speech.
Hence, most of the so-called poetry of Hesiod is not poetry
at all. The Muses who spoke to him about " truth " on Mt
Helicon made the common mistake of confounding fact with

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truth. And here we touch upon a very important matter.
The reason why in prose speech is loosened is that, untrammelled
by the laws of metre, language is able with more exactitude to
imitate nature, though of course speech, even when " loosened,"
cannot, when actual sensible objects are to be depicted, compete
in any real degree with the plastic arts in accuracy ©f imitation,
for the simple reason that its media are not colours nor solids
but symbols — arbitrary symbols which can be made to indicate,
but never to reproduce, colours and solids. Accuracy of imita-
tion is the first requisite of prose. But the moment language
has to be governed by the laws of metre — the moment the conflict
begins between the claims of verbal music and the claims of
colour and form — then prosaic accuracy has to yield; sharpness
of outline, mere fidelity of imitation, such as is within the com-
pass of prose, have in some degree to be sacrificed. But, just
as with regard to the relations between poetry and music the
greatest master is he who borrows the most that can be borrowed
from music, and loses the least that can be lost from metre, so
with regard to the relations between poetry and prose the greatest
master is he who borrows the most that can be borrowed from
prose and loses the least that can be lost from verse. No doubt
this is what every poet tries to do by instinct; but some sacrifice
on either side there must be, and, with regard to poetry and
prose, modern poets at least might be divided into those who
make picturesqueness yield to verbal melody, and those
who make verbal melody yield to picturesqueness.

With one class of poets, fine as is perhaps the melody, it is made
subservient to outline or to colour; with the other class colour
and outline both yield to metre. The chief aim of the first class
is to paint a picture; the chief aim ot the second is to sing a song.
Weber, in driving through a beautiful country, could only enjoy
its beauty by translating it into music. The same may be said
of some poets with regard to verbal melody. The supreme artist,
however, is he whose pictorial and musical power are so interfused
that each seems born of the other, as is the case with Sappho,
Homer, Aeschylus, Sophocles, and indeed most of the great Greek
poets. Among English poets (leaving the two supreme masters
undiscussed) Keats and Coleridge have certainly done this. The
colour seems born of the music and the music born of the
colour. In French poetry the same triumph has been achieved in
Victor Hugo's magnificent poem " En marchant la nuit dans un
bois," which, as a rendering through verbal music of the witchery
of nature, stands alone in the poetry of France. For there the
poet conquers that crowning difficulty we have been alluding to,
the difficulty of stealing from prose as much distinctness of colour
and clearness of outline as can be imported into verse with as little
sacrifice as possible of melody.

If poetry can in some degree invade the domain of prose, so
on the other hand prose can at times invade the domain of poetry,
and no doubt the prose of Plato — what is called poetical prose —
is a legitimate form of art. Poetry, the earliest form of litera-
ture, is also the final and ideal form of all pure literature; and,
when Landor insists that poetry and poetical prose are antago-
nistic, we must remember that Landor's judgments are mostly
based on feeling, and that his hatred of Plato would be quite
sufficient basis with him for an entire system of criticism upon
poetical prose. As with Carlyle, there was a time in his life when
Plato had serious thoughts of becoming a poet. And perhaps,
like Carlyle, having the good sense to see his true function, he
himself desisted from writing, and strictly forbade other men to
write, in verse. If we consider this, and if we consider that
certain of the great English masters of poetic prose of the 17th
century were as incapable of writing in metre as their followers
Richter and Carlyle, we shall hardly escape the conclusion on the
one hand that the faculty of writing poetry is quite another
faculty than that of producing work in the arts most closely
allied to it, music and prose, but that on the other hand there is
nothing antagonistic between these faculties.

3. Comparative Value in Expressional Power. — There is one
great point of superiority that musical art exhibits over metrical
art. This consists, not in the capacity for melody, but in
the capacity for harmony in the musician's sense. The finest
music of Aeschylus, of Pindar, of Shakespeare, of Milton,
is after all only a succession of melodious notes, and, in
endeavouring to catch the harmonic intent of strophe, anti-
strophe and epode in the Greek chorus and in the true ode (that

of Pindar), we can only succeed by pressing memory into our
service. We have to recall by memory the waves that have gone
before, and then to imagine their harmonic power in relation to
the waves at present occupying the ear. Counterpoint, therefore,
is not to be achieved by the metricist, even though he be Pindar
himself; but in music this perfect ideal harmony was fore-
shadowed perhaps in the earliest writing. We know at least
that as early as the 12th century counterpoint began to show a
vigorous life, and the study of it is now a familiar branch of
musical science. Now, inasmuch as " nature's own hymn " is
and must be the harmonic blending of apparently Rhvth
independent and apparently discordant notes, among
the arts whose appeal is through the ear that which can achieve
counterpoint must perhaps rank as a pure art above one which
cannot achieve it. We are of course speaking here of metre only.
We have not space to inquire whether the counterpoint of absolute
poetry is the harmony underlying apparently discordant emotions
— the emotion produced by a word being more persistent than the
emotion produced by an inarticulate sound. But if poetry falls
behind music in rhythmic scope, it is capable of rendering emotion
after emotion has become disintegrated into thoughts, and here,-
as we have seen, it enters into direct competition with the ar.t of
prose. It can use the emphasis of sound, not for its own sake
merely, but to strengthen the emphasis of sense, and can thus
give a fuller and more adequate expression to the soul of man
than music at its highest can give. With regard to prose, no
doubt such writing as Plato's description of the chariot of the
soul, his description of the island of Atlantis, or of Er's visit to
the place of departed souls, comes but a short way behind
poetry in imaginative and even rhythmic appeal. It is impossible,
however, here to do more than touch upon the subject of the
rhythm of prose in its relation to the rhythm of poetry; for in
this matter the genius of each individual language has to be
taken into account.

Perhaps it may be said that deeper than all the rhythm of art
is that rhythm which art would fain catch, the rhythm of nature;
for the rhythm of nature is the rhythm of life itself. This
rhythm can be caught by prose as well as by poetry, such prose,
for instance, as that of the English Bible. Certainly the rhythm
of verse at its highest, such, for instance, as that of Shakespeare's
greatest writings, is nothing more and nothing less than the
metre of that energy of the spirit which surges within the bosom
of him who speaks, whether he speak in verse or in impassioned
prose. Being rhythm, it is of course governed by law, but it is a
law which transcends in subtlety the conscious art of the metricist
and is only caught by the poet in his most inspired moods, a law
which, being part of nature's own sanctions, can of course never
be formulated but only expressed, as it is expressed in the melody
of the bird, in the inscrutable harmony of the entire bird-chorus
of a thicket, in the whisper of the leaves of the tree, and in the
song or wail of wind and sea. Now is not this rhythm of nature
represented by that " sense rhythm " which prose can catch as
well as poetry, that sense rhythm whose finest expressions are
to be found m the Bible, Hebrew and English, and in the biblical
movements of the English Prayer Book, and in the dramatic
prose of Shakespeare at its best? Whether it is caught by prose
or by verse, one of the virtues of the rhythm of nature is that it is
translatable. Hamlet's peroration about man and Raleigh's
apostrophe to death are as translatable into other languages as
are the Hebrew psalms, or as is Manu's magnificent passage
about the singleness of man: —

" Single is each man born into the world; single he dies; single
he receives the reward of his good deeds, and single the punishment
of his evil deeds. When he dies his body lies like a fallen tree upon
the earth, but his virtue accompanies his soul. Wherefore let man
harvest and garner virtue, so that he may have an inseparable com-
panion in traversing that gloom which is so hard to be traversed."

Here the rhythm, being the inevitable movement of emotion
and " sense," can be caught and translated by every literature
under the sun. While, however, the great goal before the poet
is to compel the listener to expect his caesuric effects, the great
goal before the writer of poetic prose is in the very opposite
direction ; it is to make use of the concrete figures and impassioned

882

POETRY

diction of the poet, but at the same time to avoid the recognized
and expected metrical bars upon which the poet depends. The
moment the prose poet passes from the rhythm of prose to the
rhythm of metre the apparent sincerity of his writing is destroyed.
As compared with sculpture and painting the great infirmity
of poetry, as an " imitation " of nature, is of course that the
medium is always and of necessity words — even when
fmitatlon. n0 words could, in the dramatic situation, have been
spoken. It is not only Homer who is obliged some-
times to forget that passion when at white heat is never voluble,
is scarcely even articulate; the dramatists also are obliged to for-
get that in love and in hate, at their tensest, words seem weak and
foolish when compared with the silent and satisfying triumph and
glory of deeds, such as the plastic arts can render. This becomes
manifest enough when we compare the Niobe group or the Lao-
coon group, or the great dramatic paintings of the modern
world, with even the finest efforts of dramatic poetry, such as the
speech of Andromache to Hector, or the speech of Priam to
Achilles, nay such as even the cries of Cassandra in the Agamem-
non, or the waitings of Lear over the dead Cordelia. Even when
writing the words uttered by Oedipus, as the terrible truth breaks
in upon his soul, Sophocles must have felt that in the holiest
chambers of sorrow and in the highest agonies of suffering reigns
that awful silence which not poetry, but painting sometimes, and
sculpture always, can render. What human sounds could render
the agony of Niobe, or the agony of Laocoon, as we see them in
the sculptor's rendering? Not articulate speech at all; not
words but wails. It is the same with hate; it is the same with
love. We are not speaking merely of the unpacking of the heart
in which the angry warriors of the Iliad indulge. Even such
subtle writing as that of Aeschylus and Sophocles falls below the
work of the painter. Hate, though voluble perhaps, as Clytaem-
nestra's when hate is at that red-heat glow which the poet can
render, changes in a moment whenever that redness has been
fanned to hatred's own last complexion — whiteness as of iron
at the melting-point— when the heart has grown far too big to
be " unpacked " at all, and even the bitter epigrams of hate's
own rhetoric, though brief as the terrier's snap before he fleshes
his teeth, or as the short snarl of the tigress as she springs before
her cubs in danger, are all too slow and sluggish for a soul to
which language at its tensest has become idle play. But this is
just what cannot be rendered by an art whose medium consists
solely of words.

It is in giving voice, not to emotion at its tensest, but to the
variations of emotion, it is in expressing the countless shifting
movements of the soul from passion to passion, that poetry
shows in spite of all her infirmities her superiority to the plastic
arts. Hamlet and the Agamemnon, the Iliad and the Oedipus
Tyrannus, are adequate to the entire breadth and depth of man's
soul.

Varieties of Poetic Art. — We have now reached the inquiry:
What varieties of poetic art are the outcome of the two kinds of
poetic impulse, dramatic imagination and lyric or egoistic imagin-
ation? It would be impossible here to examine fully the subject
of poetic imagination. In order to do so we should have to enter
upon the vast question of the effect of artistic environment upon
the development of man's poetic imagination; we should have
to inquire how the instinctive methods of each poet and of each
group of poets have been modified and often governed by the
methods characteristic of their own time and country. We
should have to inquire, for instance, how far such landscape
as that of Sophocles in the Oedipus Coloneus and such landscape
as that of Wordsworth depends upon difference of individual
temperament, and how far upon difference of artistic environ-
ment. That, in any thorough and exhaustive discussion of
poetic imagination, the question of artistic environment must
be taken into account, the case of the Iliad is alone sufficient
to show. Ages before Phrynichus, ages before an acted drama
was dreamed of, a dramatic poet of the first order arose, and,
though he was obliged to express his splendid dramatic imagina-
tion through epic forms, he expressed it almost as fully as if
he had inherited the method and the stage of Sophocles. And if

Homer never lived at all, then an entire group of dramatic poets
arose in remote times whose method was epic instead of dramatic
simply because there was then no stage. This, contrasted with
the fact that in a single half-century the tragic art of Greece
arose with Aeschylus, culminated with Sophocles, and decayed
with Euripides, and contrasted also with the fact that in England
at one time, and in Spain at one time, almost the entire poetic
imagination of the country found expression in the acted drama
alone, is sufficient to show that a poet's artistic methods are
very largely influenced by the artistic environments of his country
and time. So vast a subject as this, however, is beyond our scope,
and we can only point to the familiar instance of the troubadours
and the trouveres and then pass on.

With the trouvere (the poet of the langue a" oil), the story or
situation is always the end of which the musical language is
the means; with the troubadour (the poet of the langue d'oc),
the form is so beloved, the musical language so enthralling, that,
however beautiful may be the story or situation, it is felt to
be no more than the means to a more beloved and beautiful
end. But then nature makes her own troubadours and her own
trouveres irrespective of fashion and of time — irrespective of
langue d'oc and langue d'o'il. And, in comparing the troubadours
with the trouveres, this is what strikes us at once- — there are
certain troubadours who by temperament, by original endow-
ment of nature, ought to have been trouveres, and there are
certain trouveres who by temperament ought to have been
troubadours. Surrounding conditions alone have made them
what they are. There are those whose impulse (though writing
in obedience to contemporary fashions lyrics in the langue d'oc)
is manifestly to narrate, and there are those whose impulse
(though writing in obedience to contemporary fashions fabliaux
in the langue d'o'il) is simply to sing. In other words, there are
those who, though writing after the fashion of their brother-
troubadours, are more impressed with the romance and wonder-
fulness of the human life outside them than with the romance
and wonderfulness of their own passions, and who delight in
depicting the external world in any form that may be the popular
form of their time; and there are those who, though writing after
the fashion of their brother-trouveres, are far more occupied
with the life within them than with that outer life which the
taste of their time and country calls upon them to paint — born
rhythmists who must sing, who translate everything external
as well as internal into verbal melody. Of the former class
Pierre Vidal, of the latter class the author of Le Lay de I'oiselet,
may be taken as the respective types.

That the same forces are seen at work in all literatures few
students of poetry will deny — though in some poetical groups
these forces are no doubt more potent than in others, as, for
instance, with the great parable poets of Persia, in some of whom
there is perpetually apparent a conflict between the dominance
of the Oriental taste for allegory and subtle suggestion, as
expressed in the Zoroastrian definition of poetry — " apparent
pictures of unapparent realities " — and the opposite yearning
to represent human life with the freshness and natural freedom
characteristic of Western poetry.

Allowing, however, for all the potency of external influences,
we shall not be wrong in saying that of poetic imagination there
are two distinct kinds — (i) the kind of poetic imagina- yi6 SO /„te
tion seen at its highest in Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Relative
Shakespeare and Homer, and (2) the kind of poetic s ""'
imagination seen at its highest in Pindar, Dante and
Milton, or else in Sappho, Heine and Shelley. The former,
being in its highest dramatic exercise unconditioned by the
personal or lyrical impulse of the poet, might perhaps be called
absolute dramatic vision; the latter, being more or less conditioned
by the personal or lyrical impulse of the poet, might be called
relative dramatic vision. It seems impossible to classify poets,
or to classify the different varieties of poetry, without draw-
ing some such distinction as this, whatever words of definition
we may choose to adopt.

For the achievement of all pure lyric poetry, such as the ode,
the song, the elegy, the idyll, the sonnet, the stornello, it is

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883

evident that the imaginative force we have called relative vision
will suffice. And if we consider the matter thoroughly, in many
other forms of poetic art — forms which at first sight might seem
to require absolute vision — we shall, find nothing but relative
vision at work.

Even in Dante, and even in Milton and Virgil, it might be
difficult to trace the working of any other than relative vision.
And as to the entire body of Asiatic poets it might perhaps be
found (even in view of the Indian drama) that relative vision
suffices to do all their work. Indeed the temper which produces
true drama is, it might almost be said, a growth of the Western
mind. For, unless it be Semitic, as seen in the dramatic narratives
of the Bible, or Chinese, as seen in that remarkable prose story,
The Two Fair Cousins, translated by R6musat, absolute vision
seems to have but small place in the literatures of Asia. The
wonderfulness of the world and the romantic possibilities of fate,
or circumstance, or chance — not the wonderfulness of the
character to whom these possibilities befall — are ever present
to the mind of the Asiatic poet. Even in so late a writer as the
poet of the Shah Nameh, the hero Irij, the hero Zal and the hero
Zohreb are in character the same person, the virtuous young man
who combines the courage of youth with the wisdom and forbear-
ance of age. And, as regards the earlier poets of Asia, it was
not till the shadowy demigods and heroes of the Asiatic races
crossed the Caucasus, and breathed a more bracing air, that
they became really individual characters. But among the many
qualities of man's mind that were invigorated and rejuvenated
by that great exodus from the dreamy plains of Asia is to be
counted, above all others, his poetic imagination. The mere
sense of wonder, which had formerly been an all-sufficing source
of pleasure to him, was all-sufficing no longer. The wonderful
adventure must now be connected with a real and interesting
individual character. It was left for the poets of Europe to
show that, given the interesting character, given the Achilles,
the Odysseus, the Helen, the Priam, any adventure happening
to such a character becomes interesting.

What then is this absolute vision, this true dramatic imagina-
tion which can hardly be found in Asia — which even in Europe
cannot be found except in rare cases? Between relative and
absolute vision the difference seems to be this, that the former
only enables the poet, even in its very highest exercise, to make
his own individuality, or else humanity as represented by his own
individuality, live in the imagined situation; the latter enables
him in its highest exercise to make special individual characters
other than the poet's own live in the imagined situation.

" That which exists in nature," says Hegel, " is a something
purely individual and particular. Art, on the contrary, is essen-
tially destined to manifest the general." And no doubt this is
true as regards the plastic arts, and true also as regards literary
art, save in the very highest reaches of pure drama and pure
lyric, when it seems to become art no longer — when it seems to
become the very voice of Nature herself. The cry of Priam
when he puts to his lips the hand that slew his son is not merely
the cry of a bereaved and aged parent; it is the cry of the in-
dividual king of Troy, and expresses above everything else that
most naive, pathetic and winsome character. Put the words
into the mouth of the irascible and passionate Lear and they
would be entirely out of keeping.

It may be said then that, while the poet of relative vision,
even in hs very highest exercise, can only, when depicting the
Lyric Epic external world, deal with the general, the poet of
and absolute vision can compete with Nature herself

Dramatic an( j & tg \ w ;th both general and particular. If this
mgers. j g rea jjy so we m3 y p er haps find a basis for a classi-
fication of poetry and of poets. That all poets must be singers
has already been maintained. But singers seem to be divisible
into three classes: first the pure lyrists, each of whom can with
his one voice sing only one tune; secondly the epic poets, save
Homer, the bulk of the narrative poets, and the quasi-dramatists,
each of whom can with his one voice sing several tunes; and
thirdly the true dramatists, who, having, like the nightingale of
Gongora, many tongues, can sing all tunes.

It is to the first-named of these classes that most poets belong.
With regard to the second class, there are not of course many
poets left for it: the first absorbs so many. But, when we come
to consider that among those who, with each his one voice, can
sing many tunes, are Pindar, Firdausi, Jami, Virgil, Dante,
Milton, Spenser, Goethe, Byron, Coleridge, Shelley, Keats,
Schiller, Victor Hugo, the second class is so various that no
generalization save such a broad one as ours could embrace its
members. And now we come to class three, and must pause.
The third class is necessarily very small. In it can only be
placed such names as Shakespeare, Aeschylus, Sophocles,
Homer and (hardly) Chaucer.

These three kinds of poets represent three totally different
kinds of poetic activity.

With regard to the first, the pure lyrists, the impulse is pure
egoism. Many of them have less of even relative vision at its
highest than the mass of mankind. They are often too much
engaged with the emotions within to have any deep sympathy
with the life around them. Of every poet of this class it may
be said that his mind to him " a kingdom is," and that the
smaller the- poet the bigger to him is that kingdom. To make
use of a homely image — like the chaffinch whose eyes have been
pricked by the bird-fancier, the pure lyrist is sometimes a warbler
because he is blind. Still he feels that the Muse loves him
exceedingly. She takes away his eyesight, but she gives him
sweet song. And his song is very sweet, very sad, and very
beautiful; but it is all about the world within his own soul — its
sorrows, joys, fears and aspirations.

With regard to the second class the impulse here is no doubt a
kind of egoism too; yet the poets of this class are all of a* different
temper from the pure lyrists. They have a wide imagination;
but it is still relative, still egoistic. They have splendid eyes,
but eyes that never get beyond seeing general, universal
humanity (typified by themselves) in the imagined situation.
Not even to these is it given to break through that law of
centrality by which every " me " feels itself to be the central
" me " — the only " me " of the universe, round which all other
spurious " me's " revolve. This "me " of theirs they can
transmute into many shapes, but they cannot create other
" me's " — nay, for egoism, some of them scarcely would, perhaps,
if they could.

The third class, the true dramatists, whose impulse is the
simple yearning to create akin to that which made " the great
Vishnu yearn to create a world," are " of imagination all com-
pact " — so much so that when at work " the divinity " which
Iamblichus speaks of " seizes for the time the soul and guides
it as he will."

The distinction between the pure lyrists and the other two
classes of poets is obvious enough. But the distinction between
the quasi-dramatists and the pure dramatists Examples of
requires a word of explanation before we proceed Relative and
to touch upon the various kinds of poetry that spring Absolute
from the exercise of relative and absolute vision. ' son -
Sometimes, to be sure, the vision of the true dramatists —
the greatest dramatists — will suddenly become narrowed
and obscured, as in that part of the Oedipus tyrannus where
Sophocles makes Oedipus ignorant of what every one in Thebes
must have known, the murder of Laius. And again, finely as
Sophocles has conceived the character of Electra, he makes her,
in her dispute with Chrysothemis, give expression to sentiments
that, in another play of his own, come far more appropriately
from the lofty character of Antigone in a parallel dispute with
Ismene. And, on the other hand, examples of relative vision
in its furthest reaches can be found in abundance everywhere,
especially in Virgil, Dante, Calderon and Milton. Some of the
most remarkable examples of that high kind of relative vision
which may easily be mistaken for absolute vision may be found
in those great prose epics of the North which Aristotle would
have called poems. Here is one from the Volsunga Saga.
While the brothers of Gudrun are about their treacherous
business of murdering Sigurd, her husband, as he lies asleep in
her arms, Brynhild, Sigurd's former love, who in the frenzy of

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" iove turned to hate " has instigated the murderers to the deed,
hovers outside the chamber with Gunnar, her husband, and
listens to the wail of her rival who is weltering in Sigurd's blood.
At the sound of that wail Brynhild laughs: —

" Then said Gunnar to her, Thou laughest not because thy heart
roots are gladded, or else why doth thy visage wax so wan ? " 1

This is of course very fine; but, as any two characters in that
dramatic situation might have done that dramatic business,
fine as it is — as the sagaman gives us the general and not the
particular — the vision at work is not absolute but relative at its .
very highest exercise. But our examples will be more interest-
ing if taken from English poets. In Coleridge's " Ancient
Mariner " we find an immense amount of relative vision of so
high a kind that at first it seems absolute vision. When the
ancient mariner, in his narrative to the wedding guest, reaches
the slaying of the albatross, he stops, he can proceed no farther,
and the wedding guest exclaims: —

" God save thee, Ancient Mariner,

From the fiends that plague thee thus !
Why look'st thou so ? " " With my cross-bow

I shot the albatross."

But there are instances of relative vision — especially in the
great master of absolute vision, Shakespeare — which are higher
still — -so high indeed that not to relegate them to absolute
vision seems at first sight pedantic. Such an example is the
famous speech of Lady Macbeth in the second act, where she
says: —

" Had he not resembled
My father as he slept, I had done 't."

Marvellously subtle as is this speech, it will be found, if
analysed, that it expresses the general human soul rather than
any one special human soul. Indeed Leigh Hunt records the
case of a bargeman who, charged with robbing a sleeping
traveller in his barge, used in his confession almost identical
words — " Had he not looked like my father as he slept, I should
have killed as well as robbed him." Again, the thousand and
one cases (to be found in every literature) where a character,
overwhelmed by some sudden surprise or terror, asks whether
the action going on is that of a dream or of real life, must all,
on severe analysis, be classed under relative rather than under
absolute vision — even such a fine speech, for instance, as that
where Pericles, on discovering Marina, exclaims: —
" This is the rarest dream that e'er dull sleep
Did mock sad fools withai " ;

or as that in the third act of Titus Andronicus, where Titus,
beholding his mutilated and ruined daughter, asks: —

" When will this fearful slumber have an end? "
even here, we say, the humanity rendered is general and not
particular, the vision at work is relative and not absolute. The
poet, as representing the whole human race, throwing himself
into the imagined situation, gives us what general humanity
would have thought, felt, said or done in that situation, not
what one particular individual and he alone would have
thought, felt, said or done.

Now what we have called absolute vision operates in a very
different way. So vividly is the poet's mere creative instinct
at work that the ego sinks into passivity — becomes insensitive
to all impressions other than those dictated by the vision — by
the " divinity " which has " seized the soul." Shakespeare is
full of examples. Take the scene in the first act of Hamlet
where Hamlet hears for the first time, from Horatio, that his
father's ghost haunts the castle. Having by short sharp
questions elicited the salient facts attending the apparition,
Hamlet says, " I would I had been there." To this Horatio
makes the very commonplace reply, " It would have much
amazed you." Note the marvellously dramatic reply of Hamlet
— " Very like, very like ! Stayed it long ? " Suppose that this
dialogue had been attempted by any other poet than a true
dramatist, or by a true dramatist in any other mood than
his very highest, Hamlet, on hearing Horatio's commonplace
remarks upon phenomena which to Hamlet were more subversive
1 Translation of Morris and Magnusson.

of the very order of the universe than if a dozen stars had fallen
from their courses, would have burst out with: " Amazed me!"
and then would have followed an eloquent declamation about
the " amazing " nature of the phenomena and their effect upon
him. But so entirely has the poet become Hamlet, so completely
has " the divinity seized his soul," that all language seems
equally weak for expressing the turbulence within the soul of
the character, and Hamlet exclaims in a sort of meditative
irony, " Very like, very like ! " It is exactly this one man
Hamlet, and no other man, who in this situation would have
so expressed himself. Charles Knight has some pertinent
remarks upon this speech of Hamlet; yet he misses its true value,
and treats it from the general rather than from the particular
side. Instances of absolute vision in Shakespeare crowd upon
us; but we can find room for only one other. In the pathetic
speech of Othello, just before he kills himself, he declares himself
to be: —

" One not easily jealous, but, being wrought,
Perplexed in the extreme." ,

Consider the marvellous timbre of the word "wrought," as
coming from a character like Othello. When writing this
passage, especially when writing this word, the poet had become
entirely the simple English soldier-hero, as the Moor really is — he
had become Othello, looking upon himself " as not easily jealous,"
whereas he was " wrought " and " perplexed in the extreme "
by tricks which Hamlet would have seen through in a moment.

While all other forms of poetic art can be vitalized by relative
vision, there are two forms (and these the greatest) in which
absolute vision is demanded, viz. the drama, and in Dramatic
a lesser degree the Greek epic, especially the Iliad. imagine-
This will be seen more plainly perhaps if we now tion -
vary our definitions and call relative vision egoistic imagination;
absolute vision dramatic imagination.

Very much of the dramatist's work can be, and in fact is,
effected by egoistic imagination, while true dramatic imagination
is only called into play on comparatively rare occasions. Not
only fine but sublime dramatic poems have been written, however,
where the vitalizing power has been entirely that of lyrical
imagination. We need only instance the Prometheus Bound of
Aeschylus, the most sublime poem in the world. The dramas
of Shelley too, like those of Victor Hugo and Calderon, are
informed entirely by egoistic imagination. In all these splendid
poems the dramatist places himself in the imagined situation,
or at most he places there some typical conception of universal
humanity. There is not in all Calderon any such display of
dramatic imagination as we get in that wonderful speech of
Priam's in the last book of the Iliad, to which we have before
alluded. There is not in the Cenci such a display of dramatic
imagination as we get in the sudden burst of anger from the
spoilt child of gods and men, Achilles (anger which alarms the
hero himself as much as it alarms Priam), when the prattle of
the old man has carried him too far. It may seem bold to say
that the drama of Goethe is informed by egoistic imagination
only — assuredly the prison-scene in Faust is unsurpassed in
the literatures of the world. Yet, perhaps, it could be shown of
the passion and the pathos of Gretchen throughout the entire
play that it betrays a female character general and typical rather
than individual and particular.

The nature of this absolute vision or true dramatic imagination
is easily seen if we compare the dramatic work of writers without
absolute vision, such as Calderon, Goethe, Ben Jonson, Fletcher
and others, with the dramatic work of Aeschylus and of Shake-
speare. While of the former group it may be said that each poet
skilfully works his imagination, of Aeschylus and Shakespeare
it must be said that each in his highest dramatic mood does not
work, but is worked by his imagination. Note, for instance,
how the character of Clytaemnestra grows and glows under the
hand of Aeschylus. The poet of the Odyssey had distinctly
said that Aegisthus, her paramour, had struck the blow, but
the dramatist, having imagined the greatest tragic female in
all poetry, finds it impossible to let a man like Aegisthus assist
such a woman in a homicide so daring and so momentous. And

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88 5

when in that terrible speech of hers she justifies her crime
(ostensibly to the outer world, but really to her own conscience),
the way in which, by the sheer magnetism of irresistible person-
ality, she draws our sympathy to herself and her crime is un-
rivalled out of Shakespeare and not surpassed even there. In
the Great Drama, in the Agamemnon, in Othello, in Hamlet, in
Macbeth, there is an imagination at work whose laws are inexor-
able, are inevitable, as the laws by the operation of which the
planets move around the sun. But in this essay our business
with drama is confined entirely to its relations to epic.

Considering how large and on the whole how good is the body
of modern criticism upon drama, it is surprising how poor is
Epic and the modern criticism upon epic. Aristotle, compar-
Drama ing tragedy with epic, gives the palm to tragedy

Compared. as ^eing the more perfect art, and nothing can be
more ingenious than the way in which he has marshalled his
reasons. He tells us that tragedy as well as epic is capable
of producing its effect even without action; we can judge of
it perfectly, says he, by reading. He goes so far as to say
that, even in reading as well as in representation, tragedy has
an advantage over the epic, the advantage of greater clearness
and distinctness of impression. And in some measure this was
perhaps true of Greek tragedy, for as Miiller in his Dissertations
on the Eumenides has well said, the ancients always remained
and wished to remain conscious that the whole was a Dionysian
entertainment; the quest of a commonplace okoti) came after-
wards. And even of Romantic Drama it may be said that in
the time of Shakespeare, and .indeed down through the 18th
century, it never lost entirely its character of a recitation as well
as a drama. It was not till melodrama began to be recognized
as a legitimate form of dramatic art that the dialogue had to be
struck from the dramatic action " at full speed " — struck like
sparks from the roadster's shoes. The truth is, however, that
it was idle for Aristotle to inquire which is the more important
branch of poetry, epic or tragedy. Equally idle would it be
for the modern critic to inquire how much romantic drama
gained and how much it lost by abandoning the chorus.

Much has been said as to the scope and the limits of epic and
dramatic poetry. If in epic the poet has the power to take the
imagination of his audience away from the dramatic centre and
show what is going on at the other end of the great web of the
world, he can do the same thing in drama by the chorus, and
also by the introduction into the dramatic circle of messengers
and others from the outside world. But, as regards epic poetry,
is it right that we should hear, as we sometimes do hear, the voice
of the poet himself as chorus bidding us contrast the present
picture with other pictures afar off, in order to enforce its teach-
ing and illustrate its pathos? This is a favourite method with
modern poets and a still more favourite one with prose narrators.
Does it not give an air of self-consciousness to poetry? Does
it not disturb the intensity of the poetic vision? Yet it has
the sanction of Homer; and who shall dare to challenge the
methods of the great father of epic? An instance occurs in
Iliad v. 158, where, in the midst of all the stress of fight, the poet
leaves the dramatic action to tell us what became of the in-
heritance of Phaenops, after his two sons had been slain by
Diomedes. Another instance occurs in iii. 243-244, where the
poet, after Helen's pathetic mention of her brothers, comments
on the causes of their absence, " criticizes life " in the approved
modern way, generalizes upon the impotence of human intelli-
gence^ — the impotence even of human love — to pierce the dark-
ness in which the web of human fate is woven. Thus she spoke
(the poet tells us); but the life-giving earth already possessed
them, there in Lacedaemon, in their dear native land: —

o>s 0&To' tovs 5' fj8t] k6.t€x €V <t>valfoos ata
iv AaKeSalfiovt av9i, 0t\j) iv waTplii yaiy.

This, of course, is " beautiful exceedingly," but, inasmuch as
the imagination at work is egoistic or lyrical, not dramatic; inas-
much as the vision is relative, not absolute, it does not represent
that epic strength at its very highest which we call specially
" Homeric," unless indeed we remember that with Homer the

Muses are omniscient: this certainly may give the passage a
deep dramatic value it otherwise seems to lack.

The deepest of all the distinctions between dramatic and epic
methods has relation, however, to the nature of the dialogue.
Aristotle failed to point it out, and this is remarkable until we
remember that his work is but a fragment of a great system of
criticism. In epic poetry, and in all poetry that narrates,
whether the poet be Homer, Chaucer, Thomas the Rhymer,
Gottfried von Strasburg, or Turoldus, the action, of course,
moved by aid partly of narrative and partly by aid of dialogue,
but in drama the dialogue has a quality of suggestiveness and
subtle inference which we do not expect to find in any other
poetic form save perhaps that of the purely dramatic ballad.
In ancient drama this quality of suggestiveness and subtle
inference is seen not only in the dialogue, but in the choral odes.
The third ode of the Agamemnon is an extreme case in point,
where, by a kind of double entendre, the relations of Clytaemnestra
and Aegisthus are darkly alluded to under cover of allusions
to Paris and Helen. Of this dramatic subtlety Sophocles is
perhaps the greatest master; and certain critics have been led
to speak as though irony were heart-thought of Sophoclean
drama. But the suggestiveness of Sophocles is pathetic (as
Professor Lewis Campbell has well pointed out), not ironical.
This is one reason why drama more than epic seems to satisfy the
mere intellect of the reader, though this may be counterbalanced
by the hardness of mechanical structure which sometimes disturbs
the reader's imagination in tragedy.

When, for instance, a dramatist pays so much attention to
the evolution of the plot as Sophocles does, it is inevitable that
his characters should be more or less plot-ridden; they have to
say and do now and then certain things which they would not
say and do but for the exigencies of the plot. Indeed one of
the advantages which epic certainly has over drama is that the
story can be made to move as rapidly as the poet may desire
without these mechanical modifications of character.

The only kind of epic for Aristotle to consider was Greek epic,
between which and all other epic the difference is one of kind,
if the Iliad alone is taken to represent Greek epic. ~ ft „ .
In speaking of the effect that surrounding conditions P f
seem to have upon the form in which the poetic energy p ft
of any time or country should express itself, we instanced the
Iliad as a typical case. The imagination vivifying it is mainly
dramatic. The characters represent much more than the mere
variety of mood of the delineator. Notwithstanding all the splendid
works of Calderon, Marlowe, Webster and Goethe, it is doubtful
whether as a born dramatist the poet of the Iliad does not come
nearer to Aeschylus and Shakespeare than does any other poet.
His passion for making the heroes speak for themselves is almost
a fault in the Iliad considered as pure epic, and the unconscious
way in which each actor is made to depict his own character is in
the highest spirit of drama. It is owing to this speciality of
the Iliad that it stands apart from all other epic save that of the
Odyssey, where, however, the dramatic vision is less vivid. It is
owing to the dramatic imagination displayed in the Iliad that it
is impossible to say, from internal evidence, whether the poem is
to be classified with the epics of growth or with the epics of art.
All epics are clearly divisible into two classes, first those which are
a mere accretion of poems or traditionary ballads, and second, those
which, though based indeed on tradition or history, have become
so fused in the mind of one great poet, so stained, therefore, with
the colour and temper of that mind, as to become new crystalliza-
tions — inventions, in short, as we understand that word. Each
kind of epic has excellencies peculiar to itself, accompanied by
peculiar and indeed necessary defects. In the one we get the
freedom — apparently schemeless and motiveless — of nature, but, as
a consequence, miss that " hard acorn of thought " (to use the
picturesque definition in the Volsunga Saga of the heart of a man)
which the mind asks for as the core of every work of art. In the
other this great requisite of an adequate central thought is found,
but accompanied by a constriction, a lack of freedom, a cold
artificiality, the obtrusion of a pedantic scheme, which would be
intolerable to the natural mind unsophisticated by literary study.
The flow of the one is as that of a river, the flow of the other as that
of a canal. Yet, as has been already hinted, though the great
charm of Nature herself is that she never teases us with any obtrusive
exhibitions of scheme, she doubtless has a scheme somewhere, she
does somewhere hide a " hard acorn of thought " of which the poem
of the universe is the expanded expression. And, this being so,
art should have a scheme too; but in such a dilemma is she placed
in this matter that the epic poet, unless he is evidently telling the

886

POETRY

story for its own sake, scornful of purposes ethic or aesthetic, must
sacrifice illusion.

Among the former class of epics are to be placed the great epics of
growth, such as the MahSbhUrata, the Nibelung story, &c; among
the latter the Odyssey, the Aenetd, Paradise Lost, the Gerusalemme
liberata, the Lusiadas.

But where in this classification are we to find a place for the
Iliad? The heart-thought of the greatest epic in all literature is
simply that Achilles was vexed and that the fortunes of the world
depended upon the whim of a sulky hero. Yet, notwithstanding all
the acute criticisms of Wolff, it remains difficult for us to find a
place for the Iliad among the epics of growth. And why? Because
throughout the Iliad the dramatic imagination shown is of the
first order; and, if we are to suppose a multiplicity of authors
for the poem, we must also suppose that ages before the time of
Pericles there existed a group of dramatists more nearly akin to the
masters of the Great Drama, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Shake-
speare, than any group that has ever existed since. Yet it is equally
difficult to find a place for it amongst the epics of art. In the
matter of artistic motive the Odyssey stands alone among the epics
of art of the world, as we are going to see.

It is manifest that, as the pleasure derived from the epic of art
is that of recognizing a conscious scheme, if the epic of art fails
through confusion of scheme it fails altogether. What
The Epic of j g (j emanc j ec j f the epic of art (as some kind of compensa-
^ r ^ tion for that natural freedom of evolution which it

can never achieve, that sweet abandon, which belongs to nature
and to the epic of growth alike) is unity of impression, harmonious
and symmetrical development of a conscious heart-thought or
motive. This being so, where are we to place the Aeneid, and where
are we to place the Shih Nameh? Starting with the intention,
as it seems, of fusing into one harmonious whole the myths and
legends upon which the Roman story is based, Virgil, by the time
he reaches the middle of his epic, forgets all about this primary
intent, and gives us his own thoughts and reflections on things in
general. Fine as is the speech of Anchises to Aeneas in Elysium
(Aen. vi. 724-755), its incongruity with the general scheme of the
poem as developed in the previous books shows how entirely Virgil
lacked that artistic power shown in the Odyssey of making a story
become the natural and inevitable outcome of an artistic idea.

In the Shdh Nameh there is the artistic redaction of Virgil, but
with even less attention to a central thought than Virgil exhibits.
Firdausi relies for his effects upon the very qualities which
characterize not the epic of art but the epic of growth — a natural
and not an artificial flow of the story; so much indeed that, if the
Sh&h NSmeh were studied in connexion with the Iliad on the one
hand and with the Kalevala on the other, it might throw a light
upon the way in which an epic may be at one and the same time an
aggregation of the national ballad poems and the work of a single
artificer. That Firdausi was capable of working from a centre
not only artistic but philosophic his Yusuf and Zuleikha shows ; and if
we consider what was the artistic temper of the Persians in Firdausi's
time, what indeed has been that temper during the whole of the
Mahommedan period, the subtle temper of the parable poet — the
Shah Nameh, with its direct appeal to popular sympathies, is a
standing wonder in poetic literature.

With regard, however, to Virgil's defective power of working
from an artistic motive, as compared with the poet of the Odyssey,
this is an infirmity he shares with all the poets of the Western world.
Certainly he shares it with the writer of Paradise Lost, who, setting
out to " justify the ways of God to man," forgets occasionally the
original worker of the evil, as where, for instance, he substitutes
chance as soon as he comes (at the end of the second book) to the
point upon which the entire epic movement turns, the escape of
Satan from hell and his journey to earth for the ruin of man: —
" At last his sail-broad vans
He spreads for flight, and, in the surging smoke
Uplifted, spurns the ground; thence many a league,
As in a cloudy chair, ascending rides
Audacious; but, that seat soon failing, meets
A vast vacuity ; all unawares,
Fluttering his pinions vain, plumb down he drops
Ten thousand fathoms deep, and to this hour
Down had been falling, had not, by ill chance,
The strong rebuff of some tumultuous cloud,
Instinct with fire and nitre, hurried him
As many miles aloft."

In Milton's case, however, the truth is that he made the mistake
of trying to disturb the motive of the story for artistic purposes —
a fatal mistake, as we shall see when we come to speak of the
Nihelungenlied in relation to the old Norse epic cycle.

Though Vondel's mystery play of Lucifer is, in its execution,
rhetorical more than poetical, it did, beyond all question, influence
Milton when he came to write Paradise Lost. The famous line
which is generally quoted as the keynote of Satan's character —

" Better to reign in hell than serve in heaven " —

seems to have been taken bodily from Vondel's play, and Milton's
entire epic shows a study of it. While Marlowe's majestic move-

ments alone are traceable in Satan's speech (written some years
before the rest of Paradise Lost, when the dramatic and not the
epic form had been selected), Milton's Satan became afterwards a
splendid amalgam not of the Mephistopheles but of the Faustus
of Marlowe and the Lucifer of Vondel. Vondel's play must have
possessed a peculiar attraction for a poet of Milton's views of
human progress. Defective as the play is in execution, it is far
otherwise in motive. This motive, if we consider it aright, is
nothing less than an explanation of man's anomalous condition
on the earth — spirit incarnate in matter, created by God, a little
lower than the angels — in order that he may advance by means
of these very manacles which imprison him, in order that he may
ascend by the staircase of the world, the ladder of fleshly conditions,
above those cherubim and seraphim who, lacking the education
of sense, have not the knowledge wide and deep which brings man
close to God.

Here Milton found his own favourite doctrine of human develop-
ment and self-education in a concrete and vividly artistic form.
Much, however, as such a motive must have struck a man of Milton's
instincts, his intellect was too much chained by Calvinism to permit
of his treating the subject with Vondel's philosophic breadth.
The cause of Lucifer's wrath had to be changed from jealousy of
human progress to jealousy of the Son's proclaimed superiority.
And the history of poetry shows that once begin to tamper with
the central thought around which any group of incidents has
crystallized and the entire story becomes thereby rewritten, as we
have seen in the case of the Agamemnon of Aeschylus. Of the motive
of his own epic, after he had abandoned the motive of Vondel,
Milton had as little permanent grasp as Virgil had of his. As
regards the Odyssey, however, we need scarcely say that its motive
is merely artistic, not philosophic. And now we come to philosophic
motive.

The artist's power of thought is properly shown not in the
direct enunciation of ideas but in mastery over motive. Here
Aeschylus is by far the greatest figure in Western poetry — a proof
perhaps among many proofs of the Oriental strain of his genius.
(As regards pure drama, however, important as is motive, freedom,
organic vitality in every part, is of more importance than even
motive, and in this freedom and easy abandonment the concluding
part of the Oresteia is deficient as compared with such a play as
Othello or Lear.) Notwithstanding the splendid exception of
Aeschylus, the truth seems to be that the faculty of developing a
poetical narrative from a philosophic thought is Oriental, and on
the whole foreign to the genius of the Western mind. Neither in
Western drama nor in Western epic do we find, save in such rare
cases as that of Vondel, anything like that power of developing
a story from an idea which not only Jami but all the parable poets
of Persia show.

In modern English poetry the motive of Shelley's dramatic
poem Prometheus Unbound is a notable illustration of what is here
contended. Starting with the full intent of developing a drama
from a motive — starting with a universalism, a belief that good
shall be the final goal of ill — Shelley cannot finish his first three
hundred lines without shifting (in the curse of Prometheus) into
a Manichaeism as pure as that of Manes himself: —

" Heap on thy soul, by virtue of this curse,
111 deeds, then be thou damned, beholding good;
Both infinite as is the universe."

According to the central thought of the poem human nature,
through the heroic protest and struggle of the human mind typified
by Prometheus, can at last dethrone that supernatural terror and
tyranny (Jupiter) which the human mind had itself installed.
But, after its dethronement (when human nature becomes infinitely
perfectible), how can the supernatural tyranny exist apart from
the human mind that imagined it? How can it be as " infinite as
the universe "?

The motive of Paradise Lost is assailed with much vigour by
Victor Hugo in his poem Religions et Religion. But when Hugo, in
the after parts of the poem, having destroyed Milton's " God,"
sets up an entirely French " Dieu " of his own and tries " to justify "
him, we perceive how pardonable was Milton's failure after all.
Compare such defect of mental grip and such nebulosity of thought
as is displayed by Milton, Shelley and Hugo with the strength of
hand shown in the " Salaman " and " Absal " of Jami, and indeed
by the Sufi poets generally.

There is, however, one exception to this rule that Western poetry
is nebulous as to motive. There is, besides the Iliad, one epic
that refuses to be classified, though for entirely different reasons.
This is the Nibelung story, where we find unity of purpose and also
entire freedom of movement. We find combined here beauties
which are nowhere else combined — which are, in fact, at war with
each other everywhere else. We find a scheme, a real " acorn of
thought," in an epic which is not the self-conscious work of a single
poetic artificer, but is as much the slow growth of various times
and various minds as is the Mahdbharala, in which the heart-thought
is merely that the Kauravas defeated their relatives at dice and
refused to disgorge their winnings.

This Northern epic-tree, as we find it in the Icelandic sagas, the
Norns themselves must have watered; for it combines the virtues

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887

of the epic of growth with those of the epic of art. Though not
written in metre, it may usefully be compared with the epics of
Greece and of India and Persia. Free in movement as the wind,
which " bloweth where it listeth," it listeth to move by law. Its
action is that of free will, but free will at play within a ring of
necessity. Within this ring there throbs all the warm and passionate
life of the world outside, and all the freedom apparently. Yet
from that world it is enisled by a cordon of curses — by a zone of
defiant flames more impregnable than that which girdled the
beautiful Brynhild at Hindfell. Natural laws, familiar emotions,
are at work everywhere in the story; yet the " Ring of Andvari,"
whose circumference is but that of a woman's finger, encircles
the whole mimic world of the sagaman as the Midgard snake encircles
the earth. For this artistic perfection in an epic of growth there
are, of course, many causes, some of them traceable and some of
them beyond all discovery — causes no doubt akin to those which
gave birth to many of the beauties of other epics of growth.
Originally Sinfiotli and Sigurd were the same person, and note
how vast has been the artistic effect of the separation of the two !
Again, there were several different versions of the story of Brynhild.
The sagamen, finding all these versions too interesting and too
much beloved to be discarded, adopted them all — worked them up
into one legend, so that, in the Volsunga Saga we have a heroine
possessing all the charms of goddess, demi-goddess, earthly princess
and amazon — a heroine surpassing perhaps in fascination all other
heroines that have ever figured in poetry.

It is when we come to consider such imaginative work as this
that we are compelled to pause before challenging the Aristotelian
doctrine that metrical structure is but an accidental quality of epic.
In speaking of the Nibelung story we do not, of course, speak of
the German version, the Nibelungenlied, a fine epic still, though a
degradation of the elder form. Between the two the differences
are fundamental in the artistic sense, and form an excellent illustra-
tion of what has just been said upon the disturbance of motive in
epic, and indeed in all poetic art. It is not merely that the endings
of the three principal characters, Sigurd (Siegfried), Gudrun
(Kriemhilt), and Brynhild are entirely different; it is not merely
that the Icelandic version, by missing the blood-bath at Fafnir's
lair, loses the pathetic situation of Gudrun's becoming afterwards
an unwilling instrument of her husband's death; it is not merely
that, on the other hand, the German version, by omitting the early
love passages between Brynhild and Sigurd at Hindfell, misses
entirely the tragic meaning of her story and the terrible hate that
is love resulting from the breaking of the troth; but the conclusion
of each version is so exactly the opposite of that of the other that,
while the German story is called (and very properly) " Kriemhilt's
Revenge," the story of the Volsunga Saga might, with equal pro-
priety, be called Gudrun's Forgiveness.

If it be said that, in both cases, the motive shows the same
Titanic temper, that is because the Titanic temper is the special
„ . characteristic of the North-Western mind. The temper

Eastlai °^ revo 't against authority seems indeed to belong
West. *° * nat ener gy which succeeds in the modern develop-

ment of the great racial struggle for life. Although
no epic, Eastern or Western, can exist without a struggle between
good and evil — and a struggle upon apparently equal terms — it
must not be supposed that the warring of conflicting forces which
is the motive of Eastern epic has much real relation to the v/arring
of conflicting forces which is the motive of Western epic.

And, as regards the machinery of epic, there is, we suspect, a
deeper significance than is commonly apprehended in the fact that
the Satan or Shaitan of the Eastern world becomes in Vondel and
Milton. a sublime Titan who attracts to himself the admiration which
in Eastern poetry belongs entirely to the authority of heaven.
In Asia, save perhaps among the pure Arabs of the desert, underlying
all religious forms, there is apparent a temper of resignation to the
irresistible authority of heaven. And as regards the Aryans it
is probable that the Titanic temper — the temper of revolt against
authority — did not begin to show itself till they had moved across
the Caucasus. But what concerns us here is the fact that the
farther they moved to the north-west the more vigorously this
temper asserted itself, the prouder grew man in his attitude towards
the gods, till at last in the Scandinavian cycle he became their equal
and struggled alongside them, shoulder to shoulder, in the defence
of heaven against the assaults of hell. Therefore, as we say, the
student of epic poetry must not suppose that there is any real
parallel between the attitude of Vishnu (as Rama) towards
Ravana and the attitude of Prometheus towards Zeus, or the atti-
tude of the human heroes towards Odirf in Scandinavian poetry.
Had Ravana been dothed with a properly constituted authority,
had he been a legitimate god instead of a demon, the Eastern
doctrine of recognition of authority would most likely have come
in and the world would have been spared one at least of its
enormous epics. Indeed, the Ravana of the Ramayana answers
somewhat to the Fafnir of the Volsunga Saga; and to plot against
demons is not to rebel against authority. The vast field of Indian
epic, however, is quite fteyond us here.

Nor can we do more than glance at the Kalevala. From one point
of view that group of ballads might be taken, no doubt, as a simple

sisters of the Pojohla men. But from another point of view the
universal struggle of the male for the female seems typified in this
so-called epic of the Finns by the picture of the " Lady of the
Rainbow " sitting upon her glowing arc and weaving her golden
threads, while the hero is doing battle with the malevolent forces
of nature.

But it is in the Nibelung story that the temper of Western epic
is at its best — the temper of the simple fighter, whose business
it is to fight. The ideal Western fighter was not known in Greece
till ages after Homer, when in the pass of Thermopylae the com-
panions of Leonidas combed their long hair in the sun. The business
of the fighter in Scandinavian epic is to yield to no power whatso-
ever, whether of earth or heaven or hell — to take a buffet from the
Allfather himself, and to return it; to look Destiny herself in the
face, crying out for quarter neither to gods nor demons nor Norns.
This is the true temper of pure " heroic poetry " as it has hitherto
flourished on this side the Caucasus — the temper of the fighter
who is invincible because he feels that Fate herself falters when
the hero of the true strain defies — the fighter who feels that the very
Norns themselves must cringe at last before the simple courage of
man standing naked and bare of hope against all assaults, whether
of heaven or hell or doom. The proud heroes of the Volsunga
Saga utter no moans and shed no Homeric tears, knowing as they
know that the day prophesied is sure when, shoulder to shoulder,
gods and men shall stand up to fight the entire brood of night, and
evil, storming the very gates of Asgard.

That this temper is not the highest from the ethical point of
view is no doubt true. Against the beautiful resignation of
Buddhism it may seem barbaric, and if moral suasion could supplant
physical force in epic — if Siddartha could take the place of Achilles
or Sigurd — it might be better for the human race.

But we must now give undivided attention to pure egoistic
or lyric imagination. This, as has been said, is sufficient to
vitalize all forms of poetic art save drama and the TheLyrk
Greek epic. It would be impossible to discuss Imagina-
adequately here the Hebrew poets, who have pro- " ofl-
duced a lyric so different in kind from all other lyrics as to
stand in a class by itself. As it is equal in importance to
the Great Drama of Shakespeare, Aeschylus and Sophocles,
we may perhaps be allowed to call it the " Great Lyric."
The Great Lyric must be religious — it must, it would seem,
be an outpouring of the soul, not towards man but towards
God, like that of the God-intoxicated prophets and psalmists
of Scripture. Even the lyric fire of Pindar owes much to the
fact that he had a childlike belief in the myths to which so many
of his contemporaries had begun to give a languid assent. But
there is nothing in Pindar, or indeed elsewhere in Greek poetry,
like the rapturous song, combining unconscious power with
unconscious grace, which we have called the Great Lyric. It
might perhaps be said indeed that the Great Lyric is purely
Hebrew. But, although we could hardly expect to find it among
those whose language, complex of syntax and alive with self-
conscious inflexions, bespeaks the scientific knowingness of the
Western mind, to call the temper of the Great Lyiic broadly
" Asiatic " would be rash. It seems to belong as a birthright
to those descendants of Shem who, yearning always to look
straight into the face of God and live, could (when the Great
Lyric was sung) see not much else.

Though two of the artistic elements of the Great Lyric,
unconsciousness and power, are no doubt plentiful enough in
India, the element of grace is lacking for the most part. The
Vedic hymns are both nebulous and unemotional, as compare'd
with Semitic hymns. And as to the Persians, they, it would
seem, have the grace always, the power often, but the uncon-
sciousness almost never. This is inevitable if we consider for
a moment the chief characteristic of the Persian imagination — an
imagination whose wings are not so much " bright with beauty "
as heavy with it — heavy as the wings of a golden pheasant —
steeped in beauty like the " tiger-moth's deep damasked wings."
Now beauty of this kind does not go to the making of the Great
Lyric.

Then there comes that poetry which, being ethnologically
Semitic, might be supposed to exhibit something at least of the
Hebrew temper — the Arabian. But, whatever may be said of
the oldest Arabic poetry, with its deep sense of fate and pain,
it would seem that nothing can be more unlike than the Hebrew
temper and the Arabian temper as seen in later poets. It is not

record of how the men of Kalevala were skilful in capturing the ' with Hebrew but with Persian poetry that Arabian poetry can

888

POETRY

The Ode.

be usefully compared. If the wings of the Persian imagination
are heavy with beauty, those of the later Arabian imagination
are bright with beauty — brilliant as an Eastern butterfly, quick
and agile as a dragon-fly or a humming-bird. To the eye of
the Persian poet the hues of earth are (as Firdausi says of the
garden of Afrasiab) " like the tapestry of the kings of Ormuz,
the air is perfumed with musk, and the waters of the brooks are
the essence of roses." And to the later Arabian no less than to
the Persian the earth is beautiful; but it is the clear and sparkling
beauty of the earth as she " wakes up to life, greeting the Sabaean
morning"; we feel the light more than the colour. But it is
neither the Persian's instinct for beauty nor the Arabian's
quenchless wit and exhaustless animal spirits that go to the
making of the Great Lyric; far from it. In a word, the Great
Lyric, as we have said, cannot be assigned to the Asiatic temper
generally any more than it can be assigned to the European
temper.

In the poetry of Europe, if we cannot say of Pindar, devout
as he is, that he produced the Great Lyric, what can we say of
any other European poet ? The truth is that, like
the Great Drama, so straight and so warm does it
seem to come from the heart of man in its highest moods that
we scarcely feel it to be literature at all. Passing, however,
from this supreme expression of lyrical imagination, we come
to the artistic ode, upon which subject the present writer can
only reiterate here what he has more fully said upon a former
occasion. Whatever may have been said to the contrary,
enthusiasm is, in the nature of things, the very basis of the ode;
for the ode is a mono-drama, the actor in which is the poet
himself; and, as Marmontel has well pointed out, if the actor
in the mono-drama is not affected by the sentiments he expresses,
the ode must be cold and lifeless. But, although the ode is a
natural poetic method of the poet considered as prophet —
although it is the voice of poetry as a fine frenzy — it must
not be supposed that there is anything lawless in its structure.
" Pindar," says the Italian critic Gravina, " launches his verses
upon the bosom of the sea; he spreads out all his sails; he con-
fronts the tempest and the rocks ; the waves arise and are ready
to engulf him; already he has disappeared from the spectator's
view; when suddenly he springs up in the midst of the waters,
and reaches happily the shore." Now it is this Pindaric dis-
cursiveness, this Pindaric unrestraint as to the matter, which
has led poets to attempt to imitate him by adopting an unre-
straint as to form. Although no two odes of Pindar exhibit
the same metrical structure (the Aeolian and Lydian rhythms
being mingled with the Doric in different proportions), yet each
ode is in itself obedient, severely obedient, to structural law.
This we feel ; but what the law is no metricist has perhaps ever
yet been able to explain.

It was a strange misconception that led people for centuries
to use the word " Pindaric " and irregular as synonymous terms;
whereas the very essence of the odes of Pindar (of the few, alas!
which survive to us) is their regularity. There is no more difficult
form of poetry than this, and for this reason: when in any
poetical composition the metres are varied, there must, as the
present writer has before pointed out, be a reason for such
freedom, and that reason is properly subjective — the varying
form must embody and express the varying emotions of the
singer. But when these metrical variations are governed by
no subjective law at all, but by arbitrary rules supposed to be
evolved from the practice of Pindar, then that very variety
which should aid the poet in expressing his emotion crystallizes
it and makes the ode the most frigid of all compositions. Great
as Pindar undoubtedly is, it is deeply to be regretted that no
other poet survives to represent the triumphal ode of Greece—
the digressions of his subject matter are so wide, and his volu-
bility is so great.

In modern literature the ode has been ruined by theories
and experiments. A poet like La Mothe, for instance, writes
execrable odes, and then writes a treatise to prove that all odes
should be written on the same model. There is much confusion
ot mind prevalent among poets as to what is and what is not

an ode. All odes are, no doubt, divisible into two great classes:
those which, following an arrangement in stanzas, are commonly
called regular, and those which, following no such arrangement,
are commonly called irregular.

We do not agree with those who assert that irregular metres are
of necessity inimical to poetic art. On the contrary, we believe
that in modern prosody the arrangement of the rhymes and the
length of the lines in any rhymed metrical passage may be deter-
mined either by a fixed stanzaic law or by a law infinitely deeper — by
the law which impels the soul, in a state of poetic exaltation, to
seize hold of every kind of metrical aid, such as rhyme, caesura, &c.
for the purpose of accentuating and marking off each shade of
emotion as it arises, regardless of any demands of stanza. But
between the irregularity of makeshift, such as we find it in Cowley
and his imitators, and the irregularity of the " fine frenzy " of such
a poem, for instance, as Coleridge's Kubla Khan, there is a difference
in kind. Strange that it is not in an ode at all but in this unique
lyric Kubla Khan, descriptive of imaginative landscape, that an
English poet has at last conquered the crowning difficulty of writing
in irregular metres. Having broken away from all restraints of
couplet and stanza — having caused his rhymes and pauses to fall
just where and just when the emotion demands that they should
fall, scorning the exigencies of makeshift no less than the exigencies
of stanza — he has found what every writer of irregular English odes
has sought in vain, a music as entrancing, as natural, and at the
same time as inscrutable, as the music of the winds or of the sea.

The prearranged effects of sharp contrasts and antiphonal move-
ments, such as some poets have been able to compass, do not of
course come under the present definition of irregular sf anM jfc
metres at all. If a metrical passage does not gain , -

immensely by being written independently of stanzaic K mo tio na t
law, it loses immensely ; and for this reason, perhaps, that ■-
the great charm of the music of all verse, as distinguished w '
from the music of prose, is inevitableness of cadence. In regular
metres we enjoy the pleasure of feeling that the rhymes will
inevitably fall under a recognized law of couplet or stanza. But
if the passage flows independently of these, it must still flow
inevitably — it must, in short, show that it is governed by another
and a yet deeper force, the inevitableness of emotional expression.
The lines must be long or short, the rhvmes must be arranged after
this or after that interval, not because It is convenient so to arrange
them, but because the emotion of the poet inexorably demands
these and no other arrangements. When, however, Coleridge came
to try his hand at irregular odes, such as the odes " To the
Departing Year " and " To the Duchess of Devonshire," he certainly ■
did not succeed.

As to Wordsworth's magnificent " Ode on Intimations of Im-
mortality," the sole impeachment of it, but it is a grave one, is that
the length of the lines and the arrangement of the rhymes are not
always inevitable; they are, except on rare occasions, governed
neither by stanzaic nor by emotional law. For instance, what
emotional necessity was there for the following rhyme-arrange-
ment?

" My heart is at your festival,
My head hath its coronal,
The fulness of your bliss I feel — I feel it all.
Oh, evil day! if I were sullen ,
While earth herself is adorning,
This sweet May morning;
And the children are culling,

On every side,
In a thousand valleys far and wide,
Fresh flowers."

Beautiful as is the substance of this entire passage, so far from
gaining, it loses by rhyme — loses, not in perspicuity, for Wordsworth
like all his contemporaries^ (except Shelley) is mostly perspicuous,
but in that metrical emphasis the quest of which is one of the impulses
that leads a poet to write in rhyme. In spite, however, of its metrical
defects, this famous ode of Wordsworth's is the finest irregular
ode in the language; for, although Coleridge's " Ode to the De-
parting Year " excels it in Pindaric fire, it is below Wordsworth's
masterpiece in almost every other quality save rhythm. Among
the writers of English irregular odes, next to Wordsworth, stands
Dryden. The second stanza of the " Ode for St Cecilia's Day "
is a great triumph.

Leaving the irregular and turning to the* regular ode, it is natural
to divide these into two classes: (l) those which are really Pindaric
in so far as they consist of strophes, antistrophes and epodes,
variously arranged and contrasted; and (2) those which consist of a
regular succession of regular stanzas. Perhaps all Pindaric odes
tend to show that this form of art is in English a mistake. It is
easy enough to write one stanza and call it a strophe, another in
a different movement and call it an antistrophe, a third in a different
movement still and call it an epode. But in modern prosody,
disconnected as it is from musical and frorfi terpsichorean science,
what are these? No poet and no critic can say.

What is requisite is that the ear of the reader should catch a great
metrical scheme, of which these three varieties of movement

POETRY

889

are necessary parts — should catch, in short, that inevitableness
of structure upon which we have already touched. In order to
justify a poet in writing a poem in three different kinds of move-
ment, governed by no musical and no terpsichorean necessity,
a necessity of another kind should make itself apparent ; that is,
the metrical wave moving in the strophe should be metrically
answered by the counter-wave moving in the antistrophe, while the
epode — which, as originally conceived by Stesichorus, was merely
a standing still after the balanced movements of the strophe and
antistrophe — -should clearly, in a language like ours, be a blended
echo of these two. A mere metrical contrast such as some poets
labour to effect is not a metrical answer. And if the reply to this
criticism be that in Pindar himself no such metrical scheme is
apparent, that is the strongest possible argument in support of
our position. If indeed the metrical scheme of Pindar is not
apparent, that is because, having been written for chanting, it was
subordinate to the lost musical scheme of the musician. It has
been contended, and is likely enough, that this musical scheme was
simple — as simple, perhaps, as the scheme of a cathedral chant;
but to it, whatever it was, the metrical scheme of the poet was
subordinated. It need scarcely be said that the phrase " metrical
scheme " is used here not in the narrow sense as indicating the
position and movement of strophe and antistrophe by way of
simple contrast, but in the deep metrical sense as indicating the
value of each of these component parts of the ode, as a counter-wave
balancing and explaining the other waves in the harmony of the
entire composition. We touch upon this matter in order to show
that the moment odes ceased to be chanted, the words strophe,
antistrophe, and epode lost the musical value they had among the
Greeks, and pretended to a complex metrical value which their
actual metrical structure does not appear to justify. It does
not follow from this that odes should not be so arranged, but it
does follow that the poet's arrangement should justify itself by
disclosing an entire metrical scheme in place of the musical scheme
to which the Greek choral lyric was evidently subordinated. But
even if the poet were a sufficiently skilled metricist to compass a
scheme embracing a wave, an answering wave, and an echo gathering
up the tones of each, i.e. the strophe, the antistrophe and the
epode, the ear of the reader, unaided by the musical emphasis
which supported the rhythms of the old choral lyric, is, it should
seem, incapable of gathering up and remembering the sounds
further than the strophe and the antistrophe, after which it demands
not an epode but a return to the strophe. That is to say, an epode,
as alternating in the body of the modern ode, is a mistake; a single
epode at the end of a group of strophes and antistrophes (as in some
of the Greek odes) has, of course, a different function altogether.

The great difficulty of the English ode is that of preventing the
apparent spontaneity of the impulse from being marred by the
apparent artifice of the form ; for, assuredly, no writer subsequent
to Coleridge and to Keats would dream of writing an ode on the cold
Horatian principles adopted by Warton, and even by Collins, in his
beautiful ' Ode to Evening."

Of the second kind of regular odes, those consisting of a regular
succession of regular stanzas, the so-called odes of Sappho are, of
course, so transcendent that no other amatory lyrics can be compared
with them. Never before these songs were sung and never since
did the human soul, in the grip of a fiery passion, utter a cry like
hers ; and from the executive point of view, in directness, in lucidity,
in that high imperious verbal economy which only nature herself
can teach the artist, she has no equal, and none worthy to take
the place of second — not even in Heine, nor even in Burns. Turning,
however, to modern poetry, there are some magnificent examples
of this simple form of ode in English poetry — Spenser's immortal
" Epithalamion " leading the way in point of time, and probably
also in point of excellence.

Fervour being absolutely essential, we think, to a great English
ode, fluidity of metrical movement can never be dispensed with.
The more billowy the metrical waves the better suited are they to
render the emotions expressed by the ode, as the reader will see by
referring to Coleridge's " Ode to France " (the finest ode in the
English language, according to Shelley), and giving special atten-
tion to the first stanza — to the way in which the first metrical
wave, after it had gently fallen at the end of the first quatrain,
leaps up again on the double rhymes (which are expressly . intro-
duced for this effect), and goes bounding on, billow after billow, to
the end of the stanza. Not that this fine ode is quite free from the
great vice of the English ode, rhetoric. If we except Spenser and,
in one instance, Collins, it can hardly be said that any English
writer before Shelley and Keats produced odes independent of
rhetoric and supported by pure poetry alone. But fervid as are
Shelley's " Ode to the West Wind " and Keats's odes " To a Night-
ingale " and " On a Grecian Urn," they are entirely free from
rhetorical flavour. Notwithstanding that in the " Ode on a Grecian
Urn " the first stanza does not match in rhyme arrangement with
the others, while the second stanza of the " Ode to a Nightingale "
varies from the rest by running on four rhyme-sounds instead of
five, vexing the ear at first by disappointed expectation, these
two odes are, after Coleridge's " France," the finest regular odes
perhaps in the English language.

With regard to the French ode, Malherbe was the first writer

who brought it to perfection. Malherbe showed also more variety
of mood than it is the fashion just now to credit him with. This
may be especially noted in his " Ode to Louis XIII." His disciple
Racan is not of much account. There is certainly much vigour
in the odes of Rousseau, but it is not till we reach Victor Hugo that
we realize what French poetry can achieve in this line; and con-
temporary poetry can hardly be examined heve. We may say,
however, that some of Hugo's odes are truly magnificent. As a
pure lyrist his place among the greatest poets of the world is very
high. Here, though writing in an inferior language, he ranks with
the greatest masters of Greece, of England, and of Germany. Had
he attempted no other kind of poetry than lyrical, his would still
have been the first name in French poetry. Whatever is defective
in his work arises, as in the case of Euripides, from the importation
of lyrical force where dramatic force is mainly needed.
. The main varieties of lyrical poetry, such as the idyll, the
satire, the ballad, the sonnet, &c, are treated in separate articles;
but a word or two must be said here about the song „. „
and the elegy. To write a good song requires that
simplicity of grammatical structure which is foreign to many
natures — that mastery over direct and simple speech which
only true passion and feeling can give, and which " corning from
the heart goes to the heart." Without going so far as to say
that no man is a poet who cannot write a good song, it may
certainly be said that no man can write a good song who is not
a good poet. In modern times we have, of course, nothing in
any way representing those choral dance-songs of the Greeks,
which, originating in the primitive Cretan war-dances, became,
in Pindar's time, a splendid blending of song and ballet. Nor
have we anything exactly representing the Greek scolia, those
short drinking songs of which Terpander is said to have been
the inventor. That these scolia were written, not only by poets
like Alcaeus, Anacreon, Praxilla, Simonides, but also by Sappho
and by Pindar, shows in what high esteem they were held by
the Greeks. These songs seem to have been as brief as the
stornelli of the Italian peasant. They were accompanied by
the lyre, which was handed from singer to singer as the time
for each scolion came round.

With regard to the stornello, many critics seem to confound
it with the rispetto, a very different kind of song. The Italian
rispetto consists of a stanza of inter-rhyming lines ranging from
six to ten in number, but often not exceeding eight. The Tuscan
and Umbrian stornello is rriuch shorter, consisting, indeed, of a
hemistich naming some natural object which suggests the motive
of the little poem. The nearest approach to the Italian stornello
appears to be, not the rispetto, but the Welsh triban.

Perhaps the mere difficulty of rhyming in English and the
facility of rhyming in Italian must be taken into account when
we inquire why there is nothing in Scotland — of course there
could be nothing in England — answering to the nature-poetry
of the Italian peasant. Most of the Italian rispetti and stornelli
seem to be improvisations; and to improvise in English is as
difficult as to improvise is easy in Italian. Nothing indeed is
more interesting than the improvisatorial poetry of the Italian
peasants, such as the canzone. If the peasantry discover who
is the composer of a canzone, they will not sing it. The speciality
of Italian peasant poetry is that the symbol which is mostly
erotic is of the purest and most tender kind. A peasant girl
will improvise a song as impassioned as " Come into the Garden,
Maud," and as free from unwholesome taint.

With regard to English songs, the critic cannot but ask —
Wherein lies the lost ring and charm of the Elizabethan song-
writers ? Since the Jacobean period at least, few have succeeded
in the art of writing real songs as distinguished from mere book
lyrics. Between songs to be sung and songs to be read there
is in our time a difference as wide as that which exists between
plays for the closet and plays for the boards.

Heartiness and melody — the two requisites of a song which
can never be dispensed with — can rarely be compassed, it seems,
by one and the same individual. In both these qualities the
Elizabethan poets stand pre-eminent, though even with them
the melody is not so singable as it might be made. Since their
time heartiness has, perhaps, been a Scottish rather than an
English endowment of the song-writer. It is difficult to imagine
an Englishman writing a song like " Tullochgorum " or a song

890

POGGENDORFF— POGGIO

like " Maggie Lauder," where the heartiness and impulse of
the poet's mood conquer all impediments of close vowels and
rugged consonantal combinations. Of Scottish song-writers
Burns is, of course, the head; for the songs of John Skinner,
the heartiest song-writer that has appeared in Great Britain
(not excluding Herrick), are too few in number to entitle him to
be placed beside a poet so prolific in heartiness and melody as
Burns. With regard to Campbell's heartiness, this is quite a
different quality from the heartiness of Burns and Skinner,
and is in quality English rather than Scottish, though, no doubt,
it is of a fine and rare strain, especially in " The Battle of the
Baltic." His songs illustrate an infirmity which even the
Scottish song- writers share with the English — a defective sense
of that true song -warble which we get in the stornelli and rispetti
of the Italian peasants. A poet may have heartiness in plenty,
but if he has that love of consonantal effects which Donne
displays he will never write a first-rate song. Here, indeed,
is the crowning difficulty of song-writing. An extreme simplicity
of structure and of diction must be accompanied by an instinctive
apprehension of the melodic capabilities of verbal sounds, and
of what Samuel Lover, the Irish song-writer, called " singing "
words, which is rare in this country, and seems to belong to the
Celtic rather than to the Saxon ear. " The song-writer," says
Lover, " must frame his song of open vowels with as few guttural
or hissing sounds as possible, and he must be content sometimes
to sacrifice grandeur and vigour to the necessity of selecting
singing words and not reading words." And he exemplifies
the distinction between singing words and reading words by a
line from one of Shelley's songs —

" ' The fresh earth in new leaves drest,'

" where nearly every word shuts up the mouth instead of opening
it." But closeness of vowel sounds is by no means the only
thing to be avoided in song- writing. A phrase may be absolutely
unsingable, though the vowels be open enough, if it is loaded
with consonants. The truth is that in song-writing it is quite
as important, in a consonantal language like ours, to attend to
the consonants as to the vowels; and perhaps the first thing to
avoid in writing English songs is the frequent recurrence of the
sibilant. But this applies to all the brief and quintessential
forms of poetry, such as the sonnet, the elegy, &c.

As to the elegy— a form of poetic art which has more relation
to the objects of the external world than the song, but less rela-
tion to these than the stornello — its scope seems
to be wide indeed, as practised by such various
writers as Tyrtaeus, Theognis, Catullus, Tibullus, and our own
Gray. It may almost be said that perfection of form is more
necessary here and in the sonnet than in the song, inasmuch as
the artistic pretensions are more pronounced. Hence even such
apparent minutiae as those we have hinted at above must not
be neglected here.

We have quoted Dionysius of Halicarnassus in relation to the
arrangement of words in poetry. His remarks on sibilants are
Phonetic e< 3 ua "y deserving of attention. He goes so far as to
Perfection say tnat " xs ent ' re 'y disagreeable, and, when it often
recurs, insupportable. The hiss seems to him to be
more appropriate to the beast than to man. Hence certain writers,
he says, often avoid it, and employ it with regret. Some, he tells
us, have composed entire odes without it. But if sibilation is a
defect in Greek odes, where the softening effect of the vowel sounds is
so potent, it is much more so in English poetry, where the con-
sonants dominate, though it will be only specially noticeable in
the brief and quintessential forms such as the song, the sonnet, the
elegy. Many poets only attend to their sibilants when these clog
the rhythm. To write even the briefest song without a sibilant
would be a tour de force; to write a good one would no doubt be
next to impossible. It is singular that the only metricist who ever
attempted it was John Thelwall, the famous " Citizen John,"
friend of Lamb and Coleridge, and editor of the famous Champion
newspaper, where many of Lamb's epigrams appeared. Thelwall
gave much attention to metrical questions, and tried his hand at
various metres. Though " Citizen John's " sapphics might cer-
tainly have been better, he had a very remarkable critical insight
into the rationale of metrical effects, and his " Song without a
Sibilant " is extremely neat and ingenious. Of course, however,
it would be mere pedantry to exaggerate this objection to sibilants
even in these brief forms of poetry. (T. W.-D.)

The Elegy.

POGGENDORFF, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1796-1877), German
physicist, was born in Hamburg on the 29th of December 1796.
His father, a wealthy manufacturer, having been all but ruined
by the French siege, he had, when only sixteen, to apprentice
himself to an apothecary in Hamburg, and when twenty-two
began to earn his living as an apothecary's assistant at Itzehoe.
Ambition and a strong inclination towards a. scientific career
led him to throw up his business and remove to Berlin, where
he entered the university in 1820. Here his abilities were
speedily recognized, and in 1823 he was appointed meteorological
observer to the Academy of Sciences. Even at this early period
he had conceived the idea of founding a physical and chemical
scientific journal, and the realization of this plan was hastened
by the sudden death of L. W. Gilbert, the editor of Gilberts
Annalen der Physik, in 1824. Poggendorff immediately put
himself in communication with the publisher, Barth of Leipzig,
with the result that he was installed as editor of a scientific
journal, Annalen der Physik und Chetnie, which was to be a
continuation of Gilberts Annalen on a somewhat extended plan.
Poggendorff was admirably qualified for the post. He had an
extraordinary memory, well stored with scientific knowledge,
both modern and historical, a cool and impartial judgment, and
a strong preference for facts as against theory of the speculative
kind. He was thus able to throw himself into the spirit of modern
experimental science. He possessed in abundant measure the
German virtue of orderliness in the arrangement of knowledge
and in the conduct of business. Further he had an engaging
geniality of manner and much tact in dealing with men. These
qualities soon made Poggendorff s Annalen the foremost scientific
journal in Europe.

In the course of his fifty-two years' editorship of the Annalen
Poggendorff could not fail to acquire an unusual acquaintance
with the labours of modern men of science. This knowledge,
joined to what he had gathered by historical reading of equally
unusual extent, he carefully digested and gave to the world in
his Biographisch-literarisches Handworterbuch zur Geschichte der
exacten Wissenschaflen, containing notices of the lives and labours
of mathematicians, astronomers, physicists, and chemists, of all
peoples and all ages. This work contains an astounding col-
lection of facts invaluable to the scientific biographer and
historian. The first two volumes were published in 1863; after
his death a third volume appeared in 1898, covering the period
1858-1883, and a fourth in 1904, coming down to the beginning
of the 20th century.

Poggendorff was a physicist of high although not of the very
highest rank. He was wanting in mathematical ability, and
never displayed in any remarkable degree the still more impor-
tant power of scientific generalization, which, whether accom-
panied by mathematical skill or not, never fails to mark the
highest genius in physical science. He was, however, an able
and conscientious experimenter, and was very fertile and
ingenious in devising physical apparatus. By far the greater
and more important part of his work related to electricity and
magnetism. His literary and scientific reputation speedily
brought him honourable recognition. In 1830 he was made royal
professor, in 1834 Hon. Ph.D. and extraordinary professor in the
university of Berlin, and in 1839 member of the Berlin Academy
of Sciences. Many offers of ordinary professorships were made
to him, but he declined them all, devoting himself to his duties
as editor of the Annalen, and to the pursuit of his scientific
researches. He died at Berlin on the 24th of January 1877.

POGGIO (1380-1459). Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini,
Italian scholar of the Renaissance, was born in 1380 at Terra-
nuova, a village in the territory of Florence. He studied Latin
under John of Ravenna, and Greek under Manuel Chrysoloras.
His distinguished abilities and his dexterity as a copyist of MSS.
brought him into early notice with the chief scholars of Florence.
Coluccio Salutati and Niccolo de' Niccoli befriended him, and
in the year 1402 or 1403 he was received into the service of the
Roman curia. His functions were those of a secretary; and,
though he profited by benefices conferred on him in lieu of salary,
he remained a layman to the end of his life. It is noticeable

POGLIZZA

891

that, while he held his office in the curia through that momentous
period of fifty years which witnessed the Councils of Constance
and of Basel, and the final restoration of the papacy under
Nicholas V., his sympathies were never attracted to ecclesiastical
affairs. Nothing marks the secular attitude of the Italians at
an epoch which decided the future course of both Renaissance
and Reformation more strongly than the mundane proclivities
of this apostolic secretary, heart and soul devoted to the
resuscitation of classical studies amid conflicts of popes and
antipopes, cardinals and councils, in all of which he bore an
official part. Thus, when his duties called him to Constance
in 1 414, he employed his leisure in exploring the libraries of
Swiss and Swabian convents. The treasures he brought to
light at Reichenau, Weingarten, and above all St Gall, restored
many lost masterpieces of Latin literature, and supplied students
with the texts of authors whose works had hitherto been acces-
sible only in mutilated copies. In one of his epistles he describes
how he recovered Quintilian, part of Valerius Flaccus, and the
commentaries of Asconius Pedianus at St Gall. MSS. of
Lucretius, Columella, Silius Italicus, Manilius and Vitruvius
were unearthed, copied by his hand, and communicated to the
learned. Wherever Poggio went he carried on the same industry
of research. At Langres he discovered Cicero's Oration for
Caecina, at Monte Cassino a MS. of Frontinus. He also could
boast of having recovered Ammianus Marcellinus, Nonius
Marcellus, Probus, Flavius Caper and Eutyches. If a codex
could not be obtained by fair means, he was ready to use fraud,
as when he bribed a monk to abstract a Livy and an Ammianus
from the convent library of Hersfield. Resolute in recognizing
erudition as the chief concern of man, he sighed over the folly
of popes and princes, who spent their time in wars and eccle-
siastical disputes when they might have been more profitably
employed in reviving the lost learning of antiquity. This point
of view is eminently characteristic of the earlier Italian Renais-
sance. The men of that nation and of that epoch were bent
on creating a new intellectual atmosphere for Europe by means
of vital contact with antiquity. Poggio, like Aeneas Sylvius
Piccolomini (Pius II.), was a great traveller, and wherever he
went he brought enlightened powers of observation trained in
liberal studies to bear upon the manners of the countries he
visited. We owe to his pen curious remarks on English and
Swiss customs, valuable notes on the remains of antique art
in Rome, and a singularly striking portrait of Jerome of Prague
as he appeared before the judges who condemned him to the
stake. It is necessary to dwell at length upon Poggio's devotion
to the task of recovering the classics, and upon his disengage-
ment from all but humanistic interests, because these were the
most marked feature of his character and career. In literature
he embraced the whole sphere of contemporary studies, and
distinguished himself as an orator, a writer of rhetorical treatises,
a panegyrist of the dead, a violent impugner of the living, a
translator from the Greek, an epistolographer and grave historian
and a facetious compiler of fabliaux in Latin. On his moral
essays it may suffice to notice the dissertations On Nobility, On
Vicissitudes of Fortune, On the Misery of Human Life, On the
Infelicity of Princes and On Marriage in Old Age. These com-
positions belonged to a species which, since Petrarch set the
fashion, were very popular among Italian scholars. They have
lost their value, except for the few matters of fact embedded
in a mass of commonplace meditation, and for some occasionally
brilliant illustrations. Poggio's History of Florence, written
in avowed imitation of Livy's manner, requires separate mention,
since it exemplifies by its defects the weakness of that merely
stylistic treatment which deprived so much of Bruni's, Carlo
Aretino's and Bembo's work of historical weight. A somewhat
different criticism must be passed on the Facetiae, a collection
of humorous and indecent tales expressed in such Latinity as
Poggio could command. This book is chiefly remarkable for
its unsparing satires on the monastic orders and the secular
clergy. It is also noticeable as illustrating the latinizing
tendency of an age which gave classic form to the lightest essays
of the fancy. Poggio, it may be observed, was a fluent and

copious writer in the Latin tongue, but not an elegant scholar.
His knowledge of the ancient authors was wide, but his taste
was not select, and his erudition was superficial. His translation
of Xenophon's Cyropaedia into Latin cannot be praised for
accuracy. Among contemporaries he passed for one of the
most formidable polemical or gladiatorial rhetoricians; and a
considerable section of his extant works are invectives. One
of these, the Dialogue against Hypocrites, was aimed in a spirit
of vindictive hatred at the vices of ecclesiastics; another, written
at the request of Nicholas V., covered the anti-pope Felix with
scurrilous abuse. But his most famous compositions in this
kind are the personal invectives which he discharged against
Filelfo and Valla. All the resources of a copious and unclean
Latin vocabulary were employed to degrade the objects of his
satire; and every crime of which humanity is capable was
ascribed to them without discrimination. In Filelfo and Valla
Poggio found his match; and Italy was amused for years with
the spectacle of their indecent combats. To dwell upon such
literary infamies would be below the dignity of the historian,
were it not that these habits of the early Italian humanists
imposed a fashion upon Europe which extended to the later age
of Scaliger's contentions with Scioppius and Milton's with
Salmasius. The greater part of Poggio's long life was spent
in attendance to his duties in the papal curia at Rome and else-
where. But about the year 1452 he finally retired to Florence,
where he was admitted to the burghership, and on the death of
Carlo Aretino in r4S3 was appointed chancellor and historio-
grapher to the republic. He had already built himself a villa
in Valdarno, which he adorned with a collection of antique
sculpture, coins and inscriptions. In 1435 he had married a
girl of eighteen named Vaggia, of the famous Buondelmonte
blood. His declining days were spent in the discharge of his
honourable Florentine office and in the composition of his history.
He died in 1459, and was buried in the church of Santa
Croce. A statue by Donatello and a picture by Antonio del
Pollajuolo remained to commemorate a citizen who chiefly for
his services to humanistic literature deserved the notice of
posterity.

Poggio's works were printed at Basel in 1538, " ex aedibus Henrici
Petri. Dr Shepherd's Life of Poggio Bracciolini (1802) is a good
authority on his biography. For his position in the history of the
revival, see Voigt's Wiederbelebung des classischen Alterthums, and
Symonds's Renaissance in Italy. (I. A. S.)

POGLIZZA (Serbo-Croatian, Poljica), a tract of mountainous
land in Dalmatia, Austria; formerly the seat of an independent
republic. The territories of Poglizza lay chiefly within the
south-easterly curve made by the river Cetina before it enters
the Adriatic at Almissa (Onus - ). They also comprised the
fastnesses of the Mossor range (4500 ft.) and the fertile strip
of coast from Almissa to Stobrez, 10 m. W.N.W. The inhabi-
tants lived in scattered villages, each ruled by its count, and all
together ruled by the supreme count. These officers, with the
three judges, were always of noble birth, though elected by the
whole body of citizens. There were two orders of nobles; the
higher, including about 20 families, claimed Hungarian descent;
the lower, claiming kinship with the Bosnian aristocracy. Below
these ranked the commoners and the serfs. At a very early
date the warlike highlanders of Poglizza became the friends and
allies of the Almissan corsairs, who were thus enabled to harass
the seaborne trade of their neighbours without fear of a sudden
attack by land. Almissa received a charter from Andrew II.
of Hungary in 1207, and remained under the nominal protection
of Hungary until 1444, when both Almissa and Poglizza accepted
the suzerainty of Venice, while retaining their internal freedom.
The population of Poglizza numbered 6566 in 1806. In the
following year, however, the republic incurred the enmity of
Napoleon by rendering aid to the Russians and Montenegrins
in Dalmatia; and it was invaded by French troops, who plundered
its villages, massacred its inhabitants, and finally deprived it
of independence.

See the Annuario Daltnatico for .1885 (published at Zara) ; and
A. Fortis, Travels into Dalmatia (London, 1778).

8 9 2

POINCARE— POINT PLEASANT

POINCARt, RAYMOND (i860- ), French statesman, was
born at Bar-le-duc on the 20th of August i860, the son of Nicolas
Antoinin Helene Poincare, a distinguished civil servant and
meteorologist. Educated at the university of Paris, Raymond
was called to the Paris bar, and was for some time law editor
of the Voltaire. He had served for over a year in the depart-
ment of agriculture when in 1887 he was elected deputy for the
Meuse. He made a great reputation in the Chamber as an
economist, and sat on the budget commissions of 1890-1891
and 1892. He was minister of education, fine arts and religion
in the first cabinet (April-Nov. 1893) of Charles Dupuy, arid
minister of finance in the second and third (May 1894-Jan. 1895).
In the succeeding Ribot cabinet Poincare became minister of
public instruction. Although he was excluded from the Radical
cabinet which followed, the revised scheme of death duties
proposed by the new ministry was based upon his proposals
of the previous year. He became vice-president of the chamber
in the autumn of 1895, and in spite of the bitter hostility of the
Radicals retained his position in 1896 and 1897. In 1906 he
returned to the ministry of finance in the short-lived Sarrien
ministry. Poincare had retained his practice at the bar during
his political career, and he published several volumes of essays
on literary and political subjects.

His brother, Lucien Poincare (b. 1862), famous as a physicist,
became inspector-general of public instruction in 1902. He is
the author of La Physique moderns (1906) and L' Electricite (1907).
Jules Henri Poincare (b. 1854), also a distinguished physicist,
belongs to another branch of the same family.

POINSETTIA. The Poinsettia pulckerrima of gardens (Euphor-
bia pulcherrima of botanists), a native of Mexico and Central
America, with its brilliant scarlet bracts, stands unrivalled
amongst decorative plants. The white-bracted sort, var. alba, is
not so effective, but the double-flowered, var. plenissima, in
which the brilliant inflorescence is branched, is as brilliant as
the type, and keeps long in flower. They are increased by
cuttings in spring, which when taken off with a heel strike freely
in brisk heat. They require good turfy loam, with an addition
of one-sixth of leaf-mould and a little sand, and should be kept
in a heat of from 65 to 70° at night, with a rise of io° by day.
To prevent their growing lanky, they should be kept with their
heads almost touching the glass; and as the pots get filled with
roots they must be shifted into others, 7 or 8 in. in diameter.
About August they may be inured to a heat of 50 at night, and
should be brought to bear air night and day whilst the weather
is warm, or they may be placed out of doors for a month under
a south wall in the full sun. This treatment matures and pre-
pares them for flowering. In autumn they must be removed
to a house where the temperature is 50 at night, and by the end
of September some of them may be put in the stove, where they
will come into* flower, the remainder being placed under heat
later for succession. When in bloom they may be kept at about
55° by night, and s6 placed will last longer than if kept in a higher
temperature.

POINSOT, LOUIS (1777-1859), French mathematician, was
born at Paris on the 3rd of January 1777. In 1794 he became
a scholar at the ficole Polytechnique, which he left in 1796 to
act as a civil engineer. In 1804 he was appointed professor of
mathematics at the Lycee, in 1809 professor of analysis and
mechanics, and in 1816 examiner at the ficole Polytechnique:
On the death of J. L. Lagrange, in 1813, Poinsot was elected to
his place in the Academie des Sciences; and in 1840 he became
a member of the superior council of public instruction. In 1846
he was made an officer of the Legion of Honour; and on the
formation of the senate in 1852 he was chosen a member of that
body. He died at Paris on the 5th of December 1859.

Poinsot's earliest work was his Elemens de slalique (1803;
9th edition, 1848), in which he introduces the idea of statical
couples and investigates their properties. In the Thiorie
nouvelle de la rotation des corps (1834) he treats the motion of a
rigid body geometrically, and shows that the most general motion
of such a body can be represented at any instant by a rotation
about an axis combined with a translation parallel to this axis,

and that any motion of a body of which one point is fixed may
be produced by the rolling of a cone fixed in the body on a cone
fixed in space. The previous treatment of the motion of a rigid
body had in every case been purely analytical, and so gave no
aid to the formation of a mental picture of the body's motion;
and the great value of this work lies in the fact that, as Poinsot
himself says in the introduction, it enables us to represent to
ourselves the motion of a rigid body as clearly as that of a
moving point. In addition to publishing a number of works
on geometrical and mechanical subjects, Poinsot also contributed
a number of papers on pure and applied mathematics to Lion-
ville's Journal and other scientific periodicals.

See J. L. F. Bertrand, Discours aux funerailles de Poinsot (Paris,
i860).

POINT PLEASANT, a town and the county-seat of Mason
county, West Virginia, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, at the mouth
of the Kanawha river, and about midway between Pittsburg
and Cincinnati. Pop. (1900) 1934; (1910) 2045. It is served
directly by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Kanawha & Michigan
(controlled by the Hocking Valley) railways, and by the Hocking
Valley railway on the opposite side of the Ohio river. The
Kanawha river is navigable (by the use of locks and dams) for
90 m. above the town, and Point Pleasant is a re-shipping point
for Kanawha coal. Coal and salt are mined in the vicinity,
but the surrounding country is principally agricultural.

The battle of Point Pleasant, the only important engagement
in " Lord Dunmore's War," was fought here on the 10th of
October 1774 between about 1100 Virginia militiamen, under
General Andrew Lewis (c. 1720-1781), 1 and about 1000 Shawnees
and their allies, under their chief, Cornstalk (c. 17 20-17 tj)?
Lewis had been ordered to meet Lord Dunmore here with a body
of militiamen (recruited from Botetourt, West Augusta and
Fincastle counties), but when he reached the mouth of the
Kanawha, after marching 160 m. from Fort Union (now Lewis-
burg, W. Va.), Dunmore's force, which was to have gone over
the Braddock trail to Fort Pitt, and thence down the Ohio
river, had not arrived. Early on the morning of the icth the
Indians suddenly attacked, and the battle continued fiercely
throughout the day. At night the Indians crossed the Ohio
river, leaving behind many of their dead. The whites lost about
144 in killed and wounded, Colonel Charles Lewis (1733-1774),
a brother of the commanding officer, being among the former.
In December Lord Dunmore concluded a treaty with the Indians,
by which they surrendered their claim to lands south of the
Ohio and agreed not to molest Whites travelling to the western
country. The battle, which overawed the Indians, and the
treaty, which was not seriously broken for three years, made
possible the rapid settlement of the western country, especially
of Kentucky, during the early years of the War of Indepen-
dence. 3 Four years before the battle the Virginia House of
Burgesses had awarded to General Lewis, for his earlier services
in the French and Indian War, 9876 acres of land, including the

1 General Lewis was born in Donegal, Ireland ; served with Wash-
ington at Fort Necessity and at Braddock's defeat ; was commissioner
from Virginia to conclude the treaty with the Six Nations at Fort
Stanwix (1768); was a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses
for several years; served as a brigadier-general in the War of
Independence; and in 1776 forced Lord Dunmore to retire from
Gwynn's Island, in Chesapeake Bay, where he had taken refuge.

2 Cornstalk and his son were killed within the fort at Point Pleasant
in November 1777 by Virginian soldiers (contrary to the protests of
their commanding officers), who thus avenged the death of a
comrade. He was at the time warning the garrison of his inability
to hold the Shawnees to the terms of the treaty of 1774. There is a
granite monument (erected in 1899) over his grave in the yard
of the court-house.

3 Various American writers have asserted that Lord Dunmore
incited the Indians to attack the frontier in order to divert the
colonists from their opposition to Great Britain, and that he

Eurposely refrained from effecting a junction with Lewis, so that
ewis might be defeated and Virginia thus be greatly crippled on
the eve of the threatened war with the mother country; and the
battle itself has accordingly frequently been referred to as the
first battle of the War of Independence. The assertions with
regard to Lord Dunmore, however, rest on circumstantial evidence
alone, and have never been conclusively proved.

POISON

893

present site of Point Pleasant ; the survey of this grant was made
by George Washington. After the battle General Lewis sent
a detachment to build a fort (called Fort Blair) here; in 1776
Fort Randolph (abandoned in 1779) was erected on the same
site, and in 1785 (from which year the permanent settlement
of the town may be dated) a third fort was built here. Daniel
Boone lived here from 1788 until about 1799. In 1794 the
village of Point Pleasant was platted; it was incorporated as a
town in 1833. A granite monument (86 ft. high) commemorat-
ing the battle was unveiled on the 10th of October 1909.

See J. T. McAllister's article, " The Battle of Point Pleasant,"
in the Virginia Magazine of History and Biography (1901-1902),
vol. x., and Virgil A. Lewis, History of the Battle of Point Pleasant
(Charleston, W. Va., 1909).

POISOK. An exact definition of the word "poison" (derived
through Fr. from Lat. potio, potionem, a drink; i.e. a deadly
draught) is by no means easy. There is no legal definition of
what constitutes a poison, and the definitions usually proposed
are apt to include either too much or too little. Generally, a
poison may be defined to be a substance having an inherent
deleterious property, rendering it capable of destroying life by
whatever avenue it is taken into the system; or it is a substance
which when introduced into the system, or applied externally,
injures health or destroys life irrespective of mechanical means
or direct thermal changes. In popular language a poison is a
substance capable of destroying life when taken in small
quantity; but a substance which destroys life by mechanical
means as, e.g. powdered glass, is not, strictly speaking, a poison.
The subject of toxicology forms one of the most important
branches of medical jurisprudence (q.v.). The medical jurist
should be familiar with the nature and actions of poisons, the
symptoms which they produce, the circumstances which modify
their working, the pathological results of their action, and the
methods of combating these.

Action of Poisons. — Poisons may exert a twofold action.
This may be either local, or remote, or both local and remote.
The local action of a poison is usually one of corrosion, inflam-
mation, or a direct effect upon the sensory or motor nerves.
The remote actions of poisons are usually of a specific character,
though some writers group the remote effects of poisons under
two heads, and speak of the common and the specific remote
effects of a poison. The local action of a poison of the corrosive
class is usually so well marked and obvious that the fact of the
administration of a poison of this class is generally unmistakable.
The same may be said, in a less degree, of the irritant poisons,
especially the mineral irritants; but here the symptoms some-
times so closely simulate those of natural disease as to render
the recognition of the administration of poison a matter of
difficulty. Hence an accurate acquaintance with the remote
specific effects of the various poisons is indispensable to the
medical jurist. The class of poisons which has been adminis-
tered or taken will thus be suggested to his mind by the observa-
tion of the symptoms; and not unfrequently the specific poison
taken will be suspected. It is almost universally admitted
that absorption of a poison is necessary for the production of
its specific remote effects, and the old notion that a poison may
kill, by its action through the nervous system, without absorp-
tion, is abandoned.

Modifying Circumstances. — The ordinary action of a poison
may be greatly modified by the largeness of the dose, by the state
of aggregation, admixture, or of chemical combination of the
poison, by the part or membrane to which it is applied, and by
the condition of the patient. Thus, for example, opium may
be a medicine or a poison, according to the dose in which it is
given; and a dose of the drug which may be beneficial to an
adult in certain states of the system may be fatal to a child, or
to an adult when suffering from some forms of disease. All
barium salts, again, are poisonous, except the quite insoluble
sulphate. The simple cyanides, and many double cyanides,
are highly poisonous; but yellow prussiate of potash, which is a
double cyanide of iron and potassium, is almost without action
upon the system. The part or tissue to which a poison is applied

greatly affects the activity of a poison, owing to the varying
rapidity with which absorption takes place through the cuta-
neous, mucous and serous surfaces, and by the other tissues of
the body. Curare, an arrow poison, may be swallowed in con-
siderable quantity without appreciable result, whilst a minute
quantity of the same substance introduced into a wound is
speedily fatal. Idiosyncrasy has an important bearing in
toxicology. Pork, mutton, certain kinds of fish, more especially
shell-fish so-called, and mushrooms have each produced all the
symptoms of violent irritant poisoning, whilst other persons
who have partaken of the same food at the same time have
experienced no ill effects. Some persons are stated, on good
authority, to be capable of taking with impunity such poisons
as opium, corrosive sublimate, or arsenic, in enormous doses—
and this irrespective of habit, which is known to have such an
influence in modifying the effects of some poisons, notably the
narcotics. A tolerance of poisons is sometimes engendered by
disease, so that a poison may fail to produce its customary
effect. Thus, opium is tolerated in large quantities in tetanus
and in delirium tremens; and mercurial compounds may in some
febrile affections fail to produce the usual constitutional effects
of the metal. On the other hand, diseases which impede the
elimination of a poison may intensify its effects.

The evidence that a poison has been administered is based
upon the symptoms produced, on the appearances met with in
the body after death, on the analysis of articles of food and drink,
of excreta and ejecta, and of the organs of the body after death,
and on physiological experiments made with substances extracted
from the same articles. These physiological experiments are
usually made upon animals, but in some cases, as for instance
when aconite has to be searched for, the physiological experi-
ments must be made also upon the human subject. The
evidence obtained from one or more of these sources, as compared
with the properties or effects of various known poisons, will
enable the medical jurist to form an opinion as to the administra-
tion or non-administration of a poison.

The symptoms exhibited by the patient during life rarely fail
to afford some clue to the poison taken. Persons may, however,
be found dead of whose history nothing can be learned. Here
post mortem appearances, chemical analysis, and, it may be,
physiological experiments, are all-important for the elucidation
of the nature of the case.

Poisoning may be acute or chronic. The general conditions
which should arouse a suspicion of acute poisoning are the
sudden onset of serious and increasingly alarming symptoms in a
person previously in good health, especially if there be pain in
the region of the stomach, or, where there is complete prostra-
tion of the vital powers, a cadaveric aspect, and speedy death.
In all such cases the aid of the analytical chemist must be called
in either to confirm well-founded or to rebut ill-founded'
suspicions.

The mode of treatment to be adopted in the case of poisoned
persons varies greatly according to the nature of the poison.
The first indication, when the poison has been swallowed, is
to evacuate the stomach; and this may usually be done by means
of the stomach-pump when the poison is not of the corrosive
class; or the stomach may be gently washed out by means of a
funnel and flexible siphon-tube. In many cases emetics are
valuable. Antidotes and counter-poisons may then be given.
The former are such substances as chalk to neutralize the mineral
acids and oxalic acid; the latter have a physiological counter-
action, and are such as atropine, which is a counter-poison
to morphia. These may usually be administered most effec-
tively by hypodermic injection. The stomach may to a certain
degree be protected from the injurious effects of irritants by
the administration of mucilaginous drinks; alkaloids may be
rendered sparingly soluble by means of astringent substances
containing tannin; and pain may be relieved by means of
opium, unless contra-indicated by the nature of the poison.
The effects of the convulsant poisons, such as strychnine, may
be combated by means of the inhalation of chloroform.

The classification of poisons is a. matter of difficulty. Various

894

POISON

attempts have been made to classify them scientifically, but
with no signal success; and perhaps the best system is that
which groups the various poisons according to the more obvious
symptoms which they produce. Our knowledge of the more
intimate action of poisons is still too imperfect to admit of any
useful classification according to the manner in which they
specifically affect the vital organs. Poisons may in the manner
indicated be classified as (i) Corrosives, (2) Irritants, (3) Neu-
rotics, and (4) Gaseous Poisons.

1. Corrosives.

The typical member of this class is corrosive sublimate, the
soluble chloride of mercury. In it are included also the concen-
trated mineral acids (sulphuric, nitric and hydrochloric) ; oxalic
acid; the alkalies (potash, soda, and ammonia) and their carbonates;
acid, alkaline, and corrosive salts of the metals (such as bisulphate
of potash, alum, butter of antimony and nitrate of silver) ; also
carbolic acid.

The symptoms produced by the mineral acids and the alkalies
are almost altogether referable to local action; but some corrosive
poisons, such as carbolic acid, produce, besides a local action,
remote and specific constitutional effects. The symptoms of
corrosive poisoning are marked and unmistakable, except in infants.
Immediately on swallowing the corrosive substance, an acid, caustic
or metallic burning sensation is experienced in the mouth, fauces,
gullet and region of the stomach, and this speedily extends over
the whole belly ; as a rule vomiting speedily follows. In the case
of the mineral acids, and in oxalic acid poisoning, the vomit is
so acid that if it falls upon a marble or concrete floor effervescence
ensues. No relief follows the evacuation of the stomach. The
ejected matters contain blood, and even fragments of the corroded
walls of the alimentary canal. The belly becomes distended with
gas and horribly tender. High fever prevails. The mouth is
found to be corroded. Death usually ensues within a few hours;
or, if the patient survives, he or she may perish miserably, months
after the poison was taken, through starvation consequent upon
the gradual contraction of the gullet, brought about by its corrosion
and subsequent healing.

The treatment of corrosive poisoning consists in very gently
emptying and washing out the stomach by means of a soft siphon-
tube. The stomach-pump cannot be used with safety in con-
sequence of the weakening of the walls of the stomach by corrosion.
Demulcents and opiates may be subsequently administered. After
death from corrosive poisoning the walls of the stomach are found
corroded and even perforated.

1. Corrosive Sublimate. — Here all the signs and symptoms of
corrosive poisoning are produced in their severest form. A grain
or two of this poison may prove fatal. Fortunately there is an
efficient antidote in white of egg, the albumen of which, if adminis-
tered at once, renders the salt insoluble. The eggs should be divested
of their yolks, beaten up with water, and given promptly, repeatedly,
and abundantly, followed by emetics. Poisoning by corrosive
sublimate may be followed by the specific toxic effects of mercury,
such as salivation and tremor.

Workers in mercury, such as water-gilders, looking-glass makers,
and the makers of barometers and thermometers, are apt to suffer
from a peculiar form of shaking palsy, known as " the trembles,"
or mercurial tremor. This disease affects most frequently those
who are exposed to mercurial fumes. The victim is affected with
tremors when an endeavour is made to exert the muscles, so that he
is unable, for instance, to convey a glass of water to the lips steadily,
and when he walks he breaks into a dancing trot. The treatment
consists in removal from the mercurial atmosphere, baths, fresh air,
and the administration of iron and other tonics.

2. Mineral Acids. — These are oil of vitriol or sulphuric acid,
aqua fortis or nitric acid, and spirit of salt or hydrochloric (muri-
atic) acid. These, when taken in a concentrated form, produce well-
marked symptoms of corrosion. When they are diluted, the symp-
toms are those of an irritant poison. Nitric acid stains the mouth
and skin of a yellow colour. The treatment consists in the admin-
istration of the alkalies or other carbonates, chalk, whiting, or even
uncoloured plaster scraped off the walls or ceiling, with the view
of neutralizing the acid.

3. Oxalic acid is a vegetable acid. When taken in the state of
concentrated solution it acts as a corrosive, but when diluted as an
irritant. But it also exerts a specific effect, killing the patient by
cardiac syncope not unfrequently within a few minutes. When a
person after taking a crystalline substance, tasting strongly acid,
dies within 15 or 30 minutes, after the manifestation of great weak-
ness, small pulse and failure of the heart's power, poisoning by
oxalic acid is almost certain. The treatment consists in promptly
administering an emetic, followed by chalk, whiting, or any sub-
stance containing carbonate of calcium. The alkaline carbonates are
valueless, for the alkaline oxalates are almost as poisonous as oxalic
acid itself.

4. The Alkalis. — Caustic potash and caustic soda produce symp-
toms resembling those of the mineral acids, except that purging is
a usual accompaniment.

5. Carbolic acid. when taken in the form of a concentrated liquid
acts as a corrosive, causing whitening and shrinking of all the
animal membranes with which it comes in contact. The patient,
however, becomes speedily comatose, the poison acting profoundly
upon the great nervous centres. A curious phenomenon — black or
dark green urine — is commonly observed after the administration
of this poison. Saccharated lime-water, diluted and drunk freely,
and a solution of sulphate of soda are perhaps the most usefu*
remedies.

2. Irritant Poisons.

Irritant poisons are of two classes — metallic irritants and vege-
table and animal irritants, these latter being for convenience grouped
together. Perhaps none of the irritants act purely as such, the
irritant symptoms being usually accompanied by well-marked
effects upon the nervous system. An irritant is a substance which
causes inflammation of the part to which it is applied — usually
the alimentary canal. Arsenic is by far the most important of
the metallic irritants. Other irritants are the moderately diluted
acids, many metallic salts, such as those of antimony, lead, copper,
zinc and chromium. Elaterium, gamboge, aloes, colocynth and
croton oil are good examples of vegetable irritants; and cantharidesr
of animal irritants. Animal and vegetable food when decomposed,
or infested with certain organisms known as bacteria, may produce
violent irritant symptoms. The symptoms produced by irritant
poisons are usually more slow in their development than where
a corrosive has been administered. Usually, after an interval,
greater or less according to the specific nature of the irritant
swallowed, a burning pain is felt in the mouth, throat and gullet,
with a sense of constriction of the parts, and followed by burning
pain in the region of the stomach. This is increased, and not
alleviated, by pressure, a mark which serves to distinguish the
attack from one of ordinary colic. Nausea, vomiting and thirst
ensue, speedily followed by distension of the whole abdomen, which
is exceedingly tender to the touch. Ordinarily the vomiting is
followed by profuse diarrhoea. Should the poison not be speedily
eliminated in the vomited and faecal matters, inflammatory fever
sets in, followed by collapse; and death may ensue in a few hours.

There is danger of confounding irritant poisoning with some forms
of natural disease, such as gastritis and gastric ulcer, colic, perito-
nitis, cholera and rupture of the intestines.

1. Arsenic is a specific irritant poison. Almost all the compounds
of this metal are poisonous. The term " arsenic " is, however,
most commonly applied, not to the metal itself, but to its lower
oxide, arsenious oxide, which is also known as white arsenic. By
whatever channel arsenic is introduced into the system, it invari-
ably affects specifically the stomach and intestines, causing con-
gestion or inflammation. The common sources of arsenical poisoning
are the taking of white arsenic, which causes acute poisoning, and
the inhalation of dust from arsenical wall-papers and textile fabrics,
whereby a chronic form of poisoning is induced.

The symptoms and treatment of arsenical poisoning are described
under Arsenic (q.v.).

Arsenic-eating, or the ability of some persons to take relatively
large doses of arsenic habitually, is a well-established fact. The
cause of this singular immunity from the ordinary results of arsenic
is unknown.

2. Lead. — The salts of lead, more especially the acetate (sugar of
lead), are irritant poisons of no very great activity; and, though
occasionally death ensues, recovery is the rule. Chrome yellow,
or lead chromate, is a powerful irritant poison. All chromates are,
indeed, irritant poisons. (See Lead Poisoning.)

3. Copper. — The soluble salts of copper, such as blue vitriol (the
sulphate) and verdigris (subcarbonate and subacetate), are emetic
and irritant salts. Their emetic effects usually, but not invariably,
secure their prompt rejection by the stomach. Occasionally fatal
effects have resulted from their administration. Copper becomes
accidentally mixed with articles of dietary in a variety of modes.
It is also used for improving the colour of preserved fruits and
vegetables. Its deleterious properties when thus used in minute
quantities have been both asserted and denied. There is, however,
a large body of evidence in favour of the at all events occasional
poisonous effects of minute quantities of copper.

4. Zinc salts and barium salts, except the quite insoluble barium
sulphate, are irritant poisons; and barium compounds act also
upon the central nervous system.

5. Chromates, e.g. bichromate of potash, are violent irritants.
Chrome yellow, ori lead chromate, has already been mentioned.

6. Phosphorus. — Of the two chief forms of the elements — the
yellow or ordinary and the red or amorphous — the former only
is poisonous. Rarely there is met with a chronic form of poisoning
among workers in the material, arising from the inhalation of
phosphorus vapours. Its special characteristic is a peculiar
necrosis or death of the bony structure of the lower jaw. Acute
phosphorus poisoning is more common. Phosphorus is used foi
tipping matches, and is also the basis of several vermin destroyers,
(See Phosphorus and Match.)

7. Vegetable Irritants. — These produce drastic purgative effects.
Frequently the nature of the illness may be ascertained by the
discovery of portions of the vegetable substance — recognizable
by the microscope — in the matters ejected by the patient.

POISON

895

8. Cantharides. — The administration of cantharides (q.v.) is
followed by vomiting, purging, strangury, or even entire inability
to pass the urine. In the ejecta portions of the shining elytra or
wing-cases of the fly may often be recognized. There is often great
excitement of the sexual proclivities. The active principle of the
fly, cantharidin, may be extracted from suspected matters by means
of chloroform, and the residue left after the evaporation of this
blisters the lip or any tender mucous surface to which it is applied.
Demulcent remedies, with opiate enemata and injections, afford the
best relief by way of treatment.

3. Neurotics.

1. Prussic or Hydrocyanic Acid. — Hydrocyanic acid is one ofthe
best known poisons, and a very deadly one. In the pure state it is
said to kill with lightning-like rapidity. It is met with in commerce
only in a dilute state. In Great Britain two kinds of acid are
commonly sold — the pharmacopoeial acid, containing 2 % of
anhydrous prussic acid, and Scheele's acid, containing 4 to 5%.
Less than a teaspoonful of the 2 % acid has caused death. Given
in fatal doses, the symptons of prussic-acid poisoning set in with
great rapidity ; and, in consequence of the readiness with which the
poison is absorbed from the stomach and diffused through the
circulation, the onset of symptoms is reckoned by seconds rather
than by minutes. Occasionally the victim may be able to perform
a few voluntary actions before alarming symptoms are developed.
There is first a very brief stage of difficult breathing, and slow
action of the heart, with a tendency for the organ to stop in the state
of dilatation. With widely-dilated pupils of the eye, the patient is
then seized with violent irregular convulsive movements. The
rhythm of the respiratory movements is disturbed, and the coun-
tenance becomes of a bluish cast. The patient now sinks to the
ground with complete loss of muscular power; and the third or
asphyxial stage is reached, in which there are slow gasping respira-
tions, loss of pulse, and paralysis of motion. Death is frequently
preceded by muscular spasms. The foudroyant character of the
illness, and the speedy death of the patient, coupled with the

Eeculiar odour of the acid in the breath and atmosphere around the
ody, seldom leave any doubt as to the nature of the case. The
treatment consists in inhalation of fumes of strong ammonia,
drinks of warm and cold water alternately, friction of the limbs, and
artificial respiration. The subcutaneous injection of atropine,
which acts as a cardiac stimulant, may prove serviceable.

Other soluble cyanides, more especially cyanide of potassium, a
salt largely used in photography and in the arts, are equally
poisonous with hydrocyanic acid. (See Prussic Acid.)

2. Opium. — In consequence of the extent to which opium, its
preparations, and its active alkaloid morphia are used for the relief
of pain, poisoning by opium is of frequent occurrence. It is largely
used by suicides ; and children, being very susceptible to its influence,
frequently die from misadventure after administration of an over-
dose of the drug. The ordinary preparations of opium are the
drug itself, which is the inspissated juice of the oriental poppy, and
the tincture, commonly known as laudanum. Opium contains a
variety of more or less active principles, the chief of which is the
alkaloid morphia, which is present in good opium to the extent of
about 10% in combination with meconic acid, which is physio-
logically inactive. Opium is largely used by Eastern nations for
smoking, and there is great discrepancy of opinion as to the extent
to which opium smoking is deleterious. The preponderance of
opinion is in favour of the view that opium smoking is a demoral-
izing, degrading, and pernicious habit, and that its victims are
sufferers both in body and mind from its use. (See Opium and
Morphine.)

3. Strychnine and Strychnine-yielding Plants. — The alkaloids
strychnine and brucine, as well as all the plants in which they are
found, all act in the same manner, being highly poisonous, and
causing death after spasms of a severe character. Many vermin-
killers contain strychnine as their active ingredient.

Strychnine, and all substances containing that alkaloid, produce
their effects within a very few minutes — usually within ten or fifteen
minutes. The patient complains of stiffness about the neck, and his
aspect exhibits terror. There is an impression of impending
calamity or death. Very speedily the head is jerked back, the
limbs extended, the back arched (opisthotonos), so that the body
may rest on the head and heels only. In a few moments these
symptoms pass off, and there is complete relaxation of the spasm.
The spasmodic condition speedily returns, and is brought about
by the slightest touch or movement of the patient. Accessions
and remissions of the tetanic state ensue rapidly till the patient
succumbs, usually within half an hour of the administration of
the poison. The best treatment is to put, and keep, the patient
under the influence of chloroform till time is given for the excretion
of the alkaloid, having previously given a full dose of chloral hydrate.
(See Strychnine.)

4. Aconite Poisoning. — The ordinary blue rocket, wolfsbane or
monkshood, Acontium Napellus, and an alkaloid extracted from it,
aconitine, are perhaps the most deadly of known poisons. One-
sixteenth of a grain of aconitine has proved fatal to a man. All the
preparations of aconite produce a peculiar burning, tingling, and
numbness of the parts to which they are applied. When given in

large doses they produce violent vomiting, as a rule, more or less
paralysis of motion and sensation, and great depression of the heart,
usually ending in death from syncope. Intelligence remains
unaffected till almost the last. The treatment consists in the
hypodermic injection of digitalin, which is a counter-poison in its
action upon the heart. The root of aconite has been eaten in mistake
for that of horse-radish.

5. Belladonna. — The belladonna or deadly nightshade, Atropa
Belladonna, contains an alkaloid, atropine, which is largely used by
oculists to procure dilatation of the pupils of the eye. The bright
scarlet berries of the plant have been eaten by children, who are
attracted by their tempting appearance. Belladonna produces
dilatation of the pupils, rapid pulse, hot dry flushed skin, with an
eruption not unlike that of scarlatina, soreness of the throat, with
difficulty of swallowing, intense thirst, and gay, mirthful delirium.
The treatment consists in evacuation of the poison by means of the
stomach-pump, and the hypodermic injection of morphia as a
counter-poison.

4. Gaseous Poisons.
The effects of these are varied — some of them acting as irritants,
while others have a specific effect, apparently in consequence of
their forming chemical compounds with the red pigment of the
blood, and thus destroying its capability of acting as a carrier of
oxygen.

1. Chlorine and bromine act as powerful irritants. They provoke
spasm of the glottis when inhaled, and subsequently induce in-
flammation of the respiratory mucous membrane, which may prove
speedily fatal. Inhalation of diluted ammonia vapour is the best
remedy.

2. Hydrochloric or muriatic acid gas and hydrofluoric or fluoric
acid gas are irritating and destructive to life. The former is more
destructive to vegetable life than even chlorine. They are emitted
in many processes of manufacture, and especially in the manufac-
ture of carbonate of soda from common salt by Le Blanc's process,
in the salt-glazing of earthenware, and in the manufacture of arti-
ficial manures.

3. Sulphurous Acid Gas. — The gas given off by burning sulphur
is most suffocating and irritating. Its inhalation, even in a highly
diluted state, may cause speedy death from spasmodic closure of
the glottis.

4. Nitrous vapours, or gaseous oxides of nitrogen (except nitrous
oxide), are given off from galvanic batteries excited by nitric acid;
also in the process of etching on copper. They produce, when
diluted, little immediate irritation, but are exceedingly dangerous,
setting up extensive and fatal inflammation of the lungs.

5. Ammonia gas is highly irritant, but does not often prove fatal.

6. Carbon dioxide gas is heavier than atmospheric air, is totally
irrespirable when pure, and is fatal when present in large quantities
in respired air. It is given off from burning fuel, accumulates in
pits and wells as choke-damp, and constitutes the deadly after-
damp of coal-mines. It is also formed during alcoholic fermen-
tation, and hence accumulates in partially filled vats in which fer-
mented liquors are stored. When it is breathed in a concentrated
state, death is almost instantaneous. Persons descending into wells
foul with this gas sink down powerless, and are usually dead before
they can be removed from the vitiated atmosphere. In these cases
there is true asphyxia; but carbonic acid is also a narcotic gas.
Persons exposed to an atmosphere partially composed of this gas,
but not long enough to produce fatal results, are affected with
stertorous breathings, oppression, flushed face, prominent eyes,
swollen tongue and feeble pulse. The proper treatment is removal
from the foul atmosphere, alternate cold and tepid douches to the
chest, friction of the limbs and trunk, and artificial respiration.
When animation is restored the patient should be put to bed and
kept quiet, but should be carefully watched in case of relapse.

7. Carbon monoxide gas is given off by burning charcoal and other
forms of fuel, mixed with carbonic acid. The poisonous effects of
charcoal fumes are perhaps due rather to the more poisonous car-
bonic oxide than to the less poisonous carbonic acid. An atmo-
sphere containing less than 1 % of carbonic oxide would doubtless
be fatal if breathed for many minutes. Carbonic oxide forms with
haemoglobin, the red pigment of the blood, a bright scarlet compound.
The compound is very stable, and the oxide cannot be displaced
by atmospheric oxygen. Hence the blood after death from the
inhalation of carbonic oxide is of a bright arterial hue, which it
retains on exposure to air.

8. Coal-gas acts as an asphyxiant and narcotic. The appear-
ances met with after death — more especially the fluid state of the
blood — are similar to those observed after death from carbonic
oxide gas, which is a constituent of coal-gas, and to which the chief
effect of coal-gas may be due.

9. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas is highly poisonous by whatever
channel it gains access to the body. In a concentrated form it
produces almost instant death from asphyxia. Even in a diluted
state it produces colic, nausea, vomiting and drowsiness. This
may pass into insensibility with lividity and feeble respiration.
The skin is cold and clammy, or bathed in perspiration. The red
blood corpuscles are disintegrated. The treatment consists in
removal from the contaminated atmosphere, friction to the surface

8 9.6

POISSON

of the body, warmth, and the administration of stimulants. The
inhalation of chlorine gas has been recommended on chemical
grounds; but it must be remembered that chlorine is itself poisonous.

10. Anaesthetics. — Nitrous oxide, or laughing gas, and the gases
or vapours of other anaesthetic substances, such as chloroform,
may, if improperly administered, produce death by asphyxia, and
perhaps otherwise. Obviously, as a rule, medical assistance is
at hand. The treatment consists in artificial respiration, and the
use of galvanic current.

1 1 . Vapours of Hydrocarbons. — The volatile vapours of the natural
hydrocarbons known as benzoline, petroleum, &c, are poisonous
when inhaled for lengthened periods. (T. S.*)

POISSON, SIMfiON DENIS (1781-1840), French mathemati-
cian, was born at Pithiviers in the department of Loiret, on the
21st of June 1781. His father, Simeon Poisson, served as a
common soldier in the Hanoverian wars; but, disgusted by the
ill-treatment he received from his patrician officers, he deserted.
About the time of the birth of his son, Simeon Denis, he occupied
a small administrative post at Pithiviers, and seems to have
been at the head of the local government of the place during
the revolutionary period. Poisson was first sent to an uncle, a
surgeon at Fontainebleau, and began to take lessons in bleeding
and blistering, but made little progress. Having given promise
of mathematical talent he was sent to the ficole Centrale of
Fontainebleau, and was fortunate in having a kind and sympa-
thetic teacher, M. Billy, who, when he speedily found that his
pupil was becoming his master, devoted himself to the study
of higher mathematics in order to follow and appreciate him,
and predicted his future fame by the punning quotation from
Lafontaine 1 : —

" Petit Poisson deviendra grand
Pourvu que Dieu lui prgte vie."

In 1798 he entered the ficole Polytechnique at Paris as first
in his year, and immediately began to attract the notice of the
professors of the school, who left him free to follow the studies
of his predilection. In 1800, less than two years after his entry,
he published two memoirs, one on £. Bezout's method of elimina-
tion, the other on the number of integrals of an equation of
finite differences. The latter of these memoirs was examined
by S. F. Lacroix and A. M. Legendre, who recommended that
it should be published in the Recueil des savants Strangers, an
unparalleled honour for a youth of eighteen. This success at
once procured for Poisson an entry into scientific circles. J. L.
Lagrange, whose lectures on the theory of functions he attended
at the ficole Polytechnique, early recognized his talent, and
became his friend; while P. S. Laplace, in whose footsteps
Poisson followed, regarded him almost as his son. The rest of
his career, till his death on the 25th of April 1IS40, was almost
entirely occupied in the composition and publication of his many
works, and in discharging the duties of the numerous educational
offices to which he was successively appointed. Immediately
after finishing his course at the ficole Polytechnique he was
appointed repetiteur there, an office which he bad discharged as
an amateur while still a pupil in the school; for it had been the
custom of his comrades often to resort to his room after an
unusually difficult lecture to hear him repeat and explain it.
He was made professeur suppliant in 1802, and full professor in
succession to J. Fourier in 1806. In 1808 he became astronomer
to the Bureau des Longitudes; and when the Faculty des Sciences
was instituted in 1809 he was appointed professeur de la mica-
nique rationelle. He further became member of the Institute
in 181 2, examiner at the military school at St Cyr in 1815, leaving
examiner at the ficole Polytechnique in 1816, councillor of the
university in 1820, and geometer to the Bureau des Longitudes
in succession to P. S. Laplace in 1827. His father, whose early
experiences led him to hate aristocrats, bred him in the stern
creed of the first republic. Throughout the empire Poisson
faithfully adhered to the family principles, and refused to
worship Napoleon. When the Bourbons were restored, his
hatred against Napoleon led him to become a Legitimist— a
conclusion which says more for the simplicity of his character
than for the strength or logic of his political creed. He was
faithful to the Bourbons during the Hundred Days; in fact, was

' This prediction is sometimes attributed to Laplace.

with difficulty dissuaded from volunteering to fight in theh
cause. After the second restoration his fidelity was recognized
by his elevation to the dignity of baron in 1825; but he never
either took out his diploma or used the title. The revolution
of July 1830 threatened him with the loss of all his honours;
but this disgrace to the government of Louis Philippe was
adroitly averted by F. Arago, who, while his " revocation " was
being plotted by the council of ministers, procured him an invi-
tation to dine at the Palais Royale, where he was openly and
effusively received by the citizen king, who " remembered" him.
After this, of course, his degradation was impossible, and seven
years later he was made a peer of France, not for political
rea'sons, but as a representative of French science.

As a teacher of mathematics Poisson is said to have been more
than ordinarily successful, as might have been expected from
his early promise as a repetiteur at the ficole Polytechnique. As
a scientific worker his activity has rarely if ever been equalled.
Notwithstanding his many official duties, he found time to
publish more than three hundred works, several of them exten-
sive treatises, and many of them memoirs dealing with the most
abstruse branches of pure and applied mathematics. There
are two remarks of his, or perhaps two versions of the same
remark, that explain how he accomplished so much: one, " La
vie n'est bonne qu'a. deux choses — a. faire des mathematiques
et a les professeur; " the other, " La vie c'est le travail."

A list of Poisson's works, drawn up by himself, is given at the
end of Arago's biography, A lengthened analysis of them would
be out of place here, and all that is possible is a brief mention of
the more important. There are few branches of mathematics to
which he did not contribute something, but it was in the applica-
tion of mathematics to physical subjects that his greatest services
to science were performed. Perhaps the most original, and
certainly the most permanent in their influence, were his memoirs
on the theory of electricity and magnetism, which virtually created
a new branch of mathematical physics. Next (perhaps in the
opinion of some first) in importance stand the memoirs on celestial
mechanics, in which he proved himself a worthy successor to
P. S. Laplace. The most important of these are his memoirs " Sur
les inegalites seculaires des moyens mouvements des planetes," " Sur
la variation des constantes arbitraires dans les questions de meca-
nique," both published in the Journal of the ficole Polytechnique
(1809) ; " Surlalibrationdelalune," in Connaiss. d. temps (i82i),&c. ;
and " Sur la mouvement de la terre autour de son centre de gravity,"
in Mem. d. I'acad. (1827), &c. In the first of these memoirs Poisson
discusses the famous question of the stability of the planetary
orbits, which had already been settled by Lagrange to the first
degree of approximation for the disturbing forces. Poisson showed
that the result could be extended to a second approximation, and thus
made an important advance in the planetary theory. The memoir
is remarkable inasmuch as it roused Lagrange, after an interval of
inactivity, to compose in his old age one of the greatest of his
memoirs, viz. that Sur la theorie des variations des elements des
planetes, et en particulier des variations des grands axes de leurs
orbites. So highly did he think of Poisson's memoir that he made
a copy of it with his own hand, which was found among his papers
after his death. Poisson made important contributions to the
theory of attraction. His well-known correction of Laplace's
partial differential equation for the potential was first published
in the Bulletin de la soctite philomatique (1813). His two most
important memoirs on the subject are " Sur l'attraction des
spheroides " {Connaiss. d. temps, 1829), and " Sur l'attraction d'un
ellipsoide homogene " (Mem. d. I'acad., 1835). In concluding our
selection from his physical memoirs we may mention his memoir
on the theory of waves (Mem. d. I'acad., 1825).

In pure mathematics, his most important works were his series
of memoirs on definite integrals, and his discussion of Fourier's
series, which paved the way for the classical researches of L. Dirichlet
and B. Riemann on the same subject ; these are to be found in the
Journal of the ficole Polytechnique from 1813 to 1823, and in the
Memoirs de I'academie for 1823. In addition we may also mention
his essay on the calculus of variations (Mem. d. I'acad., 1833), and
his memoirs on the probability of the mean results of observations
(Connaiss. d. temps, 1827, &c).

Besides his many memoirs Poisson published a number of treatises,
most of which were intended to form part of a great work on mathe-
matical physics, which he did not live to complete. Among these
may be mentioned his Traite de mecanique (2 vols. 8vo, 18 1 1 and
1833), which was long a standard work; Thiorie nouvelle de faction
cappillaire (4to, 1831); Theorie mathematique de la chaleur Uto, 1835);
Supplement to the same (4to, 1837) ; Reckerch.es sur la probability des
jugemenls en malikres criminelles, &c. (4to, 1 837) , all published at Paris.
See F. Arago, Biographic de Poisson, read before the Academie des
Sciences on the 16th of December 1850.

POISSY— POITIERS

897

POISSY, a town of northern France, in the department of
Seine-et-Oise, 17m. W.N.W. of Paris, on the railway from Paris
to Rouen. Pop. (1906), 6043. The church, supposed to have
been built in the first half of the 12th century, and eventually
restored under the direction of Viollet le Due, is of special
architectural interest, as affording one of the earliest and best
examples of transition from the Romanesque to the Pointed
style. The bridge of Poissy, a very ancient foundation, has
been widened and modernized; of the mills which formerly
bordered it one was known as Queen Blanche's. A statue of
the painter J. L. E. Meissonier was erected in 1894, close to his
house. Poissy supplied butchers' meat to Paris during six
centuries, but in 1867 the market was removed to the metropolis.
A handsome fountain stands in the old market-place. Distilling
and the manufacture of chairs and flour-milling equipment are
carried on and ragstone is quarried.

Poissy, the ancient Pinciacum, was the capital of the country
of the Carnutes. In the time of Charlemagne it had a royal
palace, where during the 9th century four national assemblies
were held. Later it became a favourite residence of Blanche of
Castille, and her son, afterwards St Louis, is supposed to
have been born there. Philip the Fair gave the castle to the
Dominicans, by whom it was completely transformed, and it
was in the refectory of the abbey that the famous conference
(see below) between the Roman Catholics and Protestants took
place in 1561.

POISSY, COLLOQUY OF, a conference held in 1561 with the
object of effecting a reconciliation between the Catholics and
Protestants of France. It was initiated by Queen Catherine
de' Medici, regent during the minority of her son Charles IX.
In the policy of which it was the outcome she enjoyed the support
of the Chancellor Michel de l'Hopital and the lieutenant-general
of the kingdom, Anthony of Navarre; while on the other hand
the heads of the Catholic party had attempted to frustrate
any form of negotiation. Theodore Beza from Geneva and
Peter Martyr Vermigli from Zurich appeared at the colloquy; the
German theologians to whom invitations had been despatched
only arrived in Paris after the discussion was broken off. The
conference was opened on the 9th of September in the refectory
of the convent of Poissy, the king himself being present. The
spokesman of the Reformed Church was Beza, who, in the first
session, gave a lengthy exposition of its tenets, but excited such
repugnance by his pronouncements on the Communion that he
was interrupted by Cardinal Tournon. In the second session
(Sept. 16) he was answered by the cardinal of Lorraine, who
discharged his task with skill and moderation. On the motion,
however, of Ippolito d'Este, the papal legate, exception was
taken to the further conduct of the negotiations in full conclave;
and a committee of twenty-four representatives, twelve from
each party, was appointed — ostensibly to facilitate a satisfactory
decision. On the Catholic side, as was speedily demonstrated,
there existed no sort of tendency to conciliation. On the con-
trary, the cardinal of Lorraine, by his question whether the
Calvinists were prepared to sign the Confession of Augsburg,
attempted to sow dissension between them and the Lutheran
Protestants of Germany, on whose continued support they calcu-
lated. The Catholic delegates, moreover, discovered a powerful
auxiliary when Lainez, the general of the Jesuit order, which
had been admitted into France a short time previously, entered
the debate; and the acrimony with which he opposed the Protes-
tants was of material service in clarifying the situation. Still
a further reduction was made in the number of members, and a
small residuum consisting of five Catholics and five Protestants
undertook the task of devising a formula on which the two
churches might unite with regard to the question of the Com-
munion. Their difficult labours even seemed on the point of
success when the assemblage of prelates refused assent, and the
conference broke up on the 9th of October — a result which barred
the way to a pacific understanding with the Huguenots.

See H. Kiipffel, Le Colloque de Poissy (Paris, 1 868) ; E. Lacheinmann
in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie f. protest. Theologie (3rd ed.,
1904), xv. 497. (C. M.)

XXI. 29

POITIERS, a town of western France, formerly the capital of
Poitou, and now the chief town of the department of Vienne,
61 m. S.S.W. of Tours on the railway to Bordeaux. Pop. (1906),
town, 31,532; commune, 39,302. Poitiers is situated at the
junction of the Boivre with the Clain (a tributary of the Loire
by the Vienne), and occupies the slopes and summit of a
plateau which rises 130 ft. above the level of the streams by
which it is surrounded on three sides. The town is picturesque;
and its streets are interesting for their remains of ancient
architecture, especially of the Romanesque period, and the
memories of great historical events. Blossac park, named after
the intendant of the " generality " of Poitiers (1751-1786), and
situated on the south side of the town, and the botanical garden
on the north-east, are the two principal promenades. Till
1857 Poitiers contained the ruins of a Roman amphitheatre
more extensive than that of Nimes; remains of Roman baths^
constructed in the 1st and demolished in the 3rd century, were
laid bare in 1877; and in 1879 a burial-place and the tombs of a
number of Christian martyrs were discovered on the heights to
the south-east — the names of some of the Christians being
preserved in paintings and inscriptions. Not far from these
tombs is a huge dolmen (the " Pierre Levee "), 22 ft. long, 16 ft.
broad and 6 or 7 ft. high, around which used to be held the great
fair of St Luke.

The cathedral of St Peter, begun in 1162 by Henry II. of
England and Eleanor of Guienne on the ruins of a Roman
basilica, and well advanced by the end of the 12th century, is a
building in the Romanesque and Early Gothic style, the latter
predominating. It consists of three naves almost equal in
height and width, both of which decrease towards the west,
thus enhancing the perspective. Its length is 308 ft., and the
keystone of the central vaulted roof is 89 ft. above the pavement.
There is no apse, and the exterior generally has a heavy appear-
ance. The principal front, the width of which is excessive in pro-
portion to its height, has unfinished side-towers 105 and no ft.
in height, begun in the 13th century. Most of the windows of
the choir and the transepts preserve their stained glass of the
12th and 13th centuries; the end window, which is certainly
the first in the order of time, contains the figures of Henry II.
and Eleanor. The choir stalls, carved between 1235 and 1257,
are among the oldest in France. The church of St Jean near
the cathedral is the most ancient Christian monument in the
country. Built as a baptistery in the first half of the 4th century,
it was enlarged in the 7th century, since when it has suffered
little structural alteration. It contains frescoes of the 12th
century and a collection of tombs of the Merovingian period.
The church of St Hilaire was erected at the close of the 4th
century over the tomb of the celebrated bishop. At first an
oratory, it was rebuilt on a larger scale by Clovis, and after-
wards became, in the 10th, nth and 12th centuries, a sumptuous
collegiate church, of which the nave was flanked by triple aisles
and surmounted by six cupolas. Great damage was done to it
in the Wars of Religion and the French Revolution, and the
facade was entirely rebuilt in the 19th century. The confes-
sional or oratory under the choir contains the relics of St Hilary
and a Christian sarcophagus of the 4th century. The church of
St Radegonde, a great resort of pilgrims, commemorates the
consort of Clotaire (d. 587), and preserves in its crypt the tomb
of Radegonde, who founded at Poitiers the abbey of the Holy
Cross, and two others reputed to be those of St Agnes and St
Disciola. The choir and tower above the entrance are of the
nth century, while the nave (late 1 2th century) is in the Angevin
style. In a recess in the nave known as the Chapelle du Pas
de Dieu, there is a footprint which tradition asserts to be that of
Christ, who appeared in a vision to St Radegonde. Notre-Dame
la Grande, which dates from the close of the nth century, and
represents a collegiate church of one or two hundred years older,
has a sculptured Romanesque facade rivalled in richness only
by that of St Pierre of Angouleme. The first stone of the
church of Montierneuf (Monasterium Novum) was laid in 1077
by William VI., duke of Aquitaine and count of Poitiers, who is
buried within its walls; and the choir (in the 13th century

11

8 9 8

POITIERS

modified by the erection of a " lantern ") was solemnly conse-
crated by Urban II. in 1096. Mutilated about 1640 and during
the Revolution, the building was partly restored between 1850
and i860. The tower of St Porchaire, a precious remnant of
nth-century architecture, was restored in the 19th century under
the auspices of the well-known Socittt des antiquaires de I'ouest.

Among the secular buildings the first place belongs to the
law courts, formerly the palace of the dukes of Aquitaine and
counts of Poitiers, and rebuilt between the 12th and the 15th
century. The Salle des Pas Perdus forms a fine nave 160 ft.
long by 56 ft. wide, with a vaulted wooden roof. The southern
wall is the work of duke Jean de Berry (d. 1416), brother of
Charles V. ; above its three vast fireplaces are mullioned windows
filled with stained glass. The Maubergeon tower attached
to the palace by the same duke represented the feudal centre
of all the lordships of the countship of Poitiers. The house
known as the prevdti or provost's mansion, built about 1500, has
a fine facade flanked by turrets, and there are other houses
of the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. In the H6tel de Ville,
erected between 1869 and 1876, are museums of natural history
and painting. The museum of the Antiquaires de I'ouest
occupies the chapel and the great hall of the old university,
adjoining the old H6tel de Ville; it is a valuable collection com-
prising Roman antiquities, Merovingian sculptures, medals, a
fine Renaissance fireplace, &c. The building devoted to the
faculties also contains the library. The municipal records are
very rich in charters of Eleanor of Guienne, Philip Augustus,
Alphonse of Poitiers, &c.

Poitiers is the seat of a bishop, a prefect, a court of appeal
and a court of assizes, and centre of an educational division
{acadtmie), and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce,
a board of trade arbitration, a chamber of commerce and a
branch of the Bank of France. Its educational institutions
comprise a university with faculties of law, science and letters,
and a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy, a school
of theology, training colleges for both sexes, a lycee for boys
and a school of fine art. Trade is in farm produce, wine, cattle,
wool, honey, goose-quills and leather. The industries include
the preparation of goose-skins, printing, tanning, and the
manufacture of brushes, paint and candles.

Poitiers, called Limonum at the time of the Roman Conquest,
afterwards took the name of its Gallic founders, the Pictones or
Pictavi. Christianity was introduced in the 3rd century, and
the first bishop of Poitiers, from 350 to 367, was St Hilarius.
Fifty years later the city had fallen into the hands of the Arian
Visigoths, and became one of the principal residences of their
kings. Alaric II., one of their number, was defeated by Clovis
at Vouill6, not far from Poitiers, in 507, and the town became a
part of the Frankish dominion. This was the first occasion on
which the peoples of northern and southern Gaul met in conflict
in the neighbourhood of the town which was destined to see
them so frequently join battle. By his victory in 732 over the
Mahommedans at Moussais-la-Bataille in this region, Charles
Martel proved the saviour of Christendom. Eleanor of Guienne
frequently resided in the city, which she embellished and fortified,
and in n 99 entrusted with communal rights. Alphonse of
Poitiers, at a plenary court held in 1241 in the great hall of the
Palais de Justice, received the homage of his numerous vassals.
After the battle of Poitiers in 1356 (see below), Poitou was recog-
nized as an English possession by the treaty of Bretigny (1360);
but by 1373 it was recovered by Bertrand Du Guesclin. It
was at Poitiers that Charles VII. was proclaimed king (1432);
and he removed thither the parlement and university of Paris,
which remained in exile till the English withdrew from the capital
in 1436. During this interval (1429) Joan of Arc was subjected
to a formal inquest in the town. The university was founded
in 1432. Calvin had numerous converts at Poitiers. Of the
violent proceedings which attended the Wars of Religion the
city had its share. In 1569 it was defended by Gui de Daillon,
comte du Lude, against Gaspard de Coligny, who after an
unsuccessful bombardment retired from the siege at the end of
seven weeks.

Counts of Poitiers. — In the time of Charlemagne the countship
of Poitiers, which was then a part of the kingdom of Aquitaine,
was represented by a certain Abbon. Renoul (Ranulph), who
was created count of Poitiers by the emperor Louis the Pious in
839, was the ancestor of a family which was distinguished in the
9th and 10th centuries for its attachment to the Carolingian
dynasty. One of his successors, Ebles the Bastard (d. 93 s),
took the title of duke of Aquitaine; and his descendants, who
bore the hereditary name of William, retained the same title.
William IV., Fierebrace, joined Hugh Capet, his brother-in-law,
in 987. William V. the Great (993-1030) was a patron of
letters, and received from the Italian lords the offer of the
imperial crown after the death of the emperor Henry II. in
1024. William IX. (1086-1127) went on crusade in 1100, and
had violent quarrels with the Papacy. His son William X.
(1127-1137) sided with the anti-pope Anacletus against Innocent
II. In accordance with the dying wishes of William X. his
daughter Eleanor was married in 1137 to Louis, the son of Louis
VI. of France. Sole heiress of her father, she brought her
husband a large dowry, comprising Poitou, Saintonge, Aunis,
a part of Touraine and Berry, Marche, Angoumois, Perigord,
Auvergne, Limousin, Bordelais, Agenois and Gascony. After
the dissensions between Louis VII. and Eleanor had resulted
in a divorce in n 52, Eleanor married the count of Anjou,
Henry Plantagenet, who became king of England as Henry II.
The west of France thus passed into the hands of England, a
transfer which gave rise to long wars between the two kingdoms.
Philip Augustus reconquered Poitou in 1204, and the province
became in succession an apanage of Alphonse, son of Louis
VIII., in 1 241; of Philip the Tall, son of Philip the Fair, in 1311;
of John, son of Philip of Valois, in 1344; and of John, due de
Berry, son of John the Good, in 1356; and passed to the dauphins
John (1416) and Charles (1417), sons of Charles VI. When
Charles VII. ascended the throne he finally united the countship
of Poitiers to the Crown.

See P. Gue>in, Recueil des documents concernant le Poitou (Paris,
1 880-1906); and A. Richards, Histoire des comtes de Poitou (Paris,
1903)-

Battle of Poitiers. — This battle, fought on the 19th of Septem-
ber 1356 between the armies of King John of France and Edward
the " Black Prince," was the second of the three great English
victories of the Hundred Years' War. From Bordeaux the
prince had led an army of his father's Guienne vassals, with
which there was a force of English archers and men-at-arms,
into central France and had amassed an enormous booty.
King John, hitherto engaged against the army of John of Gaunt
duke of Lancaster, in Normandy, hurried south to intercept
the raiding army and to bar its homeward road. The Black
Prince, by forced marching, was able to slip past the French,
but reaching Maupertuis, 7 m. south-east of Poitiers, with the
king's army in chase, he found himself compelled to choose
between fighting and abandoning his spoil. He chose the
former course, in spite of the enemy's great superiority in
numbers (16,000 to 6500), and in order to give his trains time to
draw off took up a defensive position on the 18th of September,
with a slight hollow in front and a wood behind, between the
Poitiers-Bordeaux main road and the River Maussion. 1 John,
instead of manoeuvring to envelop the English, allowed the
Cardinal Talleyrand de P6rigord to attempt to negotiate a
peace. This proving vain, the French army attacked without
any attempt at manoeuvre or reconnaissance, and on a front so
narrow that the advantage of superior numbers was forfeited.
Moreover, King John ordered all but the leading line to dismount
and to attack on foot (tactics suggested by the success on the
defensive of the dismounted English men-at-arms at Crecy and
the Scots at Bannockburn), and thus condemned the best part
of his army to a fatiguing advance on>foot across difficult country
in full armour.

The French arblasters, who might have crushed the relatively

1 The view adopted is that of Professor Oman, Art of War
Middle Ages, p. 631.

POITOU— POKER

899

few English archers present, were mingled with the 300 picked
mounted men in first line, but, as the latter charged, their
advance masked the fire of the arblasters in the first few seconds,
besides leaving the other, dismounted, lines far in rear. Thus
the first attack on the Black Prince's line, which was greatly
strengthened by trees and hedges in front of it, was promptly
brought to a standstill by the arrows of the archers lining a
hedge which overlooked the hollow in front; and the earl of
Oxford hastily drawing out a body of archers beyond the defen-
ders' left, into the low-lying ground of the Maussion valley,
completed their rout by firing up the hollow into their flank.
But it was not so easy to deal with the second line of dismounted
men-at-arms, led by the dauphin, which was the next to arrive
on the French side. The hedge indeed was held, and the
assailants, unable to advance beyond the hollow, gave way,
but to achieve this the prince had to use all but 400 of his
men. Had the third body of the French advanced with equal
spirit the battle would probably have ended there and then,
but the duke of Orleans, who commanded it, was so demoralized
by the retirement of the dauphin's division that he led his whole
force off the field without striking a blow. Thereupon the king
himself advanced furiously with the fourth and last line, and as it
came on the situation of the English seemed so desperate that the
prince was advised to retreat. But his determined courage was
unshaken; seeing that this was the last attack he put his reserve
into line, and rallying around this nucleus all men who could
still fight, he prepared not only to repulse but to counter-attack
the French. He despatched a small force under the Captal de
Buch to ride round the flank of the enemy and to appear in their
rear at the crisis of the fight. Though a medieval knight, he
knew as well as Napoleon at Areola that when the moral force
of both sides has passed its culminating point even a materially
insignificant threat serves to turn the balance. And so it fell
out. When both lines were fighting hand-to-hand, the fifty
horsemen of the Captal de Buch appeared in rear of the French.
The front ranks fought on, but the rear of the French melted
away rapidly, and at last only a group of the bravest, with King
John and his son Philip, a boy of fourteen, in their midst, were
left. This band continued their hopeless resistance for a: time,
but in the end they were killed or captured to a man. The
rest of the French army, totally dispersed, was pursued by the
victors until nightfall. Two thousand five hundred of the
French, 2000 of them knights and men-at-arms, were killed,
including the constable, one of the marshals, the standard-
bearer and six other great lords. The prisoners included the
king and his son Philip, the other marshal and 25 great lords,
and 1933 knights and men-at-arms as well as 500 others.

POITOU, one of the old provinces of France, which also
formed one of the great military governments of the kingdom,
was bounded on the N. by Brittany, Anjou and Touraine; on
the S. by Angoumois and Aunis; on the E. by Touraine, Berri
and Marche; and on the W. by the ocean. It was divided into
Lower Poitou, which corresponded to the modern department of
La Vendee, and Upper Poitou, now split into the departments
of Deux-Sevres and Vienne. The principal towns in Upper
Poitou were Poitiers the capital, Mirebeau, Chatellerault,
Richelieu, Loudun, Thouars, Mauleon, Parthenay, Niort, &c;
and in Lower Poitou Fontenay-le-Comte, Maillezais, Lucon
and Roche-sur-Yon. lie d'Yeu or lle-Dieu and Noirmoutier
belonged to the province. Ecclesiastically, Poitou was a diocese
which was broken up in 13 17 to form two new dioceses of Lucon
and Maillezais; the seat of the latter was transferred in the 17th
century to La Rochelle. For the administration of justice,
Poitou was attached to the parlement of Paris. After 778 it
formed part of the domain of the counts of Poitiers (q.v.). Poitou
(Poictou, Pictavia) takes its name from the Pictones or Pictavi,
a Gallic nation mentioned by Caesar, Strabo and Ptolemy, and
described by Strabo as separated from the Namnetes on the
north by the Loire. It formed part of the territory known as
Aquitaine (q.v.).

For the history see the Memoires of the Soci&e' des Antiquaires
d* 1'Ouest (1835 sqq.) and the documents published by the Archives

historiques du Poitou (1872 sqq.) ; also the Dictionnaire topographiquc
de la Vienne, by L. Redet (1881).

POKEBERRY, POKEWEED (from the American-Indian
pocan, applied to any plant yielding a red or yellow dye), in
botany, the popular name of Phytolacca decandra, a strong-
smelling perennial herb, a native of North America, with ovate-
lanceolate sharp-pointed leaves, racemes of small greenish-white
flowers and flattish berries nearly | in. in diameter, which contain
a crimson juice. The young asparagus-like shoots are sometimes
used as a pot-herb, but the roots are poisonous. The plant is
often cultivated in Europe, and has become naturalized in the
Mediterranean region.

POKER, a game at cards. By most writers its origin has been
ascribed to II Frusso, an Italian game of the 1 5th century, from
which the game of Primiera, called in Spain Primer 0, and
La Prime in France, in which country it was elaborated into
L'Ambigu or Le MeslS. In England the game was played under
the name of Post and Pair, of which the modern Brag is only
a variation. But Mr R. F. Foster proves that, though poker
is probably a descendant of Primer 0, and perhaps of a much
more ancient Persian game called As ras, it is not a development
of the English Brag, but was introduced from France into the
colony of Louisiana, the name being merely an English mispro-
nunciation of Poque, a game described as early as 1718 in the
AcadSmie universelle des jeux, and still played in Germany
under the name Pochen. The earliest mention of the game
in America is in G. B. Zieber's Exposure of the Arts and
Miseries of Gambling (1843), and it is probable that poker was
generally played on the Mississippi steamboats as early as 1830,
twenty cards being used, "full-deck poker" with 52 cards
being invented later. " Draw-poker " was introduced about
i860.

Poker is played for money stakes, markers or " chips" of
different value being used. These are either divided equally
among the players, or, more usually, one player acts as banker
and sells chips to the other players, redeeming them at the end of
the game. There are several varieties of the game, but Draw
Poker, played by from 2 to 6 or even 7 persons with a pack of
52 cards, is the most popular. The player who wins the cut
for deal shuffles the pack, which is then cut by the player at his
right. He then deals five cards, one by one, to each player.
If a card is faced during the deal the player must accept it; if
two are exposed a new deal must ensue. Before the deal is
complete the player at the dealer's left, who is said to hold the
age, and is called " the age," places (or puts up) on the table in
front of him half the stake for which he wishes to play. This is
called blind. The player at the age's left then looks at his hand
and announces whether he will play. If his hand seems too
weak he throws his cards away face-down and " drops out "
of the game. If he elects to play he puts up his ante, which is
twice the amount of the blind. The other players, including the
dealer, then either come in, i.e. elect to play, each putting up
his ante, or, deeming their hands worthless, drop out. The age,
who has the last say, may then himself drop out, forfeiting his
half-stake already put up, or he may come in and make good his
ante, i.e. put up his unpaid half of the blind. Each player in his
turn has the privilege of increasing the stake to any amount
not exceeding the limit, 1 which is always agreed upon before
the game begins. Thus, if the limit is £1, and the age has put
up 6d. as his blind, any player may, when his turn comes to
declare whether he will play, say, " I play and make it 10s.
(or a sovereign) more to draw cards," at the same time placing
the ante plus 10s. (or a sovereign) in the middle of the table.
Thereupon all the other players, each in turn, must see the raise,
i.e. pay in the additional sum, or drop out of the game, forfeiting
what they have already paid into the pool. The " age " being
the last to complete, is in the best position to raise, as a player
who has already completed is less likely to sacrifice his stake
and withdraw from the game. On the other hand each player

1 "Table stakes" means playing strictly for cash; " unlimited "
explains itself, although even when this is the rule a certain high
I limit is pretty generally observed.

9oo

POKER

has the right, in his turn, after paying the extra "stake called
for, of raising it further on his own account, and this goes on
until the players who have not dropped out have paid an equal
sum into the pool and no one cares to raise further. Each
player then throws away as many of his five cards as.he chooses
and receives from the dealer new ones in their place. In this
supplementary deal no player may accept a faced card, but
receives one in its place after all the other players have been
served. The number of new cards taken by each one should
be carefully noted by the other players, as it gives a valuable
clue to the probable value of his hand. The following list
shows the value of hands, beginning with the lowest.

i. One Pair (accompanied by three cards of different denomi-
nations). If two players each hold a pair, the higher wins; if
similar pairs (e.g. a pair of kings each) then the next highest card
wins.

2. Two Pairs.

3. Triplets or Threes of a Kind (e.g. three kings, accompanied
by two other cards not forming a pair).

4. Straight, a sequence of five cards, not all of the same suit.
Sometimes, but very rarely, these straights are not admitted.
An ace may either begin or end a straight. For example: ace,
king, queen, knave and 10 is the highest straight; 5, 4, 3, 2, and ace
is the lowest. An ace cannot be in the middle. For example, 3, 2,
ace, king, queen is not a straight.

5. Flush, five cards of the same suit, not in sequence. If two
flushes are held, that containing the highest card wins; if the
highest cards are similar, the next highest wins, &c.

6. Full, or Full House, meaning three cards of the same denomina-
tion together with a pair; e.g. three sixes and a pair of fours. If
more than one player holds a full, the highest triplet wins.

7. Fours, or four cards of the same denomination; e.g. four
queens, which beat four knaves and under.

8. Straight Flush, a sequence of five cards all of the same suit;
e.g. knave, 10, 9, 8, 7, of hearts.

9. Royal Flush, the highest possible straight flush; e.g. ace, king,
queen, knave and 10 of spades.

If no player holds at least erne pair, then the hand containing the
highest card wins.

Each player having received the new cards called for, the
betting is opened by the player sitting at the age's left, should
he consider his hand worth it; otherwise he throws down his
cards and is out of the game, and the next player (whom we will
call C) makes the first bet, which may be of any amount up
to the limit, but is usually a small one, with a view to later
developments. The next player, D, either drops out, trails,
i.e. puts up the amount bet by C (also called seeing and calling),
or raises C's bet; in other words puts in the amount bet by
C plus as much more (within the limit) as he cares to risk.
This raise on D's part means either that he thinks he holds a
better hand than G, or that he is trying to frighten C out. The
last manoeuvre illustrates the principle of the bluff, the most
salient characteristic of the game of Poker. If C, with two
small pairs in the hand, bets half a crown, and D, with a hand of
no value whatever, covers, or sees C's bet and raises it to a sove-
reign, it is very likely that C will throw down his cards rather
than risk a sovereign on his own by no means strong hand.
In this case C has been bluffed by D, who, without even having
to show his cards, wins the pool, although intrinsically his hand
was far inferior to C's. The ability to bluff successfully depends
upon self-command, keen observation, judgment and knowledge
of character, so as to attempt the bluff when the bluffer is sure
that there are no very strong hands out against him. Other
wise he will surely be called in his turn, and, having nothing
of value, will lose the pool, besides suffering the ignominy of
throwing away his money for nothing.

Two players with strong hands will often raise each other's
bets repeatedly, until one of them calls the other, upon which
the hands are shown and the stronger wins. The complete
hands of the caller and the called must be shown. The common
practice of throwing away unshown, for purposes of concealment,
a losing hand that has called is illegal. No player who is not
called is obliged to show his hand, so that the company is often
in doubt whether or not the winner has bluffed. When two
hands are of exactly equal value the pool is divided.

The game is often varied by a player going blind, i.e.. raising
the ante before the deal. Another variation is straddling the

blind. This is done by the player sitting next the age, who puts
up twice the amount of the blind with the words " I straddle."
This has the effect of doubling the stake, as every player must
then pay twice the amount of the straddle (instead of the blind)
in order to play. The straddle may be straddled again in its
turn if the aggregate amount does not pass the limit. The
straddle does not carry with it the privilege of betting last, but
merely raises the amount of the stake.

The regular Draw-Poker game is usually varied by occasional
Jack-Pots, which are played once in so many deals, or when
all have refused to play, or when the player deals who holds the
buck, a marker placed in the pool with every jack-pot. In a
jack-pot each player puts up an equal stake and receives a hand.
The pot must then be opened by a player holding a hand of the
value of a pair of knaves (jacks) or better. If no player holds
so valuable a hand the deal passes and each player adds a small
sum to the pot or pool. When the pot is opened the opener
does so by putting up any sum he chooses, within the limit,
and his companions must pay in the same amount or " drop."
They also possess the right to raise the opener. The new
cards called for are then dealt and the opener starts the betting,
the play proceeding as in the regular game. If Progressive
Jack-Pots are played, the minimum value of the opening hand
is raised one degree every deal in which the pot is not opened.
Thus the opening hand must in the first deal be at least a pair
of knaves; but if the pot is not opened the minimum for the
second deal is a pair of queens, for the third a pair of kings, &c.
Jack-Pots were introduced about 1870.

Straight Poker, or Bluff, is played without drawing extra
cards. It was the only variety of the game played, although
52 cards are now used instead of 20, as formerly. The first
dealer is provided with a marker called a buck, and having, before
dealing, put up the antes of all the players, passes the buck to
the next dealer, who must in his turn ante for all when he deals.
The rules for betting, raising, &c, are the same as at Draw-
Poker. The hands, of course, average smaller.

Stud-Poker is played like Draw-Poker, except that there is
no draw and, in dealing, the first card only is dealt face down,
the rest being exposed , Each player in turn looks at his turned
card and makes his bet or raise. A common variation of Stud-
Poker consists in stopping the deal after two cards, one face up
and the other face down, have been dealt, and betting on those
two cards. A third card is then dealt and betting again takes
place, the process being repeated after the fourth and fifth cards
have been dealt, the value of the different hands changing with
each added card. A player failing to " stand " any raise must
retire from that pot.

Whiskey-Poker is also played without a draw. An extra hand,
called the widow, is dealt to the table face down. The first
bettor then examines his hand and has the option of taking up
the widow and placing his own hand on the table face up in its
place, or of passing and allowing the following players in turn
the choice. After an exposed hand has been laid on the table
in place of the widow the next player may either take up one
card from the new widow replacing it with one from his own
hand, or he may exchange his entire hand for the widow, or he
may knock on the table. If he knocks every other player in
turn may exchange one card or his whole hand, and the betting
then begins, or there may be an agreement that the best hand
wins from all the rest, or that the poorest hand pays a chip to
the pool.

Technical Terms.
Big Dog. — Ace high and nine low; not usually played. If played
it beats a Little Dog.

Blaze. — Five court cards; not usually played. If played it
beats any two pairs.

Bobtail. — Four cards of a flush or straight, the fifth card not
filling.

Bone. — The smallest counter or chip.

Buck. — A marker, to show when a jack-pot is to be played, viz.
when it is the holder's deal.

Burnt Card. — Card on the bottom of the pack turned up to prevent
being seen.

Chips. — Counters.

POLA

>oi

Cold Feet. — Any excuse of a winner for leaving the game before '
the time agreed upon.

Dead-wood. — The discard pile.

Deck. — Pack.

Fatten. — Adding chips and a jack-pot after a failure to open.

Freeze Out. — A game in which a player having lost a certain
agreed capital must stop playing.

Inside Straight. — Intermediate straight, e.g. 2, 3, 5, 6.

Kilter. — Hand with no pair and no card above the nine; seldom
played.

Kitty. — A fund, to pay for cards or refreshments, made by taking
a chip from each jack-pot, or paid by a winner holding a valuable
hand.

Little Dog. — Deuce low and seven high; not usually played.
When played it beats a straight.

Milking. — Shuffling by taking a card from the top and one from
the bottom of the pack with the same movement.

Mistigris. — Poker with the joker added; the joker may be called
any card the holder chooses.

Monkey Flush. — Three cards of a flush.

Natural Jacks. — Jack-pots played because there has been no
ante in the previous deal.

Openers. — A hand on which a jack-pot may be opened.

Pat Hand. — A hand to which no card is drawn.

Pool. — The chips in the middle of the table.

Show-down.— Laying the hands face-up on the table after a call.

Show. — Part of a pool to which a player is entitled who has bet
as long as his capital lasted but is not able to stand further raises.
If his hand is the best he wins whatever was in the pool at the
time when he put into it the last of his capital.

Shy. — Not having put up the jack-pot ante.

Splitting. — -Having opened a jack-pot with one pair, and holding
four other cards of one suit, to throw away one of the pair on the
chance of making a flush.

Sweeten. — Chipping to a jack-pot after a failure to open.

Triplets.— Three of a kind.

Under the Gun. — The first player to bet.

Whangdoodle. — Compulsory round of jack-pots, usually agreed
upon to follow a very large hand.

Widow. — An extra hand dealt to the table, as in Whiskey-Poker.

See Practical-Poker, by R. F. Foster (1904), the most authorita-
tive work.

A very important attribute of a successful poker player is
sound judgment in discarding, and this is principally based on the
following mathematical table of approximate chances.

To improve any hand in the draw, the chances are : —

Having in Hand

To make the Hand below.

The
Chance is

To get two pairs (3-card draw)

1 in 4!

1 pair

To get three of a kind (3-card draw)

1 in 9

1 pair

To improve either way average value

1 in 3

I pair and 1 odd card

To improve either way by drawing two cards .

1 in 7

2 pairs

To get a full hand drawing one card

1 in 12

3's

To get a full hand drawing two cards

I in 15!

3's

To get four of kind drawing two cards .

1 in 23!

3's

To improve either way drawing two cards .

1 in 9!

3's and I odd card

To get a full hand by drawing one card

1 in 15!

3's and I odd card

To improve either way by drawing one card

1 in 1 if

4 straight ...

To fill when open at one end only or in middle

1 in n J

4 straight ....

To fill when open at both ends as 3 4 5 6

1 in 6

To fill the flush drawing one card ....

1 in 5

4-straight flush

To fill the straight flush drawing one card .

1 in 23!

3-card flush

To make a flush drawing two cards . . . .

1 in 24

Of course these chances are somewhat improved by the fact that,
in actual play, pairs and threes are, on account of careless shuffling,
apt to lie together more or less.

POLA (Gr. II6X0 or IldXai; Slovene, Pulj), a seaport of Austria,
in Istria, 86 m. S. of Trieste by rail. Pop. (1900), 45,052. It
is the principal naval harbour and arsenal of the Austro-

Hungarian monarchy, and is situated near the southern
extremity of the peninsula of Istria. It lies at the head of the
Bay of Pola, and possesses a safe and commodious harbour almost
completely landlocked. An extensive system of fortifications,
constructed on the hills, which enclose the harbour, defends
its entrance, while it also possesses a good roadstead in the large
channel of Fasana. This channel separates the mainland from
the Brionian Islands, which dominate the entrance to the bay.
The harbour has an area of 3 '32 sq. m., and is divided into two
basins by a chain cf three small islands. The inner basin is sub-
divided by the large Olive Island into the naval harbour, lying to
the south, and the commercial harbour, lying to the north. The
Olive Island is connected with the coast by a chain-bridge, and
is provided with wharfs and dry and floating docks. The town
proper lies opposite the Olive Island, round the base of a hill
formerly crowned by the Roman capitol and now by a castle
from the 17th century. Besides the castle the chief buildings
are the cathedral, dating from the 15th century; the new
garrison church, completed in 1898 in the Basilica style, with
a fine marble facade; the Franciscan convent dating from the
13th century, and now used as a military magazine; the huge
infantry barracks; and the town-hall, dating from the beginning
of the 14th century.. To the south-west, along the coast,
extends the marine arsenal, a vast and well-planned establish-
ment possessing all the requisites for the equipment of a large
fleet. It contains an interesting naval museum, and is supple-
mented by the docks and wharves of the Scoglio Olivi. The
artillery laboratory and the powder magaziue are on the north
bank of the harbour. Behind the arsenal lies the suburb of
San Policarpo, almost exclusively occupied by the naval popula-
tion and containing large naval barracks and hospitals. In the
middle of it is a pleasant park, with a handsome monument to
the emperor Maximilian of Mexico, who had been a rear-admiral
in the Austrian navy. To the north, between San Policarpo
and the town proper, rises the Monte Zaro, surmounted by an
observatory and a statue of Admiral Tegetthoff. Pola has no
manufactures outside of its naval stores, '
but its shipping trade is now considerable,
the exports consisting of fish, timber and
quartz sand used in making Venetian glass,
and the imports of manufactured and
colonial wares. To many people, however,
the chief interest of Pola centres in its fine
Roman remains. The most extensive of
these is the amphitheatre built in a.d.
198-21 1, in honour of the emperors Septi-
mius Severus and Caracalla, which is 79 ft.
high, 400 ft. long and 320 ft. wide, and
could accommodate 20,000 spectators. It
is remarkable as the only Roman amphi-
theatre of which, the outer walls have
been preserved intact; the interior, how-
ever, is now completely bare — though the
arrangements for the naumachiae, or naval
contests, can still be traced. The oldest
Roman relic is the fine triumphal arch of
the Sergii, in the Corinthian style, erected
soon after the battle of Actium; and of not
much later date is the elegant and well-
preserved temple of Augustus and Roma
erected in the year 19 B.C. Among the
other antiquities are three of the old town
gates and a fragment of a temple of Diana.

The foundation of Pola is usually carried
back to the mythic period, and ascribed
to the Colchian pursuers of Jason and the
Argonauts. In all probability it was a Thracian colony, but
its verifiable history begins with its capture by the Romans in
178 B.C. It was destroyed by Augustus on account of its
espousal of the cause of Pompey, but was rebuilt on the inter-
cession of his daughter Julia, and received (according to Pliny)
the name of Pietas Julia. It became a Roman colony either

9°2

POLABS— POLAND

under the triumviri or under Octavian, and was mainly impor-
tant as a harbour. It seems to have attained its greatest
prosperity about the time of the emperor Septimius Severus
(193-211 a.d.), when it was an important war harbour and
contained 35,000 to 50,000 inhabitants. At a later period
Pola became the capital of the margraves ofJstria, and was
captured by the Venetians in 1148. It was several times
captured and plundered by the Genoese, and recaptured by the
Venetians. In 1379 the Genoese, after defeating the Venetians
in a great naval battle off the coast, took and destroyed Pola,
which disappears from history for the next four hundred and
fifty years. It remained under Venetian supremacy down to
1797, and has been permanently united with Austria since 1815.
In 1848 a new era began for Pola in its being selected as the
principal naval harbour of Austria.

See Th. Mommsen in Corp. inscr. latin, v. 3 sqq. (Berlin, 1883);
T. G. Jackson, Dalmatia, the Quarnero and Istria, vol. iii.
(Oxford, 1887).

POLABS (.P0 = on, Laba^Elbe), the Slavs (q.v.) who
dwelt upon the Elbe and eastwards to the Oder. Their chief
tribes were the Vagri in Holstein, the Bodrici or Obotritae in
Mecklenburg, the Ljutici or Wiltzi in western Pomerania, the
Sprevane on the Spree and the Glomaci or Dalemintsi in Saxony.
Except the Lithuanians they were the last Europeans to be
christianized ; their chief sanctuary was at Arcona on the Isle
of Riigen. They were converted and conquered by the 12th
century and systematically germanized. By the 17th century
Slavonic survived only in a tiny patch in the east of Hanover
about Liichow, where a few words were still understood at the
beginning of the 19th century. The population of the district
still goes by the name of Wends (q.v.). The chief remains of
the language are a paternoster, a few phrases and a short
vocabulary written down by Pastor Chr. Henning (c. 1700), and
the diary of J. Paruns Schultze (d. 1734). These were edited
by A. Hilferding (St Petersburg, 1856), and a grammar was
published there by A. Schleicher (1871). M. Porzezinski and
Fr. Lorentz are the chief later authorities. Polabian agrees
mostly with Polish and Kasube with its nasalized vowels and
highly palatalized consonants. It had, however, long vowels
and a free accent. The remains of it are most corrupt, having
been written down when the language was full of Low German
by people who did not know Slavonic.

POLACCA, the Italian name for a three-masted merchant
vessel, formerly common in the eastern waters of the Mediter-
ranean. The masts were of one piece and the sails were square
or lateen-shaped. The name appears in various forms in other
languages, e.g. Fr. polaque or polacre, Sp. polacra, Du. polaak or
Ger. Polack, and certainly means Polish, although there is no
explanation to be found for any connexion between Poland and
such a Mediterranean vessel.

POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see Poland, Russian,
below), a country of Europe which till the end of the 18th century
was a kingdom extending (with Lithuania) over the basins of the
Warta, Vistula, Dwina, Dnieper and upper Dniester, and had
under its dominion, besides the Poles proper and the Baltic
Slavs, the Lithuanians, the White Russians and the Little
Russians or Ruthenians.

We possess no certain historical data relating to Poland till
the end of the 10th century. It would seem, from a somewhat
obscure passage in the chronicle compiled from older
Mand. sources by Nestor, a monk of Kiev (d. c. 1115), that
the progenitors of the Poles, originally established
on the Danube, were driven from thence by the Romans to
the still wilder wilderness of central Europe, settling finally
among the virgin forests and impenetrable morasses of the basin
of the upper waters of the Oder and the Vistula. Here the
Lechici, as they called themselves (a name derived from the
mythical patriarch, Lech), seemed to have lived for centuries,
in loosely connected communities, the simple lives of huntsmen,
herdsmen and tillers of the soil, till the pressure of rapacious
neighbours compelled them to combine for mutual defence.
Of this infant state, the so-called kingdom of the Piasts (from

Piast its supposed founder), we know next to nothing. Its
origin, its territory, its institutions are so many insoluble
riddles. The earliest Polish chroniclers, from Gallus in the early
1 2th century to Janko of Czarnkow ] in the 14th, are of little
help to us. The only facts of importance to be gleaned from
them are that Prince Ziemovit, the great-grandfather of Mieszko
(Mieczyslaw) I. (962-992), wrested from the vast but tottering
Moravian Empire the province of Chrobacyja (extending from
the Carpathians to the Bug), and that Christianity was first
preached on the Vistula by Greek Orthodox missionary monks.
Mieszko himself was converted by Jordan, the chaplain of his
Bohemian consort, Dobrawa or Bona, and when Jordan became
the first bishop of Posen, the people seem to have followed the
example of their prince. But the whole movement was appar-
ently the outcome not of religious conviction, but of political
necessity. The Slavonic peoples, whose territories then extended
to the Elbe, and embraced the whole southern shore of the Baltic,
were beginning to recoil before the vigorous impetus of the
Germans in the West, who regarded their pagan neighbours in
much the same way as the Spanish Conquistadores regarded the
Aztecs and the Incas. To accept Christianity, at least formally,
was therefore a prudential safeguard on the part of the Slavonians.
This was thoroughly understood by Mieszko's son Boleslaus I.
(992-1025), who went a considerable step fartherthan his father.
Mieszko had been content to be received on almost any terms
into the Christian community, Boleslaus aimed at securing the
independence of the Polish Church as an additional conversion
guarantee of the independence of the Polish nation. *» Christi-
It was Boleslaus who made the church at Gnesen anit y'
in Great Poland a national shrine by translating thither the
relics of the martyred missionary, St Adalbert of Prague.
Subsequently he elevated Gnesen into the metropolitan see of
Poland, with jurisdiction over the bishoprics of Cracow, Breslau
and Kolberg, all three of these new sees, it is important to notice,
being in territory conquered by Boleslaus; for hitherto both
Cracow and Breslau had been Bohemian cities, while Kolberg was
founded to curb the lately subjugated Pomeranians. Boleslaus
was also the first Polish prince to bear the royal title, which
seems to have been conferred upon him by
Otto III. in 1000, though as Boleslaus crowned K ° " aus "'
himself king a second time in 1025, it is evident
that he regarded the validity of his first coronation as somewhat
doubtful. He was primarily a warrior, whose reign, an almost
uninterrupted warfare, resulted in the formation of a vast king-
dom extending from the Baltic to the Carpathians, and from
the Elbe to the Bug. But this imposing superstructure rested
on the flimsiest of foundations. In less than twenty years
after the death of its founder, it collapsed before a combined
attack of all Poland's enemies, and simultaneously a terrible
pagan reaction swept away the poor remnants of Christianity
and civilization. For a time Poland proper became a smoking
wilderness, and wild beasts made their lairs in the ruined
and desecrated churches. Under Boleslaus II. (1058-1079)
and Boleslaus III. (1102-1139) some of the lost provinces,
notably Silesia and Pomerania, were recovered and Poland
was at least able to maintain her independence against the
Germans. Boleslaus III., moreover, with the aid of St Otto,
bishop of Bamberg, succeeded in converting the heathen
Pomeranians (11 24-1 128), and making head against paganism
generally.

The last act of Boleslaus III. was to divide his territories
among his sons, whereby Poland was partitioned into no fewer
than four, and ultimately into as many as eight, Partuional
principalities, many of which (Silesia and Great Period,
Poland, for instance) in process of time split n3S - 130S -
up into still smaller fractions all of them more or less
bitterly hostile to each other. This partitional period, as
Polish historians generally call it, lasted from 1138 to 1305,
during which Poland lost all political significance, and became
an easy prey to her neighbours. The duke of Little Poland,

1 Archdeacon of Gnesen 1367: vice-chancellor of Poland; d.
c. 1387.

HISTORY]

POLAND

903

Tatar
Invasion.

Rise of
Cities.

who generally styled himself duke of Poland, or dux totius
Poloniae, claimed a sort of supremacy among these little states,
a claim materially strengthened by the wealth and growing
importance of his capital, Cracow, especially after Little Poland
had annexed the central principality of Sieradia (Sieradz).
But Masovia to the north, and Great Poland to the north-west,
refused to recognize the supremacy of Little Poland, while
Silesia soon became completely germanized. It was at the
beginning of this period too, between 12 16 and 1224, that
Pomerania, under an energetic native dynasty, freed herself
from the Polish suzerainty. Nearly a generation
later (1241) the Tatar hordes, under Batu, appeared
for the first time on the confines of Poland. The
Polish princes opposed a valiant but ineffectual resistance; the
towns of Sandomir and Cracow were reduced to ashes, and all
who were able fled to the mountains of Hungary or the forests
of Moravia. Pursuing his way to Silesia, Batu overthrew the
confederated Silesian princes at Liegnitz (April 9), and, after
burning all the Silesian towns, invaded Hungary, where he
routed King Bela IV. on the banks of the Sajo. But this
marked the limit of his triumph. Exhausted and diminished
by the stout and successful opposition of the Moravians at
Olmiitz, the Tatars vanished as suddenly as they had appeared,
leaving a smoking wilderness behind 'them.

Batu's invasion had an important influence upon the social
and political development of Poland. The only way of filling
Foreign U P tne S a P s ' n tne population of the ravaged land
immi- was to invite foreign immigrants of a superior class,

grants. chapmen and handicraftsmen, not only given to peace-

ful pursuits and accustomed to law and order, but
capable of building and defending strong cities. Such
immigrants could naturally be obtained only from the civilized
west, and on their own terms. Thus it came about that the
middle class element was introduced into Polish society for the
first time. Immediately dependent upon the prince, from whom
they obtained their privileges, the most important of which were
self-government and freedom from taxation, these traders soon
became an important factor -in the state, counterpoising, to
some extent, the influence of the gentry, enriching the land by
developing its resources, and promoting civilization by raising
the standard of comfort.

Most of these German citizens in process of time were absorbed
by the Polish population, and became devoted, heart and soul,
The Knights to their adopted country; but these were not the
only Germans with whom the young Polish state
had now to deal. In the first year of the 13th century,
the Knights of the Sword, one of the numerous orders of crusad-
ing military monks, had been founded in Livonia to " convert "
the pagan Letts, and, in 1208, the still more powerful Teutonic
order was invited by Duke Conrad of Masovia to settle in
the district of Kulm (roughly corresponding to modern East
Prussia) to protect his territories against the incursions of the
savage Prussians, a race closely akin to the Lithuanians. Conrad
has been loudly blamed by Polish historians for introducing
this foreign, and as it ultimately proved, dangerous element
into Poland. But the unfortunate prince had to choose between
dependence and extermination, for his unaided resources were
powerless against the persistent attacks of the unconquerable
The Prussians. The Teutonic Order, which had just

Teutonic been expelled from Hungary by Andrew II., joyfully
Order. accepted this new domicile, and its position in the

north was definitely established by the compact of Kruschwitz
in 1 230, whereby it obtained absolute possession of the maritime
district between Pomerania and Courland, and southwards as
far as Thorn. So far were the Poles from anticipating any
danger from the Teutonic Order, that, from 1243 to 1255, they
actually assisted it to overthrow the independent Pomeranian
princes, the most formidable opponents of the Knights in the
earlier years of their existence. A second Tatar raid in 1259,
less dangerous, perhaps, but certainly more ruinous, than the first
invasion — for the principalities of Little Poland and Sandomir
were systematically ravaged for three months — still further

of the
Sword. '

depressed the land, and, at this very time, another enemy
appeared in the east — the Lithuanians.

This interesting people, whose origin is to this day the most
baffling of ethnographical puzzles, originally dwelt amidst the
forests and marshes of the Upper Niemen. Thanks
to the impenetrability of their fastnesses, they aJLns "'
preserved their original savagery longer than any
of their neighbours, and this savagery was coupled with a valour
so tenacious and enterprising as to make them formidable to
all who dwelt near them. The Russians fled at the sight of
them, " like hares before hunters." The Livs and Letts
were as much the prey of the Lithuanians " as sheep are the
prey of wolves." The German chroniclers describe them as
the most terrible of all the barbarians. The Lithuanians first
emerge into the light of history at the time of the settlement
of the Teutonic Order in the North. Rumours of the war of
extermination conducted against their kinsmen, the wild
Prussians, by the Knights, first woke the Lithuanians to a sense
of their own danger, and induced them to abandon their loose
communal system in favour of a monarchical form of govern-
ment, which concentrated the whole power of the state in a
single hand. Fortunately, too, at this crisis of their history,
the Lithuanians were blessed with an altogether exceptional series
of great rulers, who showed themselves fully capable of taking
care of themselves. There was, for instance, Mendovg (1240-
1263), who submitted to baptism for purely political reasons,
checkmated the Teutonic Knights by adroitly seeking the protec-
tion of the Holy See, and annexed the principality of Plock to
his ever-widening grand duchy, which already included Black
Russia, and formed a huge wedge extending southwards from
Courland, thus separating Poland from Russia. A still greater
prince was Gedymin (1315-1342) who did his utmost to civilize
Lithuania by building towns, introducing foreigners, and
tolerating all religions, though he himself remained a pagan
for political reasons. Gedymin still further extended the
limits of Lithuania by annexing Kiev, Chernigov and other
old Russian principalities.

At the very time when Lithuania was thus becoming a com-
pact, united, powerful state, Poland seemed literally to be
dropping to pieces. Not even the exhortations of
the popes could make her score of princes unite « (W _j 3 j i j # "'
for mutual defence against the barbarians who en-
vironed them. For a time it seemed highly probable that Poland
would be completely germanized, like Silesia, or become a part
of the new Bohemian Empire which Wenceslaus II. (crowned
king of Poland in 1300) had inherited from his father, Ottakar II.
From this fate she was saved by the valour of Wladislaus
Lokietek, duke of Great Poland (1306-1333), who reunited
Great and Little Poland, revived the royal dignity in
1320, and saved the kingdom from annihilation by his great
victory over the Teutonic Knights at Plowce in 1332. The
whole reign of Wladislaus I. was indeed an unceasing struggle
against all the forces of anarchy and disintegration; but the
fruits of his labours were richly reaped by his son Casimir III.
the Great (1333-1370), Poland's first great statesman in the
modern sense of the word, who, by a most skilful system of
matrimonial alliances, reintroduced isolated Poland Casimir ill.
into the European system, and gave the exhausted the Great,
country an inestimably beneficial breathing space t333 ' a7 °-
of thirty-seven years. A born ruler, Casimir introduced a
whole series of administrative and economical reforms. He
was the especial protector of the cities and the peasants,
and, though averse from violent measures, punished aristo-
cratic tyranny with an iron hand. Casimir's few wars were
waged entirely for profit, not glory. It is to him that Poland
owed the important acquisition of the greater part of Red
Russia, or Galicia, which enabled her to secure her fair share of.
the northern and eastern trade. In default of male issue,

Casimir left the Polish throne to his nephew, Louis of Hungary,
who ruled the country (1370-1382) through his mother, Queen

Elizabeth, Wladislaus Lokietek's daughter. Louis well deserved

the epithet of " great ",kestpwed upon him by his contemporaries;

9°4

POLAND

[HISTORY

but Poland formed but a small portion of his vast domains,
and Poland's interests were subordinated to the larger demands
of an imperial policy which embraced half Europe within its
orbit

On the death of Louis there ensued an interregnum of two
years marked by fierce civil wars, instigated by duke Ziemovit
of Masovia, the northernmost province of Poland,
lausil' which continued to exist as an independent princi-
Jagielio. pality alongside of the kingdom of Poland. Ziemo-
Uoion ol vit aimed at the Polish crown, proposing to marry
uth" d "i" 1 tne m ^ ant princess Jadwiga of Hungary, who, as
the daughter of Louis the Great and the grand-
daughter of Wladislaus Lokietek, had an equal right, by
inheritance, to the thrones of Hungary and Poland. By an
agreement with the queen mother of Hungary at Kassa in
1383, the Poles finally accepted Jadwiga as their queen, and,
on the 18th of February 1386, greatly against her will, the
young princess, already betrothed to William of Austria, was
wedded to Jagiello, grand duke of Lithuania, who had been
crowned king of Poland at Cracow, three days previously, under
the title of Wladislaus II.

The union of Poland and Lithuania as separate states under
one king had been brought about by their common fear of the
Teutonic Order. Five years after the death of Gedymin,
Olgierd, the most capable of his seven sons, had been placed upon
the throne of Lithuania by his devoted brother Kiejstut, and
for the next two-and-thirty years (1345-1377) the two princes
still further extended the sway of Lithuania, principally at the
expense of Muscovy and the Tatars. Kiejstut ruled the western
portion of the land where the Teutonic Knights were a constant
menace, while Olgierd drove the Tatar hordes out of the south-
eastern steppes, and compelled them to seek a refuge in the
Crimea. During Olgieid's reign the southern boundaries of
Lithuania touched the Black Sea, including the whole tract of
land between the mouth of the Bug and the mouth of the
Dnieper. Olgierd was succeeded by his son Jagiello as grand
duke in 1377, while Kiejstut was left in possession of Samogitia,
Troki and Grodno; but the Teutonic Order, alarmed at the
growth of Lithuania, succeeded in estranging uncle and nephew,
and Kiejstut was treacherously assassinated by Jagiello's orders,
at Krewo, on the 15th of August 1382. Three weeks later
Jagiello was compelled to cede Samogitia, as far as the Dubissa,
to the Knights, and, in the following year they set up against
him Kiejstut's son Witowt. The eyes of Jagiello were now
opened to the fact that the machiavellian policy of the Knights
aimed at subjugating Lithuania by dividing it. He at once
made peace with his cousin; restored him his patrimony; and,
to secure Lithuania against the future vengeance of the Knights,
Jagiello made overtures to Poland for the hand of Jadwiga,
and received the Polish crown along with it, as already men-
tioned

Before proceeding to describe the Jagiellonic period of Polish
history, it is necessary to cast a rapid glance at the social and
political condition of the country in the preceding Piast period.

The paucity and taciturnity of our sources make it impossible
to give anything like an adequate picture of Old Poland during
Beginnings tne fi rst f° ur centuries of its existence. A glimpse
of the Polish here and there of the political development of the
Constitu- country is the utmost that the most diligent scrutiny
on ' can glean from the scanty record of the early chron-

icles. External pressure, here as elsewhere, created a patriotic
military caste, and the subsequent partitional period, when
every little prince had his own separate court, still further
established the growing influence of the szlachta, or gentry, who
were not backward in claiming and obtaining special privileges
in return for their services. The first authentic pacta conventa
rnade between the Polish nobility and the Crown dates from
the compact of Kassa (September 17, 1374), when Louis of
Hungary agreed to exempt the szlachta from all taxation,
except two Polish groschen per hide of land, and to compensate
them for the expenses of all military service rendered beyond
the confines of the realm. The clergy received their chief

privileges much earlier. It was at the synod of Leczyca,
nearly a century before the compact of Kassa, that the property
of the Church was first safeguarded against the encroachments
of the state. The beneficial influence of the Church of Poland
in these early times was incalculable. To say nothing of the
labours of the Cistercians as colonists, pioneers and church-
builders, or of the missions of the Dominicans and Franciscans
(the former of whom were introduced into Poland by Ivo,
bishop of Cracow, 1 the personal friend of Dominic), the Church
was the one stable and unifying element in an age of centrifugal
particularism. The frequent synods represented the whole
of Poland, and kept alive, as nothing else could, the idea of
national solidarity. The Holy See had also a considerable
share in promoting the political development of the land. In
the 13th century alone no fewer than forty-nine papal legates
visited Poland, and thirty provincial synods were held by them
to regulate church affairs and promote good government.
Moreover the clergy, to their eternal honour, consistently
protected the lower from the tyranny of the upper classes.

The growth of the towns was slower. During the heroic
Boleslawic period there had been a premature outcrop of civil
life. As early as the nth century Kruschwitz, Growth
the old Polish capital, and Gnesen, the metropolitan of the
see, were of considerable importance, and played a "was.

leading part in public life. But in the ensuing anarchic period
both cities were utterly ruined, and the centre of political
gravity was transferred from Great Poland to Little Poland,
where Cracow, singularly favoured by her position, soon became
the capital of the monarchy, and one of the wealthiest cities
in Europe. At the end of the 14th century we find all the great
trade gilds established there, and the cloth manufactured at
Cracow was eagerly sought after, from Prague to Great Novgorod.
So wealthy did Cracow become at last that Casimir the Great felt
it necessary to restrain the luxury of her citizens by sumptuary
ordinances. Towards the end of the 14th century the Polish
towns even attained some degree of political influence, and their
delegates sat with the nobles and clergy in the king's councils,
a right formally conceded to them at Radom in March 1384.
Even the peasants, who had suffered severely from the wholesale
establishment of prisoners of war as serfs on the estates of the
nobles, still preserved the rights of personal liberty and free
transit from place to place, whence their name of lazigi. The
only portion of the community which had no privileges were the
Jews, first introduced into Poland by Boleslaus the Pious,
duke of Great Poland, in 1264, when bitter persecutions had
driven them northwards from the shores of the Adriatic. Casimir
the Great extended their liberty of domicile over the whole
kingdom (1334). From the first they were better treated in
Poland than elsewhere, though frequently exposed to outbreaks
of popular fanaticism.

The transformation of the pagan Lithuanian chieftain Jagiello
into the catholic king of Poland, Wladislaus II., was an event of
capital importance in the history of eastern Europe. „,. .. _
Its immediate and inevitable consequence was the laus n.
formal reception of the Lithuanian nations into the and the
fold of the Church. What the Teutonic Order had
vainly endeavoured to bring about by fire and sword,
for two centuries, was peacefully accomplished by Jagiello within
a single generation, the Lithuanians, for the most part, willingly
yielding to the arguments of a prince of their own blood, who
promptly rewarded his converts with peculiar and exclusive
privileges. The conversion of Lithuania menaced the very
existence of the Teutonic Knights. Originally planted on the
Baltic shore for the express purpose of christianizing their
savage neighbours, these crusading monks had freely exploited
the wealth and the valour of the West, ostensibly in the cause
of religion, really for the purpose of founding a dominion of
their own which, as time went on, lost more and more of its
religious character, and was now little more than a German
military forepost, extending from Pomerania to the Niemen,
which deliberately excluded the Slavs from the sea and thrived

1 Archbishop of Gnesen 1219-1220. Died at Modena 1229.

Teutonic
Order.

HISTORY]

POLAND

905

at their expense. The mere instinct of self-preservation had,
at last, drawn the Poles and Lithuanians together against these
ruthless and masterful intruders, and the coronation of Jagiello
at Cracow on the 15th of February 1386, was both a warning
and a challenge to the Knights. But if the Order had now become
a superfluous anachronism, it had still to be disposed of, and
this was no easy task. For if it had failed utterly as a mission
in partibus, it had succeeded in establishing on the Baltic one
of the strongest military organizations in Europe. In the art
of war the Knights were immeasurably superior to all their
neighbours. The pick of the feudal chivalry composed their
ranks; with all Europe to draw upon, their resources seemed
inexhaustible, and centuries of political experience made them
as formidable in diplomacy as they were valiant in warfare.
And indeed, for the next twenty years, the Teutonic Order
more than held its own. Skilfully taking advantage of the
jealousies of Poland and Lithuania, as they were accentuated
by the personal antagonism of Jagiello and Witowt (g.v.), with
the latter of whom the Knights more than once contracted
profitable alliances, they even contrived (Treaty of Salin, 1378)
to extend their territory by getting possession of the province of
Samogitia, the original seat of the Lithuanians, where paganism
still persisted, and where their inhuman cruelties finally excited
the horror and indignation of Christian Europe. By this time,
however, the prudent Jagiello had become convinced that
Lithuania was too strong to be ruled by or from Poland, and
yet not strong enough to stand alone, and by the compact
of Vilna (January 18, 1401, confirmed by the compact of
Radowo, March 10) he surrendered the whole grand duchy
to Witowt, on the understanding that the two states should
have a common policy, and that neither of them should elect
a new prince without the consent of the other. The wisdom of
this arrangement was made manifest in 1410, when Jagiello
and Witowt combined their forces for the purpose of delivering
Samogitia from the intolerable tyranny of the Knights. The
issue was fought out on the field of Tannenberg, or Grunewald
(July 15, 1410), when the Knights sustained a crushing defeat,
which shook their political organization to its very foundations.
A few weeks after the victory the towns of Thorn, Elbing,
Braunsberg and Danzig submitted to the Polish king, and all
the Prussian bishops voluntarily offered to render him
homage. But the excessive caution of Jagiello gave the
Knights time to recover from the blow; the Polish levies proved
unruly and incompetent; Witowt was suddenly recalled to
Lithuania by a Tatar invasion, and thus it came about that,
when peace was concluded at Thorn, on the 1st of February
141 1, Samogitia (which was to revert to the Order on the death of
Jagiello and Witowt), Dobrzyn, and a war indemnity of 100,000
marks payable in four instalments, were the best terms Poland
could obtain from the Knights, whose territory practically
remained intact. Jagiello's signal for the attack at the battle
of Grunewald, " Cracow and Vilna " (the respective capitals
of Poland and Lithuania) had 'eloquently demonstrated the
solidarity of the two states. This solidarity was still further
strengthened by the Union of Horodlo (October 2, 1413)
which enacted that henceforth Lithuania was to have the
same order of dignitaries 1 as Poland, as well as a council of
state, or senate, similar to the Polish senate. The power of
the grand-duke was also greatly increased. He was now
declared to be the equal of the Polish king, and his successor could
be elected only by the senates of Poland and Lithuania in con-
junction. The Union of Horodlo also established absolute
parity between the nobility of Poland and Lithuania, but the
privileges of the latter were made conditional upon their pro-
fession of the Roman Catholic faith, experience having shown
that difference of religion in Lithuania meant difference of politics,
and a tendency Moscow-wards, the majority of the Lithuanian
boyars being of the Greek Orthodox Confession.

1 All the chief offices of state were consequently duplicated, e.g.
the hetman wielki koronny, i.e. " grand hetman of the crown," as
the Polish commander-in-chief was called, had his counterpart in
Lithuania, who bore the title of wielki hetman litewski, i.e. grand
hetman of Lithuania," and so on.

During the remainder of the reign of Wladislaus II. the
Teutonic Order gave Poland much trouble, but no serious
anxiety. The trouble was due mainly to the repeated efforts
of the Knights to evade the fulfilment of the obligations of the
Treaty of Thorn. In these endeavours they were materially
assisted by the emperor Sigismund, who was also king of Hun-
gary. Sigismund, in 1422, even went so far as to propose a
partition of Poland between Hungary, the empire and the
Silesian princes, a scheme which foundered upon Sigismund's
impecuniosity and the reluctance of the Magyars to injure the
Poles. More than once Wladislaus II. was even obliged to
renew the war against the Knights, and, in 1422, he compelled
them to renounce all claims upon Samogitia; but the long
struggle, still undecided at his death, was fought mainly with
diplomatic weapons at Rome, where the popes, generally speak-
ing, listened rather to the victorious monarch who had added
an ecclesiastical province to the Church than to the discomfited
and turbulent Knights.

Had Wladislaus II. been as great a warrior as Witowt he
might, perhaps, have subdued the Knights altogether. But
by nature he was pre-eminently a diplomatist, and it must in
fairness be admitted that his diplomacy in every direction was
distinctly beneficial to Poland. He successfully thwarted all
the schemes of the emperor Sigismund, by adroitly supporting
the revolutionary party in Bohemia (q.v.). In return Hussite
mercenaries fought on the Polish side at Tannenburg, and
Czech patriots repeatedly offered the crown of Bohemia to
Wladislaus. The Polish king was always ready enough to
support the Czechs against Sigismund; but the necessity of
justifying his own orthodoxy (which the Knights were for ever
impugning) at Rome and in the face of Europe prevented him
from accepting the crown of St Wenceslaus from the hands of
heretics.

Wladislaus II. died at Lemberg in 1434, at the age of eighty-
three. During his long reign of forty-nine years Poland had
gradually risen to the rank of a great power, a result due in no
small measure to the insight and sagacity of the first Jagiello,
who sacrificed every other consideration to the vital necessity
of welding the central Slavs into a compact and homogeneous
state. The next ten years severely tested the stability of his
great work, but it stood the test triumphantly. Neither a
turbulent minority, nor the neglect of an absentee king; neither
the revival of separatist tendencies in Lithuania, nor the out-
breaks of aristocratic lawlessness in Poland, could do more
than shake the superstructure of the imposing edifice. After
the death at Varna, in 1444, of Jagiello's eldest son and successor,
Wladislaus III. (whose history belongs rather to Hungary than to
Poland), another great statesman, in nowise inferior to Wladis-
laus II., completed and consolidated his work. This was
Wladislaus's second son, already grandduke of Lithuania,
who ascended the Polish throne as Casimir IV. in 1447, thus
reuniting Poland and Lithuania under one monarch.

Enormous were the difficulties of Casimir IV. He instinc-
tively recognized not only the vital necessity of the maintenance
of the union between the two states, but also the
fact that the chief source of danger to the union lay i 447 _i 4 g2 "
in Lithuania, in those days a maelstrom of conflicting
political currents. To begin with, Lithuania was a far less
composite state than Poland. Two-thirds of the grandduchy
consisted of old Russian lands inhabited by men who spoke
the Ruthenian language and professed the Orthodox Greek
religion, while in the north were the Lithuanians proper, semi-
savage and semi-catholic, justly proud of their heroic forefathers
of the house of Gedymin, and very sensitive of the pretensions
of Poland to the provinces of Volhynia and Podolia, the fruits of
Lithuanian valour. A Lithuanian himself, Casimir strenuously
resisted the attempts of Poland to wrest these provinces from
the grandduchy. Moreover, during the earlier years of his
reign, he was obliged to reside for the most part in Lithuania,
where his tranquilizing influence was needed. His supposed
preference for Lithuania was the real cause of his unpopularity in
Poland, where, to the very end of his reign, he was regarded

go6

POLAND

[HISTORY

with suspicion, and where every effort was made to thwart bis
far-seeing and patriotic political combinations, which were
beyond the comprehension of his self-seeking and narrow-
minded contemporaries. This was notably the case as regards
his dealings with the old enemy of his race, the Teutonic
Order, whose destruction was the chief aim of his ambition.

The Teutonic Order had long since failed as a religious institu-
tion; it was now to show its inadequacy as a political organiza-
tion. In the domain of the Knights the gentry, parochial
clergy and townsmen, who, beneath its protection, had attained
to a high degree of wealth and civilization, for long remained
without the slightest political influence, though they bore nearly
the whole burden of taxation. In 1414, however, intimidated
by the growing discontent, which frequently took the form of
armed rebellion, the Knights consented to the establishment
of a diet, which was re-formed on a more aristocratic basis in
1430. But the old abuses continuing to multiply, the Prussian
towns and gentry at last took their affairs into their own hands,
and formed a so-called Prussian League, which demanded an
equal share in the government of the country. This league was
excommunicated by the pope, and placed under the ban of
the empire almost simultaneously in 1453, whereupon it placed
itself beneath the protection of its nearest powerful neighbour,
the king of Poland, who (March 6, 1454) issued a manifesto
incorporating all the Prussian provinces with Poland, but,
at the same time, granting them local autonomy and free
trade.

But provinces are not conquered by manifestoes, and Casimir's
acceptance of the homage of the Prussian League at once
involved him in a war with the desperate Teutonic Knights,
which lasted twelve years, but might easily have been concluded
in a twelvemonth had he only been loyally supported by his
own subjects, for whose benefit he had embarked upon this
great enterprise. But instead of support, Casimir encountered
obstinate obstruction at every point. No patriotic Pole, we
imagine, can read the history of this miserable war without
feeling heartily ashamed of his countrymen. The acquisition
of the Prussian lands was vital to the existence of Poland. It
meant the excision of an alien element which fed like a cancer
on the body politic; it meant the recovery, at comparatively
little cost, of the command of the principal rivers of Poland, the
Vistula and the Niemen; it meant the obtaining of a seaboard
with the corollaries of sea-power and world-wide commerce.
Yet, except in the border province of Great Poland, which was
interested commercially, the whole enterprise was regarded
with such indifference that the king, in the very crisis of the
struggle, could only with the utmost difficulty obtain contribu-
tions for war expenses from the half-dozen local diets of Poland,
which extorted from the helplessness of their distracted
and impecunious sovereign fresh privileges for every subsidy
they grudgingly granted. Moreover Casimir's difficulties were
materially increased by the necessity of paying for Czech
mercenaries, the pospolite ruszenie, or Polish militia, proving
utterly useless at the very beginning of the war. Indeed,
from first to last, the Polish gentry as a body took good care to
pay and fight as little as possible, and Casimir depended for
the most part upon the liberality of the Church and the Prussian
towns, and the valour of the Hussite infantry, 170,000 of whom,
fighting on both sides, are said to have perished. Not till the
victory of Puck (September 17, 1462), one of the very few
pitched battles in a war of raids, skirmishes and sieges, did
fortune incline decisively to the side of the Poles, who maintained
and improved their advantage till absolute exhaustion compelled
the Knights to accept the mediation of a papal legate, and
the second peace of Thorn (October 14, 1466) concluded a
struggle which had reduced the Prussian provinces to a wilder-
ness. 1 By the second peace of Thorn, Poland recovered the
provinces of Pomerelia, Kulm and Michalow, with the bishopric
of Ermeland, numerous cities and fortresses, including Marien-

* 18,000 of their 21,000 villages were destroyed, 1000 churches
were razed to the ground, and the population was diminished by
more than a quarter of a million.

burg, Elbing, Danzig and Thorn. The territory of the Knights
was now reduced to Prussia proper, embracing, roughly speak-
ing, the district between the Baltic, the lower Vistula and the
lower Niemen, with Konigsberg as its capital. For this territory
the grand-masters, within nine months of their election, were
in future to render homage to the Polish king; but, on the other
hand, the king undertook not to make war or engage in any
important enterprise without the consent of the Prussian pro-
vince, and vice versa. Thus Prussia was now confederated with
Poland, but she occupied a subordinate position as compared
with Lithuania, inasmuch as the grand-master, though filling
the first place in the royal council, was still a subject of the
Polish crown. Thus the high hopes entertained by Casimir
at the beginning of the war had not been realized. The final
settlement with the Poles was of the nature of a compromise.
Still the Knights had been driven beyond the Vistula, and Poland
had secured a seaboard; and it was due entirely to the infinite
patience and tenacity of the king that even as much as this was
won at last.

The whole foreign policy of Casimir IV. was more or less
conditioned by the Prussian question, and here also his superior
diplomacy triumphantly asserted itself. At the beginning of
the war both the empire and the pope were against him, but he
neutralized their hostility by allying himself with George of
Podvebrad, whom the Hussites had placed on the throne of
Bohemia. On the death of George, Casimir's eldest son Wladis-
laus was elected king of Bohemia by the Utraquist party, despite
the determined opposition of Matthias Corvinus, king of
Hungary, whose ability and audacity henceforth made him
Casimir's most dangerous rival. Sure of the support of
the pope, Matthias (q.v.) deliberately set about traversing
all the plans of Casimir. He encouraged the Teutonic Order
to rebel against Poland; he entertained at his court anti-
Polish embassies from Moscow; he encouraged the Tatars to
ravage Lithuania; he thwarted Casimir's policy in Moldavia.
The death of the brilliant adventurer at Vienna in 1490 came
therefore as a distinct relief to Poland, and all danger from
the side of Hungary was removed in 1490 when Casimir's son
Wladislaus, already king of Bohemia, was elected king of
Hungary also.

It was in the reign of Casimir IV. that Poland first came
into direct collision with the Turks. The Republic was never,
indeed, the " Buckler of Christendom." That
glorious epithet belonged of right to Hungary, which t £ e Tur ^ St
had already borne the brunt of the struggle with
the Ottoman power for more than a century. It is true that
Wladislaus II. of Poland had fallen on the field of Varna, but
it was as a Magyar king at the head of a Magyar army that the
young monarch met his fate. Poland, indeed, was far less able
to cope with the Turks than compact, wealthy Hungary, which
throughout the 15th century was one of the most efficient
military monarchies in Europe. The Jagiellos, as a rule,
prudently avoided committing themselves to any political
system which might irritate the still distant but much-dreaded
Turk, but when their dominions extended so far southwards
as to embrace Moldavia, the observance of a strict neutrality
became exceedingly difficult. Poland had established a sort
of suzerainty over Moldavia as early as the end of the 14th
century; but at best it was a loose and vague overlordship
which the Hospodars repudiated whenever they were strong
enough to do so. The Turks themselves were too much occupied
elsewhere to pay much attention to the Danubian principalities
till the middle of the 15th century. In 1478 Mahomet II.
had indeed attempted their subjugation, with but indifferent
success; but it was not till 1484 that the Ottomans became
inconvenient neighbours to Poland. In that year a Turkish
fleet captured the strongholds of Kilia and Akkerman, command-
ing respectively the mouths of the Danube and Dniester. This
aggression seriously threatened the trade of Poland, and induced
Casimir IV. to accede to a general league against the Porte.
In 1485, after driving the Turks out of Moldavia, the Polish
king, at the head of 20,000 men, proceeded to Kolomea on the

HISTORY]

POLAND

907

Pruth, where Bayezid II., then embarrassed by the Egyptian
war, offered peace, but as no agreement concerning the captured
fortresses could be arrived at, hostilities were suspended by a
truce. During the remainder of his reign the Turks gave no
trouble.

It was a fortunate thing for Poland that, during the first
century of her ascension to the rank of a great power, political
exigencies compelled her to appropriate almost more territory
than her primitive and centrifugal government could properly
assimilate; it was fortunate that throughout this period of
expansion her destinies should, with one brief interval, have
been controlled by a couple of superior statesmen, each of whom
ruled for nearly fifty years. During the fourteen years (1492-
1 506) which separate the reigns of Casimir IV. and Sigismund I.
she was not so lucky. The controlling hand of Casimir IV. was
no sooner withdrawn than the unruly elements, ever present
in the Republic, and ultimately the casue of its ruin, at once
burst forth. The first symptom of this lawlessness was the
separation of Poland and Lithuania, the Lithuanians proceeding
to elect Alexander, Casiinir's fourth son, as their grand-duke,
without even consulting the Polish senate, in flagrant violation
of the union of Horodlo. The breach, happily, was of no very
long duration. A disastrous war with Ivan III., the first
Muscovite tsar, speedily convinced the Lithuanians that they
were not strong enough to stand alone, and in 1499 they
voluntarily renewed the union. Much more dangerous was
the political revolution proceeding simultaneously in Poland,
John 1. where John Albert, the third son of Casimir, had
Albert, been elected king on the death of his father. The
1492-1501. na t ur e of this revolution will be considered in detail
when we come to speak of the growth of the Polish
constitution. Suffice it here to say that it was both anti-
monarchical and anti-democratic, tending, as it did, to place all
political authority in the hands of the szlachta, or gentry.
The impecunious monarch submitted to the dictation of the
diet in the hope of obtaining sufficient money to prosecute his
ambitious designs. With his elder brother Wladislaus reigning
over Bohemia and Hungary the credit of the Jagiellos in Europe
had never been so great as it was now, and John Albert, bent
upon military glory, eagerly placed himself at the head of what
was to have been a great anti-Turkish league, but ultimately
dwindled down to a raid upon Moldavia which ended in disaster.
The sole advantage which John Albert reaped from his champion-
ship of the Christian cause was the favour of the Curia, and the
ascendancy which that favour gave him over the Teutonic
Knights, whose new grand-master, Albert of Saxony, was reluc-
tantly compelled to render due homage to the Polish king.
Under Alexander (q.v.), who succeeded his brother

Alcxsnoct* •

1501-1506.' m I 5 OI > matters went from bad to worse. Alex-
ander's election cemented, indeed, once for all, the
union between Poland and Lithuania, inasmuch as, on the
eve of it (Oct. 3, 1501) the senates of both countries agreed
that, in future, the king of Poland should always be grand-duke
of Lithuania; but this was the sole benefit which the Republic
derived from the reign of Alexander, under whom the Polish
government has been well described as a rudderless ship in a
stormy sea, with nothing but the grace of God between it
and destruction. In Lithuania the increasing pressure of the
Muscovite was the chief danger. Till the accession of Ivan III.
in 1462 Muscovy had been a negligible factor in
Lithuania. Polish politics. During the earlier part of the 15th
century the Lithuanian princes had successfully
contested Muscovite influence even in Pskov and Great Novgorod.
Many Russian historians even maintain that, but for the fact
that Witowt had simultaneously to cope with the Teutonic
Order and the Tatars, that energetic prince would certainly
have extinguished struggling Muscovy altogether. But since
the death of Witowt (1430) the military efficiency of Lithuania
had sensibly declined; single-handed she was no longer a match
for her ancient rival. This was owing partly to the evils of an
oligarchic government; partly to the weakness resulting from
the natural attraction of the Orthodox-Greek element in Lithu-

ania towards Muscovy, especially after the fall of Constantinople,
but chiefly to the administrative superiority of the highly cen-
tralized Muscovite government. During the reign of Alex-
ander, who was too poor to maintain any adequate standing
army in Lithuania, the Muscovites and Tatars ravaged the
whole country at will, and were prevented from conquering it
altogether only by their inability to capture the chief fortresses.
In Poland, meanwhile, something very like anarchy prevailed.
Alexander had practically surrendered his authority to an
incapable aristocracy, whose sole idea of ruling was systematically
to oppress and humiliate the lower classes. In foreign affairs
a policy of drift prevailed which encouraged all the enemies
of the Republic to raise their heads, while the dependent states
of Prussia in the north and Moldavia in the south made strenuous
efforts to break away from Poland. Fortunately for the integ-
rity of the Polish state the premature death of Alexander in
1506 brought upon the throne his capable brother Sigismund,
the fifth son of Casimir IV., whose long reign of
forty-two years was salutary, and would have been iso6™548. "'
altogether recuperative, had his statesmanship only
been loyally supported by his subjects. Eminently practical,
Sigismund recognized that the first need of Poland was a stand-
ing army. The miserable collapse of the Polish chivalry during
the Bukovinian campaign of 1497 had convinced every one that
the ruszenie pospolite was useless for serious military purposes,
and that Poland, in order to hold her own , must in future follow
the example of the West, and wage her warfare with trained
mercenaries. But professional soldiers could not be hired
without money, and the difficulty was to persuade the diet to
loose its purse-strings. All that the gentry contributed at
present was two pence (groschen) per hide of land, and this only
for defensive service at home. If the king led the ruszenie
pospolite abroad he was obliged to pay so much per pike out of
his own pocket, notwithstanding the fact that the heavily
mortgaged crown lands were practically valueless. At the
diet of T510 the chancellor and primate, Adam Laski, proposed
an income-tax of 50% at once, and 5% for subsequent years,
payable by both the lay and clerical estates. In view of the
fact that Poland was the most defenceless country in Europe,
with no natural boundaries, and constantly exposed to attacks
from every quarter, it was not unreasonable to expect even this
patriotic sacrifice from the privileged classes, who held at least
two-thirds of the land by military tenure. Nevertheless, the
diet refused to consider the scheme. In the following year a
more modest proposal was made by the Crown in the shape of
a capitation of six gulden, to be levied on every nobleman at
the beginning of a campaign, for the hiring of mercenaries.
This also was rejected. In 1512 the king came forward with a
third scheme. He proposed to divide the country into five
circles, corresponding to the five provinces, each of which was
to undertake to defend the realm in turn should occasion arise.
Moreover, every one who so desired it might pay a commutation
in lieu of personal service, and the amount so realized was to be
re-used to levy troops. To this the dietines, or local diets, of
Great Poland, and Little Poland, agreed, but at the last moment
the whole project foundered on the question who was the proper
custodian of the new assessment rolls, and the king had to be
content with the renewal of former subsidies, varying from
twelve to fifteen groats per hide of land for three years. Well
might the disappointed monarch exclaim: " It is vain to labour
for the welfare of those who do not care a jot about it them-
selves." Matters improved somewhat in 1527, when the
szlachta, by a special act, placed the mightiest magnates on the
same level as the humblest squire as regards military service,
and proposed at the same time a more general assessment for
the purpose, the control of the money so realized to be placed
in the hands of the king. In consequence of this law the great
lords were compelled to put forces in the field proportioned to
their enormous fortunes, and Sigismund was able in 1529 to
raise 300 foot and 3200 horse from the province of Podolia alone.
But though the treasury was thus temporarily replenished and
the army increased, the gentry who had been so generous at

908

POLAND

[HISTORY

the expense of their richer neighbours would hear of no addi-
tional burdens being laid on themselves, and the king only
obtained what he wanted by sacrificing his principles to his
necessities, and helping the szlachta to pull down the magnates.
This fatal parsimony had the most serious political consequences,
for it crippled the king at every step. Strive and scheme as
he might, his needs were so urgent, his enemies so numerous,
that, though generally successful in the end, he had always to
be content with compromises, adjustments and semi-victories.
Thus he was obliged, in 1525, to grant local autonomy to the
province of Prussia instead of annexing it; he was unable to
succour his unfortunate nephew, Louis of Hungary, against the
Turkish peril; he was compelled to submit to the occupation
of one Lithuanian province after the other by the Muscovites,
and look on helplessly while myriads of Tatars penetrated to
the very heart of his domains, wasting with fire and sword
everything they could not carry away with them.

Again, it should have been the first duty of the Republic
adequately to fortify the dzikie pola, or " savage steppe," as
the vast plain was called which extended from Kiev
Cossacks. t° the Black Sea, and some feeble attempts to do so
were at last made. Thus, in the reign of Alexander,
the fugitive serfs whom tyranny or idleness had driven into
this wilderness (they were subsequently known as Kazaki, or
Cossacks, a Tatar word meaning freebooters) were formed into
companies (c. 1504) and placed at the disposal of the frontier
starostas, or lord marchers, of Kaniev, Kamenets, Czerkask on
the Don and other places. But these measures proved inade-
quate, and in 1533 the lord marcher, Ostafi Daszkiewicz, the
hero of Kaniev, which he had successfully defended against
a countless host of Turks and Tatars, was consulted by the
diet as to the best way of defending the Ukraine permanently
against such inroads. The veteran expert advised the populating
and fortifying of the islands of the Dnieper. Two thousand
men would suffice, he said, and the Cossacks supplied excellent
military material ready to hand. The diet unanimously
approved of this simple and inexpensive plan; a special com-
mission examined and approved of its details, and it was sub-
mitted to the next diet, which rejected it. So nothing at all
was done officially, and the defence of the eastern Ukraine was
left to providence. Oddly enough the selfish prudence of Sigis-
mund's rapacious consort, Queen Bona, did more for the national
defence than the Polish state could do. Thus, to defend her
immense possessions in Volhynia and Podolia, she converted
the castles of Bar and Krzemieniec into first-class fortresses,
and placed the former in the hands of her Silesian steward, who
acquitted himself so manfully of his charge 1 that "the Tatars
fell away from the frontier all the days of Pan Pretficz," and
a large population settled securely beneath the walls of Bar,
henceforth known as " the bastion of Podolia." Nothing,
perhaps, illustrates so forcibly the casual character of the Polish
government in the most vital matters as this single incident.

The most important political event during the reign of Sigis-
mund was the collapse of the ancient Hungarian monarchy at
Mohacs in 1526. Poland, as the next neighbour of Hungary,
was more seriously affected than any other European power
by this catastrophe, but her politicians differed as to the best
way of facing it. Immediately after the death of King Louis,
who fell on the field of battle, the emperor Ferdinand and John
Zapolya, voivode of Transylvania, competed for the vacant
crown, and both were elected almost simultaneously. In
Poland Zapolya's was the popular cause, and he also found
powerful support in the influential and highly gifted Laski family,
as represented by the Polish chancellor and his nephews John
and Hieronymus. Sigismund, on the other hand, favoured
Ferdinand of Austria. Though bound by family ties with both
competitors, he regarded the situation from a purely political
point of view. He argued that the best way to keep the Turk
from Poland was for Austria to incorporate Hungary, in which
case the Austrian dominion would be a strong and permanent
barrier against a Mussulman invasion of Europe. History has
1 Pretficz won no fewer than 70 engagements over the Tatars.

more than justified him, and the long duel which ensued between
Ferdinand and Zapolya (see Hungary: History) enabled the
Polish monarch to maintain to the end a cautious but observant
neutrality. More than once, indeed, Sigismund was seriously
compromised by the diplomatic vagaries of Hieronymus Laski,
who entered the service of Zapolya (since 1529 the protege of
the sultan), and greatly alarmed both the emperor and the pope
by his disturbing philo-Turk proclivities. It was owing to
Laski's intrigues that the new hospodar of Moldavia, Petrylo,
after doing homage to the Porte, intervened in the struggle as
the foe of both Ferdinand and Sigismund, and besieged the
Grand Hetman of the Crown, Jan Tarnowski, in Obertyn, where,
however, the Moldavians (August 22, 1531) sustained a crush-
ing defeat, and Petrylo was slain. Nevertheless, so anxious was
Sigismund to avoid a collision with the Turks, that he forbade
the victorious Tarnowski to cross the Moldavian frontier, and
sent a letter of explanation to Constantinople. On the death of
John Zapolya, the Austro-Polish alliance was still further
cemented by the marriage of Sigismund's son and heir, Sigis-
mund Augustus, with the archduchess Elizabeth. In the reign of
Sigismund was effected the incorporation of the duchy of Masovia
with the Polish crown, after an independent existence of five
hundred years. In 1526 the male line of the ancient dynasty
became extinct, and on the 26th of August Sigismund received
the homage of the Masovians at Warsaw, the capital of the
duchy and ere long of the whole kingdom. Almost every
acre of densely populated Masovia was in the hands of her sturdy,
ultra-conservative squires, in point of culture far below their
brethren in Great and Little Poland. The additional revenue
gained by the Crown from Masovia was at first but 14,000
gulden per annum.

The four and twenty years of Sigismund II. 's reign was a
critical period of Polish history. Complications with the
Turk were avoided by the adroit diplomacy of the king, while
the superior discipline and efficiency of the Polish armies under
the great Tarnowski (q.v.) and his pupils overawed the Tatars
and extruded the Muscovites, neither of whom were so trouble-
some as they had been during the last reign. All the more
disquieting was the internal condition of the country, due
mainly to the invasion of Poland by the Reformation, and the
coincidence of this invasion with an internal revolution of a
quasi-democratic character, which aimed at substituting the
rule of the szlachta for the rule of the senate.

Hitherto the Republic had given the Holy See but little
anxiety. Hussite influences, in the beginning of the 15th
century, had been superficial and transitory. The TheRetor-
Polish government had employed Hussite mercen- mation in
aries, but rejected Hussite propagandists. The p o , ^" a -
edict of Wielun (1424), remarkable as the first anti-heretical
decree issued in Poland, crushed the new sect in its infancy.
Lutheranism, moreover, was at first regarded with grave sus-
picion by the intensely patriotic Polish gentry, because of its
German origin. Nevertheless, the extremely severe penal edicts
issued during the reign of Sigismund I., though seldom applied,
seem to point to the fact that heresy was spreading widely
throughout the country. For a time, therefore, the Protestants
had to be cautious in Poland proper, but they found a sure
refuge in Prussia, where Lutheranism was already the estab-
lished religion, and where the newly erected university of
Konigsberg became a seminary for Polish ministers and
preachers.

While Lutheranism was thus threatening the Polish Church
from the north, Calvinism had already invaded her from the
west. Calvinism, indeed, rather recommended itself to the Poles
as being of non-German origin, and Calvin actually dedicated
his Commentary on the Mass to the young krolewicz (or crown
prince) Sigismund Augustus, from whom protestantism, erron-
eously enough, expected much in the future. Meanwhile
conversion to Calvinism, among the higher classes in Poland,
became more and more frequent. We hear of crowded Calvinist
conventicles in Little Poland from 1543 onwards, and Calvinism
continued to spread throughout the kingdom during the latter

HISTORY)

POLAND

909

years of Sigismund I. Another sect, which ultimately found
even more favour in Poland than the Calvinists, was that of
the Bohemian Brethren. We first hear of them in Great Poland
in 1548. A royal decree promptly banished them to Prussia,
where they soon increased so rapidly as to be able to hold their
own against the Lutherans. The death of the uncompromising
Sigismund I. came as a great relief to the Protestants, who
entertained high hopes of his son and successor. He was known
to be familiar with the works of the leading reformers; he was
surrounded by Protestant counsellors, and he was actually
married to Barbara, daughter of Prince Nicholas Radziwill,
" Black Radziwill," the all-powerful chief of the Lithuanian
Calvinists. It was not so generally known that Sigismund II.
was by conviction a sincere though not a bigoted Catholic; and
nobody suspected that beneath his diplomatic urbanity lay a
patriotic firmness and statesmanlike qualities of the first order.
Moreover, they ignored the fact that the success of the Protestant
propaganda was due rather to political than to religious causes.
The Polish gentry's jealousy of the clerical estate, whose privi-
leges even exceeded their own, was at the bottom of the whole
matter. Any opponent of the established clergy was the natural
ally of the szlachla, and the scandalous state of the Church herself
provided them with a most formidable weapon against her.
It is not too much to say that the condition of the Catholic
Church in Poland was almost as bad as it was in Scotland during
the same period. The bishops were, for the most part, elegant
triflers, as pliant as reeds, with no fixed principles and saturated
with a false humanism. Some of them were notorious evil-
livers. " Pint-pot " Latuski, bishop of Posen, had purchased
his office for 12,000 ducats from Queen Bona; while another
of her creatures, Peter, popularly known as the " wencher,"
was appointed bishop of Przemysl with the promise of the
reversion of the still richer see of Cracow. Moreover, despite
her immense wealth (in the province of Little Poland alone
she owned at this time 26 towns, 83 landed estates and 772
villages), the Church claimed exemption from all public burdens,
from all political responsibilities, although her prelates continued
to exercise an altogether disproportionate political influence.
Education was shamefully neglected, the masses being left in
almost heathen ignorance — and this, too, at a time when the
upper classes were greedily appropriating the ripe fruits of the
Renaissance and when, to use the words of a contemporary,
there were " more Latinists in Poland than there used to be in
Latium." The university of Cracow, the sole source of know-
ledge in the vast Polish realm, still moved in the vicious circle
of scholastic formularies. The provincial schools, dependent
upon so decrepit an alma mater, were suffered to decay. This
criminal neglect of national education brought along with it
its own punishment. The sons of the gentry, denied proper
instruction at home, betook themselves to the nearest univer-
sities across the border, to Goldberg in Silesia, to Wittemberg,
to Leipzig. Here they fell in with the adherents of the new faith,
grave, earnest men who professed to reform the abuses which had
grown up in the Church; and a sense of equity as much as a love
of novelty moved them, on their return home, to propagate
wholesome doctrines and clamour for the reformation of their
own degenerate prelates. Finally the poorer clergy, neglected
by their bishops, and excluded from all preferment, took part
with the szlachla against their own spiritual rulers and eagerly
devoured and imparted to their flocks, in their own language,
the contents of the religious tracts which reached them by divers
ways from Goldberg and Konigsberg. Nothing indeed did so
much to popularize the new doctrines in Poland as this beneficial
revival of the long-neglected vernacular by the reformers.

Such was the situation when Sigismund II. began his reign.
The bishops at once made a high bid for the favour of the new
Sigis- king by consenting to the coronation of his Calvinist

muadlt.. consort (Dec. 7, 1550) and the king five days
1548-1S72. afterwards issued the celebrated edict in which he
pledged his royal word to preserve intact the unity of the Church
and to enforce the law of the land against heresy. Encouraged
by this pleasing symptom of orthodoxy the bishops, instead

of first attempting to put their own dilapidated house in order,
at once proceeded to institute prosecutions for heresy against
all and sundry. This at once led to an explosion, and at the
diet of Piotrkow, 1552; the szlachla accepted a proposition of
the king, by way of compromise, that the jurisdiction of the
clerical courts should be suspended for twelve months, on
condition that the gentry continued to pay tithes as heretofore.
Then began a religious interim, which was gradually prolonged
for ten years, during which time Protestantism in Poland
flourished exceedingly. Presently reformers of every shade of
opinion, even those who were tolerated nowhere else, poured
into Poland, which speedily became the battle-ground of all the
sects of Europe. Soon the Protestants became numerous enough
to form ecclesiastical districts of their own. The first Calvinist
synod in Poland was held at Pinczow in 1550. The Bohemian
Brethren evangelized Little Poland, but ultimately coalesced
with the Calvinists at the synod of Kozminek (August 1555).
In the diet itself the Protestants were absolutely supreme,,
and invariably elected a Calvinist to be their marshal. A*- the
diet of 1555 they boldly demanded a national synod, absolute
toleration, and the equalization of all the sects except the A'nti-
trinitarians. But the king intervened and the existing interim
was indefinitely prolonged. At the diet of Piotrkow, 1558-1559,
the onslaught of the szlachla on the clergy was fiercer than ever,
and they even demanded the exclusion of the bishops from the
senate. The king, however, perceiving a danger to the constitu-
tion in the violence of the szlachla, not only supported the
bishops, but quashed a subsequent reiterated demand for a
national synod. The diet of 1558-1550 indicates the high-water
mark of Polish Protestantism. From this time forward it began
to subside, very gradually but unmistakably. The chief cause
of this subsidence was the division among the reformers them-
selves. From the chaos of creeds resulted a chaos of ideas
on all imaginable subjects, politics included. The Anti-trini-
tarian proved to be the chief dissolvent, and from 1560 onwards
the relations between the two principal Protestant sects, the
Lutherans and the Calvinists, were fratricidal rather than
fraternal. An auxiliary cause of the decline of Protestantism
was the beginning of a Catholic reaction. The bulk of the popu-
lation still held persistently, if languidly, to the faith of its
fathers; the new bishops were holy and learned men, very
unlike the creations of Queen Bona, and the Holy See gave to
the slowly reviving zeal of both clergy and laity the very neces-
sary impetus from without. For Poland, unlike Scotland, was
fortunately, in those days of difficult inter-communication, not
too far off, and it is indisputable that in the first instance it was
the papal nuncios, men like Berard of Camerino and Giovanni
Commendone, who reorganized the scattered and faint-hearted
battalions of the Church militant in Poland and led them back
to victory. At the diet of Piotrkow in 1562, indeed, the king's
sore need of subsidies induced him, at the demand of the szlachta,
to abolish altogether the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts
in cases of heresy; but, on the other hand, at the diet of 1564
he accepted from Commendone the Tridentine decrees and issued
an edict banishing all foreign, and especially Anti-trinitarian,
heretics from the land. At the diet of 1565 Sigismund went
still farther. He rejected a petition for a national Tbe
pacificatory synod as unnecessary, inasmuch as the Counter-
council of Trent had already settled all religious Reformation
questions, and at the same time consented to the " oao •
introduction into Poland of the most formidable adversaries of
the Reformation, the Jesuits. These had already been installed
at Poltusk, and were permitted, after the diet rose, to found
establishments in the dioceses of Posen, Ermeland and Vilna,.
which henceforth became centres of a vigorous and victorious
propaganda. Thus the Republic recovered her catholicity and
her internal harmony at the same time.

With rare sagacity Sigismund II. had thus piloted the Republic
through the most difficult internal crisis it had yet encountered.
In purely political matters also both initiative and fulfilment
came entirely from the Crown, and to the last of the Jagiellos
Poland owed the important acquisition of Livonia and the

gio

POLAND

[HISTORY

welding together of her loosely connected component parts into
a single state by the Union of Lublin.

In the middle of the 16th century the ancient order of the
Knights of the Sword, whose territory embraced Esthonia,
Livonia, Courland, Semgallen and the islands of Dago and Oesel,
was tottering to its fall. All the Baltic powers were more or less
interested in the apportionment of this vast tract of land, whose
geographical position made it not only the chief commercial
link between east and west, but also the emporium whence the
English, Dutch, Swedes, Danes and Germans obtained their
corn, timber and most of the raw products of Lithuania and
Muscovy. Matters were complicated by the curious political
intricacies of this long-coveted domain, where the grand-master,
the archbishop of Riga, and the estates of Livonia possessed
concurrent and generally conflicting jurisdictions. Poland
and Muscovy as the nearest neighbours of this moribund state,
which had so long excluded them from the sea, were vitally
concerned in its fate. After an anarchic period of suspense,
lasting from 1546 to 1561, during which Sweden secured
Esthonia, while Ivan the Terrible fearlessly ravaged Livonia,
in the hope of making it valueless to any other potentate,
Sigismund II., to whom both the grand-master and the arch-
bishop had appealed more than once for protection, at length
intervened decisively. Both he and his chancellor, Piotr
Myszkowski (d. 1501), were well aware of the importance of
securing a coast-land which would enable Poland to become a
naval power. But the diet, with almost incredible short-sighted-
ness, refused to waste a penny on an undertaking which, they
argued, concerned only Lithuania, and it was not as king of
Poland, but as grand-duke of Lithuania, and with purely
Lithuanian troops, that Sigismund, in 1561, occupied Livonia.
At his camp before Riga the last grand-master, Gotthard von
Ketteler, who had long been at the head of the Polish party in
Livonia, and William of Brandenburg, archbishop of Riga,
gladly placed themselves beneath his protection, and by a subse-
quent convention signed at Vilna (Nov. 28, 1561), Livonia was
incorporated with Lithuania in much the same way as Prussia
had been incorporated with Poland thirty-six years previously.
Ketteler, who had adopted Lutheranism during a visit to Ger-
many in 1553, now professed the Augsburg Confession, and be-
came the first duke of a new Protestant duchy, which he was to
hold as a fief of the Polish crown, with local autonomy and abso-
lute freedom of worship. The southern provinces of the ancient
territory of the Order, Courland and Semgallen, had first been
ceded on the 24th of June 1559 to Lithuania on similar condi-
tions, the matter being finally adjusted by the compact cf
March 1562.

The apathy of Poland in such a vital matter as the Livonian
question must have convinced so statesmanlike a prince as
Sigismund II. of the necessity of preventing any possibility of
cleavage in the future between the two halves of his dominions
whose absolute solidarity was essential to their existence as a
great power. To this patriotic design he devoted the remainder
of his life. A personal union, under one monarch, however
close, had proved inadequate. A further step must be taken —
the two independent countries must be transformed into a
single state. The great obstacle in the way of this, the only
true solution of the difficulty, was the opposition of the Lithu-
anian magnates, who feared to lose the absolute dominancy
they possessed in the grand-duchy if they were merged in the
szlachta of the kingdom. But, at the last moment, the dread
of another Muscovite invasion made them more pliable and, at
a Polish diet held at Warsaw from November 1363 to June 1364,
which the Lithuanians attended, the question of an absolute
union was hotly debated. When things came to a deadlock
the king tactfully intervened and voluntarily relinquished his
hereditary title to Lithuania, thus placing the two countries
on a constitutional equality and preparing the way for fresh
negotiations in the future. The death, in 1565, of Black
Radziwill, the chief opponent of the union, still further weakened
the Lithuanians, and the negotiations were reopened with more
prospect of success at the diet which met at Lublin on the 10th

of January 1 569. But even now the Lithuanians were indis-
posed towards a complete union, and finally they quitted the
diet, leaving two commissioners behind to watch their interests.
Then Sigismund executed his master stroke. Knowing the
sensitiveness of the Lithuanians as regards Volhynia and
Podolia, he suddenly, of his own authority, formally incorporated
both these provinces with the kingdom of Poland, whereupon,
amidst great enthusiasm, the Volhynian and Podolian deputies
took their places on the same benches as their Polish brethren.
The hands of the Lithuanians were forced. Even a complete
union on equal terms was better than mutilated independence.
Accordingly they returned to the diet, and the complete
union was unanimously adopted on the 1st of July Union of
1569. Henceforth the kingdom of Poland and the Lithuania
grand duchy of Lithuania were to constitute one *l2 a Poland '
inseparable and indivisible body politic, under one
sovereign, elected in common, with one diet and one currency.
All dependencies and colonies, including Prussia and Livonia,
were to belong to Poland and Lithuania in common. The
retention of the old duality of dignities was the one reminis-
cence of the original separation. No decision, however, could
be come to as to the successor of the childless king, partly
because of the multiplicity of candidates, partly because of
Austrian intrigue, and this, the most momentous question of all,
was still unsettled when Sigismund II. expired on the 6th of
July 1572.

The Jagiellonic period (1386-1572) is the history of the con-
solidation and fusion into one homogeneous, political whole
of numerous national elements, more or less akin character
ethnologically, but differing immensely in language, of the
religion and, above all, in degrees of civilization. Jagiellonic
Out of the ancient Piast kingdom, mutilated by the ^t^f.'. T2
loss of Silesia and the Baltic shore, arose a republic
consisting at first of various loosely connected entities, naturally
centrifugal, but temporarily drawn together by the urgent need
of combination against a superior foe, who threatened them
separately with extinction. Beneath the guidance of a dynasty of
princes which, curiously enough, was supplied by the least
civilized portion of this congeries of nationalities, the nascent
republic gradually grew into a power which subjugated its
former oppressors and, viewed externally, seemed to bear upon
it the promise of empire. It is dangerous to prophesy, but all
the facts and circumstances before us point irresistibly to the
conclusion that had the Jagiellonic dynasty but endured this
promise of empire might well have been realized. The extra-
ordinary thing about the Jagiellos was the equable persistency
of their genius. Not only were five of the seven great statesmen,
but they were statesmen of the same stamp. We are disturbed
by no such sharp contrasts as are to be found among the Plan-
tagenets, the Vasas and the Bourbons. The Jagiellos were
all of the same mould and pattern, but the mould was a strong
one and the pattern was good. Their predominant and constant
characteristic is a sober sagacity which instinctively judges
aright and imperturbably realized its inspirations. The Jagiellos
were rarely brilliant, but they were always perspicacious.
Above all, they alone seem to have had the gift of guiding the
most difficult of nations properly. Two centuries of Jagiellonic
rule made Poland great despite her grave external difficulties.
Had that dynasty been prolonged for another century, there is
every reason to suppose that it would also have dealt satisfac-
torily with Poland's still more dangerous internal difficulties,
and arrested the development of that anarchical constitution
which was the ruling factor in the ruin of the Republic.

Simultaneously with the transformation into a great power
of the p"etty principalities which composed ancient Poland,
another and equally momentous political transformation was
proceeding within the country itself.

The origin of the Polish constitution is to be sought in the
wiece or councils of the Polish princes, during the partitional
period (c. 1279-1370). The privileges conferred upon the mag-
nates of which these councils were composed, especially upon
the magnates of Little Poland, who brought the Jagiellos to

HISTORY]

POLAND

911

the throne, directed their policy, and grew rich Upon their
liberality, revolted the less favoured szlachta, or gentry, who,
The Polish towards the end of the 14th century, combined for
Coastitu- mutual defence in their sejmiki, or local diets,
tioa. f w hich originally there were five, three in Great

Poland, one in Little Poland and one in Posen-Kalisz. 1 In
these sejmiki the deputies of the few great towns were also
represented. The Polish towns, notably Cracow, had obtained
their privileges, including freedom from tolls and municipal
government, from the Crown in return for important services,
such as warding off- the Tatars, while the cities of German
origin were protected by the Magdeburg law. Casimir the
Great even tried to make municipal government as democratic
as possible by enacting that one half of the town council of
Cracow should be elected from the civic patriciate, but the
other half from the commonalty. Louis the Great placed the
burgesses on a level with the gentry by granting to the town
council of Cracow jurisdiction over all the serfs in the extra-rural
estates of the citizens. From this time forth deputies from the
cities were summoned to the sejmiki on all important occasions,
such, for instance, as the ratification of treaties, a right formally
conceded to them by the sejmik of Radom in 1384. Thus at
this period Poland was a confederation of half a dozen semi-
independent states. The first general assembly of which we
have certain notice is the zjazd walny which was summoned to
Koszyce in November 1404, to relieve the financial embarrass-
ments of Wladislaus, and granted him an extraordinary subsidy
of twenty groats per hide of land to enable him to purchase
Dobrzyn from the Teutonic Knights. Such subsidies were
generally the price for the confirmation of ancient or the con-
cession of new privileges. Thus at the diet of Brzesc Kujawski,
in 1425, the szlachta obtained its first habeas corpus act in return
for acknowledging the right of the infant krolewicz Wladislaus
to his father's throne. The great opportunity of the szlachta
was, of course, the election of a new king, especially the election
of a minor, an event always accompanied and succeeded by
disorders. Thus at the election of the infant Wladislaus III.,
his guardians promised in his name to confirm all the privileges
granted by his father. If, on attaining his majority, the king
refused to ratify these promises, his subjects were ipso facto
absolved from their obedience. This is the first existence of
the mischievous principle de prestanda obedientia, subsequently
elevated into a statute. It is in this reign, too, that we meet
with the first rokosz, or insurrection of the nobility against the
executive. The extraordinary difficulties of Casimir IV. were
freely exploited by the szlachta, who granted that ever impecu-
nious monarch as little as possible, but got full value for every
penny they grudgingly gave. Thus by the Articles of Cerekwica
presented to him by the sejmik or dietine of Great Poland in
1454 on the outbreak of the Teutonic War, he conceded the
principle that no war should in future be begun without the
consent of the local diets. A few months later he was obliged
to grant the Privileges of Nieszawa, which confirmed and
extended the operation of the Articles of Cerekwica. The
sejmiki had thus added to their original privilege of self-taxation
the right to declare war and control the national militia. 2 This
was a serious political retrogression. A strongly centralized
government had ever been Poland's greatest need, and Casimir
the Great had striven successfully against all centrifugal ten-
dencies. And now, eighty-four years after his death, Poland
was once more split up into half a dozen loosely federated states
in the hands of country gentlemen too ignorant and prejudiced
to look beyond the boundaries of their own provinces. The
only way of saving the Republic from disintegration was to
concentrate all its political factors into a sejm-walny or general
diet. But to this the magnates and the szlachta were equally
opposed, the former because they feared the rivalry of a national
assembly, the latter because they were of more importance
in their local diets than they could possibly hope to be in a

1 The Red Russian sejmik was of later origin, c. 1433.
1 In view of the frequency of the Tatar inroads, the control of the
militia was re-transferred to the Crown in 1501.

general diet. The first sejm to legislate for the whole of Poland
was the diet of Piotrkow (1493), summoned by John Albert
to grant him subsidies; but the mandates of its deputies were
limited to twelve months, and its decrees were to have force
for only three years. John Albert's second diet (1496), after
granting subsidies the burden of which fell entirely on the
towns and peasantry, passed a series of statutes benefiting
the nobility at the expense of the other classes. Thus one
statute permitted the szlachta henceforth to export and import
goods duty free, to the great detriment of the towns and the
treasury. Another statute prohibited the burgesses from holding
landed property and enjoying the privileges attaching thereto.
A third statute disqualified plebeians from being elected to
canonries or bishoprics. A fourth endeavoured to bind the
peasantry more closely to the soil by forbidding emigration.
The condition of the serfs was subsequently (1520) still further
deteriorated by the introduction of socage. In a word, this
diet disturbed the equilibrium of the state by enfeebling and
degrading the middle classes. Nevertheless, so long as the
Jagiello dynasty lasted, the political rights of the cities were
jealously protected by the Crown against the usurpations of the
nobility. Deputies from the towns took part in the election
of John Albert (1492), and the burgesses of Cracow, the most
enlightened economists in the kingdom, supplied Sigismund I.
with his most capable counsellors during the first twenty years
of his reign ( 1 506-1 526). Again and again the nobility attempted
to exclude the deputies of Cracow from the diet, in spite of
a severe edict issued by Sigismund I. in 1509, threatening to
prosecute for treason all persons who dared to infringe the
liberties of the citizens. During Sigismund's reign, moreover,
the Crown recovered many of the prerogatives of which it had
been deprived during the reign of his feeble predecessor, Alex-
ander, who, to say nothing of the curtailments of the prerogative,
had been forced to accept the statute nihil novi (1505) which
gave the sejm and the senate an equal voice with the Crown
in all executive matters. In the latter years of Sigismund I.
(1 530-1 548) the political influence of the szlachta grew rapidly
at the expense of the executive, and the gentry in diet assembled
succeeded in curtailing the functions of all the great officers
of state. During the reign of Sigismund II. (1548-1572) they
diverted their attention to the abuses of the Church and con-
siderably reduced both her wealth and her privileges. In this
respect both the Crown and the country were with them, so that
their interference,if violent,was on the whole distinctly beneficial.
The childless Sigismund II. died suddenly without leaving
any regulations as to the election of his successor. Fortunately
for Poland the political horizon was absolutely later-
unclouded. The Turks, still reeling from the shock rejourn,
of Lepanto, could with difficulty hold their own 1572-1572.
against the united forces of the pope, Spain and Venice;
while Ivan the Terrible had just concluded a truce with
Poland. Domestic affairs, on the other hand, were in an almost
anarchical condition. The Union of Lublin, barely three
years old, was anything but consolidated, and in Lithuania
it continued to be extremely unpopular. In Poland proper
the szlachta were fiercely opposed to the magnates; and the
Protestants seemed bent upon still further castigating the clergy.
Worst of all, there existed no recognized authority in the land
to curb and control its jarring centrifugal political elements.
It was nearly two hundred years since the Republic had suffered
from an interregnum, and the precedents of 1382 were obsolete.
The primate, on hearing of the demise of the Crown, at once
invited all the senators of Great Poland to a conference at
Lowicz, but passed over the szlachta altogether. In an instant
the whole Republic was seething like a caldron, and a rival
assembly was simultaneously summoned to Cracow by Jan
Ferlej, the head of the Protestant party. Civil war was happily
averted at the last moment, and a national convention, composed
of senators and deputies from all parts of the country, assembled
at Warsaw, in April 1573, for the purpose of electing a new king.
Five candidates for the throne were already in the field. Lithu-
ania favoured Ivan IV. In Poland the bishops and most of

912

POLAND

[HISTORY

the Catholic magnates were for an Austrian archduke, while
the strongly anti-German szlachta were inclined to accept almost
any candidate but a German, so long as he came with a gift
in his hand and was not a Muscovite. In these circumstances it
was an easy task for the adroit and energetic French ambassador,
Jean de Montluc (d. 1579), brother of the famous marshal,
and bishop of Valence, to procure the election of the French
candidate, Henry, duke of Anjou. Well provided with funds, he
speedily bought over many of the leading magnates, and his
popularity reached its height when he strenuously advocated
the adoption of the mode of election by the gentry en masse
(which the szlachta proposed to revive), as opposed to the usual
and more orderly " secret election " by a congress of senators
and deputies, sitting with closed doors. The religious difficulty,
meanwhile, had been adjusted to the satisfaction of all parties
by the compact of Warsaw (Jan. 28, 1573), which granted
absolute religious liberty to all non-Catholic denominations
(dissidentes de religione, as they now began to be called) without
exception, thus exhibiting a far more liberal intention than
the Germans had manifested in the religious peace of Augsburg
eighteen years before. Finally, early in April 1573, the election
diet assembled at Warsaw, and on the nth of May, in the midst
of intrigue, corruption, violence and confusion, Henry of Valois
was elected king of Poland.

The election had, however, been preceded by a correctura
jurum, or reform of the constitution, which resulted in the
Henry of famous " Henrican Articles" which converted
Valois, kittg, Poland from a limited monarchy into a republic
15T3-1574. witli an elective chief magistrate. Henceforward
the king was to have no voice in the choice of his successor.
He was not to use the word haeres, not being an hereditary
sovereign. He was to marry a wife selected for him by
the senate. He was neither to seek for a divorce nor . give
occasion for one. He was to be neutral in all religious
matters. He was not to lead the militia across the border
except with the consent of the szlachta, and then only for three
months at a time. Every year the senate was to appoint
sixteen of its number to be in constant attendance upon the
king in rotas of four, which sedecimvirs were to supervise all
his actions. Should the king fail to observe any one of these
articles, the nation was ipso facto absolved from its allegiance.
This constitutional reform was severely criticized by contem-
porary political experts. Some strongly condemned the clause
justifying renunciation of allegiance, as tending to treason and
anarchy. Others protested against the anomalous and helpless
position of the so-called king, who, if he could do no harm, was
certainly powerless for good. But such Cassandras prophesied
to heedless ears. The Republic had deliberately cast itself upon
the downward grade which was to lead to ruin.

The reign of Henry of Valois lasted thirteen months. The
tidings of the death of his brother Charles IX., which reached
him on the 14th of June 1574, determined him to exchange a
thorny for what he hoped would be a flowery throne, and at
midnight on the i8th.of June 1574 he literally fled from Poland,
pursued to the frontier by his indignant and bewildered subjects.
Eighteen months later (Dec. 14, 1575), mainly through the
influence of Jan Zamoyski, Stephen Bathory, prince of Transyl-
vania, was elected king of Poland by the szlachta in opposition
to the emperor Maximilian, who had been elected two days
previously by the senate, after disturbances which would have
rent any other state but Poland to pieces.

The glorious career of Stephen Bathory (1575-1586) is dealt
with elsewhere (see Stephen, King of Poland). His example
Stephen demonstrates the superiority of genius and valour
Bathory, over the most difficult circumstances. But his
1575-1586. reign was too brief to be permanently beneficial.

The Vasa period of Polish history which began with the
election of Sigismund, son of John III., king of Sweden, was the
sigis- epoch of last and lost chances. The collapse of the

mundlll., Muscovite tsardom in the east, and the submersion
1587-1632. f the German Empire in the west by the Thirty
Years' War, presented Poland with an unprecedented oppor-

tunity of consolidating, once for all, her hard-won position as
the dominating power of central Europe. Everywhere circum-
stances were favourable to her, and in 2olkiewski, Chodkiewicz
and Koniecpolski she possessed three of the greatest captains
of that or any other age. With all the means at her disposal
cheerfully placed in the hands of such valiant and capable
ministers, it would have been no difficult task for the Republic
to have wrested the best part of the Baltic littoral from the
Scandinavian powers, and driven the distracted Muscovites
beyond the Volga. Permanent greatness and secular security
were within her reach at the commencement of the Vasa period;
how was it, then, that at the end of that period, only fifty
years later, Poland had already sunk irredeemably into much
the same position as Turkey occupies now, the position of a
moribund state, existing on sufferance simply because none
was yet quite prepared to administer the coup de grdce? There
is only one answer; the principal cause of this complete and
irretrievable collapse is to be sought for in the folly, egotism
and selfishness of the Polish gentry, whose insane dislike of all
discipline, including even the salutary discipline of regular,
government, converted Poland into something very like a primi-
tive tribal community at the very time when every European
statesman, including the more enlightened of the Poles them-
selves, clearly recognized that the political future belonged to
the strongly centralized monarchies, which were everywhere
rising on the ruins of feudalism. Of course there were other
contributory causes. The tenacity with which Sigismund III,
clung to his hereditary rights to the Swedish Crown involved
Poland in a quite unnecessary series of wars with Charles IX>
and Gustavus Adolphus, when her forces were sorely needed
elsewhere. The adhesion of the same monarch to the League
of the Catholic Reaction certainly added to the difficulties of
Polish diplomacy, and still further divided the already distracted
diet, besides alienating from the court the powerful and popular
chancellor Zamoyski. Yet Sigismund III. was a far more clear-
sighted statesman than any of his counsellors or contradictors.
For instance, he was never misled by the successes of the false
Demetrius in Muscovy, and wisely insisted on recovering the
great eastern fortress of Smolensk rather than attempting
the conquest of Moscow. His much-decried alliance with the
emperor at the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War was eminently
sagacious. He perceived at once that it was the only way of
counteracting the restlessness of the sultan's proteges, the
Protestant princes of Transylvania, whose undisciplined hordes,
scarcely less savage than their allies the Turks and Tatars, were
a perpetual menace both to Austria and to Poland. Finally
he was bent upon reforming the Polish constitution by substitut-
ing the decision of all matters by a plurality of votes for a
unanimity impossible to count upon.

When we turn to the szlachta who absolutely controlled the
diet, we find not the slightest trace, I will not say of political
foresight — that they never possessed — but of common patriot-
ism, or ordinary public spirit. The most urgent national
necessities were powerless to stir their hearts or open their
purses. The diets during the reign of Sigismund III. were
even more niggardly than they had been under the Jagiellos,
and on the single occasion when the terrors of an imminent
Tatar invasion constrained them to grant extraordinary sub-
sidies, they saw to it that such subsidies should rest entirely
on the shoulders of the burgesses (who had in the meantime
been deprived of the franchise) and the already overburdened
peasantry. In the very crisis of the Swedish War, the diminutive
army of the victorious Chodkiewicz was left unpaid, with the
result that the soldiers mutinied, and marched off en masse.
Both Chodkiewicz and Z\>lkiewski frequently had to pay the
expenses of their campaigns out of their own pockets, and were
expected to conquer empires and defend hundreds of miles of
frontier with armies of 3000 or 4000 men at most. When they
retreated before overwhelming odds they were publicly accused
of cowardice and incompetence. The determination to limit
still further the power of the executive was at the bottom of
this fatal parsimony, with the inevitable consequence that,

HISTORY]

POLAND

9 X 3

while the king and the senate were powerless, every great noble
or lord-marcher was free to do what he chose in his own domains,
so long as he flattered his " little brothers," the szlachta. In-
credible as it may seem, the expedition to place the false
Demetrius on the Muscovite throne was a private speculation
of a few Lithuanian magnates, and similar enterprises on the
part of other irresponsible noblemen on the Danube or Dniester
brought upon unhappy Poland retaliatory Tatar raids, which
reduced whole provinces to ashes. Every attempt to improve
matters, by reforming the impossible constitution, stranded on
the opposition of the gentry. Take, for instance, the typical
and highly instructive case of Zebrzydowski's rebellion.
Nicholas Zebrzydowski, a follower of the chancellor Zamoyski,
was one of the wealthiest and most respectable magnates in
Poland. As palatine of Cracow he held one of the highest and
most lucrative dignities in the state, and was equally famous
for his valour, piety and liberality. Disappointed in his hope
of obtaining the great seal on the death of Zamoyski, he at once
conceived that the whole of the nobility had been insulted in
his person, and proceeded to make all government impossible
for the next three years. On the 7th of March 1606 Sigismund
summoned a diet for the express purpose of introducing the
principle of decision by majority in the diet, whereupon Zebrzy-
dowski summoned a counter-confederation to Stenczyn in
Little Poland, whose first act was to open negotiations with the
prince of Transylvania, Stephen Bocskay, with the view of
hiring mercenaries from him for further operations. At a subse-
quent confederation, held at Lublin in June, Zebrzydowski
was reinforced by another great nobleman, Stanislaus Stadnicki,
called the Devil, who " had more crimes on his conscience than
hairs on his head," and was in the habit of cropping the ears
and noses of small squires and chaining his serfs to the walls of
his underground dungeons for months at a time. This champion
of freedom was very eloquent as to the wrongs of the szlachta,
and proposed that the assembly should proceed in a body to
Warsaw and there formally renounce their allegiance. The
upshot of his oratory was the summoning of a rokosz, or national
insurrection, to Sandomir, which was speedily joined by the
majority of the szlachta all over the country, who openly pro-
claimed their intention of dethroning the king and chastising
the senate, and sent Stadnicki to Transylvania to obtain the
armed assistance of Stephen Bocskay. Only the clergy, natur-
ally conservative, still clung to the king, and Sigismund III.,
who was no coward, at once proceeded to Cracow to overawe
the rokoszanie, or insurrectionists, by his proximity, and take
the necessary measures for his own protection. By the advice
of his senators he summoned a zjazd, or armed convention, to
Wislica openly to oppose the insurrection of Sandomir, which
zjazd was to be the first step towards the formation of a general
confederation for the defence of the throne. Civil war seemed
inevitable, when the szlachta of Red Russia and Sieradz suddenly
rallied to the king, who at once ordered his army to advance,
and after defeating the insurrectionists at Janowiec (in October),
granted them a full pardon, on the sole condition that they
should refrain from all such acts of rebellion in future. Despite
their promises, Zebrzydowski and his colleagues a few months
later were again in arms. In the beginning of 1607 they sum-
moned another rokosz to Jendrzejow, at the very time when the
diet was assembling at Warsaw. The diet authorized the king
to issue a proclamation dissolving the rokosz, and the rokosz
retorted with a manifesto in which an insurrection was declared
to be as much superior to a parliament as a general council was
to a pope. In a second manifesto published at Jezierna, on the
24th of June, the insurrectionists again renounced their allegiance
to the king. Oddly enough, the diet before dissolving had,
apparently in order to meet the rokosz half-way, issued the
famous edict De non praestanda obedientia, whereby, in case of
future malpractices by the king and his subsequent neglect of at
least two solemn warnings there-anent by the primate and the
senate, he was to be formally deposed by the next succeeding
diet. But even this was not enough for the insurrectionists.
It was not the contingent but the actual deposition of the king

that they demanded, and they had their candidate for the throne
ready in the person of Gabriel Bethlen, the new prince of Tran-
sylvania. But the limits of even Polish complacency had at
last been reached, and Zolkiewski and Chodkiewicz were sent
against the rebels, whom they routed at Oransk near Guzow,
after a desperate encounter, on the 6th of July 1607. But,
though driven from the field, the agitation simmered all over
the country for nearly two years longer, and was only terminated,
in 1609, by a general amnesty which excluded every prospect of
constitutional reform.

Wladislaus IV., who succeeded his father in 1632, was the
most popular monarch who ever sat on the Polish throne.
The szlachta, who had had a " King Log " in Sigis- wtadis-
mund, were determined that Wladislaus should be lausiv.,
" a King Bee who will give us nothing but honey " — ■ l 632-i64&.
in other words they hoped to wheedle him out of even more than
they had wrested from his predecessor. Wladislaus submitted
to everything. He promised never to declare war or levy
troops without the consent of the sejm, undertook to fill all
vacancies within a certain time, and released the szlachta from
the payment of income-tax, their one remaining fiscal obligation.
This boundless complacency was due to policy, not weakness.
The second Polish Vasa was a man of genius, fully conscious of
his powers, and determined to use them for the benefit of his
country. The events of the last reign had demonstrated the
incompetence of the Poles to govern themselves. Any ameliora-
tion of the existing anarchy must be extra-parliamentary and
proceed from the throne. But a reforming monarch was
inconceivable unless he possessed the confidence of the nation,
and such confidence, Wladislaus naturally argued, could only
be won by striking and undeniable public services. On these
principles he acted with brilliant results. Within three years
of his accession he compelled the Muscovites (Treaty of Polyan-
kova, May 28, 1634) to retrocede Smolensk and the eastern
provinces lost by Sigismund II., overawed the Porte by a military
demonstration in October of the same year, and, by the Truce
of Stumdorf (Sept. 12, 1635), recovered the Prussian provinces
and the Baltic seaboard from Sweden. But these achievements
excited not the gratitude but the suspicion of the szlachta. They
were shrewd enough to guess that the royal triumph might
prejudice their influence, and for the next five years they
deliberately thwarted the enlightened and far-reaching projects
of the king for creating a navy and increasing the revenue
without burdening the estates, by a system of tolls levied on
the trade of the Baltic ports (see Wladislaus IV.), even going
so far as to refuse for nine years to refund the expenses of the
Muscovite War, which he had defrayed out of his privy purse.
From sheer weariness and disgust the king refrained from any
intervention in public affairs for nearly ten years, looking on
indifferently while the ever shorter and stormier diets wrangled
perpetually over questions of preferment and the best way of
dealing with the extreme dissenters, to the utter neglect of public
business. But towards the end of his reign the energy of
Wladislaus revived, and he began to occupy himself with another
scheme for regenerating his country, in its own despite, by means
of the Cossacks. First, however, it is necessary to describe
briefly the origin and previous history of these romantic free-
booters who during the second half of the 17th century were the
determining factor of Polish and Muscovite politics.

At the beginning of the 16th century the illimitable steppe
of south-eastern Europe, extending from the Dnieper to the
Urals, had no settled population. Hunters and
fishermen frequented its innumerable rivers, return- g^sw^j,-
ing home laden with rich store of fish and pelts,
while runaway serfs occasionally settled in small communities
beneath the shelter of the fortresses built, from time to time,
to guard the southern frontiers of Poland and Muscovy.
Obliged, for fear of the Tatars, to go about with arms in their
hands, these settlers gradually grew strong enough to raid their
raiders, selling the booty thus acquired to the merchants of
Muscovy and Poland. Moreover, the Turks and Tatars being
the natural enemies of Christendom, a war of extermination

9H

POLAND

[HISTORY

against them was regarded by the Cossacks as a sacred duty.
Curiously enough, these champions of orthodoxy borrowed the
name, which has stuck to them ever since, from their " dog-
headed " adversaries. The rank and file of the Tatar soldiery
were known as Kazaki, or Cossacks, a word meaning " free-
booters," and this term came to be applied indiscriminately to all
the free dwellers in the Ukraine, or border-lands. As time went
on the Cossacks multiplied exceedingly. Their daring grew
with their numbers, and at last they came to be a constant
annoyance to all their neighbours, both Christian and Mussul-
man, frequently involving Poland in dangerous and unprofitable
wars with the Ottoman Empire. Indeed, it is not too much to
say that, until the days of Sobieski, the Cossacks were invariably
the chief cause of the breaches between the Porte and the
Republic. We have seen how carefully the Jagiellos avoided
participating in any of the crusades directed by the Holy See
against the arch-enemies of the Cross. So successful was their
prudential abstention that no regular war occurred between
Turkey and Poland during the two centuries of their sway.
The first actual collisions, the Cecora campaign of 1620 and the
Khotin War of 1621 (for John Albert's Moldavian raid does not
count), were due to the depredations of the Cossacks upon the
dominions of the sultan by land and sea, and in all subsequent
treaties between the two powers the most essential clause was
always that which bound the Republic to keep its freebooters in
order.

But in the meantime the Cossacks themselves had become
a semi-independent community. The origin of the Cossack
state is still somewhat obscure, but the germs of it are visible
as early as the beginning of the 16th century. The union of
Lublin, which led to the polonization of Lithuania, was the
immediate occasion of a considerable exodus to the lowlands of
the Dnieper of those serfs who desired to escape from the taxes
of the Polish government and the tyranny of the Polish land-
lords. Stephen Bathory presently converted the pick of them
into six registered regiments of 1000 each for the defence of the
border. Ultimately the island of Hortica, just below the falls
of the Dnieper, was fixed upon as their headquarters; and on the
numerous islands of that broad river there gradually arose the
famous Cossack community known as the Zaporozhshaya Syech,
or Settlement behind the Falls, whence the Dnieperian Cossacks
were known, generally, as Zaporozhians, or Backfallsmen. 1 The
Cossack kosh, or commonwealth, had the privilege of electing
its hetman, or chief, and his chief officers, the starshins. The
hetman, after election, received from the king of Poland direct
the insignia of his office, viz. the bulawa, or baton, the bunchuk,
or horse-tail standard, and his official seal; but he was respon-
sible for his actions to the kosh alone, and an inquiry into his
conduct was held at the expiration of his term of office in the
obschaya shkoda, or general assembly. In time of peace his
power was little more than that of the responsible minister of
a constitutional republic; but in time of warfare he was a
dictator, and disobedience to his orders in the field was punish-
able by death.

The Cossacks were supposed to be left alone as much as possible
by the Polish government so long as they faithfully fulfilled
their chief obligation of guarding the frontiers of the Republic
from Tatar raids. But the relations between a community of
freebooters, mostly composed of fugitive serfs and refugees,
and a government of small squires who regarded the Cossacks
as a mere rabble were bound to be difficult at the best of times,
and political and religious differences presently supervened.
The Cossacks, mostly of Lithuanian origin, belonged to the
Orthodox religion, so far as they belonged to any religion at
all, and the Jagiellos had been very careful to safeguard the
religious liberties of their Lithuanian subjects, especially as
the Poles themselves were indifferent on the subject. But, at the
beginning of the 17 th century, when the current of the Catholic
reaction was running very strongly and the Jesuits, after
subduing the Protestants, began to undermine the position of
the Orthodox Church in Lithuania, a more intolerant spirit
1 Cf. American, Backwoodsmen.

began to prevail. The old Calvinist nobility of Lithuania were
speedily reconverted; a Uniate Church in connexion with Rome
was established; Greek Orthodox congregations, if not generally
persecuted, were at least depressed and straitened; and the
Cossacjcs began to hate the Pans, or Polish lords, not merely
as tyrants, but as heretics. Yet all these obstacles to a good
understanding might, perhaps, have been surmounted if only
the Polish diet had treated the Cossacks with common fairness
and common sense. In 1619 the Polish government was
obliged to prohibit absolutely the piratical raids of the Cossacks
in the Black Sea, where they habitually destroyed Turkish
property to the value of millions. At the same time, by the
compact of Rastawica, the sejm undertook to allow the Cossacks,
partly as wages, partly as compensation, 40,000 (raised by the
compact of Kurukow to 60,000) gulden and 170 wagons of
cloth per annum. These terms were never kept, despite the
earnest remonstrances of the king, and the complaints of the
aggrieved borderers. Parsimony prevailed, as usual, over
prudence, and when the Cossacks showed unmistakable signs
of restiveness, the Poles irritated them still further by ordering
the construction of the strong fortress of Kudak at the confluence
of the Dnieper and the Samara, to overawe the Zaporozhian
community. This further act of repression led to two ter-
rible Cossack risings, in 1635 an d !636, put down only with
the utmost difficulty, whereupon the diet of 1638 deprived
the Cossacks of all their ancient privileges, abolished the
elective hetmanship, and substituted for it a commission of
Polish noblemen with absolute power, so that the Cossacks
might well declare that those who hated them were lords
over them.

Such was the condition of affairs in the Ukraine when Wladis-
laus IV. proposed to make the Cossacks the pivot of his foreign
policy and his domestic reforms. His far-reaching plans were
based upon two facts, the absolute devotion of the Zaporozhians
to himself personally, and the knowledge, secretly conveyed
to him by Stanislaus Koniecpolski (q.v.), that the whole of the
Ukraine was in a ferment. He proposed to provoke the Tatars
to a rupture by repudiating the humiliating tribute with which
the Republic had so long and so vainly endeavoured to buy off
their incessant raids. In case of such rupture he meant, at the
head of 100,000 Cossacks, to fall upon the Crimea itself, the seat
of their power, and exterminate the Khanate. This he calcu-
lated would bring about a retaliatory invasion of Poland by
the Turks, which would justify him in taking the field against
them also with all the forces of the Republic. In case of success
he would be able to impose the will of a victorious king upon a
discredited diet, and reform the constitution on an English or
Swedish model. Events seemed at first to favour this audacious
speculation. Almost simultaneously a civil war broke out in
the Crimea and the Porte declared war against the Venetian
republic, with which Wladislaus at once concluded an offensive
and defensive alliance (1645). He then bade the Cossacks
prepare their boats for a raid upon the Turkish galleys, and
secured the co-operation of the tsar in the Crimean expedition
by a special treaty. Unfortunately, Venice, for her own
safety's sake, insisted on the publication of Wladislaus's anti-
Turkish alliance; the Porte, well informed of the course of Polish
affairs, remained strictly neutral despite the most outrageous
provocations; and Wladislaus, bound by his coronation oath
not to undertake an offensive war, found himself at the mercy
of the diet which, full of consternation and rage, assembled at
Warsaw on the 2nd of May 1647. It is needless to say that the
Venetian alliance was repudiated and the royal power still
further reduced. A year later Wladislaus died at his hunting-
box at Merecz, at the very moment when the long-impending
tempest which he himself had conjured up burst with over-
whelming fury over the territories of the Republic.

The prime mover of the great rebellion of 1648, which shook
the Polish state to its very foundations, was the Cossack Bohdan
Chmielnicki (q.v.), who had been initiated in all the plans of
Wladislaus IV. and, with good reason, feared to be the first
victim of the Polish magnates when the king's designs were

HISTORY]

POLAND

.9*5

unmasked and frustrated. To save himself he hit upon the novel
and terrible expedient of uniting the Tatars and the Cossacks
Cossack in a determined onslaught upon the Republic, whose
Rebellion of inward weakness, despite its brave outward show,
l648m he had been quick to discern. On the 18th of April

1648, at the general assembly of the Zaporozhians, he openly
expressed his intention of proceeding against the Poles and was
elected hetman by acclamation; on the 19th of May he annihi-
lated a small detached Polish corps on the banks of the river
Zheltndya Vodui, and seven days later overwhelmed the army
of the Polish grand-hetman, massacring 8500 of his 10,000 men
and sending the grand-heiman himself and all his officers in
chains to the Crimea. The immediate consequence of these
victories was the outburst of a khlopskaya zioba, or " serfs'
fury." Throughout the Ukraine the gentry were hunted down,
flayed, burnt, blinded and sawn asunder. Every manor-house
and castle was reduced to ashes. Every Uniate or Catholic
priest •who could be caught was hung up before his own high
altar, along with a Jew and a hog. The panic-stricken inhabi-
tants fled to the nearest strongholds, and soon the rebels were
swarming over the palatinates of Volhynia and Podolia. Mean-
while the Polish army, 40,000 strong, with 100 guns, was assem-
bling on the frontier. It consisted almost entirely of the noble
militia, and was tricked out with a splendour more befitting
a bridal pageant than a battle array. For Chmielnicki and his
host these splendid cavaliers expressed the utmost contempt.
" This rabble must be chased with whips, not smitten with
swords," they cried. On the 23rd of September the two armies
encountered near Pildawa, and after a stubborn three days'
contest the gallant Polish pageant was scattered to the winds.
The steppe for miles around was strewn with corpses, and the
Cossacks are said to have reaped 10,000,000 guldens worth of
booty when the fight was over. All Poland now lay at Chmiel-
nicki's feet, and the road to the defenceless capital was open
John 11. before him ; but he wasted two precious months in
Casimir, vain before the fortress of Zamosc, and then the
1648-1668. new iy elected king of Poland, John Casimir, Wladis-
laus IV. 's brother, privately opened negotiations with the rebel,
officially recognized him by sending hirn the bulawa and the
other insignia of the hetman's dignity, and promised his " faithful
Zaporozhians " the restoration of all their ancient liberties if
they would break off their alliance with the Tatars and await
the arrival of peace commissioners at Pereyaslavl. But the
negotiations at Pereyaslavl came to nothing. Chmielnicki's
conditions of peace were so extravagant that the Polish com-
missioners durst not accept them, and in 1649 he again invaded
Poland with a countless host of Cossacks and Tatars. Again,
however, he made the mistake of attacking a fortress, which
delayed his advance for a month, and gave John Casimir time
to collect an army for the relief of the besieged. By the com-
pact of Zborow (Aug 21, 1649) Chmielnicki was recognized as
hetman of the Zaporozhians, whose registered number was now
raised from 6000 to 40,000; a general amnesty was also granted,
and it was agreed that all official dignities in the Orthodox palati-
nates of Lithuania should henceforth be held solely by the
Orthodox gentry. For the next eighteen months Chmielnicki
ruled the Ukraine like a sovereign prince. He made Chigirin,
his native place, the Cossack capital, subdivided the country into
sixteen provinces, and entered into direct relations with foreign
powers. His attempt to carve a principality for his son out of
Moldavia led to the outbreak of a third war between suzerain
and subject in February 1651. But fortune, so long Bohdan's
friend, now deserted him, and at Beresteczko (July 1, 1651) the
Cossack chieftain was utterly routed by Stephen Czarniecki.
All hope of an independent Cossackdom was now at an end; yet
it was not Poland but Muscovy which reaped the fruits of
Czarniecki's victory.

Chmielnicki, by suddenly laying bare the nakedness of the
Polish republic, had opened the eyes of Muscovy to the fact
that her secular enemy was no longer formidable. Three years
after his defeat at Beresteczko, Chmielnicki, finding himself
unable to cope with the Poles single-handed, very reluctantly

transferred his allegiance to the tsar, and the same year the
tsar's armies invaded Poland, still bleeding from the all but
mortal wounds inflicted on her by the Cossacks. The war
thus begun, and known in Russian history as the The Rus-
Thirteen Years' War, far exceeded even the Thirty siansinvade
Years' War in grossness and brutality. It resembled Polani -
nothing so much as a hideous scramble of ravening beasts and
obscene fowls for the dismembered limbs of a headless carcase,
for such did Poland seem to all the world before the war was half
over. In the summer of 1655, moreover, while the Republic
was still reeling beneath the shock of the Muscovite invasion,
Charles X. of Sweden, on the flimsiest of pretexts, i avas ion 0/
forced a war upon reluctant and inoffensive Poland, Charles x.
simply to gratify his greed of martial glory, and of Sweden,
before the year was out his forces had occupied the
capital, the coronation city and the best half of the land. King
John Casimir, betrayed and abandoned by his own subjects,
fled to Silesia, and profiting by the cataclysm which, for the
moment, had swept the Polish state out of existence, the Mus-
covites, unopposed, quickly appropriated nearly everything
which was not already occupied by the Swedes. At this crisis
Poland owed her salvation to two events — the formation of a
general league against Sweden, brought about by the appre-
hensive court of Vienna and an almost simultaneous popular
outburst of religious enthusiasm on the part of the Polish people.
The first of these events, to be dated from the alliance between
the emperor Leopold and John Casimir, on the 27th of May 1657,
led to a truce with the tsar and the welcome diversion of all the
Muscovite forces against Swedish Livonia. The second event,
which began with the heroic and successful defence of the
monastery of Czenstochowa by Prior Kordecki against the
Swedes, resulted in the return of the Polish king from exile,
the formation of a national army under Stephen Czarniecki and
the recovery of almost all the lost provinces from the Swedes,
who were driven back headlong to the sea, where with difficulty
they held their own. On the sudden death of Charles X. (Feb.
13, 1660), Poland gladly seized the opportunity of adjusting
all her outstanding differences with Sweden. By the peace
of Oliva (May 3, 1660), made under French mediation, John
Casimir ceded Livonia, and renounced all claim to the Swedish
crown. The war with Muscovy was then prosecuted with
renewed energy and extraordinary success. In the autumn of
1661 the Russian commanders were routed at Zeromsk, and
nearly all the eastern provinces were recovered. In 1664 a
peace congress was opened at Durovicha and the prospects of
Poland seemed most brilliant; but at the very moment when
she needed all her armed strength to sustain her diplomacy,
the rebellion of one of her leading magnates, Prince Lubomirsky,
involved her in a dangerous civil war, compelled her to reopen
negotiations with the Muscovites, at Andrussowo, under far
more unfavourable conditions, and after protracted negotiations
practically to accept the Muscovite terms. By the truce of
Andrussowo (Feb. n, 1667) Poland received back The Trace
from Muscovy Vitebsk, Polotsk and Polish Livonia, of Andms-
but ceded in perpetuity Smolensk, Syeversk, Cherni- sowo > t667 -
gov and the whole of the eastern bank of the Dnieper, including
the towns of Konotop, Gadyach, Pereyaslavl, Mirgorod, Poltava
and Izyum. The Cossacks of the Dnieper were henceforth to
be under the joint dominion of the tsar and the king of Poland.
Kiev, the religious metropolis of western Russia, was to remain
in the hands of Muscovy for two years.

The " truce " of Andrussowo proved to be one of the most
permanent peaces in history, and Kiev, though only pledged
for two years, was never again to be separated from the Orthodox
Slavonic state to which it rightly belonged. But for the terrible
and persistent ill-luck of Poland it is doubtful whether the
" truce " of Andrussowo would ever have been signed. The
war which it concluded was to be the last open struggle between
the two powers. Henceforth the influence of Russia over
Poland was steadily to increase, without any struggle at all,
the Republic being already stricken with that creeping paralysis
which ultimately left her a prey to her neighbours. Muscovy

916

POLAND

[HISTORY

had done with Poland as an adversary, and had no longer any
reason to fear her ancient enemy.

Poland had, in fact, emerged from the cataclysm of 1648-1667
a moribund state, though her not unskilful diplomacy had
enabled her for a time to save appearances. Her territorial
losses, though considerable, were, in the circumstances, not
excessive, and she was still a considerable power in the opinion
of Europe. But a fatal change had come over the country
during the age of the Vasas. We have already seen how the
ambition of the oligarchs and the lawlessness of the szlachta had
reduced the executive to impotence, and rendered anything
like rational government impossible. But these demoralizing
and disintegrating influences had been suspended by the religious
revival due to the Catholic reaction and the Jesuit propaganda,
a revival which reached its height towards the end of the 16th
century. This, on the whole, salutary and edifying move-
ment permeated public life, and produced a series of great
captains who cheerfully sacrificed themselves for their country,
and would have been saints if they had not been heroes. But
this extraordinary religious revival had wellnigh spent itself
by the middle of the 17th century. Its last manifestation was
the successful defence of the monastery of Czenstochowa by
Prior Kordecki against the finest troops in Europe, its last
representative was Stephen Czarniecki, who brought the fugitive
John Casimir back from exile and reinstalled him on his tottering
throne. The succeeding age was an age of unmitigated egoism,
Orowiag in which the old ideals were abandoned and the old
Corruption examples were forgotten. It synchronized with, and
la Poland. was p ar tly determined by, the new political system
which was spreading all over Europe, the system of dynastic
diplomatic competition and the unscrupulous employment of
unlimited secret service funds. This system, which dates from
Richelieu and culminated in the reign of Louis XIV., was based
on the secular rivalry of the houses of Bourbon and Habs-
burg, and presently divided all Europe into two hostile camps.
Louis XIV. is said to have expended 50,000,000 livres a year for
bribing purposes, the court of Vienna was scarcely less liberal,
and very soon nearly all the monarchs of the Continent and
their ministers were in the pay of one or other of the antagonists.
Poland was no exception to the general rule. Her magnates,
having already got all they could out of their own country,
looked eagerly abroad for fresh El Dorados. Before long most
of them had become the hirelings of France or Austria, and the
value demanded for their wages was, not infrequently, the
betrayal of their own country. To do them justice, the szlachta
at first were not only free from the taint of official corruption,
but endeavoured to fight against it. Thus, at the election diet
of 1669, one of the deputies, Pieniaszek, moved that a new and
hitherto unheard-of clause should be inserted in the agenda of
the general confederation, to the effect that every senator and
deputy should solemnly swear not to take bribes, while another
szlacic proposed that the ambassadors of foreign Powers should
be excluded permanently from the Polish elective assemblies.
But the flighty and ignorant szlachta not only were incapable
of any sustained political action, but they themselves uncon-
sciously played into the hands of the enemies of their country
by making the so-called liberum veto an integral part of the Polish
constitution. The liberum veto was based on the assumption
of the absolute political equality of every Polish gentleman,
with the inevitable corollary that every measure introduced into
the Polish diet must be adopted unanimously. Consequently,
if any single deputy believed that a measure already approved
of by the rest of the house might be injurious to his constituency,
he had the right to rise and exclaim nie pozwalam, " I disap-
prove," when the measure in question fell at once to the ground.
Subsequently this vicious principle was extended still further.
A deputy, by interposing his individual veto, could at any time
dissolve the diet, when all measures previously passed had to be
re-submitted to the consideration of the following diet. The
liberum veto seems to have been originally devised to cut short
interminable debates in times of acute crisis, but it was generally
used either by highly placed criminals, anxious to avoid an

inquiry into their misdeeds, 1 or by malcontents, desirous of
embarrassing the executive. The origin of the liberum veto
is obscure, but it was first employed by the deputy Wladislaus
Sicinski, who dissolved the diet of 1632 by means of it, and before
the end of the 17 th century it was used so frequently and reck-
lessly that all business was frequently brought to a standstill.
In later days it became the chief instrument of foreign ambassa-
dors for dissolving inconvenient diets, as a deputy could always
be bribed to exercise his veto for a handsome consideration.

The Polish crown first became an object of universal com-
petition in 1573, when Henry of Valois was elected. In 1575,
and again in 1587, it was put up for public auction, when the
Hungarian Bathory and the Swede Sigismund respectively
gained the prize. But at all three elections, though money and
intrigue were freely employed, they were not the determining
factors of the contest. The Polish gentry were still the umpires
as well as the stake-holders; the best candidates generally won
the day; and the defeated competitors were driven out of the
country by force of arms if they did not take their discomfiture,
after a fair fight, like sportsmen. But with the £j ect i oao f
election of Michael Wisniowiecki in 1669 a new era Michael
began. In this case a native Pole was freely elected Wisnio-
by the unanimous vote of his countrymen. Yet a ^^0.1^73,
few weeks later the Polish commander-in-chief formed
a whole series of conspiracies for the purpose of dethroning his
lawful sovereign, and openly placed himself beneath the protec-
tion of Louis XIV. of France, just as the rebels of the 18th
century placed themselves under the protection of Catherine II.
of Russia. And this rebel was none other than John Sobieski,
at a later day the heroic deliverer of Vienna ! If heroes could
so debase themselves, can we wonder if men who were not heroes
lent themselves to every sort of villainy? We have come, in
fact, to the age of utter shamelessness, when disappointed
place-hunters openly invoked foreign aid against their own
country. Sobieski himself, as John III. (he sue- John ill.
ceeded Michael in 1674), was to pay the penalty Sobieski,
of his past lawlessness, to the uttermost farthing.
Despite his brilliant military achievements (see John III.,
King of Poland), his reign of twenty-two years was a
failure. His victories over the Turks were fruitless so far as
Poland was concerned. His belated attempts to reform the
constitution only led to conspiracies against his life and crown,
in which the French faction, which he had been the first to
encourage, took an active part. In his later years Lithuania
was in a state of chronic revolt, while Poland was bankrupt
both morally and materially. He died a broken-hearted man,
prophesying the- inevitable ruin of a nation which he himself
had done so much to demoralize.

It scarcely seemed possible for Poland to sink lower than she
had sunk already. Yet an era was now to follow, compared
with which even the age of Sobieski seemed to be an age of gold.
This was the Saxon period which, with occasional violent
interruptions, was to drag on for nearly seventy years. By the
time it was over Poland was irretrievably doomed. It only
remained to be seen how that doom would be accomplished.

On the death of John III. no fewer than eighteen candidates
for the vacant Polish throne presented themselves. Austria
supported James Sobieski, the eldest son of the late

king, France Francis Louis Prince of Conti (1664- 1697-1704."
1709), but the successful competitor was Frederick
Augustus, elector of Saxony, who cheerfully renounced
Lutheranism for the coveted crown, and won the day
because he happened to arrive last of all, with fresh funds,
when the agents of his rivals had spent all their money. He
was crowned, as Augustus II., on the 15th of September 1697,
and his first act was to expel from the country the prince of
Conti, the elect of a respectable minority, directed by the
cardinal primate Michal Radziejowski (1645-1705), whom
Augustus II. subsequently bought over for 75,000 thalers.

1 Thus the Sapiehas, who had been living on rapine for years,
dissolved the diet of 1688 by means of the veto of one of their hire-
lings, for fear of an investigation into their conduct.

HISTORY]

POLAND

917

Good luck attended the opening years of the new reign. In
1699 the long Turkish War, which had been going on ever since
1683, was concluded by the peace of Karlowitz, whereby Podolia,
the Ukraine and the fortress of Kamenets Podolskiy were
retroceded to the Republic by the Ottoman Porte. Immediately
afterwards Augustus was persuaded by the plausible Livonian
exile, Johan Reinhold Patkul, to form a nefarious league with
Frederick of Denmark and Peter of Russia, for the purpose of
despoiling the youthful king of Sweden, Charles XII. (see
Sweden: History). This he did as elector of Saxony, but it was
War with the unfortunate Polish republic which paid for the
Charles XII. hazardous speculation of its newly elected king.
of Sweden. Throughout the Great Northern War (see Sweden:
History), which wasted northern and central Europe for
twenty years (1700-1720), all the belligerents treated Poland
as if she had no political existence. Swedes, Saxons and
Russians not only lived upon the country, but plundered
it systematically. The diet was the humble servant of the
conqueror of the moment, and the leading magnates chose
their own sides without the slightest regard for the interests
of their country, the Lithuanians for the most part supporting
Charles XII., while the Poles divided their allegiance between
Stanislaus Augustus and Stanislaus Leszczynski, whom Charles
Leszczyh- placed upon the throne in 1704 and kept there till
* kL 1700- At the end of the war Poland was ruined

materially as well as politically. Augustus attempted to
indemnify himself for his failure to obtain Livonia, his
covenanted share of the Swedish plunder, by offering Frederick
William of Prussia Courland, Polish Prussia and even part of
Great Poland, provided that he were allowed a free hand in the
disposal of the rest of the country. When Prussia declined this
tempting offer for fear of Russia, Augustus went a step farther
and actually suggested that " the four 1 eagles " should divide
the banquet between them. He died, however (Feb. 1, 1733)
before he could give effect to this shameless design.

On the death of Augustus II., Stanislaus Leszczynski, who
had. in the meantime, become the father-in-law of Louis XV.,
attempted to regain his throne with the aid of a small French
army corps and 4,000,000 livres from Versailles. Some of the
best men in Poland, including the Czartoryscy, were also in his
favour, and on the 26th of August 1733 he was elected king for
the second time. But there were many malcontents, principally
among the Lithuanians, who solicited the intervention of Russia
'n favour of the elector of Saxony, son of the late king, and in
October 1733 a Russian army appeared before Warsaw and
compelled a phantom diet (it consisted of but 15 senators and
Augustus 500 of the szlochtd) to proclaim Augustus III. From
til., 1733- the end of 1733 till the 30th of June 1734 Stanislaus
,763 ' and his partisans were besieged by the Russians in

Danzig, their last refuge, and with the surrender of that for-
tress the cause of Stanislaus was lost. He retired once more
to his little court in Lorraine, with the title of king, leaving
Augustus III. in possession of the kingdom.

Augustus III. was disqualified by constitutional indolence
from taking any active part in affairs. He left everything to
his omnipotent minister, Count Heinrich Briihl, and Briihl
entrusted the government of Poland to the Czartoryscy, who
had intimate relations of long standing with the court of Dresden.
The Czartoryscy, who were to dominate Polish politics for
the next half-century, came of an ancient Ruthenian stock which
had intermarried with the Jagiellos at an early date, and had
always been remarkable for their civic virtues and political
sagacity. They had powerfully contributed to the adoption
of the Union of Lublin; were subsequently received into the
Roman Catholic Church; and dated the beginning of their influ-
ence in Poland proper from the time (1674) when Florian
Czartoryski became primate ihere. Florian's nephews, Fryderyk
Michal and Augustus, were now the principal representatives
of " the Family," as their opponents sarcastically called them.
The former, through the influence of Augustus's minister and
favourite Briihl, had become, in his twenty-eighth year, vice-
1 The fourth eagle was the White Eagle, i.e. Poland.

chancellor and subsequently grand chancellor of Lithuania,
was always the political head of the family. His brother and
Augustus, after fighting with great distinction against the Turks
both by land and sea (Prince Eugene decorated him with a
sword of honour for his valour at the siege of Belgrade), had
returned home to marry Sophia Sieniawska, whose fabulous
dowry won for her husband the sobriquet of " the Family
Croesus." Their sister Constantia had already married Stanislaus
Poniatowski, the father of the future king. Thus wealth,
position, court influence and ability combined gave the Czar-
toryscy a commanding position in Poland, and, to their honour
be it said, they had determined from the first to save the Republic,
whose impending ruin in existing circumstances they clearly
foresaw, by a radical constitutional reconstruction which was
to include the abolition of the liberum veto and the formation
of a standing army.

Unfortunately the other great families of Poland were obstin-
ately opposed to any reform or, as they called it, any "violation"
of the existing constitution. The Potoccy, whose possessions
in south Poland and the Ukraine covered thousands of square
miles, the RadziwiHowie, who were omnipotent in Lithuania
and included half a dozen millionaires 2 amongst them, the
Lubomirscy and their fellows, hated the Czartoryscy because
they were too eminent, and successfully obstructed all their
well-meant efforts. The castles of these great lords were the foci
of the social and political life of their respective provinces. Here
they lived like little princes, surrounded by thousands of re-
tainers, whom they kept for show alone, making no attempt to
organize and discipline this excellent military material for the
defence of their defenceless country. Here congregated hundreds
of the younger szlachta, fresh from their school benches, whence
they brought nothing but a smattering of Latin and a determina-
tion to make their way by absolute subservience to their " elder
brethren," the pans. These were the men who, a little later,
at the bidding of their " benefactors," dissolved one inconvenient
diet after another; for it is a significant fact that during the
reigns of the two Augustuses every diet was dissolved in this way
by the hirelings of some great lord or, still worse, of some foreign
potentate. In a word constitutional government had practically
ceased, and Poland had become an arena in which contesting
clans strove together for the mastery.

It was against this primitive state of things that the Czar-
toryscy struggled, and struggled in vain. First they attempted
to abolish the liberum veto with the assistance of the Saxon court
where they were supreme, but fear of foreign complications and
the opposition of the Potoccy prevented anything being done.
Then they broke with their old friend Briihl and turned to
Russia. Their chief intermediary was their nephew Stanislaus
Poniatowski, whom they sent, as Saxon minister, to the Russian
court in the suite of the English minister Hanbury Williams,
in 1755. The handsome and insinuating Poniatowski speedily
won the susceptible heart of the grand-duchess Catherine, but
he won nothing else and returned to Poland in 1759 somewhat
discredited. Disappointed in their hopes of Russia, the Czar-
toryscy next attempted to form a confederation for the deposi-
tion of Augustus III., but while the strife of factions was still
at its height the absentee monarch put an end to the struggle
by expiring, conveniently, on the 5th of October 1763.

The interregnum occurring on the death of Augustus III.
befell at a time when all the European powers, exhausted by
the Seven Years' War, earnestly desired peace. The position
of Poland was, consequently, much more advantageous than
it had been on every other similar occasion, and if only the
contending factions had been able to agree and unite, the final
catastrophe might, perhaps, even now, have been averted.
The Czartoryscy, of all men, were bound by their principles
and professions to set their fellow citizens an example of fraternal
concord. Yet they rejected with scorn and derision the pacific
overtures of their political opponents, the Potoccy, the Radzi-
wiHowie, and the Braniscy, Prince Michal openly declaring that of
two tyrannies he preferred the tyranny of the Muscovite to the
2 Michal Kazimierz Radziwill alone was worth thirty millions.

9i8

POLAND

[HISTORY

tyranny of his equals. He had in fact already summoned a
Russian army corps to assist him to reform his country, which
sufficiently explains his own haughtiness and the unwonted
compliancy of the rival magnates.

The simplicity of the Czartoryscy was even more mischievous
than their haughtiness. When the most enlightened statesmen
of the Republic could seriously believe in the benevolent in-
tentions of Russia the end was not far off. Their naive expecta-
tions were very speedily disappointed. Catherine II. and
Frederick II. had already determined (Treaty of St Petersburg,
April 22, 1764) that the existing state of things in Poland must
be maintained, and as early as the 18th of October 1763 Catherine
had recommended the election of Stanislaus Poniatowski as
" the individual most convenient for our common interests."
The personal question did not interest Frederick: so long as
Poland was kept in an anarchical condition he cared not who
was called king. Moreover, the opponents of the Czartoryscy
made no serious attempt to oppose the entry of the Russian
troops. At least 40,000 men were necessary for the purpose,
and these could have been obtained for 200,000 ducats; but a
congress of magnates, whose collective fortunes amounted to
hundreds of millions, having decided that it was impossible to
raise this sum, there was nothing for it but to fight a few skirmishes
and then take refuge abroad. The Czartoryscy now fancied
themselves the masters of the situation. They at once proceeded
to pass through the convocation diet a whole series of salutary
measures. Four special commissions were appointed to super-
intend the administration of justice, the police and the finances.
The extravagant powers of the grand hetmans and the grand
marshals were reduced. All financial and economical questions
before the diet were henceforth to be decided by a majority of
Stanislaus votes - Shortly afterwards Stanislaus Poniatowski
//. Ponia- was elected king (Sept. 7, 1764) and crowned (Nov.
towski, 25). But at the beginning of 1766 Prince Nicholas
* Repnin was sent as Russian minister to Warsaw
with instructions which can only be described as a carefully
elaborated plan for destroying the Republic. The first weapon
employed was the dissident question. At that time the
population of Poland was, in round numbers, 11,500,000,
of whom about 1,000,000 were dissidents or dissenters. Half
of these were the Protestants of the towns of Polish Prussia and
Great Poland, the other half was composed of the Orthodox
population of Lithuania. The dissidents had no political rights,
and their religious liberties had also been unjustly restricted;
but two-thirds of them being agricultural labourers, and most
of the rest artisans or petty tradesmen, they had no desire to
enter public life, and were so ignorant and illiterate that their
new protectors, on a closer acquaintance, became heartily
ashamed of them. Yet it was for these persons that Repnin,
in the name of the empress, now demanded absolute equality,
political and religious, with the gentlemen of Poland. He was
well aware that an aristocratic and Catholic assembly like the
sejm would never concede so preposterous a demand. He also
calculated that the demand itself would make the szlachta
suspicious of all reform, including the Czartoryscian reforms,
especially as both the king and his uncles were generally un-
popular, as being innovators under foreign influence. His
calculations were correct. The sejm of 1766 not only rejected
the dissident bill, but repealed all the Czartoryscian reforms
and insisted on the retention of the liberum veto as the foundation
of the national liberties. The discredit into which Stanislaus
had now fallen encouraged the Saxon party, led by Gabriel
Podoski (17 1 9-1 7 7 7), to form a combination for the purpose of
dethroning the king. Repnin knew that the allied courts would
never consent to such a measure; but he secretly encouraged
the plot for his own purposes, with signal success. Early in
1767 the malcontents, fortified by the adhesion of the leading
Catherine n. political refugees, formed a confederation at Radom,
of Russia whose first act was to send a deputation to St
and Poland. Petersburg, petitioning Catherine to guarantee the
liberties of the Republic, and allow the form of the Polish
constitution to be settled by the Russian ambassador at

Warsaw. With this carte blanche in his pocket, Repnin
proceeded to treat the diet as if it were already the slave of
the Russian empress. But despite threats, wholesale corrup-
tion and the presence of Russian troops outside and even inside
the izba, or chamber of deputies, the patriots, headed by four
bishops, Woclaw Hieronim Sierakowski (1699-1784) of Lemberg,
Feliks Pawel Turski of Chelm (1720-1800), Kajetan Ignaty
Soltyk of Cracow (1715-1788), and Jozef Jendrzej Zaluski of
Kiev (1702-17 74), offered a determined resistance to Repnin's
demands. Only when brute force in its extremest form had
been ruthlessly employed, only when three senators and some
deputies had been arrested in full session by Russian grenadiers
and sent as prisoners to Kaluga, did the opposition collapse.
The liberum veto and all the other ancient abuses were now
declared unalterable parts of the Polish constitution, which was
placed under the guarantee of Russia. All the edicts against
the dissidents were, at the same time, repealed.

This shameful surrender led to a Catholic patriotic uprising,
known as the Confederation of Bar, which was formed on the
29th of February 1768, at Bar in the Ukraine, by
a handful of small squires. It never had a chance tionofBar.
of permanent success, though, feebly fed by French
subsidies and French volunteers, it lingered on for four years,
till finally suppressed in 1772. But, insignificant itself, it was
the cause of great events. Some of the Bar confederates,
scattered by the Russian regulars, fled over the Turkish border,
pursued by their victors. The Turks, already alarmed at
the progress of the Russians in Poland, and stimulated by Ver-
gennes, at that time French ambassador at Constantinople, at
once declared war against Russia. Seriously disturbed at the
prospect of Russian aggrandizement, the idea occurred, almost
simultaneously, to the courts of Berlin and Vienna that the best
mode of preserving the equilibrium of Europe was for all three
powers to readjust their territories at the expense of Poland.
The idea of a partition of Poland was nothing new, but the vast-
ness of the country, and the absence of sufficiently powerful and
united enemies, had hitherto saved the Republic from spoliation.
But now that Poland lay utterly helpless and surrounded by
the three great military monarchies of Europe, nothing could
save her. In February 1769 Frederick sent Count Rochus
Friedrich Lynar (1708-^83) to St Petersburg to sound the
empress as to the expediency of a partition, in August Joseph II.
solicited an interview with Frederick, and in the course of the
summer the two monarchs met, first at Neisse in Silesia and
again at Neustadt in Moravia. Nothing definite as to Poland
seems to have been arranged, but Prince Kaunitz, the Austrian
chancellor, was now encouraged to take the first step by occupy-
ing, in r77o, the county of Zips, which had been hypothecated
by Hungary to Poland in 1442 and never redeemed. This act
decided the other confederates. In June 1770 Frederick sur-
rounded those of the Polish provinces he coveted with a military
cordon, ostensibly to keep out the cattle plague. Catherine's
consent had been previously obtained by a special mission of
Prince Henry of Prussia to the Russian capital. First Par-
The first treaty of partition was signed at St Peters- tltion of
burg between Prussia and Russia on the 6-1 7th of Poland,
February 1772; the second treaty, which admitted
Austria also to a share of the spoil, on the 5-1 6th of August
the same year. It is unnecessary to recapitulate the unheard-
of atrocities by which the consent of the sejm to this act of
brigandage was at last extorted (Aug. 18, 1773). Russia
obtained the palatinates of Vitebsk, Polotsk Mscislaw: 1586
sq. m. of territory, with a population of 550,000 and an
annual revenue of 920,000 Polish gulden. Austria got the
greater part of Galicia, minus Cracow: 17 10 sq. m., with
a population of 816,000 and an annual revenue of r,4o8,ooo
gulden. Prussia received the maritime palatinate minus
Danzig, the palatinate of Kulm minus Thorn, Great Poland as far
as the Nitza, and the palatinates of Marienburg and Ermeland:
629 sq. m., with a population of 378,000, and an annual
revenue of 534,000 thalers. In fine, Poland lost about one-fifth
of her population and one-fourth of her territory.

HISTORY]

POLAND

919

In return for these enormous concessions the partitioning
powers presented the Poles with a constitution superior to any-
thing they had ever been able to devise for themselves. The
most mischievous of the ancient abuses, the elective monarchy
and the liberum veto, were of course retained. Poland was to
be dependent on her despoilers, but they evidently meant to
make her a serviceable dependant. The government was hence-
forth to be in the hands of a rada nieustajaca, or permanent
council of thirty-six members, eighteen senators and eighteen
deputies, elected biennially by the sejm in secret ballot, sub-
divided into the five departments of foreign affairs, police, war,
justice and the exchequer, whose principal members and assist-
ants, as well as all other public functionaries, were to have fixed
salaries. The royal prerogative was still further reduced. The
king was indeed the president of the permanent council, but he
could not summon the diet without its consent, and in all cases
of preferment was bound to select one out of three of the council's
nominees. The annual budget was fixed at 30,000,000 Polish
gulden, 1 out of which a regular army of 3o,ooo 2 men was to
be maintained. Sentiment apart, the constitution of 1775 was
of distinct benefit to Poland. It made for internal stability,
order and economy, and enabled her to develop and husband
her resources, and devote herself uninterruptedly to the now
burning question of national education. For the shock of the
first partition was so far salutary that it awoke the public con-
science to a sense of the national inferiority; stimulated the
younger generation to extraordinary patriotic efforts; and thus
went far to produce the native reformers who were to do such
wonders during the great quadrennial diet.

It was the second Turkish War of Catherine II. which gave
patriotic Poland her last opportunity of re-establishing her
independence. The death of Frederick the Great (Aug. 17, 1786)
completely deranged the balance of power in Europe. The
long-standing accord between Prussia and Russia came to an
end, and while the latter drew nearer to Austria, the former
began to look to the Western powers. In August 1787 Russia
and Austria provoked the Porte to declare war against them both,
and two months later a defensive alliance was concluded be-
tween Prussia, England and Holland, as a counterpoise to the
alarming preponderance of Russia. In June 1788 Gustavus III.
of Sweden also attacked Russia, with 50,000 men, while in the
south the Turks held the Muscovites at bay beneath the walls
of Ochakov, and drove back the Austrian invaders into Transyl-
vania. Prussia, emboldened by Russia's difficulties, now went
so far as to invite Poland also to forsake the Russian alliance,
and placed an army corps of 40,000 men at her disposal.

It was under these exceptional circumstances that the " four
years' diet " assembled (Oct. 6, 1788). Its leaders, Stanislaw
Reform of Malachowski, Hugo Kollontaj and Ignaty Potocki,
the Con- were men of character and capacity, and its measures
i7«s" 00 ' were correspondingly vigorous. Within a few months
of its assembling it had abolished the permanent
council; enlarged the royal prerogative; raised the army
to 65,000 men; established direct communications with the
Western powers; rejected an alliance which Russia, alarmed
at the rapid progress of events, had hastened to offer; declared
its own session permanent ; and finally settled down to the crucial
task of reforming the constitution on modern lines. But the
difficulties of the patriots were commensurate with their energies,
and though the new constitution was drafted so early as Decem-
ber 1789, it was not till May 1791 that it could safely be presented
to the diet. Meanwhile Poland endeavoured to strengthen her
position by an advantageous alliance with Prussia. Frederick
William II. stipulated, at first, that Poland should surrender
Danzig and Thorn, and Pitt himself endeavoured to persuade
the Polish minister Michal Kleophas Oginski (1765-1833) that
the protection of Prussia was worth the sacrifice. But the Poles
proving obstinate, and Austria simultaneously displaying a
disquieting interest in the welfare of the Republic, Prussia, on

1 1 Pol. gulden = 5 silber groschen.

! At the very next diet, 1776, the Poles themselves reduced the
army to 18,000 men.

the 20th of March 1791, concluded an alliance with Poland which
engaged the two powers to guarantee each other's possessions
and render mutual assistance in case either were attacked.

But external aid was useless so long as Poland was hampered
by her anarchical constitution. Hitherto the proceedings of
the diet had not been encouraging. The most indispensable
reforms had been frantically opposed, the debate on the re-
organization of the army had alone lasted six months. It was
only by an audacious surprise that Kollontaj and his associates
contrived to carry through the new constitution. Taking
advantage of the Easter recess, when most of the malcontents
were out of town, they suddenly, on the 3rd of May, brought
the whole question before the diet and demanded urgency for
it. Before the opposition could remonstrate, the marshal of
the diet produced the latest foreign despatches, which unani-
mously predicted another partition, whereupon, at the solemn
adjuration of Ignaty Potocki, King Stanislaus exhorted the
deputies to accept the new constitution as the last means of
saving their country, and himself set the example by swearing
to defend it.

The revolution of the 3rd of May 1791 converted Poland into
an hereditary 3 limited monarchy, with ministerial responsibility
and duennial parliaments. The liberum veto and all the intricate
and obstructive machinery of the anomalous old system were
for ever abolished. All invidious class distinctions were done
away with. The franchise was extended to the towns. Serfdom
was mitigated, preparatorily to its entire abolition; absolute
religious toleration was established, and every citizen declared
equal before the law. Frederick William II. officially congratu-
lated Stanislaus on the success of " the happy revolution which
has at last given Poland a wise and regular government," and
declared it should henceforth be his " chief care to maintain
and confirm the ties which unite us." Cobenzl, the Austrian
minister at St Petersburg, writing to his court immediately
after the reception of the tidings at the Russian capital, describes
the empress as full of consternation at the idea that Poland under
an hereditary dynasty might once more become a considerable
power. But Catherine, still in difficulties, was obliged to watch
in silence the collapse of her party in Poland, and submit to the
double humiliation of recalling her ambassador and withdrawing
her army from the country. Even when the peace of Jassy
(Jan. 9, 1792) finally freed her from the Turk, she waited
patiently for the Polish malcontents to afford her a pretext and
an opportunity for direct and decisive interference. She had not
long to wait. The constitution of the 3rd of May had scarce
been signed when Felix Potocki, Severin Rzewuski and Xavier
Branicki, three of the chief dignitaries of Poland, hastened to
St Petersburg, and there entered into a secret convention with
the empress, whereby she undertook to restore the old constitu-
tion by force of arms, but at the same time promised to respect
the territorial integrity of the Republic. On the 14th of May
1792 the conspirators formed a confederation, consisting, in
the first instance, of only ten other persons, at the little town
of Targowica in the Ukraine, protesting against the constitution
of the 3rd of May as tyrannous and revolutionary, and at the
same time the new Russian minister at Warsaw presented a
formal declaration of war to the king and the diet. The diet
met the crisis with dignity and firmness. The army was at once
despatched to the frontier; the male population was called to
arms, and Ignaty Potocki was sent to Berlin to claim the assist-
ance stipulated by the treaty of the 19th of March 1791. The
king of Prussia, in direct violation of all his oaths and promises,
declined to defend a constitution which had never had his
"concurrence." Thus Poland was left entirely to' Russia
her own resources. The little Polish army of 46,000 overthrows
men, under Prince Joseph Poniatowski and Tadeusz theConsti-
Kosciuszko, did all that was possible under the
circumstances. For more than three months they kept
back the invader, and, after winning three pitched battles,
retired in perfect order on the capital (see Poniatowski, and

3 On the death of Stanislaus, the crown was to pass to the family
of the elector of Saxony.

920

POLAND

[HISTORY

Kosciuszko). But the king, and even Kollontaj, despairing
of success, now acceded to the confederation; hostilities were
suspended; the indignant officers threw up their commissions;
the rank and file were distributed all over the country; the
reformers fled abroad; and the constitution of the 3rd of May
was abolished by the Targowicians as " a dangerous novelty."
The Russians then poured into eastern Poland; the Prussians,
at the beginning of 1793, alarmed lest Catherine should appro-
priate the whole Republic, occupied Great Poland; and a
diminutive, debased and helpless assembly met at Grodno in
order, in the midst of a Russian army corps," to come to an
amicable understanding " with the partitioning powers. After
Second Par- every conceivable means of intimidation had been
tuioa of unscrupulously applied for twelve weeks, the second
Poland. treaty of partition was signed at three o'clock on the
morning of the 23rd of September 1793. By this pactum
subjectionis, as the Polish patriots called it, Russia got all
the eastern provinces of Poland, extending from Livonia to
Moldavia, comprising a quarter of a million of square miles,
while Prussia got Dobrzyn, Kujavia and the greater part of
Great Poland, with Thorn and Danzig. Poland was now reduced
to one-third of her original dimensions, with a population of
about three and a half millions.

The focus of Polish nationality was now transferred from
Warsaw, where the Targowicians and their Russian patrons
k ich, k re ig ne d supreme, to Leipzig, whither the Polish
' patriots, Kosciuszko, Kollontaj and Ignaty Potocki
among the number, assembled from all quarters. From the
first they meditated a national rising, but their ignorance,
enthusiasm and simplicity led them to commit blunder after
blunder. The first of such blunders was Kosciuszko's mission
to Paris, in January 1794. He was full of the idea of a league
of republics against the league of sovereigns; but he was unaware
that the Jacobins themselves were already considering the best
mode of detaching Prussia, Poland's worst enemy, from the
anti-French coalition. With a hypocrisy worthy of the diplo-
macy of " the tyrants," the committee of public safety declared
that it could not support an insurrection engineered by aristo-
crats, and Kosciuszko returned to Leipzig empty-handed. The
next blunder of the Polish refugees was to allow themselves to be
drawn into a premature rising by certain Polish officers in Poland
who, to prevent the incorporation of their regiments in the
Russian army, openly revolted and led their troops from Warsaw
to Cracow. Kosciuszko himself condemned their hastiness;
but, when the Russian troops began to concentrate, his feelings
grew too strong for him, and early in April he himself appeared
at Cracow. In an instant the mutiny became a revolution.
The details of the heroic but useless struggle will be found else-
where (see Kosciuszko, Kollontaj, Potocki, Ignaty, Dom-
browski). Throughout April the Polish arms were almost
universally successful. The Russians were defeated in more
than one pitched battle; three-quarters of the ancient territory
was recovered, and Warsaw and Vilna, the capitals of Poland
and Lithuania respectively, were liberated. Kosciuszko was
appointed dictator, and a supreme council was established
to assist him. The first serious reverse, at Szczekociny
(June 5), was more than made up for by the successful defence
of Warsaw against the Russians and Prussians (July 9 to
Sept. 6); but in the meantime the inveterate lawlessness of
the Poles had asserted itself, as usual, and violent and ceaseless
dissensions, both in the supreme council and in the army,
neutralized the superhuman efforts of the unfortunate but still
undaunted dictator. The death-blow to the movement was
the disaster of Maciejowice (Oct. 10), and it expired amidst the
carnage of Praga (Oct. 29), though the last Polish army corps
did not capitulate till the 18th of November. Yet all the glory
of the bitter struggle was with the vanquished, and if the Poles,
to the last, had shown themselves children in the science of
government, they had at least died on the field of battle like
men. The greed of the three partitioning powers very nearly
led to a rupture between Austria and Prussia; but the tact
and statesmanship of the empress of Russia finally adjusted all

difficulties. On the 24th of October 1795 Prussia acceded to
the Austro-Russian partition compact of the 3rd of January,
and the distribution of the ^conquered provinces Third Par-
was, finally regulated on the 10th of October 1796. titionof
By the third treaty of partition Austria had to be p *> / '""'>
content with Western Galicia and Southern Masovia;
Prussia took Podlachia, and the rest of Masovia, with Warsaw;
and Russia all the rest.

The immediate result of the third partition was an immense
emigration of the more high-spirited Poles who, during] the next
ten years, fought the battles of the French Republic and of
Napoleon all over Europe, but principally against their own
enemies, the partitioning powers. They were known as the
Polish legions, and were commanded by the best Polish generals,
e.g. Joseph Poniatowski and Dombrowski. Only Kosciuszko
stood aloof. Even when, after the peace of Tilsit, the inde-
pendent grand-duchy of Warsaw was constructed out of the
central provinces of Prussian Poland, his distrust of Napoleon
proved to be invincible. He was amply justified by the course
of events. Napoleon's anxiety to conciliate Russia effectually
prevented him from making Poland large and strong enough
to be self-supporting. The grand-duchy of Warsaw originally
consisted of about 1850 sq. m., to which Western Galicia
and Cracow, about 900 sq. m. more, were added in 1809.
The grand-duchy was, from first to last, a mere recruiting-ground
for the French emperor. Its army was limited, on paper, to
30,000 men; but in January 1812 65,000, and in November
the same year 97,000 recruits were drawn from it. The con-
stitution of the little state was dictated by Napoleon, and,
subject to the exigencies of war, was on the French model.
Equality before the law,, absolute religious toleration and local
autonomy, were its salient features. The king of Saxony, as
grand-duke, took the initiative in all legislative matters; but
the administration was practically controlled by the French.

(R.N.B.)

The Congress Kingdom, 1813-1863. — The Grand Duchy of
Warsaw perished with the Grand Army in the retreat from
Moscow in 181 2. The Polish troops had taken a prominent
part in the invasion of Russia, and their share in the plundering
of Smolensk and of Moscow had intensified the racial hatred
felt for them by the Russians. Those of them who survived
or escaped the disasters of the retreat fled before the tsar's army
and followed the fortunes of Napoleon in 1813 and 1814. The
Russians occupied Warsaw on the 18th of February 1813 and
overran the grand duchy, which thus came into their possession
by conquest. Some of the Poles continued to hope ju exaa a e ri.
that Alexander would remember his old favour for and Poland.
them, and would restore their kingdom under his
own rule. Nor was the tsar unwilling to encourage their
delusion. He himself cherished the desire to re-establish
the kingdom for his own advantage. As early as the 13th of
January 18 13 he wrote to assure his former favourite and con-
fidant, Prince Adam Czartoryski, that, " Whatever the Poles
do now to aid in my success, will at the same time serve to
forward the realization of their hopes." But the schemes of
Alexander could be carried out only with the co-operation
of other powers. They refused to consent to the annexation of
Saxony by Prussia, and other territorial arrangements which
would have enabled him to unite all Poland in his The Con-
own hand. By the final act of the Congress of gressof
Vienna, signed on the 9th of June 1815, Poland was vleana -
divided between Prussia, Austria and Russia, with one trifling
exception: Cracow with its population of 61,000 was erected
into a republic embedded in Galicia. Posen and Gnesen, with
a population of 810,000, were left to Prussia. Austria remained
in possession of Galicia with its 1,500,000 inhabitants. Lithuania
and the Ruthenian Palatinates, the spoil of former partitions,
continued to be incorporated with Russia. The remnant was
constituted as the so-called Congress Kingdom under the
emperor of Russia as king (tsar) of Poland. It had been stipu-
lated by the Final Act that the Poles under foreign rule should
be endowed with institutions to preserve their national existence

HISTORY]

POLAND

921

according to such forms of political existence as the governments
to which they belong shall think fit to allow them.

Alexander, who had a sentimental regard for freedom, so
long as it was obedient to himself, had promised the Poles a
The New constitution in April 1815 in a letter to Ostrov-
Poiish Can- skiy, the president of the senate at Warsaw. His
stitutloa, promise was publicly proclaimed on the 25th of
,8ls - May, and was reaffirmed in the Zamok or palace at

Warsaw and the cathedral of St John on the 20th of June.
The constitution thus promised was duly drafted, and was
signed on the 30th of November. It contained 165 articles
divided under seven heads. The kingdom of Poland was
declared to be united to Russia, in the person of the tsar, as
a separate political entity. The kingdom was the Congress
Kingdom, for the vague promises of an extension to the east
which Alexander had made to the Poles were never fulfilled.
Lithuania and the Ruthenian Palatinates continued to be
incorporated with Russia as the Western Provinces and were
divided from the Congress Kingdom by a customs barrier till
the reign of Nicholas I. The kingdom of Poland thus defined
was to have at its head a lieutenant of the emperor (namiestnik) ,
who must be a member of the Imperial house or a Pole. The
first holder of the office, General Zajonczek (1752-1826), was
a veteran who had served Napoleon. Roman Catholicism was
recognized as the religion of the state, but other religions were
tolerated. Liberty of the Press was promised subject to the
passing of a law to restrain its abuses. Individual liberty, the
use of the Polish language in the law courts, and the exclusive
employment of Poles in the civil government were secured by
the constitution. The machinery of government was framed
of a council of state, at which the Imperial government was
represented by a commissioner plenipotentiary, and a diet
divided into a senate composed of the princes of the blood, the
palatines and councillors named for life, and a house of nuntii
elected for seven years, 77 chosen by the " dietines " of the
nobles, and 51 by the commons. The diet was to meet every
other year fcr a session of thirty days, and was to be renewed
by thirds every two years. Poland retained its flag, and a
national army based on that which had been raised by and had
fought for Napoleon. The command of the army was given
to the emperor's brother Constantine, a man of somewhat
erratic character, who did much to offend the Poles by violence,
but also a good deal to please them by his marriage with Johanna
Grudzinska, a Polish lady afterwards created Princess Lowicz,
for whose sake he renounced his right to the throne of Russia
(see Constantine Pavlovich).

The diet met three times during the reign of Alexander, in
1818, in 1820 and in 1825, and was on all three occasions opened
by the tsar, who was compelled to address his subjects in French,
since he did not speak, and would not learn, their language.
It is highly doubtful whether, with the best efforts on both sides,
a constitutional government could have been worked by a
Russian autocrat, and an assembly of men who inherited the
memories and characters of the Poles. In fact the tsar and the
diet soon quarrelled. The Poles would not abolish the jury to
please the tsar, nor conform as he wished them to do to the
Russian law of divorce. Opposition soon arose, and as Alexander
could not understand a freedom which differed from himself,
and would not condescend to the use of corruption, by which
the ancient Polish diets had been managed, he was driven to
use force. The third session of the diet — 13th of May to 13th
of June 1825 — was a mere formality. All publicity was sup-
pressed, and one whole district was disfranchised because it
persisted in electing candidates who were disapproved of at
court. On the other hand, the Poles were also to blame for
the failure of constitutional government. They would agitate
by means of the so-called National Masonry, or National
Patriotic Society as it was afterwards called, for the restoration
of the full kingdom of Poland. The nobles who dominated the
diet did nothing to remove the most crying evil of the country —
the miserable state of the peasants, who had been freed from
personal serfdom by Napoleon in 1807, but were being steadily

driven from their holdings by the landlords. In spite of the
general prosperity of the country due to peace, and the execution
of public works mostly at the expense of Russia, the state of
the agricultural class grew, if anything, worse.

Yet no open breach occurred during the reign of Alexander,
nor for five years after his death in 1825. The Decembrist
movement in Russia had little or no echo in Poland. On the
death of Zajonczek in 1826, the grand duke Constantine be-
came Imperial lieutenant, and his administration, Tne 0raa( j
though erratic, was not unfavourable to displays Duke Con-
of Polish nationality. The Polish army had no slant!ae -
share in the Turkish War of 1829, largely, it is said, at
the request of Constantine, who loved parades and thought
that war was the ruin of soldiers. No attempt was made to
profit by the embarrassments of the Russians in their war with
Turkey. A plot to murder Nicholas at his coronation on the
24th of May 1829 was not carried out, and when he held the
fourth diet on the 30th of May 1830, the Poles made an osten-
tatious show of their nationality which Nicholas was provoked
to describe as possibly patriotic but certainly not civil. Never-
theless, he respected the settlement of 1815. In the meantime
the Patriotic Society had divided into a White or Moderate
party and a Red or Extreme party, which was subdivided into
the Academics or Republicans and the Military or Terrorists.
The latter were very busy and were supported by the Roman
Catholic Church, which did little for the Prussian Poles and
nothing for the Austrian Poles, but was active in harassing the
schismatical government of Russia.

The outbreak of the French Revolution in 1830 and the
revolt of Belgium produced a great effect in Poland. The spread
of a belief, partly justified by the language of Polish
Nicholas, that the Polish army would be used to Rising of
coerce the Belgians, caused great irritation. At last,
on the 1 29th of November 1830, a military revolt took place in
Warsaw accompanied by the murder of the minister of war,
Hauke, himself a Pole, and other loyal officers. The extra-
ordinary weakness of the grand duke allowed the rising to gather
strength. He evacuated Warsaw and finally left the country,
dying at Vitebsk on the 27th of June 1831 (see Constantine
Pavlovich). The war lasted from January till September 1831.
The fact that the Poles possessed a well-drilled army of 23,800
foot, 6800 horse and 108 guns, which they were able to recruit
to a total strength of 80,821 men with 158 guns, gave solidity
to the rising. The Russians, who had endeavoured to over-
awe' Europe by the report of their immense military power,
had the utmost difficulty in putting 114,000 men into the field,
yet in less than a year, under the leadership of Diebitsch, and
then of Paskevich, they mastered the Poles. On the political
and administrative side the struggle of the Poles was weakened
by the faults which had been the ruin of their kingdom —
faction pushed to the point of anarchy, want of discipline,
intrigue and violence, as shown by the abominable massacre
which took place in Warsaw when the defeat of the army was
known. The Poles had begun by protesting that they only
wished to defend their rights against the tsar, but they soon
proceeded to proclaim his deposition. Their appeal to the
powers of Europe for protection was inevitably disregarded.

When the Congress Kingdom had been reconquered it was
immediately reduced to the position of a Russian province.
No remnant of Poland's separate political existence Poland a
remained save the minute republic of Cracow. Russian
Unable to acquiesce sincerely in its insignificance Prov/ ' Ice '
and even unable to enforce its neutrality, Cracow was a
centre of disturbance, and, after Russia, Prussia, and Austria
had in 1846 agreed to its suppression, was finally occu-
pied by Austria on the 6th of November 1848, as a consequence
of the troubles, more agrarian than political, which convulsed
Galicia. The administration established by Nicholas I. in
Russian Poland was harsh and aimed avowedly at destroying
the nationality, and even the language of Poland. The Polish
universities of Warsaw and Vilna were suppressed, and the
students compelled to go to St Petersburg and Kiev. Polish

922

POLAND

[HISTORY

Insurrection .
of 1863.

recruits were distributed in Russian regiments, and the use of

the Russian language was enforced as far as possible in the civil

administration and in the law courts. The customs barrier

between Lithuania and the former Congress Kingdom was

removed, in the hope that the influence of Russia would spread

more easily over Poland. A very hostile policy was adopted

against the Roman Catholic Church. But though these measures

cowed the Poles, they failed to achieve their main purpose.

Polish national sentiment was not destroyed, but intensified.

It even spread to Lithuania. The failure of Nicholas was in

good part due to mistaken measures of what he hoped would

be conciliation. He supported Polish students at Russian

universities on condition that they then spent a number of

years in the public service. It was the hope of the emperor

that they would thus become united in interest with the Russians.

But these Polish officials made use of their positions to aid

their countrymen, and were grasping and corrupt with patriotic

intentions. The Poles in Russia, whether at the universities

or in the public service, formed an element which refused to

assimilate with the Russians. In Poland itself the tsar left

much of the current civil administration in the hands of the

nobles, whose power over their peasants was hardly diminished

and was misused as of old. The Polish exiles who filled Europe

after 1830 intrigued from abroad, and maintained a constant

agitation. The stern government of Nicholas was, however,

so far effective that Poland remained quiescent during the

Crimean War, in which many Polish soldiers fought in the Russian

army. The Russian government felt safe enough to reduce

the garrison of Poland largely. It was not till 1863, eight years

after the death of the tsar in 1855, that the last attempt of

the Poles to achieve independence by arms was made.

The rising of 1863 may without injustice be said to be due
to the more humane policy of the tsar Alexander II. Exiles
were allowed to return to Poland, the Church was
' propitiated, the weight of the Russian administration
was lightened, police rules as to passports were
relaxed, and the Poles were allowed to form an agricultural
society and to meet for a common purpose for the first time
after many years. Poland in short shared in the new era of milder
rule which began in Russia. In April 1856 Alexander II. was
crowned king in the Roman Catholic cathedral of Warsaw,
and addressed a flattering speech to his Polish subjects in French,
for he too could not speak their language. His warning, " No
nonsense, gentlemen " {Point de reveries, Messieurs), was taken
in very ill part, and it was perhaps naturally, but beyond question
most unhappily, the truth that the tsar's concessions only served
to encourage the Poles to revolt, and to produce a strong Russian
reaction against his liberal policy. As the Poles could no longer
dispose of an army, they were unable to assail Russia as openly
as in 1830. They had recourse to the so-called " unarmed
agitation," which was in effect a policy of constant provocation
designed to bring on measures of repression to be represented
to Europe as examples of Russian brutality. They began in
1S60 at the funeral of the widow of General Sobinski, killed in
1830, and on the 27th of February 1861 they led to the so-called
Warsaw massacres, when the troops fired on a crowd which
refused to disperse. The history of the agitation which cul-
minated in the disorderly rising of 1863 is one of intrigue, secret
agitation, and in the end of sheer terrorism by a secret society,
which organized political assassination. The weakness of the
Russian governor, General Gorchakov, in 1861 was a repetition
of the feebleness of the Grand Duke Constantine in 1830. He
allowed the Poles who organized the demonstration of the
27th of February to form a kind of provisional government.
Alongside of such want of firmness as this were, however, to be
found such measures of ill-timed repression as the order given in
i860 to the agricultural society not to discuss the question of the
settlement of the peasants on the land. Concession and repres-
sion were employed alternately. The Poles, encouraged by the
one and exasperated by the other, finally broke into the partial
revolt of 1 863-1 864. It was a struggle of ill-armed partisans,
who were never even numerous, against regular troops, and was

marked by no real battle. The suppression of the rising was
followed by a return to the hard methods of Nicholas. The
Polish nobles, gentry and Church — the educated classes generally
— were crushed. It must, however, be noted that one class
of the measures taken to punish the old governing part of the
population of Poland has been very favourable to the majority.
The peasants were freed in Lithuania, and in Poland proper
much was done to improve their position. The Russian govern-
ment has benefited by their comparative prosperity, and by the
incurable hatred they continue to feel for the classes which were
once their oppressors. The national history of Poland closes with
the rising of 1863. (D. H.)

Bibliography. — The best general history of Poland is still Jozef
Szujski's monumental History of Poland according to the latest inves-
tigations (4 vols., Pol., Lemberg, 1865-1866), a work which has all
the authority of careful criticism and easy scholarship. It adopts,
throughout, the conservative-monarchical standpoint. Szujski's
book has superseded even Joachim Lelewel's learned History of
Poland (Pol., Brussels, 1837), of which there are excellent French
(Paris, 1844) and German (Leipzig, 1846) editions. The best con-
temporary general history is August Sokolowski's Illustrated History
of Poland (Pol., Vienna, 1896-1900). The best independent German
history of Poland is, on the whole, Roepell (Richard) and Caro's
(Jakab) Geschichte' Polens (Hamburg and Gotha, 1840-1888).
Scholars desiring to explore for themselves the sources of Polish
history from the nth century to the 18th have immense fields of
research lying open before them in the Acta historica res gestas
Poloniae illustrantia (1878, &c), the Scriptores rerum polonicarum
(1872, &c), and the Historical Dissertations (Pol., 1874, &c), all three
collections published, under the most careful editorship, by the
University of Cracow. To the same order belong Ludwik Finkel's
Fontes rerum polonicarum (Lemberg, 1 901, &c), and the innumerable
essays and articles in The Historical Quarterly Review of Poland (Pol.,
Lemberg, 1887, &c). The soundest history of Lithuania, before its
union with Poland, is still Lelewel's History of Lithuania (Pol.,
Leipzig, 1839), of which a French translation was published at Paris
in 1861. Proceeding to the earlier history of Poland, Lelewel's
Poland in the Middle Ages (4 vols., Posen, 1846-1851) is still a
standard work, though the greatest authority on Polish antiquities
is now Tadeusz Wojciechowski, who unites astounding learning
with a perfect style. His Historical Sketches of the Eleventh Century
(Pol., Cracow, 1904) is a very notable work. Karol Szajnocha's
great monograph, justly described as " a pearl of historical litera-
ture," Jadwiga and Jagiello (4 vols., Lemberg, 1 861), the result of
twelve years of exhaustive study, is our best authority on the first
union between Poland and Lithuania. On the other hand, his
Boleslaus the Bold, &c. (Lemberg, 1859) would now be considered
too romantic and picturesque. The relations between Poland,
Prussia and Livonia are adequately dealt with by two sound German
books, Theodor Schiemann's Russland, Polen und Livland bis ins
xviii. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1885-1887) and Max Perlbach's Preus-
sisch-polnische Studien (Halle, 1886). A good guide to the history
of the Jagiellonic period, 1386-1572, is also Adolf Pawinski's Poland
in the 15th Century (Pol., Warsaw, 1883-1886). Of the numerous
works relating to the reign of the heroic Stephen Bathory, 1575-
1586, Ignaty Janicki's Acta historica res gestas Stephani Bathorei
illustrantia (Cracow, 1881), and Paul Pierling's Un arbitrage ponti-
fical entre la Pologne el la Russie 1 581-1582 (Brussels, 1890) can be
recommended. The best Polish work on the subject is Wincenty
Zakrzewski's The Reign of Stephen Bathory (Pol., Cracow, 1887).
Of the books relating to the Polish Vasas the most notable is Szaj-
nocha's Two Years of our History, 16 46-1648 (Lemberg, 1865),
which deals exhaustively with the little-known but remarkable
attempt (the last practical attempt of its kind) of Ladislaus IV. to
abolish the incurably vicious Polish constitution. Another first-
class work, relating to the same period and dealing specifically with
the mode of warfare of heroic Poland, is Jozef Tretiak's History
of the War of Chocim (Pol., Lemberg, 1893). For works relating to
the Sobieskian, Saxon and Partitional periods of Polish history,
the reader is referred to the bibliographical notes appended to the
biographies of John III., king of Poland, Michal Czartoryski, Stanis-
laus II., Tadeusz Andrzej Kosciuszko, Jozef POniatowski, and the
other chief actors of these periods. But the following additional
authorities should also be noted. (1) Lelewel's History of the Reign
of Stanislaus Augustus (Pol., Warsaw, 1831; Fr. ed., Paris, 1839);
the book is important as being based on unpublished memoirs in the
exclusive possession of the author's family. (2) Materials for the
History of the last century of the Republic, by S. Korwin (Cracow,
1890). (3) Die letzte polnische Konigswahl, by Szymon Askenazy
(Cracow, 1882-1886). (4) The extremely valuable Prince Repnin
in Poland by Aleksander Kraushar (Warsaw, 1900), one of the most
thorough of contemporary Polish historians. Innumerable are the
works relating to the Partitional period. Perhaps the best of all
is Walery Jan Kalinka's great work in four volumes, Der vierjahrige
polnische Reichstag (Berlin, 1896-1898). Kalinka is, however, far
too severe upon the patriots and much too indulgent towards

LITERATURE]

POLAND

923

King Stanislaus. Albert Sorel's La Question d 'Orient au XVIII".
siecle (Paris, 1889) is lucid and accurate, but somewhat superficial.
Wolfgang Michael's Englands Stellung zur ersten Teilung Polens
(Hamburg, 1890) is of especial interest to Englishmen. Maryan
Dubiecki's Karol Prozor (Pol., Cracow, 1897) shows with what
self-sacrificing devotion the gentry and people supported Kosciu-
szko's rising. For more complete bibliography see Jozef Korzeniow-
ski's Catalogus actorum et documentarum res gestas Poloniae illus-
trantium (Cracow, 1889), and Ludwik Finkel's Bibliography of Polish
History (Pol., Lemberg, 1891). For the period 1815-1863 see also
N. A. Day, The Russian Government in Poland (London, 1867);
Theodor Schiemann, Russland unter Kaiser Nikolaus I., vol. i.
(Berlin, 1904).

POLISH LITERATURE

The Polish language belongs to the western branch of the
Slavonic tongues, and exhibits the closest affinities with the
Czech or Bohemian and Lusatian Wendish. Unlike the people
of other Slavonic countries, the Poles are comparatively poor
in popular and legendary poetry, but such compositions un-
doubtedly existed in early times, as may be seen by the writings
of their chroniclers; thus Callus translated into Latin a poem
written on Boleslaus the Brave, and a few old Polish songs are
included in Wojcicki's Library of Ancient Writers. A great deal
of the early literature written in Poland is in Latin. The earliest
specimen of the Polish language is the so-called Psalter of Queen
Margaret, discovered in 1826 at the convent of St Florian. The
date of the manuscript appears to be the middle of the 14th
century, and probably in its present form it is only a copy of a
much older text; there is also a translation of the fiftieth psalm
belonging to the 13th century. 1 The ancient Polish hymn or war
song, Piesn Boga Rodzica, was an address to the Virgin, sung by
the Poles when about to fight. The oldest manuscript of this
production is dated 1408, and is preserved at Cracow. By a
legend which subsequently grew up the composition of it was
assigned to St Adalbert. John Lodzia, bishop of Posen from
133 5 to 1346, composed several religious songs in Latin.

The next monument of Polish literature to which we come is
the Bible of Queen Sophia or Bible of Szaroszpatak. It is im-
perfect, and only contains the early books, viz. the Pentateuch,
Joshua, Ruth and Kings; there are, however, fragments of three
others. It is said to have been written for Sophia, the fourth
wife of Jagiello, about the year 1455. It has been edited with
great care by Malecki. Five religious songs in Polish dating
from the 15th century have been preserved; they are ascribed
to Andrew Slopuchowski, prior of the monastery of the Holy
Cross on Lysa Gora. There is also the fragment of a hymn in
praise of Wycliffe. To these fragments may be added the prayer-
book of a certain Wadaw, a sermon on marriage, and some
Polish glosses. These are all the existing memorials of the Polish
language before the i&th century.

Perhaps a few words should be said concerning the writers
in Latin. Martin Gallus lived in Poland between 11 10 and 1135.
From his name he has been supposed by some to
Chronicles. have been a Frenchman or Walloon, and we must
remember that Poland swarmed at that time with
foreign ecclesiastics. Lelewel, the Polish historian, considers
that it is merely a translation into Latin of some such
name as Kura, signifying " a fowl." Others suppose him to
have been an Italian, or a monk from the convent of St Gall in
Switzerland. He has plenty of legends to tell us, and writes
altogether in a poetical style, so that his prose seems to fall
into rhythm unconsciously. His quotations from the classics,
Sallust, Lucan and others, show the extent of his reading.
Gallus was followed by Matthew Cholewa and Vincent Kadlubek,
two bishops of Cracow, and Bogufal or Boguchwal (Gottlob),
bishop of Posen, who all used Latin. The work of Kadlubek
is more ornate in diction than that of Bogufal, and for a long time
enjoyed great popularity. He was born in 11 60, educated at
the university of Paris, and died in Poland in 1223 as a Cistercian
monk. His Latin, like that of Gallus, is far from classical,
but he writes with spirit and throws a good deal of light upon

1 The Psalter is called after Margaret, the first wife of King
Louis, who died in 1349, by a mere conjecture. Caro thinks it
more probable that the book belonged to Mary, his daughter.

the events of his time. The education of the country was wholly
in the hands of the ecclesiastics, many of whom were foreigners.
In this way we must explain the great prevalence of the Latin
language. Such a system would be sure to stifle all national
outgrowth, and accordingly we have among the Poles none of
those early monuments of the language which other countries
boast. For instance, there are no bilini or legendary poems,
such as are found among the Russians, although many passages
in the ancient chroniclers from their poetical colouring seem to
be borrowed from old songs or legends, and the first verses of
some of these compositions have been preserved. Mention
may here be made of other chroniclers such as Martin the Pole
(Polonus), who died in 1279 or 1280, and Jan of Czarnkow, who
died in 1389; the latter was the historian and panegyrist of
Casimir the Great. With the reign of Casimir III. (1333-1370)
must be associated the statutes of Wislica. Jadwiga, the wife
of Jagiello, was mainly instrumental in creating the university
of Cracow, which received a charter in 1364, but did not come
into effective existence till its reconstitution in 1400. In this
institution for many years all the great men of Poland were
trained — among others Gregory of Sanok, Dlugosz and Copernicus.
Casimir the Great may be said to have laid the foundation of
this university. Having obtained the consent of Pope Urban V.,
he established at Cracow a studium generate on the model of the
university of Bologna. It consisted of three faculties — Roman
law, medicine and philosophy. But the aristocratic youth still
preferred frequenting the universities of Prague, Padua and
Paris, and accordingly the newly founded studium languished.
Jadwiga, however, obtained from Boniface IX. permission to
create a new chair, that of theology; and the university of Cracow
was remodelled, having been reorganized on the same basis
as that of Paris. Another university was founded later at Vilna
by Batory, and one at Zamosd by the chancellor Zamoyski,
There were also good schools in various places, such as the
Collegium Lubranskiego of Posen and the school of St Mary at
Cracow. In the year 1474 a press was set up in the latter city,
where Gunther Zainer printed the first book. The first press
from which books in the Polish language appeared was that of
Hieronymus Wietor, a Silesian, who commenced publishing in
1515. A few fragments printed in Polish had appeared before
this, as the Lord's Prayer in the statutes of the bishops of Breslau
in 1475, the story of Pope Urban in Latin, German and Polish
in 1505, &c; but the first complete work in the Polish language
appeared from the press of this printer at Cracow in 1521, under
the title, Speeches of the Wise King Solomon. The translation
was executed by Jan Koszycki, as the printer informs us in
the preface, and the work is dedicated to Anna Wojnicka, the
wife of a castellan. In 1522, a Polish translation of Ecclesiastes
appeared from that press, and before the conclusion of that year
The Life of Christ, with woodcuts, translated into Polish by
Balthasar Opec. Many other presses were soon established.
Printers of repute at Cracow, during the 16th and beginning of
the r7th century, were Sybeneicher and Piotrkowczyk.

Little as yet had been produced in Polish, as the chroniclers
still adhered to Latin; and here mention must be made of Jan
Dlugosz, who called himself Longinus. He was bishop _.
of Lemberg, the capital of Galicia, and has left us a very
valuable history which has merits of style and shows considerable
research. So anxious was Dlugosz to make his work as perfect
as he could that he learned Russian so as to be able to read the
Chronicle of Nestor. The best part of his book, is that which
treats of the period between 1386 and 1480. About 1500 was
written an interesting little work entitled " Memoirs of a Polish
Janissary " (Pamietniki ianczara polaka). Although written
in the Polish language, it was probably the production of a
Serb, Michael Constantinovich of Ostrovitza. He was taken
prisoner by the Turks in 1455 and served ten years among the
Janissaries, after which he escaped into Hungary. About
this time also flourished Nicholas Copernicus, a native of Thorn,
one of the few Poles who have made themselves known beyond
the limits of their country.

The Poles call the period between 1548 and 1606 their golden

924

POLAND

[LITERATURE

age. Poland was the great land of eastern Europe, and owing
to the universal toleration encouraged by the government,
Protestantism was widely spread. Many of the chief nobility
were Calvinists, and the Socini came to reside in the country.
All this, however, was to pass away under the great Jesuit re-
action. At Rakow in Poland was published the catechism of
the Socinian doctrines in 1605. The Jesuits made their appear-
ance in Poland in 1564, and soon succeeded in getting the
schools of the country into their hands. Besides extirpating the
various sects of Protestants, they also busied themselves with
destroying the Greek Church in Lithuania. Latin poetry was
cultivated with great success by Clement Janicki (1516-1543),
but the earliest poet of repute who wrote in Polish is Rej of
Naglowice ( 1 505-1 569) . After a somewhat idle youth he betook
himself to poetry. He was a Protestant, and among other
religious works translated the Psalms. His best work was
Zwierciadlo albo zywot poczciwego czlowieka (The Mirror or
Life of an Honourable Man) — a somewhat tedious didactic
piece. He was also the author of a kind of play — a mystery
we may term it, and productions of this sort seem to have been
common in Poland from a very early time — entitled Life of
Joseph in Egypt. This piece is interesting merely from an
antiquarian point of view; there is but little poetry in it. It
teems with anachronisms; thus we have mention of the mass
and organs, and also of a German servant. Lucas Goinicki
(1 527-1603) wrote many historical works, and Dworzanin
polski, an imitation of the Cortegiano of Castiglione.

Jan Kochanowski 1 (1530-1584), called the prince of Polish
poets, came of a poetical family, having a brother, a cousin
and a nephew who all enriched the literature of
skj. aaow ' their country with some productions. Kochanowski
studied for some time at the university of Padua,
and also resided in Paris, where he made the acquaintance of
Ronsard. Returning to Poland, he became in 1564 secretary
to Sigismund Augustus. He has left The Game of Chess,
an imitation of Vida, and Proporzec albo hold pruski (The
Standard or Investiture of Prussia), where he describes the
fealty done by Albert of Brandenburg to Sigismund Augustus.
He also executed a translation of the Psalms. He wrote a
play — a piece of one act, with twelve scenes — The Despatch
of the Greek Ambassadors. It is written in rhymeless five-foot
iambics, and is altogether a product of the Renaissance,
reminding us of some of the productions of George Buchanan.
Rhyme is employed in the choruses only. It was acted
on the marriage of the chancellor Jan Zamoyski with Christine
RadziwiH, in the presence of King Stephen and his wife,
at Ujazdowo near Warsaw in 1578. The poet's most popular
work, however, is his Treny or " Lamentations, " written
on the death of his daughter Ursula. These beautiful elegies
have been justly praised by Mickiewicz; they are enough to
raise Kochanowski far above the level of a merely artificial
poet. Besides poems in Polish, he also wrote some in Latin.
It will be observed that we get this double-sided authorship
in many Polish writers. They composed for an exclusive and
learned circle, certainly not for the Jew, the German trader of
the town, or the utterly illiterate peasant. It may be said
with truth of Kochanowski that, although the form of his poetry
is classical and imitated from classical writers, the matter is
Polish, and there is much national feeling in what he has left
us. Mention must also be made of his epigrams, which he styled
" Trifles " (Fraszki); they are full of spirit and geniality. Stan-
islaus Grochowski (1554-1612) was a priest; but his poetry
is of little merit, although he was celebrated in his time as a
writer of panegyrics. His satire Babie Kolo (The Women's
Circle) gave offence on account of its personalities. A great
partisan of the Catholics in the time of Sigismund III. was
Caspar Miaskowski, whose Waleta Wloszlzonowska (Farewell
to his Native Country) deserves mention. Szarzynski, who
died young in 1581, deserves notice as having introduced the

'His collected works were printed in 1584; they were many
times reprinted, the best edition being that of Warsaw (4 vols.,
1884). His life was written by Przyborowski (Posen, 1 857).

sonnet to the Poles. This species of poetry was afterward to be
carried to great perfection by Mickiewicz and Gaszynski.

Szymonowicz (1 554-1624) was a writer of good pastorals.
Although they are imitated from classical writers, he has
introduced many scenes of national life, which he
describes with much vigour. Among the best are ^f^° a °"
" The Lovers," " The Reapers," and " The Cake "
(Kolacz). Mickiewicz is very loud in his praise, and considers
him one of the best followers of Theocritus. The condition,
however, of the Polish peasants was too miserable to admit
of their being easily made subjects for bucolic poetry.
There is an artificial air about the idylls of Szymonowicz
which makes one feel too keenly that they are productions
of the Renaissance; one of their best features is the humane
spirit towards the miserable peasantry which they every-
where display. Another excellent writer of pastorals was
Zimorowicz, a native of Lemberg, who died at the early
age of twenty-five. Some of his short lyrics are very elegant,
and remind us of Herrick and Carew — e.g. that beginning
" Ukochana Lancellotol Ciebie nie prosze zloto." Another
writer of pastorals, but not of equal merit, was Jan Gawinski,
a native of Cracow. Some good Latin poetry was written by
Casimir Sarbiewski, better known in the west of Europe as
Sarbievius (d. 1640). He was considered to have approached
Horace more nearly than any other modern poet, and a gold
medal was given him by Pope Urban VIII. Martin Kromer
(151 2-1 589) wrote a history of Poland in thirty books, and
another volume, giving a description of the country and its
institutions — both in Latin. The history is written in an easy
style and is a work of great merit. A poet of some importance
was Sebastian Fabian Klonowicz (1545-1602), who latinized
his name into Acernus, Klon being the Polish for maple, and
wrote in both Latin and Polish, and through his inclination
to reform drew down on himself the anger of the clergy. Some-
times he is descriptive, as in his Polish poem entitled Flis (" The
Boatman "), in which he gives a detailed account of the scenery
on the banks of the Vistula. There is some poetry in this com-
position, but it alternates with very prosaic details. In another
piece, Rhoxolania, in Latin, he describes the beauties of Galicia.
Occasionally he is didactic, as in Worek Judaszow (The Bag
of Judas) and Victoria deorum, where, under the allegory of
the gods of Olympus, he represents the struggles of parties
in Poland, not without severely satirizing the nobility and
ecclesiastics. A curious work called Quincunx, written by
Orzechowski (1515-1566), is concerned with religious polemics.
Andrew Modrzewski, a Protestant, in his work De republica
emendanda (1551), recommended the establishment of a national
church which should be independent of Rome, something upon
the model of the Anglican.

A florid Jesuitical style of oratory became very popular in
the time of Sigismund III., not without rhetorical power, but
frequently becoming tawdry. The chief representa-
tive of this school was Piotr Skarga (1536-1612), one
of the main agents in extirpating Calvinism in Poland and the
Greek Church in Lithuania. Among his numerous writings may
be mentioned Lives of the Saints, Discourses on the Seven Sacra-
ments, and especially his sermons preached before the diet, in
which he lashed the Poles for their want of patriotism and
prophesied the downfall of the country. Mecherzynski, in his
" History of Eloquence in Poland " (Historya wymowy w Polsce),
especially praises his two funeral sermons on the burial of Anna
Jagiellonka, widow of Stephen Batory, and Anna of Austria, first
wife of Sigismund III. Besides the Latin histories of Wapowski
and Gwagnin (Guagnini, of Italian origin), we have the first
historical work in Polish by Martin Bielski, a Protestant, viz.
Kronika polska, which was afterwards continued by his son. The
author was born in 1495 on his father's estate, Biaia, and was
educated, like so many other of his illustrious contemporaries,
at the university of Cracow. He lived to the age of eighty;
but, however great were the merits of his Chronicle, it was long
considered a suspicious book on account of the leanings of the
author to Calvinism. After his death his work was continued by

LITERATURE]

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925

his son Joachim (1540-1599). There is also a Chronicle by
Bartholomew Paprocki. In 1582 was also published the
Chronicle of Stryjkowski, full of curious learning, and still of
great use to the student of history. Five years later appeared
the Annates Poloniae of Sarnicki. The last three works are in
Latin.

A few words may be said here about the spread of Pro-
testantism in Poland, which is so intimately mixed up with

the development of the national language. The
f^ ad t of t . doctrines of Hus had entered the country in very
ism. ' early times, and we find Polish recensions of

Bohemian hymns; even the hymn to the Virgin
previously mentioned is supposed to have a Czech basis. The
bishops were soon active against those who refused to conform
to the doctrines of the Roman church. Thus we find that Bishop
Andrew of Bnin seized five Hussite priests and caused them to
be burnt in the market of Posen in 1439. A hundred years
afterwards a certain Katharina Malcher, on account of her
Utraquist opinions, was condemned by Gamrat, the bishop of
Cracow, to be burnt, which sentence was accordingly carried
out in the ragmarket at Cracow. As early as 1530 Lutheran
hymns were sung in the Polish language at Thorn. In Konigs-
berg, John Seklucyan, a personal friend of Luther, published
a collection of Christian Songs. He was born in Great Poland,
and was at first a Roman Catholic priest in Posen, but
afterwards embraced the Protestant faith and was invited
by Duke Albert as a preacher to Konigsberg, where he
died in 1578. He executed the first translation of the New
Testament in i55r. Four years afterwards appeared a com-
plete Polish Bible published by Scharffenberg at Cracow. In
r 553 appeared at Brzesc the Protestant translation of the whole
Bible made by a committee of learned men and divines, and
published at the expense of Nicholas RadziwiH, a very rich
Polish magnate who had embraced the Protestant doctrines.
This book is now of great rarity because his son Christopher,
having been induced to become a Roman Catholic by the Jesuit
Skarga, caused all copies of his father's Bible which he could
find to be burnt. One, however, is to be seen in the Bodleian
Library, and another in the library of Christ Church at Oxford.
A Socinian Bible was issued by Simon Budny in 1570 at Nies-
wiez, as he professed to find many faults in the version issued
under the patronage of RadziwiH; in 1597 appeared the Roman
Catholic version of the Jesuit Wujek; and in 1632 the so-called
Danzig Bible, which is in use among Protestants and is still
the most frequently reprinted.

Up to this time Polish literature, although frequently rhe-
torical and too much tinctured with classical influences, had

still exhibited signs of genius. But now, owing
Period"' t0 t ^ le fri v0 ' ous studies introduced by the Jesuits,

the so-called macaronic period supervened, which
lasted from 1606 to 1764, and was a time of great degradation
for the language and literature. The former was now mixed
with Latin and classical expressions; much of the literature con-
sists of fulsome panegyric, verses written on the marriages and
funerals of nobles, with conceits and fantastic ideas, devoid of
all taste, drawn from their coats of arms. The poets of this
period are, as may be imagined, in most cases mere rhymesters;
there are, however, a few whose names are worth recapitulating,
such as Wadaw Potocki (c. 1622-c. 1696), now known to have
been the author of the Wojna Chocimska, or " War of Khotin,"
the same campaign which afterwards formed the subject of the
epic of Krasicki. At first the author was supposed to have
been Andrew Lipski, but the real poet was traced by the his-
torian Szajnocha. The epic, which remained in manuscript
till 1850, is a genuine representation of Polish life; no picture
so faithful appeared till the Pan Tadeusz of Mickiewicz. More-
over, Potocki had the good taste to avoid the macaronic style
so much in vogue; his language is pure and vigorous. He does
not hesitate to introduce occasionally satirical remarks on the
luxury of the times, which he compares, to its disadvantage,
with the simplicity of the old Polish life. There is also another
poem attributed to Potocki called the New Mercury. In one

passage he censures King Michael for ceding Podolia to the
Turks. Samuel Twardowski (1600-1660) was the most pro-
lific poet of the period of the Vasas. His most important poem
is Wladystaus I V., King of Poland, in which he sings in a very
bombastic strain the various expeditions of the Polish monarch.
A bitter satirist appeared in the person of Christopher Opalinski
(1609-1656). His works were published under the title of
Juvenalis redivivus, and, although boasting but little poetical
merit, give us very curious pictures of the times. Hieronymus
Vespasian Kohcowski (1633-1699) was a soldier-poet, who went
through the campaigns against the Swedes and Cossacks; he
has left several books of lyrics full of vivacity, a Christian epic
and a Polish psalmody. Another poet was Andrew Morsztyn
(born about 1620, died about the commencement of the 18th
century), an astute courtier, who was finance minister (pod-
skdrbi) under John Casimir, and was a devoted adherent of the
French party at court, in consequence of which, in the reign
of Sobieski, he was compelled to leave his native country and
settle in France. His poems are elegant and free from the
conceits and pedantry of the earlier writers. In fact, he in-
troduced into Poland the easy French manner of such writers as
Voiture. He translated the Cid of Corneille, and wrote a poem
on the subject of Psyche, based upon the well-known Greek
myth. History in the macaronic period made a backward
step: it had been written in the Polish language in the golden
age; it was now again to take a Latin form, as in the Chronica
Gestarum in Europa singularium of tlfe ecclesiastic Paul Piasecki
(1 580-1649), who is an authority for the reigns of Sigismund III.
and Wladislaus IV., and Rudawski, who describes events
from the accession of John Casimir to the peace of Oliva (1648-
1660); and as valuable materials for history may be mentioned
the five huge volumes of Andrew Chrysostom Zaluski (1711),
bishop of Warmia. This work is entitled Epistolae historico-
familiares. It would be impossible to recapitulate here the
great quantity of material in the shape of memoirs which has
come down, but mention must be made of those of John Chry-
sostom Pasek, a nobleman of Masovia, who has left us very
graphic accounts of life and society in Poland; after a variety
of adventures and many a well-fought battle, he returned to '
the neighbourhood of Cracow, where he died between 1699
and 1 701. Some of the most characteristic stories illustrating
Polish history are drawn from this book. A later period, that of
the miserable epoch of Augustus III., is described very graphic-
ally in the memoirs of Matuszewicz, first edited by Pawinski
at Warsaw in 1876. Relating to the same period are also the
memoirs of Bartholomew Michalowski (Pamietniki Bartlomieja
Michalowskiego). A curious insight into the course of education
which a young Polish nobleman underwent is furnished by
the instructions which James Sobieski, the father of the cele-
brated John, gave to Orchowski, the tutor of his sons. This
has been twice printed in comparatively recent times (Instrukcya
Jakdba Sobieskiego kasztelana Krakowskiego dana panu Orchow-
skiemu ze strony synow, Vilna, 1840). The old gentleman in
his aristocratic imperiousness frequently reminds us of the
amusing directions given by Sir John Wynne to his chaplain,
quoted in Pennant's Tour in Wales.

A History of the Lithuanians in Latin was published by the
Jesuit Koialowicz; the first volume appeared at Danzig in 1650.
A valuable work on the condition of Poland was written by
Stanislaus Leszczynski, who was twice chosen king, entitled
Gtos wolny wolnost ubezpieczajqcy (A Free Voice Guaranteeing
Freedom), where he tells the Poles some homely and perhaps
disagreeable truths illustrating the maxim Summa liberias
eliam perire volentibus.

A notable man was Joseph Andrew Zaluski, bishop of Kiev,
a Pole who had become thoroughly frenchified — so much so,
that he preached in French to the fashionable congregations
of Warsaw. He collected a splendid library of about 300,000
volumes and 15,000 manuscripts, which he bequeathed to the
Polish nation; but it was afterwards carried off to St Petersburg,
where it formed the foundation of the imperial public library.
According to Nitschmann in his Geschichte der polnischen

926

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[LITERATURE

Litteratur — a work which has been of service in the preparation
of this article — the books were transported to Russia very care-
lessly, and many of them injured by the way. It was especially
rich in works relating to Polish history. Konarski edited in six
volumes a valuable work entitled Volumina legum, containing
a complete collection of Polish laws from the time of the statute
of Wislica: He did much good also in founding throughout
the country schools for the education of the sons of the upper
classes, but as yet nothing had been done for popular educa-
tion properly so-called. About the close of this period we have
some valuable writers on Polish history, which now began to
be studied critically, such as Hartknoch in his Alt- und Neues
Preussen (1684), a work in which are preserved interesting
specimens of the old Prussian language, and Lengnich (1689-
1774), author of the valuable Jus publicum regni Poloniae,
which appeared in 1742.

We now come to the reign of the last Polish king, Stan-
islaus Poniatowski, and the few quiet years before the final
division of the country, during which the French taste was all-
powerful. This is the second great period of the development
of Polish literature, which has known nothing of medieval
romanticism. The literature of the first or Renaissance period
gives us some good poets, who although occasionally imitators
are not without national feeling, and a goodly array of chron-
iclers, most of whom made use of Latin. In the second or French
period we get verse-makers rather than poets, who long to be
Frenchmen, and sigh over the barbarism of their country;
but the study of history in a critical spirit is beginning under
the influence of Naruszewicz, Albertrandi and others. In the
third period, that of modern romanticism, we get true nation-
alism, but it is too often the literature of exile and despair.
Here may be mentioned, although living a little time before
the reign of Stanislaus, a Polish poetess, Elizabeth Druzbacka
(1695-1760), whose writings show a feeling for nature at a time
when verse-making of the most artificial type was prevalent
throughout the country. The portrait prefixed to the Leipzig
edition of her works is a striking one, representing a hand-
some, intellectual-looking woman, dressed in the garb of some
religious order. Her Life of David in verse appears tedious,
but many of the descriptions in the Seasons are elegant. Un-
fortunately she introduces latinisms, so that her Polish is
by no means pure. A national theatre was founded at Warsaw
in 1765 under the influence of the court, but it was not till
long afterwards that anything really national connected with
the drama appeared in Poland. Thomas Kajetan Wegierski
(1755-1787), who was chamberlain to the king, enjoyed a con-
siderable reputation among his countrymen for his satirical
writing. He was a kind of Polish Churchill, and like his Eng-
lish parallel died young. His life also appears to have been
as irregular as Churchill's. In consequence of an attack on
the empress of Russia, he was compelled to leave Poland, and
accordingly made a tour in Italy, France, America, and Eng-
land, dying at Marseilles at the early age of thirty-three. His
poetry shows the influence of the French taste, then prevalent
throughout Europe. In times of great national disasters he
deserves to be remembered as a true patriot; but the spirit of
his poetry is altogether unwholesome. It is the wailing cry
of a moribund nation. The great laureate of the court of
Stanislaus was Trembecki (1722-1812), whose sympathies
were too much with the Russian invaders of his country. He
was little more than a fluent poetaster, and is now almost for-
gotten. One of his most celebrated pieces was Zofjowka,
written on the country seat of Felix Potocki, a Polish magnate,
for this was the age of descriptive as well as didactic poetry.
Perhaps the English gave the hint in such productions as
" Cooper's Hill." The old age of Trembecki appears to have been
ignoble and neglected; he had indeed " fallen upon evil days
and evil tongues "; and when he died at an advanced age all
the gay courtiers of whom he had been the parasite were either
dead or had submitted to the Muscovite yoke. He comes before
us as a belated epicurean, whose airy trifles cannot be warbled
in an atmosphere surcharged with tempests and gunpowder.

The end of the 18th century was not the period for a court
poet in Poland.

The most conspicuous poet, however, of the time was Ignatius
Krasicki, bishop of Warmia (1735-1801). He was the friend of
Frederick the Great and a prominent member of Krasicki
the king's literary club at Sans Souci. Krasicki
wrote an epic on the war of Khotin — the same as had furnished
the subject of the poem of Potocki, of which Krasicki in all
probability had never heard, and also that of the Dalmatian
Gundulich. Krasicki's poem is at best but a dull affair, in
fact a pale copy of a poor original, the Henriade of Voltaire.
His mock heroics are, to say the least, amusing, and among these
may be mentioned Myszeis, where he describes how King Popiel,
according to the legend, was eaten up by rats. His Monacho-
machia is in six cantos, and is a satire upon the monks. The
bishop was also the writer of some pretty good comedies. In
fact most styles of composition were attempted by him — of
course satires and fables among the number. He presents him-
self to us much more like a transplanted French abbe than a
Pole. In the year 1801 he travelled to Berlin, and died there
after a short illness. Among his other works the bishop pub-
lished in 1781-1782, in two volumes, a kind of encyclopaedia
of belles lettres entitled Zbidr Wiadomosci. His estimates of
various great poets are not very accurate. Of course he finds
Shakespeare a very " incorrect " author, although he is willing
to allow him considerable praise for his vigour. F. Morawski
(1 783-1861) published some excellent Fables (1800) in the
manner of Krasicki, and in 1851 an epic entitled My Grandfather's
Farm. Adam Naruszewicz (1 733-1 796) was bishop and poet.
The existence of so many ecclesiastical writers was a natural
feature in Polish literature; they formed the only really cul-
tured class in the community, which consisted besides of a
haughty ignorant nobility living among their serfs, and (at a
vast distance) those serfs themselves, in a brutalized condition.
Burghers there were, properly speaking, none, for most of the
citizens in the large towns were foreigners governed by the
Jus magdeburgicum. Naruszewicz has not the happy vivacity
of Krasicki; he attempts all kinds of poetry, especially satire
and fable. He is at best but a mediocre poet; but he has suc-
ceeded better as a historian, and especially to be praised is his
" History of the Polish Nation " {Historya narodu polskiego),
which, however, he was not able to carry further than the year
1386. He also wrote an account of the Polish general Chod-
kiewicz, and translated Tacitus and Horace. Interesting
memoirs have been published by Kilinski, a Warsaw shoemaker,
and Kosmian, state referendary, who lived about this time
and saw much of the War of Independence and other political
affairs. Among the smaller poets of this period may be men-
tioned Karpinski (1741-1828), a writer of sentimental elegies
in the style then so very much in fashion, and Franciszek
Dyonizy Kniaznin (1750-1807), who nourished his muse on
classical themes and wrote several plays. He was the court
poet of Prince Adam Czartoryski at Pulawy, and furnished
odes in commemoration of all the important events which
occurred in the household. He lost his reason on the down-
fall of Poland, and died after eleven years' insanity in 1807.
Julian Ursin Niemcewicz (1758-1841) was one of the most
popular of Polish poets at the commencement of the present
century (see Niemcewicz). His most popular work is the
" Collection of Historical Songs " (Spiewy historyczne) , where
he treats of the chief heroes of Polish history. Besides these
he wrote one or two good plays, and a novel in letters, on the
story of two Jewish lovers. John Paul Woronicz (1757-1829)
born in Volhynia, and at the close of his life bishop of Warsaw
and primate of Poland, was a very eloquent divine, and has
been called the modern Skarga. A valuable worker in the
field of Slavonic philology was Linde, the author of an excellent
Polish dictionary in six volumes. For a long time the culti-
vation of Polish philology was in a low state, owing to the preva-
lence of Latin in the 17th century and French in the 18th.
No Polish grammar worthy of the name appeared till that of
Kopczynski at the close of the 18th century, but the reproach

LITERATURE]

POLAND

927

has been taken away in modern times by the excellent works
by Malecki and Malinowski. Rakowiecki, who edited the
Rousskaia Pravda, and Macieiowski (who died in 1883,
aged ninety), author of a valuable work on Slavonic law, may
here be mentioned. Here we have a complete survey of the
leading codes of Slavonic jurisprudence. At a later period
(in 1856) appeared the work of Helcel, Starodawne prawa pol-
skiigo pomniki (" Ancient Memorials of Polish Law "). Aloysius
Felinski (r77r-i82o) produced an historical tragedy, Barbara
Radziwitl, and some good comedies were written by Count
Polish Alexander Fredro (1793-1876). In fact Fredro may
Drama. De considered the most entertaining writer for the
stage which Poland has produced. He introduced genuine comedy
among his countrymen. The influence of Moliere can be very
cleariy seen in his pieces; his youth was spent chiefly in France,
where he formed one of the soldiers of the Polish legion of
Napoleon and joined in the expedition to Russia. His first produc-
tion was Pan Geldhab, written in 1810 and produced at Warsaw
in 1 82 1. From 1819 to 1835 he wrote about seventeen pieces
and then abandoned publishing, having taken offence at some
severe criticisms. At his death he left several comedies, which
were issued in a posthumous edition. There is a good deal of
local colouring in the pieces of Fredro; although the style is
French, the characters are taken from Polish life. From him
may be said to date the formation of anything like a national
Polish theatre, so that his name marks an epoch. The Poles,
like many of the other nations of Europe, had religious plays
at an early period. They were originally performed in churches;
but Pope Innocent II. finding fault with this arrangement,
the acting was transferred to churchyards. Mention has
already been made of plays written by Rej and Kochanowski;
they are mere fruits of the Renaissance, and cannot in any way
be considered national. The wife of John Casimir, a French-
woman, Marie Louise, hired a troop of French actors and first
familiarized the Poles with something which resembled the
modern stage. The Princess Franciszka RadziwiH composed
plays which were acted at her private residence, but they are
spoken of as inartistic and long and tedious. The national
theatre was really founded in the reign of Stanislaus Augustus;
and good plays were produced by Bohomolec, Kaminski, Krop-
\nski, Boguslawski, Zablocki, and others. Perhaps, however,
with the exception of the works of Fredro, the Poles have not
produced anything of much merit in this line. A great states-
man and writer of the later days of Polish nationality was
Kollataj, born at Sandomir in 1750. He was a man of liberal
sentiments, and, had his plans been carried out, Poland might
have been saved. He wished to abolish serfdom and throw
open state employments to all. The nobility, however, were too
infatuated to be willing to adopt these wise measures. Like
the French aristocrats with the reforms of Necker, they would
not listen till ruin had overtaken them. During the last war
of Poland as an independent country Kollataj betook himself to
the camp of Kosciuszko, but when he saw that there was no
longer hope he went to Galicia, but was captured by the
Austrians and imprisoned at Olmiitz till 1803. He died in 1812.
An active co-operator with Kollataj was Salesius Jezierski, who
founded clubs for the discussion of political questions, and
Stanislaus Staszic, who did much for education and improved
the condition of the university of Warsaw.

The reputation of all preceding poets in Poland was now
destined to be thrown into the shade by the appearance of
Mickiewicz (1798-1855), the great introducer of
romanticism into the country (see Mickiewicz).
Poland, as has been said before, is not rich in national
songs and legendary poetry, in which respect it cannot com-
pare with its sister Slavonic countries Russia and Servia. Collec-
tions have appeared, however, by Waclaw Zaleski, who writes
under the pseudonyms of Waclaw z Oleska, Wojcicki, Roger,
Zegota Pauli, and especially Oskar Kolberg. Poland and
Lithuania, however, abounded with superstitions and legends
which only awaited the coming poet to put them into verse.
In the year 1831 Romuald Zienkiewicz published Songs of the

Roman-
ticism.

People of Pinsk, and collections have even appeared of those
of the Kashoubes, a remnant of the Poles living near Danzig.
Mickiewicz had had a predecessor, but of far less talent, Casimir
Brodzinski (1791-1835). He served under Napoleon in the
Polish legion, and has left a small collection of poems, the most
important being the idyl Wieslaw, in which the manners of the
peasants of the district of Cracow are faithfully portrayed.
The second great poet of the romantic school who appeared in
Poland after Mickiewicz was Julius Slowacki (1800-1849),
born at Krzemieniec. In 1831 he left his native country and
chose Paris as his residence, where he died. His writings are
full of the fire of youth, and show great beauty and elegance
of expression. We can trace in them the influence of Byron
and Victor Hugo. He is justly considered one of the greatest
of the modern poets of Poland. His most celebrated pieces
are Hugo; Mnich ("The Monk ") ; Lambro, a Greek corsair,
quite in the style of Byron; Anhetti, a very Dantesque poem
expressing under the form of an allegory the sufferings of Poland;
Krol duck (" The Spirit King "), another mysterious and alle-
gorical poem; Waclaw, on the same subject as the Mary a of
Malczewski, to be afterwards noticed; Beniowski, a long poem
in ottava rima on this strange adventurer, something in the
style of Byron's humorous poems; Kordyan, of the same school
as the English poet's Manfred; Lilla Weneda, a poem dealing
with the early period of Slavonic history. The life of Slowacki
has been published by Professor Anton Malecki in two volumes.
Mickiewicz and Slowacki were both more or less mystics,
but even more we may assign this characteristic to Sigismund
Krasinski, who was born in 1812 at Paris, and died there in
1859. It would be impossible to analyse here his extraordinary
poem Nieboska komedja (" The Undivine Comedy "), Irydion,
and others. In them Poland, veiled under different allegories,
is always the central figure. They are powerful poems Written
with great vigour of language, but enveloped in clouds of mys-
ticism. The life of Krasinski was embittered by the fact that
he was the son of General Vincent Krasinski, who had become
unpopular among the Poles by his adherence to the Russian
government; the son wrote anonymously in consequence, and
was therefore called " The Unknown Poet." Among his latest
productions are his " Psalms of the Future " (Psalmy przy-
sztosci) K which were attacked by the democratic party as a
defence.of aristocratic views which had already ruined Poland.
His friend Slowacki answered them in some taunting verses,
and this led to a quarrel between the poets. One of the most
striking pieces of Krasinski has the title " Resurrecturis." The
sorrows of his country and his own physical sufferings have
communicated a melancholy tone to the writings of Krasinski,
which read like a dirge, or as if the poet stood always by an open
grave — and the grave is that of Poland. He must be considered
as, next to Mickiewicz, the greatest poet of the country. Other
poets of the romantic school of considerable merit were Gorecki,
Witwicki, Odyniec, and Gaszynski; the last-named wrote
many exquisite sonnets, which ought alone to embalm his name.
Witwicki (1800-1847) was son °f a professor at Krzemieniec.
He was a writer of ballads and poems dealing with rural life,
which enjoyed great popularity among his countrymen and had
the good fortune to be set to music by Chopin. The works of
Lelewel have separate mention (see Lelewel) ; but here may be
specified the labours of Narbutt, Dzieje starozytne arodu
litewskiego (" Early History of the Lithuanian People "), pub-
lished at Vilna in nine volumes, and the valuable Monumenta
Poloniae historica, edited at' Lemberg by Bielowski, of which
several volumes have appeared, containing reprints of most of
the early chroniclers. Bielowski died in 1876.

A further development of romanticism was the so-called
Ukraine school of poets, such as Malczewski, Goszczynski,
and Zaleski. Anton Malczewski (1 793-1826) wrote
one poem, Marya, a Ukrainian tale which passed school.
unnoticed at the time of its publication, but after
its author's death became very popular. Malczewski was one
of Napoleon's officers; he led a wandering life and was in-
timate with Byron at Venice; he is said to have suggested to

928

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the latter the story of Mazeppa. Marya is a narrative in verse
in the manner of Byron. It is written with much feeling and
elegance, and in a most harmonious metre. The chief poem is
Severin Goszczynski (1803-1876) is Zamek Kaniowski (" The
Tower of Kaniow "). The most interesting poem of Bogdan
Zaleski is his " Spirit of the Steppe " (Duch od stepu). Other
poets of the so-called Ukraine school, which has been so well
inspired by the romantic legends of that part of Russia, are
Thomas or Timko Padoura (who also wrote in the Malo-Russian,
or Little-Russian, language), Alexander Groza, and Thomas
Olizarowski. For many of the original songs and legends we
must turn to the work of Messrs Antonovich and Dragomanov.
Bogdan Joseph Zaleski was born in 1802 in the Ukraine village,
Bohaterka. In 1820 he was sent to the university of Warsaw,
where he had Goszczynski as a fellow student. Besides the
longer poem previously mentioned, he is the author of many
charming lyrics in the style of the Little Russian poems, such
as Shevchenko has written in that language. He died at Ville-
preux, in France, in 1886, after more than fifty years of exile.
Michael Grabowski (1805-1863) belongs also to this school by
his fine Melodies of the Ukraine (1828). Maurice Goslawski
also won fame by his Poems of a Polish Outlaw in the struggle
of 1 830-1 83 1. A poet of great vigour was Stephen Garczynski
( 1 806-1 833), the friend of Mickiewicz, celebrated for his War
Sonnets and his poem entitled The Deeds of Waclaw.

Wincenty Poi (1807-1872) was born at Lublin, and though of
foreign extraction by both parents proved an ardent patriot. He
wrote a fine descriptive work, Obrazy z zycia i podrozy (" Pictures
of Life and Travel "),and also a poem, Piesn ziemi naszej (" Song
of our Land "). For about three years from 1849 he was professor
of geography in the university of Cracow. In 1855 he published
Mohort, a poem relating to the times of Stanislaus Poniatowski.
Ludwik Wiadyslaw Kondratowicz (who wrote chiefly under the
name of Syrokorala) was born in 1823 in the government of Minsk,
and died on the 15th of September 1862 at Vilna. His parents were
poor, and he received a meagre education, but made up for it by
careful self-culture. One of his most remarkable poems is his
Jan Deborog, in which, like Mickiewicz, he has well described the
scenery of his native Lithuania. He everywhere appears as the
advocate of the suffering peasants, and has consecrated to them many
beautiful lyrics. In Kaczkowski the Poles found a novelist who
treated many periods of their history with great success. His
sympathies, however, were mostly aristocratic, though modified
by the desire of progress. An important writer of history is Karl
Szajnocha (1818-1868), born in Galicia of Czech parents. He began
his labours with The Age of Casimirthe Great (1848), and Bolestaw
the Brave (1849), following these with Jadwiga and Jagiello, in three
volumes (1855-1856) — a work which Spasovich, in his Russian
History of Slavonic Literature, compares in vigour of style and fullness
of colour with Macaulay's History of England and Thierry's Norman
Conquest. Our author was still further to resemble the latter
writer in a great misfortune ; from overwork he lost his sight in 1857.
Szajnocha, however, like Thierry and the American Prescott, did
not abandon his studies. His excellent memory helped him in his
affliction. In 1858 he published a work in which he traced the
origin of Poland from the Varangians {Lechicki poczatek polski),
thus making them identical in origin with the Russians. He began
to write the history of John Sobieski, but did not live to finish it.
dying in 1868, soon after completing a history of the Cossack wars,
Dwa lata dziejow naszych (" Two Years of Our History"). A writer
of romances of considerable power was Joseph Korzeniowski (1797-
1863), tutor in early youth to the poet Krasinski, and afterwards
director of a school at Kharkov. Besides some plays now forgotten,
he was author of some popular novels, such as Wedrowki ory-
ginata (" Tours of an Original "), 1 848 ; Garbaty (" The Hunchback ■'),
1852, &c. But the most fertile of Polish authors was J. I. Kraszew-
ski (q.v.). His works constitute a library in themselves; they are
chiefly historical and political novels, some or which treat of early
times in Poland, and some of its condition under the Saxon kings.
As lyrical poets may also be mentioned Jachowicz; Jaskowski,
author of a fine poem, The Beginning of Winter; Edmund Wasilew-
ski (18 1 4-1 846), the author of many popular songs;and Holowinski,
archbishop of Mogilev (1807-1855), author of religious poems. The
style of poetry in vogue in the Polish parts of Europe at the present
time is chiefly lyrical. Other writers deserving mention are Cornelius
Ujeiski (1823-1897), the poet of the last revolt of 1863; Theophilus
Lenartowicz (born 1822), who wrote some very graceful poetry;
Sigismund Milkowski (T. T. Tez, born in 1820), author of romances
drawn from Polish history, for the novel of the school of Sir Walter
Scott still flourishes vigorously among the Poles. Among the
very numerous writers of romances may be mentioned Henry
Rzewuski (1791-1866); Joseph Dzierzkowski wrote novels on aristo-
cratic life, and Michael Czajkowski (1808-1876) romances of the

Ukraine; Valerius Wieloglowski (1865) gave pictures of country
life.

In 1882 the Poles lost, in the prime of life, a very promising
historian Szujski (born in 1835), and also Schmitt, who died in his
sixty-sixth year. Szujski commenced his literary career in 1859
with poems and dramas; in i860 appeared his first historical pro-
duction, Rzutokana Historye Polski (" A Glance at Polish History "),
which attracted universal attention; and in 1862 he commenced
the publication in parts of his work Dzieje Polski (" The History of
Poland "), the printing of which ceased in 1866. The value of this
book is great both on account of the research it displays and its
philosophical and unprejudiced style. One of the last works of
Szujski, written in German, Die Polen und Ruthenen in Galizien,
attracted a great deal of attention at the time of its appearance.
Schmitt got mixed up with some of the political questions of the day
— he was a native of Galicia and therefore a subject of the Austrian
emperor — and was sentenced to death in 1846, but the penalty
was commuted into imprisonment in Spielberg, whence he was re-
leased by the revolution of 1848. In 1863 he took part in the Polish
rebellion, and was compelled to fly to Paris, where he only returned
in 1871. His chief works are History of the Polish People from the
Earliest Times to the year 1763 (1854), History of Poland in the iSth
and 19th Centuries (1866), and History of Poland from the time of the
Partition (1868), which he carried down to the year 1832. In opposi-
tion to the opinion of many historians, his contemporaries, that
Poland fell through the nobility and the diets, Schmitt held (as did
Lelewel) that the country was brought to ruin by the kings, who
always preferred dynastic interests to those of the country, and by
the pernicious influence of the Jesuits. Adalbert Ketrzynski, who
succeeded Bielowski in 1877 in his post of director of the Ossolinski
Institute at Lemberg, is the author of some valuable monographs
on the history of Poland. He was born in 1838. Casimir Stadnicki
has treated of the period of the Jagiellons; and Szaraniewicz, pro-
fessor at the university of Lemberg, has written on the early history
of Galicia. Thaddeus Wojciechowski has published a clever work
on Slavonic antiquities. Xavier Liske, born in 1838, professor of
universal history at Lemberg, has published many historical essays
of considerable value, and separate works by him have appeared
in the German, Polish, Swedish, Danish and Spanish languages.
The " Sketch of the History of Poland " {Dzieje Polskie w zarysie)
by Michael Bobrzynski, born in 1849 in Cracow (professor of Polish
and German law), is a very spirited work, and has given rise to a
great deal of controversy on account of the opposition of many
of its views to those of the school of Lelewel. Vincent Zakrzewski
professor of history at Cracow, has written some works which have
attracted considerable attention, such as On the Origin and Growth of
the Reformation^ in Poland, and After the Flight of King Henry, in
which he describes the condition of the country during the period
between that king's departure from Poland and the election of
Stephen Batory. Smolka has published a history entitled Mieszko
the Elder and his Age. Wiadyslaw Wislocki has prepared a catalogue
of manuscripts in the Jagiellon library at Cracow. Dr Joseph
Casimir PlebaAski, besides editing the Biblioteka warszawska,
a very valuable literary journal which stands at the head of all works
of the kind in Poland, has also written a dissertation (in Latin)
on the liberum veto, which puts that institution in a new light. Felix
Jezierski, the previous editor of the above-mentioned journal,
published in it translations of parts of Homer, and is also the author
of an excellent version of Faust.

The history of Polish literature has not been neglected. We
first have the early history of Felix Bentkowski (1781-1852),
followed by that of Michael Wiszniewski (1794-1865), which, how-
ever, only extends to the 17th century, and is at best but a quarry
of materials for subsequent writers, the style being very heavy. A
" History of Eloquence " (Historya wymoivy w Polsce) was published
by Karl Mecherzyski. An elaborate history of Polish litera-
ture has been written by Anton Malecki, who is the author of the
best Polish grammar (Gramatyka historyczno-porownawcza jezyka
polskiego, 2 vols., Lemberg, 1879). The Polish bibliography of
Karl Estreicher, director of the Jagiellon library at Cracow, is a work
of the highest importance. One of the most active writers on Polish
philology and literature is Wiadyslaw Nehring, whose numerous
contributions to the Archiv fur slavische PhUologie of Professor
Jagic entitle him to the gratitude of all who have devoted themselves
to Slavonic studies. Wladimir Spasowicz, a lawyer of St Petersburg,
assisted Pipin in his valuable work on Slavonic literature. The
lectures of Professor Cybulski (d. 1867) on Polish literature in the
first half of the 19th century are written with much spirit and appre-
ciation. The larger poetical works which appear during that time
are carefully analysed.

In recent times many interesting geological and anthropological
investigations have been carried on in Poland. In 1868 Count
Constantine Tyszkiewicz published a valuable monograph on the
Tombs of Lithuania and Western Ruthenia. And Professor Joseph
■Lepkowski, of Cracow, has greatly enriched the archaeological
museum of his native city.

In philosophy the Poles (as the Slavs generally) have produced
but few remarkable names. Goluchowski, the brothers Andrew
and John Sniadecki, the latter of whom gained a reputation almost
European, Bronislaw Trentowski, Karol Liebelt and Joseph Kremer

POLAND, RUSSIAN

929

deserve mention. August Cieszkowski has written on philosophical
and economic subjects. Moritz Straszewski, professor of philosophy
at the university of Cracow, has also published some remarkable
works.

Mention has already been made of the poetess Elizabeth Druz-
backa. Female writers are not very common among Slavonic
nations. Perhaps the most celebrated Polish authoress was Klemen-
tina Hoffmann, whose maiden name was Tanska, born at Warsaw
in 1798. She married Karl Boromaus Hoffmann, and accompanied
her husband, in 1831, to Passy near Paris, where she died in 1845.
Her novels still enjoy great popularity in Poland. Of the poetesses
of later times Gabriele Narzyssa Zmichowska (1825-1878), Maria
Ilnicka, translator of Scott's Lord of the Isles, and Jadwiga Luszczew-
ska may be mentioned.

A poet of considerable merit is Adam Asnyk (1838-1897). In
his poetry we seem to trace the steps between romanticism and the
modern realistic school, such as we see in the Russian poet Nekrasov.
In some of the flights of his muse he reminds us of Slowacki, in the
melody of his verse of Zaleski. Besides showing talent as a poet,
he has also written some good plays, as " The Jew " (Zid), Cola
di Rienzi, and Kiejstut. Other poets worthy of mention are Zagor-
ski, Czerwienski, and Maria Konopnicka, who has published two
volumes of poems that have been very favourably noticed. Mention
must also be made of Balucki (1837-1901), author of novels and
comedies, and Narzymski (1839-1872), who was educated in France,
but spent part of his short life in Cracow, author of some very popular
tales.

The four centres of Polish literature, which, in spite of the
attempts which have been made to denationalize the country, is
fairly active, are Cracow, Posen, Lemberg and Warsaw. A cheap
edition of the leading Polish classics, well adapted for dissemination
among the people, has been published, under the title of Biblioteka
Polska, at Cracow. Not only are the professors of Cracow University
some of the most eminent living Poles, but it has been chosen as a
place of residence by many Polish literary men. The academy
of sciences, founded in 1872, celebrated the bicentenary of the raising
of the siege of Vienna by Sobieski by publishing the valuable Acta
Joannis III. regis Poloniae. Some good Polish works have been
issued at Posen. At Lemberg, the capital of Austrian Galicia,
there is an active Polish press. Here appeared the Monumenta
Polomae hislorica of Bielowski, previously mentioned; but Polish
in this province has to struggle with the Red-Russian or Ruthenian,
a language or dialect which for all practical purposes is the same as
the Southern or Little Russian. At Warsaw, since the last insurrec-
tion, the university has become entirly Russianized, and its Transac-
tions are published in Russian ; but Polish works of merit still issue
from the press — among others the leading Polish literary journal,
Biblioteka warsza-wska.

Perhaps the most popular modern writer in Poland is Eliza
Orszeszko, of whose novels a complete " Jubilee " edition has
appeared. Many of her tales — as, for instance, Argonauci (" The
Argonauts ") — have appeared in the Tygodnik, or weekly illustrated
journal of Warsaw. Meir Ezofowicz has enjoyed great popularity.
The object of this tale is to bridge over the gulf between the Jew
and Christian in Poland. Adolf Dygasinski writes clever village
tales of the " kail-yard " school, as it has been sometimes termed in
England. Waclaw Sieroszewski has written Twelve Years in the
Land of the Jakuts, a contribution to the literature of folk-lore and
ethnology such as only a real artist could produce. Among the
latest poets' we may mention Wyspianski, Kisiliewski, Reymont,
Mme Zapolska; the latter is the author of some powerful realistic
novels and plays, and she has been called the Polish Zola. It is
this kind of poetry and traces of the decadent school which we
find in the later Polish poets. A pessimistic spirit is apparent, as
in the writings of Wenceslaus Berent. Since the death of Asnyk
and Ujejski the most prominent poet is Marya Konopnicka (1846).
Some good critical work has been done in the leading reviews by
Swietochowski and others. Historical work has been produced
by Hirschberg, Pappee, Sobieski, Czermak and others, and the
histories of Polish literature by Stanislaus Tarnowski and Piotr
Chmielowski are of the highest value, the former dealing more with
the aesthetic side of literature and the latter with the historical.
The Poles are busy in reviving their great past. Hence the
enthusiasm for historical studies, and the Biblioteka pisarzow polskich,
which shows us what abundance of literature was produced in
Poland in the 16th and beginning of the 17th century. In Henryk
Sienkiewicz (q.v.~), the historical novelist, Poland has a modern
writer of European reputation.

Bibliography. — Pipin and Spafovich, Istoria slavianskikh
Literatur (in Russian; St Petersburg, 1879) ; Geschichte der polnischen
Literalur von Dr A. Bruckner (Leipzig, 1901 ; also written in Polish) ;
Chmielowski, History of Polish Literature (in Polish, 3 vols.) ; Stanis-
laus Tarnowski, History of Polish Literature (in Polish) ; Grabowski,
Poezya Polska po roku 1863 (Cracow, 1903) ; Heinrich Nitschmann,
Geschichte der polnischen Literatur (Leipzig ; sine anno). (W. R. M.)

POLAND, RUSSIAN, a territory consisting of ten governments
which formerly constituted the kingdom of Poland (see' above),
but now are officially described as the " governments on the
xxi. 30

Vistula," or occasionally as the " territory on the Vistula."
It is bounded N. by the Prussian provinces of West and East
Prussia, W. by those of Posen and Prussian Silesia, S. by the
Austrian crownland of Galicia, and E. by the Russian govern-
ments of Volhynia, Vilna, Grodno, and Kovno.

Physical Features. — The territory consists for the most part of
an undulating plain, 300 to 450 ft. above the sea, which connects
the lowlands of Brandenburg on the west with the great plain
of central Russia on the east. A low swelling separates it from
the Baltic Sea; while in the south it rises gradually to a series

EniAValkcf *c*

of plateaus, which merge imperceptibly into the northern spurs
of the Carpathians. These plateaus, with an average elevation
of 800 to 1000 ft., are mostly covered with forests of oak, beech
and lime, and are deeply cut by river valleys, some being narrow
and craggy, and others broad, with gentle slopes and marshy
bottoms. Narrow ravines intersect them in all directions, and
they often assume, especially in the east, the character of wild,
impassable, woody and marshy tracts. In the south-eastern
corner of Poland they are called podlasie, and are in a measure
akin to the polyesie of the Pripet. The Vistula, which skirts
them on the south-west, cuts its way through them to the
great plain of Poland, and thence to the Baltic. Its valley
divides the hilly tracts into two parts — the Lublin heights on the
east, and the Sedomierz (Sandomir) or central heights on the west.
These last are diversified by several ranges which run east-
south-east, parallel to the Beskides of the Carpathian system,
the highest of them being the Lysa Gora, which reach 1910 ft.
and 2010 ft. above the sea. Another short ridge, the Checinski
hills in Kielce, follows the same direction along the Nida river
and reaches 1345 ft. south of the Nida; the Olkusz hills, linked
on to spurs of the Beskides, fill up the south-west corner of
Poland, reaching 1620 ft., and containing the chief mineral
wealth of the country; while a fourth range, 1000 to 1300 ft.
high, runs north-west past Czenstochowa, separating the Oder
from the Warta (Warthe). In the north, the plain of Poland is
bordered by a flat, broad swelling, 600 to 700 ft. above the sea,
dotted with lakes, and recalling the lacustrine regions of north-
western Russia. Wide tracts of sand, marshes, peat-bogs, ponds,,
and small lakes, among which the streams lazily meander from
one marsh to another, the whole covered with thin pine-
forests and scanty vegetation, with occasional patches of fertile

ir

93°

POLAND, RUSSIAN

soil — such are the general characters of the northern border-
region of the great plain of central Poland. The rivers flow
across the plain in broad, level valleys, only a few hundred
or even only a few dozen feet lower than the watersheds;
they separate into many branches, enclosing islands, forming
creeks, and drowning wide tracts of land during inundations.
Their basins, especially in the west, interpenetrate one another
in the most intricate way, the whole bearing unmistakable
evidences of having been in recent geological, and partly in
historical times the bottom of extensive lakes, whose alluvial
deposits now yield heavy crops. The fertility of the soil and
the facility of communication by land and by water have
made this plain the cradle of the Polish nationality. The
very name of Poland is derived from it — Wielkopolska and
Wielkopolane being the Slav terms for the great plain and its
inhabitants.

Rivers and Canals. — Russian Poland belongs mostly, though not
entirely, to the basin of the Vistula — its western parts extending
into the upper basin of the Warta, a tributary of the Oder, and its
north-east spur (Suwalki) penetrating into the basin of the Memel,
of which it occupies the left bank. For many centuries, however,
the Poles have been driven back from the mouths of their rivers by
the German race, maintaining only the middle parts of their basins.
About Jozefow (51 ° N.) the Vistula enters the great central plain
and flows north and west-north-west between low banks, with a
breadth of 1000 yds. Its inundations, dangerous even at Cracow,
become still more so in the plain, when the accumulations of ice
in its lower course obstruct the outflow, or the heavy rains in the
Carpathians raise its level. Embankments 20 to 24 ft. high are
maintained for 60 m., but they do not always prevent the river from
inundating the plains of Opole in Lublin and Kozienice inRadom,
the waters sometimes extending for 1 50 m. to the east. Thousands
of rafts and boats of all descriptions descend the stream every year
with cargoes of corn, wool, timber and wooden wares, giving occupa-
tion to a large number of men. Steamers ply as far as Sandomir.
The Wieprz (180 m.), a right-hand tributary of the Vistula, is the
chief artery of the Lublin government; it is navigable for small
boats and rafts for 105 m. from Krasnystaw. The Bug, another
right-hand tributary of the Vistula, describes a wide curve concen-
tric with those of the middle Vistula and the Narew, and separates
the Polish governments of Lublin and Siedlce from the Russian
governments of Volhynia and Grodno. Only light boats (galary)
are floated down this broad, shallow stream, whose flat and open
valley is often inundated. Its tributary, the Narew (250 m.),
brings the forest-lands of Byelovyezh in Grodno into communication
with Poland, timber being floated down from Surazh and light boats
from Tykocin in Lomza. The Pilica, which joins the Vistula from the
left 30 m. above Warsaw, rises in the south-western corner of Poland,
and flows for 200 m. north and east in a broad, flat, sandy and marshy
valley, of evil repute for its unhealthiness.

The Warta (450 m.) rises in the Czenstochowa hills, 900 ft. above
the sea, and flows north and west past Sieradz and Kolo. Below
Czenstochowa it traverses a flat lowland, whose surface rises only
2 to 5 ft. above the level of the river, and the inhabitants have a
constant struggle to keep it to its bed; every spring an immense
lake is formed by the river at the mouth of the Ner, a little above
Kolo.

The Memel flows along the north-east frontier of Poland, from
Grodno to Yurburg, separating it from Lithuania. The yellowish
sandy plains on its left will grow nothing except oats, buckwheat
and some rye. The river often changes its bed, and, notwithstanding
repeated attempts to regulate it, offers great difficulties to navigation.
Still, large amounts of corn, wool and timber are floated down,
especially after its confluence with the Black Hancza.

Though navigable for a few months only, the rivers of Poland
have always been of considerable importance for the traffic of the
country, and their importance is further increased by several canals
connecting them with the Russian and German rivers. The Memel
is connected with the Dnieper by the Oginsky canal, situated in the
Russian government of Minsk. The Dnieper and Bug canal in
Grodno connects the Mukhavets, a tributary of the Bug, with the
Pina in the basin of the Pripet, that is, the Dnieper with the Vistula.
The Vistula is connected also with the Oder by the Bromberg
canal in Prussia, which links the Brahe, in the basin of the Vistula,
with the Netze, a tributary of the Warta. All these canals are,
however, beyond Russian Poland. In Poland proper, the Augus-
towo canal connects the Vistula with the Memel, by means of the
rivers Black Hancza, Netta, Biebrz and Narew. Another canal,
to the west of Leczyca, connects the Bzura, a tributary of the Vistula,
with the Ner and the Warta; and the bed of the former has been
altered so as to obtain regular irrigation of the meadows along its
banks.

Lakes. — Lakes are numerous in the government of Suwalki, but
are all small and mostly hidden in thick coniferous or birch forests,
and their waters penetrate with undefined banks amidst marshes,
sandy tracts and accumulations of moss-grown boulders. Another

group of small lakes is situated in the basin of the Warta (north
part of Kalisz), the largest being Goplo, 18 m. long and 100 ft.
deep.

Climate. — With the exception of the Lysa Gora hilly tracts
(Kielce and south Radom), which lie within the isotherms of 41°
and 42°, Poland is situated between the isotherms of 42° and 46 .
The isotheres and isocheims (i.e. lines of equal mean summer and
winter temperature respectively) crossing one another at right angles,
and the former running east-north-east, Poland is included between
the isotheres of 64 and 6l° and the isocheims of 35-7° and 39-2°.
The prevailing winds are westerly, with north-north-east and south
winds in autumn and winter, and east winds in spring. There is an
average of 21-7 to 23-6 in. of rainfall in central Poland, and the
quantity increases slowly towards the south on account of the
proximity of the Carpathians, where it is 30-3 in. Owing to this
distribution the snow-sheet in Poland is not very thick, and spring
sets in early. Still, frosts of —4° to —22° Fahr. are not uncommon,
and the rivers are generally icebound for two and a half to three
months — the Warta being under ice for 70 to 80 days, the Vistula
at Warsaw for 80 days and (exceptionally) even for 116, and the
Memel for 100 (exceptionally for 140).

The following averages will serve to illustrate the climate of
Poland :—

Absolute maximum temperature
Absolute minimum temperature
Annual rainfall (total) ....

Warsaw.

Vilna
(in Russia).

Oct. 18
March 15

95-5°
-37-6°

22-8 in.

Oct. 17
March 25
89-3°
39-0°
7-6 in.

Flora. — The flora of Poland is more akin to that of Germany
than to that of Russia, several middle European species finding their
north-east limits in the basin of the Memel or in the marshes of
Lithuania. Coniferous forests, consisting mostly of pine (Pinus
sylvestris) and birch, cover large tracts in Mazovia in the north, extend
across the Baltic lake-ridge southwards as far as the confluence of
the Bug with the Narew, and join in the south-east the Polysie of
the Pripet. The pine covers the Lysa Gora hills and the hills in
the extreme south-west. The larch, which three centuries ago
covered large tracts, has almost entirely disappeared. Pinus
cembra is only remembered, as also Taxus baccata. Picea obovala
is cultivated.

Of deciduous trees, the common beech is the most typical; it
extends from the Carpathians to 52 ° N. and reaches three degrees
farther north in small groups or isolated specimens; the confluence
of the Bug and the Narew may be regarded as its eastern limit.
The white beech (Carpinus betulus), the aspen, and two elms (Ulmus
campestris, U. effusa) are found nearly everywhere. The lime
appears in groves only in the east (Memel, Pripet, Lublin). It is
the most popular tree with the Poles, as the birch with the Russians ;
judgment of old was pronounced under its shade, and all the folk-
songs repeat its name. The oak — a highly venerated tree in Poland,
though not so much as in Lithuania — grows in forests only on the
most fertile land, but it is of common occurrence in conjunction with
the beech, elm, &c. The maples (Acer platanoides and A. pseudo-
platanus) are somewhat rare; the black alder (Alnus glulinosa) lines
the banks of the rivers and canals, and the Alnus incana is common.
The willow and orchard trees — apple, pear, plum and cherry — are
cultivated everywhere.

Fauna. — -The fauna of Poland belongs to the middle European
zoological group ; within the historical period it has lost such species
as formerly gave it a subarctic character. The reindeer now occurs
only as a fossil; the sable, mentioned in the annals, has migrated
eastwards; the wild horse, described by the annals as intermediate
between the horse and the ass — probably similar to the Equus
przewalskii of central Asia — is reputed to have been met with in
the 13th century in the basin of the Warta, and two centuries later
in the forests of Lithuania. The wild goat, bison and elk have
migrated to the Lithuanian forests. The lynx and beaver have
disappeared. The brown bear continues to haunt the forests of the
south, but is becoming rarer; the wolf, the wild boar, and the fox
are most common throughout the great plain, as also the hare and
several species of Arvicola. The mammals in Poland, however,
do not exceed fifty species. The avi-fauna, which does not differ
from that of central Europe, is represented by some one hundred
and twenty species, among which the singing birds (Dentirostrae
and Conirostrae) are the most numerous. On the whole, Poland
lies to the westward of the most frequented route of the migratory
birds, and is less visited by them than the steppes of south-west
Russia. Numerous aquatic birds breed on the waters of the Baltic
lake-region.

Population. — The population of Poland, 6,193,710 in 1871,
reached. 7,319,980 in 1881, and 10,500,000 in 1897. The esti-
mated population in 1906 was 10,747,300. Details for 1897
are shown in the subjoined table.

POLAND, RUSSIAN

93i

Governments.

Area,
sq. m.

Domiciled

Population,

1897.

Urban
Population.

Density

per

sq. m.

Kalisz ....
Kielce ....
Lomza
Lublin
Piotrkow .
Plock ....
Radom
Siedlce
Suwalki .
Warsaw .

Total . . .

4,390
3,896
4,666
6,500

4,728

4,199
4,768

5,533
4.845
5,605

844.358
765,212

585.033

1,165,122

1 ,406,427

557.229

818,044

775.326

610,154

1,929,200

113,609

57,814

69,834

148,196

509,699
89,821

94,318
no,995

73.308
791,746

193
196

125

179
297

133
171
140
126
344

49,130

9.456,105

2.059,340

193

The non-domiciled population numbered about 1,000,000, and by
1904 the total was estimated to have increased to 12,000,000, the
rate of increase between 1889 and 1904 having been 46-6. Poland,
with 193 (domiciled) inhabitants or 213 inhabitants in all to the
square mile in 1897, and 240 to the square mile in 1904, has a denser
population than any other region in the Russian empire, the next to
it being the governments of Moscow, with 189 inhabitants to the
square mile, Podolia with 186, and Kiev with 181. The drift town-
wards of the rural population began in 1890, when the urban popula-
tion amounted to only 18 % of the whole, whereas in 1904 it reached
24%, as compared with 13% for the urban population of Russia as
a whole. Of the towns of Poland 32 have a population each exceed-
ing 10,000, the largest being Warsaw the capital, with 638,208 inhabi-
tants in 1897 and 756,426 in 1901 ; Lodz, with 315,209 in 1897 and
351,570 in 1900; Czenstochowa, with 45,130 in 1897 and 53,650 in
1900; and Lublin, with 50,152 in 1897. According to nationalities,
the population was made up as follows in 1897: 6,755,503 Poles,
equal to 64-6 % of the total; 1,267,194 Jews, equal to 12-1%;
631,844 Russians (6%); 391,440 Germans (4%); 310,386 Lithuan-
ians and Letts (3 %) ; with a few thousands each of Tatars, Bohemians,
Rumanians, and Esthonians, and a few Gypsies and Hungarians.

During prehistoric times the basin of the Vistula seems
to have been inhabited by a dolichocephalic race, different
from the brachycephalic Poles of the present day; but from
the dawn of history Slavs (Poles), intermingled to some extent
with Lithuanians, have to be found on the plains of the Vistula
and the Warta. The purest Polish type exists in the basin of
the middle Vistula and in Posen. The Poles extend but little
beyond the limits of Russian Poland. In East Prussia they
occupy the southern slope of the Baltic swelling (the Mazurs),
and extend down the left bank of the lower Vistula to its mouth
(the Kaszubes or Kassubians). Westward they stretch down
the Warta as far as Birnbaum (100 m. east of Berlin) ; and in the
south they extend along the right bank of the Vistula to the
river San in western Galicia. In Russia they constitute, with
Jews, Lithuanians, Ruthenians and White Russians, the town
population, as also the landed nobility and the country gentry,
in several governments west of the Dvina and the Dnieper.

According to the localities which they inhabit, the Poles take
different names. They are called Wielkopolanie on the plains of
middle Poland, while the name of Malopolanie is reserved for those
on the Warta. The name of Leczycanie is given to the inhabitants
of the marshes of the Ner, that of Kurpie to those of the Podlasie;
Kujawiacy, Szlacy in the Silesia, and G6rale in the Carpathians.

The Kaszubes, and especially the Mazurs, may be considered as
separate stocks of the Polish family. The Mazurs are distinguished
from the Poles by their lower stature, broad shoulders and massive
frame, and still more by their national dress, which has nothing of
the smartness of that of the southern Poles, and by their ancient
customs; they have also a dialect of their own, containing many
words now obsolete in Poland, and several grammatical forms
bearing witness to Lithuanian influence. They submit without
difficulty to German culture, and in Prussia are Lutherans. The
language of the Kaszubes can also be considered as a separate dialect.
The Poles proper are on the whole of medium stature (5 ft. 4-6 in.),
finely built, dark in the south and fair in the north, richly endowed
by nature, inclined to deeds of heroism, but perhaps deficient in
that energy which characterizes the northern races of Europe, and
in that sense of unity which has been the strength of their present
rulers.

The German element is annually increasing both in number and
in influence. The Lodz manufacturing district, the Polish Birming-
ham, is becoming more German than Polish; and throughout the
governments west of the Vistula German immigration is going on at
a steadily increasing rate, especially in the governments of Plock,
Kalisz, Piotrkow and Warsaw.

The Jews, who are found everywhere throughout Poland, are
nowhere agricultural ; in the larger towns many of them are artisans,

but in the villages they are almost exclusively engaged as shop-
keepers, second-hand traders, dealers on commission, innkeepers
and usurers. In the country, both commerce and agriculture arc
in the hands of their intimately connected trading associations.
Their relations with Poles and Ruthenians are anything but cordial,
and " Jew-baiting " is of frequent occurrence. They are increasing
mucR more rapidly than the Slavs.

Agriculture. — From remote antiquity Poland has been celebrated
for the production and export of grain. Both, however, greatly
declined in the 18th century; and towards the beginning of the 19th,
the peasants, ruined by their proprietors, or abandoned to the
Jews, were in a more wretched condition than even their Russian
neighbours. Serfdom was abolished in 1807; but the liberated
peasants received no allotments of land, and the old patrimonial
jurisdictions were retained. Compelled to accept the conditions
imposed by the landlords, the peasants had to pay rack-rents and
to give compulsory labour in various forms for the use of their land.
Only a limited number were considered as permanent farmers, while
nearly one-half of them became mere proletaires. Pursuing a policy
intended to reconcile the peasantry to Russian rule and to break
the power of the Polish nobility, the Russian government promul-
gated, during the outbreak in 1 864, a law by which those peasants
who were holders of land on estates belonging to private persons,
institutions (such as monasteries and the like), or the Crown were
recognized as proprietors of the soil — the state paying compensation
to the landlords in bonds, and the peasants having to pay a yearly
annuity to the state until the debt thus contracted had been cleared
off. The valuation of these allotments was made at a rate much
more advantageous than in Russia, and the average size of holding
amounted to 15 acres per family. Of those who held no land a
number received grants out of the confiscated estates of the nobility
and monasteries. At the same time the self-government of the
peasants was organized on democratic principles. The so-called
" servitudes," however — that is, the right to pasture on and take
wood from the landlord's estates — were maintained for political
reasons. These reforms resulted in a temporary increase of pros-
perity, or at any rate an alleviation of the previous misery of the
peasants. But whereas between 1864 and 1873 the peasantry
as a whole purchased, in addition to the land granted to them
by the government, 297,000 acres, in the period 1873-1893, they
bought 540,000 acres and between 1893 and 1905 as much as 1,620,000
acres. Thus the process of breaking up the larger estates is pro-
ceeding rapidly and at an accelerated rate. In ten years (1864-
1873) the area of cultivated soil increased by 1 ,350,00a acres, while
during the fourteen years 1845-1859 its increase had been only
540,000 acres. But the maintenance of the " servitudes," the want
of pasture-land, the lack of money for improvements, and the very
rapid increase in the price of land, all helped to counteract the bene-
fits of the agrarian measures of 1864.

In 1904 the village communities (peasantry) owned 43-8% of the
total area; private owners, mostly nobles, 40-6%; the Crown and
imperial family, 6%; and public bodies, such as towns and monas-
teries, 2-6 %; while 3 % was in the hands of the Jews. The holdings
of the peasant families vary generally from 8 to 13 acres, the
minimum in Russia being 16 to 22 acres. By a law of 1891 further
subdivision below 8-3 acres is prohibited. But out of a total of some
7,000,000 peasants no fewer than 3,000,000 possess no land. In
consequence of this every summer no fewer than 800,000 emigrate
temporarily to Germany in quest of work.

Forests cover over 21-3% of the surface, of which nearly one-
third belong to the Crown, and only 515,000 acres (7-7%) to the
peasantry.

Agriculture in Poland is on the whole carried on according to more
advanced methods than in Russia. The extensive cultivation of
beetroot, of potatoes for distilleries, and of fodder crops has led to
the introduction of a rotation of several years instead of the former
" three-fields " system ; and agricultural machinery is in more general
use, especially on the larger estates of the west. Winter wheat is
extensively cultivated, especially in the south, the Sandomir (Sedo-
mierz) wheat having a wide repute. Of the land in the possession
of the peasants no less than 70 % is under crops, and of the land in
the larger estates 52%; of the former category 11%, and of the
latter 8%, is meadow. Altogether nearly 16 million acres of
Russian Poland, or almost one-half of the total area, are under crops,
principally rye, oats, wheat, barley, potatoes and hay, with some
flax, hemp, peas, buckwheat and hops. After local wants are
supplied, there remains every year a surplus of about 3I million
quarters of cereals for export. Beetroot is largely grown for the
manufacture of sugar. Potatoes are extensively grown for use in
the distilleries. The cultivation of tobacco is successfully carried on,
especially in the governments of Warsaw, Plock and Lublin. The
breeding of livestock (cattle, sheep and horses), is an important
source of income. Fine breeds of horses and cattle are kept on the
larger estates of the nobility, and cattle are exported to Austria.
Bee-keeping is widely followed, especially in the south-east. Fishing
is carried on remuneratively, more particularly on the Vistula and
its tributaries.

Manufactures and Mines. — Since 1864, and more especially since
1875, there has been a remarkable development of manufacturing
enterprise in Poland, the branch of industry which has shown the

932

POLARITY— POLARIZATION OF LIGHT

greatest progress being the textile. Whereas in 1864 the annual
production of all factories in Poland was valued at not more than
5i millions sterling, in 1875, when the workers numbered 27,000,
the output was estimated at even less; but in 1905 the value of the
industrial production reached 53 millions sterling. The principal
industrial centres are Lodz (textiles), Warsaw (sugar, leather and
miscellaneous) and Bendzin — Sosnowice — Dombrowa, in Piotrkow
(mining). The sugar factories and refineries, situated chiefly in the
governments of Warsaw, Lublin and Plock, turn out approximately
one million tons of sugar in the year, the Polish sugar industry being
exceeded in Russia only by that of Kiev. Cotton is the principal
product of the mills at Lodz and Lask, both in Piotrkow; though
woollen cloth, silk and linen are also produced. Tanning is centred
in Warsaw and Radom; Polish {i.e. Warsaw) boots and shoes have
a great reputation throughout the Russian empire. Other notable
branches of manufacturing industry, besides those already named,
are flour-mills, jute, hosiery, lace, paper, cement, hats, haberdashery,
machinery, tobacco, soap and candle factories, iron and steel works,
distilleries, breweries, potteries, vinegar, chocolate, varnish, furni-
ture, clothing and brickworks. The cottage industries, such as pot-
tery and basket-making, formerly of considerable importance, are
gradually being replaced by the factory system of working.

Southern Poland possesses abundant minerals, especially in the,
Kielce mountains and the region adjacent to Prussian Silesia. The
Devonian sandstones contain malachite ores near Kielce, and copper
has been worked there since the 15th century, though the mines are
now neglected. The brown iron ores of Kielce contain no less than
40 % of iron. The zinc ores of the Olkusz district, more than 50 ft.
thick, contain 8 to 14 %, sometimes 25 %, of zinc. The tin ores of
Olkusz are still more ' important, and were extensively wrought
as early as the 16th century. Brown iron ores, appearing in the
neighbourhood of Bendzin as lenticular masses 55 ft. thick, and
containing 25 to 33 % of iron, accompany the zinc ores. Spherosider-
ites and brown iron ores are plentiful also in the " Keuper forma-
tion." Sulphur is wrought in the district of Pinczow; the deposits,
which contain 25 % of sulphur, reach a thickness of 7 to 70 ft. Coal
occurs in south-west Poland over an area of 200 sq. m. in the districts
of Bendzin and Olkusz. Brown coal, or lignite, which appears in
the Olkusz district in beds 3 to 7 ft. thick, has been worked out. The
output of coal is 4,000,000 to 6,000,000 tons in the year, the number
of hands employed being 18,000 to 20,000. The yield of lignite is
less than 100,000 tons annually; of zinc 10,000 to 12,000 tons; of
copper and lead small. The production of iron and steel increased
from 13,000 tons in 1862 to about 500,000 tons in 1905. Of other
mineral produce, chalk, exported from Lublin, a few quarries of
marble and many of building stones, are worthy of notice. Mineral
waters are used medicinally at Ciechocinek in Plock and Naleczow
in Lublin.

Communications. — The railways of Poland have an aggregate
length of 1300 m. A line of great importance, connecting Vienna
with St Petersburg, crosses the country from south-west to
north-east, passing through the mining district and through Warsaw,
and sending a short branch to Lodz. Another important line,
connecting Danzig with Odessa, crosses Poland from north-west to
south-east. A branch line, parallel to this last, connects Skiernie-
wice with Thorn and Bromberg; while a military railway connects
the fortresses of Warsaw and Ivangorod with Brest-Litovsk, via
Siedlce and Lukow. The line from Berlin to St Petersburg traverses
the north of Suwalki for 54 m. between Eydtkunen and Kovno.

Commerce. — The general trade of Poland is merged in that of
Russia, under which heading it is treated. With the extension of
the railways the fairs have lost much of their importance, but their
aggregate yearly returns are still estimated at £3,000,000. The
principal fairs are held at Warsaw (wool, hemp, hops), Leczyca
in Kalisz, Skaryszew in Radom, Ciechanoviec in Lomza, and Lowicz
in Warsaw.

Administration. — The entire administration of Poland is
under the governor-general residing at Warsaw. He is at the
same time the commander of the military forces of the " Warsaw
military district." Justice is represented by the gmina tribunals,
which correspond to those of the mir in Russia; the justices of the
peace (nominated by government); the syezd, or " court " of the
justices of the peace; the district tribunals (assizes) in each
government; and the Warsaw courts of appeal and cassation.
Poland has had no separate budget since 1867; its income and
expenditure are included in those of the empire.

After the insurrection of 1863 all towns with less than 2000
inhabitants were deprived of their municipal rights, and were
included, under the designation of posads, in the gminas.
Viewed with suspicion by the Russian government, the Polish
towns received no self-government like the villages. The elective
municipal councils, which enjoyed de jure very large rights,
including that of maintaining their own police, although in
reality they were under the rule of the nobility, were practically
abolished, and Russian officials were nominated in their place

and entrusted with all their rights. The municipal councils
were, however, maintained to carry out the orders of the military
chiefs. The new municipal law of 1870, first introduced at
Warsaw, reduced the functions of the municipal council almost
to nothing. The burgomaster is entirely dependent upon the
police and the chief of the district, and has to discharge all sorts
of functions (bailiff, policeman, &c.) which have nothing to do
with municipal affairs. In all official communications the
Russian language is obligatory, and a gradual elimination of
Poles from the administration has been effected.

Defence. — Poland contains the first line of defence of the Russian
empire on its western frontier. The marshy lowlands, covered with
forests on the western bank of the Vistula, are a natural defence
against an army advancing from the west, and they are strengthened
by the fortresses on that river. The centre of these latter is Warsaw,
with Novogeorgievsk, formerly Modlin, in the north, at the mouth
of the Bug, and Ivangorod, formerly Demblin, in the south, at the
mouth of the Wieprz. Novogeorgievsk is a strongly fortified camp
which requires a garrison of 12,000 men, and may shelter an army of
50,000 men. The town of Sierock, at the confluence of the Bug and
the Narew, is fortified to protect the rear of Novogeorgievsk. The
Vistula line of fortresses labours, however, under the great disadvan-
tage of being easily turned from the rear by armies advancing from
East Prussia or Galicia. Brest-Litovsk, at the western issue from
the marshes of the Pripet, the towns of Dubno, Lutsk and Bob-
ruisk constitute the second line of defence.

Religion and Education. — The prevalent religion is the Roman
Catholic, to which over 75 % of the total population belong. Pro-
testants (mostly Lutherans) amount to 6 %, while about 5 % are
members of the Orthodox Greek Church. After the insurrection of
1863, measures were taken to reduce the numbers of the Roman
Catholic clergy in Poland. One diocese (Podlasie) was abolished,
and a new one established at Kielce, while several bishops were
sent out of the country. Poland is now divided into four dioceses —
Warsaw, Sedomierz, Lublin and Plock.

The educational institutions of Poland are represented by a
university at Warsaw, with 1500 students. Teaching has been
carried on in Russian since 1873. There are excellent technical
schools, an institute of agriculture and forestry at Nowa-Alexandrya,
and several seminaries for teachers. At Warsaw there is a good
musical conservatory. The Jewish children are mostly sent to the
Jewish schools, but they receive almost no instruction at all.
Although there has been a decided increase in the number of both the
primary and the secondary schools, nevertheless the school accommo-
dation has in neither categoiy of school kept pace with the growth
of the population. The proportion of primary schools has in
fact been steadily decreasing, and the applications for admission
to the secondary schools and colleges are on the average twice as great
as the number of vacancies. All the same, Poland compares very
favourably with Russia in the general level of education, for whereas
those able to read and write in 1897 amounted in Roland to 30-5%
of the population (only 9-3% in 1862), in Russia it was 19-8%.

(P. A. K. ; J. T. Be.)

POLARITY (Lat. polaris, polus, pole), having two poles or
parts at which certain properties are the opposite to one another,
as in a'magnet the ends of which have opposite magnetic charac-
ters. The act of producing polarity is termed polarization.
For electrolytic polarization see Battery and Electrolysis,
and for optical see Polarization or Light below.

POLARIZATION OF LIGHT. A stream of light coming
directly from a natural source has no relation to space except
that concerned in its direction of propagation, round which
its properties are alike on all sides. That this is not a necessary
characteristic of light was discovered by Christian, Huygens,
who found that, whereas a stream of sunlight in traversing a
rhomb of spar in any but one direction always gives rise to two
streams of equal brightness, each of these emergent streams
is divided by a second rhomb into two portions having a relative
intensity dependent upon the position with respect to one another
of the principal planes of the faces of entry into the rhombs — the
planes through the axes of the crystals perpendicular to the
refracting surfaces. In certain cases, indeed, one portion
vanishes entirely: thus the stream ordinarily refracted in the
first rhomb gives an ordinary or an extraordinary stream alone
in the second, according as the principal planes are parallel or
perpendicular, the reverse being the case with the extraordinary
stream of the first rhomb. In intermediate cases the intensities
of the two beams are proportional to the squares of the cosines
of the angles that the principal plane of the second rhomb makes
with the positions in which they have the greatest intensity.

POLARIZATION OF LIGHT

933

On the other hand, if the emergent streams overlap and the
common part be examined, it is found to have all the properties
of common light. To this phenomenon E. T Malus gave the
name of polarization, as he attributed it, on the emission theory
of light, to a kind of polarity of the light-corpuscles. This
term has been retained and the ordinary stream is said to be
plane polarized in the principal plane of the face of entry into
the rhomb, and the extraordinary stream to be plane polarized
in the perpendicular plane.

The phenomenon of polarization observed by Huygens
remained an isolated fact for over a century, until Malus in
1808 discovered that polarization can be produced independently
of double refraction, and must consequently be something
closely connected with the nature of light itself. Examining
the light reflected from the windows of the Luxemburg palace
with a doubly refracting prism, he was led to infer (though more
refined experiments have shown that this is not strictly the case)
that light reflected at a certain angle, called the polarizing angle,
from the surface of transparent substances has the same proper-
ties with respect to the plane of incidence as those of the ordinary
stream in Iceland spar with respect to the principal plane of the
crystal. Thus in accordance with the definition, it is polarized
in the plane of incidence. Further, if polarized light fall at
the polarizing angle on a reflecting surface, the intensity of the
reflected stream depends upon the azimuth of the plane of
incidence, being proportional to the square of the cosine of the
angle between this plane and the plane of the polarization.
At angles other than the polarizing angle common light gives
a reflected stream that behaves as a mixture of common light
with light polarized in the plane of incidence, and is accordingly
said to be partially polarized in that plane. The refracted
light, whatever be the angle of incidence, is found to be partially
polarized in a plane perpendicular to the plane of incidence, and
D. F. J. Arago showed that at all angles of incidence the reflected
and refracted streams contain equal quantities of polarized light.
The polarizing angle varies from one transparent substance to
another, and Sir David Brewster in 1813 enunciated the law that
the tangent of the polarizing angle is equal to the refractive
index of the substance. It follows then that if a stream of light
be incident at the polarizing angle on a pile of parallel transparent
plates of the same nature, each surface in turn will be met by
the light at the polarizing angle and will give rise to a reflected
portion polarized in the plane of incidence. Hence the total
reflected light will be polarized in this plane and will of necessity
have a greater intensity than that produced by a single surface.
The polarization of the light transmitted by the pile is never
complete, but tends to become more nearly so as the number
of the plates is increased and at the same time the angle of inci-
dence for which the polarization is a maximum approaches
indefinitely, the polarizing angle (Sir G. G. Stokes, Math, and
Phys. Papers, iv. 145).

In order to isolate a polarized pencil of rays with a rhomb
of Iceland spar, it is necessary to have a crystal of such a thick-
ness that the emergent streams are separated, so that one may
be stopped by a screen. There are, however, certain crystals
that with a moderate thickness give an emergent stream of light
that is more or less completely polarized. The polarizing action
of such crystals is due to the unequal absorption that they exert
on polarized streams. Thus a plate of tourmaline of from
1 mm. to 2mm. in thickness with its faces perpendicular to the
optic axis is nearly opaque to light falling normally upon it,
and a plate of this thickness parallel to the axis permits of the
passage of a single stream polarized in a plane perpendicular
to the principal section. Such a plate acts in the same way
on polarized light, stopping it or allowing it to pass, according
as the plane of polarization is parallel or perpendicular to the
principal section. Certain artificial salts, e.g. iodo-sulphate of
quinine, act in a similar manner.

From the above instances we see that an instrumental
appliance that polarizes a beam of light may be used as a means
of detecting and examining polarization. This latter process
is termed analysation, and an instrument is called a polarizer

or an analyser according as it is used for the first or the second
of these purposes.

In addition to the above facts of polarization mention may
be made of the partial polarization, in a plane perpendicular
to that of emission, of the light emitted in an oblique
direction from a white-hot solid, and of the polarization
produced by diffraction. Experiments with gratings have
been instituted by Sir G. Gabriel Stokes, C. H. A. Holtzmann,
F. Eisenlohr and others, with the view of determining
the direction of the vibrations in polarized light (vide
infra), but the results have not been consistent, and
H. Fizeau and G. H. Quincke have shown that they depend
upon the size and form of the apertures and upon the state of
the surface on which they are traced. The polarization of the
light reflected from a glass grating has also been investigated
by I. Frohlich, while L. G. Gouy has studied the more simple
case of diffraction at a straight edge. The polarization of the
light scattered by small particles has been examined by G. Govi,
J. Tyndall, L. Soret and A. Lallemand, and in the case of ultra-
microscopic particles by H. Siedentopf and R. Zsigmondy
(Drude Ann. 1903, x. 1); an interesting cast, of this phenomenon
is the polarization of the light from the sky — a subject that has
been treated theoretically by Lord Rayleigh in an important
series of papers (See Sky, Colour of, and Rayleigh, Scientific
Works, i. 87, 104, 518; iv. 397).

An important addition to the knowledge of polarization was
made in 1816 by Augustin J. Fresnel and D. F. J. Arago, who
summed up the results of a searching series of experiments in
the following laws of the interference of polarized light:
(1) Under the same conditions in which two streams of common
light interfere, two streams polarized at right angles are without
mutual influence. (2) Two streams polarized in parallel planes
give the same phenomena of interference as common light.

(3) Two streams polarized at right angles and coming from a
stream of common light can be brought to the same plane of
polarization without thereby acquiring the faculty of interfering.

(4) Two streams polarized at right angles and coming from a
stream of polarized light interfere as common light, when
brought to the same plane of polarization. (5) In calculating
the conditions of interference in the last case, it is necessary
to add a half wave-length to the actual difference of path of the
streams, unless the primitive and final planes of polarization lie
in the same angle between the two perpendicular planes.

The lateral characteristics of a polarized stream lead at once
to the conclusion that the stream may be represented by a
vector, and since this vector must indicate the direction in
which the light travels as well as the plane of polarization, it is
natural to infer that it is transverse to the direction of propaga-
tion. That this is actually the case is proved by experiments on
the interference of polarized light, from which it may be deduced
that the polarization-vector of a train of plane waves of plane
polarized light executes rectilinear vibrations in the plane of the
waves. By symmetry the polarization-vector must be either
parallel or perpendicular to the plane of polarization: which of
these directions is assumed depends upon the physical character-
istic that is attributed to the vector. In fact, whatever theory
of light be adopted, there are two vectors to be considered,
that are at right angles to one another and connected by purely
I geometrical relations.

The general expressions for the rectangular components of
a vector transverse to the direction of propagation (z) in the
case of waves of length X travelling with speed v are: —

u = a cos (T— a), v=b cos (T— /3),

where T=2?r(ztf— z)/X. The path of the extremity of the vector
is then in general an ellipse, traversed in a right-handed direction
to an observer receiving the light when a— /3 is between o and x,
or between —k and — 27r, and in a left-handed direction if this
angle be between w and 2ir, or between o and — jr. In conformity
with the form of the path, the light is said to be elliptically
polarized, right- or left-handedly as the case may be, and the
axes of the elliptic path are determined by the planes of

934

POLARIZATION OF LIGHT

maximum and minimum polarization of the light. In the par-
ticular case in which a = b and a — |8 = =*= (2»+ i) tr/2, the
vibrations are circular and the light is said to be circularly
polarized.

These different types of polarization may be obtained from
a plane polarized stream by passing it through a quarter-wave
plate, i.e. a crystalline plate of such a thickness that it introduces
a relative retardation of a quarter of a wave between the com-
ponent streams within it. Such plates are generally made of
mica or selenite, and the normal to the plane of polarization
of the most retarded stream is called " the axis of the plate."
If this axis be parallel or perpendicular to the primitive plane
of polarization, the emergent beam remains plane polarized;
it is circularly polarized if the axis be at 45° to the plane of
polarization, and in other cases it is elliptically polarized with
the axes of the elliptic path parallel and perpendicular to the
axis of the plate. Conversely a quarter-wave plate may be
employed for reducing a circularly or elliptically polarized
stream to a state of plane polarization.

Two streams are said to be oppositely polarized when the one
is, so far as relates to its polarization, what the other becomes
when it is turned through an azimuth of 90° and has its character
reversed as regards right and left hand. An analytical investi-
gation of the conditions of interference of polarized streams of
the most general type leads to the result that there will be no
interference only when the two streams are oppositely polarized,
and that when the polarizations are identical the interference
will be perfect, the fluctuations of intensity being the greatest
that the difference of intensity of the streams admits (Sir G. G.
Stokes, Math, and Phys. Papers, iii. 233).

It remains to consider the constitution of common unpolarized
light. Since a beam of common light can be resolved into plane
polarized streams and these on recomposition give a stream
with properties indistinguishable from those of common
light, whatever their relative retardation may be, it is natural
to assume that an analytical representation of common light
can be obtained in which no longitudinal vector occurs. On the
other hand a stream of strictly monochromatic light with a
polarization-vector that is entirely transversal must be (in general
elliptically) polarized. Consequently it follows that common
light cannot be absolutely monochromatic. The conditions
that are necessary in order that a stream of light may behave as
natural light have been investigated by Sir G. Gabriel Stokes
(loc. cit.) and by E. Verdet (Oeuvres, i. 281), and it may be
shown that two polarized streams of a definite character are
analytically equivalent to common light provided that they are of
equal intensity and oppositely polarized and that there is no
common phase relation between the corresponding monochro-
matic constituents. Further a stream of light of the most
general character is equivalent to the admixture of common
and polarized light, the polarization being elliptical, circular
or plane.

We see then that there are seven possible types of light:
common light, polarized light and partially polarized light;
the polarization in the two latter cases being elliptical, circular
or plane. Common light, circularly polarized and partially
circularly polarized light all have the characteristic of giving
two streams of equal intensity on passing through a rhomb of
Iceland spar, however it may be turned. They may, however,
be distinguished by the fact that on previous transmission
through a quarter-wave plate this property is retained in the
case of common light, while with the two other types the relative
intensity of the streams depends upon the orientation of the
rhomb, and with circularly polarized light one stream may be
made to vanish. Plane polarized light gives in general two
streams of unequal intensity when examined with a rhomb,
and for certain positions of the crystal there is' only one emergent
stream. Elliptically polarized, partially elliptically polarized
and partially plane polarized light give with Iceland spar two
streams of, in general, unequal intensity, neither of which can
be made to vanish. They may be differentiated by first passing
the light through a quarter-wave plate with its axis parallel or

perpendicular to the plane of maximum polarization: for
elliptically polarized light thereby becomes plane polarized
and one of the streams is extinguished on rotating the rhomb;
but with the other two kinds of light this is not the case, and the
light is partially plane or partially elliptically polarized according
as the plane of maximum polarization remains the same or is
changed.

Colours of Crystalline Plates. — It was known to E. T. Malus that
the interposition of a doubly refracting plate between a polarizer
and an analyser regulated for extinction has the effect of partially
restoring the light, and he used this property to discover double
refraction in cases in which the separation of the two refracted
streams was too slight to be directly detected. D. F. J. Arago
in 181 1 found that in the case of white light and with moderately
thin plates the transmitted light is no longer white but coloured,
a variation of brightness but not of tint being produced when the
polarizer and analyser being crossed are rotated together, while the
rotation of the analyser alone produces a change of colour, which
passes through white into the complementary tint. This pheno-
menon was subjected to a detailed investigation by Jean Baptiste
Biot during the years 1812 to 1814, and from the results of his experi-
ments Thomas Young, with his brilliant acumen, was led to infer
that the colours were to be attributed to interference between
the ordinary and extraordinary streams in the plate of crystal.
This explanation is incomplete, as it leaves out of account the action
of the polarizer and analyser, and it was with the purpose of removing
this defect that Fresnel and Arago undertook the investigations
mentioned above and thus supplied what was wanting in Young's
explanation. In Biot's earlier experiments the beam of light em-
ployed was nearly parallel: the phenomena of rings and brushes
that are seen with a conical pencil of light were discovered by Sir
David Brewster in the case of uniaxal crystals in 1813 and in that
of biaxal crystals in 1815.

Let a, |8, \j/ be the angles that the primitive and final planes of
polarization and the plane of polarization of the quicker wave
within the plate make with a fixed plane, and let p be the relative
retardation of phase of the two streams on emergence from the plate
for light of period t. On entry into the crystal the original polar-
ized stream is resolved into components represented by

a cos(^— a) cos T, a sin (<fr — a) cos T, T = 27r</r,
and on emergence we may take as the expression of the waves

a cos (if/— o) cos T, a sin 0/"- a) cos (T— p).
Finally after traversing the analyser the sum of the two resolved
components is

dcos (4' — a) cos (^— /S) cos T+o sin (4> — a) sin (i//— /?) cos (T— p),
of which the intensity is

{a cos (if' — a) cos ty—P) +0 sin ty — a) sin (if'—P) cos pj 2 +
a i s\a l {4' — a) sin 2 (^ — ;8) sin 2 p =

a 2 cos 2 (/S — a)— a 2 sin 2(1/- — a) sin 2(^-/3) sin 2 |p.

When the primitive light is white, this expression must be summed for
the different monochromatic constituents. In strictness the angle ip
is dependent upon the frequency, but if the dispersion be weak rela-
tively to the double refraction, the product sin 2(1^ — a)sin 2(^-/3)
has sensibly the same value for all terms of the summation, and we
may write

I = cos 2 (/3-a)2a 2 -sin 2(t£-a) sin 2(^-^)2a 2 sin 2 |p.
This formula contains the whole theory of the colours of crystalline
plates in polarized light. Since the first term represents a stream of
white light, the plate will appear uncoloured whenever the plane of
polarization of either stream transmitted by it coincides with either
the primitive or final plane of polarization. In intermediate cases the
field is coloured, and the tint changes to its complementary as the
plate passes through one of these eight positions, since the second
term in the above expression then changes sign. If, however, the
primitive and final planes of polarization be parallel or crossed, the
field exhibits only one colour during a complete revolution of the plate.
The crystalline plate shows no colour when it is very thin, and also
when its thickness exceeds a moderate amount. In the former case the
retardation of phase varies so little with the period that the intensity
is nearly the same for all colours; in the latter case it alters so rapidly
that for a small change in the period the intensity passes from a
maximum or a minimum, and consequently so many constituents
of the light are weakened and these are so close to one another in
frequency, that the light presents to the eye the appearance of being
white. The true character of the light in this case may be revealed
by analysing it with a spectroscope, when a spectrum is obtained
traversed by dark bands corresponding to the constituents that are
weakened or annulled. The phenomenon of colour may, however, be
obtained with thick plates by superposing two of them in a suit-
able manner, the combination acting as a thicker or a thinner plate
according as the planes of polarization of the quicker waves within
them are parallel or crossed. In this way a delicate test for slight
traces of double refraction is obtained. When the retardation of
phase for light of mean period is 1 or a small multiple of r a
crystalline plate placed between a crossed polarizer and analyser

POLARIZATION OF LIGHT

935

exhibits in white light a distinctive greyish violet colour, known as a
sensitive tint from the fact that it changes rapidly to blue or red,
when the retardation is very slightly increased or diminished.
If then the sensitive plate be cut in half and the two parts be placed
side by side after the one has been turned through 90 in its own
plane, the tint of the one half will be raised and that of the other
will be lowered when the compound plate is associated with a second
doubly refracting plate.

When light from an extended source is made to converge upon
the crystal, the phenomenon of rings and brushes localized at infinity is
obtained. The exact calculation of the intensity in this case is very com-
plicated and the resulting expression is too unwieldy to be of any
use, but as an approximation the formula for the case of a parallel
beam may be employed, the quantities \p an d p therein occurring
being regarded as functions of the angle and plane of incidence
and consequently as variables. In monochromatic light, then,
the interference pattern is characterized by three systems of curves :
the curves of constant retardation p = const. ; the lines of like
polarization \j/ = const. ; the curves of constant intensity I = const.
When p = 27Z7T and also when <j/ = a or a-f-ir/2 or ^ = 18 or j3+7r/2,
that is at points for which the streams within the plate are polarized
in planes parallel and perpendicular to the planes of primitive and
final polarization, the intensity (called the fundamental intensity)
is the same as when the plate is removed. These conditions define
two systems of curves called respectively the principal curves of
constant retardation and the principal lines of like polarization,
these latter lines dividing the field into regions in which the intensity
is alternately greater and less than the fundamental intensity.
When, however, the planes of polarization and analysation are
parallel or crossed, the two pairs of principal lines of like polarization
coincide, and the intensity is at all points in the former case not
greater than, and in the latter case not less than, it was before the
introduction of the plate. The determination of the curves of con-
stant retardation depends upon expressing the retardation in terms
of the optical constants of the crystal, the angle of incidence and the
azimuth of the plane of incidence. P. A. Bertin has shown that a
useful picture of the form of these curves may be obtained by taking
sections, parallel to the plate, of a surface that he calls the " iso-
chromatic surface," and that is the locus of points on the crystal
at which the relative retardation of two plane waves passing simul-
taneously through a given point and travelling in the same direction
has an assigned value. But as this surface is obtained by assuming
that the interfering streams follow the same route in the crystal,
and by neglecting the refraction out of the crystal, it does not lend
itself to accurate numerical calculations. To the same degree of
accuracy as that employed in obtaining the expression for the
intensity, the form of the lines of like polarization is given by the
section, parallel to the plate, of a cone, whose generating lines are
the directions of propagation of waves that have their planes of
polarization parallel and perpendicular to a given plane : the cone is
in general of the third degree and passes through the optic axes of
the crystal. We must limit ourselves in this article to indicating
the chief features of the phenomenon in the more important cases.
(Reference should be made to the article Crystallography for
illustrations, and for applications of these phenomena to the deter-
mination of crystal form.)

With an uniaxal plate perpendicular to the optic axis, the curves
of constant retardation are concentric circles and the lines of like
polarization are the radii : thus with polarizer and analyser regulated
for extinction, the pattern consists of a series of bright and dark
circles interrupted by a black cross with its arms parallel to the
planes of polarization and analysation. In the case of a biaxal
plate perpendicular to the bisector of the acute angle between the
optic axes, the curves of constant retardation are approximately
Cassini's ovals, and the lines of like polarization are equilateral
hyperbolae passing through the points corresponding to the optic
axes. With a crossed polarizer and analyser the rings are inter-
rupted by a dark hyperbolic brush that cuts the plane of the optic
axes at right angles, if this plane be at 45° to the planes of polariza-
tion and analysation — the so-called diagonal position — and that
becomes a rectangular cross with its arms parallel and perpendicular
to the plane of the optic axes when this plane coincides with the
plane of primitive or final polarization — the normal position.

When white light is employed coloured rings are obtained, pro-
vided the relative retardation of the interfering streams be not too
great. The isochromatic lines, unless the dispersion be excessive,
follow in the main the course of the curves of constant retardation,
and the principal lines of like polarization are with a crossed
polarizer and analyser dark brushes, that in certain cases are fringed
with colour. This state of things may, however, be considerably
departed from if the axes of optical symmetry of the crystal are
different for the various colours. The examination of dispersion of
the optic axes in biaxal crystals (see Refraction, § Double) may be
conveniently made with a plate perpendicular to the acute bisectrix
placed in the diagonal position for light of mean period between a
crossed polarizer and analyser. When the rings are coloured sym-
metrically with respect to two perpendicular lines the acute bisec-
trix and the plane of the optic axes are the same for all frequencies,
and the colour for which the separation of the axes is the least is
that on the concave side of the summit of the hyperbolic brushes.

Crossed, inclined and horizontal dispersion are characterized respec-
tively by a distribution of colour that is symmetrical with respect
to the centre alone, the plane of the optic axes, and the perpendicular
plane.

The phenomenon of interference produced by crystalline plates
is considerably modified if the light be circularly or elliptically
polarized or analysed by the interposition of a quarter- wave between
the crystal and the polarizer or analyser. Thus in the two cases
described above the brushes disappear and the rings are continuous
when the light is both polarized and analysed circularly. But the
most important case, on account of its practical application to
determining the sign of a crystal, is that in which the light is plane
polarized and circularly analysed or the reverse. Let us suppose
that the light is circularly analysed and that the primitive and final
planes of polarization are at right angles. Then with an uniaxal
plate perpendicular to the optic axis, the black cross is replaced by
two lines, on crossing which the rings are discontinuous, expansion
or contraction occurring in the quadrants that contain the axis of
the quarter-wave plate, according as the crystal is positive or nega-
tive. With a biaxal plate perpendicular to the optic axis in the
diagonal position, the hyperbolic brush becomes an hyperbolic line
and the rings are expanded or contracted on its concave side, with
a positive plate, according as the plane of the optic axes is parallel
or perpendicular to the axis of the quarter-wave plate, the reverse
being the case with a negative plate.

With a combination of plates in plane-polarized and plane-analysed
light the interference pattern with monochromatic light is generally
very complicated, the dark curves when polarizer and analyser are
crossed being replaced by isolated dark spots or segments of lines.
When, however, the field is very small, or when the primitive light
is white so that interference is only visible for small relative retarda-
tions, the problem becomes in many cases one of far less complexity.
An instance of considerable importance is afforded by the combina-
tion known as Savart's plate. This consists of two plates of an
uniaxal crystal of equal thickness, cut at the same inclination of
about 45° to the optic axis and superposed with their principal planes
at right angles. The interference pattern produced by this combina-
tion is, when the field is small, a system of parallel straight lines
bisecting the angle between the principal planes of its constituents.
These attain their maximum visibility when the plane of analysation
is at 45 to these planes, and vanish when the plane of polarization
is parallel to either of the principal planes.

The phenomena of chromatic polarization afford a ready means
of detecting doubly refracting structure in cases, such as that pro-
duced in isotropic bodies by strain, in which its effects aie very
minute. Thus a bar of glass of sufficient thickness, placed in the
diagonal position between a crossed polarizer and analyser and bent
in a plane perpendicular to that of vision, exhibits two sets of coloured
bands separated by a neutral line, the double refraction being posi-
tive on the dilated and negative on the compressed side. Again,
a system of rings, similar to those of an uniaxal plate perpendicular
to the axis, may be produced with a glass cylinder by transmitting
heat from its surface to its axes by immersion in heated oil, and glass
that has been raised to a red heat and then cooled rapidly at its edges
gives in polarized light an interference pattern of a regular form
dependent upon the shape of the contour.

Rotary Polarization. — In general a stream of plane-polarized light
undergoes no change in traversing a plate of an uniaxal crystal in
the direction of its axis, and when the emergent stream is analysed,
the light, if originally white, is found to be colourless and to be
extinguished when the polarizer and analyser are crossed. When,
however, a plate of quartz is used in this experiment, the light is
coloured and is in no case cut off by the analyser, the tint, however,
changing as the analyser is rotated. This phenomenon may be
explained, as D. F. J. Arago pointed out, by supposing that in passing
through the plate the plane of polarization of each monochromatic
constituent is rotated by an amount dependent upon the frequency
— an explanation that may be at once verified either by using mono-
chromatic light or by analysing the light with a spectroscope, the
spectrum in the latter case being traversed by one or more dark
bands, according to the thickness of the plate, that pass along the
spectrum from end to end as the analyser is rotated. J. B. Biot
further ascertained that this rotation of the plane of polarization
varies as the distance traversed in the plate and very nearly as the
inverse square of the wave-length, and found that with certain
specimens of quartz the rotation is in a clockwise or right-handed
direction to an observer receiving the light, while in others it is in
the opposite direction, and that equal plates of the right- and left-
hand varieties neutralize one another's effects.

A similar rotary property is possessed by other uniaxal crystals,
such as cinnabar and the thiosulphates of potassium, lead and calcium,
and as H. C. Pockiington (Phil. Mag., 1901 [61. ii. 361) and J. H.
Dufet (Journ. de phys., 1904 [4], iii. 757) have shown by a few biaxal
crystals, such as sugar and Rochelle salt, the rotation produced by a
given thickness being in general different, and in some cases of oppo-
site sign for the two optic axes. Further, certain cubic crystals, such
as sodium chlorate and bromate, and also some liquids and even
vapours, rotate the plane of polarization of the light that traverses
them, whatever may be the direction of the stream.

In crystals the rotary property appears to be sometimes inhereat

93 6

POLARIZATION OF LIGHT

in the crystalline arrangement of the molecules, as it is lost on fusion
or solution, and in several cases belongs to enantiomorphous
crystals, the two correlated forms of which are the one right-handed
and the other left-handed optically as well as crystallographically,
this being necessarily the case if the property be retained when the
crystal is fused or dissolved. In organic bodies the rotary property,
as the researches of J. A. Le Bel, J. H. van't Hoff and others have
established, corresponds to the presence of one or more asymmetric
atoms of carbon — that is, atoms directly united to elements or radicles
all different from one another — and in every case there exists an
isomer that rotates the plane of polarization to the same degree in
the opposite direction. Absence of rotary power when asymmetric
carbon atoms are present, may be caused by an internal compensa-
tion within the molecule as with the inactive tartaric acid (meso-
tartaric acid), or may be due to the tact that the compound is an
equimolecular mixture of left- and right-hand varieties, this being
the case with racemic acid that was broken by Louis Pasteur into
laevo- and dextro-tartaric acid (see Stereo-Isomerism).

Substances that by reason of the structure or arrangement of
their molecules rotate the plane of polarization are said to be
structurally active, and the rotation produced by unit length is
called their rotary power. If unit mass of a solution contain rn
grammes of an active substance and if & be the density and p be the
rotary power of the solution, the specific rotary power is defined
by p/mS, and the molecular rotary power is obtained from this by
multiplying by the hundredth part of the molecular mass. This
quantity is not absolutely constant, and in many cases varies with
the concentration of the solution and with the nature of the solvent.
A mixture of two active substances, or even of an active and an
inactive substance, in one solution sometimes produces anomalous
effects.

Fresnel showed that rotary polarization could be explained kine-
matically by supposing that a plane-polarized stream is resolved on
entering an active medium into two oppositely circularly polarized
streams propagated with different speeds, the rotation being
right- or left-handed according as the right- or left-handed stream
travels at the greater rate.

The polarization- vector of the primitive'stream being £ = o cos nt,
the first circularly polarized stream after traversing a distance z
in the medium may be represented by

£1 = a cos (nt — fez), iji = a sin (nt — kiz),
and the second by

& = a cos (nt — fez), ij 2 = — a sin (nt — fez).
The resultant of these is

£ = 2a cos | (fe — fe)z cos \nl — J(fe + fe)zj,
7j = 2tt sin 5 (fe — fe)z cos \nt — J(fe + fe)z},
which shows that for any fixed value of z the light is plane polarized
in a plane making an angle \(k2-k 1 )z = -n-(\J 1 — X7 1 )z, with the initial
plane of polarization, Xi and X2 being the wave-lengths of the circular
components of the same frequency.

Since the two circular streams have different speeds, Fresnel
argued that it would be possible to separate them by oblique
refraction, and though the divergence is small, since the difference
of their refractive indices in the case of quartz is only about 0-00007,
he succeeded by a suitable arrangement of alternately right- and
left-handed prisms of quartz in resolving a plaije-polarized stream
into two distinct circularly polarized streams. A similar arrange-
ment was used by Ernst v. Fleischl for demonstrating circular
polarization in liquids. This result is not, however, conclusive ; for
an application of Huygens's principle shows that it is a consequence
of the rotation of the plane of polarization by an amount propor-
tional to the distance traversed, independently of the state of affairs
within the active medium. Not more convincing is a second experi-
ment devised by Fresnel. If in the interference experiment with
Fresnel's mirrors or biprism the slit be illuminated with white light
that has passed through a polarizer and a quartz plate cut perpendicu-
larly to the optic axis, it is found on analysing the light that in
addition to the ordinary central set of coloured fringes two lateral
systems are seen, one on either side of it. According to Fresnel's
explanation the light in each of the interfering streams consists of
two trains of waves that are circularly polarized in opposite direction
and have a relative retardation of phase, introduced by the passage
through the quartz: the central fringes are then due to the similarly
polarized waves ; the lateral systems are produced by the oppositely
polarized streams, these on analysation being capable of interfering.
A. Righi has, however, pointed out that this "experiment may be
explained by the fact that the function of the quartz plate and
analyser is to eliminate the constituents of the composite stream of
white light that mask the interference actually occurring at the posi-
tions of the lateral systems of fringes, and that any other method of
removing them is equally effective. In fact, the lateral systems
are obtained when a plate of selenite is substituted for the quartz..
Sir G. B. Airy extended Fresnel's hypothesis to directions inclined
to the axis of uniaxal crystals by assuming that in any such direction
the two waves, that can be propagated without alteration ot their
state of polarization, are oppositely elliptically polarized with their
planes of maximum polarization parallel and perpendicular to the
principal plane of the wave, these becoming practically plane polar-
ised at a small inclination to the optic asis. Several investigations

have been made to test the correctness of Airy's views, but it must
be remembered that it is only possible to experiment on waves
after they have Jeft the crystal, and L. G. Gouy (Journ. de phys., 1885
[2], iv. 149) has shown that the results deduced from Airy's waves
of permanent type may be obtained by regarding the action of the
medium as the superposition of the effects of ordinary double
refraction and of an independent rotary power. As regards the
course of the streams on refraction into the crystal, it is found that
it is determined by the Huygenian law (see Refraction, § Double);
as, however, the two streams in the direction of the axis have differ-
ent speeds, the spherical and the spheroidal sheets of the wave-
surface do not touch as in the case of inactive uniaxal crystals. On
these principles Airy, by an elaborate mathematical investigation,
successfully explained the interference patterns obtained with plates
of quartz perpendicular to the optic axis. When the polarizer and
analyser are parallel or crossed, the pattern is the same as with
inactive plates, with the exception that the brushes do not extend
to the centre of the field; but as the analyser is rotated a small
cross begins to appear at the centre of the field, while the rings change
their form and become nearly squares with rounded corners^ when
the planes of polarization and analysation are at 45°. With two
plates of equal thickness and of opposite rotations: the pattern
consists of a series of circles and of four similar spirals starting from
the centre, each spiral being turned through 90 from that adjacent
to it. When the light is circularly polarized or circularly analysed,
a single plate gives two mutually inwrapping spirals, and similar
spirals in circularly polarized light are obtained with plates of an
active biaxal crystal perpendicular to one of the optic axes. It
was in this way that the rotary property of certain biaxal crystals
was first established by Pocklington.

F. E. Reusch has shown that a packet of identical inactive plates
arranged in spiral fashion gives an artificial active system, and the
behaviour of certain pseudosymmetric crystals indicates a formation
of this character. On these results L. Sohncke (Math. Ann., 1876,
ix. 504) and E. Mallard (Traite de cristallographie, vol. ii. ch. ix.) have
built up a theory of the structure of active media, but in the instances
in which static spirality has been shown to be effective in producing
optical rotation the coarse-grainedness of the structure is comparable
with the wave-length of the radiation affected.

The rotary property may be induced in substances naturally
inactive. Thus A. W. Ewell (Amer. Jour, of Science, 1899 [4],
viii. 89) has shown the existence of a rotational effect in twisted
glass and gelatine, the rotation being opposite to the direction of the
twist. But a far more important instance of induced activity
is afforded by Michael Faraday's discovery of the rotary polarization
connected with a magnetic field. There is, however, a marked
difference between this magnetic rotation and that of a structurally
active medium, for in the latter it is always right-handed or always
left-handed with respect to the direction of the ray, while in the
former the sense of rotation is determined by the direction of mag-
netization and therefore remains the same though the ray be
reversed. This subject is treated in the article Magneto-Optics,
to which the reader is also referred for John Kerr's discovery of
the effect on polarization produced by reflection from a magnetic
pole, and for the action of a magnetic field on the radiation of a
source — the " Zeeman effect."

Reflection and Refraction. — Huygens satisfactorily explained the
laws of reflection and refraction on the principles of the wave theory,
so far as the direction of the waves is concerned, but his explanation
gives no account of the intensity and the polarization of the reflected
light. This was supplied by Fresnel, who, starting from a mechanical
hypothesis, showed by ingenious but not strictly dynamical reasoning
that if the incident stream have unit amplitude, that of the reflected
stream will be

— sin (i-r)jsm (i + r) or tan (i-r)/ta.n (i-\-r),
according as the incident light is polarized in or perpendicularly to
the plane of incidence i, r, being the angles of incidence and refraction
connected by the formula sin i = n sin r. At normal incidence the
intensity of the reflected light, measured by the square of the ampli-
tude, is {(m-i)/(m+i)P ln both cases; but whereas in the former the
intensity increases uniformly with i to the value unity for 2 = 90°,
in the latter the intensity at first decreases as i increases, until it
attains the value zero when i+r = 90°, or tan i = n — the polar-
izing angle of Brewster — and then increases until it becomes unity
at grazing incidence. If the incident light be polarized in a plane,
making an angle a with the plane of incidence, the stream may be
resolved into two that are polarized in the principal azimuths,
and these will be reflected in accordance with the above laws. Hence
if be the angle between the plane of incidence and that in which
the reflected light is polarized

tan /3=-tan o cos (i-\-r)!cos (i-r).
The expressions for the intensity of the refracted light may be
obtained from those relating to the reflected light by the principle
of energy. In order to avoid the question of the measurements
of the intensity in different media, it is convenient to suppose that
the refracted stream emerges into a medium similar to the first by
a transition so gradual that no light is lost by reflection. The
intensities of the incident, reflected and refracted streams are
than measured in the same way, and we have merely to express thar

POLARIZATION OF LIGHT

937

the square of the amplitude of the incident vibrations is equal to the
sum of the squares of the amplitudes of the reflected and refracted
vibrations.

Fresnel obtained his formulae by assuming that the optical differ-
ence of media is due to a change in the effective density of the ether,
the elasticity being the same — an assumption inconsistent with his
theory of double refraction— and was led to the result that the
vibrations are perpendicular to the plane of polarization. Franz
Neumann and James MacCullagh, starting from the opposite assump-
tion of constant density and different elasticities, arrived at the same
formulae for the intensities of the reflected light polarized in the
principal azimuths, but in this case the vibrations must be regarded
as parallel to the plane of polarization. The divergence of these
views has led to a large number of experimental investigations,
instituted with the idea of deciding between them. In the main
such investigations have only an academic interest, as, whatever
theory of light be adopted, we have to deal with two vectors that
are parallel and perpendicular respectively to the plane of polariza-
tion. Thus certain experiments of Otto H. Wiener (Wied. Ann.,
1890, xl. 203) show that chemical action is to be referred to the
latter of these vectors, but whether Fresnel's or Neumann's hypo-
thesis be correct is only to be decided when we know if it be the mean
kinetic energy or the mean potential energy that determines chemical
action. Similarly on the electromagnetic theory the electric or the
magnetic force will be perpendicular to the plane of polarization,
according as chemical action depends upon the electric or the mag-
netic energy. Lord Rayleigh {Scientific Papers, i. 104) has, however,
shown that the polarization of the light from the sky can only be
explained on the elastic solid theory by Fresnel's hypothesis of a
different density, and from the study of Hertzian oscillations, in
which the direction of the electric vibrations can be a priori assigned,
we learn that when these are in the plane of incidence there is no
reflection at a certain angle, so that the electric force is perpendicular
to the plane of polarization.

It has been supposed in the above that the medium into which
the light enters at the reflecting-surface is the more refracting. In
the contrary case, total reflection commences as soon as sin i — /jT l , n
being still the relative refractive index of the more highly refracting
medium; and for greater angles of incidence r becomes imaginary.
Now Fresnel's formulae were obtained by assuming that the incident,
reflected and refracted vibrations are in the same or opposite phases
at the interface of the media, and since there is no real factor that
converts cos T into cos (T+p), he inferred that the occurrence of
imaginary expressions for the coefficients of vibration denotes a
change of phase other than -ir, this being represented by a change of
sign. If this be so, it is clear that the factor V —I denotes a change
of phase of x/2, since this twice repeated converts cos T into cos
(T + ?r) = — cos T, and hence that the factor a +&V —I represents
a change of phase of ta.n~ l (b/a). Applying this interpretation to
the formulae given above, it follows that when the incident light is
polarized at an azimuth a to the plane of incidence and the second
medium Is the less refracting, the reflected light at angles of incidence
exceeding the critical angle is elliptically polarized with a difference
of phase A between the components polarized in the principal azi-
muths that is given by

tan (A/2)=cot i'V(l — M -2 cosec 2 i).

Thus A is zero at grazing incidence and at the critical angle, and
attains its maximum value x— 4 tan _1 (i/M) a t an angle of incidence
given by sin 2 i = 2,'(/i 2 -)-i).

It is of some interest to determine under what conditions it is
possible to obtain a specified difference of phase. Solving for cot 2 i
we obtain

2 cot 2 i = (M 2 -l) 2 ± V [(M 2 -tan 2 (7r-A)/4){ M 2 -cot 2 (*— -A)/4)],

and since tan j(x — A)/4J is less than unity, ju must exceed cot |(V— A)/4J
if cot 2 ; is to be real. Thus if A = 71-/2, jumust exceed 71-/8 or 2-414, that
is, the substance must be at least as highly refracting as a diamond :
if A = 71-/4, M must be greater than 371-/16 or 1 -4966, and when this is the
case, it is possible by two reflections to convert into a circularly
polarized stream a beam of light polarized at 45 to the plane of
incidence. This is the principle of Fresnel's rhomb, that is sometimes
employed instead of a quarter-wave plate for obtaining a stream of
circularly polarized light. It consists of a parallelopiped glass so
constructed that light falling normally on one end emerges at the
other after two internal reflections at such an angle as to introduce
a relative retardation of phase of 7r/4 between the components polar-
ized in the principal azimuths.

Fresnel's formulae are sufficiently accurate for most practical
purposes, but that they are not an exact representation of the facts
of reflection was shown by Sir David Brewster and by Sir G. B.
Airy. Detailed investigations by J. C. Jamin, G. H. Quincke,
C. \V. Wernicke and others have established that in general light
polarized in any but the principal azimuths becomes elliptically
polarized by reflection, the relative retardation of phase of the
components polarized in these azimuths becoming 71-/2 at a certain
angle of incidence, called the principal incidence. In some cases
it is the component polarized in the plane of incidence that is most
retarded and the reflection is then said to be positive : in the case of
negative reflection the reverse takes place. It was at first supposed

that the defect of Fresnel's formulae was due to the neglect of the
superficial undulations that, on a rigorous elastic solid theory of
the ether, are called into existence at reflection and refraction.
But the result of taking these into account is far from being in accor-
dance with the facts, and experiments of Lord Rayleigh and Paul
Drude make it probable that we ought to assume that the transition
from one medium to another, though taking place in a distance
amounting to about one fiftieth of a wave-length, is gradual instead
of abrupt. The effect of such a transition-layer can easily be
calculated, at least approximately; but it is of little use to take
account of it except in the case of a theory of reflection that gives
Fresnel's formulae as the result of an abrupt transition. Lord
Rayleigh has pointed out that all theories are defective in that they
disregard the fact that one at least of the media is dispersive, and
that it is probable that finite reflection would result at the interface
of media of different dispersive powers, even in the case of waves
for which the refractive indices are absolutely the same.

A more pronounced case of elliptic polarization by reflection is
afforded by metals. Formulae for metallic reflection may be ob-
tained from Fresnel's expressions by writing the ratio sin i/sin r
equal to a complex quantity, and interpreting the imaginary co-
efficients in the manner explained above. The optical constants
(refractive index and co-efficient of extinction) of the metal may then
be obtained from observations of the principal incidence and the
elliptic polarization then produced. A detailed investigation of
these constants has been made by Drude (Wied. Ann , 1890, xxxix.
504), who has found the remarkable result that copper, gold, magne-
sium and silver have refractive indices less than unity, and this has
been completely confirmed by observations with metallic prisms
of small refracting angle. He further showed that except in the
cases of copper, lead and gold the dispersion is abnormal — the index
for red light being greater than that for sodium light. The higher
the co-efficient of extinction for light of a given period, the more
copious will be reflection of that constituent of a mixed pencil.
This fact has been employed for separating waves of large wave-
length, and in this way waves of length 0-061 mm. have been isolated
by five successive reflections from the surface of sylvite.

The Study of Polarization. — The best method of obtaining a strong
beam of polarized light is to isolate one of the streams into which
a beam of common light is resolved by double refraction. This is
effected in polarizing prisms of the earlier type, devised by A. M. de
Rochon, H. H. de Senarmont and W. H. Wollaston, by blocking off
one of the streams with a screen, sufficient lateral separation being
obtained by combining two equal crystalline prisms cut differently
with respect to the optic axis — an arrangement that achromatizes
more or less completely the pencil that is allowed to pass. In a
second type, called Nicol's prisms, one stream is removed by total
reflection. Theoretically the best construction for prisms of this
class is the following: a rectangular block of Iceland spar, of length
about four times the width and having its end and two of its side
faces parallel to the optic axis, is cut in half by a plane parallel to the
optic axis and making an angle of about 14 with the sides; the two
halves are then reunited with a cement whose refractive index
is between the ordinary and extraordinary indices of the spar and
as nearly as possible equal to the latter. Thus constructed, the
prism produces no lateral shift of the transmitted pencil; a conical
pencil, incident directly, has nearly constant polarization over its
extent, and consequently the error in determining the polarization
of a parallel pencil, incident not quite normally, is a minimum.
In a Nicol's prism it is the extraordinary stream that passes; in a
prism suggested by E. Sang and sometimes called a Bertrand's prism,
it is the ordinary stream that is utilized. This is made by fixing a
thin crystalline plate between two glass prisms turned in opposite
directions by a cement of the same refractive index as the glass.
This refractive index should be equal to the greatest index of the
plate, and with a biaxal plate the mean axis of optical symmetry
should be parallel to its faces and in the normal section of the
prisms, while with an uniaxal plate the optic axis should be in a
plane perpendicular to this normal section. These prisms have the
advantage of economy of material and of a greater field than the
ordinary Nicol's prism, but a difficulty seems to be experienced
in finding a suitable permanent cement.

For an accurate determination of the plane of polarization analy-
sers that act by extinction are not of much practical use, and a
different device has to be employed. Savart's analyser consists
of a Savart's plate (see above) connected to a Nicol's prism, the
principal section of which bisects the angle between the principal
planes of the plate: the plane of polarization is determined by
turning the analyser until the bands, ordinarily seen, disappear,
in which case it is parallel to one of the principal planes of the plate.
Half-shade analysers depend upon the facility with which the eye
can distinguish slight differences in the intensities of two streams
seen in juxtaposition, when the illumination is not too bright. The
field is divided into two parts that for most positions of the analyser
have different intensities, and the setting is effected by turning the
analyser until both halves are equally dark. These instruments
are very sensitive, but care must be taken to avoid errors caused by
changes in the relative intensities of parts of the source of light—
a precaution that is sometimes overlooked in furnishing polarimeters
with these analvsers. In J. H. Jellet's and M. A. Cornu's analysers

938

POLAR REGIONS

formed — the one from two parts of a rhomb of spar, the other from
two portions of a Nicol's prism — the two halves of the field are ana-
lysed in slightly different planes; but these, though they have certain
advantages, are now seldom employed, partly on account of a diffi-
culty in their construction and partly because their sensitiveness
cannot be adjusted. The more usual half-shade analyser is avail-
able for light of only one frequency, as it depends upon the action
of a half-wave plate, in traversing which the plane of polarization
is turned until it makes the same angle with the principal section
as at first but on the opposite side : half the field is covered with the
plate, to which is attached a Nicol's prism with its principal section
inclined at a small angle to that of the plate. The eye must be
focussed on the edge of the plate, and the two halves of the field
will only be equally dark when the principal plane of the plate is
parallel to the primitive plane of polarization. Another plan, due
to J. H. Poynting, is before analysation to impress unequal rotations
upon the plane of polarization of the two parts of the field, either by
means of an active medium, or by oblique transmission through
glass plates.

Elliptically polarized light is investigated by the reduction of the
pencil to a state of plane polarization, and a determination of the
resulting plane of prlarization. One method consists in finding
directly the elliptic ccnstants of the vibration by means of a quarter-
wave plate and an analyser; but the more usual plan is to measure
the relative retardation of two rectangular components of the
stream by a Babinet's compensator. This is a plate made of two
equal wedges of quartz, that can be moved over one another so as to
vary its thickness, and are cut so that the faces of the plate are
parallel to the optic axis, which in the first wedge is perpendicular
and in the second is parallel to the refracting edge. It is clear that
direct transmission through the plate at a point where the thick-
nesses of the prisms are &\ and dz will introduce a relative retardation
of (m* — Mo) {di — dz) between streams polarized in planes parallel and
perpendicular to the edges of the prisms, Mo. and fi e , being the
ordinary and the extraordinary refractive indices; and it is hence
possible by an adjustment of the thickness to reduce elliptically
polarized to plane polarization at an assigned point marked off by
two parallel lines. A subsequent determination of the plane of
polarization gives the ratio of the amplitudes of the vibrations in
the component streams.

For the observation and measurement of rings in crystals polari-
scopes are constructed on the following principle. Light from an
extended source passes after polarization through two convex
systems of lenses, between which the crystalline plate is placed, and
is then received in an eyepiece furnished with an analyser. If
measurements be required, the plate must have a motion round an
axis perpendicular to that of the optical systems, and also about an
axis normal to its faces; the polarizer and analyser must also be
capable of adjustment. All the rays through a given point in the
first principal focal plane of the anterior system of lenses traverse
the plate as a parallel beam and reunite at the corresponding point
of the second focal plane of the posterior system, each in its passage
being divided into two by the plate having a given relative retarda-
tion. It is on this latter plane that the eyepiece must be focussed,
and here the measuring web must be placed. The actual details
of the systems of lenses depend upon the object for which the polari-
scope is intended, and are given for some of the principal types of
instruments in Th. Liebisch's Physikalische Kristallographie.

Of polarimeters for the study of rotary polarization there are
three principal forms. In Wild's polaristrobometer, light from a
soda flame, rendered parallel by a lens, is polarized by a Nicol's
prism, and after traversing the space into which the active substance
is to be inserted, falls on a Savart's plate placed in front of an astro-
nomical cs'escope of low power, that contains in its eyepiece a
Nicol's prism, which with the plate forms a Savart's analyser. A
web in the focal plane of telescope marks the point in the field at
which the bands are to be made to disappear; this is effected by
turning the polarizer by means of a rack and pinion worked by an
arm from the observer's end of the instrument. The polarizing
prism is fixed at the centre of a circular disk, that has a scale on its
circumference, which with a fixed vernier determines the positions
of the polarizer, for which the bands disappear at the assigned point
of the field. Laurent's polarimeter is a half-shade instrument.
Soda light, first sifted by passage through a plate of potassium
bichromate, traverses in succession a lens, a Nicol's prism, and a
glass plate half covered with a half-wave plate of quartz, that is cut
parallel to the optic axis and has its principal section inclined at a
small angle to that of the prism. This combination forms a half-
shade polarizer, the sensitiveness of which can be varied by a slight
adjustment that can be given to the Nicol. The light is finally
received in a Galilean telescope, containing an analyser and carried
at the centre of a circular plate, that is graduated on its rim and can
be turned in front of a vernier by means of a rack and pinion. The
telescope must be focussed on the edge of the quartz plate, and in
order that all points of the field may be illuminated by the same part
of the source, the flame must be so placed that its image is thrown
by the lens on the diaphragm of the object glass of the telescope.
The chief features of Soleil's saccharimeter are the biquartz and
the compensator. The former consists of two semicircular plates
of quartz, perpendicular to the optic axis and of opposite rotations,

placed so as to have a common diameter and having such a thickness
that each rotates the plane of polarization of mean yellow light
through the same multiple of 90 . If then a stream of polarized
white light traverse the biquartz, it is possible by an analyser to
cut off the mean yellow light from each half of the field, and the whole
will then have the sensitive tint; but a small change in the plane
of analysation will give the one half a red and the other half a blue
tone. A rotation of the plane of polarization is not, however,
measured by an adjustment of the analyser, but by annulling the
rotation with a compensator. This is made of two plates of quartz,
cut normally to the optic axis and of opposite rotations, placed the
one in front of the other: the thickness of the one plate is fixed, while
that of the other can be varied, as it is formed of two equal prisms
that can be moved over one another along their common face.
When the plates are of equal thickness, their combined effect is
nil, but by adjusting the second, a rotation in the one or the other
direction may be introduced, a scale attached to one prism and a
vernier to the other giving the thickness of the resultant quartz
plate. At one end of the instrument is placed a polarizer and the
biquartz, and at the other a Galilean telescope, that must be focused
on the edge of biquartz, having in front of its object-glass the com-
pensator and an analyser that is regulated for producing the sensitive
tint, when the plates of the compensator have the- same thickness.
The sensitiveness of the instrument depends upon the exactness of
the sensitive tint, when the colour of the two halves of the field are
the same, and this is liable to be upset by absorption in the substance
under investigation. In order to correct this, the light after analysa-
tion is passed through another plate of quartz and then the sensitive
tint may be more or less restored by cutting off some colour, the same
for the whole field, by a Nicol's prism placed in the eyepiece of the
telescope. Soleil's saccharimeter, as its name implies, is designed
for the study of solutions of sugar, and it is clear that it will only
work satisfactorily with active media that have nearly the same
rotary dispersion as quartz.

Bibliography. — A bibliography of the subjects treated in this
article will be found at the end of the corresponding chapters of
E. Verdet's Lecons d'optique physique (1869) ; this work has been
brought to a later date in the German translation by Karl Exner
(Braunschweig, 1881); references to later papers will be found in
J. Walker's The Analytical Theory of Light (1904). In addition to
the above the reader may consult for the general subject of polariza-
tion the following treatises: Th. Preston (3rd. ed. by C. J. Joly),
The Theory of Light (1901) ; A. Schuster, An Introduction to the Theory
of Optics (1904) ; R. W. Wood, Physical Optics (1905) ; E. Mascart,
Traite d'optique (1889); and for the phenomena exhibited by
crystals F. Pockel, Lehrbuch der Kristalloptik (1906) ; Th. Liebisch,
Physikalische Kristallographie (1891). (J. Wal.*)

POLAR REGIONS, a general term for the regions about the
North or South Pole, otherwise called the Arctic or Antarctic
regions. The ancients had no actual knowledge of History of
the Polar regions. They had probably heard rumours Antic
of the light summer nights and the dark winter Exploration.
nights in the north, as is shown by Homer's description of
the Laestrygons having the short nights and the Cimmerians
living in perpetual darkness. By astronomical speculations
the Greeks had come to the conclusion that north of the
Arctic Circle there must be midnight sun at midsummer and
no sun at midwinter. The general view was that the Polar
regions, north and south, belonged to the uninhabitable frozen
zones; while according to a less scientific notion there was a
happy region north of the north wind (Boreas), where the sun
was always shining and the Hyperboreans led a peaceful life.
The first traveller of history who probably approached the
Arctic Circle and reached the land of the midnight „,.
sun was the Greek Pytheas (q.v.), from Massalia
(Marseilles), who about 325 B.C. made a voyage of discovery
northwards along the west coast of Europe, which is one of the
most remarkable in history. He visited England, Scotland,
the Scottish isles, and probably also northern Norway, which
he called Thule. He moved the limits of the known world
from the south coast of England northward to the Arctic Circle.
It seems probable that he made two or perhaps several voyages.
He also discovered the northern coasts of Germany as far east
as Jutland.

We hear of no other voyages towards the Arctic regions before
the Irish monk Dicuil, writing about 825, mentions the discovery
by Irish monks of a group of small islands (the Irish
Faeroes), and a greater island (Iceland), which he Discovery
calls Thule, where there was hardly any night at of Iceland.
midsummer. It is possible that Iceland and the Faeroes were
inhabited by a small Celtic population before the Irish monks

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POLAR REGIONS

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POLAR REGIONS

939

Ottar.

Eric the Red.

came thither. The fact that Irish monks lived in Iceland before
the Norsemen settled there in the end of the 9th century-
is verified by the Icelandic sagas.

In his translation of Orosius, King Alfred inserts the interesting
story of the first known really Arctic voyage, told him by the
Norwegian Ottar (Alfred calls him Ohthere), who
about 870 rounded the North Cape, sailed eastwards
along the Murman coast and discovered the White Sea, where
he reached the south coast of the Kola Peninsula and the bound-
ary of the land of the Biarmians (Beormas). Ottar told King
Alfred that "he chiefly went thither, in addition to the seeing
of the country, on account of the walruses."

After Ottar's time the king of Norway took possession of all
land as far east as the White Sea and the land of the Biarmians,
and the native " Finns "had. to pay him tribute. Many voyages,
mostly of hostile nature but also for trade purposes, were under-
taken from Norway to the White Sea, and even kings went as
far. It is told of King Eric, called Bloodyaxe, who died as king
of York in England, that he made such a voyage, and fought
with the Biarmians, about 920, and about 965 his son Harold
Graafeld defeated the Biarmians and killed many people in a
great battle near the river Dvina, where Archangel was built
later.

After having settled in Iceland in the end of the 5th century,
the Norsemen soon discovered Greenland and settled there.
The first who is reported to have seen the coast of Greenland
was a Norwegian, Gunnbjbrn Ulfsson, who on his way to Ice-
land was storm-driven westwards. He came to some islands,
afterwards called Gunnbjornskier, and saw a coast, but, without
exploring the new land, he had evidently continued his way till
lie reached Iceland. The real discoverer and explorer
'of Greenland was the Norwegian, Eric the Red,
who, with his father had settled in Iceland. As he and his
men had there been declared outlaws for having killed several
people they had to leave Iceland for three years, and he went
westward to find the land which Gunnbjorn was reported to
have seen. He explored the west coast of Greenland for three
years, probably about 982-985. He then returned to Iceland,
but founded the following year a colony in Greenland (q.v.).
Many colonists followed, and two Norse settlements were formed,
viz. the Eystrabygd (i.e. eastern settlement) on the south-eastern
part of the Greenland west coast, between Cape Farewell and
about 61° N. lat., where Eric the Red had his house, Brattalid,
at the Eiriksfjord; and the Vestrabygd (i.e. western settlement)
in the region of the present Godthaab district, between 63 and
66° N. lat. The Norse settlers carried on their seal and whale-
hunting still farther north along the west coast beyond the
Arctic circle, and probably in the region of Disco Bay. A
runic stone was found in a cairn on a small island in 72 55' N.
lat. north of Upernivik, showing that Norsemen had been there.
The stone probably dates from the 14th century. About 1267
an expedition was sent northwards along the west coast and
may possibly have reached some distance north of Upernivik.
The last known communication between the Norse settle-
ments in Greenland and Norway was in 1410, when some
Icelanders returned, ' who four years previously had been
storm-driven to Greenland. After that time we possess no
reliable information about the fate of these settlements. When
Greenland was rediscovered in the 16th century no descendants
of the Norse settlers were found. The probability is that having
gradually been cut off from all communications with Europe,
the remaining settlers who had not returned to the motherland
were obliged to adopt the Eskimo mode of life, which in those
surroundings was far superior to the European, and by inter-
marriage they would then soon be absorbed amongst the more
numerous natives. There is evidence to show that an expedi-
tion was probably sent from Denmark or Norway to Greenland
in the latter part of the 1 5th century (perhaps about
Scoivus x 476) under Pining and Pothorst (by Purchas called
"Punnus and Pothorse"); and perhaps with Johan
Scoivus as pilot. It is probable that this expedition had inter-
course with the natives of Greenland, and possibly even reached

King
Harold.

Labrador, but it is unknown whether any remains of the Norse
settlements were found on the Greenland west coast.

It is reported by Adam of Bremen (about 1070) that the
Norwegian king Harold Haardraade (in the nth century) made
an expedition into the Arctic Sea (probably north-
wards) in order to examine how far it extended,
but we know nothing more about this voyage.

The Icelandic annals report that a land called Svalbardi was
discovered in n 94. The name means the cold side or coast.

The land was, according to the sagas, situated _ ,, .
, ,,.,., , Tii 1 Spitsbergen.

four days sailing from north-eastern Iceland north-
wards in the Hajsbotn (i.e. the northern termination of the
sea, which was supposed to end as a bay). There can be no
doubt that this land was Spitsbergen. The Norsemen carried
on seal, walrus and whale hunting, and it is believed on good
ground that they extended their hunting expeditions eastwards
as far as Novaya Zemlya and northwards to Spitsbergen.

On his way to Greenland from Norway in the year 1000
Leif Ericsson found America, probably Nova Scotia, which he
called Wineland the Good. A few years later Thorfinn Karlsefni
sailed from Greenland with three ships to make a settlement
in the land discovered by Leif. Tney first came to Labrador,
which they called Helluland, then to Newfoundland, which was
called Markland (i.e. woodland), and then to Cape Breton and
Nova Scotia (V inland; Wineland). After three years they had
to give up the undertaking on account of hostilities with the
natives, probably Red Indians, and they returned to Greenland
about 1006. We know of no later expedition of the Norsemen
that reached Greenland; it is stated that Eric Uppri, the first
bishop of Greenland, went in n 21 to seek Vinland, but it is not
related whether he ever reached it, and the probability is that he
never returned.

The Icelandic annals state that in 1347 a small Greenland
ship which had sailed to Markland (Newfoundland) was after-
wards storm-driven to Iceland with seventeen men.
This is the last known voyage made by the Norse- Newfound-
men of Greenland which with certainty reached ' aflA
America.

The discoveries of the old Norsemen extended over the north-
ern seas from Novaya Zemlya in the east to Labrador, New-
foundland and Nova Scotia in the west; they had visited all
Arctic lands in these regions, and had explored the White Sea,
the Barents Sea, the Spitsbergen and Greenland Sea, Davis
Strait, and even some part of Baffin Bay. They were the first
navigators in history who willingly left the coasts and sailed
across the open ocean, and they crossed the Atlantic between
Norway and America, thereby being the real discoverers of this
ocean, as well as the pioneers in oceanic navigation. They
were the teachers of the navigators of later centuries, and it is
hardly an accident that the undertakings of England towards
the west started from Bristol, where many Norwegians had
settled, and which from the beginning of the 15th century had
much trade with Iceland.

John Cabot, sent out by the merchants of Bristol, rediscovered
the American continent in 1497. He came to Cape Breton
and Nova Scotia, probably the same land where
Leif Ericsson had landed 500 years before. John
Cabot started on a new expedition towards the west in 1498,
but no more is known of this expedition, not even whether
Cabot returned or not. There is no reliable evidence to prove
that John Cabot or his son Sebastian ever discovered Labrador,
as has been generally believed.

The Portuguese Caspar Corte-Real rediscovered Greenland
in 1500. He sailed along its east coast without being able to
land on account of the ice. Whether he visited the
west coast is uncertain. In 1501 he made a new
expedition when he also rediscovered Newfoundland. One of
his ships returned home to Lisbon, but he himself and his ship
disappeared. His brother went in search of him the following
year, but was heard of no more.

Cabot's and Corte-Reai's discoveries were followed by the
development of the Newfoundland and Labrador fisheries,

' Corte-Real.

94Q

POLAR REGIONS

Sebastian
Cabot.

John Rut.

Centurioae.

and a whole fleet of English, Portuguese, Basque and Breton
fishermen was soon met with in these waters, and they probably
went along the Labrador coast northward as far as Hudson
Strait, without having left any report of their discoveries.

It is believed, on good grounds, that expeditions (combined
English-Portuguese) were sent out to the newly discovered
regions from Bristol in 1501 and 1502. It is unknown what
their discoveries were, but they may possibly have sailed along
the coast of Labrador.

It is possible that John Cabot's son, Sebastian Cabot, made
an Arctic expedition in 1508-1509, in search of a short passage
to China towards the north-west, and later, in 1521,
King Henry VIII. made an attempt to persuade
the merchants of London to support him in sending
out an expedition, under Sebastian Cabot, to the north-western
countries. It is uncertain whether it ever started, but it is
certain that it achieved nothing of importance.

John Rut sailed from Plymouth in 1527, in order to seek
a passage to China through the Arctic seas towards the north-
west, following the suggestion of Robert Thorne of
Bristol. He met ice in 53 N. lat. and returned to
Newfoundland. Several other expeditions were sent out from
various countries towards the north-west and west during this
period, but no discoveries of importance are known to have
been made in the Arctic regions.

There are rumours that the Portuguese, as early as 1484,
under King John II., had sent out an expedition towards Novaya
Zemlya in search of a north-east passage to India.
The Genovese Paolo Centurione probably proposed
to King Henry VIII. of England, in 1525, to make an expedition
in search of such a passage to India north of Russia, and there
is evidence to show that there had been much talk about an
undertaking of this kind in England and at the English court
during the following period, as it was hoped that a new market
might be found for English merchandise, especially cloth.
But it led to nothing until 1553, when Sebastian Cabot was one
of the chief promoters. Three ships and 112 men under Sir
Hugh Willoughby sailed from Ratcliffe on the 10th
(20th) May 1553. Richard Chancelor commanded
one of the ships, which was separated from the two others in a
gale off northern Norway on the 3rd (13th) August. Willoughby,
after having sighted land in various places, probably Kolguev
Island, where they landed, the coast near the Pechora river
and Kanin Nos, came on the 14th (24th) September to a good
harbour on the northern coast of the Kola Peninsula. His
one ship being leaky, Willoughby resolved to winter there, but
he and all his men perished. Chancelor, after his
separation from the two other ships, rounded the
North Cape, to which he or his sailing-master, Stephen Borough,
gave this name. He reached Vardohus, and after having waited
there in vain for Willoughby, he followed the route of the
Norsemen to the White Sea and reached the bay of St Nicholas,
with a monastery of this name, near the mouth of the Dvina
river, where Archangel was built later. Chancelor undertook a
journey to Moscow, made arrangements for commercial inter-
course with Russia, and returned next year with his ship,
which was, however, plundered by the Flemings, but he reached
London safely with a letter from the tsar. In spite of the
disaster of Willoughby and his men this expedition became of
fundamental importance for the development of English trade.
Chancelor's success and his so-called discovery of the passage to
the White Sea, which was well known to the Norwegian traders
in that region, proved to people in England the practical
utility of polar voyages. It led to a charter being granted to the
Association of Merchant Adventurers, also called the Muscovy
or Russia Company, and gave a fresh impulse to Arctic dis-
covery. Chancelor undertook a new expedition to the White
Sea and Moscow in 1555; on his way home in the following year
he was wrecked on the coast of Scotland and perished.

In 1556 Stephen Borough (Burrough), who had served with
Chancelor, was sent out by the Muscovy Company in a small
pinnace called the "Search-thrift," in order to try to reach the

Willoughby.

Chancelor.

Pet.

river Ob, of which rumours had been heard. Novaya Zemlya,
Vaigach Island, and the Kara Strait leading into the Kara
Sea, were discovered. Borough kept a careful
journal of his voyage. In 1580 the company fitted ° " s '
out two vessels under Arthur Pet and Charles Jackman, with
orders to sail eastwards north of Russia and Asia to the lands
of the emperor of Cathay (China). They penetrated
through the Kara Strait into the Kara Sea; they
possibly saw the west coast of Yalmal, but met with much ice
and were compelled to return. The two ships were separated
on the way home, Pet reached London on December 26th in
safety; Jackman wintered with his ship in Norway and sailed
thence in February, but was never heard of again.

About 1574 the Portuguese probably made an attempt to
find the north-west passage under Vasqueanes Corte-Real.
They reached "a great entrance," which may have
been Hudson Strait, and they "passed above twentie corte^Reai
leagues" into it, 'Without all impediment of ice,"
"but their victailes fayling them, . . . they returned backe
agayne with ioy."

After the expeditions in search of the north-east passage
achieved the success of opening up a profitable trade with
Russia, via the White Sea, new life was inspired in the under-
takings of England on the sea, at the same time the power of
the Hanseatic merchants, called the Easterlings, was much
reduced. It was therefore only natural that the plan of seeking
a north-west passage to China and India should again come to
the front in England, a.nd it was much discussed. It was Sir
Martin Frobisher who opened that long series of
expeditions all of which during three hundred years
were sent from England in search of the north-west passage
until the last expedition, which actually accomplished it, sailed
from Norway. " Being persuaded of a new and neerer passage to
Cataya" (China) towards the north-west, Frobisher "determined
and resolved wyth himselfe, to go make full proofe thereof . . .
or else never to retourne againe, knowing this to be the onely
thing of the worlde that was left yet undone, whereby a notable
mind mighte be made famous and fortunate." After having
attempted in vain for fifteen years to find support for his enter-
prise, he at last obtained assistance from Ambrose Dudley, earl
of Warwick, and through him the interest of Queen Elizabeth
was also secured. The Muscovy Company was now obliged to
give a licence for the voyage in 1574, and the necessary money
was found by London merchants. Aided especially by Michael
Lok, an influential merchant and diligent student of geography,
Frobisher sailed, on the 7th (17th) of June 1576, from Deptford
with two small vessels of 20 and 25 tons, called the " Gabriel " and
"Michael," and a small pinnace of 10 tons; the crews amounted
to 35 men all told. On the 8th (18th) of July they lost sight of
the pinnace, which was seen no more. On the nth (21st) of July
they sighted a high, rugged land, but could not approach it for
ice. This was the east coast of Greenland, but, misled by his
charts, Frobisher assumed it to be the fictitious Frisland, which
was the fabrication of a Venetian, Niccolo Zeno, who in 1558
published a spurious narrative and map (which he pretended
to have found) as the work of an ancestor and his brother in
the 14th century. The Zeno map was chiefly fabricated on
the basis of a map by the Swede Olaus Magnus of 1537 and the
map by the Dane Claudius Clavus of the 15th century. It was
accepted at the time as a work of high authority, and its fictitious
names and islands continued to appear on subsequent maps for
at least a century, and have puzzled both geographers at home
and explorers in the field. These islands had also been intro-
duced on the charts of Mercator of 1569 and of Ortelius of T570.
which were probably used by Frobisher. Evidently frightened
by the sight of the great quantities of ice off the Greenland
coast, one ship, the " Michael," left him secretly, " and re-
tourned home wyth greate reporte that he was cast awaye. "
The gallant Frobisher continued his voyage towards the north-
west in the " Gabriel " alone, although his mast was sprung, his
topmast blown overboard, and his "mizen-mast" had had to be
cut away in a gale. On the 29th of July (Aug. 8) he sighted high

POLAR REGIONS

94 1

land which he called Queen Elizabeth's Foreland. This was
the southern part of Baffin Land (Resolution Island) in about
62 N. lat. He was stopped by ice, but nearly two weeks later
he reached the coast and entered an inlet which he considered
to be the strait of the north-west passage, and he gave it his own
name (it is now Frobisher Bay on Baffin Land). The land was
called "Meta Incognita." Frobisher was not well prepared
for going much farther, and after his boat with five men had
disappeared he returned home, where, unfortunately, some
"gold-finders" in London took it into their heads that a piece
of dark heavy stone brought back contained gold ore. This
caused great excitement; it was now considered much more
important to collect this precious ore than to find the north-west
passage, and much larger expeditions were sent out in the two
following years. As many as fifteen vessels formed the third
expedition of 1578, and it was the intention to form a colony
with a hundred men in the gold land, but this scheme was
given up. Frobisher came into Hudson Strait, which was at
first thought to be Frobisher Strait and therefore called Mistaken
Strait. There was an open sea without any land or ice
towards the west, and Frobisher was certain that he could sail
through to the "Mare del Sur" (Pacific Ocean) and " Kathaya,"
but his first goal was the " gold mines," and the vessels returned
home with full loads of the ore. One of them, a buss (small
ship) of Bridgwater, called the "Emmanuel," reported that on
her voyage home she had first sighted Frisland on the 8th
(18th) of September, but four days later she had sighted another
land in theAtlantic and sailed along it till the following day; they
reckoned its southern end to be in about 57 j° N. lat. This land
soon found its place on maps and charts south-west of Iceland
under the name of Buss Island, and as it was never
Buss. seen a g am if was after 1745 called "the sunken land

of Buss." The explanation is that, misled by- the
maps, Frobisher assumed Greenland to be Frisland of the Zeno
map and Baffin Land was afterwards assumed to be the east
coast of Greenland. When the buss on her way home sighted
Greenland in about 62 N., she therefore thought it to be
Frisland, but when she four days later again sighted land
near Cape Farewell and her dead reckoning probably had
carried her about two degrees too far south, she naturally
considered this to be a new land, which puzzled geographers
and navigators for centuries. Owing to a similar mistake, not
by Frobisher, but by later cartographers and especially by Davis,
it was afterwards assumed that Frobisher Strait (and also
Mistaken Strait) was not in Baffin Land but on the east coast
of Greenland, where they remained on the maps till the 18th
century.

John Davis, who made the next attempt to discover a north-
west passage, was one of the most scientific seamen of that age.
He made three voyages in three successive years
aided and fitted out by William Sanderson and other
merchants. Sailing from Dartmouth on the 7th (17th) of June
1585, with two ships, he sighted on the 20th (30th) of July " the
most deformed, rocky and mountainous land, that ever we sawe."
He named it the Land of Desolation, although he understood
that he had rediscovered " the shore which in ancient time
was called Groenland." It was its east coast. He visited
the west coast, where Frobisher had also landed mistaking
it for Frisland. Davis anchored in a place called Gilbert's
Sound in 64° 10' (near the present Danish settlement of Godthaab)
and had much intercourse with the Eskimo. He then, crossing
the strait which bears his name, traced a portion of its western
shore southwards from about 66° 40' N. lat. and came into Cum-
berland Sound, which he thought to be the strait of the north-west
passage, but returned home on account of contrary winds.
In the second voyage (with four ships) Davis traced the western
shore of Davis Strait still farther southwards, and sailed along
the coast of Labrador. In the third voyage (with three ships)
in 1587 he advanced far up his own strait along the west coast
of Greenland in a small leaky pinnace, the "Ellin," and reached
a lofty granite island in 72 41' N. lat., which he named Hope
Sanderson. He met with ice in the sea west of this place, but

Davis.

reported that there was not " any yce towards the north, but
a great sea, free, large, very salt and blew, and of an unsearche-
able depth." By contrary winds, however, he was prevented
from sailing in that direction. He sailed into Cumberland Sound,
but now found that there was no passage. He also passed on
his way southwards the entrance to Frobisher Strait, which
he named Lumley Inlet, and Hudson Strait, without under-
standing the importance of the latter. When Davis came to
Labrador, where his two larger ships were to have waited for
him, they had sailed to England. The little " Ellin " now struck
a sunken rock and sprung a leak, which was repaired, and he
crossed the Atlantic in this small leaky craft. He still believed
in the existence of a passage through Davis Strait, but could
find no support for another Arctic voyage. Davis was not the
first to discover this strait; it was well-known to the Norsemen.
Gaspar Corte-Real had possibly also been there, and Frobisher
had during his voyages crossed its southern part every year.
The result of Davis's discoveries are shown on the Molyneux
globe, which is now in the library of the Middle Temple; they
are also shown on the "New Map" in Hakluyt's Principal
Navigations (1 598-1 600). When Davis was trying to reconcile
his discoveries with the previous ones, especially those of
Frobisher, he made fatal mistakes as mentioned above.

As early as 1565, by the intervention of a certain Philip
Winterkonig, an exile from Vardohus in Norway, Dutch mer-
chants formed a settlement in Kola, and in 1578 .
two Dutch ships anchored in the mouth of the river
Dvina, and a Dutch settlement was established where Archangel
was built a few years later. The leading man in these under-
takings was Olivier Brunei, who is thus the founder of the
White Sea trade of the Dutch; he was also their first Arctic
navigator. He had travelled both overland and along the coast
to Siberia and reached the river Ob; he had also visited Kostin
Shar on Novaya Zemlya. He propounded plans for the dis-
covery of the north-east passage to China, and in 1581 he went
from Russia to Antwerp to prepare an expedition. He probably
started with one ship in 1582, on the first Arctic expedition
which left the Netherlands. Little is known of its fate except
that it ended unsuccessfully with the wreck of the ship in the
shallow Pechora Bay, possibly after a vain attempt to penetrate
through the Yugor Strait into the Kara Sea. In 1583 we find
Olivier Brunei in Bergen trying to organize a Norwegian under-
taking, evidently towards' the north-east, but it is uncertain
whether it led to anything.

The Dutch, however, had begun to see the importance of a
northern route to China and India, especially as the routes
through the southern seas were jealously guarded by the Spani-
ards and Portuguese, and after 1584 all trade with Portugal,
where the Dutch got Indian goods, was forbidden. By Brunei's
efforts their attention had been directed towards the north-east
passage, but it was not until 1594 that a new expedition was
sent out, one of the promoters being Peter Plancius, the
learned cosmographer of Amsterdam. Four ships sailed from
Huysdunen on the 5th (15th) of June 1594. Two of these
ships from Amsterdam were under the command of Willem
Barents, who sighted Novaya Zemlya, north of
Matochkin Shar, on the 4th (14th) of July; and aa< iNay.
from that date until the 1st (nth) of August
Barents continued perseveringly to seek a way through
the ice-floes, and discovered the whole western coast as far
as the Great Ice Cape, the latitude of which he, with his
admirable accuracy, determined to be 77 N. Having reached
the Orange Islands at the north-west extremity, he decided
to return. The two other ships under the command of Cornells
Nay had discovered the Yugor Strait, through which they sailed
into the Kara Sea on the 1st (nth) of August. They reached
the west coast of Yalmal; being sure that they had passed the
mouth of the river Ob, and finding the sea open, they thought
they had found a free passage to Japan and China, and returned
home on the nth (21st) of August. A new expedition was
made the following year, 1595, with seven ships under the
command of Cornelis Nay, as admiral, and Willem Barents as

942

POLAR REGIONS

chief pilot, but it merely made several unsuccessful attempts

to enter the Kara Sea through the Yugor Strait. The third

expedition was more important. Two vessels sailed from

Amsterdam on the ioth (20th) of May 1596, under the command

of Jacob van Heemskerck and Corneliszoon Rijp. Barents

accompanied Heemskerck as pilot, and Gerrit de Veer, the

historian of the voyage, was on board as mate. The masses

of ice in the straits leading to the Sea of Kara, and the

impenetrable nature of the pack near Novaya Zemlya, had

suggested the advisability of avoiding the land and, by keeping

a northerly course, of seeking a passage in the open sea. They

sailed northwards, and on the 9th (19th) of June discovered

Bear Island. Continuing on the same course they sighted a

mountainous snow-covered land in about 8o° N. lat., soon

afterwards being stopped by the polar pack ice. This important

discovery was named Spitsbergen, and was believed to be a

part of Greenland. Arriving at Bear Island again on the 1st of

July, Rijp parted company, while Heemskerck and Barents

proceeded eastward, intending to pass round the northern

extreme of Novaya Zemlya. On the 26th of August (Sept. 5)

they reached Ice Haven, after rounding the northern

extremity of the land. Here they wintered in a house built

out of driftwood and planks from the 'tween decks and the

deck-house of the vessel. In the spring they made their way

in boats to the Lapland coast; but Barents died during the

voyage. This was the first time that an arctic winter was

successfully faced. The voyages of Barents stand in the first

rank among the polar enterprises of the 16th century. They

led to flourishing whale and seal fisheries which long enriched

the Netherlands.

The English enterprises were continued by the Muscovy

Company, and by associations of patriotic merchants of London;

11/ .,.. and even the East India Company sent an expedition

Way mouth. , TTr , , r

under Captain Waymouth in 1602 to seek for a

passage by the opening seen by Davis, but it had no success.

The best servant of the Muscovy Company in the work of

polar discovery was Henry Hudson. His first voyage was

„ . undertaken in 1607, when he discovered the most

Hudson, . ... ■■ ^ i 1

northern known point of the east coast of Greenland

in 73° N. named "Hold with Hope," and examined the ice
between Greenland and Spitsbergen, probably reaching Hakluyt's
Headland in 79 50' N. On his way home he discovered
the island now called Jan Mayen, which he named " Hudson's
Tutches." In his second expedition, during the season of 1608,
Hudson examined the edge of the ice between Spitsbergen and
Novaya Zemlya. In his third voyage he was employed by the
Dutch East India Company; he again approached Novaya
Zemlya, but was compelled to return westwards, and he explored
the coasts of North America, discovering the Hudson river.
In 1610 he entered Hudson Strait, and discovered the great bay
which bears and immortalizes his name. He was obliged to
winter there, undergoing no small hardships. On his way
home his crew mutinied and set him, his little son and some
sick men adrift in a boat, and the explorer perished in the seas
he had opened up.

The voyages of Hudson led immediately to the Spitsbergen
whale fishery. From 1609 to 1612 Jonas Poole made four
Spitsbergen voyages for the prosecution of this lucrative business,
Whale and he was followed by Fotherby, Baffin, Joseph,

Fishery. an( j jr^ge. These bold seamen, while in the pursuit
of whales, added considerably to the knowledge of the archi-
pelago of islands known under the name of Spitsbergen, and
in 1617 Captain Edge discovered an island to the eastward,
which he named Wyche's Land.

About the same period the kings of Denmark began to
send expeditions for the rediscovery of the lost Greenland
colony. In 1605 Christian IV. sent out three ships,
Voyages. unQ, er the Englishmen Cunningham and Hall and
a Dane named Lindenov, which reached the western
coast of Greenland and had much intercourse with the Eskimo.
Other expeditions followed in 1606-1607.

Meanwhile, the merchant adventurers of London continued

Button.

Baffin.

to push forward the western discovery. Sir Thomas Button,
in command of two ships, the "Resolution" and "Discovery,"
sailed from England in May 161 2. He entered
Hudson Bay, crossed to its western shore, and
wintered at the mouth of a river in 57° 10' N. which was named
Nelson river after the master of the ship, who died and was
buried there. Next year Button explored the shore of Southamp-
ton Island as far as 65 N., and returned home in the autumn
of 16 13. An expedition under Captain Gibbons despatched
in 1614 to Hudson Bay was a failure; but in 1615 Robert Bylot
as master and William Baffin as pilot and navigator in the
"Discovery" examined the coasts of Hudson Strait and to the
north of Hudson Bay, and Baffin, who was the equal of Davis as
a scientific seaman, made many valuable observa-
tions. In 1616 Bylot and Baffin again set out in the
" Discovery." Sailing up Davis Strait they passed that navi-
gator's farthest point at Sanderson's Hope, and sailed round the
great channel with smaller channels leading from it which has
been known ever since as Baffin Bay. Baffin named the most
northern opening Smith Sound, after the first governor of the East
India Company, and the munificent promoter of the voyage,
Sir Thomas Smith. Lancaster Sound and Jones Sound were
named after other promoters and friends of the voyage. The
fame of Baffin mainly rests upon the discovery of a great channel
extending north from Davis Strait; but it was unjustly dimmed
for many years, owing to the omission of Purchas to publish
the navigator's tabulated journal and map in his great collection
of voyages. It was two hundred years before a new expedition
sailed north through Baffin Bay. It may be mentioned, as an
illustration of the value of these early voyages to modern science,
that Professor Hansteen of Christiania made use of Baffin's
magnetic observations in the compilation of his series of
magnetic maps. In 1619 Denmark sent out an expedition,
under the command of Jens Munk, in search of the north-west
passage, with two ships and 64 men. They reached the west
coast of Hudson Bay, where they wintered near Churchill river,
but all died with the exception of one man, a boy, and Munk
himself, who managed to sail home in the smallest ship.

In 1631 two expeditions were despatched, one by the mer-
chants of London, the other by those of Bristol. In the London
ship "Charles" Luke Fox explored the western
side of Hudson Bay as far as the place called " Sir JameSi '
Thomas Roe's Welcome." In August he en-
countered Captain James and the Bristol ship "Maria" in the
middle of Hudson Bay, and went north until he reached
"North-west Fox his farthest," in 66° 47' N. He then returned
home and wrote an entertaining narrative. Captain James had
to winter off Charlton Island, in James Bay, the southern extreme
of Hudson Bay, and did not return until October 1632. Another
English voyager, Captain Wood, attempted, without success, to
discover a north-east passage in 1676 through the sea round
the North Pole, but was wrecked on the coast of Novaya Zemlya.
The 1 6th and 17th centuries were periods of discovery and
daring enterprise. Hudson Strait and Bay, Davis Strait and
Baffin Bay, the icy seas from Greenland to Spitsbergen and
from Spitsbergen to Novaya Zemlya had all been explored;
but much more was not discovered than had been well known
to the Norsemen five or six centuries earlier. The following
century was rather a period of reaping the results of former
efforts than of discovery. It saw the settlement of the Hudson
Bay Territory and of Greenland, and the development of the
whale and seal fisheries.

The Hudson's Bay Company was incorporated in 1670, and
Prince Rupert sent out Zachariah Gillan, who wintered at
Rupert river. At first very slow progress was made. A voyage
undertaken by Mr Knight, nearly 80 years old, who had been
appointed governor of the factory at Nelson river, was unfortu-
nate, as his two ships were lost and the crews
perished. This was in 1719. In 1722 John Scroggs
was sent from Churchill river in search of the missing ships,
but merely entered Sir Thomas Roe's Welcome and returned.
His reports were believed to offer decisive proofs of the existence

POLAR REGIONS

943

Moor.

Martens.

of a passage into the Pacific; and a naval expedition was de-
spatched under the command of Captain Christopher Middleton,
consisting of the " Discovery " pink and the " Fur-
nace " bomb. Wintering in Churchill river, Middle-
ton started in July 1742 and discovered Wager river and Repulse
Bay. In 1746 Captain W. Moor made another voyage in
the same direction, and explored the Wager Inlet.
Later in the century the Hudson's Bay Company's
servants made some important land journeys to discover the
shores of the American polar ocean. From 176910 1772 Samuel
Hearne descended the Coppermine River to the polar sea; and
in 1789 Alexander Mackenzie discovered the mouth of the
Mackenzie river. (For the establishment of the modern Danish
settlements in Greenland, see Greenland.)

The countrymen of Barents vied with the countrymen of
Hudson in the perilous calling which annually brought fleets
Dutch of ships to the Spitsbergen seas during the 17th and

Whale 18th centuries. The Dutch had their large summer
Fishery. station for boiling down blubber at Smeerenberg,
near the northern extreme of the west coast of Spitsbergen.
Captain Vlamingh, in 1664, advanced as far round the northern
end of Novaya Zemlya as the winter quarters of Barents. In
1 700 Captain Cornelis Roule is said by Witsen to have sailed
north in the longitude of Novaya Zemlya and to have seen
an extent of 40 m. of broken land, but Theunis Ys, one of the
most experienced Dutch navigators, believed that no vessel
had ever been north of the 82nd parallel. In 1671 Frederick
Martens, a German surgeon, visited Spitsbergen, and
wrote the best account of its physical features and
natural history that existed previous to the time of Scoresby.
In 1707 Captain Cornelis Gilies went far to the eastward
along the northern shores of Spitsbergen, and saw land to
the east in 8o° N., which has since been known as Gilies Land.
The Dutch geographical knowledge of Spitsbergen was embodied
in the famous chart of the Van Keulens (father and son), 1700-
1728. The Dutch whale fishery continued to flourish until the
French Revolution, and formed a splendid nursery for training
the seamen of the Netherlands. From 1700 to 1775 the whaling
fleet numbered 100 ships and upwards. In 17 19 the Dutch
opened a whale fishery in Davis Strait, and continued to frequent
the west coast of Greenland for upwards of sixty years from that
time.

The most flourishing period of the British fishery in the Spits-
bergen and Greenland seas was from 1752 to 1820. Bounties
British of 40s. per ton were granted by act of parliament;
Whale and in 1778 as many as 255 sail of whalers were
Fishery. employed. In order to encourage discovery £5000
was offered in 1776 to the first ship that should sail beyond the
89th parallel (16 Geo. III. c. 6). Among the numerous daring
and able whaling captains, William Scoresby takes
the first rank, alike as a successful whaler and a
scientific observer. His admirable Account of the Arctic 'Regions
is still a textbook for all students of the subject. In 1806 he
succeeded in advancing his ship " Resolution " as far north as
8i° 12' 42". In 1822 he forced his way through the ice which
encumbers the approach to land on the east coast of Greenland,
and surveyed that coast from 75 down to 69 N., a distance
of 400 m. Scoresby combined the closest attention to his
business with much valuable scientific work and no insignificant
amount of exploration.

The Russians, after the acquisition of Siberia, succeeded in
gradually exploring the whole of the northern shores of that vast
_ . region. In 1648 a Cossack named Simon Dezhneff

is said to have equipped a boat expedition in the
river Kolyma, passed through the strait since named after
Bering, and reached the Gulf of Anadyr. In 1738 a voyage was
made by two Russian officers from Archangel to the mouths of
the Ob and the Yenisei. Efforts were then made to effect a
passage from the Yenisei to the Lena. In 1735 Lieut. T.
chel uskin Chelyuskin got as far as 77 25' N. near the cape which
'bears his name; and in 1743 he rounded that most
northern point of Siberia in sledges, in 77 41' N. Captain

Scoresby.

Phipps.

Vitus Bering, a Dane, was appointed by Peter the Great to

command an expedition in 1725. Two vessels were built at

Okhotsk, and in July 1728 Bering ascertained the _ .

. . , a- ia • Bering.

existence of a strait between Asia and America.

In 1740 Bering was again employed. He sailed from Okhotsk
in a vessel called the " St Paul," with G. W. Steller on board ' as
naturalist. Their object was to discover the American side ot
the strait, and they sighted the magnificent peak named by
Bering Mt St Elias. The Aleutian Islands were also explored,
but the ship was wrecked on an island named after the ill-fated
discoverer, and scurvy broke out amongst his crew. Bering
himself died there on the 8th of December 1741.

Thirty years after the death of Bering a Russian merchant
named Liakhoff discovered the New Siberia or Liakhoff Islands,
and in 1771 he obtained the exclusive right from the ..

empress Catherine to dig there for fossil ivory.
These islands were more fully explored by an officer named
Hedenstrom in 1809, and seekers for fossil ivory annually resorted
to them. A Russian expedition under Captain Chitschakoff,
sent to Spitsbergen in 1764, was only able to attain a latitude of
8o° 30' N.

From 1773 onwards to the end of the 19th century the objects
of polar exploration were mainly the acquisition of knowledge
in various branches of science. It was on these grounds that
Daines Barrington and the Royal Society induced the British
government to undertake arctic exploration once more. The
result was that two vessels, the "Racehorse " and " Carcass "
bombs, were commissioned, under the command of
Captain J. C. Phipps. The expedition sailed from the
Nore on the 2nd of June 1773, and was stopped by the ice to the
north of Hakluyt Headland, the north-western point of Spits-
bergen. Phipps reached the Seven Islands and discovered Walden
Island; but beyond this point progress was impossible. When
he attained their highest latitude in 8o° 48' N., north of the
central part of the Spitsbergen group, the ice at the edge of
the pack was 24 ft. thick. Captain Phipps returned to England
in September 1773. Five years afterwards James
Cook received instructions to proceed northward
from Kamchatka and search for a north-east or north-west
passage from the Pacific to the Atlantic. In accordance with
these orders Captain Cook, during his third voyage, reached
Cape Prince of Wales, the western extremity of America, on
the 9th of August 1778. His ships, the " Resolution " and
" Discovery," arrived at the edge of the ice, after passing Bering
Strait, in 70 41' N. On the 17th of August the farthest
point seen on the American side was named Icy Cape. On the
Asiatic side Cook's survey extended to Cape North. In
the following year Captain Clerke, who had succeeded to the
command, made another voyage, but his ship was beset in
the ice, and so much damaged that further attempts were
abandoned.

The wars following the French Revolution put an end to voyages
of discovery till, after the peace of 181 5, north polar research
found a powerful and indefatigable advocate in Sir
John Barrow. Through his influence a measure for
promoting polar discovery became law in 1818 (58 Geo. III.
c. 20), by which a reward of £20,000 was offered for making the
north-west passage, and of £5000 for reaching 89° N., while the
commissioners of longitude were empowered to award pro-
portionate sums to those who might achieve certain portions of
such discoveries. In 181 7 the icy seas were reported by Captain
Scoresby and others to be remarkably open, and this circumstance
enabled Barrow to obtain sanction for the despatch of two
expeditions, each consisting of two whalers — one to attempt
discoveries by way of Spitsbergen and the other by Baffin Bay.
The vessels for the Spitsbergen route, the " Dorothea " and
" Trent," were commanded by Captain David Buchan and
Lieut. John Franklin, and sailed in April 1818. Driven
into the pack by a heavy swell from the south, both
vessels were severely nipped, and had to return to England.
The other expedition, consisting of the " Isabella " and
" Alexander," commanded by Captain John Ross and Lieut.

Cook.

944

POLAR REGIONS

Edward Parry, followed in the wake of Baffin's voyage of 1616.
Ross sailed from England in April 1818. The chief merit of his
voyage was that it vindicated Baffin's accuracy as a discoverer.
Its practical result was that the way was shown to a lucrative
fishery in the " North Water " of Baffin Bay, which continued
to be frequented by a fleet of whalers every year. Captain Ross
thought that the inlets reported by Baffin were merely bays, while
the opinion of his second in command was that a wide opening
to the westward existed through the Lancaster Sound of Baffin.
Parry was selected to command a new expedition in the
following year. His two vessels, the " Hecla " and " Griper, "
Parry's passed through Lancaster Sound, the continuation
First and of which was named Barrow Strait, and advanced
Second westward, with an archipelago on the right, since
Voyages. j inown as the Parry Islands. He observed a wide
opening to the north, which he named Wellington Channel, and
sailed onwards for 300 m. to Melville Island. He was stopped
by the impenetrable polar pack of vast thickness which surrounds
the archipelago to the north of the American continent, and was
obliged to winter in a harbour on the south coast of Melville
Island. Parry's hygienic arrangements during the winter were
judicious, and the scientific results of his expedition were valu-
able. The vessels returned in October 1820; and a fresh ex-
pedition in the " Fury " and " Hecla," again under the command
of Captain Parry, sailed from the Nore on the 8th of May 1821,
and passed their first winter on the coast of the newly discovered
Melville Peninsula in 66° n' N. Still persevering, Parry passed
his second winter among the Eskimo at Igloolik in 69° 20' N.,
and discovered a channel leading westward from the head of
Hudson Bay, which he named Fury and Hecla Strait. The
expedition returned in the autumn of 1823. Meantime Parry's
Franklin's friend Franklin had been employed in attempts to
First reach by land the northern shores of America,

journey, hitherto only touched at two points by Hearne and
Mackenzie. Franklin went out in 1819, with Dr John Richard-
son, George Back and Robert Hood. They landed at York
factory, and proceeded to the Great Slave Lake. In August of
the following year they started for the Coppermine river, and,
embarking on it, reached its mouth on the 18th of July 1821.
From that point 550 m. of coast-line were explored, the
extreme point being called Cape Turnagain. Great sufferings,
from starvation and cold, had to be endured during the return
journey; but eventually Franklin, Richardson and Back arrived
safely at Fort Chippewyan.

It was thought desirable that an attempt should be made to
connect the Cape Turnagain of Franklin with the discoveries
Parry's made by Parry during his second voyage; but the
Third first effort, under Captain Lyon in the " Griper," was

Voyage. unsuccessful. In 1824 three combined attempts were
organized. While Parry again entered by Lancaster Sound and
pushed down a great opening he had seen to the south
named Prince Regent Inlet, Captain Beechey was to enter
Bering Strait, and Franklin was to make a second journey by
land to the shores of Arctic America. Parry was unfortunate,
but Beechey entered Bering Strait in the " Blossom " in August
1826, and extended our knowledge as far as Point Barrow
Franklin's in 71 23' 30" N. lat. Franklin, in 1825-1826, de-
Second scended the Mackenzie river to its mouth, and ex-
Joumey, pi or ed the coast for 374 m. to the westward; while
Dr Richardson discovered the shore between the mouths of the
Mackenzie and Coppermine, and sighted land to the northward,
named by him Wollaston Land, the dividing channel being
called Union and Dolphin Strait. They returned in the autumn
of 1826.

Work was also being done in the Spitsbergen and Barents
Seas. From 1821 to 1824 the Russian Captain Liitke was
surveying the west coast of Novaya Zemlya as far as
Cape Nassau, and examining the ice of the adjacent
sea. In May 1823 the " Griper " sailed, under the command
of Captain Clavering, to convey Captain Sabine to

Lutke.

Qraah.

The Rosses.

Clavering.

the polar regions in order to make pendulum

observations. Clavering pushed through the ice in 75° 30' N.,

and succeeded in reaching the east coast of Greenland, where
observations were taken on Pendulum Island. He charted the
coast -line from 76 to 72 N.

In Parry's attempt to reach the pole from the northern coast
of Spitsbergen by means of sledge-boats (see Parry), the highest
latitude reached was 82° 45' N., and the attempt was persevered
in until it was found that the ice as a whole was drifting to the
south more rapidly than it was possible to travel over it to
the north.

In 1829 the Danes undertook an interesting piece of explora-
tion On the east coast of Greenland. Captain Graah of the
Danish navy rounded Cape Farewell in boats, with
four Europeans and twelve Eskimo. He advanced
as far as 65 18' N. on the east coast, where he was stopped by
an insurmountable barrier of ice. He wintered in 63° 22' N.,
and returned to the settlements on the west side of Greenland in
1830.

In the year 1829 Captain John Ross, with his nephew James
Clark Ross, having been furnished with funds by a wealthy
distiller named Felix Booth, undertook a private
expedition of discovery in a small vessel called the
" Victory. " Ross proceeded down Prince Regent Inlet to the
Gulf of Boothia, and wintered on the eastern side of a land named
by him Boothia Felix. In the course of exploring excursions
during the summer months James Ross crossed the land and
discovered the position of the north magnetic pole on the western
side of it, on the 1st of June 1831. He also discovered a land to
the westward of Boothia which he named King William Land, and
the northern shore of which he examined. The most northern
point was called Cape Felix, and thence the coast trended south-
west to Victory Point. The Rosses could not get their little
vessel out of its winter quarters. They passed three winters
there, and then fell back on the stores at Fury Beach, where they
passed their fourth winter, 1832-1833. Eventually they were
picked up by a whaler in Barrow Strait, and brought home.
Great anxiety was naturally felt at their prolonged absence, and
in 1833 Sir George Back, with Dr Richard King as a
companion, set out by land in search of the missing
explorers. Wintering at the Great Slave Lake, they left Fort
Reliance on the 7th of June 1834, and descended the Great Fish
river for 530 m. The mouth was reached in 67 11' N., and then
the want of supplies obliged them to return. In 1836 Sir George
Back was sent, at the suggestion of the Royal Geographical
Society, to proceed to Repulse Bay in his ship, the " Terror, "
and then to cross an assumed isthmus and examine the coast-
line thence to the mouth of the Great Fish river; but the ship
was obliged to winter in the drifting pack,, and was brought home
in a sinking condition.

The tracing of the polar shores of America was completed by the
Hudson's Bay Company's serva nts. In June 1 83 7 Thomas Simp-
son and P. W. Dease left Chippewyan, reached the
mouth of the Mackenzie, and connected that position aa ™^°^ e
with Point Barrow, which had been discovered by the
" Blossom " in 1826. In 1839 Simpson passed Cape Turnagain
of Franklin, tracing the coast eastward so as to connect with
Back's work at the mouth of the Great Fish river. He landed
at Montreal Island in the mouth of that river, and then
advanced eastward as far as Castor and Pollux river, his
farthest eastern point. On his return he travelled along
the north side of the channel, the south shore of the King
William Island discovered by James Ross. The south-
western point of this island was named Cape Herschel, and
there Simpson built a cairn on the 26th of August 1839.
Little remained to do in order to complete the delineation of the
northern shores of the American continent, and this task was
entrusted to Dr John Rae, a Hudson's Bay factor, in
1846. He went in boats to Repulse Bay, where he
wintered in a stone hut nearly on the Arctic Circle; and there he
and his six Orkney men maintained themselves on the deer they
shot. During the spring of 1847 Dr Rae explored on foot the
shores of a great gulf having 700 m. of coast-line. He thus
connected the work of Parry, at the mouth of Fury and Hecla

Back.

Rae.

POLAR REGIONS

945

Wraagell.

Mlddeadorf. '

Strait, with the work of Ross on the coast of Boothia, proving
that Boothia was part of the American continent.

While British explorers were thus working hard to solve some
of the geographical problems relating to Arctic America, the
Russians were similarly engaged in Siberia. In 1821
Aajou. LigiU. P. F. Anjou made a complete survey of the
New Siberia Islands, and came to the conclusion that it was not
possible to advance far from them in a northerly direction,
owing to the thinness of the ice and to open water
existing within 20 or 30 m. Baron Wrangell prose-
cuted similar investigations from the mouth of the Kolyma
between 1820 and 1823. He made four journeys with dog
sledges, exploring the coast between Cape Chelagskoi and the
Kolyma, and making attempts to extend his journeys to some
distance from the land, but he was always stopped by thin ice.
In 1843 Middandorf was sent to explore the region
' which terminates in Cape Chelyuskin. He reached
Taimyr Bay in the height of the short summer, whence he saw
open water and no ice blink in any direction. The whole arctic
shore of Siberia had now been explored and delineated, but no
vessel had yet rounded the extreme northern point.

The success of Sir James Ross's Antarctic expedition and the
completion of the northern coast-line of America by the Hudson's
Bay Company's servants gave rise in 1845 to a fresh
Expedition attempt t0 make the passage from Lancaster Sound
to Bering Strait. The story of the unhappy expedi-
tion of Sir John Franklin, in the " Erebus " and " Terror," is told
under Franklin; but some geographical details may be given
here. The heavy polar ice flows south-east between Melville
and Baring Islands, down M'Clintock Channel, and impinges
on the north-west coast of King William Land. It was this
branch from the " palaeocrystic " sea which finally stopped the
progress of Franklin's expedition. On leaving the winter
quarters at Beechey Island in 1846 Franklin found a channel
leading south, along the western shore of the land of North
Somerset discovered by Parry ir> 1819. If he could reach the
channel on the American coast, he knew that he would be able
to make his way along it to Bering Strait. This channel, now
called Peel Sound, pointed directly to the south. He sailed
down it towards King William Island, with land on both sides.
But directly the southern point of the western land was passed
and no longer shielded the channel, the great ice stream from
Melville Island, pressing on King William Island, was encountered
and found impassable. Progress might have been made by
rounding the eastern side of King William Island, but its
insularity was then unknown.

It was not until 1848 that anxiety began to be felt about the
Franklin expedition. In the spring of that year Sir James Ross
Search was sent with two ships, the " Enterprise " and
Expedition; " Investigator, " by way of Lancaster Sound. He
Ross. wintered at Leopold Harbour, near the north-east

point of North Devon. In the spring he made a long sledge
journey with Lieut. Leopold M'Clintock along the northern and
western coasts of North Somerset, but found nothing.

On the return of the Ross expedition without any tidings, the
country became thoroughly alarmed. An extensive plan of search
was organized — the " Enterprise " and " Investi-
gator " under Collinson and M'Clure proceeding
by Bering Strait, while the " Assistance " and " Resolute,"
with two steam tenders, the " Pioneer " and " Intrepid," sailed
on the 3rd of May 1850 to renew the search by Barrow Strait,
under Captain Horatio Austin. Two brigs, the " Lady Franklin "
and " Sophia," under William Penny, an energetic and able whal-
ing captain, were sent by the same route. He had with him Dr
Sutherland, a naturalist, who did much valuable scientific work.
Austin and Penny entered Barrow Strait, and Franklin's winter
quarters of ^45-1846 were discovered at Beechey Island; but
there was no record of any kind indicating the direction taken by
the ships. Stopped by the ice, Austin's expedition wintered
(1850-1851) in the pack off Griffith Island, and Penny found
refuge in a harbour on the south coast of Cornwallis Island.
Austin, who had been with Parry during his third voyage, was

Austin.

an admirable organizer. His arrangements for passing the
winter were carefully thought out and answered perfectly. In
concert with Penny he planned a thorough and extensive system
of search by means of sledge-travelling in the spring, and
Lieut. M'Clintock superintended every detail of this part
of the work with unfailing forethought and skill. Penny under-
took the search by Wellington Channel. M'Clintock advanced
to Melville Island, marching over 770 m. in eighty-one days;
Captain Ommanney and Sherard Osborn pressed southward
and discovered Prince of Wales Island. Lieut. Brown examined
the western shore Qf Peel Sound. The search was exhaustive;
but, except the winter quarters at Beechey Island, no record was
discovered. The absence of any record made Captain Austin
doubt whether Franklin had ever gone beyond Beechey Island;
so he also examined the entrance of Jones Sound, the next inlet
from Baffin Bay north of Lancaster Sound, on his way home,
and returned to England in the autumn of 1851. This was a
thoroughly well conducted expedition, especially as regards the
sledge-travelling, which M'Clintock brought to great perfection.
So far as the search for Franklin was concerned, nothing
remained to be done west or north of Barrow Strait.

In 1851 the " Prince Albert " schooner was sent out by Lady
Franklin, under Captain Wm. Kennedy, with Lieut. Bellot of
the French navy as second. They wintered on the
east coast of North Somerset, and in the spring of Kennedy!
1852 the gallant Frenchman, in the course of a long
sledging journey, discovered Bellot Strait, separating North
Somerset from Boothia — thus proving that the Boothia coast
facing the strait was the northern extremity of the continent of
America.

The " Enterprise " and " Investigator " sailed from England
in January 1850, but accidentally parted company before they
reached Bering Strait. On the 6th of May 1851 the
" Enterprise " passed the strait, and rounded Point Co,HDSOn -
Barrow on the 25th. Collinson then made his way up the
narrow Prince of Wales Strait, between Banks and Prince Albert
Islands, and reached Princess Royal Islands, where M'Clure had
been the previous year. Returning southwards, the "Enter-
prise " wintered in a sound in Prince Albert Island in 71 35' N.
and 117° 35' W. Three travelling parties were despatched in the
spring of 1852— one to trace Prince Albert Land in a southerly
direction, while the others explored Prince of Wales Strait, one of
them reaching Melville Island. In September 1852 the ship was
free, and Collinson pressed eastward along the coast of North
America, reaching Cambridge Bay (Sept. 26), where the
second winter was passed. In the spring he examined the
shores of Victoria Land as far as 70 26' N. and ioo° 45' W. : here
he was within a few miles of Point Victory, where the fate of
Franklin would have been ascertained. The " Enterprise "
again put to sea on the 5th of August 1853, and returned west-
ward along the American coast, until she was stopped by ice and
obliged to pass a third winter at Camden Bay, in 70 8' N. and
r 45° 2 9' W. In T854 this remarkable voyage was completed, and
Captain Collinson brought the " Enterprise " back to England.
Meanwhile M'Clure in the " Investigator " had passed the
winter of 1850-1851 at the Princess Royal Islands, only 30 m.
from Barrow Strait. In October M'Clure ascended
a hill whence he could see the frozen surface of ure '

Barrow Strait, which was navigated by Parry in 1810--1820.
Thus, like the survivors of Franklin's crews when they reached
Cape Herschel, M'Clure discovered a north-west passage. It was
impossible to reach it, for the stream of heavily packed ice
which stopped Franklin off King William Land lay athwart their
northward course; so, as soon as he was free in 1851, M'Clure
turned southwards, round the southern extreme of Banks Land,
and commenced to force a passage to the northward between the
western shore of that land and the enormous fields of ice which
pressed upon it. The cliffs rose like walls on one side, while on
the other the stupendous ice of the " palaeocrystic sea " rose from
the water to a level with the " Investigator's " lower yards.
After many hairbreadth escapes M'Clure took refuge in a bay on
the northern shore of Banks Land, which he named the Bay of

94-6

POLAR REGIONS

God's Mercy. Here the " Investigator " remained, never to
move again. After the winter of 1851-1852 M'Clure had made a
journey across the ice to Melville Island, and left a record at
Parry's winter harbour. Abundant supplies of musk ox were
fortunately obtained, but a third winter had to be faced. In the
spring of 1853 M'Clure was preparing to abandon the ship with all
hands, and attempt, like Franklin's crews, to reach the American
coast; but succour arrived in time.

The Hudson's Bay Company continued the search for Franklin.
In 1848 Sir John Richardson and Dr Rae examined the American
coast from the mouth of the Mackenzie to that of the
'journeys. Coppermine. In 1849 and 1850 Rae continued the
search ; and by a long sledge journey in the spring of
1 85 1, and a boat voyage in the summer, he examined the shores
of Wollaston and Victoria Lands, which were afterwards explored
by Captain Collinson in the " Enterprise. "

In 1852 the British government resolved to despatch another
expedition by Lancaster Sound. Austin's four vessels were
recommissioned, and the " North Star " was sent out as a dep6t
ship at Beechey Island. Sir Edward Belcher com-
Bekher. manded the « Assistance, " with the " Pioneer "
under Sherard Osborn as steam tender. He went up Wellington
Channel to Northumberland Bay, where he wintered, passing a
second winter lower down in Wellington Channel, and then
abandoning his ships and coming home in 1854. But Sherard
Osborn and Com. G. H. Richards did good work. They made
sledge journeys to Melville Island, and thus discovered the
northern side of the Parry group. Captain Kellett
Kellett rece i vec i command of the "Resolute, " with M'Clin-
tock in the steam tender "Intrepid." Among Kellett's officers
were the best of Austin's sledge-travellers, M'Clintock, Mecham,
and Vesey Hamilton, so that good work was sure to be done.
George S. Nares, leader of the future expedition of 1874-1875,
was also on board the " Resolute." Kellett pressed onwards to
the westward and passed the winter of 1852-1853 at Melville
Island. During the autumn Mecham discovered M'Clure's
record, and the position of the " Investigator " was thus ascer-
tained. Lieut. Pim made his way to this point early in the
following spring, and the officers and crew of the " Investigator,"
led by M'Clure, arrived safely on board the " Resolute " on the
1 7th of June 1853. They reached England in the following year,
having not only discovered but traversed a north-west passage,
though not in the same ship and partly by travelling over ice.
For this great feat M'Clure received the honour of knighthood,
and a reward of £10,000 was granted to himself, the other
officers, and the crew, by a vote of the House of Commons.

The travelling parties of Kellett's expedition, led by M'Clin-
tock, Mecham and Vesey Hamilton, completed the discovery of
the northern and western sides of Melville Island, and the whole
outline of the large island of Prince Patrick, further west.
M'Clintock was away from the ship with his sledge party for one
hundred and five days, and travelled over 1328 m. Mecham
was away ninety-four days, and travelled over n 63 m. Sherard
Osborn, in 1853, was away ninety-seven days, and travelled over
935 m. The " Resolute" was obliged to winter in the pack in
1853-1854, and in the spring of 1854 Mecham made a remarkable
journey in the hope of obtaining news of Captain Collinson at the
Princess Royal Islands. Leaving the ship on the 3rd of April
he was absent seventy days, out of which there were sixty-one
and a half days of travelling. The distance gone over was 1336
statute miles. The average rate of the homeward journey was
23! m. a day, the average time of travelling each day nine
hours twenty-five minutes.

Fearing detention for another winter, Sir Edward Belcher

ordered all the ships to be abandoned in the ice, the officers and

crews being taken home in the " North Star," and

lagleHeld. . q the u phcenix >, and « Ta i D ot," which had come out

from England to communicate. They reached home in October
1854. In 1852 Captain Edward A. Inglefield, R.N., had made
a voyage up Baffin Bay in the " Isabel " as" far as the entrance
of Smith Sound. In 1853 and 1854 he came out in the " Phcenix "
to communicate with the "North Star" at Beechey Island.

, , Drift of the
whaler..£ eso/ „, e _„

Rae's
Discovery,

The drift of the " Resolute " was a remarkable proof of the
direction of the current out of Barrow Strait. She was abandoned
in 74 41' N. and 101 n' W. on the 14th of May 1854. r
On the 10th of September 1855 an American
sighted the " Resolute " in 67° N. lat. about twenty
miles from Cape Mercy, in Davis Strait. She had drifted nearly
a thousand miles, and having been brought into an American
port, was purchased by the United States and presented to
the British government.

In 1853 Dr Rae was employed to connect a few points which
would quite complete the examination of the coast of America,
and establish the insularity of King Willian Land.
He went up Chesterfield Inlet and the river Quoich,
wintering with eight men at Repulse Bay, where
venison and fish were abundant. In 1854 he set out on a journey
which occupied fifty-six days in April and May. He succeeded
in connecting the discoveries of Simpson with those of James
Ross, and thus established the fact that King William Land was
an island. Rae also brought home the first tidings and relics of
Franklin's expedition gathered from the Eskimo, which decided
the Admiralty to award him the £10,000 offered for definite
news of Franklin's fate. Lady Franklin, however, sent out
the " Fox " under the command of M'Clintock (see Franklin).
M'Clintock prosecuted an exhaustive search over part of the
west coast of Boothia, the whole of the shores of King William
Island, the mouth of the Great Fish river and Montreal Island,
and Allen Young completed the discovery of the southern side
of Prince of Wales Island.

The catastrophe of Sir John Franklin's expedition led to
7000 m. of coast-line being discovered, and to a vast extent
of unknown country being explored, securing very considerable
additions to geographical knowledge.

The American nation was first led to take an interest in Polar
research through a noble and generous sympathy for Franklin
and his companions. Mr Grinnell of New York gave
practical expression to this feeling. In 1850 ^ Expedition.
equipped two vessels, the " Advance " and " Rescue,"
to aid in the search, commanded by Lieuts. de Haven and Griffith,
and accompanied by Dr E. K. Kane. They reached Beechey Island
on the 27th of August 1850, and assisted in the examination of
Franklin's winter quarters, but returned without wintering.
In 1853 Dr Kane, in the little brig "Advance," of 120 tons, under-
took to lead an American expedition up Smith Sound,
the most northern outlet from Baffin Bay. The
" Advance " reached Smith Sound on the 7th of August 1853,
but was stopped by ice in 78 45' N. only 17 m. from the
entrance. Kane described the coast as consisting of precipitous
cliffs 800 to 1200 ft. high, and at their base there was a belt of
ice about 18 ft. thick, resting on the beach. Dr Kane adopted
the Danish name of " ice-foot " (is fod) for this permanent frozen
ledge. He named the place of his winter quarters Van Rens-
selaer Harbour. In the spring some interesting work was done.
A great glacier was discovered with a sea face 45 m. long and
named the Humboldt glacier. Dr Kane's steward, Morton,
crossed the foot of this glacier with a team of dogs, and reached
a point of land beyond named Cape Constitution. But sickness
and want of means prevented much from being done by travelling
parties. Scurvy attacked the whole party during the second
winter, although the Eskimo supplied them with fresh meat and
were true friends in need. On the 17th of May 1855 Dr Kane
abandoned the brig, and reached the Danish settlement of
Upernivik on the 5th of August. Lieut. Hartstene, who was sent
out to search for Kane, reached the Van Rensselaer Harbour after he
had gone, but took the retreating crew on board on his return
voyage.

On the 10th of July i860 Dr 1. 1. Hayes, who had served with
Kane, sailed from Boston for Smith Sound, in the schooner
" United States, " of 130 tons and a crew of fifteen
men. His object was to follow up the line of research
opened by Dr Kane. He wintered at Port Foulke, in 78
17' N., but achieved nothing of importance, and his narrative
is not to be depended on.

Hayes.

POLAR REGIONS

947

UaU.

Charles Hall (q.v.), in his first journey (i860- 1862), discovered
remains of a stone house which Sir Martin Frobisher built on the
Countess of Warwick Island in 1578. In his second
expedition (1864-1869) Hall reached* the line of the
retreat of the Franklin survivors, at Todd's Island and Peffer
River, on the south coast of King William Island. He heard the
story of the retreat and of the wreck of one of the ships from the
Eskimo; he was told that seven bodies were buried at Todd
Island; and he brought home some bones which are believed to
be those of Lieut. Le Vescomte of the " Erebus." Finally, in

1871 he took the " Polaris " for 250 m. up the channel which
leads northwards from Smith Sound. The various parts of this
long channel are called Smith Sound, Kane Basin, Kennedy
Channel and Robeson Channel. The " Polaris " was beset in
82° 11' N. on the 30th of August; her winter quarters were in
Thank God Harbour, 81" 38' N., and here Hall died.

The Spitsbergen seas were explored during last century by
Norwegian fishermen as well as by Swedish and German expedi-
tions and by British yachtsmen. In 1827 the Nor-
Exotorers" we S' an geologist Keilhau made an expedition to Bear
Island and Spitsbergen which was the first purely
scientific Arctic expedition. The Norwegian Spitsbergen fishery
dates from 1820, but it was only in the latter part of thecentury
that Professor Mohn of Christiania carefully collected information
from the captains who had taken part in the work when at its
height. In 1863 Captain Carlsen circumnavigated the Spits-
bergen group for the first time in a brig called the " Jan Mayen."
In 1S64 Captain Tobiesen sailed round North-East Land. In

1872 Captains Altmann and Nils Johnsen visited Wiche's Land,
which was discovered by Captain Edge in 1617. In that year
there were twenty-three sailing vessels from Tromso, twenty-four
from Hammerfest, and one from Vardo engaged in the Arctic
sealing trade, averaging from 35 to 40 tons, and carrying a dozen
men. Exploration went on slowly, in the course of the sealing and
fishing voyages, the records of which are not very full. In 1869
Carlsen crossed the Kara Sea and reached the mouth of the Ob.
In 1870 there were about sixty Norwegian vessels in the Barents
Sea, and Captain Johannesen circumnavigated Novaya Zemlya.
In 1873 Captain Tobiesen was unfortunately obliged to winter
on the Novaya Zemlya coast, owing to the loss of his schooner,
and both he and his young son died in the spring. Two years
previously Captain Carlsen had succeeded in reaching the winter
quarters of Barents, the first visitor since 1597, an interval of
two hundred and seventy-four years. He landed on the 9th
of September 1871, and found the house still standing and full
of interesting relics, which are now in the naval museum at
the Hague.

Between 1858 and 1872 the Swedes sent seven expeditions
to Spitsbergen and two to Greenland, marking a new scientific
Swedish era m Arctic exploration, of which Keilhau had been
Expeditions, the pioneer. All returned with valuable scientific

results. That of 1864 under A. E. NordenskiSld and
Duner made observations at 80 different places on the Spitsbergen
shores, and fixed the heights of numerous mountains. In 1868,
in an iron steamer, the " Sophia," the Swedes attained a latitude
of 81° 42' N. on the meridian of 18° E., during the month of
September. In 1872 an expedition, consisting of the " Polhem "
steamer and brig " Gladen," commanded by Professor Norderi-
skiold and Lieut. Palander, wintered in Mossel Bay on the
northern shore of Spitsbergen. In the spring an important
sledging journey of sixty days' duration was made over North-
East Land. The expedition was in some distress as regards
supplies owing to two vessels, which were to have returned,
having been forced to winter. But in the summer of 1873 they
were visited by Mr Leigh Smith, in his yacht " Diana," who
supplied them with fresh provisions.

Dr A. Petermann of Gotha urged his countrymen to take
their share in the work of polar discovery, and at his own risk

he fitted out a small vessel called the " Germania,"

ewey. wn j c jj sa iled from Bergen in May 1868, under the

command of Captain Koldewey. His cruise extended to Hin-

lopen Strait in Spitsbergen, but was merely tentative; and in

1870 Baron von Heuglin with Count Zeil explored the Stor
Fjord in a Norwegian schooner, and also examined Walter
Thymen Strait. After the return of the " Germania " in 1868 a
regular expedition was organized under the command of Captain
Koldewey, provisioned for two years. It consisted of the
" Germania," a screw steamer of 140 tons, and the brig " Hansa,"
commanded by Captain Hegemann. Lieut. Julius Payer, the
future explorer of Franz Josef Land, gained his first Arctic
experience on board the " Germania." The expedition sailed
from Bremen on the 15th of June 1869, its destination being the
east coast of Greenland. But in latitude 70 46' N. the " Hansa "
got separated from her consort and crushed in the ice. The crew
built a house of patent fuel on the floe, and in this strange abode
they passed their Christmas. In two months the current carried
them 400 m. to the south. By May they had drifted 1:00 m.
on their ice-raft, and finally, on the 14th of June 1870, they
arrived safely at the Moravian mission station of Friedriksthal,
to the west of Cape Farewell. Fairer fortune attended the
" Germania." She sailed up the east coast of Greenland as
far as 75° 30' N., and eventually wintered at the Pendulum
Islands of Clavering in 74 30' N. In March 1870 a travelling
party set out under Koldewey and Payer, and reached a distance
of 100 m. from the ship to the northward, when want of pro-
visions compelled them to return. A grim cape, named after
Prince Bismarck, marked the northern limit of their discoveries.
As soon as the vessel was free, a deep branching fjord, named
Franz Josef Fjord, was discovered in 73 15' N. stretching for a
long distance into the interior of Greenland. The expedition
returned to Bremen on the nth of September 1870.

Lieut. Payer was resolved to continue in the path of polar
discovery. He and the naval officer Weyprecht chartered a
Norwegian schooner called the " Isbjorn," and
examined the edge of the ice between Spitsbergen w^or"^
and Novaya Zemlya, in the summer of 1871. Their
observations led them to select the route by the north end of
Novaya Zemlya with a view to making the north-east passage.
It was to be an Austro-Hungarian expedition, and the idea was
seized with enthusiasm by the whole monarchy. Weyprecht
was to command the ship, while Julius Payer conducted the
sledge parties. The steamer " Tegethoff," of 300 tons, was
fitted out in the Elbe, and left Tromso on the 14th of July 1872.
The season was severe, and the vessel was closely beset near Cape
Nassau, at the northern end of Novaya Zemlya, in the end of
August. The summer of .1873 found her still a close prisoner
drifting, not with a current, but chiefly in the direction of the
prevailing wind. At length, on the 31st of August, a moun-
tainous country was sighted about 14 m. to the north. In
October the vessel was drifted within 3 m. of an island lying
off the main mass of land. Payer landed on it, and found the
latitude to be 79° 54' N. It was named after- Count Wilczek,
one of the warmest friends of the expedition. Here the second
winter was passed. Bears were numerous and sixty-seven were
killed, their meat proving to be an efficient preventive of scurvy.
In March 1874 Payer made a preliminary sledge journey in
intense cold (thermometer at -58° F.). On the 24th of March
he started for a more prolonged journey of thirty days. Payer
believed that the newly discovered country equalled Spits-
bergen in extent, and described it as consisting of two or more
large masses — Wilczek Land to the east, Zichy Land to the west,
intersected by numerous fjords and skirted by a. large number of
islands. A wide channel, named Austria Sound, was supposed
to separate the two main masses of land, and extend to 82° N.
The whole country was named Franz Josef Land. Payer's
large land-masses have by later discoveries been broken up into
groups of islands and much of the land he thought he saw towards
the east was found by Nansen not to exist. Payer returned
to the " Tegethoff " on the 24th of April; and a third journey
was undertaken to explore a large island named after M'Clintock.
It then became necessary to abandon the ship and attempt a
retreat in boats. This perilous voyage was commenced on the
20th of May. Three boats stored with provisions were placed
on sledges. It was not until the 14th of August that they reached

948

POLAR REGIONS

the edge of the pack in 77 40' N., and launched the boats.
Eventually they were picked up by a Russian schooner and
arrived at Vartio on the 3rd of September 1874.

One of the most interesting problems connected with the

physical geography of the polar regions is the actual condition

of the vast elevated interior of Greenland, which is

ymper. ong enormous glacier. In 1867 Mr Edward Whymper
planned an expedition to solve the question, and went to Green-
land, accompanied by Dr Robert Brown; but their progress was
stopped, after going a short distance over the ice, by the breaking
down of the dog-sledges. The expedition brought home geo-
logical and natural history collections of value. Dr H. Rink, for
many years royal inspector of South Greenland and the most
distinguished authority on all Greenlandic questions, also visited
the inland ice. An important inland journey was undertaken by
Norden- Professor A. E. Nordenskiold in 1870, accompanied
skioidin by Dr Berggren, professor of botany at Lund. The
Greenland, difficulty of traversing the inland ice of Greenland
is caused by the vast ice-cap being in constant motion,
advancing slowly towards the sea. This movement gives rise
to huge crevasses which bar the traveller's way. The chasms
occur chiefly where the movement of the ice is most rapid,
near the ice streams which reach the sea and discharge icebergs.
Nordenskiold therefore chose for a starting-point the northern
arm of a deep inlet called Auleitsivikfjord, which is 60 m.
south of the discharging glacier at Jakobshavn and 240 north of
that at Godthaab. He commenced his inland journey on the 19th
of July. The party consisted of himself, Dr Berggren, and two
Greenlanders; and they advanced 30 m. over the glaciers to a
height of 2200 ft. above the sea.

The gallant enterprises of other countries rekindled the zeal of
Great Britain for Arctic discovery: and in 1874 the prime
British minister announced that an expedition would be

Expedition despatched in the following year. Two powerful
of 1875. steamers, the " Alert " and " Discovery," were
selected for the service, and Captain George S. Nares was
recalled from the " Challenger " expedition to act as leader.
Commander Albert H. Markham, who had made a cruise up
Baffin Bay and Barrow Strait in a whaler during the previous
year, Lieut. Pelham Aldrich, an accomplished surveyor, and
Captain Hanry Wemyss Feilden, B.A., as naturalist, were
also in the " Alert." The " Discovery " was commanded by
Captain Henry F. Stephenson, with Lieut. Lewis A. Beau-
mont as first lieutenant. The expedition left Portsmouth on
the 29th of May 1875, and entered Smith Sound in the last days
of July. After much difficulty with drifting ice Lady Franklin
Bay was reached in 8i° 44' N., where the " Discovery " was
established in winter quarters. The " Alert " pressed onwards,
and reached the edge of the heavy ice named by Nares the
palaeocrystic sea, the ice-floes being from 80 to 100 ft. in thick-
ness. Leaving Robeson Channel, the vessel made progress
between the land and the grounded floe pieces, and passed the
winter off the open coast and facing the great polar pack, in
82° 27' N. Autumn travelling parties were despatched in
September and October to lay out depots; and during the winter
a complete scheme was matured for the examination of as much
of the unknown area as possible, by the combined efforts of
sledging parties from the two ships, in the ensuing spring. The
parties started on the 3rd of April 1876. Captain Markham with
Lieut. Parr advanced, in the face of great difficulties, over
the polar pack to the latitude of 83 20' N. Lieut. Aldrich
explored the coast-line to the westward, facing the frozen
polar ocean, for a distance of 220 m. Lieut. Beaumont made
discoveries of great interest along the northern coast of Green-
land. The parties were attacked by scurvy, which increased
the difficulty and hardships of the work a hundredfold. The
expedition returned to England in October 1876. The " Alert "
reached a higher latitude and wintered farther north than any
ship had ever done before. The results of the expedition were
the discovery of 300 m. of new coast line, the examination of part
of the frozen polar ocean, a series of meteorological, magnetic
And tidal observations at two points farther north than any such

Dutch Ex-
peditions.

observations had ever been taken before, and large geological and
natural history collections.

In the same year 1875 Sir Allen Young undertook a voyage
in his steam yacht the " Pandora " to attempt to force his way
down Peel Sound to the magnetic pole, and if possible Voyages
to make the north-west passage by rounding the of the
eastern shore of King William Island. The "Pandora" "Pandora."
entered Peel Sound on the 29th of August 1875, and proceeded
down it much farther than any vessel had gone since it was passed
by Franklin's two ships in 1846. Sir Allen reached a latitude of
7 2 14' N., and sighted Cape Bird, at the northern side of the
western entrance of Bellot Strait. But here ice barred his
progress, and he was obliged to retrace his track, returning to
England on the 16th of October 1875. In the following year
Sir Allen Young made another voyage in the " Pandora " to
the entrance of Smith Sound.

Lieut. Koolemans Beynen, a young Dutch officer, who
had shared Young's two polar voyages, on his return successfully
endeavoured to interest his countrymen in polar
discovery. It was wisely determined that the first
expeditions of Holland should be summer reconnais-
sances on a small scale. A sailing schooner of 79 tons was built
at Amsterdam, and named the "Willem Barents." In her first
cruise she was commanded by Lieut. A. de Bruyne, with
Koolemans Beynen as second, and she sailed from Holland on
the 6th of May 1878. Her instructions were to examine the ice
in the Barents and Spitsbergen seas, take deep-sea soundings,
and make natural history collections. She was also to erect
memorials to early Dutch polar worthies at certain designated
points. These instructions were ably and zealously carried out.
Beynen died in the following year, but the work he initiated was
carried on, the " Willem Barents " continuing to make annual
polar cruises for many years.

In 1879 Sir Henry Gore-Booth and Captain A. H. Markham,
R.N., in the Norwegian schooner " Isbjorn " sailed along the
west coast of Novaya Zemlya to its most northern aore-Booth
point, passed through the Matochkin Shar to the east and Mark-
coast, and examined the ice in the direction of Franz bam -
Josef Land as far as 7 8° 24' N., bringing home collections in various
branches of natural history, and making useful observations on
the drift and nature of the ice in the Barents and Kara Seas.

In 1880 Mr B. Leigh Smith, who had previously made three
voyages to Spitsbergen, reached Franz Josef Land in the polar
steam yacht " Eira." It was observed that, while
the Greenland icebergs are generally angular and
peaked, those of Franz Josef Land are flat on
the top, like the Antarctic bergs. The " Eira " sailed
along the south side of Franz Josef Land to the westward
and discovered no m. of coast-line of a new island named
Alexandra Land, until the coast trended north-west. A
landing was effected at several points, and valuable collec-
tions were made in natural history. In the following year
the same explorer left Peterhead on the 14th of July; Franz
Josef Land was sighted on the 23rd of July, and the
" Eira " reached a point farther west than had been possible in
her previous voyage. But in August the ship was caught in the
ice, was nipped, and sank. A hut was built on shore in which
Mr Leigh Smith and his crew passed the winter of 1881-1882,
their health being well maintained, thanks to the exertions of
Dr W. H. Neale. On the 21st of June 1882 they started in
four boats to reach some vessels on the Novaya Zemlya coast.
It was a most laborious and perilous voyage. They were first
seen and welcomed by the " Willem Barents " on the 2nd of
August, and soon afterwards were taken on board the "Hope,"
a whaler which had come out to search for them under the
command of Sir Allen Young.

Professor A. E. Nordenskiold, when he projected the achieve-
ment of the north-east passage, was a veteran polar explorer, for
he had been in six previous expeditions to Greenland and Spits-
bergen. In 1875 he turned his attention to the possibility of
navigating the seas along the northern coast of Siberia. Cap-
tain Joseph Wiggins of Sunderland was a pioneer of this route,

Leigh
Smith.

POLAR REGIONS

949

and his voyages in 1874, 1875 and 1876 led the way for a trade
between the ports of Europe and the mouth of the Yenisei River.
Norden- ^ n J une J 875 Professor Nordenskiold sailed from
skioldaad Tromso" in the Norwegian vessel, the " Proven,"
the N.B. reached the Yenisei by way of the Kara Sea, and dis-
Passage. CO vered an excellent harbour on the eastern side of
its mouth, which was named Port Dickson, in honour of Baron
Oscar Dickson of Gothenburg, the munificent supporter of the
Swedish expeditions. It having been suggested that the success
of this voyage was due to the unusual state of the ice in 1875,
Nordenskiold undertook a voyage in the following year in the
" Ymer," which was equally successful. By a minute study of
the history of former attempts, and a careful consideration of all
the circumstances, Professor Nordenskiold convinced himself
that the achievement of the north-east passage was feasible.
The king of Sweden, Baron Oscar Dickson, and M. Sibiriakoff, a
wealthy Siberian proprietor, supplied the funds, and the steamer
" Vega " was purchased. Nordenskiold was leader of the
expedition, Lieut. Palander was appointed commander of
the ship, and there was an efficient staff of officers and naturalists,
including Lieut. Hovgaard of the Danish and Lieut. Bove
of the Italian navy. A small steamer called the " Lena "
was to keep company with the " Vega " as far as the mouth of the
Lena, and they sailed from Gothenburg on the 4th of July 1878.
On the morning of the roth of August they left Port Dickson, and
on the 19th they reached the most northern point of Siberia,
Cape Chelyuskin, in 77° 41' N. On leaving the extreme northern
point of Asia a south-easterly course was steered, the sea being
free from ice and very shallow. This absence of ice is to some
extent due to the mass of warm water discharged by the great
Siberian rivers during the summer. On the 27th of August the
mouth of the river Lena was passed, and the " Vega " parted
company with the little " Lena," continuing her course
eastward. Professor Nordenskiold very nearly made the
north-east passage in one season; but towards the end of
September the " Vega " was frozen in off the shore of a low
plain in 67 7' N. and 173 20' W. near the settlements
of the Chukchis. During the voyage very large and impor-
tant natural history collections were made, and the interest-
ing aboriginal tribe among whom the winter was passed was
studied with great care. The interior was also explored for
some distance. On the 18th of July 1879, after having been
imprisoned by the ice for 294 days, the " Vega " again proceeded
on her voyage and passed Bering Strait on the 20th. Sir Hugh
Willoughby made his disastrous attempt in 1553. After a
lapse of 326 years of intermittent effort, the north-east
passage had at length been accomplished without the loss of
a single life and without damage to the vessel. The " Vega "
arrived at Yokohama on the 2nd of September 1879.

In 1879 an enterprise was undertaken in the United States,
with the object of throwing further light on the sad history of the
retreat of the officers and men of Sir John Franklin's
expedition, by examining the west coast of King
William Island in the summer, when the snow is off the ground.
The party consisted of Lieut. Schwatka of the United States
army and three others. Wintering near the entrance of Chester-
field Inlet in Hudson Bay, they set out overland for the estuary
of the Great Fish river, assisted by Eskimo and dogs, on the
1st of April 1879. They took only one month's provisions,
their main reliance being upon the game afforded by the
region to be traversed. " The party obtained, during the
journeys out and home, no less than 522 reindeer. After
collecting various stories from the Eskimo at Montreal Island and
at an inlet west of Cape Richardson, Schwatka crossed over to
Cape Herschel on King William Land in June. He examined
the western shore of the island with the greatest care for relics of
Sir John Franklin's parties, as far as Cape Felix, the northern
extremity. The return journey was commenced in November
by ascending the Great Fish river for some distance and then
marching over the intervening region to Hudson Bay. The cold
of the winter months in that country is intense, the thermometer
falling as low as— 70 F., so that the return journey was most

Schwatka.

De Long.

remarkable, and reflects the highest credit on Lieut. Schwatka
and his companions. As regards the search little was left to be
done after M' Clintock, but some graves were found, as well as a
medal belonging to Lieut. Irving of H.M.S. " Terror," and
some bones believed to be his, which were brought home and
interred at Edinburgh.

Mr Gordon Bennett, the proprietor of the New York Herald,
having resolved to despatch an expedition of discovery at his
own expense by way of Bering Strait, the " Pandora "
was purchased from Sir Allen Young, and rechristened
the " Jeannette." Lieut, de Long of the United States navy was
appointed to command, and it was made a national undertaking
by special act of Congress, the vessel being placed under martial
law and officered from the navy. The " Jeannette " sailed from
San Francisco on the 8th of July 1879, and was last seen steam-
ing towards Wrangell Land on the 3rd of September. This land
had been seen by Captain Kellett, in H.M.S. " Herald " on the
r7th of August 1879, but no one had landed on it, and it was
shown on the charts by a long dotted line. The " Jeannette "
was provisioned for three years, but as no tidings had been
received of her by 1881, two steamers were sent up Bering Strait
in search. One of these, the " Rodgers," under Lieut. Berry,
anchored in a good harbour on the south coast of Wrangell
Land, in 70 57' N., on the 26th of August 1881. The land was
explored by the officers of the " Rodgers " and found to be an
island about 70 m. long by 28, with a ridge of hills traversing it
east and west, the 71st parallel running along its southern shore.
Lieut. Berry then proceeded to examine the ice to the north-
ward, and attained a higher latitude by 21 m. than had ever
been reached before on the Bering Strait meridian — namely,
73° 44' N. No news was obtained of the " Jeannette," but soon
afterwards melancholy tidings arrived from Siberia. After
having been beset in heavy pack ice for twenty-two months, the
" Jeannette " was crushed and sunk on the 13th of June 1881, in
77° 15' N. lat., and 155° E. long. The officers and men dragged
their boats over the ice to an island which was named Bennett
Island, where they landed on the 29th of July. They reached
one of the New Siberia Islands on the 10th of September, and on
the 1 2th they set out for the mouth of the Lena. But in the
same evening the three boats were separated in a gale of wind.
A boat's crew with Mr Melville, the engineer, reached the Lena
delta and searching for the other parties found the ship's books
on the r4th of November, and resuming the search at the earliest
possible moment in spring, Melville discovered the dead bodies of
De Long and two of his crew on the 23rd of March 1882. They
had perished from exhaustion and want of food. Three survivors
of De Long's party had succeeded in making their way to a
Siberian village; but the third boat's crew was lost. The
" Rodgers " was burnt in its winter quarters, and one of the
officers, W. H. Gilder (1838-1000), made a hazardous journey
homewards through north-east Siberia.

The Norwegian geologist Professor Amund Helland made an
expedition to Greenland in 1875 and discovered the
marvellously rapid movements of the Greenland
glaciers.

The Danes have been very active in prosecuting discoveries
and scientific investigations in Greenland, since the journey
of Nordenskiold in 1870. Lieut. Jensen made a
gallant attempt to penetrate the inland ice in 1878, areeaiaad.
collecting important observations, and Dr Steenstrup,
with Lieut. Hammar, closely investigated the formation of
ice masses at Omenak and Jacobshavn. In 1883 an expedi-
tion under Lieuts. Holm and Garde began to explore the east
coast of Greenland. In the summer of 1879 Captain
Mourier, of the Danish man-of-war " Ingolf," sighted the coast
from the 6th to the 10th of July, and was enabled to observe and
delineate it from 68° 10' N. to 65° 55' N., this being the gap
left between the discoveries of Scoresby in 1822 and those of
Graah in 1829. Nansen sighted part of the same coast in
1882. Lieut. Hovgaard of the Danish navy, who accompanied
Nordenskiold in his discovery of the north-east passage, planned
an expedition to ascertain' if land existed to the north of

Helland.

95°

POLAR REGIONS

Cape Chelyuskin. He fitted out a small steamer called the
" Dymphna " and sailed from Copenhagen in July 1882, but was
unfortunately beset and obliged to winter in the Kara Sea. In
1883 Baron A. E. Nordenskiold undertook another journey over
the inland ice of Greenland. Starting from Auleitsivikf jord on
the 4th of July, his party penetrated 84 m. eastward, and to an
altitude of 5000 ft. The Laplanders who were of the party
were sent farther on snow-shoes, travelling over a desert of snow
to a height of 7000 ft. Useful results in physical geography
and biology were obtained.

On the 18th of September 1875 Lieut. Weyprecht, one of the
discoverers of Franz Josef Land, read a paper before a large meet-
ing of German naturalists at Graz on the scientific
stations" results to be obtained from polar research and the
best means of securing them. He urged the im-
portance of establishing a number of stations within or near the
Arctic Circle, and also a ring of stations as near as possible to the
Antarctic Circle, in order to record complete series of synchronous
meteorological and magnetic observations. Lieut. Weyprecht
did not live to see his suggestions carried into execution,
but they bore fruit in due time. The various nations of Europe
were represented at an international polar conference held at
Hamburg in 1879 under the presidency of Dr Georg Neumayer,
and at another at Berne in 1880; and it was decided that each
nation should establish one or more stations where synchronous
observations should be taken for a year from August 1882.
This fine project was matured and successfully carried into
execution. The stations arranged for in the North Polar region
were at the following localities: —

Norwegians: Bossekop, Alten Fjord, Norway (M. Aksel S. Steen).
Swedes: Ice Fjord, Spitsbergen (Professor N. Ekholm).
Dutch: Port Dickson, mouth of Yenisei, Siberia (Dr M. Snellen).
■q ■ \ Sagastyr Island, mouth of Lena, Siberia (Lieut. Jiirgens).

Kussians: J Nomya Zemlya, 72° 23' N. (Lieut. C. Andreief).
Finns: Sodankyla, Finland (Professor S. Lemstrom).
. . 4 Point Barren", North America (Lieut. P. H. Ray, U.S.A.).

Americans: I x, a ^ y /? ran fe/« Wj B y i 8 I « 44 'N.(Lieut.A.W.Greely,U.S.A).
British : Great Slave Lake, Dominion of Canada (Lieut. H. P. Dawson).
Germans: Cumberland Bay, west side of Davis Strait (Dr W. Giese).
Danes: Godthaab, Greenland (Dr A. Paulsen).
Austrians: Jan Mayen, North Atlantic, 71 °N. (Lieut. Wohlgemuth).

The whole scheme was successfully accomplished with the
exception of the part assigned to the Dutch at Port Dickson.
They started in the " Varna " but were beset in the Kara Sea and
obliged to winter there. The " Varna " was lost, and the crew
took refuge on board Lieut. Hovgaard's vessel, which was also
forced to winter in the pack during 1882-1883. The scientific
observations were kept up on both vessels during the time they
were drifting with the ice.

The American stations commenced work in 1882 and one of
these furnished a rare example of heroic devotion to duty in
f a ce of difficulties due to the fault of those who should
y ' have brought relief at the appointed time. Lieut.
A. W. Greely's party consisted of two other lieutenants,
twenty sergeants and privates of the United States army, and
Dr Pavy, an enthusiastic explorer who had been educated in
France and had passed the previous winter among the Eskimo
of Greenland. On the nth of August 1881 the steamer
" Proteus " conveyed Lieut. Greely and his party to Lady
Franklin Bay during an exceptionally favourable season; a house
was built at the " Discovery's" winter quarters, and they were
left with two years' provisions. The regular series of observa-
tions was at once commenced, and two winters were passed
without accident. Travelling parties were also sent out in the
summer, dogs having been obtained at Disco. Lieut. Lockwood
with twelve men and eleven sledges made a journey along the
north coast of Greenland and reached Lockwood Island in
83 24' N. and 42° 45' W., the highest latitude reached up to that
time. From this island at a height of 2600 ft. on a clear day an
unbroken expanse of ice was seen stretching to the northward,
the view extending far beyond the 84th parallel. A promontory
of the north coast of Greenland seen to the north-east in 83° 35'
N. was named Cape Washington. Vegetation was found at the
sxtreme position and animal life was represented by foxes, hares,

lemmings and ptarmigan. The party returned to Fort Conger
on the 1st of June 1882 after an absence of 59 days. Greely made
two journeys westward into the interior of Grinnell Land follow-
ing up the northern branch of Chandler Fjord to a great sheet
of frozen fresh water, Hazen Lake, with an area of about 500
sq. m. Beyond this, 17s m. from Fort Conger, he climbed Mt
Arthur, 4500 ft., the highest summit of Grinnell Land, and saw
distant mountains beyond a fjord tc the southwest. In the
spring of 1883 Lockwood made still more extensive journeys,
crossing Grinnell Land to Greely Fjord, which entered the western
sea. The central depression of Grinnell Land abounded in musk
oxen and was free from ice, though the higher land to north and
south lay under permanent ice-caps. Important as these geo-
graphical discoveries were, the main object of the expedition was
the series of scientific observations at the headquarters, and these
were carried out during the whole period with the most scrupu-
lous exactness. As neither the relief ship which was to have been
despatched in 1882, nor that in 1883, sent the expected relief
to the station at Fort Conger, Lieut. Greely started from Lady
Franklin Bay with his men in a steam launch and three boats on
the 9th of August, expecting to find a vessel in Smith Sound.
The boats were beset and had to be abandoned, the party
reaching the shore across the ice with great difficulty, carrying
their supplies of food, now rapidly diminishing. On the 21st of
October 1883 they were obliged to encamp at Cape Sabine, on
the western shore of Smith Sound, and build a hut for wintering.
A few depots were found, which had been left by Sir George
Nares and Lieut. Beebe, but all supplies were exhausted
before the spring. Then came a time of indescribable misery
and acute suffering. The party proved insubordinate and the
sternest measures were required to maintain military discipline.
When the sun returned in 1884 the poor fellows began to die of
actual starvation; but it was not until the 22nd of June 1884
that the relieving steamers " Thetis " and " Bear " reached
Cape Sabine. Lieut. Greely and six suffering companions
were found just alive, but with all their scientific records, their
instruments in order and the great collections of specimens
intact. The failure of the relief expeditions to overcome
difficulties which were child's play to what Greely and his
companions had come through only enhances the splendid
courage and determination of the heroic survivors.

Danish expeditions under Lieut. G. Holm explored the east
coast of Greenland from Cape Farewell northwards in Eskimo
boats between 1883 and 1885, and at Angmagssalik they
encountered a tribe of Eskimo who had never seen white men
before. Lieut. Ryder and Lieut. T. V. Garde continued the
exploration of East Greenland, and Ryder explored the great
Scoresby Fjord. Captain Holm established a missionary and
meteorological station at Angmagssalik Fjord in 1894, from
which the Danish government take charge of the Eskimo of that
region. In 1892-1893 an expedition sent out by the Berlin
Geographical Society under Dr Erich von Drygalski studied the
ice formations on the west of Greenland.

In July 1886 Lieut. Robert E. Peary, civil engineer, U.S.
Navy, accompanied by the Dane Christian Maigaard, made a
journey on the inland ice of Greenland eastward from Disco
Bay in about 69 30' N. They reached a height of p ea ry and
7500 ft., when according to Peary's observations Nansen in
they were 100 m. from the coast, and then re- Greenland.
turned. Dr Fridtjof Nansen with Otto Sverdrup and five other
companions, after overcoming great difficulties in penetrating
the ice-floes, succeeded in landing on the east coast of Greenland
in August 18S8 in 64 23' N. and reached a height of 8920 ft,
on the inland ice, which was crossed on ski to the west coast.
The interior was found to be a nearly flat plateau of snow
resembling a frozen ocean, and at the high altitude of more than
8000 ft. the cold was intense. The crossing occupied more than
two weeks, and the party not having dogs had themselves to
haul all their gear on sledges. As they approached the western
edge of the ice their progress was checked by dangerous crevasses;
but on the 26th of September they succeeded in reaching the west
I coast at the head of the Ameralik Fjord in 64° 12' N., having

POLAR REGIONS

95 1

traversed 26c m. of glacier. Nansen discovered that in that
latitude the inland ice of Greenland has the form of a huge shield
rising rather rapidly but regularly from the east coast to
nearly 9000 ft., flat and even in the middle and falling again
regularly toward the western side, completely enveloping the
land. An important principle acted on for the first time in
Arctic travel on this journey was that of starting from the less
accessible side and pushing straight through with no possibility
of turning back, and thus with no necessity for forming a base
or traversing the same route twice over.

Peary spent the winter of 1891-1892 at Inglefield Gulf on
the north-west coast of Greenland, Mrs Peary, Dr F. A. Cook,
Eivind Astrup and a coloured servant Matthew Henson being in
his party, and a large number of the Etah Eskimo in the vicinity.
In April 1892 he set out for a journey across the inland ice to the
north-eastward in the hope of reaching the east coast and also
the northern extremity of the land. After getting well up on
the ice-covered plateau a supporting party returned to winter
quarters, while Peary and Astrup, with two companions and
sixteen dogs, entered on the serious part of their work. The
highest part of the inland ice was found to be about 5700 ft.,
and as usual after the first part of the descent, towards the north-
east in this case, the surface was broken by numerous dangerous
crevasses, progress amongst which was very slow. Great
hardships were experienced from cold, insufficiency of food and
the wearing out of sledges and clothes, but on the 4th of July,
having left the ice and got on bare land in 81° 37' N., where musk
oxen and other game were found and flowers were growing, Peary
was rewarded by a glimpse of the sea to the north-eastward, and
named it from the date Independence Bay. He also traced a
channel to the north beyond which lay a new land largely free
from snow, no doubt the southern part of the island along the
north of which Markham and Lock wood had travelled to their
farthest north. The return journey to Inglefield Gulf was a
wonderful feat of endurance, which was completed on the 4th of
August ; the total distance marched on the whole journey out and
home was 1300 m. Peary returned to northern Greenlandin 1893,
having spent the whole time between the two expeditions in
writing and lecturing in order to raise funds, for he travelled at
his own charges. He landed on the shore of Inglefield Gulf on
the 3rd of August and wintered there with a party of thir-
teen, including Mrs Peary, and there their daughter was born.
Astrup was taken ill after starting on the great journey in March
1894, which was to have extended the explorations of the pre-
vious year, and had to return; others were severely frost-bitten,
disease broke out amongst the dogs, and a month after the
start Peary was only 130 m. from his base and had to return.
Peary with two of his party, Hugh J. Lee and Matthew Henson,
remained at Inglefield Gulf for another winter, and on the
1st of April 1895, with deer and walrus meat in place of pemmi-
can, the supply of which had been lost, set out for Independence
Bay. They reached the ice-free land when their food was
exhausted and fortunately fell in with a herd of musk oxen, the
meat from which made it possible to get back to Inglefield Gulf,
though without adding anything material to the results of
1892. The experience of ice-travel and of Eskimo nature gained
in the four years' almost continuous residence in northern
Greenland were however destined to bear rich fruit.

Dr Nansen, after making an exhaustive study of the winds
and currents of the Arctic Sea, and influenced largely by the
Nansen; occurrence of driftwood on the shores past which the
Drift of the ice-laden waters flowed southward between Green-
•' Fram." j anc j anc [ Spitsbergen, satisfied himself that there was
a general drift across the polar basin and perhaps across the Pole.
He planned an expedition to take advantage of this drift on the
principle which guided his crossing of Greenland, that of entering
at the least accessible point and not turning back, thus having
no line of retreat and making a relief expedition impossible. He
planned a ship, the " Fram," which was immensely strong, to
resist crushing, and of such a section that if nipped in the ice the
opposing ice-masses would pass under her and lift her on to the
surface. The plan of the expedition was based on scientific

reasoning, but the methods were totally at variance with those
of previous explorers. Otto Sverdrup, who had been one of
Nansen' s party in crossing Greenland, was captain of the
" Fram," and the party included eleven others, the whole ship's
company of thirteen living together on terms of social equality.
Nansen paid the greatest possible attention to the provisions,
and all the arrangements for the health and happiness of those
on board were carefully thought out. The clothing of the
expedition was as original in design as the ship; instead of having
furs, thick woollen underclothing was adopted, with a light
wind-proof material for the outer dress. The " Fram " left
Christiania in the summer of 1893 and made her way through the
Kara Sea and along the north coast of Asia until on the 20th of
September she was run into the ice in 77° 30' N., off the New
Siberia Islands, and the great drift commenced. As anticipated,
she rose to the pressure of the ice and was borne on an even
keel high above the water for the whole duration of the drift.
The movement of the ice was irregular, and on the 7th of
November the " Fram " was back at her starting-point, but on
the whole the movement was north-westward until the 15th of
November 1895, when the highest latitude of the ship was
attained, 85 55' N. in 66° 31' E., the meridian of the east of
Novaya Zemlya; then it was westward and finally southward
until the ice was broken by blasting round the ship in June in
83 N. lat. ; and after being afloat, though unable to make much
progress until the middle of July, the " Fram " broke out of
the ice off the north coast of Spitsbergen on the 13th of August
1896. No ship before or since has reached so high a latitude.
In all her drift the "Fram" came in sight of no new land, but
the soundings made through the ice proved that the Arctic Sea
was of great depth, increasing towards the Pole, the greatest
depth exceeding 2000 fathoms. The great mass of water filling
the polar basin was comparatively warm, indicating free circula-
tion with the Atlantic. It was established that the ice formed
off the coast of Asia drifted across the polar basin in a period of
from three to five years, and the hypothesis on the truth of which
Nansen risked his success was abundantly verified by facts. The
ship's company all returned in perfect health. After the second
winter on the " Fram " at a time when the northward movement
of the drift seemed to be checked, Nansen, accompanied by
Lieut. Hjalmar Johansen, left the ship in order to explore
the regions towards the Pole by travelling on ski with dog
sledges carrying kayaks. It was obviously hopeless to attempt
to find the drifting ship on their return, and Nansen intended to
make for Spitsbergen in the hope of meeting one of the tourist
steamers there. A more daring plan was never formed, and it
was justified by success. Leaving the ship on the 14th of March

1895 in 84* N. 102° E., they made a fairly rapid march
northward, reaching a latitude of 86° 5' N. on the 8th of April,
the nearest approach to the Pole so far achieved. Turning
south-westwards they travelled with much difficulty, sometimes
on the ice, sometimes in kayaks in the open lanes of water, incur-
ring great danger from the attacks of bears and walrus, but at
length reaching a group of new islands east of Franz Josef
Land. They travelled westward through this archipelago until
the 28th of August, when they built a small stone hut roofed
with their light silk tent, in which they passed the winter on a
land since called Frederick Jackson Island. There they lived
like Eskimo on bear and walrus meat cooked over a blubber
lamp. The journey southward was resumed in the spring of
1896, and on the 15th of June they met Mr F. G. Jackson, in
whose relief ship, the " Windward," they returned to Norway.
Nansen and Johansen reached Vardo on the 13 th of August

1896 full of anxiety for the fate of their old comrades, when
by a coincidence unparalleled in the history of exploration, the
" Fram " was on that very day breaking out of the ice off
Spitsbergen and the original party of thirteen was reunited at
Tromso the following week and returned together to Christiania.
On this remarkable expedition no life was lost and the ship
came back undamaged under the skilled guidance of Sverdrup
with a great harvest of scientific results.

Mr Frederick George Jackson planned an exploring expedition

POLAR REGIONS

952

to attain a high latitude by the Franz Josef Land route and was
supported financially by Mr A. C. Harmsworth (Lord North-
Jackson- cliff e). He was accompanied by Lieut. Albert
Harmsworth Armitage, R.N.R., as second in command and six
Expedition, scientific men, including Dr Reginald Koettlitz;
Dr W. S. Bruce also was one of the number in the second year.
The Jackson-Harmsworth expedition sailed in 1894, and was
landed at Cape Flora, where log houses were built. In the
spring of 1895 Jackson made a journey northward to 8i° 19' N.,
the highest latitude reached, and added considerably to our
knowledge of the archipelago by discovering a channel between
groups of islands west of the Austria Sound of Payer. He
made numerous other journeys by land and in boats, and
surveyed a considerable portion of the islands on which he
landed, the most interesting being that of 1897, to the western
portion of the group. The geological collections were of some
value and the specimens secured indicated that Franz Josef
Land and Spitsbergen were parts of an extensive land existing
in Tertiary times. The expedition returned in 1897.

In 1897 and subsequent years a party led by Sir Martin
Conway explored the interior of Spitsbergen. Dr A. G. Nathorst,
the Swedish geologist, explored the eastern coast and off-lying
islands, and made important observations on North-East Land,
circumnavigating the Spitsbergen archipelago in 1898. In 1899
Nathorst visited the north-east coast of Greenland in search of
Andree's balloon expedition, and here he mapped Franz Josef
Fjord and discovered the great King Oscar Fjord in waters
that had never been navigated before.

In subsequent years valuable surveys and scientific observa-
tions were made by the Prince of Monaco in his yacht "Princesse
Alice," by Dr W. S. Bruce, notably on Prince Charles Foreland,
and by others. Franz Josef Land was visited by the American
explorer W. Wellman in 1898 and 1900, and his companion
E. Baldwin in the former year made the discovery of several
islands in the east of the archipelago. A wealthy American,
W. Zeigler, also sent out expeditions to Franz Josef Land in
1901 and between 1903 and 1905, in the course of which A. Fiala
reached the high latitude of 82 4' N. in the " America," but the
ship was afterwards lost in Teplitz Bay. These expeditions added
little to our knowledge of polar geography, but some useful
meteorological, magnetic and tidal observations were made.

The Italian expedition under the command of H.R.H. Prince
Luigi, duke of the Abruzzi, was the most successful of all those
which have attempted to reach high latitudes by
way of Franz Josef Land. Embarking in the
summer of 1899 on the " Stella Polare " (formerly
the Norwegian whaler " Jason " which had landed Nansen on
the east coast of Greenland in 1888) the expedition put into
Teplitz Bay in Rudolf Land, where they wintered and there the
ship was seriously damaged by the ice. In the spring of 1900 a
determined effort was made to reach the North Pole by sledging
over the sea-ice. The duke of the Abruzzi having been disabled
by frost-bite, the leadership of the northern party devolved upon
Captain Umberto Cagni of the Italian navy, who started on
the nth of March 1900 with ten men (Alpine guides and Italian
sailors) and nearly a hundred dogs. His plan was to sledge
northward over the sea-ice, sending back two parties as the
diminishing stores allowed the advance party to take on the
whole of the supplies destined to support them on their way to
the Pole and back. Before losing sight of Rudolf Island three
men forming the first party started to return, but they never
reached winter quarters and all must have perished. The second
party went back from latitude 83 10' N., and reached their base
in safety. Cagni pushed on with three companions, determined
if he could not reach the Pole at least to outdistance his prede-
cessor Nansen, and on the 25th of April 1900 he succeeded in
reaching 86° 34' N. in 65 20' E. Diminishing food supplies
made it necessary to turn at this point, and although he had
reached it in 45 days it took Cagni 60 days to return. The
advance of summer loosened the ice-floes, and the westward
component of the drift of the pack became a more and more
serious danger, threatening to carry the party past Franz Josef

Duke of the
Abruzzi.

Andree.

Makarott.

Land without sighting it. Fortunately Cape Mill, a hesMiland of
characteristic outline, was sighted just in time, and with this as
a guide the party succeeded in reaching Teplitz Bay, having
eaten the last of their dogs and been reduced to great extremities.
At the farthest north no land was visible, the rough sea-ice
extending to the horizon on every side.

As early as 1895 a scheme for an exploring expedition in a
balloon was put forward seriously, and in 1897 the Swedish
aeronaut S. A. Andree carried it out. He had
brought a balloon to Danes Island, in the north of
Spitsbergen, the previous year, but the weather was unpropitious
and the ascent had to be postponed. On the nth of July 1897
he started in a new and larger balloon with about five tons of
supplies and two companions. It was hoped that the balloon
could be steered to some extent by the use of heavy guide ropes
dragging over the ice, and Andree had already made successful
flights in this way. Rising at 2.30 p.m. the balloon was out
of sight of Danes Island in an hour. At 10 p.m. Andree threw
out a buoy containing a message which was recovered, and this
stated that the balloon was in 82 N. 25° E., moving towards
the north-east at an altitude of 800 ft. above a rugged ice-field.
This was the last news received, and although scarcely a year
has passed without some rumour of the balloon having been
found in Siberia or North America, nothing further has ever
been ascertained.

In 1899 Admiral Makaroff of the Russian navy arranged for
the trial trip of the great ice-breaker " Yermak," which he
designed, to take the form of an expedition into
the sea-ice off Spitsbergen. Though no high lati-
tude was attained on this occasion he formed the opinion that
a vessel of sufficient size and power could force a passage even
to the Pole. The Russian- Japanese War put an end to the polar
projects of this gifted man of science.

Captain Otto Sverdrup, who had been Nansen's companion
on his two polar expeditions, planned an Arctic voyage for the
circumnavigation of Greenland, and the " Fram "
was altered and refitted to suit her for the work.
Starting in 1899, he was obliged to abandon the attempt to get
northward through Smith Sound, and making his way westward
into Jones Sound he spent three years in exploring and mapping
the portion of the Arctic archipelago which lay to the north of
the field of labour of the Franklin search expeditions. Ellesmere
and Grinnell Lands were shown to be part of one large land mass
called King Oscar Land, which is separated by a narrow channel,
Eureka Sound, from an extensive island named Axel Heiberg
Land. Two of his party (Isachsen and Hassel) discovered and
explored two islands west of Heiberg Land, and Dr Schei made
most valuable observations on the geology of the whole of the
district examined. Sverdrup's journeys cleared up a great deal
of uncertainty regarding the geography of the least known
portion of the Arctic archipelago, and leave little more to be
done in that quarter. He brought the " Fram " safely back to
Norway in 1903.

Many American whalers working in the sea reached through
Bering Strait believe that land of considerable extent lies
farther west than the Arctic archipelago, north of the mouth of
the Mackenzie River, but neither the English traveller A. H.
Harrison in 1905, nor the Dane Einar Mikkelsen in 1907, was
able to find any trace of it, though the latter sledged over the
sea ice as far as 72 N., where in 150 W. he got a sounding of
339 fathoms with no bottom. This depth makes it somewhat
improbable that land exists in that quarter.

Russian surveyors and explorers continued to map portions
of the Siberian coast, and in 1886 Dr Bunge and Baron Toll
visited the New Siberia Islands and made known
the remarkable remains of mammoths which exist
there in great numbers. In 1893 Baron Toll made an
important geological expedition to the islands, discovering
many well-preserved remains of mammoths and other extinct
mammals and finding evidence that in the mammoth period
trees grew at least as far as 74 N. Indefatigable in the pursuit
of his studies, Toll set out once more in 1901 on board the

Sverdrup.

Baron Toll.

POLAR REGIONS

953

Amundsea.

" Zarya," hoping to reach Sannikoff Island, the most northern
and stiD unvisited portion of the New Siberia group. In
August 1902 he reached Bennet Island with the astronomer
Seeberg and two men; he found the island to be a plateau about
1 500 ft. in elevation, and remained there until November studying
the geological features. Nothing more was heard of the expedi-
tion, and a relief expedition in 1904, under Lieuts. Brusneff
and Kolchak, failed to find any trace of the explorers beyond
a record left on Bennet Island, which gave a summary of their
movements up to the time of leaving the island.

In 1901 Captain Roald Amundsen, a Norwegian, who had
been mate on the " Belgica " in her Antarctic voyage, planned
an expedition to the area of the north magnetic
pole visited by Sir James Ross in 1831, in order to
re-locate it, and as a secondary object he had in view the
accomplishment of the North-West Passage by water for the
first time, M'Clure not having carried his ship through from
sea to sea. A small Norwegian sealing sloop, the " Gjoa," the
cabin of which measured only 9 ft. by 6, was fitted with a
petroleum motor engine of 39 h.p. for use in calm weather and
strengthened to withstand ice-pressure. She left Christian ia
on the 17th of June 1903 with a total company of six men,
second in command being Lieut. Godfred Hansen of the
Danish navy. She passed through Lancaster Sound and worked
her way down the west side of Boothia Felix in August, and took
up winter quarters in Gjoa Harbour at the head of Petersen Bay
in King William Land. Here the little vessel remained for two
years while magnetic and meteorological observations were
carried out, and sledging excursions were made to the magnetic
pole and along the coasts of Victoria Land, which was charted
up to ■j2° N. In August 1905 the " Gjoa " proceeded westward
along the American coast but was frozen in off King Point for a
third winter. On the nth of July 1906 she got free, and after
much difficulty with the ice reached Bering Strait on the 30th
of August and entered the Pacific, the first ship to pass from
ocean to ocean north of Patagonia.

Danish explorers have continued to concentrate their attention
on the problems of Greenland, and especially the geography
of the east coast. Lieut. G D. Amdrup, in a series of expedi-
tions between 1898 and 1900, charted the coast-line as far north
as 70° 15' N., and made important scientific observations and
collections. From time to time whalers reached the east Green-
land coast at points in high latitudes. The duke of Orleans
in the " Belgica," under the command of Captain Gerlache,
made an important voyage in 1905, in the course of which he
cruised along the coast of Germania Land between 76 and 78° N.,
and fixed the general outline of the land up to that latitude.
This expedition did a large amount of scientific work, especially
in oceanography. The stream of sea-ice which presses out-
wards from the polar basin every summer bears close against
the east coast of Greenland, and exploration by sea has always
proved exceedingly difficult and precarious, success depending
very much on the occurrence of chance leads amongst the ice.
Taking advantage of all previous experience, the most important
of the Danish expeditions was planned by L. Mylius-Erichsen
in 1905, the expenses being partly raised by private
Brichten. subscriptions and partly provided by the Danish
government. He sailed in the " Danmark " in June
1906 and found winter quarters in Danmarkhaven, 75 43' N.,
where the ship remained for two years, while systematic magnetic
and meteorological observations were kept up at the base and
the main work of exploring to the northward was carried on by
sledge. From existing maps it was believed that about 620 m.
of coast separated the winter quarters from the northern point of
Greenland, but when the sledge expedition went out in 1907 the
coast was found to curve much farther to the eastward than
had been anticipated, and the outward journey extended to
800 m. Having left the winter quarters on the 28th of March
1907. Mylius-Erichsen, with Captain Koch, Hagen, an educated
Eskimo, BrSnlund and two others, reached North-East Fore-
land, the eastern extremity of Greenland (8i° 20' N., n° 15' W.).
Here they divided; Koch with Berthelsen and the Eskimo

Tobias went north-westward to explore the east coast of Peary
Land, and succeeded in reaching the northernmost extremity
of the land beyond Cape Bridgman in 83 30' N. From this
great journey he returned in safety to winter quarters, arriving on
the 24th of June. Meanwhile Mylius-Erichsen, with Hagen and
the Eskimo Bronlund, followed the coast westward into what
was believed to be the Independence Bay seen from a distance
by Peary; this turned out to be a deep inlet now named Danmark
Fjord. Keeping to the coast, they entered the great channel
separating the mainland of Greenland from Peary Land, and
surveyed Hagen Fjord on the southern shore and BrSnlund
Fjord on the northern shore of the strait. They had pushed on
to Cape Glacier in 82 N. and 35 W. by the 14th of June 1907,
within sight of Navy Cliff, which had been Peary's farthest aoming
from the west side, and here the softness of the snow kept them
all summer. When they could travel, more than a fortnight was
wasted adrift on a floe in the effort to cross Danmark Fjord.
Here the sun left them, while they were without food, almost
worn out and more than 500 m. from the ship. It was impossible
to attempt the long journey round the coast, and the only chance
of safety, and that a very slender one, was to make away south-
ward over the inland ice and so cut off the eastern horn of Green-
land which the expedition had discovered. Under the most
terrible difficulties, with only four starved dogs, and their equip-
ment going to pieces, they accomplished the feat of marching
160 m. in 26 days, and reached the east coast again in 79 N.
Hagen died on the way; Mylius-Erichsen himself struggled on
until he nearly reached the provisions left on Lambert Island
on the northern journey; but he too perished, and only Bronlund
reached the supplies. He was frost-bitten and unable to proceed
further, and after recording the tragedy of the return journey
in his diary, he died also alone in the Arctic night. His body
and the records of the great journey were discovered in the
following year by Koch, who started on a relief expedition as
soon as travelling became possible. The results of this expedition
are a splendid monument to the courage and devotion of the
leader and his followers. The channel between Spitsbergen
and Greenland was shown by their efforts to be far narrower '
than had previously been supposed, and the outline of Greenland
itself was fixed for the first time, and that by an extremely
accurate survey.

There only remains one further episode to bring the history
of polar exploration up to 1910, but that is the crowning event of
four hundred years of unceasing effort, the attain-
ment of the Pole itself; and it was accomplished by
the undaunted perseverance of one man who would never accept
defeat. After the return of the Jackson-Harmsworth expedi-
tion, Lord Northcliffe presented the " Windward " to Lieut.
Peary, who resumed in 1898 his systematic explorations of the
Smith Sound region in the hope of finding a way to the Pole.
He was not restrained by the precedents of earlier travellers
and made some long sledge journeys in the winter of 1898-1899,
having his feet badly frost-bitten and losing eight toes. Even
this crippling did not stop his work. He wintered amongst
the Etah Eskimo in 1899-1900 and next spring made a successful
journey to the most northerly land north of Greenland in 83 35'
where the land had an abundant flora and fauna, and he pushed
north over the sea-ice for twenty miles farther, reaching 83 54'
N. Peary wintered again at Fort Conger in 1900-1901, and for
the fourth year in succession he went through the Arctic winter,
1901-1902, at Payer Harbour. In the spring of 1902 he made a
great journey to Cape Hecla in the north of Grant Land and
thence northward over the frozen sea to 84° 17' N. in 70 W.
Frequent open leads of water and the moving of the ice-floes
made further advance impossible, and after an unparalleled
sojourn in the farthest north, Peary returned to the United
States. The Peary Arctic Club of New York, formed to support
this indomitable explorer, provided funds for a new expedition
and a ship differing in some respects from those hitherto em-
ployed and named the " Roosevelt." In her he proceeded in
the summer of 1905 through Smith Sound and the northern
channels to Cape Sheridan on the north coast of Grant Land,

Peary.

954

POLAR REGIONS

Captain Robert Bartlett being in command of the ship. From
this point he advanced by sledge to Cape Hecla, whence he made a
most strenuous attempt to reach the North Pole. Organizing his
large following of trained Eskimo, whose confidence in him had
been won by many years of friendship, and his few white com-
panions in separate parties, each complete in itself and well
furnished with dogs and food, he set off at the end of February
1906. A very broad lead of open water was encountered in
84 38' N., and as the party did not carry kayaks much time was
lost in getting across. The floes had a marked eastward drift
and it was difficult to make progress northward; however,
Peary struggled on by forced marches to 87 6' N.,' which he
reached on the 21st of April 1906, the most northerly point
so far attained. His return journey was the most dangerous
in his experience; many leads had to be crossed, sometimes on
ice so thin that it bent beneath the weight of the explorers,
provisions were exhausted and the men were reduced to eating
their dogs before they made land at Cape Neumayer in the north
of Greenland, where game was found, and whence the return
to the ship was comparatively easy.

Returning to America, Peary prepared for a last attempt.
The " Roosevelt " was overhauled and various defects made
/Vho-'s good, but not in time for the summer of 1907.
Journey to Leaving New York in July 1908 the " Roosevelt,"
p fe JVort * again under the command of R. Bartlett, brought
the party, with the Eskimo who were picked up on
the way, to Cape Sheridan by the 5th of September. During
the winter all supplies were transported to Cape Columbia,
farther west on the coast of Grant Land. Here there were
ready to start in the first light of the Arctic day seven explorers,
17 picked Eskimo and 133 of the best dogs in Greenland with 19
sledges. As the outcome of all Peary's experience the expedition
was arranged to consist of a lightly equipped advance party to
select the route and make the trail by clearing a way 'through
rough ice, and a main party composed of units of four men each
with sledges containing all their requirements marching one
day behind the pioneer party. From this unit parties were
to return southward at intervals with the empty sledges, leaving
the diminished main party to push on fully provisioned. The
" big lead " which marks the edge of the continental shelf in
84 N. was crossed after some delay and here the sun appeared
for the first time on the 5th. of March 1909. Dr MacMillan with
three Eskimo and three sledges returned along the outward
trail after the 7th of March from 84 29' N. A sounding at this
point showed the depth of the sea to be 825 fathoms. After
five more marches G. Borup turned back in 85° 23' with three
Eskimo and three sledges, the best Eskimo and dogs remaining
with the main party. From this point the advance was regular;
the pioneer party started from the snow-houses they had built
and slept in when the main party arrived, and while the latter
slept the pioneers marched, selected a camp, built new snow-
houses, and slept till the main party came up. At 86° 38' N.
Prof. R. G. Marvin turned back, as usual with the three worst
Eskimo and the worst dogs. His party reached the ship, but
he himself was drowned in recrossing the " big lead," the only
casualty of the expedition. At 88° N. Bartlett turned back on
the 1 st of April in accordance with the system with two Eskimo,
one sledge and 18 dogs. Up to this point Peary had saved him-
self as much as possible, leaving the path-finding and the observa-
tions to his very competent colleagues; but now he put forth all
his strength for the arduous 140 m. which separated him from
the Pole. He was accompanied by Henson and four Eskimo.
The ice improved as he went on and it was possible to do 25 m.
in a daily march of 10 hours, and on one occasion 30 m. in 12
hours. On the 6th of April an observation gave 89 57' N., and
here a camp was made and observations taken throughout
24 hours to fix the position, as well as excursions a few miles
farther on and a few miles to right and left so as to be sure
of actually reaching the Pole. No land was to be seen, and a
sounding through the ice gave a depth of 1500 fathoms
with no bottom. The American flag was hoisted; the goal of all
the ages of exploration had been reached.

The return journey was quick and easy. The tracks kept
open by the passage of the various return parties were distinct
enough to follow, the snow-houses stood ready for sheltering
at the end of each march, and a northerly gale kept the ice
pressed well together and the leads closed. On the 23rd of
April Cape Columbia was reached and soon after the party was
safe on board the " Roosevelt." Success was due to the
accumulated experience of twenty-three years' constant Arctic
work, and to the thorough acquaintance with the Eskimo and
their dogs, which enabled the best work to be got out of them.

Dr F. A. Cook spent two years in the Arctic regions, 1907-1909,
and claimed to have reached the Pole by sledging alone with two
Eskimo a year before Peary. He submitted the evi- „ . Coo i
dence for this achievement to the university of Copen-
hagen, which failed to find it satisfactory, and Dr Cook did not
appear to challenge this decision.

Physiography of the Arctic Region

Geology. — Although much remains to be done in the explora-
tion of the North Polar area, the main features of the physical
geography of the region have been determined beyond any
reasonable doubt. Within the Arctic Circle the northern
portions of Europe, Asia, America and Greenland surround a
central area of deep sea, the southern margin of which forms a
broad continental shelf bearing many islands. The ring of
land and shallow sea is broken only by the broad channel between
Greenland and Europe through which Atlantic water gains an
entrance to the Arctic Sea. The physical conditions of this
sea, which covers the greater part of the Arctic regions, are
dealt with later in detail; but there is less to be said regarding
the land.

In a climate which taxes human powers to the utmost to carry
on the simplest route-surveys in the course of an exploring
expedition, and in the presence of a snow covering which is
permanent on all high ground and only disappears for a short
time in summer, even on the shores and islands, it is obvious
that any knowledge of the geology must be difficult to obtain.
On the earlier Arctic expeditions enthusiastic collectors brought
together quantities of specimens, many of which it was found
impossible to bring home, and they have been found abandoned
by later travellers. As Arctic exploration was usually carried
out on the sea or over the sea-ice even those expeditions in which
experienced geologists took part furnished few opportunities for
making investigations. The result is that the geology of the
Arctic lands has to be inferred from observations made at isolated
points where the fortune of the ice stopped the ship, or where
on land journeys a favourable exposure was found. Almost
every geological formation is known to be represented, from the
Archaean to the Quaternary, and there is a general resemblance
in the known geological features of most of the great Arctic
islands. The fundamental rock in all appears to be Archaean
gneiss. In the extreme north-east Carboniferous strata have
recently been discovered similar to the Carboniferous rocks of
Spitsbergen. The Jurassic rocks farther south are in places
capped by Cretaceous beds, and closely resemble the Jurassic
rocks of Spitsbergen, Franz Josef Land and the northern parts
of Norway and Russia. Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks are found
on the west coast of Greenland covered over by great flows of
basalt, probably of Tertiary age, at Disco Island, Nugsuak
Peninsula and various points farther north. The only mineral
of economic value found in Greenland is cryolite, which is mined
at Ivigtut in the south-west. Native iron occurs in considerable
masses in several places, some of it undoubtedly of telluric
origin, though some is probably meteoric.

The second " Fram " expedition confirmed and extended the
geological observations of the Franklin search expeditions on
the American Arctic archipelago, and showed the presence above
the Archaean rocks of Cambrian, Silurian and Devonian strata,
the Silurian being represented by a widespread brown limestone
abounding in fossils. Carboniferous limestones also occur and
less extensive beds of quartz sandstones, schists and limestones
containing ammonites and other Mesozoic fossils. Tertiary

POLAR REGIONS

From the North Pole Expedition, 1893-1896, Scientific Results, edited by Fridtjof Nansen, by permission of the Fridtjof Nansen Fund for the Advancement of Science..

POLAR REGIONS

955

rocks including beds of lignite and plant fossils of Miocene age
also occur, and they are interstratified and overspread with
basalts and other eruptive rocks as in Greenland. In Grant
Land Tertiary coal occurs in Lady Franklin Bay (81° 45' N.), the
most northerly deposit of fossil fuel known. Arctic Canada
consists of Archaean and Palaeozoic rocks worn down into
plateaux or plains and bearing marks of glacial action, the
absence of which is the most remarkable feature of the tundra
region of Siberia. The Siberian coast is superficially formed to a
large extent of frozen soil and gravel sometimes interbedded
with clear ice, and in this soil the frozen bodies of mammoths
and other Quaternary animals have been found preserved in a
fresh condition by the low temperature. The absence of a glacial
period in northern Siberia is probably indirectly due to the very
low temperature which prevailed there, preventing the access
of water vapour from without and so stopping the supply
required to produce sufficient precipitation to form glaciers or
ice-caps. On the New Siberia Islands Silurian and Tertiary
rocks have been recognized, the latter with abundant deposits of
fossil wood.

The geological evidence is complete as to the existence of a
genial climate in Tertiary times as far north as the present land
extends, and of a climate less severe than that of to-day in the
Quaternary period. The existence of raised sea margins in
many Arctic lands and especially in the American Arctic archi-
pelago bears evidence to a recent elevation of the land, or a
withdrawal of the sea, which has been influential in forming
some of the most prominent features of the present configuration.
It is noteworthy that no great mountain range runs into the
Arctic region. The Rocky Mountains on the west and the Ural
range on the east die down to insignificant elevations before
reaching the Arctic Circle. The plateau of Greenland forms the
loftiest mass of Arctic land, but the thickness of the ice cap is
unknown. The one active volcano within the Arctic Circle is
on the little island of Jan Mayen.

The Arctic Climate. — As the water of the Arctic Sea is free
from ice around the margin only for a few months in summer,
and is covered at all times over its great expanse with thick ice
in slow uneasy motion, there is less contrast in climate between
land and sea, especially in winter, than in other parts of the
world. The climate of the polar area may be described as
the most characteristic of all the natural features, and obser-
vations of temperature and pressure are more numerous and
systematic than any other scientific observations. The Russian
meteorological system includes Siberia, and long series of obser-
vations exist from stations up to and within the Arctic Circle.
The Canadian Meteorological Service has secured like observa-
tions for the extreme north of North America, though the records
are more fragmentary and of shorter duration. Norway and
Iceland also yield many records on the margin of the Arctic
Circle. The international circum-polar stations maintained
during 1882 connected the Siberian, Norwegian and Canadian
land stations with the more fragmentary work of the various
polar expeditions which have wintered from time to time in
high latitudes. The most valuable records and practically the
only data available for the climate north of 84 are those of the
first expedition of the " Fram " in her three years' drift across
the polar basin. Later expeditions beyond the 84th parallel
were merely dashes of a few weeks' duration, the records from
which, however accurate, are of an altogether different order of
importance. The data collected by the " Fram " were discussed
in great detail by Professor H. Mohn in 1904, and that eminent
authority combined them with all that had been known pre-
viously, and all that was ascertained by later explorers up to the
return of Captain Sverdrup from the second " Fram " expedition,
so as to give the completest account ever attempted of the
climate of the North Polar regions, and on this we rely mainly
for the following summary.

Temperature. — From Professor Mohn's maps of the isotherms
north of 6o° N. it is evident that the temperature reduced to
sea-level is lowest in the winter months within an area stretching
across the pole from the interior of Greenland to the middle of

Siberia, the long axis of this very cold area being in tiie meridian
of 40° W. and 140 E. For every month from October to April
the mean temperature of this cold area is below o° F., and in
the two coldest months there are three very cold areas or poles
of cold with temperatures below— 40° arranged along the axis.
These are the interior of Greenland, an area around the North
Pole and the centre of Northern Siberia. Professor Mohn is
satisfied that these three poles of cold are separated by somewhat
warmer belts, as observations on the north coast of Greenland
show a temperature higher both than the temperature of the
interior reduced to sea-level and the temperature on the
frozen sea farther north. As summer advances the temperature
rises to the freezing point most rapidly in North America, the
mean temperature for June, July and August for the American
coast and the Arctic archipelago being above the freezing point.
In July and August the Arctic shores in America, Asia and
Europe have a mean air- temperature of about 40 F., but the
interior of Greenland and the area round the North Pole remain
below 3 2 , those two poles of cold' persisting throughout the
year while the winter cold pole in Asia disappears in summer. 1
There is no reason to doubt that in winter the Asiatic area is
the coldest part of the Arctic region, and as it is permanently
inhabited it is plain that low temperature alone is no bar to the
wintering of expeditions in any part of the North Polar region.
The lowest temperature experienced during the drift of the
" Fram " was — 62 F., on the 12th of March 1894 inlat. 79° 41',
long. 134 17' E. The minimum temperatures recorded on
Sir George Nares's expedition were — 73-8° F- on the " Alert " in
82 27' N. and-7o-8° on the " Discovery " in 8i° 44' N., both in
March 1876, and the minimum on Sverdrup's expedition ia
Jones Sound in 76° 50' N. was— 6o° F. in January 1901. In
February 1882 Greely recorded— 66-2° at Fort Conger, 8i° 44'
N., and at Fort Constance in Canada (66° 40' N. 119 W.) a
temperature of — 72 F. was noted in January 1851. The lowest
temperature ever recorded on the earth's surface was probably
that experienced at Verkhoyansk in Siberia (67 34' N.) where the
absolute minimum in the month of February was —93-6°, and
minima of —70° or more have been recorded in every winter
month from November to March inclusive, and as the absolute
maximum in July was +92-7° F. the total range experienced
is no less than 186-3°, f ar exceeding that known in any other
part of the world.

The normal monthly mean temperatures for various parallels
of latitude are given as follows by Professor Mohn, the last
column showing the calculated conditions at the North Pole
itself expressed to the nearest degree.

Normal Air Temperature for Latitudes in.°F.

65° N.

70" N. I 8o° N.

90" N.

January .

- 9-4

-15-3

—26-0

-42

February .

- 6-7

-H-5

-26-5

-42

March . .

+ 3-o

- 8.3

-23-1

-31

April .

190

+ 6-8

- 8-9

-18

May .

347

24-1

+ 14-0

+ 9

Tune .

48-6

37-9

30-0

28

July . .

54-7

45-o

35-6

30

August

50-6

43-2

32-7

27

September

40-7

32-5

I8-I

9

October

24-6

15-3

- 2-4

— 11

November

5-8

- 06

— II-O

-27

December .

- 5-i

-10-5

-19-1

-36

Year

21-7

12-9

i'i

- 9

The interior of Greenland is believed to be below the normal
temperature for the latitude in all months and so is the region
between Bering Strait and the Pole; the Norwegian Sea, and the
region north of it as far as the Pole, has a temperature above the
normal for the latitude in all months; while the temperature

1 It must be remembered that for cartographical purposes
temperature is reduced to its value at sea-level, allowing for a change
of l° F. in about 300 ft. Thus the actual temperature on the
snowcap of Greenland at the height of 9000 ft. is 30° F. lower at
all seasons than is shown on an isothermal map, and that of Verkho-
yansk (500 ft.) is only J -5° F. lower than is charted.

956

POLAR REGIONS

in the northern continents is below the normal in winter and
above the normal in summer.

The " Fram " observations showed that while the ordinary
diurnal range of temperature prevailed for the months when
the sun was above the horizon during some part of the day,
there was also a diurnal range in the winter months when the
sun did not appear, the minimum then occurring about 2 p.m.
and the maximum about 1 a.m., the " day " being colder than
the " night." Except in July and August the temperature
was always found to be lower with the weaker winds and higher
with the stronger winds irrespective of direction. Extraor-
dinarily rapid variations of temperature have been observed
in the winter months, on one occasion in February 1896 (north
of 84° N.) the thermometer rising within 24 hours from —45-4°
to +22-3° F., a rise of 67-7°.

Cloud and Precipitation. — The amount of cloud in the far
north is greater in the daytime than at night, the summer
months being cloudy, the winter very clear, and the amount is
greater with the stronger winds and less with the weaker winds.
Precipitation is most frequent in the summer months, the
" Fram " results showing an average of 20 days per month from
May to September; while from October to April the average was
only 1 1| days per month. Rain was only observed in the months
from May to September ; but snow occurs in every month and is
most frequent in May and June, least frequent in November and
December, which are the months of minimum precipitation. It
has never been possible to make satisfactory measurements of
the amount of precipitation in the Arctic regions on account of
the drifting of snow with high wind. Fogs occur most frequently
in July and August (20 or 16 days per month); they are
practically unknown between November and April.

Pressure. — The " Fram " observations enabled Professor
Mohn to revise and extend the isobaric maps of Dr Buchan,
the correctness of which was strikingly confirmed. The Atlantic
and Pacific low pressure areas are found at all seasons on the
margin of the Arctic area, the position shifting a little in longitude
from month to month. The two low pressures are separated
in the winter months by a ridge of high pressure (exceeding
30-00 in.) stretching from the Canadian to the Siberian side be-
tween the North Pole and Bering Strait ; this ridge has been termed
by Professor Supan " the Arctic wind divide." In April the high
pressure over Asia gives way and an intense low pressure area
takes its place during the summer, uniting in August with the
less intense low-pressure area which develops later over Canada,
and reducing the Arctic high pressure area to an irregular belt
extending from North Greenland to Franz Josef Land on the
Atlantic side of the Pole. The general pressure over the polar
area is much higher in winter than in summer and the gradients
are steeper also in the cold weather, giving rise to stronger winds.
The isobaric conditions indicate light variable winds in summer
along the route of the " Fram " from the New Siberia Islands to
the north of Spitsbergen, and in winter south-easterly or easterly
winds of greater force; this is in accord with the observations
made during the drift. Professor Mohn believes that the
maximum pressure at the North Pole takes place in April, when
it is about 30-08 in.; and the minimum pressure from June to
September, when it is about 29-88 in., the annual range of
monthly mean pressure being thus only 0-20 in., so that the
Pole may be said to be in a region of permanently high atmo-
spheric pressure. Cyclonic depressions crossed the region of the
" Fram's " track with considerable frequency, 73 being experi-
enced in the three years, the frequency being greatest in winter
but the wind velocity in cyclones greatest in summer; the most
common direction of movement was from west to east. The
average velocity of the cyclonic winds encountered by the
" Fram " was only about 29 m. per hour, the highest 40 m. per
hour, the portion of the Arctic Sea she crossed being much less
stormy than the coasts of the Arctic lands, where winds have
been recorded of far greater severity, e.g. 45 m. per hour in
Spitsbergen in 1882, 55 m. per hour in Teplitz Bay, Franz
Josef Land, in 1900, 62 m. per hour on the Siberian coast in
I he " Vega " in 1879, and as much as 90 m. per hour at Karmakul

in Novaya Zemlya in 1883. There seems little doubt that the
interior of the polar area is a fair weather zone as compared
with its margins, where the contrast of the seasons is more
marked.

Flora. — The land flora of the Arctic regions, although neces-
sarily confined to the lower levels which are free from snow for
some time every year, and greatly reduced in luxuriance and
number of species as compared with the flora of the temperate
zone, is still in its own way both rich and varied, and it extends
to the most northerly land known. In some of the fjords of
western Greenland and also of Ellesmere Land almost on the
80th parallel the prevailing colour of the landscape in summer is
due to vegetation and not to rock. The plants which occur on
the margin of the Arctic Sea and in the polar islands represent
the hardier species of the'North European, Asiatic and American
flora, the total number of species amounting to probably about
a thousand phanerogams and a still larger number of crypto-
gams. The habit of all is lowly, but some grasses grow to a
height of 1 ft. 6 in., and the mosses, of which the Eskimo make
their lamp-wicks, frequently form cushions more than a foot in
depth. Trees are absent north of 73° N., which is the extreme
point reached in Siberia, or they are dwarfed to the height of
shrubs as in southern Greenland, or farther north to that of the
prevailing herbage. The flowers of many Arctic species of
phanerogams have an intensely brilliant colour. The plains and
lower slopes of the plateaux of Ellesmere Land and Heiberg
Land and the plain of Peary Land north of Greenland are suffici-
ently clothed with vegetation to support large numbers of
rodents and ruminants, the plants occurring not as occasional
curiosities, but as the normal summer covering of the ground,
playing their full part in the economy of nature. The cold
of winter is not sufficient to put a stop to plant life even at the
pole of cold in northern Siberia; and there is no reason to doubt
that if there were islands close to the North Pole they would
bear vegetation.

Fauna. — Animal life is comparatively abundant in the waters
of the Arctic Sea, though the whalebone whale, Balaena myste-
celis, has become almost extinct by reason of the energy with
which its pursuit has been carried on. The white whale and
narwhal still abound in the open waters as far north as ships can
go. The walrus and several species of seal prey on the marine
life, and the polar bear, the king of Arctic beasts, probably
roams the whole surface of the frozen sea in pursuit of seals
and the larger fish. The other Arctic carnivora include the
Arctic fox and wolf, the latter attacking all the land mammalia
except the polar bear and old musk-oxen. The wild reindeer
is still found in all the circum-polar lands except Franz Josef
Land; but its range does not extend so far to the north as that
of the typical ruminant of the polar lands, the musk-ox {Ovibos
moschatus), which now abounds only in Peary Land, north Green-
land and in the American Arctic Archipelago, though it was
formerly circum-polar in its distribution. The Arctic hare is
almost equally characteristic and more abundant, and the
lemming probably more common still. The ermine and other
valuable fur-bearing animals also occur. The animals are
either permanently white like the polar bear, or change their
coats with the season, being brown in summer and white in
winter like the hares and lemmings. The birds of the Arctic
regions are all migrants, retreating southward in winter but
nesting in incredible numbers on the Arctic coast-lands, and in
summer probably finding their way as individuals to every part.
They are mainly sea-birds, though the snow bunting, the Arctic
owl and other land birds are amongst the summer visitors. It
must be remembered that the elevated plateaux of the interior
of Greenland and of many of the large islands are totally devoid
of life of every kind on account of their unchanging covering
of snow and the intensely rigorous climate due to their great
altitude.

Arctic People. — The conditions of life in the continental parts
of the Arctic regions are extremely severe as regards tempera-
ture in the winter, but it has been found possible for civilized
people to live permanently both in the extreme north of North

POLAR REGIONS

957

America and in the north of Siberia. In the north of Norway
where the winter is mild on account of the warm south-westerly
winds from the open Atlantic, organized communities dwell
within the Arctic Circle in free communication with the south
by telegraph, telephone, steamer, and in some cases by rail also,
all the year round. The climate on the coast of Norway is
scarcely less favourable in the north than in the south except
for the absence of light in winter when the sun never rises, and
the absence of darkness in summer when the sun never sets.
If there were natural products of sufficient value permanent
settlements might arise in any part of the Arctic regions where
there is land free from snow in summer; but as a rule Arctic
land is poor in mineral wealth and the pursuit of whales and
seals requires only a summer visit. The original people of the
farthest north of Europe are now represented by the Lapps,
who lead a migratory life, depending mainly on fishing and on
their herds of reindeer. Farther east their place is taken by the
Samoyedes who live along the coast of the Kara Sea and the
Yalmal Peninsula; they have also a small settlement in Novaya
Zemlya. The Samoyedes, like the Lapps, live on the produce
of the sea in summer and on their herds of reindeer, moving
rapidly ever the frozen country in winter by means of reindeer
and dog sledges. Spitsbergen and Franz Josef Land appear
never to have had native inhabitants. Along the coast of
Siberia there is no continuous population, except in the land of
the Chukchis in the extreme east between the Kolyma river
and Bering Strait; but small settlements of many tribes of pagan
hyperboreans occur here and there. North American Indian
tribes wander far to the north of the Arctic Circle in Canada and
Alaska, keeping their hereditary enemies the Eskimo to the coast
and islands. The Eskimo of the American coast are inter-
mingling not only with the American whalers but also with the
Polynesians who come north as part of the crew of the whalers,
and the pure race is tending to disappear. The traces of Eskimo
encampments in the Polar archipelago, where no Eskimo now
live, may mark a former wider range of hunting grounds, or a
greater extension of the population. The Greenland Eskimo
are the most typical and the best known of their race. A few
hundred live on the east coast, where they were formerly much
more numerous. The greater part of the west coast Eskimo
are now civilized members of the Danish colonies, and it is
stated that whereas in 1855 only about 30% of the population
were half-breeds, the blending of the Eskimo and Europeans is
now so complete that no full-blooded Eskimo remain in Danish
Greenland. The tribe of Eskimo living to the north of Melville
Bay, the glaciers of which separate them from the people of
Danish Greenland, was first described by Sir John Ross, who
called them Arctic Highlanders. They have been fully studied
by Commander Peary, who succeeded in utilizing them in his
great series of journeys, and to their aid he attributes the success
of his method of Arctic travelling.

The Arctic Sea.

According to its geographical position, the Arctic Sea might
be described as the sea situated north of the Arctic Circle; but
according to its natural configuration, it is better defined as the
gulf-like northern termination of the long and relatively narrow
Atlantic arm of the ocean which extends north between Europe
on one side and America on the other. By this situation as the
northern end of a long arm of the ocean its physical conditions
are to a very great extent determined. This Arctic gulf is
bounded by the northern coasts of Europe, Siberia, North
America, the American Arctic archipelago, Greenland and
Iceland. Its entrance is the opening between Europe and
Labrador divided by Iceland, Greenland and the American
Arctic islands; and its natural southern boundary would be the
submarine ridge extending from Scotland and the Shetland
Islands through the Faeroe Islands and Iceland to Greenland, and
continuing on the other side of Greenland across Davis Strait
to Baffin Land. This ridge separates the depression of the
Arctic Sea, filled with cold water at the bottom, from the deep
depression of the North Atlantic. The Arctic Sea communicates

with the Pacific Ocean through Bering Strait, which is, however,
only 49 m. broad and 27 fathoms deep. The area of the Arctic
Sea may be estimated to be about 3,600,000 sq. m., of which
nearly two-thirds (or 2,300,000 sq. m.) is continuously covered
by floating ice.

The Arctic Sea may be divided into the following parts:
(1) The North Polar Basin (including the Siberian Sea), bounded
by the northern coasts of Siberia (from Bering Strait to the
western Taimyr Peninsula), Franz Josef Land, Spitsbergen,
Greenland, Grinnell Land, Axel Heiberg Land, Ringnes Land,
the Parry Islands and Alaska; (2) the Kara Sea, between Novaya
Zemlya and the Siberian coast, south of a line from the north
point of the former to Lonely Island (Ensomheden) and Norden-
skiold Island; (3) the Barents and Murman Sea, bounded by
Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Spitsbergen, Bear Island
and the northern coasts of Norway and Russia; (4) the Norwegian
Sea, between Norway, Spitsbergen, Jan Mayen, Iceland and the
Faeroes; (5) the Greenland Sea, between Spitsbergen, Jan
Mayen, Iceland and Greenland; (6) Baffin Bay and Davis Strait,
between Greenland, Ellesmere Land, North Devon and Baffin
Land.

Depths. — The Arctic Sea forms an extended depression
separating the two largest continental masses of the world
— the European-Asiatic (Eurasia) and America. Along its
centre this depression is deep, but around its whole margin,
on both sides, it is unusually shallow — a shallow submarine
plateau or drowned plain extending northward from both
continents, forming the largest known continental shelf. North
of Europe this shelf may be considered as reaching Spitsbergen
and Franz Josef Land, extending over more than 10 degrees
of latitude, although there is a somewhat deeper depression in
between. North of Spitsbergen it reaches beyond 81° N., and
north of Franz Josef Land probably somewhat north of 82 N.
North of Siberia the shelf is 350 m. broad, or more, with depths
of 50 to 80 fathoms, or less. In longitude 13 5 E. it reaches
nearly 70 N., where the bottom suddenly sinks to form a deep
sea with depths of 2000 fathoms or more. Farther east it
probably has a similar northward extension. North of America
and Greenland the shelf extends to about latitude 84° N. This
shelf, or drowned plain, evidently marks an old extension of the
continents, and its northern edge must be considered as the real
margin of their masses, the coasts of which have probably been
overflowed by the sea at some comparatively recent geological
period. On this submarine plateau the Arctic lands are situated
■ — Spitsbergen (with Seven Islands to the north, Bear Island and
Hope Island to the south), Franz Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya,
Lonely Island, the New Siberia Islands, Wrangel Island, the
American Arctic archipelago. The depth of the shelf is, especi-
ally north of Siberia, very uniform, and usually not more than
50 to 80 fathoms. North of Europe it is intersected by a sub-
marine fjord-like depression, or broad channel, extending east-
ward from the Norwegian Sea. Between Norway and Bear
Island this depression is about 240 fathoms deep, and between
Novaya Zemlya and Franz Josef Land 100 to 150 fathoms deep.
It gives off several submerged fjords or channels towards the
south-east into the shallow Murman Sea, e.g. one channel, more
than 100 fathoms deep, along the Murman coast towards the
entrance of the White Sea; another narrow channel, in parts 100
fathoms deep, along the south-west coast of Novaya Zemlya
through Kara Strait. It also extends into the Kara Sea,
rounding the north point of Novaya Zemlya and forming a
narrow channel along its eastern coast. On the American side
similar but much narrower submarine depressions, which may
be called submarine fjords, extend from Baffin Bay into the
continental shelf, northward through Smith Sound, Kane Basin
and Kennedy Channel, and westward through Lancaster Sound.
The greatest depths in the Arctic Sea have been found in the
North Polar Basin, where depths of 2100 fathoms, in about
81° N. and 130 E., have been measured with certainty. It is
deeper than 1650 fathoms along the whole route of the
" Fram," from about 79 N. and 138° E. to near Spitsbergen.
In 84I N. and about 75° E. the depth is 2020 fathoms,

95 8

POLAR REGTONS

and in 83 N. and 13 E. it is i860 fathoms. The northern
and eastern extension of this deep basin is not known.
Commander Peary reports a depth of 1500 fathoms with no
bottom at 5 sea miles from the Pole (about 8o° 55' N.) where
he tried to obtain a sounding. It was formerly believed
that still greater depths existed west of Spitsbergen, in the
so-called Swedish deep, where 2600 fathoms had been sounded,
but the Nathorst expedition in 1898 found no greater depths
there than about 1.700 fathoms. The Norwegian Sea,
farther south, is 2000 fathoms deep midway between Iceland and
Norway, in about 68° N. This so-called Norwegian deep is, as
before stated, separated from the North Atlantic Basin by the
Wyville Thomson ridge and the FaeroeMceland ridge. Farther
north there is a low transverse ridge extending eastwards from
Jan Mayen, in about 72 N., which is about 1300 fathoms deep.
North of this the sea is again deeper — 1985 fathoms in 75° N.
From the north-west corner of Spitsbergen a submarine ridge
extends in a north-westerly direction, with depths of about 430
fathoms in 8i° N. and about 4 E. How far this ridge extends
is unknown, but there is a probability that it reaches Greenland,
and thus separates the Swedish and the Norwegian deep from
the deep depression of the North Polar Basin. Baffin Bay
forms, probably, a relatively deep basin of about 1000 or 1200
fathoms, which is separated from the West Atlantic Basin by
the shallow submarine ridge from Greenland to Baffin Land in
about 65° or 66° N.

The deposit composing the bottom of the Arctic Sea contains
in its northern part, in the North Polar Basin, extremely little
matter of organic origin. It is formed mainly of mineral
material, sandy clay of very fine grain, to an extent which is
hardly found in any other part of the ocean with similar depths.
It contains only from 1 to 4% of carbonate of lime. Farther
south, in the sea between Spitsbergen and Greenland, the
amount of carbonate of lime gradually increases owing to the
shells of foraminifera (especially biloculinae) ; west of Spitsbergen
the proportion rises to above 20 or even 30%, while in the
direction of Greenland it is considerably lower.

The circulation of the Arctic Sea may be explained firstly by
the vertical and horizontal distribution of temperature and
salinity (i.e. density); secondly, by the influence of the winds,
especially on the ice-covered surface. The currents in this sea
may to some extent be considered as convection currents,
caused by the cooling of the water near the surface, which
becomes heavier, sinks, and must be replaced on the surface
by warmer water coming from the south, which is also influenced
by the prevailing winds. On account of the rotation of the
earth the northward-running water on the surface, as well as
the sinking water, will be driven in a north-easterly or easterly
direction, while the southward-flowing water along the bottom,
as well as the rising water, is driven south-west or westward.
This very simple circulation, however, is to a great extent
complicated on the one hand by the irregular configuration of the
sea-bottom, especially the transverse submarine ridges — e.g.
the Spitsbergen ridge, the Jan Mayen ridge, and the Scotland-
Faeroe-Iceland ridge; and on the other hand by the circumstance
that the upper water strata of the sea are comparatively light
in spite of their low temperature. These strata, about 100 or
120 fathoms thick, are diluted by the addition, of fresh water
from the North European, Siberian, Canadian and Alaskan
rivers, as well as by precipitation, while at the same time the
evaporation from the surface of the mostly ice-covered sea is
insignificant. The light surface strata will have a tendency to
spread over the heavier water farther south, and thus the polar
surface currents running southward along the east coasts of
Greenland, Baffin Land and Labrador are formed, owing their
westerly course to the rotation of the earth. These currents
are certainly to a great extent helped and increased by the
prevailing winds of the region. The winds get a firm hold on
the rough surface of the floating ice, which, with its deep hum-
mocks and ridges, gets a good grip of the water, transferring the
movement of the surface immediately down to at least 5 or
10 fathoms.

The chief currents running into the Arctic Sea are the following : —

1. The Gulf Stream, or Atlantic drift, passing north-eastward
over the Scotland-Faeroe-Iceland ridge, along the west coast of
Norway, with one arm branching off eastward round the North
Cape into the Barents Sea, and another branch running northward
along the margin of the shelf between Norway, Bear Island and
Spitsbergen, passing as a very narrow current along the west coast
of the latter, over the Spitsbergen ridge (at its north-west corner),
and into the North Polar Basin, where it flows gradually northward
and eastward (on account of the rotation of the earth) below the
cold but lighter layer, 100 fathoms thick, of polar water, and fills
the whole basin below 100 or 120 fathoms to the bottom with
Atlantic water.

2. The Irminger Current, running north along the west coast of
Iceland. One part branches off westward and southward again
in Denmark Strait, following the Greenland Polar Current, whilst
another smaller part runs northward, eastward and south-eastward
to the north and east of Iceland.

3. An Atlantic current runs northward along the west coast of
Greenland, passes the ridge across Davis Strait, and flows into
Baffin Bay, forming its deeper strata below the polar water in
a similar way to the Gulf Stream in the North Polar Basin. There
is a possibility that some slight portion of this current even reaches
the latter along the bottom of the deep channel through Smith
Sound.

4. A small current running northward into the North Polar
Basin through Bering Strait.

The Arctic Sea receives also a contribution of fresh water from
the rivers of northern Europe, Siberia and America, as well as
from the glaciers of Greenland and the precipitation over the whole
area of the sea itself.

The chief currents running out of the Arctic Sea are: (1) The
Greenland Polar Current, running southward along the east coast
of Greenland, and dividing into two branches north of Iceland —
(a) the east Greenland branch, passing south through Denmark
Strait and rounding Cape Farewell; (b) the east Iceland branch,
running south-eastward between Iceland and Jan Mayen, towards
the Faeroes. It seems as if only a small portion of this current
actually passes the Faero-Iceland ridge and reaches the Atlantic
Ocean. The greater part is partly mixed with the water of the
Gulf Stream and is turned by the latter in a north-easterly direction,
forming a kind of eddy or vortex movement in the southern
Norwegian Sea. (2) The Labrador Polar Current, formed by the
water running south through Smith Sound, Lancaster Sound and
Jones Sound, as well as water from Baffin Bay, and also from the
east Greenland current rounding Cape Farewell and crossing
Davis Strait. (3) Along the south-east coast of Spitsbergen a
polar current also passes in a south-westerly or westerly direction
past South Cape, where it meets the Gulf Stream. (4) A small
current probably also runs out along the western side of Bering
Strait.

Temperature and Salinity.- — While the temperature is compara-
tively uniform, with small variations, the difference in salinity
between the upper and lower strata is greater than in most
other parts of the ocean. In the North Polar Basin the vertical
distribution of temperature as well as salinity is very much the
same in all places examined. Near the surface, from o down to
100 fathoms, the water is below the freezing point of fresh
water — with a minimum of between 28-7° ( — 1-8° C.) and 28-6°
( — 1 -9° C.) at a depth of about 30 fathoms — and is much diluted
with fresh water (see above), the salinity gradually increasing
downward from about 29 or 30 per mille near the surface to
nearly 35 per mille in 100 fathoms. Below 100 fathoms the
temperature as well as the salinity gradually increases, until
they approach their maximum in about 160 or 200 fathoms,
where the temperature varies between 32-5° (0-3° C), north of
the New Siberia Islands, and about 33-8° (1° C.) north of Franz
Josef Land; and the salinity is about 35-1 per mille. From this
depth the temperature gradually sinks downward; 32° (o° C.)
is found at about 490 fathoms in the western part of the basin —
e.g. between about 84° N. 15° E. and 8s§° N. 58 E., while it
is found in about 400 fathoms farther east — e.g. in 8i|° N. and
123° E. In depths between 1400 and 1600 fathoms the tempera-
ture has a second minimum between 30-6° ( — 0-8° C.) and 30-4°
(—0-9° C), below which depth the temperature again rises
slowly, a few tenths of a degree towards the bottom. In all
depths below 200 fathoms the salinity of the water remains very
much the same, about 35-1 per mille, with very slight variations.
This comparatively warm and saline water evidently originates
from the branch of the Gulf Stream passing north across the
submarine ridge from north-west Spitsbergen. The vertical
distribution of temperature and salinity is very much the same,

POLAR REGIONS

959

summer and winter, throughout the North Polar Basin, except
near the surface, which in summer is covered by a layer of fresh
water arising from the melting of the snow-covered surface of
the floe-ice. This fresh-water layer may attain a thickness of
5 or 6 ft. between the floes. North of the Siberian coast the sea
is, during summer, covered with a layer of warm water from the
Siberian rivers, and the temperature of the surface may rise to
several degrees above freezing-point.

In the Norwegian and Greenland Seas there are greater varia-
tions of temperature. Below a certain limit, which in the northern
part (on the eastern side) is about 550 fathoms deep, and in the
southern part between 300 and 400 fathoms deep, the whole
basin of this sea is filled with water which has an unusually
uniform salinity of about 34-92 per mille, and the temperature
of which is below zero centigrade, gradually sinking downward
from the above-mentioned limit, where it is 32 (o° C.) ; and down
to 29-8° ( — 1-2° C.) or 29-6° ( — i-3°C.)nearthebottomini40oor
1600 fathoms. This cold underlying water of such a remarkably
uniform and comparatively low salinity is formed chiefly in a
small area between Jan Mayen and Spitsbergen, by the formation
of ice and cooling down of the Atlantic surface water by radiation
of heat during the winter. In this manner the surface water
becomes heavier than the underlying water and gradually sinks
to the bottom. This water seems to be distinctly different from
the hitherto known water filling the deep of the North Polar
Basin, as it has a lower salinity and lower temperature; the
known bottom temperature of the North Polar Basin being
between 30-7° ( — 0-7° C.) and 30-4° (—0-9° C), and the salinity
about 35-1 per mille. This fact seems to indicate that there can
be no direct communication between the deep depression of the
North Polar Basin and the Norwegian-Greenland Sea, which
are probably separated by a submarine ridge running from the
north-west corner of Spitsbergen to Greenland.

The above-mentioned layer of uniform cold water of the
Norwegian-Greenland Sea is, along its eastern side, covered by
the warm and saline water of the Gulf Stream flowing northward
along the west coast of Norway, Bear Island and Spitsbergen, and
forming the upper strata of the sea about 300 to 500 fathoms
deep. The maximum temperature of this water is on the surface
about 46 (8° C.) to 50° (io° C.) west of northern Norway, and
about 37 (3° C.) to 39 (4 C.) west of Spitsbergen. The salinity
is generally between 35-0 and 35-3 per mille.

Along the western side of this sea, towards the east coast of
Greenland, the underlying cold water is covered by the less
saline water of the polar current, which in the upper strata of the
sea, from the surface down to about 100' fathoms, has very much
the same temperature and salinity as in the upper cold and less
saline strata of the North Polar Basin. Near the east coast of
Greenland, a layer of comparatively warm and saline water, with
a temperature of 32-7° (0-4° C.) and a salinity of 35-2 per mille,
has been found (by the Ryder expedition in 1891) below the cold
and lighter polar water in a depth of 70 to 90 fathoms. This
warmer undercurrent is a continuation of the warm Spitsbergen
current sending off a branch westward from Spitsbergen, and
thus forming a great vortex movement in the Spitsbergen-
Greenland Sea similar to the one mentioned farther south in the
Norwegian Sea.

In Barents Sea the temperature and salinity are highest in the
western part near Norway or between Norway and Bear Island,
where the eastern branch of the Gulf Stream enters and where
in summer the salinity generally is between 34-8 and 35 per mille
from the surface down to the bottom, and the surface tempera-
ture generally is about 41° or 43° (5 C. or 6° C), and the bottom
temperature is above zero centigrade. The eastern part of
Barents Sea is filled with water of a little lower salinity, the
deeper strata of which are very cold, with temperature even as
low as 28-9° (—1-7° C.),.but often with salinity above 35-0 per
mille. This cold and saline water is formed during the formation
of ice on the sea-surface. The bottom temperature is every-
where in the eastern part below zero centigrade and generally
below -i° C.

The Kara Sea is covered near the surface with a layer of cold

water much diluted by the fresh water from the Siberian rivers,
especially the Ob and the Yenisei. The salinity varies between
29 and 34 per mille; near the mouth of the rivers it is naturally
much lower.

The vertical distribution of temperature and salinity in Baffin
Bay seems to be very similar to that of the North Polar Basin,
with a cold but less saline upper stratum of water — with a
minimum temperature of about 28-9° (—1-7° C.) — and a warmer
and more saline deeper stratum from 100 to 200 fathoms down-
wards, with a maximum temperature of 33-6° (0-9° C.) in about
200 fathoms, and the temperature slowly decreasing towards the
bottom.

Arctic Ice. — As before mentioned, at least two-thirds of the
Arctic Sea is constantly covered by drifting ice. This ice is
mostly formed on the surface of the sea itself by freezing, the
so-called floe-ice or sea-ice. A small part is also river-ice,
formed on the rivers, especially those of Siberia, and carried into
the sea during the spring or summer. Another comparatively
small part of the ice originates from the glaciers of the Arctic
lands. These pieces of glacier-ice or icebergs are, as a rule,
easily distinguished from the floe-ice by their size and structure.
They occur almost exclusively in the seas round Greenland,
where they originate from the glaciers descending into the sea
from the inland ice of Greenland. Some small icebergs are also
formed in Franz Josef Land, Spitsbergen, Novaya Zemlya,
Grinnell Land, &c, but they are comparatively insignificant, and
are not as a rule carried far from the coasts. Sea-ice or floe-ice
is formed during the autumn, winter and spring, especially in
the North Polar Basin, but also in the Kara Sea, the greater part
of Barents Sea, the northernmost part of the Norwegian Sea
(near Bear Island and towards Jan Mayen), Greenland Sea and
Baffin Bay. The floe-ice does not, as a rule, grow thicker than
7 or 8 ft. in one year, but when it floats in the water for some
years it may attain a thickness of 16 ft. or more directly by
freezing. By the constant upheaval from pressure much greater
thicknesses are attained in the piled-up hummocks and rubble
which may be 20 to 30 ft. high above the water when floating.
During the summer the floe-ice decreases again by melting
partly on the surface owing to the direct radiation of heat from
the sun, partly on the under side owing to the higher temperature
of the water in which it floats. The first kind of melting is that
which prevails in the North Polar Basin, which the second occurs
in more southern latitudes. The floe-ice is constantly more or
less in movement, carried by winds and currents. The changing
wind, and also to a great extent the changing tidal current,
causes diverging movements in the ice by breaking it into larger
or smaller floes. When the floes separate, lanes and channels are
formed; when they meet, ice-pressures arise, and the floes are
piled up to form hummocks or ridges, and thus the uneven polar
ice arises. In the North Polar Basin the floe-ice is slowly carried
by the prevailing winds and the currents in an average direction
from Bering Strait and the New Siberia Islands, north of Franz
Josef Land and Spitsbergen, near the North Pole, towards the
Greenland Sea and southward along the east coast of Greenland.
Such a drift of an ice-floe from the sea north of Bering Strait to
the east coast of Greenland probably takes, as a rule, four or five
years, and the floes found in this part of the sea are not, therefore,
generally older. What the drift of the ice is on the American side
of the North Polar Basin is still little known. But there it is
probably more or less blocked up in its southward movement by
the islands of the American Arctic archipelago, and the ice-floes
may thus grow very old and thick. Commander Peary found a
strong easterly movement of the floes in the region north of
Grant Land in 1907. The southward distribution of the drifting
floe-ice (the pack ice) in Barents Sea, Norwegian-Greenland Sea
and Davis Strait may differ much from one year to another, and
these variations are evidently due to more or less periodical
variations in the currents and also in the directions of the pre-
vailing winds. In most places the ice has its most southerly
distribution during the late winter and spring, while the late
summer and autumn (end of August and September) is the most
open season.

960

POLAR REGIONS

Biological Conditions. — The development of organic life is
comparatively poor in those parts of the Arctic Sea which are
continuously covered by ice. This is, amongst other things,
proved by the bottom deposits, which contain exceptionally
little carbonate of lime of organic origin. The reason is evidently
that the thick ice prevents to a great extent the development of
plant life on the surface of the sea by absorbing the light; and as
the plant life forms the base for the development of animal life,
this has also very unfavourable conditions. The result is that —
e.g. in the interior of the North Polar Basin — there is exceptionally
little plant life in the sea under the ice-covering, and the animal
life both near the surface and in deeper strata is very poor in
individuals, whilst it is comparatively rich in species. Near the
outskirts of the Arctic Sea, where the sea is more or less open
during the greater part of the year, the pelagic plant life as well as
animal life is unusually rich, and, especially during the early
summer, there is often here such a development of plankton {i.e.
pelagic life) on the sea-surface as is hardly found in any other part
of the ocean. It seems as if the polar water is specially favourable
for the development of pelagic plant life, which makes the flora,
and consequently also the fauna, flourish as soon as the ice-
covering disappears and the water surface is exposed to the full
sunlight of the long Arctic day. At the same time the tempera-
ture of the water rises, and thus the conditions for the chemical
changes of matter and nutritive assimilation are much improved.
The Arctic Sea, more especially the North Polar Basin, might
thus be considered as a lung or reservoir in the circulation of the
ocean where the water produces very little life, and thus, as it
were, gets time to rest and accumulate those substances necessary
for organic life, which are everywhere present only in quite
minimal quantities. It is also a remarkable fact of interest in
this connexion that the greatest fisheries of the world seem to be
limited to places where waters from the Arctic Ocean and from
more southern seas meet — e.g. Newfoundland, Iceland, Lofoten
and Finmarken in Norway.

The mammalian life is also exceptionally rich in individuals
along the outskirts of the Arctic Sea. We meet in those waters,
especially along the margin of the drifting ice, enormous quantities
of seals of various kinds, as well as whales, which live on the
plankton and the fishes in the water. A similar development of
mammalian life is not met with anywhere else in the ocean,
except perhaps in the Antarctic Ocean and Bering Sea, where,
however, similar conditions are present. In the interior of the
Arctic Sea or the North Polar Basin mammalian life is very
poor, and consists mostly of some straggling polar bears which
probably occasionally wander everywhere over the whole expanse
of ice; some seals, especially Phoca foetida, which has been seen
as far north as between 84° and 85° N.; and a few whales,
especially the narwhal, which has been seen in about 85° N.

The bird life is also exceptionally rich on the outskirts of the
Arctic Sea, and the coasts of most Arctic lands are every summer
inhabited by millions of sea-birds, forming great colonies almost
on every rock. These birds are also dependent for their living
on the rich plankton of the surface of the sea. In the interior
of the Arctic Sea the bird life is very poor, but straggling sea-
birds may probably be met with occasionally everywhere, during
summer-time, over the whole North Polar Basin.

Bibliography. — For very full references to polar exploration see
A. W. Greely, Handbook of Polar Discovery (4th ed., London and
New York, 1910), and for a nearly complete bibliography of earlier
polar literature see J. Chavanne and others, The Literature of the
Polar Regions (Vienna, 1878). W. Scoresby, An Account of the
Arctic Regions (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1820); W. E. Parry, Attempt to
reach the North Pole (London, 1828); S. Osborn, The Discovery of the
North-West Passage (London, 1857); M'Clintock, A Narrative of the
Discovery of the Fate of Sir John Franklin, &c. (London, 1859);
G. S. Nares, Voyage to the Polar Sea, 1875-1876 (2 vols., London,
1878); A. H. Markham, The Great Frozen Sea (London, 1878, &c.) ;
J. Richardson, The Polar Regions (Edinburgh, 1861); A. v. Midden-
dorff, " Der Golfstrom ostwarts vom Nordkap," Petermanns Mit-
teilungen (Gotha,_ 1871) ; A. Peterrnann, "Die Erschliessung eines
Theiles des nordlichen Eismeeres . . . im Karischen Meere, 1870,"
Petermanns Mitteilungen (1871); and numerous other papers in
the same periodical; C. R. Markham, The Threshold of the Un-
known Region (London, 1873); D ™ zweite deutsche Nordpolfahrt

unter Fiihrung des Capt. K. Koldewey (2 vols., Leipzig, 1873-1874);
Manual of the Natural History, Geology, and Physics of Greenland
and the neighbouring Regions, published by the Admiralty (London,
1875); Arctic Geology and Ethnology, published by the Royal
Geographical Society (London, 1875); C. VVeyprecht, Die Meta-
morphosen des Polareises (Vienna, 1879); papers on the results
of the Austro-Hungarian Expedition, 1872-1874, in Petermanns
Mitteilungen (1875, and especially 1878); J. Payer, New Lands
within the Arctic Circle (2 vols., London, 1876); E. Bessels,
Scientific Results of the U.S. Arctic Expedition, C. F. Hall com-
manding, vol. i. (Washington, 1874); Die amerikanische Nordpol-
Expedilion (Leipzig, 1879); The Norwegian North Atlantic Expedi-
tion, 1876-1878, especially: H. Mohn, "The North Ocean: its
Depths, Temperature and Circulation" (Christiania, 1887); and
"Chemistry," by H. Tornoe and L. Schmelck (Christiania, 1880,
1882); A. E. Nordenskiold, The Voyage of the " Vega" (London,
188 1); several reports on the six voyages of the " Willem Barents "
in the summers of 1878 to 1883, published in Dutch (Amsterdam and
Haarlem, 1879-1887) ; De Long, The Voyage of the " Jeannette ";
the Ship and Ice Journals of George W. De Long (2 vols., London,
1883) ; Otto Pettersson, " Contributions to the Hydrography of the
Siberian Sea," in Vega-Expeditionens vetenskapliga Iakttagelser, vol. ii.
(Stockholm, 1883); Axel Hamberg, " Hydrografisk Kemiska Iakt-
tagelser under den svenka Expeditionen till Gronland, 1883,"
Bihang till k. svenska vet.-akad. Handlingar, vol. ix. No. 16 and vol.
x. No. 13 (Stockholm, 1884 and 1885); O. Krummel, Handbuch der
Ozeanographie (2 vols., Stuttgart; 2nd ed., 1907, &c.) ; C. Ryder,
" Den Ostgronlandske Expedition," Meddelelser om Gronland,
pt. xvii. (Copenhagen, 1895); Isforholdene i Nordhavet 1877-
1892, with 10 charts (Copenhagen, 1896); O. Pettersson and G.
Ekman, " Die hydrographischen Verhaltnisse der oberen Wasser-
schichten des nordlichen Nordmeeres zwischen Spitzbergen, Gron-
land und der norwegischen Kiiste in den Jahren 1896 und 1897,"
Bihang till der K. Svenska Vet.-Akad. handlingar, vol. xxiii. pt. ii.
No. 4; The Danish Ingolf Expedition; see especially M. Knudsen,
" Hydrography," in vol. i. (Copenhagen, 1899); F. Nansen, Farthest
North (2 vols., London, 1897) ; The Norwegian North Polar Expedi-
tion, 1893-1896: Scientific Results; see especially F. Nansen, " The
Oceanography of the North Polar Basin," in vol. ii. No. 9; " Some
Results of the Norwegian Arctic Expedition, 1893-1896," Geo-
graphical Journal (London, May 1897). By V. Garde and others
there are, since 1895, yearly reports with charts of the state of the
ice of the Arctic seas, in the Nautical-Meteorological Annual of the
Danish Meteorological Institute (Copenhagen). Several Russian
papers in various Russian periodicals, e.g. N. Knipovitch, " Material
concerning the Hydrology of the White Sea and the Murman
Sea," Bulletin de I'academie imp. des sciences de St Petersbourg
(October 1897); Prince B. Galitzin, " On the Extension of the Gulf
Stream in the Arctic Ocean," ibid. (November 1898, both in
Russian), &c. ; N. Knipovitch, " Hydrologische Untersuchungen
im europaischen Eismeer," Ann. d. Hydr. u. marit. Meteorolog.
(1905) ; Filip Akerblom, " Recherches oceanographiques. Expedi-
tion de M. A. G. Nathorst en 1899," Upsala Univesitets Arsskrift
(1903), Math, och Nalurvelenskap II. (Upsala, 1904) ; Axel Hamberg,
" Hydrographische Arbeiten der von A. G. Nathorst geleiteten
schwedischen Polarexpedition 1898," Kongl. svenska vet.-akad.
Handlingar, vol. xli. No. I (Stockholm, 1906) ; F. Nansen, " Northern
Waters," Videnskabs Selskabets Skrifter, vol. i. No. 3 (Christiania,
1906); B. Helland-Hansen and F. Nansen, " The Norwegian Sea,"
Report on Norwegian Fishery and Marine Investigations, vol. ii.
No. 2 (Bergen, 1909); Due d'Orleans, Croisiere oceanographique
dans la Mer du Gronland en 1905 (Brussels, 1909), see especially
B. Helland-Hansen and E. Koefoed, Hydrographie.

(H. R. M.;F. N.)
Antarctic Region
History of Antarctic Exploration. — Although the Antarctic
region was not reached by the first explorer until the Arctic
region had been for centuries a resort of adventurers
in search of the route to the East, the discovery of J^'Jf? 1 **
the south polar region was really the more direct
outcome of the main stream of geographical exploration. It was
early understood by the Greek geographers that the known world
covered only a small portion of the northern hemisphere and that
the whole southern hemisphere awaited exploration, with its
torrid, temperate and frigid zones repeating the climatic regions
familiar in the northern hemisphere, the habitable land of the
south temperate zone being separated from the known world
by the practically impassable belt of the torrid zone. During
the middle ages the sphericity of the earth came to be viewed as
contrary to Scripture and was generally discredited, and it was
not until Prince Henry the Navigator began in 141 8 to encourage
the penetration of the torrid zone in the effort to reach India
by circumnavigating Africa that the exploration of the southern
hemisphere began. The doubling of the Cape of Good Hope in

POLAR REGIONS

g6i

1487 by Bartholomew Diaz first brought explorers within touch
of the Antarctic cold, and proved that the ocean separated Africa
from any Antarctic land that might exist. The passage of
Magellan's Strait in 1520 showed that America and Asia also
were separated from the Antarctic continent, which was then
believed to extend from Tierra del Fuego southward. The
xioubling of Cape Horn by Drake in 1578 proved that the Tierra
del Fuego archipelago was of small extent and that any continent

ever died a harder death. It is not to the purpose here to describe
in detail how Schouten and Le Maire rediscovered the southern
extremity of Tierra del Fuego and named Cape Horn in 1615,
how Quiros in 1606 took possession for the king of Spain of all the
lands he had discovered in Australia del Espiritu Santo (the New
Hebrides) and those he would discover " even to the Pole," or
how Tasman in 1642 showed that New Holland (Australia) was
separated by sea from any continuous southern continent.

which lay to the south must be within the region of perpetual
winter. Before this, however, vague reports of land to the south
of the Malay archipelago had led European geographers to connect
on their globes the coast of Tierra del Fuego with the coast of
New Guinea, and allowing their imaginations to run riot in the
vast unknown spaces of the south Atlantic, south Indian and
Pacific oceans, they sketched the outlines of a vast continent
stretching in parts into the tropics. The search for this great
south land or Third World was a leading motive of explorers in
the 16th and the early part of the 17th centuries, and no illusion
xxi. 3 j

Emcrv Walker st

Voyagers round the Horn frequently met with contrary winds
and were driven southward into snowy skies and ice-encumbered
seas; but so far as can be ascertained none of them before 1770
reached the Antarctic circle, or knew it, if they did. The story
of the discovery of land in 64 S. by Dirk Gerritsz on board the
" Blijde Boodschap " in 1599 has recently been shown to be
the result of the mistake of a commentator, Kasper Barlaeus, in
1622. Much controversy has arisen as to whether South Georgia
was sighted in 1675 by La Roche, but the point is of no import-
ance in the development of the history of exploration. It may

962

POLAR REGIONS

safely be 3a id that, all the navigators who fell in with the southern
ice up to 1750 did so by being driven off their course and not of
set purpose. An exception may perhaps be made in favour of
Halley's voyage in H.M.S. " Paramour " for magnetic investi-
gations in the South Atlantic when he met the ice in 52° S. in
January 1700; but that latitude was his farthest south. A
determined effort on the part of the French naval officer Pierre
Bouvet to discover the South Land described by a half legendary
sieur de Gonneville resulted only in the discovery of Bouvet
Island in 54° 10' S., and in the navigation of 48 degrees of longi-
tude of ice-cumbered sea nearly in 55 S. in 1739. In 1771 Yves
Joseph Kerguelen sailed from France with instructions to proceed
south from Mauritius in search of " a very large continent."
He lighted upon a land in 50 S. which he called South France,
and believed to be the central mass of the southern continent.
He was sent out again to complete the exploration of the new
land, and found it to be only an inhospitable island which he re-
named in disgust the Isle of Desolation, but in which posterity
has recognized his courageous efforts by naming it Kerguelen
Land. The obsession of the undiscovered continent culminated
in the brain of Alexander Dalrymple, the brilliant and erratic
hydrographer who was nominated by the Royal Society to com-
mand the Transit of Venus expedition to Tahiti in 1769, a post
he coveted less for its astronomical interest than for the oppor-
tunity it would afford him of confirming the truthfulness of his
favourite explorer Quiros. The command of the expedition was
given by the admiralty to Captain James Cook, whose geo-
graphical results were criticized by Dalrymple with a force and
persistence which probably had some weight in deciding the
admiralty to send Cook out again with explicit instructions to
solve the problem of the southern continent.

Sailing in 1772 with the " Resolution," a vessel of 462 tons
under his own command and the " Adventure " of 336 tons under
■ Captain Tobias Furneaux, Cook first searched in vain

" for Bouvet Island, then sailed for 20 degrees of
longitude to the westward in latitude 58 S., and then 30° east-
ward for the most part south of 6o° S. a higher southern latitude
than had ever been voluntarily entered before by any vessel.
On the 17th of January 1773 the Antarctic Circle was crossed for
the first time in history and the two ships reached 67 1 5' S. in 39
3 5' E. , where their course was stopped by ice. There Cook turned
northward to look for South France, of the discovery of which
he had received news at Cape Town, but from the rough determi-
nation of his longitude by Kerguelen, Cook reached the assigned
latitude 10° too far east and did not see it. He turned south
again and was stopped by ice in 61° 52' S. and 95° E. and con-
tinued eastward nearly on the parallel of 60 ° S. to 147° E. where
on March 16th the approaching winter drove him northward
for rest to New Zealand and the tropical islands of the Pacific.
In November 1773 Cook left New Zealand, having parted com-
pany with the " Adventure," and reached 6o c S. in 177 W.,
whence he sailed eastward keeping as far south as the floating
ice allowed. The Antarctic Circle was crossed on the 20th of
December and Cook remained south of it for three days, being
compelled after reaching 67 31' S. to stand north again in
135° W. A long detour to 47 50' S. served to show that
there was no land connexion between New Zealand and Tierra
del Fuego, and turning south again Cook crossed the Antarc-
tic circle for the third time in 109 30' W., and four days later
his progress was blocked by ice in 71° 10' S., 106 54' W. This
point, reached on the 30th of January 1774, was the farthest
south attained in the 18th century. With a great detour to the
east, almost to the coast of South America, the expedition
regained Tahiti for refreshment. In November 1774 Cook
started from New Zealand and crossed the South Pacific without
sighting land between 53 and 57° S. to Tierra del Fuego, then
passing Cape Horn on the 29th of December he discovered
the Isle of Georgia and Sandwich Land, the only ice-clad
land he had seen, and crossed the South Atlantic to the
Cape of Good Hope between 55° and 60° S., thereby wiping out
Dalrymple's continent from all the oceans and laying open the
way for future Antarctic exploration by exploding the myth of a

habitable southern continent. Cook's most southerly discovery
of land lay on the temperate side of the 60th parallel, and he
convinced himself that if land lay farther south it was practically
inaccessible and of no economic value.

Soon after Cook's return sealers set out on voyages to South
Georgia both from England and America, but no clear accounts
of the southern limits of their voyages before the Sealers'
year 1819 can now be obtained. In February of that Voyages.
year William Smith of the brig " Williams " trading between
Monte Video and Valparaiso, rounding the Horn with a wide
sweep to the south, saw land in 62° 40' S. Repeating the voyage
in October he saw the land distinctly, and named it New South
Shetland. The " Williams " was chartered by the British naval
commander on the Pacific station, and in 1820 Edward Brans-
field, master R.N., surveyed the group and went as far as 64° 30'
among the islands. Meanwhile American sealers from Stoning-
ton, Connecticut, had begun operations on the newly dis-
covered land, and one of these, Nathaniel B. Palmer, discovered
the mountainous archipelago still farther south which now
bears his name. In 1821-1822 George Powell, apparently a
British sealer, discovered and surveyed the South Orkney
Islands which, though typical Antarctic lands, lie outside the
Antarctic region.

A voyage only second in importance to that of Cook was planned
in Russia and sent out by the emperor Alexander I. under the
command of Fabian von Bellingshausen in the Belllngs-
" Vostok," with Lieut. Lazareff in the " Mirni " hausen.
in company, both vessels being about 500 tons. The object of
the expedition was to supplement that of Cook by circum T
navigating the Antarctic area, taking care to keep as far south as
possible in those longitudes where Cook had made his northward
detours. Bellingshausen entered on his exploring work by sight-
ing South Georgia at the end of December 1819, discovered the
Traverse Islands, sighted the Sandwich group and met a solid
ice-pack in 6o° S., to get round which he made a wide detour,
sailing east to the south of Cook's track, and getting south of the
60th parallel in 8° W. On the 26th of January he crossed the
Antarctic Circle in 3° W. and by February 1st had reached 69° 25'
in 1° 11' W., a latitude which has never been surpassed on that
meridian. Being stopped by ice, Bellingshausen turned northward
and then continued to the east well to the south of Cook's track,
getting south again as the ice permitted and reaching 69° 6' S. in
1 8° E. On this occasion he was able to sail for three degrees of
longtitude within the circle before being forced north of it by a
succession of heavy gales. He still kept eastward south of 65° S.
and crossed the circle once more in 41 E., where the number
of birds seen suggested the proximity of land, and in fact
Enderby Land was not very far off, though out of sight. A
storm of unexampled violence drove the ships northward, but
they still held to the east south of 6o° S. as far as 87° E., having
followed the edge of the ice through those meridians south of
Kerguelen Land where Cook had made a great detour to the
north. Bellingshausen now made for Sydney to rest and refit,
arriving there on the 29th of March 1820, after 131 days under
sail from his last port. At Sydney Bellingshausen heard of
the discovery of the South Shetlands, and leaving early in
November reached the sixtieth parallel a month later in longi- 1
tude 143 W., and sailing eastward kept south of that parallel
through 145 degrees of longitude during sixty-five days, never
out of sight of the ice, keeping close along the pack edge through
the great gap left by Cook south of New Zealand. He managed
to cross the circle three times more, in 164 30' W., in 120° W.
and in 92° 10' W., where he reached 69 52' S., the culminating
point of the voyage. As the cruise was supplementary to
Cook's, no attempt was made to get south of the meridian
where that great navigator made his highest latitude. On the
22nd of January 1821, the day after reaching his highest latitude,
Bellingshausen sighted the first land ever seen within the
Antarctic Circle, the little island named after Peter I. A week
later another and larger land, named after Alexander I., was seen
at a distance of 40 m. and sketches made of its bold outline in
which the black rock stood out in contrast to the snow.

POLAR REGIONS

9 6 3

Bellingshausen then made for the South Shetlands, where he
met the American sealers, and thence returned to Russia. The
voyage was a worthy pendant to that of Cook; it was carried
out with a faithful devotion to instructions and consummate
seamanship, and as a result it left only half the periphery
of the Antarctic Circle within which land could possibly project
beyond the Frigid Zone.

The next episode in the history of Antarctic exploration was
the voyage of James Weddell, a retired master R.N., in 1823.
Weddell. Weddell was in command of the " Jane," a brig of
160 tons, with the cutter " Beaufoy " of 65 tons in
company, and after cruising among the South Orkneys during
January he started for the soutBWf exploration, and as he was
well equipped with chronometers his positions may be taken as of
a far higher degree of accuracy than those of ordinary sealers. On
the 20th of February he reached the highest latitude yet attained,
74 1 5' S. in 34 1 7' W., having seen much ice but no impenetrable
pack, and at the farthest point the sea was clear and open, but
the lateness of the season and the length of the return voyage
decided him to go no farther. Weddell made interesting collec-
tions of Antarctic animals, including the type specimen of the
seal which bears his name, and the book in which he describes
his voyage testifies to the keenness of his observations and
the soundness of his reasoning. The sea which he penetrated so
far to the south he named after the reigning king, George IV.,
but it is now known as Weddell Sea.

In 1829 Captain Henry Foster, R.N., in H.M.S. " Chanti-
cleer " spent some months in the South Shetlands carrying on
pendulum and gravity observations at the most southerly
harbour that could be found, and though he did not go south of
63 50' S. the careful observations which were made threw
much light on the physical conditions of the Antarctic regions.

The firm of Enderby Brothers of London took a conspicuous
part in the exploration of the Antarctic seas during the first
Blscoe * our decades of the 19th century. They encouraged
the masters of the whaling and sealing craft which
they sent to the southern seas to take every opportunity that
offered for exploration and to fix the position of any land
seen with the greatest possible accuracy. The voyage of the
Enderbys' brig " Tula," under the command of John Biscoe, R.N.,
with the cutter " Lively " in company, is worthy to rank with
Cook's and Bellingshausen's expeditions, for it repeated and
advanced upon their achievements with a mere fraction of their
resources. Biscoe, who apparently had never heard of Bellings-
hausen's discoveries, was a keen explorer and a man given to
thinking over and reasoning upon all that he saw, and in many
of his conclusions he was far in advance of his time. At the
beginning of January 183 1 Biscoe, who had been hunting vainly
for seals on the Sandwich group, started on a voyage easterly to
look for new islands, and in trying to get south of 6o° S. he had to
coast the impenetrable ice-pack as far as io° W., and continuing
he got within the Antarctic Circle in i° E. on a track parallel to
that of Bellingshausen but farther east. Contrary winds delayed
the little vessels, no seal-bearing lands were to be found, but in
spite of difficulties, constant danger from fogs and icebergs, and
disappointed crews he held on eastward for five weeks far to the
south of Cook's track, and, except at one or two points, to the
south of Bellingshausen's also. Though his highest latitude was
only 69° S. in io° 43' E. on the 28th of January, he remained
south of the Antarctic Circle, or within a few miles of it, for
another month, when, in longitude 49 18' E., he was rewarded
by the discovery of land. But just as he was entering on
a clear lead of water running straight for a promontory
which he named Cape Ann, a terrific storm descended on the
vessels, damaged them seriously and drove them helpless before
it with the driving ice. A fortnight's struggle with the wind
and ice brought Cape Ann into sight again on the 16th of
March, but the weather was not to be conquered, the sea
was beginning to freeze and half the crew were helpless with
the effects of exposure, so Biscoe was compelled to give up the
fight and reluctantly let the land — now known as Enderby
Land — drop out of sight astern. With only three men able to

stand, Biscoe brought the " Tula " into Hobart Town, Tasmania,
and the " Lively," with only the master, one man, and a wounded
boy alive, just escaped shipwreck in Port Philip Bay. After
recruiting their health and completing their crews the two
captains put to sea again and spent some time in sealing on the
shores of New Zealand and neighbouring islands. They started
south once more, and crossed 6o° S. in 13 1° W. on the 28th of
January 1832. Biscoe kept between 6o° and the Antarctic
Circle, north of Bellingshausen's route, for he dared not risk the
lives of his second crew, but he got south to 67° S. in 72 W.,
and here, on the 14th of February, he again sighted land,
which, in ignorance of Bellingshausen's discoveries in the
same region, he believed was the most southerly land yet
known. He named it Adelaide Land after the queen. A
few days later he passed a row of low ice-covered islands— the
Biscoe Islands — running from W.S.W. to E.N.E. Beyond
these islands lay the mountains of an extensive land of which
Biscoe took possession in the name of King William IV., and
to which the name of Graham Land was subsequently given.
Biscoe returned home after an arduous two months' sealing in
the South Shetlands, and the splendid results of his relentless
determination as an explorer won for him the gold medals of the
young Geographical Societies of London and Paris.

In 1833 another of Enderbys' captains named Kemp reported
the discovery of land in 66° S. and 6o° E. about io° east of
Enderby Land. The last of the great voyages of Balleny.
exploration due to Enderby Brothers was the cruise
of the " Eliza Scott " under the command of John Balleny, with
the cutter " Sabrina " in company. This voyage is interesting
because it was the first attempted in high latitudes from east
to west, and all those made in the opposite direction had suffered
much from the buffetings of head winds. Balleny left Campbell
Island south of New Zealand on the 17th of January 1839 and
crossed the Antarctic Circle in 178° E. on the 29th. Heavy
pack ice stopped him in 69 S., a higher latitude than had
previously been reached in that region. On the 9th of February,
after the little vessels had been working north-westward along
the edge of the pack ice for more than a week, land was seen
and found to be a group of mountainous islands — the Balleny
Islands — one of which rose to a height of 12,000 ft., and
another was an active volcano. Captain Freeman of the
" Sabrina " made a momentary landing on one of the islands
and was nearly drowned in the attempt, but secured a few
stones which showed the rocks to be volcanic. The vessels
held on their way westward between latitudes 63 and 65 S.,
far south of any earlier voyager, and land, or an appear-
ance of land, to which the name of the " Sabrina " was given, was
reported in 121 E. In 103 40' E. an iceberg was passed with a
rock embedded in the ice, clear proof of land existing to the south-
ward. A few days later the " Sabrina " was lost in a gale, but
Balleny returned in safety.

About 1835 the importance of obtaining magnetic observations
in the far south, and the scientific interest of the study of the
south polar regions led to plans being put forward for
expeditions in the United States, France and Great D'Urville.
Britain. The French were first in the field; an expe-
dition, equipped in the frigates " Astrolabe " and " Zalee " under
Jules Dumont D'Urville for ethnographical research in the Pacific
Islands, was instructed to make an attempt to surpass Weddell's
latitude in the South Atlantic Ocean, and this D'Urville tried to
do with conspicuous ill-success, for he never reached the Ant-
arctic Circle though he spent the first two months of 1838 round
the edge of the ice-pack south of the South Shetlands and the
South Orkneys. Some portions of the land south of the South
Shetlands were charted and named Joinville Island and Louis
Philippe Land; but the addition to knowledge was not great.
Two years later, after fulfilling the main purpose of his expedition
in the Pacific, D'Urville resolved for the glory of France to attempt
to reach the Magnetic Pole, towards which he was aware that a
British and an American expedition were directing their course.
He left Hobart Town on the 1st of January 1840, and on the 20th
he crossed the 66th parallel in 140 E. and discovered land 3000

9 6 4

POLAR REGIONS

Wilkes.

or 4000 ft. high, which he named Adelie Land and took posses-
sion of by landing on a rocky islet off the icebound coast. Ten
days later in 64°3o' S. D'Urville cruised westward along a high
ice-barrier, which he believed to be connected with land, from
longitude 13 1° E. and he named it the Clarie Coast. A few days
later he left the Antarctic regions for the Pacific.

As early as 1836 the United States Congress had authorized
an American Exploring Expedition in the programme of which
Antarctic exploration had a leading place. Lieut.
Charles Wilkes was appointed to command the
expedition of five vessels in August 1838, and his instructions,
dated in that month, required him amongst other things (1) to
follow Weddell's route as far as possible, (2) to visit the most
southerly point reached by Cook in the Antarctic, and (3) to
make an " attempt to penetrate within the Antarctic region,
south of Van Diemen's Land, and as far west as longitude 45 E.,
or to Enderby Land." The ships were in bad repair and ill-
adapted for navigation in the ice, and many of the officers were
not devoted to their chief; but in spite of great difficulties Wilkes
fulfilled his programme. In following Weddell's route Wilkes
in March 1839 fared no better than D'Urville in the previous
year, but the " Flying Fish " of 96 tons under Lieutenant Walker
reached 70 S. in 105 W., thus nearly reaching Cook's position
of 1774. The third item of the Antarctic programme was made
the subject of the most strenuous endeavour. Wilkes sailed
from Sydney in the " Vincennes " on the 26th of December 1839,
accompanied by the " Peacock " under Lieut. William L.
Hudson, the " Porpoise " under Lieut. Cadwaladar Ringgold,
and the " Flying Fish " under Lieut. Pinkney. They went
south to the west of the Balleny Islands, which they did not see,
and cruised westward along the ice-barrier or as near it as the
ice-pack allowed towards Enderby Land nearly on the Antarctic
Circle. The weather was bad with fogs, snowstorms and frequent
gales, and although land was reported (by each of the vessels')
at several points along the route, it was rarely seen distinctly and
the officers were not agreed amongst themselves in some cases.
Unfortunate controversies have arisen at intervals during sixty
years as to the reality of Wilkes's discoveries of land, and as to
the justice of the claim he made to the discovery of the Antarctic
continent. Some of the land claimed at the eastern end of his
route has been shown by later expeditions not to exist; but there
can be no doubt that Wilkes saw land along the line where
Adelie Land, Kemp Land and Enderby Land are known to exist,
even if the positions he assigns are not quite accurate. No one,
however, could establish a claim to the discovery of a continent
from sighting a discontinuous chain of high land along its coast,
without making a landing. It seems no more than due to a
gallant and much-persecuted officer, who did his best in most
difficult circumstances, to leave the name of Wilkes Land on the
map of the region he explored.

Unlike the other two expeditions, that equipped by the
British government in 1839 was intended solely for Antarctic
exploration and primarily for magnetic surveys in
the south polar seas. There were two ships, the
" Erebus " of 370 tons, and the " Terror " of 340, stoutly built craft
specially strengthened for navigation in the ice. Captain James
Clark Ross, R.N., was in command of the " Erebus " and of the
expedition; Commander Francis Rawdon Moira Crozier of the
" Terror." A young surgeon, Joseph Dalton Hooker, joined the
Royal Navy in order to go on the expedition, and he lived to take
a keen interest in every subsequent Antarctic expedition down
to that of Captain Scott in 1910. Ross had intended to make
straight for the meridian of the Magnetic Pole, but, finding that
D'Urville and Wilkes had already entered on those seas he deter-
mined to try to make a high latitude farther east, and leaving
Hobart Town on the 12th of November 1840 he crossed the
Antarctic Circle on the 1st of January 1841 and entered
the pack ice on the 5th in 174 E. Instead of proving
an impenetrable obstacle, the pack let the two ships work
through in five days, and they emerged into open sea.
Sailing towards the Magnetic Pole they found a chain of
great mountains rising from a coast which ran due south

from a prominent cape (Cape Adare) in 71 S. The continent
was taken formal possession of for Queen Victoria by landing on
Possession Island, the mainland being inaccessible, and the ships
continued southward in sight of the coast of Victoria Land, where
the loftiest mountain was named Mt Melbourne after the Prime
Minister, until the twin volcanoes named Erebus and Terror
were sighted in 78 S. on the 28th of January. From Cape Crozier,
at the base of the mountains, a line of lofty cliffs of ice ran east-
wards, the great ice-barrier, unlike any object in nature ever seen
before, rising perpendicularly from the water to the height of
200 or 300 ft. and continuing unbroken for 250 m. Along
the barrier the highest latitude of 78° 4' S. was attained, and
the farthest point to the east was 167 W., whence Ross turned
to look for a winter harbour in Victoria Land. Being desirous
to winter near the South Magnetic Pole, Ross did not explore
McMurdo Bay between Mt Erebus and the north-running coast,
where, as we now know, a harbour could have been found, and
as he could not reach the land elsewhere on account of ice
extending out from it for 15 or 16 m., after sighting the
Balleny Islands at a great distance, on the 2nd of March the
ships returned to Hobart. This was the most remarkable
Antarctic voyage for striking discoveries ever made.

In November 1841 the " Erebus " and " Terror " returned to
Antarctic waters, steering south-east, from New Zealand and
entering the ice-pack in about 60° S. and 146° W., the idea being
to approach the great barrier from the eastward, but by the end
of the year they had just struggled as far as the Antarctic Circle
and they, together with the pack, were several times driven far
to the northward by heavy gales in which the ships were at the
mercy of the floating ice. During a storm of terrible severity
on the 1 8th of January the rudders of. both ships were smashed,
and not until the 1st of February did they break out of
the pack in 67 29' S., 159° W. The barrier was sighted on
the 22nd and the ships reached 78° 10' S. in 161 27' W., the
highest latitude attained for 60 years. To the eastward the
barrier surface rose to a mountainous height, but although
Ross believed it to be land, he would only treat it officially
as " an appearance of land," leaving the confirmation of its
discovery as King Edward Land to the next century. No
more work was done in this quarter; the " Erebus " and
" Terror " turned the edge of the pack to the northward and
on getting into clear water sailed eastward to Cape Horn,
meeting the greatest danger of the whole cruise on the way
by colliding with each other at night while passing between
two icebergs in a gale.

After wintering in the Falkland Islands and making good
the damage received, Ross made his third and last attack on
the southern ice, and for six weeks he cruised amongst the pack
off Joinville Island and Louis Philippe Land trying in vain to
reach the Antarctic Circle. Failing in this attempt he turned to
follow Weddell's route and skirted the pack eastward in 65 S.,
crossing Weddell's track on the 14th of February 1843, more
than a degree farther south than D'Urville in his attempt
four years before, but on the edge of an equally impenetrable
pack. Coasting it eastward to 12 W. the " Erebus " and
" Terror " at last rounded the pack and found the way open to
the south, crossing the circle on the 1st of March. Four days
later the pack was met with again and the ships were forced into
it for 27 miles to latitude 71 30' S. in 14° 51' W., nineteen
degrees east of Weddell's farthest south. No sign of land was
seen, a deep-sea sounding showed 4000 fathoms with no
bottom, and although this was a mistake, for the real depth
was later proved by Dr Bruce to be only 2660 fathoms, it
showed at least that there was no land in the immediate
neighbourhood.

This was Ross's last piece of Antarctic work, but the magnetic
observations of his expedition were continued by Lieut. T. E. L.
Moore, R.N., in the hired barque " Pagoda," which left Simon's
Bay in January 1845 and proceeded south-east, crossing the
Antarctic Circle in 30 45' E. and reaching a farthest south of
67 50', nine degrees farther east. An attempt to reach Enderby
I Land was frustrated by the weather, and Moore continued his

POLAR REGIONS

05

"Challen-
ger."

voyage to Australia in a high latitude beating against contrary
gales, a condition to which all previous experience pointed as
likely to occur.

No further attempt at South Polar exploration was made for
nearly thirty years, except a short cruise by Mr Tapsell in the
" Brisk," one of Enderby's ships which in February
1850, after passing the Balleny Islands, proceeded
eastward to 143 E. at a higher latitude than Wilkes
without sighting land. The first steamer to cross the Antarctic
Circle was H.M.S. " Challenger," on the 16th of February 1874:
she only penetrated to 66° 40' S., in 78° 30' E., south of Kerguelen
Land; but she continued her course to Australia for some distance
in a high latitude, passing within 15 m. of the position assigned to
Wilkes's Termination Land without seeing any sign of land. Her
dredgings and soundings yielded evidence as to the~nature of the
unknown region farther south. Sir John Murray believed that
the soundings showed a general shoaling of the ocean towards the
Antarctic ice, indicating the approach to a continent. By collect-
ing and analysing all samples of deep-sea deposits which had been
secured from the far south, he discovered a remarkable symmetry
in the arrangement of the deposits. The globigerina ooze, or in
deeper waters the red clay, carpeting the northern part of the
Southern Oceans, merges on the southward into a great ring of
diatom ooze, which gives place in turn, towards the ice, to a
terrigenous blue mud. The fine rock particles of which the blue
mud is composed are such as do not occur on oceanic islands, and
the discovery of large blocks of sandstone dropped by icebergs
proved the existence of sedimentary rocks within the Antarctic
Circle.

During the southern summer in which the " Challenger "
visited Antarctic waters, a German whale-ship, the " Gronland,"
D .. under Captain Dallmann, visited the western coast

of the Antarctic land south of Tierra del Fuego, and
modified the chart in several particulars. The chief discovery
was a channel, named Bismarck Strait, in 65 S., which seemed to
run between Palmer Land and Graham Land.

When the International Circumpolar observations were set
on foot in 1882, two scientific stations' were maintained for a year
in the southern hemisphere in order to obtain data for comparison
with the observations at twelve stations round the North Pole.
One of these was occupied by French observers in Tierra del
Fuego in 55 S., the other by German observers at Royal Bay on
South Georgia in 54° 30' S. The magnetic and meteorological
observations were of considerable importance.

In 1892 four steamers of the Dundee whaling fleet — the
" Balaena," " Active," " Diana " and " Polar Star " — went out
to test Ross's statement that the " right whale " inhabited
Antarctic waters. The surgeons of two of the vessels — on the
" Balaena " Dr W. S. Bruce, on the "Active" Dr C. W. Donald
— were selected for their scientific tastes, and equipped with all
requisite instruments for observations and collecting. The
result of the experiment was disappointing. No whales were
obtained, and the ships devoted their attention to sealing on
the east of Joinville Island and Louis Philippe Land, not going
farther south than 65° S. (Geographical Journal, 1896, vii.
502-521, 625-643).

A Norwegian sealer, the " Jason," Captain Larsen, also visited
those seas in the same season, but the captain landed and collected
, fossils at several points north of 65 S. In 1893-1894

the " Jason," accompanied by two other Norwegian
vessels,the " Hertha " and the " Castor," returned to the Antarctic
and entered the ice-laden waters in November at the very begin-
ning of summer. Captain Larsen in the " Jason " made his way as
far south as 68° 10' in 6o° W. on the eastern side of Graham Land,
but several miles from the coast, which was bordered by a high
ice-barrier. The land beyond this barrier was named Foyn
Land, after a famous Norwegian whaleship owner. Returning
northwards, two small islands, Lindenberg and Christensen, were
discovered and found to be active volcanoes. Meanwhile the
" Hertha," Captain Evensen, had reached the South Shetlands
on the 1st of November 1893, and worked her way southward
along the west side of Palmer Land and past the Biscoe Islands,

reaching the Antarctic Circle on the 9th of November without
meeting ice. This was the first time the Antarctic Circle had
been crossed since the " Challenger " did so twenty years before.
Captain Evensen sighted Alexander Land, and without exper-
iencing any trouble from ice-floes he reached his farthest south,
69° 10' S. in 76° 12' W. (Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesell-
schajt, Hamburg, 1895, pp. 245-304).

In 1894 the well-known Norwegian whaler, Svend Foyn, sent
out one of his vessels, the " Antarctic, " Captain Christensen. to
try his luck off the coast of Victoria Land. The
" Antarctic " sailed from Melbourne in September, v i akp \gg 4i
having on board Carstens Egeberg Borchgrevink, a
young Norwegian resident in Australia, who, being determined to
take part in a voyage he could join in no other way, shipped as
an ordinary seaman. He made notes of the voyage, and published
an account of it on his return to Europe (Report of Sixth Inter-
national Geographical Congress, London, 1895, pp. 169-175).
The " Antarctic " entered the pack in 62 45' S., 171° 30' E.,
on the 8th of December 1894. The Balleny Islands were sighted
on the 14th of December, and Cape Adare on Victoria Land two
days later. On the 22nd of January 1895 the farthest point was
reached at Coulman Island in 74° S.; the sea was then easily
navigable to the south. On the 23rd of January a small party,
including the captain and Mr Borchgrevink, landed on the
mainland near Cape Adare, the first people to set foot on the
Antarctic continent.

Efforts had been made from time to time, by Professor Georg
von Neumayer in Germany and by Sir John Murray and others
in Great Britain, to induce learned societies to in-
augurate a new era of scientific Antarctic research «Betzica'."
under Government or at least under national auspices.
In 1895 Sir Clements Markham, as president of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society and of the International Geographical Congress,
also took the matter up, and interest in the Antarctic regions
began to be aroused in every civilized country. Captain Adrien
de Gerlache organized and led a Belgian expedition, for which he
raised the funds with difficulty. M. Georges Lecointe, captain of
the " Belgica," and Lieut. Danco, magnetic observer, were
Belgians; Mr Roald Amundsen, the mate, a Norwegian; M.
Arctowski, the geologist and physicist, a Pole; M. Racovitza, the
biologist, a Rumanian; and Dr F. A. Cook, the surgeon, an
American. On the 14th of January 1898, already long past mid-
summer, the " Belgica," left Staten Island for Antarctic waters.
She sighted the South Shetlands on the 21st and proceeded to
Hughes Gulf, from which a channel, Gerlache Strait, was explored
leading south-westward between continuous land, named Danco
Land, on the east (the northern extension of Graham Land), and
Palmer Land on the west. Palmer Land was found to be a group
of large islands. On the 12th of February the " Belgica " re-
entered the open sea to the west at Cape Tuxen in 65 i$' S.
Much fog was experienced, but on the 16th Alexander Land was
sighted in the distance. Continuing on a westerly course, the
" Belgica " made every effort to enter the pack, which was
successfully accomplished after a heavy storm on the 28th.
By taking advantage of the leads, the expedition advanced to
71° 30' S. in S5 15' W. by the 2nd of March, but the ship was
blocked next day by the growth of young ice soldering the pack
into one continuous mass. For more than a year further inde-
pendent movement was impossible; but the ship drifted with the
ice between the limits of 80° 30' W. and 102 ro' W., and of
69 40' and 71 35' S., which was the highest latitude attained
(May 31, 1898). The sun did not rise for seventy days, and
all on board suffered severely from depression of spirits and
disorders of the circulation, which Dr Cook attributed to the
darkness and to improper food. Lieut. Danco died during
the period of darkness. On the 13th of March 1899, when a
second winter in the ice began to seem probable, the " Belgica "
was released in 69° 50' S. and 102 10' W. The geographical
results of this expedition were insignificant so far as the dis-
covery of land or penetration to a high latitude is. concerned.
The ship passed several times to the south and west of Peter I.
Island, proving that the land seen by Bellingshausen at that

9 66

POLAR REGIONS

point is of very limited extent. During the drift in the ice the
soundings were usually between 200 and 300 fathoms, which,
compared with the great depths to the north, clearly indicated
a continental shelf of considerable breadth, probably connected
with land in the south. The scientific collections were of unique
value and have been worked up and the results published at the
expense of the Belgian government.

The Hamburg America Company's steamer " Valdivia,"
chartered by the German Government for a scientific voyage
••valdivia " un d er tne leadership of Professor Carl Chun of Leip-
zig, with Dr Gerhard Schott as oceanographer.left
Cape Town on the 13th of November 1898, and on the 25th was
fortunate in rediscovering Bouvet Island (54° 26' S., 3° 24' E.),
which had been searched for in vain by Cook, Ross, Moore and
many other sailors. Steering south, the " Valdivia," although
an unprotected steel vessel, followed the edge of the pack from
8° E. to 58° E., reaching 64° 15' S. in 54° 20' E. on the 16th of
December. At this point a depth of 2541 fathoms was found,
so that if Enderby Land occupies its assigned position, 102
nautical miles farther south, the sub-oceanic slope must be of
quite unusual steepness. The rocks dredged up contained
specimens of gneiss, granite and schist, and one great block of
red sandstone weighing 5 cwt. was secured, confirming the theory
of the continental nature of the land to the south.

On his return to England in 1895 Mr Borchgrevink made
strenuous efforts to organize an Antarctic expedition under his
own leadership, and in August 1898 he left the
Wnfc, W98. Thames on the " Southern Cross," in charge of a
private expedition equipped by Sir George Newnes.
His scientific staff included Lieut. Colbeck, R.N.R.; Mr Louis
Bernacchi, a trained magnetic observer, and Mr N. Hanson,
biologist. About fifty dogs were taken out, the intention being
to land at Cape Adare and advance towards the magnetic, and
perhaps also towards the geographical pole by sledge. The
" Southern Cross " sighted one of the Balleny Islands on the 14th
of January 1899, and after in vain attempting to get south about
the meridian of 164 E., the ship forced her way eastward and
emerged from the pack (after having been beset for forty-eight
days) in 70 S., 174 E. She reached Cape Adare, and anchored
in Robertson Bay on the 17th of February. The land party, con-
sisting of ten men, was established in a house built on the strip of
beach at the base of the steep ascent to the mountains, and the
ship left on the 2nd of March. Mr Borchgrevink found it impos-
sible to make any land journey of importance and the party spent
the first year ever passed by man on Antarctic land in making
natural history collections and keeping up meteorological and
magnetic observations. The " Southern Cross " returned to Cape
Adare on the 28th of January 1900, and after taking the winter
party on board — diminished by the death of Mr Hanson — set out
for the south on the 2nd of February. Landings were made on
several islands, on the mainland at the base of Mt Melbourne, and
on the 10th of February at the base of Mt Terror, near Cape
Crozier. From this point the ship steamed eastward along the
great ice-barrier to a point in 164 10' W., where an inlet in the ice
was found and the ship reached her highest latitude, 78° 34' S.,
on the 17th of February. The edge of the ice was found to be
about 30 m.. farther south than it had been when Ross visited it
in 1842. Mr Borchgrevink was able to land on the ice with
sledges and dogs, and advanced southward about 16 m., reach-
ing 78 50' S. He discovered that plant life existed in the shape
of mosses and lichens in some of the rocky islands, a fact not
previously known.

In the autumn of 1901 three well-equipped expeditions left
Europe for Antarctic exploration. The British National Ant-
arctic expedition was organized by a joint committee of the
Royal Society and the Royal Geographical Society, and equipped
under the superintendence of Sir Clements Markham. Most of
the cost was borne by the government, the rest mainly by Mr
L. W. Longstaff, who provided £30,000, the Royal Geographical
Society, and Mr A. C. Harmsworth (afterwards Lord Northcliffe).
A strong wooden ship of about 700 tons register (1700 tons dis-
placement) was built at Dundee, and named the " Discovery."

She was made entirely non-magnetic amidships, so that magnetic
observations might be carried on without interference
from local attraction. The expedition sailed under •fo°sc' reiy."
the command of Commander R. F. Scott, R.N., with
Lieut. Albert Armitage, R.N.R., as second in command, Lieuts.
Royds and Barne, R.N., Lieut. Shackleton, R.N.R., and
Engineer-Lieut. Skelton, R.N. The crew of forty men were
almost entirely sailors of the Royal Navy. The scientific staff
included Dr Koettlitz, who had shared with Mr Armitage
in the Jackson-Harmsworth arctic expedition; Mr Louis
Bernacchi, who had wintered with Mr Borchgrevink at Cape
Adare; Dr E. A. Wilson, Mr Hodgson, biologist, and Mr
Ferrar, geologist. The " Discovery " sailed from New
Zealand on the 24th of December 1901, met the pack ice
on the Antarctic circle and was through into the open sea
in 175° E. on the 8th of January 1902. She made a quick run
to Cape Crozier and cruised along the great ice barrier, confirming
Borchgrevink's discovery that it lay 30 m. farther south than
in 1842, and at the eastern end of the barrier Scott discovered
and named King Edward Land where Ross had recorded an
" appearance " only. The sea in the neighbourhood had
shoaled to less than 100 fathoms and the ice-barrier in places was
so low that the " Discovery " was able to lie alongside as at a
quay. A captive balloon ascent was made from the barrier but
nothing was seen to the south. Returning to McMurdo Bay the
"Discovery" found that Mts Erebus and Terror were on an
island, the " bay " being really a sound. The ship was secured
in winter quarters in 77° 49' S. 166° E., and a hut erected on
shore. From this base land-exploration in the Antarctic was
initiated, and the history of exploration entered on a new phase.
Although some symptoms of scurvy appeared during the winter
they were checked by change of diet, and with the beginning
of spring sledge journeys with dogs were commenced and a
quantity of provisions was laid down in depots to assist the
great journey which Scott had planned to the south. On
the 2nd of November 1902 Captain Scott, with Lieut. E. H.
Shackleton and Dr E. A. Wilson, set out with dog-sledges travel-
ling south over the surface of the barrier in sight of a range of new
mountains running parallel to their track on the west. The
conditions of travelling were unlike those in the Arctic region,
the weather being more inclement and the summer temperature
much lower than in similar latitudes in the north. There were
no bears to menace the safety of the travellers, and no wolves
or foxes to plunder the depots; but on the other hand there was
no game of any sort to be met with, and all food for men and dogs
had to be carried on the sledges. The surface of the ice was often
rough and much crevassed, especially near the western land, snow
blizzards frequently occurred making travelling impossible and
the heavy sledges had at first to be brought forward by relays,
making it necessary to march three miles for every mile of south-
ing made. The dogs also weakened and had to be killed one by one
to feed the rest. On the 30th of December they were in 82 17' S.
and Scott determined to try to reach the mountains to the
west; but on approaching the land he found the ice so much
crevassed and disturbed that the attempt had to be given up.
Great peaks in 83 S. were named Mt Markham (15,100 ft.) and
Mt Longstaff (9700 ft.) after the chief promoters of the expedition.
The outward journey of 380 m. had taken 59 days, and was a
splendid achievement, for the conditions to be encountered were
totally unknown, and new methods had to be devised as the
necessity arose, yet no previous polar explorer had ever advanced
so far beyond his predecessor as Scott did. The return journey
occupied 34 days and the ship was reached on the 3rd of February
1903, but Shackleton had broken down on the way and he had to
return by the relief ship " Morning " on the 3rd of March, Lieut.
Mulock, R.N., taking his place on the " Discovery." During the
absence of the commander in the great southern journey Armit-
age and Skelton had found a way to ascend by a glacier in 78 S.
to the summit of the vast snow-covered plateau beyond the
granite summits of the western mountains. They reached a dis-
tance of 130 m. from the ship and an elevation of 9000 ft. Many
shorter journeys were made; Ferrar studied the geology of the

POLAR REGIONS

967

mountains and Hodgson was indefatigable in collecting marine
fauna, while Bernacchi kept up the physical and meteorological
observations. The second winter was lightened by the use of
acetylene gas for the first time, and the dark months were passed
in better spirits and better health than in the case of any previous
polar wintering. In the spring of 1903-1904 Scott undertook
a great journey on the western plateau, starting on the 26th of
October without dogs. By the 30th of November he had reached
a point on the featureless plateau of dead-level snow, 300 m. due
west from the ship, the position being 77 59' S., 146 33' E. and
9000 ft. above sea-level. The ship was reached again on the
25th of December, and on the 5th of January the " Morning "
arrived accompanied by a larger vessel, the " Terra Nova," sent
out by the Admiralty with orders to Captain Scott to abandon
the " Discovery " and return at once. Fortunately, although
all the stores and collections had been transferred to the relief
ships, the " Discovery " broke out of the ice on the 16th of
February 1904 and Captain Scott had the satisfaction of bringing
her home in perfect order. The relief ships bad provided so
little coal that a most promising voyage to the westward of the
Balleny Islands had to be abandoned in 155° E.;but it showed
that the land charted by Wilkes east of that meridian did
not exist in the latitude assigned.

Simultaneously with the " Discovery " expedition and in full
co-operation with it as regards simultaneous meteorological and
Drygalski; magnetic observations, the German government
••Qauss." equipped an expedition in the " Gauss " which was
specially built for the occasion. The expedition was under the
charge of Professor Erich von Drygalski and the scientific staff
included Professor Vanhoffen as naturalist, Dr Emil Philippi
as geologist and Dr Friedrich Bidlingmaier as meteorologist and
magnetician. The ship was under the command of Captain Hans
Ruser cf the Hamburg-American line. A supplementary expedi-
tion set up a station for simultaneous observations on Kerguelen
Land. The " Gauss " crossed the parallel of 6o° S. in 92 E.
early in February 1902 and got within 60 m. of the charted
position of Wilkes's Termination Land, where a depth of 1730
fathoms was found with no sign of land. The pack made it
necessary to turn south-westward and land was seen to the east-
ward on February 1902 on the Antarctic Circle in the direction
of Termination Land. Soon afterwards the " Gauss " was
beset and spent the winter in the ice. Land of considerable
extent was seen to the south and was named Kaiser Wilhelm II.
Land; the most conspicuous feature on it was a hill of bare black
rock with an elevation of about 1000 ft., which was called the
Gaussberg, and was situated in 67 S., 90° E. This was the only
bare land seen, and its neighbourhood was thoroughly investi-
gated by sledge parties, but no distant journey was undertaken.
In February 1903 the " Gauss " was freed from the ice; but
although Drygalski struggled for two months to thread the maze
of floes to the eastward and south he could gain no higher latitude
and was able to force his way only to 8o° E. before seeking the
open sea. The scientific observations and collections were most
extensive and of great value.

Two private expeditions organized by men of science were
in the Antarctic region simultaneously with the British and
Nordeosk- German national expeditions, and the synchronous
/old. meteorological and magnetic observations added

to the value of the scientific results of all the parties.
Dr. Otto Nordenskjold, nephew of the discoverer of the
North-East Passage, led a Swedish party in the " Antarctic,"
with Captain C. A. Larsen in command of the ship, and
reached the South Shetlands in January 1902, afterwards
exploring on the east side of Joinville Island and Louis
Philippe Land, and wintering on shore on Snow Hill Island in
64 25' S. From this point a long journey on ski over the flat
sea ice bordering King Oscar Land was made to the south, but
the Antarctic Circle was not reached. Meanwhile the " Ant-
arctic " had succeeded in penetrating the pack in the Weddell
Sea almost to the circle in 50 W., where D'Urville and Ross
had failed to get so far south. A second winter was spent at
the base on Snow Hill Island, and, the ship having been

lost in the ice on her way to take them off, the party was
rescued by a brilliant dash of the Argentine gunboat " Uruguay,"
under Captain Irizar, before the relief ship sent from Sweden
arrived.

Meanwhile Dr W. S. Bruce, largely aided financially by
Mr James Coats and Captain Andrew Coats, equipped a
Scottish expedition in the " Scotia," with Captain
Thomas Robertson in command of the ship, and
a scientific staff including Mr R. C. Mossman as meteorologist,
Mr R. N. Rudmose Brown as naturalist, and Dr J. H. H. Pirie
as geologist. The principal object of the expedition was the
exploration of the Weddell Sea. The " Scotia " sighted the
South Orkneys on the 3rd of February 1903, and after a
short struggle with the pack she found an open sea to
70° 25' S., where she was beset on the 22nd in 18° W.,
and whence she returned by a more westerly course, re-
crossing the Antarctic Circle in 40° W. This important
voyage midway between the tracks of Weddell and Ross, who
alone of all who tried had reached 70 S. in this region, pracr
cally demonstrated the navigability of Weddell Sea in favour-
able conditions, and the oceanographical observations made
were the most valuable yet carried out in the Antarctic
region. The following year, starting from the Sandwich
group, Bruce crossed the Antarctic Circle about 22 W., and
was able to make a straight run south to 74 1' S., where the
" Scotia " was stopped by the ice in 159 fathoms of water, the
sea having shoaled rapidly from a great depth. From the 3rd of
March to the 13th the " Scotia " remained in shallow water,
catching occasional glimpses of a great ice wall with snow-
covered heights beyond it, along a line of 150 m., and
dredging quantities of continental rocks. On this evidence the
name Coats Land was given to the land within the barrier.
The " Scotia " crossed the Antarctic Circle northward in 11° W.,
having in the two years explored a totally unknown sea for a
distance of thirty degrees of longitude. A meteorological
station was established by Mr Mossman on Laurie Island, in
the South Orkneys (6i° S.) in March 1903, and kept up by him
for two years, when it was taken over by the Argentine govern-
ment, and it now has the distinction of being the most
southerly station at which continuous observations have ever
been taken for over five years.

In January 1904 Dr Jean B. Charcot, a man of science and

an accomplished yachtsman, left the Fuegian archipelago for

the Antarctic in the " Francais," in command of a „ u _ *
t, , , . .... , , . Charcot.

French exploring expedition equipped at his own

instance. He cruised through the islands of the Palmer
Archipelago, and wintered in a cove of Wandel Island 65 5' S.
near the southern entrance of Gerlache Strait. On the 25th
of December 1904 the " Francais " was free, and continued to
cruise southward along the coast of Graham Land, to the
south of which, on the 15th of January, when nearly in
latitude 67°, a new coast appeared, mountainous and stretch-
ing to the south-west, but Charcot could not determine
whether it was joined to Graham Land or to Alexander
Land. While approaching the land the " Francais " struck
a rock, and was so much damaged that further exploration
was impossible, and after naming the new discovery Loubet
Land, the expedition returned. Charcot organized a second
expedition in 1908 on board the " Pourquoi Pas?" and,
leaving Punta Arenas in December, returned to the Palmer
Archipelago, and during January 1909 made a detailed examina-
tion of the coast to the southward, finding that Loubet
Land was practically continuous on the north with Graham
Land and on the south with Alexander Land, which was
approached within a mile at one point. Adelaide Island,
reported by Biscoe as 8 m. long, was found to be a large
island 70 m. in length, consisting of a series of summits rising
out of an icefield. The Biscoe Islands were found to be much
more numerous than was formerly supposed. The expedition
wintered at Petermann Island in 65 10' S., and attempts were
made to reach the interior of Graham Land, though with little
success. After coaling from the whalers' depdt at Deception

9 68

POLAR REGIONS

Island, the "~ Pourquoi Pas ? " sailed on the 6th of January ioio
to the south-west, and reached 70 S. on the nth, whence views
of Alexander Land were obtained from a new position, and a
new land discovered farther to the south-west. The highest
latitude reached was about 70 30' S., and Charcot was able
to steam westward nearly along this parallel crossing the
region of the " Belgica's " drift, passing close to Peter I. Island
across the meridian of Cook's highest latitude, where the ice
seemed to promise an easy way south if coal had permitted, and
on to 128 W. through an absolutely unknown sea, from which
point a direct course was made for Punta Arenas. Frequent
soundings and dredgings were made, and Dr Charcot satisfied
himself from all the appearances that along the 20 degrees of
longitude west of Gerlache's farthest, and more than half-way
from Graham Land to King Edward Land, land was probably
not far distant to the south.

After his return invalided from the " Discovery," Lieut.
Shackleton planned a fresh expedition, which he equipped at
stackletoa. ^ s own ex P ense > aided by his personal friends, and
he started in the small whaler " Nimrod " from
Lyttelton, New Zealand, on the 1st of January 1908, being
towed by a steamer to the Antarctic Circle, in order to save
coal. The plan was to land a shore party on King Edward
Land and return to take them off in the following year, but
although a strenuous effort was made to reach the land the
floe ice was too heavy, and it would have been madness to
establish winter-quarters on the barrier, the coast-line of
which had altered greatly since 1902, and was obviously liable
to break off in great ice-islands. On the 26th of January
the " Nimrod " began to return from the extreme east of the
barrier, and the landing of stores commenced on the 3rd of
February at Cape Royds, at the base of Mt Erebus, 20 m. north
of the " Discovery's " winter-quarters. The shore party in-
cluded the leader and fifteen companions, amongst them
Professor T. W. Edgeworth David, of Sydney University;
Lieut. Jameson Boyd Adams, R.N.R.; Sir Philip Brockle-
hurst, Bart.; Mr James Murray, biologist; Mr Raymond E.
Priestley, geologist; Dr Aiistair Forbes Mackay; Dr Eric
Marshall; Mr Douglas Mawson, geologist; and Ernest Joyce
and Frank Wild of the Royal Navy, who had taken part in the
" Discovery " expedition. No casualty occurred during the
whole duration of the expedition, special care having been
taken to supply the best provisions, including fresh bread
baked daily and dried milk in unlimited quantity, while
abundant artificial light was secured by the use of acetylene
gas. A motor-car was taken in the hope that it might be used
on the barrier surface, but this was found impracticable,
although it did good work in laying depots on the sea-ice.
Another and more successful experiment in traction was the
use of Manchurian ponies. Eight of these extraordinarily
hardy creatures were taken south in the " Nimrod," but four
died in the first month after landing. The others did good
service. Nine dogs were also taken, but the experience on the
" Discovery " expedition did not lead to much dependence being
placed on them. The " Nimrod " left for the north on the 22nd
of February and the scientific staff at once began the observations
and collections which were kept up to the end. The discovery of
a considerable fresh-water fauna and of a poor but charac-
teristic flora was one of the most unexpected results. Apart
from many minor excursions and surveys, the expedition
performed three journeys of the first importance, each of them
surpassing any previous land work in the Antarctic regions.
Before winter set in, Professor David, with five companions,
made the ascent of Mt Erebus, starting from the winter
quarters on the 5th of March, and gaining the summit at an
altitude of 13,300 ft. on the 10th; this was found to be the edge
of an active crater, the abyss within being 900 ft. deep,
though rarely visible on account of the steam and vapours
which rose in a huge cloud 1000 ft. above the summit.

The second achievement was the attainment of the South
Magnetic Pole by Professor David, with Mr Douglas Mawson and
Dr Mackay. They left winter-quarters on the 6th of October

1908, dragging two sledges over the sea-ice. Proceeding along
the coast they were able to supplement their provisions and
fuel by seal-meat and blubber, and on the 1st of December they
reached the Drygalski ice barrier in 75 S., which proved very
difficult to cross. Leaving this ice-tongue on the 19th, they
proceeded to ascend the plateau with one sledge, and ran great
risks from the crevasses into which they were constantly fall-
ing. On reaching the summit of the plateau travelling became
easier, and on the 16th of January 1909 the magnetic dip
was 90 , and the position of the magnetic pole was deter-
mined as 72 25' S., 155° 16' E., at an altitude of 7260 ft.
and 260 m. from the depot of provisions left at the Drygalski
glacier. The return journey to this point was accomplished by
forced marches on the 3rd of February, and next day the
party was picked up by the " Nimrod," which was scouting
for them along the coast.

The third and greatest achievement of this remarkable ex-
pedition was Shackleton's great southern journey. Dep6ts
had been laid out in advance on the barrier ice, and the main
southern party, consisting of Messrs Shackleton, Adams, Marshall
and Wild, started from winter-quarters on the 29th of October
1908, with the four ponies and four n-ft. sledges; a support-
ing party of five men accompanied the main division for ten
days. In order to avoid the disturbed and crevassed ice near
the great south-running mountain range, Shackleton kept about
40 m. farther to the east than Scott had done. The ponies
enabled rapid progress to be made, but after passing the 81st
parallel on the 21st of November, one pony broke down and
had to be shot, the meat being left in a depot for the return
journey. In spite of cold weather and frequent high winds,
progress was made at the rate of 15 m. per day, and on the
26th of November the farthest south of the " Discovery "
expedition was passed, and Mts Markham and Longstaff
were full in view. New mountains continued to appear
beyond these, and the range changed its southerly to a south-
easterly trend, so that the path to the Pole led through the
mountains. On the 28th a second pony became used up and
was shot, and a dep6t was formed with provisions and stores
for the return in 82 38' S., and progress was resumed with
two sledges. The surface of the barrier ice formed great
undulations of gentle slope. On the 1st of December a third
pony had to be shot, in 83 16' S., and horseflesh became the
principal article of diet; the remaining pony hauled one sledge,
the four men took the other. On the 4th of December the
party left the barrier, passing over a zone of much disturbed
ice, and commenced the ascent of a great glacier (the
Beardmore glacier) which descended from the mountains
between magnificent granite cliffs 2000 ft. high. On the
7th, when toiling amongst a maze of crevasses on the glacier,
2000 ft. above sea-level, the last pony fell into a crevasse
and was lost, though the loaded sledge was saved; the pony
was to have been shot that night as it could not work on the
disturbed ice; but its loss meant so much less food, and as far
as can be judged this alone made it impossible for the party
to reach the Pole. For the next few days of laborious advance
one or other of the party was continually falling into a crevasse,
but the sledge harness saved them, and no serious harm resulted.
After climbing upwards for 100 m. on the glacier, a dep6t was
made at a height of 6100 ft. of everything that could possibly
be left behind, including all the warm clothing, for it was found
possible with Jaegers and wind-proof Burberrys to meet any
weather in which exertion was possible. By Christmas Day
the plateau surface was fairly reached at a level of 9500 ft., in
latitude 85° 55' S., and there was no more difficulty to over-
come as regarded the ground, but merely the effort of going on
over a nearly level surface with insufficient food in a very low
temperature, intensified by frequent blizzards. Rations were
reduced in the hope of being able to push on to the Pole.
Three days later the last crevasse was passed and the sur-
face, now 12,200 ft. above sea-level, grew smoother, allowing
15 m. a day to be done with fair weather. At 4 a.m. on the
9th of January 1909 the four explorers left their sledge and

POLAR REGIONS

969

racing, half walking, half running, they reached 88° 23' S.
in 162 E. at 9 a.m., the height above sea being 11,600 ft.
The utmost had been done, though more food would have
enabled the remaining 07 geographical miles to the South Pole
to be accomplished. The camp was reached again at 3 p.m.
The return journey of over 700 m. to the ship was one long
nightmare of toil and suffering, but the length of the marches
was unsurpassed in polar travel. Once and again all food
was exhausted the day before the dep6t, on which the only
hope of life depended, was picked up in the waste of snow.
Snow-blindness and dysentery made life almost unendurable,
but, despite it all, the ship was reached on the 1st of March,
and the geological specimens from the southernmost moun-
tains, which prevented the sledges of the exhausted men being
lightened as they went on, were safely secured. Never in
the history of polar exploration had any traveller outdistanced
his predecessor by so vast a step towards either Pole.

During the return journey of the " Nimrod " Shackleton
was able to do a little piece of exploration to the south of the
Balleny Islands, tracing the coast of the mainland for 50 m.
to the south-west beyond Cape North, thus indicating that the
Antarctic continent has not a straight coast-line running
from Cape Adare to Wilkes Land. The British government
contributed £20,000 to the expenses of the expedition in
recognition of the great results obtained, and the king con-
ferred a knighthood on the explorer, the first given for
Antarctic exploration since the time of Sir James Clark Ross.

Captain R. F. Scott left England in the summer of 1010
with a new expedition in the " Terra Nova," promoted by his
Expeditions own exertions, aided by a government grant, and
of with with a carefully selected crew and a highly com-
l9 "- petent scientific staff. He intended to arrange for

two parties, one leaving King Edward Land, the other
McMurdo Sound, to converge on the South Pole. A German
expedition under Lieut. Wilhelm Filchner was announced
to leave early in 1911 with the hope of exploring inland from
a base in the western part of Weddell Sea, and Dr W. S.
Bruce has announced for the same year an expedition to
the eastern part of Weddell Sea mainly for oceanographical
exploration. It appears that the greatest extension of know-
ledge would now be obtained by a resolute attempt to cruise
round the south polar area from east to west in the highest
latitude which can be reached. This has never been attempted,
and a modern Biscoe with steam power could not fail to
make important discoveries on a westward circumnavigation.

Physiography of Antarctic Region. — In contrast to the Arctic
region, the Antarctic is essentially a land area. It is almost
certain that the South Pole lies on a great plateau, part of a
land that must be larger and loftier than Greenland, and may
probably be as large as Australia. This land area may be com-
posed of two main masses, or of one continent and a great
archipelago, but it can no longer be doubted that the whole is
of continental character as regards its rocks, and that it is per-
manently massed into one surface with ice and snow, which in
some parts at least unites lands separated by hundreds of miles
of sea. But all round the land-mass there is a ring of deep ocean
cutting off the Antarctic region from all other land of the earth
and setting it apart as a region by itself, more unlike the rest of
the world than any continent or island. The expedition of the
" Scotia " showed the great depth of the Weddell Sea area, and
the attention paid to soundings on other expeditions — notably
that of the " Belgica " — has defined the beginning of a continental
shelf which it cannot be doubted slopes up to land not yet sighted.
In the Arctic region large areas within the Polar Circle belong
to climatically temperate Europe, and to habitable lands of
Asia and America; but in the Antarctic region extensive lands
— Graham Land, Louis Philippe Land, Joinville Island and the
Palmer archipelago outside the Polar Circle — partake of the
typically polar character of the higher latitudes, and even
the islands on the warmer side of the sixtieth parallel are of a
sub-Antarctic nature, akin rather to lands of the frigid than to
those of the temperate zone.

Geology. — Definite information as to the geology of Antarctic
land is available from three areas — Graham Land and the
archipelago to the north of it, Kaiser Wilhelm Land and
Victoria Land. In the Graham Land region there seems to be a
fundamental rock closely resembling the Archaean. Palaeozoic
rocks have not been discovered so far in this region, although
a graptolite fossil, probably of Ordovician age, shows that
they occur in the South Orkneys. Mesozoic rocks have
been found in various parts of the archipelago, a very rich
Jurassic fossil flora of ferns, conifers and cycads having been
studied by Nordenskjold, some of the genera found being
represented also in the rocks of South America, South Africa,
India and Australia. Cretaceous ammonites have also been
found, and Tertiary fossils, both of land and of marine forms,
bring the geological record down probably to Miocene times,
the fauna including five genera of extinct penguins. Raised
beaches show an emergence of the land in Quaternary times,
and there is evidence of a recent glacial period when the
inland ice on Graham Land was a thousand feet higher than
it is now. The most prominent features of the scenery are due
to eruptive rocks, which have been identified as belonging to
the eruptive system of the Andes, suggesting a geologically
recent connection between South America and the Antarctic
lands. Volcanic activity is not yet extinct in the region.

As regards Kaiser Wilhelm Land, the Gaussberg is a volcanic
cone mainly composed 4f leucite-basalt, but its slopes are strewn
with erratics presumably transported from the south and these
include gneiss, mica-schist and quartzite, apparently Archaean.
Much more is known as to the geology of Victoria Land,
and the results are well summarized by Professor David and
Mr Priestley of Sir Ernest Shackleton's expedition, whom we
follow. From Cape North (71° S.) to 86° S. a grand mountain
range runs South curving to south-eastward, where it vanishes
into the unknown; it is built up of gneiss and granite, and of
horizontal beds of sandstone and limestone capped with eruptive
rock, the peaks rising to heights of 8000, 10,000 and even
15,000 feet, the total length of the range so far as known being
at least 1100 miles. This range rises abruptly from the
sea, or from the ice of the Great Barrier, and forms a slightly
higher edge to a vast snow plateau which has been traversed
for several hundred miles in various directions, and may for
aught we know extend farther for a thousand miles or more.
The accumulated snows of this plateau discharge by the hugest
glaciers in the world down the valleys between the mountains.
About 78° S. a group of volcanic islands, of which Ross Island,
with the active Mt Erebus is the largest, rise from the
sea in front of the range, and at the northern extremity the
volcanic peaks of the Balleny Islands match them in height.
The composition of the volcanic rocks is similar to that of
the volcanic rocks of the southern part of New Zealand.
The oldest rocks of Victoria Land are apparently banded
gneiss and gneissic granite, which may be taken as Archaean.
Older Palaeozoic rocks are represented by greenish grey slates
from the sides of the Beardmore glacier and by radiolarian
cherts; but the most widespread of the sedimentary rocks
occurring in vast beds in the mountain faces is that named
by Ferrar the Beacon sandstones, which in the far south
Shackleton found to be banded with seams of shale and coal
amongst which a fossil occurred which has been identified as
coniferous wood and suggests that the place of the formation is
Lower Carboniferous or perhaps Upper Devonian. No Mesozoic
strata have been discovered, but deposits of peat derived from
fungi and moss are now being accumulated in the fresh-water
lakes of Ross Island, and raised beaches show a recent change
of level. The coast-line appears to be of the Atlantic, not the
Pacific type, and may owe its position and trend to a great fault,
or series of faults, in the line of which the range of vckanoes,
Mt Melbourne, Mt Erebus, and Mt Discovery, stand. Boulders of
gneiss, quartzite and sandstone have been dredged at so many
points between the Balleny Islands and the Weddell Sea that
there can be no doubt of the existence of similar continental land
along the whole of that side, at least within the Antarctic Circle.

970

POLAR REGIONS

Antarctic Ice-Conditions. — It is difficult to decide whether
the ice of the polar regions should be dealt with as a geologi-
cal formation or a meteorological phenomenon; but in the
Antarctic the ice is so characteristic a feature that it may
well be considered by itself. So far as can be judged, the
total annual precipitation in the Antarctic region is very
slight, probably not more than the equivalent of 10 in. of
rain, and perhaps less. It was formerly supposed that
the immense accumulation of snow near the South Pole
produced an ice-cap several miles in thickness which, creeping
outward all round, terminated in the sea in vast ice-cliffs, such
as those of Ross's Great Barrier, whence the huge flat-topped
ice-islands broke off and floated away. Evidence, both in the
Graham Land and in the Victoria Land areas, points to a
former much greater extent of the ice-cap. Thus Shackleton
found that the summit of Mt Hope, in 83 30' S., which
stands 2000 feet above the ice of the surrounding glaciers, was
strewn with erratics which must have been transported by ice
from the higher mountains to the south and west. In McMurdo
Sound, as in Graham Land, evidence was found that the surface
of the ice-sheet was once at least a thousand feet above its
present level. These facts appear to indicate a period of
greater snowfall in the geologically recent past — i.e. a period
of more genial climate allowing the air to carry more water
vapour to the southern mountains. Whatever may have been
the case in the past the Antarctic glaciers are now greatly
shrunken and many of them no longer reach the sea. Others
project into the sea a tongue of hard ice, which in the case of
the Drygalski glacier tongue is 30 m. long, and afloat probably
for a considerable distance. Some of these glacier tongues of
smaller size appear now to be cut off at their shoreward end
from the parent glacier. At one time the Victoria Land glacier
tongues may have been confluent, forming a great ice barrier
along the coast similar to the small ice-barriers which clothe
the lower slopes of some of the islands in Gerlache Strait. The
Great Ice Barrier is in many ways different from these. Cap-
tain Scott showed that it was afloat for at least 400 m. of its
extent from west to east. Sir Ernest Shackleton followed it for
400 m. from north to south, finding its surface in part thrown
into long gentle undulations, but with no evidence of the sur-
face being otherwise than level on the average. The all-but-
forgotten experiments and cogitations of Biscoe convinced that
shrewd observer that all Antarctic icebergs were sea-ice thick-
ened with snow "accumulated with time." The recent expeditions
seem to confirm this view to a great extent in the case of the
Barrier, which, so far as the scientific men on the " Nimrod "
could see, was formed everywhere of compressed neve, not of
true glacier ice. Instances have been seen of tabular bergs
floating with half their bulk above water, showing that they

are of very much less density than solid ice. The thrust Of
the glaciers which descend from the western mountains upon
the Barrier throws it into sharp crevassed folds near the point
of contact, the disturbance extending 20 m. from the tip
of the Beardmore glacier, and the seaward creep of the whole
surface of the Barrier is possibly due to this impulse; the rate
of movement at the eastern side of the Barrier was found to be
at the rate of 500 yds. per annum for the seven years between
Scott's and Shackleton's expeditions.

Pack ice composed of broken-up sea-ice and fragments of
icebergs appears to form a floating breakwater round the Ant-
arctic area. It is penetrated by powerful steamers with ease
or with difficulty according to the action of the wind which
loosens the pack when it drives it towards the open sea, and
closes it up when it drives it against a coast or a barrier of fast ice.
At every point but one around the circumpolar area the pack,
be it light or dense, appears to extend up to the southern per-
manent ice or land, though, as in the Weddell Sea, the pack
seems at times to be driven bodily away. The exceptional
region is the opening of the Ross Sea east of Cape Adare, where
a comparatively narrow band of pack ice has always been pene-
trated by the resolute advance even of sailing ships and led to
an extensive open sea to the south. No doubt the set of the
ocean currents accounts for this, but how they act is still obscure.
The great flat-topped ice-islands which in some years drift out
from the Antarctic area in great numbers are usually met with
in all parts of the Southern Ocean south of 50 S., and worn-
down icebergs have been sighted in the Atlantic even as far
north as 26 30' S. The greater frequency of icebergs in the
Southern Ocean in some years is attributed to earthquakes in
the Antarctic breaking off masses of the floating edge of the
Barrier.

Antarctic Climate. — Although a vast mass of observations
has recently been accumulated, it is not yet possible to treat
of the climate of the South Polar region in the same broad way
as in the case of the North Polar region. The following
table shows the mean temperatures of each month and of the
year at all the stations at which the Antarctic winter
has been passed. The result is to show that while the
winter is on the whole less severe at high latitudes than
at equal latitudes in the north, the summer is very much
colder, and has little relation to latitude. Even in the
South Orkneys, in latitude 6o°, in the three warmest
months the air scarcely rises above the freezing point as an
average, while in Shetland (6o° N.) the temperature of the
three summer months averages 54° F. But on the other
hand, the warmest month of the year even in 77 S. has had a
mean temperature as high as 30 . A study of the figures quoted
in the accompanying table shows that until longer records

Jan. -
Feb. .
Mar. .
Apr. .
May .
June .
July .
Aug. .
Sep. .
Oct. .
Nov. .
Dec. .
Year .

Belgica
ca. 70° S.

Cape Adare
71° S.

Snow Hill
64° 30' S.

Gauss

65" 2' S.

Discovery
77°5l'S.

Caoe Royds
77"° 32' S.

S. Orkneys
6o° 44' S.

Wandel Island
65° s.

Peterman Island

05 10' S.

1808.

1899.

1899.

1900.

1902.

1903.

1902.

1903-

1902.

1903.

1904.

1908.

1909.

1903.

1904.

1904.

I9°5-

1908.

1909.

+ 29-8

+33 'o

+30-0

+306

+26-1

+22-5

+26-1

(+30-4)

+32-3

-r-32'9

+34-9)
+34'5

+ IS-6

+3°'2

;+26- 4 )

+177

+24'4

(+25-9)

(+IS'9)

+ II"2

( + 2I-S)

+20-4

[+30-4)

+32-6

+31-2

+ I4'I

-f-iro

+169

+ 8-o

- o-8

+ 4'9

(+30-2)

+32-4

+29-8

+337

+ IO-8

+ 10-3

+ 6-3

+ 67

+ 39

- )'i

— 16'9

— Io - g

-(-20'6

+25-1

+ 22'6

+23-0

+20-3

- 4'6

+ 17

- i-6

+ 6-8

-125

— 16-0

- 5'S

+I7-I

+ 10-5

+I3'3

+227
+203

+ 4-1

-118

— 0-4

- 6-8

+ o-s

— i6*o

-138

- 7-1

+ 9-5

+16-8

+ir-8

-103

- 86

-119

— 0*2

- o-6

- 81

— 2I'I

— 17-0

+169

+ 7'°

- 26

+197

+ 11-7

-13 '4

- 9 7

+ 38

- 74

-I6-S

-i6-s

-157

+I8-8

+127

+20-5

+ 21-8

- I'3

-119

+ 53

+ °'3

+ o-l

— 12'0

-186

- 57

-t-13'4

+20-5

+257

+21-4

+17-8

- x-8

+ 8'9

+19-0

+ 8-6

- 8-5

- 6-8

+ 4-5

+27-0

+iS'4

+ 187

+277

+19-6

+17-8

+16-5

+199

+ I2'0

+ i5'4

+17-0

+29 3

+3i - I

+3l'5

+(29-9)

+28-0

+31-8

+28-I

+30 -o

+ 23-1

+257

+30 -o

+31-5

+28-8

+31-2

(+33 '9)

+147

+ ro

+ 94

+II-3

+ 0'4

- 3'°

+ 3-4

+22-9

+22-4

+ 22*2

(+26-9)

Mar. 1

to
Feb. 28

Feb.

to

Jan. 31

Mar. 1

to
Feb. 38

Feb. 19

to
Feb. 18

Feb. 9

to
Jan. 31

Feb. 1

to
Jan. 31

Mar.

to
Feb.

Feb.

to

Jan.

Dec. 26

to
Nov. 36

POLAR REGIONS

971

become available it is impossible to speak definitely as to the
normal distribution of monthly temperature throughout the
year, for even at the same station in consecutive years the
months vary greatly. Thus at Snow Hill (65° S.) the mean
temperature of August 1903 was 13-5° higher than that of
August 1902, though June had been 7° colder; and at the
'"Discovery's" winter quarters July 1903 was 13 colder than
July 1902 though June was 2 warmer, August having exactly
the same mean temperature in each year. The mean tempera-
ture of the year is evidently higher in the position of the
" Belgica's " drift than in Victoria Land at the same latitude;
but it is noticeable that on the west side of Graham Land, where
Charcot wintered, the average mean temperature was (taking
the average of his two winterings) 15 higher than on the east
side, where Nordenskjold wintered in nearly the same latitude.
The observations, however, were not synchronous, and it may
not be right to compare them. We may perhaps say that along
the whole of the known Antarctic coasts the temperature in the
two midsummer months is within a degree or two of 32° F., and
varies little from place to place or from year to year; but in the
winter months the temperature is lower as the latitude increases
and is subject to great variations from place to place and from
year to year. It seems quite possible that at no place in the
Antarctic region do the mean monthly sea-level winter tem-
peratures fall so low as in the Arctic poles of cold, but data re-
garding winter temperatures in the interior are lacking. All
the complete yearly series of temperature show that the winter
six months from April to September have a low and nearly
equal temperature, there being a very abrupt fall in February
and March, and an equally abrupt rise in October and November.
The warmest day experienced at the " Discovery's " winter-
quarters had a mean temperature of 34-7°, and the coldest -45-7°,
the extreme range of daily temperature being thus 80-4°.

The absolutely lowest temperature recorded in the Antarctic
region was -66 -8° on a journey southward from the" Discovery's "
winter-quarters by Lieut. Barne on the 15th of September
1903; the lowest temperature at the winter-quarters was
-58-5° on the 28th of September 1903. On Sir Ernest Shackle-
ton's expedition the lowest temperature was -57°; but no
other expedition met temperatures lower than -45-6° on the
" Belgica," -43-1° at Cape Adare, and -41-4° on the " Gauss."
Sudden rises of temperature during storms are common in
the Antarctic region, from whichever quarter the wind blows.

During the ascent of Mt Erebus the temperature was found
to fall as the height increased from o° F. at sea-level to -24
at 5000 ft.; it remained stationary to 8600 ft., fell to -28° at
10,650 ft., and then rose to -22 at 11,500 ft., and fell a few
degrees at the summit. It might appear as if the " isothermal
layer " of the upper atmosphere had been reached at a re-
markably low elevation; but the temperature variations may
also be explained by differences in the temperature of the strong
air currents which were passed through.

Pressure and Winds. — The normal fall of pressure south-
ward, which gives rise to the strong westerly winds of the
roaring forties, appears to be arrested about 65 S., and to be
succeeded by a rise of pressure farther south. This view is
supported by the frequency of south-easterly winds in the
neighbourhood of the Antarctic Circle reported by all explorers,
and the hypothesis of a south polar anticyclone or area of high
pressure over the Antarctic continent has gained currency in
advance of any observations to establish it. The complete
data of Sir Ernest Shackleton's expedition are not available
at the time of writing, but the yearly mean pressure as re-
corded at the " Discovery's " winter-quarters was 29-35 in.
for 1902, and 29-23 in. for 1903. At Cape Adare it was
29-13 in. for 1899, in the " Belgica " 29-31 in. for 1898, and in
the " Gauss " 29-13 in. for 1902. These figures, so far as they
are comparable, show distinctly higher pressures in the higher
latitudes, and the wind observations bear out the inference of
a scuth-polar high pressure area, as at the " Discovery's "
winter-quarters 80 % of the winds had an easterly component,
and only 3 % a westerly component. It is bewildering,

however, to find that on the sledge journeys there fras an
equally marked preponderance of wind with a westerly
component, and in discussing the result in the published
records of the expedition Mr R. H. Curtis, of the Meteoro-
logical Office, felt compelled to ask whether the correction
for variation of the compass (in that region about 145 )
was possibly omitted in the case of the sledge journeys.
The " Gauss " observations and those at Cape Adare bore out
the frequency of easterly winds, and on the " Scotia " it was
observed that practically all of the easterly winds met with were
to the south of the Antarctic Circle. The " Belgica " found
rather more westerly than easterly w^nds in her drift; easterly
winds predominating in summer, westerly winds in winter. At
Cape Royds Shackleton found easterly winds to predominate,
the most frequent direction being south-east; but on the
great southern journey, south-south-east winds prevailed,
occasionally swinging round to south-south-west, and even at
the farthest south (88° S.) the ridges into which the snow was
blown, 10,000 ft. above the sea, showed that south-south-
easterly winds. predominated. On the journey to the Magnetic
Pole Professor David found that along the coast the prevailing
winds were south-westerly, with occasional blizzards from the
south-east, but he noticed that the westerly winds were of the
nature of a land breeze, springing up soon after midnight and
continuing to blow fresh until about 10 a.m. Thus the balance
of probability inclines towards the hypothesis of a south-polar
high-pressure area. An upper current of air blowing from a
north-westerly direction was usually indicated by the clouds
and smoke on Mt Erebus, and on the occasion of a great erup-
tion, when the steam column reached more than 20,000 ft.
above the sea it entered a still higher stratum of wind blowing
from the south-east.

The intensity of the blizzards is worthy of remark, for the velo-
city of the wind often reached 40 or even 60 m. an hour, and
they were usually accompanied by a rapid rise of temperature.

Observations of sunshine made at the " Discovery's " winter-
quarters yielded many records of continuous sunshine extend-
ing throughout 24 consecutive hours, and in the summer months
about 50 % of the possible sunshine was often recorded, the
maximum being 490 hours, or 66% of the total possible for
December 1903. Thus, although the sun was above the horizon
only for 246 days, it shone sufficiently to yield more than 1725
hours of bright sunshine for the year, an amount exceeded in
few parts of England, where the sun may s»hine on 365 days.
The intensity of solar radiation in the clesr weather of the
Antarctic makes it feel exceedingly hot even when the air
temperature is far below the freezing point. There is a great
difference between the clear skies of 78° S. and the extremely
frequent fogs which shroud the coast near the Antarctic Circle
and render navigation and surveying exceedingly difficult.
Heavy snowstorms are frequent on the coast, but inland during
the snow blizzards it is impossible to say whether the whirling
snow-dust is falling from the air or being swept from the ground.
Professor David is inclined to believe that the surface of the
snow-plains is being lowered more by the action of the wind
sweeping the snow out to sea than it is raised by precipitation,
the total amount of which appears to be very small.

Flora and Fauna. — Recent expeditions have discovered that,
despite the low temperature of the summer, in which no month
has a mean temperature appreciably above the freezing point,
there are on the exposed Antarctic land patches of ground with
a sparse growth of cryptogamic vegetation consisting of mosses,
lichens, fungi and fresh-water algae. The richest vegeta-
tion discovered on the " Nimrod " expedition consisted of sheets
of a lichen or fungoid growth, covering the bottom of the fresh-
water lakes near Cape Royds, and visible through the clear ice
throughout the many months when the water is frozen. No
flowering plants occur within the Antarctic Circle or in the
immediately adjacent lands.

The marine fauna is very rich and abundant. All the expedi-
tions obtained many new species, and the resemblance which
occurs between many of the forms and those which inhabit

972

POLDER— POLE

the Arctic seas has given rise to the hypothesis that certain
species have been able to pass from one frigid zone to the other.
It is argued on the other hand that all the forms which resemble
each other in the two polar areas are cosmopolitan, and occur
also in the intermediate seas; but the so-called " problem of
bipolarity " is still unsettled. Bird life on sea and land is fairly
abundant, the most common forms being the skua gull, snow
petrels, and the various species of penguins. The penguins are
specially adapted for an aquatic life, and depend for their food
entirely on marine animals. The largest species, the emperor
penguin, inhabits the most southerly coast known on the edge
of the Great Barrier, and there it breeds at mid- winter, very
interesting specializations of structure and habit making this
apparently impossible feat practicable. The social organiza-
tion and habits of the various species of penguins have been care-
fully studied, and show that these birds have arrived at a stage
of what might almost be called civilization worthy of the most
intelligent beings native to their continent. The only mam-
malian life in the Antarctic is marine, in the form of various
species of whales, but not the " right whale," and a few
species of seals which live through the winter by keeping open
blow-holes in the sea-ice. There is no trace of any land animal
except a few species of minute wingless insects of a degenerate
type. The fresh-water ponds teem with microscopic life, the
tardigrada, or " water bears " and rotifers showing a remarkable
power of resistance to low temperature, being thawed out alive
after being frozen solid for months and perhaps for years.

Authorities. — H. R. Mill, The Siege of the South Pole, a history
of Antarctic exploration with complete bibliography (London,
1905); K. Fricker, Antarktis (Berlin, 1898; trans, as The Antarctic
Regions (London, 1900) ; A. Rainaud, he Continent austral. (Paris,
1893, historical); E. S. Balch, Antarctica (New York, 1902, his-
torical); James Cook, A Voyage Towards the South Pole and Round
the World (3 vols., London, 1777); H. Gravelius, F. von Bellings-
hausens Forschungsfahrten im sudlichen Eismeer 1810-1821 (Leipzig,
1902) ; James Weddell, A Voyage Towards the South Pole (London,
1825); J. S. C. Dumont D'Urville, Voyage au Pole Sud et dans
I'Oceanie (29 vols., Paris, 1841-1845); Charles Wilkes, Narrative
of the Exploring Expedition during 1838-1842 (6 vols., Philadelphia,
1845) ; J. C. Ross, A Voyage of Discovery and Research in the Southern
and Antarctic Regions (2 vols., London, 1847) ; W. G. Burn-Murdoch,
From Edinburgh to the Antarctic (London, 1894; an account of the
voyage of the " Balaena," 1892-1893); H. J. Bull, The Cruise of the
"Antarctic" to the South Polar Regions (London, 1896); the
voyage to Victoria Land in 1894-1895); F. A. Cook, Through the
First Antarctic Night, 1898-1899 (New York and London, 1900);
the voyage of the " Belgica " ; A. de Gerlache, Quinze mois dans I'Ant-
arctique (Paris, 1902); Georges Lecointe, Au pays des Manchots
(" Belgica," Brussels, 1904); Resultats du voyage du S.Y. " Belgica,"
Rapports scientifiques (many vols., Brussels, v.d.); C. E. Borch-
grevink, First on the Antarctic Continent (London, 1901); L. Bern-
acchi, To the South Polar Regions (London, 1901 ; the expedition
of the " Southern Cross ") ; Report on the Collections of the " Southern
Cross" (British Museum, London, 1902); G. Murray (editor),
The Antarctic Manual (London, 1901) ; R. F. Scott, The Voyage of
the "Discovery" (2 vols., London, 1905); A. B. Armitage, Two
Years in the Antarctic (London, 1905) ; National Antarctic Expedition
1901-1904 (scientific results published by the Royal Society,
London, several vols., v.d.); G. von Neumayer, Auf zum Sudpol
(Berlin, 1901); E. von Drygalski, Zum Konlinent des eisigen Sudens
(Berlin, 1904); Scientific Results of "Gauss" expedition; Otto
Nordenskjold and J. G. Andersson, Antarctica (London, 1905);
R. N. R. Brown, R. C. Mossman and J. H. H. Pirie, The Voyage
of the " Scotia " (London, 1906); Report on the Scientific Results
of the Voyage of the "Scotia" (several vols., Edinburgh, v.d.);
J. B. Charcot, he Francais au Pole Sud (Paris, 1906) ; E. H. Shackle-
ton, The Heart of the Antarctic (2 vols., London, 1909); British
Antarctic Ex f edition 1907-1909. Reports on the Scientific Investiga-
tions (several vols., London, v.d.). (H. R. M.)

POLDER, the Dutch name for a piece of low-lying, marshy
land reclaimed from the sea or other water by drainage and
diking (see Holland).

POLE (family). The family of the Poles, earls and dukes of
Suffolk, which, but for Richard III.'s defeat at Bosworth, might
have given the next king to England, had its origin in a house
of merchants at Kingston-upon-Hull. It has been said that
these Poles were the first English peers whose fortunes had been
founded upon riches gained in trade; but the Berkeleys, de-
scendants of Robert fitz Harding, the rich burghers of Gloucester,

must perhaps be reckoned before them. Their pedigree begins
with one William atte Pole (d. c. 1329), a merchant of Ravens-
rode who settled in Hull, where his widow became the wife of
John Rotenhering, also a merchant. His sons, Sir Richard and
Sir William atte Pole, were both famous for their wealth at a
time when the Crown had great need of rich men's aid. Sir
Richard (d. 1345), the king's butler in 1327, removed to London,
and is styled a London citizen in his will. The male line of
this, the elder branch of the Poles, failed with a grandson, John
Pole, who by his marriage with Joan, daughter of John, Lord
Cobham, was father of Joan, Lady of Cobham, the Kentish
heiress whose lands brought her five knightly husbands, the
fourth of them Sir John Oldcastle the Lollard.

Sir William atte Pole (d. 1366), the second son of William,
joined his brother in advancing large sums to the government
while keeping safely apart from politics. The first mayor
of Hull, he sat for Hull in five parliaments, and was advanced
to be knight banneret and a baron of the exchequer. He was
counted " second to no merchant in England," but after his
time his descendants left the counting-house, his four sons all
serving in the French wars. The eldest son, Michael Pole, who
had fought under the Black Prince and John of Gaunt, was
summoned as a baron in 1366, before the father's death, and,
as a stout supporter of the Crown, was appointed in 1381
governor of the person of the young king Richard II., whose
marriage with the Lady Anne of Bohemia he had arranged
on a visit to her brother the king of the Romans. In 1383 he
became chancellor of England and thereafter, as the loyal
servant and nearest counsellor of the king, he had to face the
jealousy of the great lords and the hatred of the Commons.
His wealth added to the envy of his enemies, for, to his inherited
Yorkshire and Lincolnshire lands, his marriage with Catherine,
daughter and heir of Sir John of Wingfield, added a great Suffolk
estate, where, fortifying the manor-house of the Wingfields,
he made his chief seat. In 1385 he was created earl of Suffolk,
a grant from the Crown giving him the castle and honour of
Eye with other East Anglian lands formerly held by the Ufford
earls. In 1386 the opposition, led by Gloucester, the king's
uncle, pulled him down. He was dismissed from his chancellor-
ship, and impeached by the Commons on charges which, insuffi-
cient upon the face of them, secured his conviction. Richard
was forced to send his minister into ward at Windsor until
the parliament was dissolved, when Suffolk once more appeared
as the leader of the king's party. But the opposition was
insistent, and Suffolk, after Richard had been compelled to
give his word that those who had advised him ill should answer
for it to the next parliament, fled over sea to Calais. One
of the earliest of the many popular songs that bark against
the Poles tells joyfully of this flight of the detested "Jake."
Sentence of death by the gallows was passed in his absence.
The over-zealous governor of Calais who found him at his
gates, clad as a poor Fleming, his chin shaved, packed him back
to England, whence he escaped again, doubtless with the king's
aid, reaching his native town of Hull, where he saw for the last
time his " goodly house of brick." Old friends found him a
ship that landed him in the Low Countries, and he died an exile
in Paris in 1389.

The exile's son Michael, who had married Catherine, daughter
of the earl of Stafford, was restored to the earldom in 1397, and,
although his father's attainder was revived by the act of the
first parliament of Henry IV., the earldom was restored once
again in 1399, together with the castle and honour of Eye. His
life was that of a soldier, and he was with the host before Har-
fleur in 141 5, when he died of a violent dysentery. Michael,
the eldest son and heir, marched from his father's deathbed to
Agincourt, where he fell, Drayton's ballad recalling how he
plied his axe on the great day. By his wife, a daughter of the
first duke of Norfolk, he had three daughters, but no one of
them marrying, his lands passed with the earldom to his brother
William.

This William (1396-1450), the fourth earl of his name, had
sailed with his father and elder brother to Harfleur, but had

POLE

973

been sent home sick after the siege. He returned with the j
" viage " of 1417, leading thirty men-at-arms and ninety I
archers. Henry V. made him admiral of Normandy, and until
the crowning of Henry VI. in Paris in 1431 he served in France
without, by his own account, coming home or seeing England.
He held the chief command before Orleans after Salisbury
had fallen to a cannon-shot from the city, but was forced to
surrender to Joan of Arc at Jargeau, where his brother Alexander
was killed, another brother, John, being taken prisoner with the
earl. A fourth brother, Thomas, a clerk, became hostage to Dun'ois
until the vast ransom of the earl was paid down. After 1431
Suffolk turned to English politics. Like his grandfather, he
found a king's uncle, another Gloucester, the chief of his enemies.
Defeating Gloucester's project of an Armagnac match, Suffolk
arranged for the young king's marriage with Margaret of
Anjou, and brought home the bride to Portsmouth in 1445.
In the year before he had been created marquess of Suffolk,
being the fourth Englishman to take the style of marquess.
His party and the queen's were on the point of overthrowing
their opponent, Gloucester, when the " good duke " died sud-
denly in the hands of those who had arrested him. This dea.th,
followed by that of Cardinal Beaufort, left the field to Suffolk.
Under a patent of 1443 Suffolk became earl of Pembroke at
Duke Humphrey's death. His honours were capped in 1448
with a dukedom of Suffolk, he being then admiral of England,
governor of Calais, constable of Dover, and warden of the
Cinque Ports. But it seemed that long service in the foreign
wars had not purged the offence of the name of Pole. All the
old enmity which had driven his grandfather into exile was
gathering against Suffolk. His peace policy had cost the
cession of Maine and Anjou, while the blunders of his ally,
Somerset, as lieutenant in France, lost Normandy to England.
Early in 1450 the Commons, in spite of Suffolk's appeal to his
years of loyal service, accused him of treason and he was sent
to the Tower. A long indictment was reinforced by new
accusations, and the king could do no more for his minister than
set him free under a sentence of five years' banishment. He
sailed from Ipswich on the May Day of 1450, but before he
could enter the port of Calais he was cut off by a royal ship, the
" Nicholas," whose master had him put overboard into the cock-
boat, where his head was hacked off by an Irish knave's rusty
sword. His body, cast headless upon Dover beach, was carried
by the king's orders to the Poles' vault in Wingfield church,
where his effigy may still be seen. Who sent out the " Nicholas,"
and by whose orders Suffolk died, are questions which remain
unanswered. He was the third husband of Alice Chaucer,
whom he married as the widow of Thomas, Earl of Salisbury,
slain before Orleans. She was the daughter and heiress of
Thomas Chaucer, of Ewelme, and, although direct evidence
is wanting, the granddaughter, without doubt, of Geoffrey
Chaucer, the poet. She lies at Ewelme, under a magnificent
tomb.

John Pole (1442-1491), only son of the murdered duke, should
have succeeded to the dukedom, his father having died un-
attainted. But the honours were apparently regarded as
forfeited, and the dukedom was formally restored to the boy
in 1455, the earldom of Pembroke being allowed to lapse.
Although three generations of warrior lords lay between him
and the Hull warehouses, the origin of his house was still fresh
in men's memories. John Paston, writing in 1465, could tell
every name in the duke's pedigree back to " William Pool of
Hull," who had been " first a merchant and after a knight,"
and " what the father of the said William was " John Paston
knew " right well." The duke's father was an upstart for the
crowd, whose ballads pelted him with the name of " Jac
Napes," suggested by his familiar badge of the ape's clog and
chain. Nevertheless a wife of royal blood was found for the
young duke, King Edward IV.'s own sister Elizabeth. The
marriage confirmed him a partisan of the White Rose. The
son of Margaret's faithful minister rode against her man at the
second battle of St Albans. Before he was of age he was
steward of England at his brother-in-law's crowning, and at

Queen Elizabeth's crowning he bore her sceptre. Having
held many offices under Edward IV. he was ready to bear a
sceptre at Richard's coronation, and, after Bosworth, to swear
fealty to the Tudor dynasty and to bear another sceptre for
another Queen Elizabeth. He died in 1491, having safely
kept his lands, his dukedom, and his head through perilous
years.

But each advance in rank had brought danger and misfor-
tune to the Poles. Before the death of the second duke they
had begun to pay the price of their matching with the royal
house. In the next generation their name was blotted out.
John Pole, eldest son of Duke John and the Lady Elizabeth,
had been created Earl of Lincoln by his uncle, Edward IV.
Before he followed Richard to Bosworth, the young man had
been chosen as heir to the throne, Clarence's son Warwick
being put aside. He survived King Richard and Henry VII.
spared him. But he egged on Simnel's plot, joined the rebels
in Ireland, and was killed at Stoke in 1487, leaving no issue by
his wife, the daughter of the earl of Arundel. Edmund, his
younger brother, (c. 1472-1513) should have succeeded in r4oi
as duke of Suffolk, but on coming of age he agreed to satisfy
himself with the title of earl of Suffolk, the king grudgingly
restoring some portion of the estates forfeited by his brother.
In 1499 ne suddenly left the kingdom, but was persuaded to
return. But the death of the imprisoned earl of Warwick may
have suggested to him that Henry's court was a dangerous
place for those of the blood of York, and in 1501 he found his way
to the emperor Maximilian in Tirol with a scheme for the
invasion of England. Although the kaiser at first promised
him men for the adventure, nothing came of his promises. Maxi-
milian, p°rsuaded by a gift of English money, bound himself
not to succour English rebels. Suffolk, who had reassumed the
ducal style, was attainted in 1504, and in the same year was
seized by the duke of Guelders. From the duke's hands the
prisoner was taken by Philip, king of Castile, who surrendered
him to England on a promise that his life should be spared.
But in 1513, when Richard, his brother, was in arms in the
French service, Edmund Pole was taken from his prison in the
Tower to the block.

Richard Pole, who in isor escaped from England with
Edmund, had been received by the king of Hungary, and
afterwards by Louis of France, who assigned him a pension.
Commanding German Lanzknechts in the French service, he
was the friend and companion in arms of the chevalier Bayard.
At the death of his brother Edmund, he took the title of the
duke of Suffolk, claiming the throne of England. In 1514
Louis gave him the leading of 12,000 riotous German
mercenaries to essay the conquest of England. The treaty
of peace stayed the adventure, but Louis refused to surrender
Richard, and allowed him to depart for the imperial city of
Metz. Francis I. continued the payment of his allowance,
and gave him employment. In 1522 the anonymous writer
of a journal describes the coming to Paris of " Richard de la
Poulle, soydisant due de Suffort et la Blanche Rose." In
1525 the White Rose was killed by the French king's side at
Pavia. With him died the last descendant in the male line of
William Pole, the Hull merchant.

By one of the strange chances of history, another family of
the name of Pole, having no kinship with the house of Suffolk,
owed, like the Suffolks, their advancement and their fall
to a match with a princess of the royal house. Sir Richard
Pole, a Buckinghamshire knight, was the son of Geoffrey Pole,
a squire whose wife, Edith St John, was sister of the half-blood
to the mother of Hemy VII. About 1490 or 1491 he married
the Lady Margaret, daughter of George, duke of Clarence. He
died in 1505, and in 15 13 King Henry VIII. created the widow
countess of Salisbury, as some amends for the judicial murder of
her brother, the Earl of Warwick. Four years later, the barony
of Montague was revived for her eldest son Henry. Until the
king's marriage with Anne Boleyn, the countess of Salisbury was
about the court as governess of her godchild, the Lady Mary.
When her son, the famous Cardinal Pole, published his treatise,

974

POLE, CARDINAL

De unitatc ecdesiastica, the whole family fell under the dis-
pleasure of the king, who resolved to make an end of them.
The Lord Montague was the first victim, beheaded in 1539
on a charge of treasonable conversations, evidence having
been wrung from his unhappy brother, Sir Geoffrey Pole.
In 1541 the aged countess, attainted with her son Montague,
met her death at the barbarous hands of an unskilful heads-
man. Sir Geoffrey Pole, seeing that his house was doomed,
fled the country, and joined the cardinal in exile. He returned
with him at Mary's accession, both dying in 1558. His sons
Arthur and Edmund, taken in 1562 as plotters against Queen
Elizabeth, were committed to the Tower of London, where they
died after eight years of imprisonment.

See T. Rymer's Feodera; C. Frost, History of Hull (1827);
Chronicon de Melsa (Rolls Series) ; G. E. C, Complete Peerage;
Testamenta Eboracensia (Suttees Soc.) ; Hon. and Rev. H. A. Napier,
Swincombe and Bwelnte (1858); Diet. Nat. Biog., s.v. "Pole'';
E. Foss, Judges of England (1848-1864); Chronicon Angliae (Rolls
Series); Paston Letters, edited by J. Gairdner; Sir J. H. Ramsay,
Lancaster and York (1892); Letters and Papers of Richard III.
and Henry VII. (Rolls Series); Inquests post mortem, Close and
Patent Rolls, Rolls of Parliament. (O. Ba.)

POLE, REGINALD (1300-1558), English cardinal and arch-
bishop of Canterbury, born at Stourton Castle, Staffordshire,
was the third son of Sir Richard Pole, Knight of the Garter, and
Margaret, countess of Salisbury, a daughter of George, duke of
Clarence, and therefore niece of Edward IV. He was intended
for the church from his youth; and when seven years old was
sent for five years to the grammar school which Colet had founded
near the Carthusian monastery at Sheen. Here he had Linacre
and William Latimer as teachers. In his thirteenth year he
went to Magdalen College, Oxford, and two years after took
his degree in arts. In 151 7 Henry VIII. appointed his young
kinsman to a prebend in Salisbury, and soon afterwards to the
deaneries of Wimborne and Exeter. He was a friend of Sir
Thomas More, who says that Pole was as learned as he was
noble and as virtuous as he was learned. In 1519, at the king's
expense, he went to Padua, the Athens of Europe, according to
Erasmus; and there, where Colet and Cuthbert Tunstall had
also been educated, the " nobleman of England " as he was
called, came into contact with the choicest minds of the later
Italian Renaissance, and formed the friendships that influenced
his life.

In 1525 he went to Rome for the Jubilee, and two years after
returned to England and was initiated by Thomas Cromwell
into the mysteries of statesmanship, that master telling him
that the main point consisted in discovering and following the
will of princes, who are not bound by the ordinary code of
honour. When the divorce question arose, Pole, like many other
excellent men, seems at first to have been in its favour. He prob-
ably took the same view that Wolsey had, viz. that the dispen-
sation of Julius II. was insufficient, as of two existing diriment
impediments only one had been dispensed. When however the
king raised the theological argument which ended in disaster,
Pole could not accept it; and, after the failure of Campeggio's
mission, when the king asked him for his opinion, he excused
himself on the score of inexperience, but went by Henry's
order to Paris (1530) to obtain the judgment of the Sorbonne,
making the condition that another should be joined with him
to do the necessary business. At this time, he says, the more
he saw into the case the less he knew how to act as he was
desired. On his return to England he spoke strongly against
the project to the king, who seems to have dealt gently with
him in the hope of using him for his own ends. He offered him
the sees of York or Winchester, and kept them vacant for ten
months for his acceptance. There was a stormy interview at
York Place; but Pole succeeded in mollifying the king's rage
so far that Henry told him* to put into writing his reasons against
the divorce. This was done, and, recognizing the difficulties
of the situation, the king gave him leave to travel abroad, and
allowed him still to retain his revenues as dean of Exeter. In
1535, which saw by the deaths of Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas
More a change in Henry's policy, Pole received orders to send

a formal opinion on the royal supremacy, and the king
promised to find him suitable employment in England, even
if the opinion were an adverse one. The parting of the ways had
been reached. Pole's reply, which took a year to write, and
was afterwards published with additions under the title Pro
unitate ecclesiae, was sent to England (May 25, 1536) and
was meant for the king's eye alone. It contained a vigorous
and severe attack upon the royal policy, and did not shrink from
warning Henry with temporal punishment at the hands of the
emperor and the king of France if he did not repent of his
cruelties and return to the Church. He was again summoned
to return to England to explain himself, but declined until
he could do so with honour and safety; but he was on the
point of going at all risks, when he heard from his mother and
brother that the whole family would suffer if he remained
obstinate. Paul III. who had prepared a bull of excommuni-
cation and deposition against Henry, summoned Pole to Rome
in October, and two months after created him cardinal. In
January 1537 he received a sharp letter of rebuke from the
king's council, together with the suggestion that the differ-
ences might be discussed with royal deputies either in France
or Flanders, provided that Pole would attend without being
commissioned by any one. He replied that he was willing and
had the pope's leave to meet any deputies anywhere. Paul III.
in the early spring of that year named him legate a latere to
Charles V. and Francis I., for the purpose of securing their
assistance in enforcing the bull by helping a projected rising
in England against Henry's tyranny. The mission failed,
as the mutual jealousy of the sovereigns would not allow either
to begin operations. Moreover, the fear of Henry was suffi-
cient to make the French king refuse to allow one who was
attainted by act of parliament to remain in the kingdom; so
Pole passed over to Flanders, to wait for the possible arrival of
any royal deputies. The proposed conference never took place,
and in August 1537 the cardinal returned to Rome. There he
was appointed to the famous commission which Paul III.
established for considering the reforms necessary for the church
and Roman curia. The report Consilium delectorium car-
dinalium is, in its plain-spoken directness, one of the most note-
worthy documents of the history of the period. Towards the
end of 1539, after Henry had destroyed the shrine of St Thomas
Becket, another attempt was made to launch the bull of de-
position, and Pole again was sent to urge Charles V. to assist.
Once more his efforts were in vain, and he retired to his friend
Sadoleto at Carpentras. As Pole had escaped Henry's power
the royal vengeance now fell on his mother, who was executed
as a traitor on the27thof May 1541. When the news came to the
cardinal he said to his secretary Beccatelli that he had received
good tidings: " Hitherto I have thought myself indebted to
the divine goodness for having received my birth from one of
the most noble and virtuous women in England; but hence-
forth my obligation will be much greater, as I understand
I am now the son of a martyr. We have one patron more
added to those we already have in heaven "; and returning to
his oratory Pole found peace in his sorrow.

On the 21st of August 1541 the cardinal was appointed legate
at Viterbo, and for a few years passed a happy and congenial
life amid the friends that gathered round him. Here he came
into close relations with Vittoria Colonna, Contarini, Sadoleto,
Bembo, Morone, Marco Antonio, Fla.minio, and other scholars
and leaders of thought; and many of the questions raised
by the Reformation in Germany were eagerly discussed in
the circle of Viterbo. The burning question of the day,
justification by faith, was a special subject of discussion.
The " dolce libriccino," the famous Tratlato ulilissimo del
beneficio di Gesu Christo crocifisso verso i christiani, which
was the composition of a Sicilian Benedictine and had been
touched up by the great latinist Flaminio, just appeared
at Mantua in 1542 under the auspices of Morone, and had a
wide circulation (over 40,000 copies of the second edition,
Venice 1543, were sold). Containing extracts from the
Hundred and Ten Divine Considerations of Juan Valdes (q.v.),

POLE, CARDINAL

975

it was soon regarded with the utmost horror by many. But
at Viterbo it was in favour, and the orthodox interpreta-
tion was regarded rather than the other which might be
taken in the Lutheran sense. Pole's own attitude to the
question of justification by faith is given by Vittoria Colonna,
to whom he said that she ought to set herself to believe as
though she must be saved by faith alone and to act as though
she must be saved by works alone. In the excited temper of
the times any defender of justification by faith was looked upon
by the old school as heretical; and Pole, with the circle at Viterbo,
was denounced to the Inquisition, with all sorts of crimes
imputed to him. Though the process went on from the
pontificate of Paul III. to that of Paul IV., nothing was done
against the cardinal until the time of the latter pope, who was
his personal enemy. It is by no means certain that Pole ever
knew about the process begun against him; and immediate
subsequent events show that no credence was given to the
charges. 1

While at Viterbo his rule was firm but mild ; and no charge of
persecuting heretics is made against him. He regained many,
such as his friend Flaminio, by patience and kindliness, to a
reconsideration of their errors. During this time also he was
still engaged in furthering a proposed armed expedition to
Scotland to aid the papal party, and in 1545 he was again asking
help from Charles V. But the Council of Trent (q.v.), first sum-
moned in 1536, was at last on the point of meeting, and this
required all his attention. In 1542 he had been appointed one
of the presiding legates and had written in preparation his
work De concilio; and now in 1545, after a brief visit to Rome,
he went secretly, on account of fear of assassination by Henry's
agents, to Trent, where he arrived on the 4th of May 1545'. At
the council he took a high spiritual line, and his learning and
devout life made him a great leader in that assembly. He
advocated that dogmatic decrees should go together with those
on reform as affording the only stable foundation. His views
on the subject of original sin, akin as it is to that of justification,
were accepted and embodied in the decree. He was present
when the latter subject was introduced, and he entreated the
fathers to study the subject well before committing themselves
to a decision. On the 28th of June 1546 he left Trent on account
of ill-health and went to Padua. While he was there frequent
communications passed between him and the council and the
draft of the decree on justification was sent to him. His sug-
gestions and amendments were accepted, and the decree em-
bodies the doctrines that Pole had always held of justification
by a living faith which showed itself in good works. This
effectually disproves the story that he left the Council of Trent
so as to avoid taking part in an adverse decree.

On the death of Henry (Jan. 28, 1547), Pole, by name, was
left out of the general pardon; and in the subsequent rising
in the West the insurgents demanded that he should be sent
for and made the first on the record in the council. He wrote
several times to England to prepare a conference, but only
received a rude reply from Somerset, who sent him a copy
of the Book of Common Prayer. At the conclave of 1549
Pole received two-thirds of the votes, but by a delay, caused
by his sense of responsibility, he lost the election and Julius III.
succeeded. He then retired to Magazzano on the Lake of
Garda and occupied himself by editing his book Pro unitate
ecclesiae, with an intended dedication to Edward VI.

The accession of Mary opens the third period of his life. On
the 5th of August 15 S3 he was appointed legate to the new queen
and began his negotiations. But many difficulties were put
in the way of return. He was still under attainder; and the
temper of England was not yet ripe for the presence of a cardinal.

1 See, however, Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie (ed. 3) §
" Pole," where it is said that '' only his procrastination, and then
his death saved him from appearing before the Inquisition." Within
the institution of the Inquisition his name continued to be regarded
as that of a heretic and misleader of others, as is proved by the
mass of evidence accumulated against him in the Compendium
inquisitorum (v. archivio della socielci di storia patria, Rome,
1880), p. 283, &c— (Ed.)

The project of the queen's marriage was also an obstacle.
A marriage between her and Pole, who was then only a deacon,
was proposed by some, but this did not at all meet the views
of the emperor, who therefore hindered him the more from
setting out for England. The marriage with Philip, of which
Pole did not approve, having taken place (July 25, 1554), and
Rome yielding on the practical difficulties of the lay holders
of Church lands, a parliament favourable to the proposed re-
union now assembled, and Pole was allowed to return to Eng-
land as cardinal. On his landing he was informed that the
attainder had been reversed; and he received the royal patent
authorizing his performance of the legatine duties within the
realm. Arriving at Whitehall, where he was received with joy
by Mary and Philip on the 30th of November, he proceeded to
parliament and there absolved the kingdom and accepted in the
pope's name the demands respecting ecclesiastical property.
He entered wisely on his work of reformation, for which he was
well prepared. One of the most important matters he had to
deal with was to rectify the canonical position of those who had
been ordained or consecrated since the breach with Rome.
Acting according to the instructions he had received from Rome,
where the matter had been fully gone into, he made an investi-
gation, and divided the clergy ordained after that period into
two classes; one consisting of those ordained in schism, indeed,
but according to the old Catholic rite, and the other of those
who had been ordained by the new rite drawn up by Cranmer
and enforced by act of parliament 1st of April 1550. The
first class, after submission, were absolved from their irregu-
larity, and, receiving penance, were reinstated; the second
class were simply regarded as laymen and dismissed without
penance or absolution. At his first convocation he exhorted the
bishops to use gentleness rather than rigour in their dealings
with heretics; and Pole, in himself, was true to his principle.
He was not responsible for the cruel persecution by which the
reign was disfigured. On the 4th of November 1535 Pole
opened, in the chapel royal at Westminster, a legatine synod,
consisting of the united convocations of the two provinces, for
the purpose of laying the foundations of wise and solid re-
forms. In the Reformatio Angliae which he brought out in
1556, based on his Legatine Constitutions of 1555, he ordered
that every cathedral church should have its seminary, and the
very words he uses on this subject seem to have been copied
by the Council of Trent in the twenty-third session (1563). He
also ordered that the Catechism of Caranza, who, like him, was
to suffer from the Inquisition for this very book, should be
translated into English for the use of the laity. On Cranmer's
deprivation, Pole became archbishop of Canterbury; and, having
been ordained priest two days before, he was consecrated on the
22nd of March 15S6, the day after Cranmer suffered at Oxford.
Soon afterwards the clouds began to gather round him. His
personal enemy Caraffa had become pope under the name of
Paul IV. and was biding his time. When Rome quarrelled with
Spain, and France, on behalf of the pope, took up arms, England
could no longer observe neutrality. To injure Spain and heed-
less of England's need, Paul IV. deprived Pole of his power
both as legate a latere and legatus natus as archbishop of Can-
terbury (June 14, 1557); he also reconstituted the process
of the Inquisition against the cardinal and summoned him to
Rome to answer to the crime and heresies imputed to him. No
remonstrances on the part of the queen, of Pole or the English
clergy could induce the pope to withdraw hie sentence except
to declare that the cardinal still held the. position of legatus
natus inherent in the primatial see. In a dignified but strong
letter Pole says: " As you are without example in what you
have done against me, I am also without an example how I
ought to behave to your Holiness": and he drew up a paper
containing an account of the various acts of hostility he had
experienced from the pope, but on second thoughts he burnt
the document, saying it were not well to discover the shame of
his father. Mary, who had been warned by her ambassador
to the pope that prison awaited Pole, prevented the breve
ordering the cardinal to proceed to Rome from being delivered,

976

POLE, R. DE LA— POLE

and so Pole remained in England. Broken down as much by
the blow as by ill-health the cardinal died at Lambeth on the
17th of November 1558, twelve hours after Mary's death and
under the unmerited disgrace of the papacy in defence of which
he had spent his life. He was buried at Canterbury near the
spot where the shrine of St Thomas Becket once stood.

The chief sources for Pole's biography are his life written in
Italian by his secretary Beccatelli, which was translated into
Latin by Andrew Dudith as Vita Poli cardinalis (Venice, 1563),
and his letters (Epistolae Reginaldi Poli) edited by Girolamo Quirini
and published in 5 volumes (Brescia, 1 744-1 757), a new edition
of which is in preparation at Rome with additions from the Vatican
Archives. See also the State Papers (foreign and domestic) of
Henry VIII., Edward VI. and Mary; the Spanish and Venetian
State Papers; vol. i. of A. Theiner's Acta genuina S.S. Oecumenici
Caecilii tridentini ( 1 874) ; the Compendia dei processi del santo
uffizio di Roma da Paolo III. a Paolo IV. (Societa romana di
storia patria, Archivio, iii. 261 seq.) ; T. Phillipp's History of the
Life of R. Pole (Oxford, 1764-1767); Athanasius Zimmermann, S.J.,
Kardinal Pole sein Leben und seine Schriften (Regensburg, 1893);
Martin Haiiie, Life of Reginald Pole (1910) ; and F. G. Lee, Reginald
Pole. (E. TN.)

POLE, RICHARD DE LA (d. 1525), pretender to the English
crown, was the fifth son of John de la Pole (1442-1491), 2nd
duke of Suffolk, and Elizabeth, second daughter of Richard,
duke of York and sister of Edward IV. His eldest brother
John de la Pole, earl of Lincoln (c. 1464-1487), is said to have
been named heir to the throne by his uncle Richard III., who
gave him a pension and the reversion of the estates of Lady
Margaret Beaufort. On the accession of Henry VII., however,
Lincoln took the oath of allegiance, but in 1487 he joined the
rebellion of Lambert Simnel, and was killed at the battle of
Stoke. The second brother Edmund (c. 1472-1513), succeeded
his father while still in his minority. His estates suffered
under the attainder of his brother, and he was compelled to
pay large sums to Henry VII. for the recovery of part of the
forfeited lands, and also to exchange his title of duke for
that of earl. In 1501 he sought the German King Maximilian
in Tirol, and received from him a promise of substantial assis-
tance in case of an attempt on the English crown. In con-
sequence of these treasonable proceedings Henry seized his
brother William de la Pole, with four other Yorkist noblemen.
Two of them, Sir James Tyrell and Sir John Wyndham, were
executed, William de la Pole was imprisoned and Suffolk out-
lawed. Then in July 1502 Henry concluded a treaty with
Maximilian by which the king bound himself not to countenance
English rebels. Presently Suffolk fell into the hands of Philip,
king of Castile, who imprisoned him at Namur, and in 1506 sur-
rendered him to Henry VII. on condition that his life was spared.
He remained a prisoner until 15 13, when he was beheaded at
the time his brother Richard took up arms with the French
king. Richard de la Pole joined Edmund abroad in 1504, and
remained at Aix as surety for his elder brother's debts. The
creditors threatened to surrender him to Henry VII., but, more
fortunate than his brother, he found a safe refuge at Buda
with King Ladislas VI. of Hungary. He was excepted from
the general pardon proclaimed at the accession of Henry VIII. ,
and when Louis XII. went to war with England in 151 2 he
recognized Pole's pretensions to the English crown, and gave him
a command in the French army. In 1513, after the execution
of Edmund, he assumed the title of earl of Suffolk. In 1514
he was given 12,000 German mercenaries ostensibly for the
defence of Brittany, but really for an invasion of England.
These he led to St Malo, but the conclusion of peace with Eng-
land prevented their embarcation. Pole was required to leave
France, and he established himself at Metz, in Lorraine, and
built a palace at La Haute Pierre, near St Simphorien. He
had numerous interviews with Francis I., and in 1523 he was
permitted, in concert with John Stewart, duke of Albany, the
Scottish regent, to arrange an invasion of England, which was
never carried out. He was with Francis I. at Pavia and was
killed on the field on the 24th of February 1525.

See Letters and Papers Illustrative of the Reigns of Richard III. and
Henry VII., edited by J. Gairdner (2 vols., " Rolls Series," 24, 1861) ;

Calendar of Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign
of Henry VIII. ; and Sir William Dugdale, The Baronage of England
(London, 1675).

POLE, WILLIAM (1814-1900), English engineer, was bom at
Birmingham on the 22nd of April 1814. He was a man of many
accomplishments. Having spent his earlier years in various
engineering occupations in England, he went out to India in
1844 as professor of engineering at Elphinstone College, Bomba>,
where he had to first organize the course of instruction for
native students, but his health obliged him to return to England
in 1848. For the next ten years he worked in London under
James Simpson and J. M. Rendel, and the high reputation he
achieved as a scientific engineer gained his appointment in 1859
to the chair of civil engineering in University College, London.
He obtained a considerable amount of official work from the
government. He served on the committees which considered
the application of armour to ships and fortifications (1861-1864),
and the comparative advantages of Whitworth and Armstrong
guns (1863-1865). He was secretary to the Royal Commission
on Railways (1865-1867), the duke of Richmond's Commission
on London Water (1867-1869), also taking part in the subsequent
proceedings for establishing a constant supply, the Royal Com-
mission on the Disposal of London Sewage (1882-1884), and the
departmental committee on the science museums at South
Kensington in 1885. In 1871 he was employed by the War
Office to report on the Martini-Henry rifle, and in the same year
was appointed consulting engineer in London to the Japanese
government, a position through which he exercised considerable
influence on the development of the Japanese railway system.
He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1 861, in re-
cognition of some investigations on colour-blindness. Music
was also one of his chief interests. At the age of twenty-two
he was appointed organist of St Mark's, North Audley Street,
in open competition, the next selected candidate being Dr
E. J. Hopkins (1818-1901), who subsequently was for fifty
years organist of the Temple Church. He took the degree of
Bachelor of Music at Oxford in i860, proceeding to his doctor's
degree in 1867, and in 1879 published his Philosophy of Music.
He was largely concerned in the institution of musical degrees
by the University of London in 1877, and for many years acted
as one of the examiners. His mathematical tastes found con-
genial occupation in the study of whist, and as an exponent
of the scientific principles of that game he was even earlier in
the field than " Cavendish." His literary work included treatises
on the steam-engine and on iron construction, biographical
studies of famous engineers, including Robert Stephenson and
I. K. Brunei, Sir William Fairbairn and Sir W. Siemens, several
books on musical subjects and on whist, and many papers for
reviews and scientific periodicals. He died on the 30th of
December 1900. His son, William Pole (1852- ), became
known as an actor and writer under the stage-name of William
Poel, more especially for his studies in Shakespearian drama and
his work in connexion with the Elizabethan Stage Society.

POLE (1) (O. Eng. pdl, cf. Ger. Pfahl, Du. pool, from Lat. palus,
stake), a tapering cylindrical post or stake of some considerable
length, used as a support in scaffolding, for telegraph or tele-
phone wires, hops, &c, and as a means fcr taking jumps (see
Poie-Vaulting), and also as a single shaft for a vehicle drawn
by two or more horses. As a measure of length a "pole,"
also called " rod " or " perch," is equal to si yds. (16J ft.), as
a measure of area it is equal to 30J sq. yds. (2) (Lat. polus,
adapted from Gr. iroXos, pivot, axis), one or other of the
extremities of the axis of the earth; the " celestial pole " is one
or other of the points in the heavens to which the earth's axis
points; in the northern hemisphere this point is near the star
Ursae minoris, better known as the Pole-star or Polaris
(see Ursa Major). For the regions lying about the north and
south poles of the earth see Polar Regions.

In mathematics the word pole has several meanings. In spherical
trigonometry the " pole of a circle on a sphere is the point where
the diameter of the sphere perpendicular to the plane of the circle
intersects the sphere. In crystallography (q.v.) the " pole " of
a face is the intersection of a line perpendicular to the face with

POLECAT— POLE-VAULTING

977

the sphere of projection. The term is also applied to a point
from which lines radiate, as, for instance, the origin in a system of
polar co-ordinates, or the common point of a pencil of rays. In
the geometry of conic sections the " pole " of a line, termed the
" polar " of the point, is the intersection of the tangents (either
real or imaginary) at the points where the line meets the conic
(see Geometry: § Projective). The "magnetic poles" of the
earth are the points on the earth's surface where the dipping needle
is vertical (see Terrestrial Magnetism) ; and the "poles" of
a magnet are the points of the magnet where the magnetic intensity
is greatest. In electricity, the term is applied to the elements
of a galvanic battery (q.v.), or to the terminals of a frictional
electrical machine.

POLECAT, the common name given to any member of the
Musteline genus Putorius (see Carnivora) . The polecats form
a small group confined to the northern hemisphere, of which
the best known and most widely distributed is the common
polecat of Europe {P. foetidus or P. putorius). This animal,
at least so far as its disposition, size and proportions are con-
cerned, is well known in its domesticated condition as the
ferret, which is but a tamed albino variety of the true pole-
cat. The colour of the latter, however, instead of the familiar
yellowish-white of the ferret, is of a dark brown tint above
and black below, the face being variegated with dark brown
and white markings. Its skull is rough, strongly ridged, and
altogether of a far more powerful type than those of the
stoats, weasels or martens; the skull of the female is very much
smaller and lighter than that of the male. The fur is long,
coarse, and of comparatively small value, and changes its colour
very little, if at all, at the different seasons of the year.

The Common Polecat.

The polecat ranges over the greater part of Europe, reaching
northwards into southern Sweden and in Russia to the region of
the White Sea. It does not occur in the extreme south, but is
common everywhere throughout central Europe. In the Alps
it ranges far above the tree-line during the summer, but
retreats in winter to lower ground. It is confined to the
northern counties of England and Scotland, where it is becoming
very rare, owing to persecutions from game-keepers, and in
Ireland it appears to be extinct. In fine weather it lives either
in the open air, in holes, fox-earths, rabbit-warrens, under
rocks or in wood-stacks; while in winter it seeks the pro-
tection of deserted buildings, barns or stables. During the
day it sleeps in its hiding place, sallying forth at night to plunder
dovecots and hen-houses. It climbs but little, and shows far
less activity than the marten. It feeds ordinarily on small
mammals, such as rabbits, hamsters, rats and mice, on such
birds as it can catch, especially poultry and pigeons, and also
on snakes, lizards, frogs, fish and eggs. Its prey is devoured
only in its lair; but, even though it can carry away but a single
victim, it commonly kills everything that comes in its way,
often destroying all the inhabitants of a hen-house in order to
gratify its passion for slaughter. The pairing time is towards
the end of the winter, and the young, from three to eight in
number, are born in April or May, after a period of gestation
of about two months. The young, if taken early, may be easily

trained, like ferrets, for rabbit-catching. The polecat is very
tenacious of life and will bear many severe wounds before
succumbing; it is also said to receive with impunity the bite
of the adder. Its fetid smell has become proverbial. To this
it is indebted for its generic name Putorius (derived, as are also
the low Lat. putacius, Fr. putois, and Ital. puzzola, from
puteo), as well as the designation foumart {i.e. foul marten)
and its other English names, fitchet, fitchew. Attempts to
account for the first syllable of the word polecat rest entirely on
conjecture.

The Siberian polecat {Putorius eversmanni) is very like the
European in size, colour and proportions, but with head and
back both nearly or quite white, and skull more heavily built
and sharply constricted behind the orbits, at least in fully adult
individuals. It inhabits the greater part of south-western
Siberia, extending from Tibet into the steppes of south-eastern
European Russia.

The black-footed or American polecat {Putorius nigripes)
is a native of the central plateau of the United States, and
extends southwards into Texas. It is often called the prairie-
dog hunter, as it is nearly always found in the warrens of that
animal. The fur is cream-yellow, the legs are brown, and the
feet and tail-tip black.

The mottled polecat {Putorius sarmaticus), a species occur-
ring in southern Russia and south-western Asia, and extending
from eastern Poland to Afghanistan, differs from other polecats
both by its smaller size and its remarkable coloration, the whole
of the upper-parts being marbled with large irregular reddish
spots on a white ground, while the under-side, limbs and tail
are deep shining black. Its habits appear to be much like
those of the common polecat. (R. L. *)

POLENTA, DA, the name of a castle in Romagna, from which
came the noble and ancient Italian family of Da Polenta. The
founder of the house is said to have been Guido, surnamed
l'Antico or the Elder, who wielded great authority in Ravenna
in the 13th century. His grandson Guido Novello upheld the
power of the house and was also capitano del popolo at Bologna;
he was overthrown in 1322 and died the following year. His
chief claim to renown lies in the fact that in 13 21 he gave hos-
pitality to the poet Dante, who immortalized the tragic history
of Guido's daughter Francesca, unhappily married to Malatesta,
lord of Rimini, in an episode of the Inferno. Guido's kinsman
Ostasio I. was lord of Cervia and Ravenna from 1322 to 1329,
and, after being recognized as a vassal of the Holy See, again
became independent and went over to the house of Este, whom
he served faithfully in their struggles with the Church until his
death in 1346. His son Bernardino, who succeeded him as lord
of Ravenna in 1346, was deposed in 1347 by his brothers,
Pandolfo and Lamberto II., but was reinstated a few months
later and ruled until his death in 1359; he was famous for his
profligacy and cruelty. His son Guido III. ruled more mildly
and died in 1390. Then followed Ostasio II. (d. 1396), Obizzo
(d. 1431), Pietro (d. 1404), Aldobrandino (d. 1406), all sons of
Guido III. Ostasio III. (or V.), son of Obizzo, was at first
allied with the Venetians; later he went over to the Milanese,
and, although he again joined the Venetians, the latter never
forgave his intrigue with their enemies, and in 1441 they
deprived him of his dominions. He died in a monastery in
1447.

POLE-VAULTING, the art of springing over an obstacle
with the aid of a pole or staff. It is probable that an exercise
of the kind was a feature of Greek gymnastics, but with this
exception there is no record of its ancient practice as a sport.
As a practical means of passing over such natural obstacles as
canals and brooks it has been made use of in many parts of the
world, for instance in the marshy provinces along the North Sea
and the great level of the fens of Cambridgeshire, Huntingdon-
shire, Lincolnshire and Norfolk. The artificial draining of
these marshes brought into existence a network of open drains
or canals intersecting each other at right angles. In order to
cross these dryshod, and at the same time avoid tedious round-
about journeys over the bridges, a stack of jumping poles was

97 8

POLICE

kept at every house, which were commonly used for vaulting
over the canals.

As a sport, pole-vaulting made its appearance in Germany
in the first part of the 19th century, when it was added to the
gymnastic exercises of the Turner by Johann C. F. Guts-
Muths and Frederich L. Jahn. In Great Britain it was first
commonly practised at the Caledonian games. It is now an
event in the athletic championships of nearly all nations. Al-
though strength and good physical condition are essential to
efficiency in pole-vaulting, skill is a much more important
element. Broad-jumping with the pole, though the original
form of the sport, has never found its way into organized
athletics, the high jump being the only form recognized. The
object is to clear a bar or lath supported upon two uprights
without knocking it down. The pole, of hickory or som? other
tough wood, is from 13 to 15 ft. long and if in. thick at
the middle, tapering to i\ in. at the ends, the lower of which
is truncated to prevent sinking into the earth and shod with a
single spike to avoid slipping. A hole in which to place the
end of the pole is often dug beneath the bar. In holding the
pole the height of the cross-bar is first ascertained, and the
right hand placed, with an undergrip, about 6 in. above this
point, the left hand, with an over-grip, being from 14 to 30 in.
below the right. The vaulter then runs towards the bar at
full speed, plants the spiked end of the pole in the ground
about 18 in. in front of the bar and springs into the air,
grasping the pole firmly as he rises. As he nears the bar he
throws his legs forward, and, pushing with shoulders and
arms, clears it, letting the pole fall backwards. In Great
Britain the vaulter is allowed to climb the pole when it is at
the perpendicular. Tom Ray, of Ulverston in Lancashire, who
was champion of the world in 1887, was able to gain several
feet in this manner. In the United States climbing is not
allowed. Among the best British vaulters, using the climbing
privilege, have been Tom P.ay, E. L. Stones, R. Watson and
R. D. Dickinson; Dickinson having cleared n ft. 9 in. at
Kidderminster in 1891. The record pole-vault is 12 ft. 6-|- in.,
made by W. Dray of Yale in 1907.

POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a
police force, Gr. iroAireia, constitution, condition of a state,
7roXw, city, state), a term used of the enforcement of law and
order in a state or community, of the department concerned
with that part of the civil administration, and of the body
or force which has to carry it into execution. The word was
adopted in English in the 18th century and was disliked as a
symbol of foreign oppression. The first official use appears,
according to the New English Dictionary, in the appointment of
" Commissioners of Police " for Scotland in 1714. A police
system has been devised for the purpose of preventing evils
and providing benefits. In its first meaning it protects and
defends society from the dissidents, those who decline to be
bound by the general standard of conduct accepted by the
larger number of the law-abiding, and in this sense it is chiefly
concerned with the prevention and pursuit of crime. It has
a second and more extensive meaning as applied to the regula-
tion of public order and enforcing good government.

United Kingdom. — The establishment of a systematic police
force was of slow growth in England, and came into effect long
after its creation abroad. A French king, Charles V., is said
to have been the first to invent a police, " to increase the
happiness and security of his people." It developed into an
engine of horrible oppression, and as such was repugnant to the
feelings of a free people. Yet as far back as the 13th century
a statute, known as that of " Watch and Ward," was passed
in the 13th year of Edward I. (1285), aimed at the maintenance
of peace in the city of London. Two centuries later (1585) an
act was passed for the better government of the city and
borough of Westminster, and this act was re-enacted with
extended powers in 1737 and soon succeeded by another
(1777) with wider and stricter provisions. The state of London
at that date, and indeed of the whole country at large, was
deplorable. Crime was rampant, highwaymen terrorized the

roads, footpads infested the streets, burglaries were of constant
occurrence, river thieves on the Thames committed depredations
wholesale. The watchmen appointed by parishes were useless,
inadequate, inefficient and untrustworthy, acting cften as
accessories in aiding and abetting crime. Year after year the
shortcomings and defects were emphasized and some better
means of protection were constantly advocated. At the com-
mencement of the 19th century it was computed that there was
one criminal to every twenty-two of the population. The
efforts made at repression were pitifully unequal. In the
district of Kensington, covering 15 sq. m., the protection
afforded was dependent on three constables and three head-
boroughs. In the parish of Tottenham nineteen attempts at
burglary were made in six weeks, and sixteen were entirely
successful. In Spitalfields gangs of thieves stood at the street
corners and openly rifled all who came near. In other parishes
there was no police whatever, no defence, no protection
afforded to the community but the voluntary exertions of
individuals and " the honesty of the thieves." In those days
victims cf robberies constantly compounded with felonies and
paid blackmail to thieves, promising not to prosecute on the
restitution of a portion of the stolen property.

The crying need for reform and the introduction of a proper
police was admitted by the government in 1829, when Sir
Robert Peel laid the foundation of a better system. Much
opposition was offered to the scheme, which was denounced as
an insidious attempt to enslave the people by arbitrary and
tyrannical methods. The police were to be employed, it was
said, as the instruments of a new despotism, the enlisted members
of a new standing army, under the centralized authority, riding
roughshod over the peaceable citizens. But the guardians of
order, under the judicious guidance of such sensible chiefs as
Colonel Rowan and Sir Henry Maine, soon lived down the
hostility first exhibited, and although one serious and lamentable
collision occurred between the mob and the police in 1833, it was
agreed two years later that the unfavourable impression at one
time existing against the new police was rapidly diminishing, and
that it had fully answered the purpose for which it was formed.
Crime had already diminished; it was calculated that the annual
losses inflicted on the public by the depredations of the dangerous
classes had appreciably fallen and a larger number of convictions
had been secured.

The formation of the metropolitan police was in due course
followed by the extension of the principle to the provinces.
Borough constabulary forces were established by the Municipal
Corporation Act (1835), which entrusted their administration
to the mayor and a watch committee, and this act was revised
in 1882, when the general powers of this authority were defined
Acts of 1839 and 1840 permitted the formation by the justices
of a paid county police force. Action in this case was optional,
but after an interval of fifteen years the Police Act of 1856 made
the rule compulsory, it being found that an efficient police force
throughout England and Wales was necessary for the more
effectual prevention and detection of crime, the suppression of
vagrancy and the maintenance of good order. Local acts had
already endowed Scotland with a police system, and in 1857, and
again in 1862, counties were formed into police districts, and the
police of towns and populous places was generally regulated.
Ireland has two police forces; the Dublin metropolitan police
originated in 1808, and in 1829 the provisions of Sir Robert Peel's
act for London were embodied in the Police Law for Ireland.

The extent to which the metropolitan police has developed
will best be realized by contrasting its numbers on first creation
and the nature of the duties and functions that then appertained
to it. The first act (the Metropolitan Police Act 1829) applied
to the metropolis, exclusive of the city of London, and constituted
a police area having a radius of 12 m. from Charing Cross. Two
justices of the peace were appointed, presently named commis-
sioners of police, to administer the act under the immediate direc-
tion of the secretary of state for the home department. The first
police office was located in Whitehall in Scotland Yard, from which
it was removed in the autumn of 1890 to the new and imposing
edifice on the Embankment, in which all branches are now con-
centrated, known as New Scotland Yard. The first constables

POLICE

979

appointed were 3000 in number, who, when sworn in, enjoyed all
the powers of the old constables under the common law, for pre-
serving the peace, preventing robberies and other felonies, and
apprehending offenders. The subdivision of the district into divi-
sions, on much the same lines as now existing, was at once made
for administrative convenience, and a proportion of officers was
allotted to each in the various grades then first constituted and
still preserved, comprising in ascending order, constables, sergeants,
inspectors and superintendents. Some time later the grade of
district superintendent was created, held by gentlemen of superior
status and intelligence, to each of whom the control of a large section
of the whole force, embracing a wide area, was entrusted. This
grade has since been merged in that of chief constable, of whom
there are four exercising powers of disciplinary supeivision in the
metropolitan districts, and a fifth who is assistant in the branch
of criminal investigation. The supreme authority is vested in
the home secretary, but the immediate command and control
is exercised by the chief commissioner, with three assistants, re-
placing the two commissioners provided for in 1829.

After various parliamentary reports and some legislation by way
of extension, an important act was passed in 1839 reciting thac
the system of police established had been found very inefficient
and might be yet further improved (Metropolitan Police Act 1839).
The metropolitan police district was extended to 15 m. from Charing
Cross. The whole of the river Thames (which, in its course through
London, so far as related to police matters, had been managed
under distinct acts) was brought within it, and the collateral but
not exclusive powers of the metropolitan police were extended to
the royal palaces and ic m. round, and to the counties adjacent
to the district. Various summary powers for dealing with street
and other offences were conferred. When the police was put on
a more complete footing and the area enlarged, provision was made
for the more effectual administration of justice by the magistrates
of the metropolis (Metropolitan Police Courts Act 1839). The
changes that occurred in magisterial functions are scarcely less
remarkable than the transition from the parish constable to the
organized police. The misdirected activity of the civil magistrate
in the 17th century is illustrated by the familiar literature of Butler,
Banyan and others. The zeal of that age was succeeded by
apathetic reaction, and it became necessary in the metropolis to
secure the services of paid justices. At the beginning of the 19th
century, outside of the city of London (where magisterial duties
were, as now, performed by the lord mayor and aldermen), there
were various public offices besides the Bow Street and Thames
police offices where magistrates attended. To the Bow Street
office was subsequently attached the " horse patrol "; each of the
police offices had a fixed number of constables attached to it, and
the Thames police had an establishment of constables and sur-
veyors. The horse patrol was in 1836, as previously intended,
placed under the new police. It became desirable that the horse
patrol and constables allotted to the several police offices not
interfered with by the Act of 1828 should be incorporated with the
metropolitan police force. This was effected, and thus magisterial
functions were completely separated from the duties of the executive
police; for although the jurisdiction of the two justices, afterwards
called commissioners, as magistrates extended to ordinary duties
(except at courts of general or quarter sessions), from the first
they took no part in the examination or committal for trial of
persons charged with offences. No prisoners were brought before
them. Their functions were in practice confined to the discipline
of the force and the prevention and detection of offences, their
action limited to having persons arrested or summoned to be
dealt with by the ordinary magistrates, whose courts were not
interfered with.

The aim and object of the police force remain the same as
when first created, but its functions have been varied and
extended in scope and intention. To secure obedience to the
law is a first and principal duty; to deal with breaches of the
rules made by authority, to detect, pursue and arrest offenders.
Next comes the preservation of order, the protection of all
reputable people, and the maintenance of public peace by
checking riot and disturbance or noisy demonstration, by enforc-
ing the observance of the thousand and one regulations laid
down for the general good. The police have become the minis-
ters of a social despotism resolute in its watchful care and control
of the whole community, well-meaning and paternal, although
when carried to extreme length the tendency is to diminish
self-reliance and independence in the individual. The police
are necessarily in close relation with the state; they are the direct
representatives of the supreme government, the servants of the
Crown and legislature. In England every constable when he
joins the force makes a declaration and swears that he will
serve the sovereign loyally and diligently, and so acquires the
rights and privileges of a peace officer of and for the Crown.

The state employs police solely in the interests of the public
welfare. No sort of espionage is attempted, no effort made to
penetrate privacy; no claim to pry into the secret actions of
law-abiding persons is or would be tolerated; the agents of
authority must«not seek information by underhand or unworthy
means. In other countries the police system has been worked
more arbitrarily; it has been used to check free speech, to inter-
fere with the right of public meetings, and condemn the expres-
sion of opinion hostile to or critical of the ruling powers. An
all-powerful police, minutely organized, has in some foreign
states grown into a terrible engine of oppression and made daily
life nearly intolerable. In England the people are free to
assemble as they please,' to march in procession through the
streets, to gather in open spaces, to listen to the harangues,
often forcibly expressed, of mob orators, provided always that
no obstruction is caused or that no disorder or breach of the
peace is threatened.

The strength of the metropolitan police in 1908 was 18,167,
comprising 32 superintendents, 572 inspectors, 2378 sergeants and
I5il85 constables. At the head is a commissioner, appointed by
the home office; he is assisted by four assistant commissioners,
one of whom was appointed under the Police Act 1909, in accord-
ance with the recommendation of the Royal Commission on the
Metropolitan Police 1906, his duty especially being to deal with
complaints made by the public against the police. The metro-
politan police are divided into 21 divisions, to which letters of the
alphabet are assigned for purposes of distinction. _ There is in
addition the Thames division, recruited mostly from sailors, charged
with the patrol of the river and the guardianship of the shipping.
To the metropolitan police also are assigned the control and
guardianship of the various naval dockyards and arsenals. _

The city of London has its own distinct police organization under
a commissioner and assistant commissioner, and its functions
extend over an area of 673 statute acres containing two courts of
justice, those of the Guildhall and Mansion House, where the
lord mayor and the aldermen are the magistrates. Although the
area is comparatively small the rateable value is enormous. The
force comprises 2 superintendents, 48 inspectors, 86 sergeants
and 865 constables; also some 60 constables on private service
duty.

The total police force of England and Wales in 1908 was 30,376,
almost equally divided between counties and boroughs; that of
Scotland numbered 5575. In Ireland the Royal Irish Constabulary
are a semi-military force, numbering over 10,500; they police the
whole of Ireland, except the city of Dublin, which is under the
Dublin metropolitan police, a particularly fine body. _

The most active and by no means the least efficient branch of
the modern English police is that especially devoted to criminal
investigation or the detection of crime. The detective is the
direct descendant of the old " Bow Street runners " or " Robin
Redbreasts "• — so styled from their scarlet waistcoats — officers in
attendance upon the old-fashioned police offices and despatched by
the sitting magistrates to follow up any very serious crime in the
interests of the public or at the urgent request of private persons.
The " runners had disappeared when the police organization
introduced by Sir Robert Peel came into force in 1829, and at first
no part of the new force was especially attributed to the detection
of crime. They were much missed, but fifteen years elapsed
before Sir James Graham (then home secretary) decided to allot
a few constables in plain clothes for that purpose as a tentative
measure. The first " detectives " appointed numbered only a
dozen, three inspectors and nine sergeants, to whom, however, six
constables were shortly added as " auxiliaries," but the number
was gradually enlarged as the manifest uses of the system became
more and more obvious.

Other Countries. — British India is divided into police districts,
the general arrangements of the system of the regular police,
which dates from the disappearance of the East India Company,
resembling in most respects those of the English police, but differ-
ing in details in the different presidencies. All are in uniform,
trained to the use of firearms and drilled, and may be called upon
to perform military duties. The superior officers are nearly all
Europeans and many of them are military officers. The rest are
natives, in Bombay chiefly Mahommedans. The organization of
the police was not dealt with by the criminal code which came into
force in 1883, but the code is full of provisions tending to make the
force efficient. By that code as well as by the former code the police
have a legal sanction for doing what by practice they do in England ;
they take evidence for their own information and guidance in the
investigation of cases and are clothed with the power to compel
the attendance of witnesses and question them. The smallness
of the number of European magistrates, and other circumstances,
make the police more important and relatively far more powerful
in India than in England (Stephen). The difficulties in the way
of ascertaining the truth and investigating false statements and

980

POLICE

suppressed cases are very great. As regards the rural police of
India every village headman and the village watchman as well as
the village police office are required by the code to communicate
to the nearest magistrate or the officer in charge of the nearest
police station, whichever is nearest, any information respecting
offenders. On the whole the system is very efficient. The police,
which has numerous duties over ana above those of the prevention
and detection of crime, greatly aids a government so paternal as
that of India in keeping touch with the widely extended masses
of the population.

France. — It is a matter of history that under Louis XIV., who
created the police of Paris, and in succeeding times, the most un-
popular and unjustifiable use was made of police as a secret instru-
ment for the purposes of despotic government. Napoleon availed
himself largely of police instruments, especially through his minister
Fouche. On the restoration of constitutional government under
Louis Philippe, police action was less dangerous, but the danger
revived under the second empire. The ministry of police, created
by the act of the Directory in 1796, was in 1818 suppressed as an
independent office, and in 1852 it was united with the ministry
of the interior. The regular police organization, which preserves
order, checks evil-doing, and " runs in " malefactors, falls naturally
and broadly into two grand divisions, the administrative and the
active, the police " in the office " and the police "out of doors."
The first attends to the clerical business, voluminous and incessant.
An army of clerks in the numerous bureaus, hundreds of patient
government employes, the ronds de cuir, as they are contemptuously
called, because they sit for choice on round leather cushions, are
engaged constantly writing and filling in forms for hours and hours,
day after day. The active army of police out of doors, which con-
stitutes the second half of the whole machine, is divided into two
classes: that in uniform and that in plain clothes. Every visitor
to Paris is familiar with the rather theatrical-looking policeman,
in his short frock-coat or cape, smart kepi cocked on one side of his
head, and with a sword by his side. The first is known by the title
of agent, sergent de ville, gardien de la paix, and is a very useful
public servant. He is almost invariably an old soldier, a serger.t
who has left the army with a first-class character, honesty and
sobriety being indispensable qualifications.

These uniformed police are not all employed in the streets and
arrondissements, but there is a large reserve composed of the six
central brigades, as they are called, a very smart body of old
soldiers, well drilled, well dressed and fully equipped; armed, more-
over, with rifles, with which they mount guard when employed
as sentries at the doors or entrance of the prefecture. In Paris
argot the men of these six central brigades are nicknamed " vais-
seaux " (vessels), because they carry on their collars the badge of
the city of Paris — an ancient ship — while the sergeants in the town
districts wear only numbers, their own individual number, and that
of the quarter in which they serve. These vaisseaux claim to be
the elite of the force; they come in daily contact with the Gardes
de Paris, horse and foot, a fine corps of city gendarmerie, and, as
competing with them, take a particular pride in themselves. Their
comrades in the quarters resent this pretension and declare that
when in contact with the people the vaisseaux make bad blood by
their arrogance and want of tact. The principal business of four
at least of these central brigades is to be on call when required to
reinforce the out-of-door police at special times.

Of the two remaining central brigades one controls public car-
riages, the other the Halles, the great central market by which Paris
is provided with a large part of its food. Every cab-stand is under
the charge of its own policeman, who knows the men, notes their
arrival and departure, and marks their general behaviour. Other
police officers of the central brigades superintend the street
traffic.

So much for the police in uniform" That in plain clothes, en
bourgeois, as the French call it, is not so numerous, but fulfils a
higher, or at least a more confidential mission. Its members are
styled inspectors, not agents, and their functions fall under four
principal heads. There is, first of all, the service of the Surety —
in other words, of public safety — the detective department, em-
ployed entirely in the pursuit and capture of criminals; next comes
the police, now amalgamated with the SOrete, that watches over
the morals of the capital and possesses arbitrary powers under
the existing laws of France; then there is the brigade de garnis, the
police charged with the supervision of all lodging-houses, from the
commonest " sleep-sellers' ' shop, as it is called, to the grandest
hotels. Last of all there is the brigade for enquiries, whose business
it is to act as the eyes and ears of the prefecture.

The pay of the gardiens de la paix is from 1400 to 1700 francs;
brigadiers get 2000 francs; sous-brigadiers 1800 francs; officiers de
paix 3000 to 6000 francs. The proportion of police to inhabitants
is one in 352.

Germany. — Taking the Berlin force as illustrative of the police
system in the German Empire, police duties are as various as in
France; the system includes a political police, controlling all matters
relating to the press, societies, clubs and public and social amuse-
ments. Police duties are carried out under the direction of the
royal police presidency, the executive police force comprising a
police colonel, with, besides commissaries of criminal investigations,

captains, lieutenants, acting-lieutenants, sergeant-majors and a
large body of constables (schutzmdnner).

It is computed that the proportion of population to police in
Berlin is between 350 and 400 to each officer. The pay of the police
is principally provided from fiscal sources and varies in an ascending
scale from n 25 marks and lodging allowance for the lowest class
of constable.

Austria. — Taking Vienna in the same way as illustrative of the
Austrian police, it is to be observed that there are three branches:
(1) administration; (2) public safety and judicial police; and (3)
the government police. At the head of the police service in Vienna
there is a president of police and at the head of each of the three
branches there is an Oberpolizeirath or chief commissary. The head
of the government branch sometimes fills the office of president.
Each of the branches is subdivided into departments, at the head
of which are Polizeirathe. Passing over the subdivisions of the
administrative branch, the public safety and judicial branch
includes the following departments: the office for public safety, the
central inquiry office and the record or Evidenzbureau. The
government police branch comprises three departments : the govern-
ment police office, the press office, and the Vereinsbureau or office
for the registration of societies. The proportion of police constables
to the inhabitants is one to 436.

Belgium. — In Belgian municipalities the burgomasters are the
heads of the force, which is under their control. The administrator
of public safety is, however, specially under the minister of justice,
who sees that the laws and regulations affecting the police are
properly carried out, and he can call on all public functionaries to
act in furtherance of that object. The administrator of public
safety is specially charged with the administration of the law in
regard to aliens, and this law is applied to persons stirring up sedi-
tion. The duty of the gendarmerie, who constitute the horse and
foot police, is generally to maintain internal order and peace. In
Brussels as elsewhere the burgomaster is the head, but for executive
purposes there is a chief commissary (subject, however, to the
orders of the burgomaster), with assistant commissaries, and com-
missaries of divisions and other officers and central and other
bureaus, With a body of agents (police constables) in each.

There are two main classes of police functions recognized by
law, the administrative and the judicial police, the former engaged
in the daily maintenance of peace and order and so preventing
offences, the latter in the investigation of crime and tracing offenders ;
but the duties are necessarily performed to a great extent by the
same agents. The two other functions of the judicial police are,
however, limited to the same classes of officers, and they perform the
same duties as in Paris — the law in practice there being expressly
adopted in Brussels.

In Switzerland, which is sometimes classed with Belgium as
among the least-policed states of Europe, the laws of the cantons
vary. In some respects they are stricter than in Belgium or even
in France. Thus a permis de sejour is sometimes required where
none is in practice necessary in Paris or Brussels.

Russia was till lately the most police-ridden country in the world ;
not even in France in the worst days of the monarchy were the people
so much in the hands of the police. To give some idea of the wide-
reaching functions of the police, the power assumed in matters
momentous and quite insignificant, we may quote from the list
of circulars issued by the minister of the interior to the governors
of the various provinces during four recent years. The governors
were directed to regulate religious instruction in secular schools,
to prevent horse-stealing, to control subscriptions collected for the
holy places in Palestine, to regulate the advertisements of medicines
and the printing on cigarette papers, to examine the quality of
quinine soap and overlook the cosmetics and other toilet articles —
such as soap, starch, brillantine, tooth-brushes and insect-powder
— provided by chemists. They were to issue regulations for the
proper construction of houses and villages, to exercise an active
censorship over published price-lists and printed notes of invitation
and visiting cards, as well as seals and rubber stamps. All private
meetings and public gatherings, with the expressions of opinion
and the class of subjects discussed, were to be controlled by the
police.

The political or state police was the invention of Nicholas I.
Alexander I. had created a ministry of the interior, but it was
Nicholas who devised the second branch, which he designed for
his own protection and the security of the state. After the in-
surrection of 1865, he created a special bulwark for his defence,
and invented that secret police which grew into the notorious
" Third Section " of the emperor's own chancery, and while it
lasted, was the most dreaded power in the empire. It was practic-
ally supreme in the state, a ministry independent of all other
ministries, placed quite above them and responsible only to the
tsar himself.

United States. — The organization of police forces in the United
States differs more or less in the different states of the Union.
As a rule the force in cities i3 under municipal control, but to thie
rule there are numerous exceptions. In Boston, for instance,
the three commissioners at the head of the force are appointed
by the governor of Massachusetts. The force in New York City,
alike from the standpoint of numbers and of the size and character

POLICE COURTS— POLISH SUCCESSION WAR

981

of the city, is the most important in the United States. It included
in 1910 a commissioner appointed by the mayor and exercising a
wide range of authority; four deputy commissioners; a chief in-
spector, who has immediate charge of the force and through whom
all orders are issued; he is assisted by 18 inspectors, who are in
charge of different sections of the city, and who carry out the
orders of the chief; 87 captains, each of whom is in direct charge
of a precinct; 583 sergeants; and last of all, the ordinary policemen,
or patrolmen, as they are often called from the character of their
duties. There is a separate branch, the detective bureau, com-
posed of picked men, charged with the investigation and, still more,
the prevention of crime. The total number of patrol men in 1909
was 8562, Appointments are for life, with pensions in case of
disability and after a given number of years of service.

Literature. — Patrick Colquhoun, Treatise on the Police of the
Metropolis (1796); Pierre Clement, La Police sous Louis XIV.
(1866); Maxime Du Camp, Paris, ses organes, ses fonctions et sa vie
(1869-1875); Dr Norman Chevers, Indian Medical Jurisprudence
(Calcutta, 1870); A. T. Crawford, Reminiscences of an Indian Police
Official (1894); C. R. W. Hervey, Records of Indian Crime (1892);
Arthur Griffiths, Mysteries of Police and Crime (1903) ; Captain W. L.
Melville Lee, A History of Police in England (Methuen, 1901);
Sidney and Beatrice Webb, English Local Government (Longmans,
1906-1908); article by H. B. Simpson, " The Office of Constable,"
in the English Historical Review (October 1895); F. W. Maitland,
Justice and Police (Macmillan, 1885); L. F. Fuld, Police Adminis-
tration (New York, 1910). (A. G.)

POLICE COURTS, courts of summary jurisdiction, held in
London and certain large towns of the United Kingdom by
specially appointed and salaried magistrates. They were
originally called "public offices" (Middlesex Justices Act 1792),
but after the establishment of the police force, in 1829, they
came to be called " police offices," although no change had taken
place in their nature. They are so described in a report of a
select committee which inquired into the system in 1837 and
1838; in the same report the magistrates who presided in the
courts were first described as " police magistrates." Police
offices were first officially described by their modern title in the
Metropolitan Police Courts Act 1839. In 1839 there were
nine police courts; since 1792 there had been three magistrates
to each court, and the act of 1839 retained twenty-seven as
the maximum number at any time (s. 2). In 1835 unsalaried
justices ceased to sit in the police courts along with the paid
magistrates. The Metropolitan Police Courts Act 1840 gave
power to map out the whole of the metropolitan police district
into police court divisions, and to establish police courts wherever
necessary, the artificial limit of twenty-seven magistrates being
at the same time preserved. Additional courts have from
time to time been established by orders in council, and in 1910
there were in London fourteen courts with twenty-five magis-
trates. Their divisions are regulated by orders in council of
1903 and 1905; the nine original courts are Bow Street, West-
minster, Marylebone, Marlborough Street, Worship Street,
Clerkenwell, Thames, Tower Bridge and Lambeth.

The courts are held every day from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. except
on Sunday, Christmas Day, Good Friday or any day appointed for
a public fast or thanksgiving or bank holiday. The Greenwich
and Woolwich court, which comprises one division, is held at
Greenwich in the morning and at Woolwich in the afternoon. The
chief magistrate (sitting at Bow Street) receives a salary of £1800
a year and the other magistrates £1500 each. The magistrates are
appointed by the Crown; they must have been practising barristers
for seven years or stipendiary magistrates for some place in England
or Wales. One police magistrate has the same powers as two
justices, but may not act in anything which has to be done at
special or petty sessions of all the justices acting in the division
or at quarter sessions. He can do alone when sitting in a police
court any act which any justice or justices can do under the Indict-
able Offences Act 1848, or under the Summary Jurisdiction Act;
he has special powers under the Metropolitan Police Courts Act
1839, and is also given special powers under certain other acts.
The Bow Street court has jurisdiction in extradition. The pre-
cedent of appointing salaried magistrates was followed for certain
towns in the provinces by particular acts, and in 1863 the Stipendiary
Magistrates Act gave power to towns and boroughs of 25,000
inhabitants and upwards to obtain a stipendiary magistrate.

POLIGNAC, an ancient French family, which had its seat in the
Cevennes near Puy-en-Velay (Haute Loire). Its authentic
pedigree can be traced to the 9th century, but in 142 1 the male
line became extinct. The heiress married Guillaume, sire de

Chalancon (not to be confused with the barons of Chalancon in
Vivarais), who assumed the name and arms of Polignac. The
first member of the family who was of any historical importance
was Cardinal Melchior de Polignac (1661-1742), a younger son
of Armand XVI., marquis de Polignac, who at an early age
achieved distinction as a diplomatist. In 1695 he was sent as
ambassador to Poland, where he contrived to bring about the
election of the prince of Conti as successor to John Sobieski
(1697). The subsequent failure of this intrigue led to his tem-
porary disgrace, but in 1702 he was restored to favour, and in
1712 he was sent as the plenipotentiary of Louis XIV. to the
Congress of Utrecht. During the regency he became involved
in the Cellamare plot, and was relegated to Flanders for three
years. From 1725 to 1732 he acted for France at the Vatican.
In 1726 he received the archbishopric of Auch, and he died at
Paris in 1742. He left unfinished a metrical refutation of
Lucretius which was published after his death by the abbe de
Rothelin (Anti-Lucretius, 1745), and had considerable vogue
in its day. Count Jules de Polignac (d. 1817), grandnephew of
the preceding, was created duke by Louis XVI. in 1780, and in
1782 was made postmaster-general. His position and influence
at court were largely due to his wife, Gabrielle de Polastron,
the bosom friend of Marie Antoinette; the duke and duchess
alike shared the unpopularity of the court, and were among the
first to "emigrate" in 1789. The duchess died shortly after
the queen, but her husband, who had received an estate from
Catherine II. in the Ukraine, survived till 181 7. Of their three
sons the second, Prince Jules de Polignac (1780-1847), played a
conspicuous part in the clerical and ultra-royalist reaction after
the Revolution. Under the empire he was implicated in the
conspiracy of Cadoudal and Pichegru (1804), and was imprisoned
till 1813. After the restoration of the Bourbons he held various
offices, received from the pope his title of " prince " in 1820, and
in 1823 was made ambassador to the English court. On the
8th of August 1829 he was called by Charles X. to the ministry
of foreign affairs, and in the following November he became
president of the council. His appointment, was taken as
symbolical of the king's intention to overthrow the constitution,
and Polignac, with the other ministers, was held responsible
for the policy which culminated in the issue of the Four Ordi-
nances which were the immediate cause of the revolution of
July 1830. On the outbreak of this he fled for his life, but, after
wandering for some time among the wilds of Normandy, was
arrested at Granville. His trial before the chamber of peers
resulted in his condemnation to perpetual imprisonment (at
Ham), but he benefited by the amnesty of 1836, when the
sentence was commuted to one of exile. During his captivity
he wrote Considerations politiques (1832). He afterwards spent
some years in England, but finally was permitted to re-enter
France on condition that he did not take up his abode in Paris.
He died at St Germain on the 29th of March 1847.

POLIGNY, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Jura, 18 m. N. N. E. of Lons-le-Saunier
on the Paris-Lyons railway. Pop. (1906), 3756. The town lies
in the valley of the Glantine at the base of a hill crowned by
the ruins of the old castle of Grimont, once the repository of the
archives of the county of Burgundy. The church of Monti-
villard, its most remarkable building, dates in the oldest portions,
from the 12th century, its chief features being a Romanesque
tower and reredos of the Renaissance period. Amongst the
other old buildings of the town, the church of St Hippolyte, of
the first half of the 15th century, and a convent-church serving
as corn market are of some interest. The tribunal of first
instance belonging to the arrondissement is at Arbois. Poligny
has a sub-prefecture, a communal college and a school of dairy
instruction. Under the name of Polemniacum the town seems
to have existed at the time of the Roman occupation.

POLISH SUCCESSION WAR (1733-1735), the name given to a
war which arose out of the competition for the throne of Poland
between the elector August of Saxony, son of August II. (the
Strong), and Stanislaus Leszcynski, the king of Poland installed
thirty years before by Charles XII. of Sweden and displaced by

g82

POLITIAN

August the Strong when Charles's projects collapsed. The claims
of Stanislaus were supported by France, Spain and Sardinia,
those of the Saxon prince by Russia and the empire, the local
quarrel being made the pretext for the settlement of minor
outstanding claims of the great powers amongst themselves.
The war was therefore a typical 18th century " war with a
limited object," in which no one but the cabinets and the pro-
fessional armies were concerned. It was fought on two theatres,
the Rhine and Italy. The Rhine campaigns were entirely
unimportant, and are remembered only for the last appearance
in the field of Prince Eugene and Marshal Berwick — the latter
was killed at the siege of Philippsburg — and the baptism of fire
of the young crown prince of Prussia, afterwards Frederick the
Great. In Italy, however, there were three hard-fought —
though indecisive — battles, Parma (June 29, 1734), Luzzara
(Sept. 19, 1734) and Bitonto (May 25, 1735), the first and last
won by the Austrians, the second by the French and their allies.
In Poland itself, Stanislaus, elected king in September 1733, was
soon expelled by a Russian army and was afterwards besieged in
Danzig by the Russians and Saxons (Feb.- June 1733).

POLITIAN (1454-1494). Angelo Ambrogini, known in
literary annals as Angelo Pollziano or Politianus from his birth-
place, was born at Montepulciano in Tuscany on the 14th of July
1454. His father, Benedetto, a jurist of good family and dis-
tinguished ability, was murdered by political antagonists for
adopting the cause of Piero de' Medici in Montepulciano; and this
circumstance gave his eldest son, Angelo, a claim on the family of
Medici. At the age of ten the boy came to prosecute his studies
at Florence, where he learned Latin under Cristoforo Landino,
and Greek under Argyropulos and Andronicos Kallistos. From
Marsilio Ficino he imbibed the rudiments of philosophy. The
precocity of his genius for scholarship and poetry was early
manifested. At thirteen years of age he began to circulate
Latin letters; at seventeen he sent forth essays in Greek versifi-
cation; at eighteen he published an edition of Catullus. In 1470
he won for himself the title of Homericus juvenis by translating
four books of the Iliad into Latin hexameters. Lorenzo de'
Medici, who was then the autocrat of Florence and the chief
patron of learning in Italy, took Poliziano into his household,
made him the tutor of his children, and secured him a distin-
guished post in the university of Florence. Before he reached
the age of thirty, Poliziano expounded the humanities with
almost unexampled lustre even for that epoch of brilliant
professors. Among his pupils could be numbered the chief
students of Europe, the men who were destined to carry to their
homes the spolia opima of Italian culture. Not to mention
Italians, it will suffice to record the names of the German
Reuchlin, the English Grocyn and Linacre, and the Portuguese
Tessiras. ,

Poliziano had few advantages of person to recommend him.
He was ungainly in form, with eyes that squinted, and a nose of
disproportionate length. Yet his voice was rich and capable of
fine modulation; his eloquence, ease of utterance and copious
stream of erudition were incomparable. It was the method of
professors at that period to read the Greek and Latin authors
with their class, dictating philological and critical notes, emend-
ing corrupt passages in the received texts, offering elucidations
of the matter, and pouring forth stores of acquired knowledge
regarding the laws, manners, religious and philosophical opinions
of the ancients. Poliziano covered nearly the whole ground of
classical literature during the years of his professorship, and
published the notes of his courses upon Ovid, Suetonius, Statius,
the younger Pliny, Quintilian, and the writers of Augustan
histories. He also undertook a recension of the text of the
Pandects of Justinian, which formed the subject of one of his
courses; and this recension, though it does not rank high in the
scale of juristic erudition, gave an impulse to the scholarly
criticism of the Roman code. At the same time he was busy
as a translator from the Greek. His versions of Epictetus,
Herodian, Hippocrates, Galen, Plutarch's Eroticus and Plato's
Charmides delighted contemporaries by a certain limpid fluency
of Latin style and grace of manner which distinguished him also

as an original writer. Of these learned labours the most uni-
versally acceptable to the public of that time were a series
of discursive essays on philology and criticism, first published in
1489 under the title of Miscellanea. They had an immediate,
a lasting and a wide renown, encouraging the scholars of the next
century and a half to throw their occasional discoveries in the
field of scholarship into a form at once so attractive and so
instructive. Poliziano was not, however, contented with these
simply professorial and scholastic compositions. Nature had
endowed him with literary and poetic gifts of the highest order.
These he devoted to the composition of Latin and Greek verses,
which count among the best of those produced by men of modern
times in rivalry with ancient authors. The Manto, in which he
pronounced a panegyric of Virgil; the Ambra, which contains a
beautiful idyllic sketch of Tuscan landscape, and a studied
eulogy of Homer; the Ruslicus, which celebrated the pleasures
of country life in no frigid or scholastic spirit ; and the Nutricia,
which was intended to serve as a general introduction to the
study of ancient and modern poetry — these are the masterpieces
of Poliziano in Latin verse, displaying an authenticity of inspira-
tion, a sincerity of feeling, and a command of metrical resources
which mark them out as original productions of poetic genius
rather than as merely professorial lucubrations. Exception
may be taken to their style, when compared with the best work
of the Augustan or even of the Silver age. But what renders
them always noteworthy to the student of modern humanistic
literature is that they are in no sense imitative or conventional,
but that they convey the genuine thoughts and emotions of a
born poet in Latin diction and in metre moulded to suit the
characteristics of the singer's temperament.

Poliziano was great as a scholar, as a professor, as a critic,
and as a Latin poet at an age when the classics were still studied
with the passion of assimilative curiosity, and not with the scien-
tific industry of a later period. He was the representative hero
of that age of scholarship in which students drew their ideal of
life from antiquity and fondly dreamed that they might so
restore the past as to compete with the classics in production and
bequeath a golden age of resuscitated paganism to the modern
world. Yet he was even greater as an Italian poet. Between
Boccaccio and Ariosto, no single poet in the mother tongue
of Italy deserves so high a place as Poliziano. What he might
have achieved in this department of literature had he lived at a
period less preoccupied with humanistic studies, and had he
found a congenial sphere for his activity, can only be guessed.
As it is, we must reckon him as decidedly the foremost and
indubitably the most highly gifted among the Italian poets who
obeyed Lorenzo de' Medici's demand for a resuscitation of the
vulgar literature. Lorenzo led the way himself, and Poliziano
was more a follower in his path than an initiator. Yet what
Poliziano produced, impelled by a courtly wish to satisfy his
patron's whim, proves his own immeasurable superiority as an
artist. His principal Italian works are the stanzas called La
Giostra, written upon Giuliano de' Medici's victory in a tourna-
ment; the Orfeo, a lyrical drama performed at Mantua with
musical accompaniment ; and a collection of fugitive ^pieces,
reproducing various forms of Tuscan popular poetry. La
Giostra had no plan, and remained imperfect; but it demon-
strated the capacities of the octave stanza for rich, harmonious and
sonorous metrical effect. The Orfeo is a slight piece of work,
thrown off at a heat, yet abounding in unpremeditated lyrical
beauties, and containing in itself the germ both of the pastoral
play and of the opera. The Tuscan songs are distinguished by a
" roseate fluency," an exquisite charm of half romantic, half
humorous abandonment to fancy, which mark them out as
improvisations of genius. It may be added that in all these
departments of Italian composition Poliziano showed how the
taste and learning of a classical scholar could be engrafted on
the stock of the vernacular, and how the highest perfection of
artistic form might be attained in Italian without a sacrifice of
native spontaneity and natural flow of language.

It is difficult to combine in one view the several aspects
presented to us by this many-sided man of literary genius. At

POLK, J. K.

983

a period when humanism took the lead in forming Italian charac-
ter and giving tone to European culture, he climbed with
facility to the height of achievement in all the branches of
scholarship which were then most seriously prized — in varied
knowledge of ancient authors, in critical capacity, in rhetorical
and poetical exuberance. This was enough at that epoch to
direct the attention of all the learned men of Europe on Poliziano.
At the same time, almost against his own inclination, certainly
with very little enthusiasm on his part, he lent himself so success-
fully to Lorenzo de' Medici's scheme for resuscitating the decayed
literature of Tuscany that his slightest Italian effusions exercised
a potent influence on the immediate future. He appears before
us as the dictator of Italian culture in a double capacity— as the
man who most perfectly expressed the Italian conception of
humanism, and brought erudition into accord with the pursuit
of noble and harmonious form, and also as the man whose
vernacular compositions were more significant than any others
of the great revolution in favour of Italian poetry which culmi-
nated in Ariosto. Beyond the sphere of pure scholarship and
pure literature Poliziano did not venture. He was present,
indeed, at the attack made by the Pazzi conspirators on the
persons of Lorenzo and Giuliano de' Medici, and wrote an
interesting account of its partial success. He also contributed
a curious document on the death of Lorenzo de' Medici to the
students of Florentine history. But .he was not, like many
other humanists of his age, concerned in public affairs of state
or diplomacy, and he held no office except that of professor at
Florence. His private life was also uneventful. He passed it as
a house-friend and dependant of the Medici, as the idol of the
learned world, and as a simple man of letters for whom (with
truly Tuscan devotion to the Saturnian country) rural pleasures
were always acceptable. He was never married; and his morals
incurred suspicion, to which his own Greek verses lend a certain
amount of plausible colouring. In character Poliziano was
decidedly inferior to the intellectual and literary eminence
which he displayed. He died, half broken-hearted by the loss
of his friend and patron Lorenzo de' Medici, on the 24th of
September 1494, just before the wave of foreign invasion which
was gathering in France swept over Italy.

For the life and works of Politian, see F. O. Mencken (Leipzig,
1736), a vast repertory of accumulated erudition; Jac. Mahly,
Angelus Politianus (Leipzig, 1864); Carducci's edition of the
Italian poems (Florence, Earbera, 1863); Del Lungo's edition of
the Italian prose works and Latin and Greek poems (Florence,
Barbera, 1867); the Opera omnia (Basel, 1554); Greswell's English
Life of Politian (1805); Roscoe's Lorenzo de' Medici (10th ed.,
1851); J. Addington Symonds's Renaissance in Italy, and transla-
tions from Poliziano's Italian poems in Symonds's Sketches and
Studies in Italy, which include the Orfeo. (J. A. S.)

POLK, JAMES KNOX (1795-1849), eleventh president of the
United States, was born in Mecklenburg county, North Carolina,
on the 2nd of November 1795. In 1806 he crossed the mountains
with his parents and settled in what is now Maury county,
Tennessee. He graduated from the university of North Carolina
in 1818, studied law in the office of Felix Grundy (1777-1840) at
Nashville in 1819-1820, was admitted to the bar in 1820, and
began to practise in Columbia, the county-seat of Maury county.
After two years of service (1823-1825) in the state House of
Representatives, he represented the sixth Tennessee district
in the National House of Representatives from 1825 to 1839.
In the party conflicts which succeeded the presidential election
of 1824 he sided with the Jackson- Van Buren faction, and soon
became recognized as leader of the Democratic forces. He was
speaker. from 1835 until 1839, when he retired from Congress
to become governor of Tennessee. His administration (1839-1841)
was successful, but he was unable to overcome the popular Whig
movement of that period, and was defeated in 1841 and again in
1843. When the Democratic national convention met in Balti-
more in 1844 he was mentioned as a possible candidate for the
vice-presidency, but was suddenly brought forward as a " dark
horse " and selected to head the ticket. Finding it impossible
under the two-thirds rule to nominate their candidate, the
followers of Van Buren brought forward Polk, who was popular

in the South, in order to defeat Lewis Cass and James Buchanan.
George Bancroft, the historian, has asserted that this suggestion
came originally from him, and Gideon J. Pillow, Polk's intimate
friend, did much to bring about the nomination.

The unequivocal stand of Polk and his party in favour of the
immediate annexation of Texas and the adoption of a vigorous
policy in Oregon contrasted favourably with the timid vacilla-
tions of Henry Clay and the Whigs. Polk was elected, receiving
170 electoral votes to 105 for his opponent Clay. In forming
his cabinet he secured the services of James Buchanan of
Pennsylvania, as secretary of state, Robert J. Walker of Missis-
sippi, as secretary of the treasury, William L. Marcy of New York,
as secretary of war, and George Bancroft, then of Massachusetts,
as secretary of the navy. 1 There is no doubt that each of these
men, and Bancroft in particular, influenced the policy of the
administration, yet the historian James Schouler, who has made
a careful study of the Polk papers, is doubtless correct in saying
that the president himself was " the framer of the public policy
which he carried into so successful execution, and that instead
of being led (as many might have imagined) by the more famous
statesmen of his administration and party who surrounded him,
he in reality led and shaped his own executive course.'' Ban-
croft's opinion is that Polk was " prudent, fat-sighted, bold,
exceeding any Democrat of his day in his undeviatingly correct
exposition of Democratic principles."

The four chief events of President Polk's administration were
the final establishment of the independent treasury system, the
reduction of the tariff by the Walker Bill of 1846, the adjustment
of the Oregon boundary dispute with Great Britain by the treaty
concluded on the 15th of June 1846, and the war with Mexico
and the consequent acquisition of territory in the south-west and
west. The first three of these were recommended in his first
annual message, and he privately announced to Bancroft his
determination to seize California. The independent treasury
plan originated during Van Buren's administration as a Demo-
cratic measure; it had been repealed by the Whigs in 1841, and
was now re-enacted. Protectionists contend that the tariff
legislation of 1846 was in direct violation of a pledge given to
the Democrats of Pennsylvania in a letter written by Polk
during the campaign to John K. Kane of Philadelphia. Briefly
summarized, this letter approves of a tariff for revenue with
incidental protection, whereas the annual message of the 2nd
of December 1845 criticizes the whole theory of protection and
urges the adoption of a revenue tariff just sufficient to meet
the needs of the government conducted on an economical basis.
It is difficult to determine whether this was always his idea
of incidental protection, or whether his views were changed
after 1844 through the influence of Walker and the example
set by Sir Robert Peel in Great Britain, or whether he was
•simply "playing politics" to secure the protectionist vote
in Pennsylvania.

The one overshadowing issue of the time, however, was
territorial expansion. Polk was an ardent expansionist, but
the old idea that his policy was determined entirely by a desire
to advance the interests of slavery is no longer accepted. As a
matter of fact, he was personally in favour of insisting upon
54 40' as the boundary in Oregon, and threw upon Congress the
responsibility for accepting 49 as the boundary, and he approved
the acquisition of California, Utah and New Mexico, territory
from which slavery was excluded by geographical and climatic
conditions. Furthermore a study of his manuscript diary now
shows that he opposed the efforts of Walker and Buchanan in
the Cabinet, and of Daniel S. Dickinson (1800-1866) of New
York and Edward A. Hannegan (d. 1859) of Indiana, in the
Senate, to retain the whole of Mexico, territory in which slavery
might have thrived. At the close of his term (March 4, 1849)
Polk retired to his home in Nashville, Tennessee, where he died
on the 15 th of the following June.

1 Bancroft served until September 1846, when he was appointed
minister to England. He was succeeded as secretary of the navy
by John J. Mason, who had previously hi'ld the office of attorney-
general.

9 8 4

POLK, L.— POLKA

See John S. Jenkins, James Knox Polk (Auburn and Buffalo,
1850), and L. B. Chase, History of the Polk Administration (New
York, 1850), both of which contain some documentary material,
but are not discriminating in their method of treatment. George
Bancroft contributed a good short sketch to J. G. Wilson's
Presidents of the United States (New York, 2nd ed., 1894). He made
copies of the Polk manuscripts and was working upon a detailed
biography at the time of his death in 1 891. These copies, now
deposited in the Lenox Library, New York City, contain a diary
in 24 typewritten volumes, besides some correspondence and other
private papers. They have been used by James Schouler in his
Historical Briefs (New York, 1896), and by E. G. Bourne in an
article entitled " The Proposed Absorption of Mexico in 1847-
1848," published in the Annual Report of the American Historical
Association for 1899, i. 157-169 (Washington, 1900). Bourne dis-
cusses the part which Polk took in preventing the complete absorp-
tion of Mexico. See also the Diary of James K. Polk .... 1845 to

1840 (Chicago, 4 vols., 1910), edited by M. M. Quaife.

■ K (W.R.S.*)

POLK, LEONIDAS (1806-1864), American soldier, was born at
Raleigh, North Carolina, on the 10th of April 1806, and was a
cousin of James Knox Polk, president of the United States. He
was educated at West Point, but afterwards studied theology and
took orders in the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1831. In 1838
he became missionary bishop of the South-West, Arkansas,
Indian Territory, Louisiana, Alabama and Mississippi, and in

1 841 he was consecrated bishop of Louisiana. His work in
the Church was largely of an educational kind, and he played a
prominent part in movements for the establishment of higher

educational institutions in the South. At the outbreak of the
Civil War in 1861 he resigned his bishopric and, like many other
clergymen and ministers of religion, entered the army which was
raised to defend the Confederacy. His rank in the hierarchy
and the universal respect in which he was held in the South,
rather than his early military education, caused him to be
appointed to the important rank of major-general. He forti-
fied the post of Columbus, Kentucky, the foremost line of defence
on the Mississippi, against which Brigadier- General U. S. Grant
directed the offensive reconnaissance of Belmont in the autumn.
In the following spring, the first line of defence having fallen,
Polk commanded a corps at Shiloh in the field army commanded
by Albert Sidney Johnston and Beauregard. In October 1862
he was promoted lieutenant-general, and thenceforward he
commanded one of the three corps of the army of Tennessee
under Bragg and afterwards was in charge of the Department
of Alabama, Mississippi and East Louisiana. He was killed in
the fighting in front of Marietta, while reconnoitring near Pine
Mountain, Georgia, on the 14th of June 1864.
See Life, by his son W. M. Polk, (1893).

POLKA (either from the Czech pulka, half, with an allusion
to the short steps characteristic of the dance, or from the
Polish Polka, feminine of Polah, a Pole), a lively dance of
Bohemian origin, danced to music written in \ time. (See
Dance.)

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